263 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c3a753e6b46f57acaf587243341a7c4c.pdf 1cd10f5d06f5b5f60b74a2daec6f9332 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LEGAL ASPECTS OF SPED PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Dr. Volkan Cicek Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq volkancicek@gmail.com Abstract: Special Education program is implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools and it is the major educational program that is subject to extra funding. In this review, legal aspects of Special Education Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of basis on federal and state laws, ARD (Admission, Review, and Dismissal) committee, Disability categories, ARD meetings specific to disability categories, identification of eligible students, confidentiality, documentation, Modifications and Accommodations, Discipline Issues Key Words: Special Education, IEP (Individualized Educational Plan), FIE (Full and Individual Evaluation), Modifications, Accommodations, Learning Disability, Other Health Impairment, Attention Deficit disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Speech Impairment, Autism, Dyslexia, Behavior Intervention Plan, Limited English Proficient Basis Federal Requirements No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) Stronger public accountability is one of the basic education reform principles contained in NCLB. NCLB requires the participation of all public school students in the following assessments:  reading/language arts and mathematics for all students in grades 3–8 and at least one grade in high school; and  science in at least one grade in each of three grade spans (3–5, 6–9, and 10–12). These assessments form the basis of the federal accountability system. Federal accountability is defined in terms of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), a way to measure the achievement of academic standards for all students and student demographic groups. Campuses, districts, and states are held accountable for achieving academic standards on an annual basis through public reporting and ultimately through consequences if AYP measures are not met. Federal regulations require all students, including those receiving special education services, to be assessed on grade-level curriculum (34 CFR, Parts 200 and 300). To this end, NCLB explicitly calls for ―reasonable adaptations and accommodations for students with disabilities (as defined under Section 602(3) of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) necessary to measure the academic achievement of such students relative to State academic content and State student academic achievement standards. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) IDEA specifically governs services for students served by special education and provides federal funding to states and school districts for this purpose. Those who are eligible must be provided an individualized education program (IEP) developed to meet their unique needs. IDEA strengthens accountability for the education of students with disabilities by requiring their participation in statewide and district wide assessments, with appropriate accommodations when necessary. Included in the IEP is a statement of any accommodations required to measure the academic achievement and functional performance of the student on such assessments. If the IEP team determines that the child should take an alternate assessment, it must produce a statement indicating why the child cannot participate in the regular assessment and why the alternate assessment selected is appropriate for the child. Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities who seek access to programs and activities provided by entities that receive financial assistance from the federal government, including organizations that receive U.S. Department of 1269 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Education funding. In the public school setting, students with disabilities protected by Section 504 have the right to the aids and services required to meet their educational needs to the same extent as other students. State Requirements Section 39.023 of the Education Code (TEC), as it applies through the 2011 school year, mandates that TEA develop and administer criterion-referenced assessments to students enrolled in grades 3–11, including students receiving special education services, students with dyslexia or a related disorder, and students with limited English proficiency. These assessments must be appropriate measures of achievement and must allow students receiving special education services to have necessary and appropriate accommodations. Administrative rules for the assessment program authorized under the TEC appear in the Administrative Code (TAC). The 19 TAC §101.29 governs the use of accommodations in testing, which are permitted for eligible students unless their use would invalidate the test. Decisions about accommodations need to take into consideration the needs of the student and the accommodations the student routinely receives in classroom instruction and testing. According to The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of US law, the term special education means specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability. It is important to note that under this law;  Not all struggling learners have a disability.  A child with a disability who does not need special education services is not eligible for special education. In other words, there should be an educational need sourced by student‘s disability. Such an example is when a child‘s low achievement is caused by lack of appropriate instruction or Limited English Proficiency (LEP). As a result of these legal requirements special education services for all eligible students must start the first day of school. Thus, the list of eligible students must be ready before the first day of instruction. For that a suspect list among newly enrolled students must have been already created and finalized. Also, previously enrolled students that are determined to continue to receive special education services via Annual Review Committee or ARD meetings shall be checked whether they are still enrolled. ARD (Admission, Review, and Dismissal) Committees and Meetings ARD committee is the legal body responsible of all decision making and implementation process regarding the special education services that an eligible student is receiving. ARD committee performs this act via ARD committee meetings, which has to meet as a minimum of once a year but also every time when FIE (Full and Individual Evaluation) takes place, as well as anytime there is a change to IEP (Individual Education Program) or BIP (Behavior Intervention Plan) if there is any and on all other occasions relating to educational issues of the eligible student. FIE has to be repeated once every three years minimum as well as speech evaluation in the case of students eligible due to speech impairment. For students that are protected by Section 504 another legal body regulates the educational needs of the student. Usually students that have issues such as ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder), or ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), or dyslexia only that does not require special education service fall under the category of Section 504. For the purposes of this study this category will not be discussed. ARD committee consists of the special education teacher that is certified, special education coordinator, parent of the student, any paraprofessional such as speech pathologist or other medical personnel that is certified to assess and diagnose the disability of the student, related general education teachers and in some recommended cases the student him/herself. There are state mandated standard forms to be filled out and submitted online by ARD committees to fulfill the federal requirements. In the example state of Texas, ARD (Admission, Review and Dismissal) and IEP (Individualized Education Program) Report used as the resource and guideline for all related official processes is 20 pages long. The outline of the form is as follows; Pages 1&2 is about Determination of Eligibility Pages 3&4 is about Development of IEP Page 5 is about ARD PLAAFP (Present Levels of Academic Achievement and Functional Performance) Page 06a&b is about ARD Transition/Graduation/Transfer of Rights Page 07a&07b is about Supplementary Aids & Services Page 07d is about Supplementary Aids and Services-Speech Page 08a is about Standardized Tests (TAKS A/ALT/M for Texas) Page 08b is about LEP/ELL TELPAS Page 08c is about TAKS/LEP Exempt/LAT 1270 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Page 09 is about Least Restrictive Environment Consideration Page 10 is about General Education Aids & Services Page 11 is about Services to be provided Page 12 is about Schedule of Services Page 13 is about Placement Determination Page 14 is Signature Page Page 15a is about Committee deliberations (minutes) that summarize deliberations made during the course of the ARD meeting. Minutes are not intended to be a script of all conversations or specific comments made during the ARD/IEP process. Eligibility Categories There are 13 disability categories in special education: 14. Learning disability 15. Other health impairment 16. Speech impairment 17. Autism 18. Emotional disturbance 19. Orthopedic impairment 20. Auditory impairment 21. Visual impairment 22. Deaf-Blind 23. Mental retardation 24. Developmental delay 25. Traumatic brain injury 26. Non-categorical Early Childhood 6. Learning Disability (LD) LD is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, perform, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as  perceptual disabilities,  brain injury,  minimal brain dysfunction,  dyslexia, and  developmental aphasia. The term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Learning Disability (LD) Sample ARD Minutes #1 This is an annual ARD for Student X. Members present will be noted on the signature page. Mr. and Mrs. X, the parents, received a copy of procedural safeguards and had no questions at this time. Mr. Y, Special Education Teacher, reviewed existing information data. According to the full and individual evaluation (9/20/03) Student X qualifies for special education services under learning disabled category. Mr. Y reviewed the TAKS results from 2005. Last year Student X took math, reading, and social studies tests and passed. The committee agrees to assign him for TAKS in reading and math this year as well. The most current report card shows that Student X is doing very well in all classes. Behavior Rating Scale completed by classroom teacher indicates that Student X cooperates well and is social. He doesn‘t have any problem with completing his assignments or adapting to changes. The committee agrees to keep him in general education setting for all areas with content mastery support. Student X‘s behavior is appropriate and therefore a behavior intervention plan is not needed at this time. Assistive Technology, extended school year, special transportation and related services were discussed and not needed at this time because there is no educational need. Based on the feedback from teachers, her current performance in the classroom and full individual evaluation report, an IEP was developed and accepted by ARD committee. Modifications were determined and accepted. The minutes were read and approved. The committee adjourned on agreement. Learning Disability (LD) Sample ARD Minutes #2 This is an annual ARD for Student X. Members present will be noted on the signature page. Ms. X, the parent, received a copy of procedural safeguards and had no questions at this time. Mr. Y, 1271 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Special Education Teacher, reviewed existing information data. According to the full and individual evaluation (2/18/2003) Student X qualifies for special education services under learning disabled category. Mr. Y reviewed the SDAA results from 2005. Last year Student X met the ARD expectations in both reading and math. On reading, he scored 6th grade III level and on math 7th grade II level. The committee agrees to assign 8th grade math test with level I expectations; 7th grade reading test with level II expectations. Because there is no state alternative assessment in the areas of social studies and science, the committee determined that Student X should take a released TAAS test 8th grade in both social studies with 55% and science 50% expectations. 2004-2005 report card shows that Student X was doing very well in all classes. Behavior Rating Scale completed by classroom teacher indicates that Student X cooperates well and is social. He doesn‘t have any problem with completing his assignments or adapting to changes. The committee agrees to keep him in general education setting for all areas with content mastery support. Student X‘s behavior is appropriate and therefore a behavior intervention plan is not needed at this time. Assistive Technology, extended school year, special transportation and related services were discussed and not needed at this time because there is no educational need. Because Student X will be 14 on 4/3/2006, a transition service needs supplement was discussed and completed by the committee. A REED was completed. Student X is still eligible for special education services under the same category (specific learning disability). Based on the feedback from teachers, her current performance in the classroom and full individual evaluation report, an IEP was developed and accepted by ARD committee. Modifications were determined and accepted. The minutes were read and approved. The committee adjourned on agreement. Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties such as inaccurate word recognition and poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Dyslexia Screening Sample Results and Interpretations: Testing was conducted using standard procedures. Conditions for this testing session were considered to be adequate. Distractions were minimal and insignificant at this time. Rapport was established and maintained adequately for testing. Adequate eye contact was achieved and maintained adequately for testing. Student X seemed to want to answer all of the questions correctly. He demonstrated appropriate emotion and was motivated to work to the best of his ability. He was exceptionally cooperative throughout the examination and he appeared confident, self-assured, and attentive to the tasks throughout the examination. He responded too quickly to test questions, but generally persisted with difficult tasks. Student X‘s height and weight appeared average for his age. His vision and hearing appeared adequate for testing. His speech was intelligible, and his basic interpersonal communication skills were adequate for his age and grade. There was not any an unusual habit, mannerism, or verbalization. Student X seemed at ease in the testing situation. Informal observation of Student X during copying and writing activities showed that he doesn‘t have adequate psychomotor functioning for his age and grade. Testing was conducted using standard procedures. Conditions for this testing session were considered to be adequate. Distractions were minimal and insignificant at this time. Rapport was established and maintained adequately for testing. Student X‘s performance on the K-TEA II indicates that, he is not having any significant difficulties in any of the areas that he was being tested. His overall performance, as measured by the K-TEA II, is in the average range. The K-TEA II Test and the informal observations indicate that he doesn‘t appear to meet specific eligibility for Dyslexia. Recommendations: Extra time would be beneficial for student when he is taking his examinations, allow some extra time for proof-reading. Make sure he comprehends what he reads, and he attends to the source of information. Do not criticize when correcting him; be honest yet supportive. Never cause him to feel negatively about himself. Have him write sentences, paragraphs, or a story each day about a favorite subject. Encourage him to use a phonetic approach to spelling the words he uses. Teach him to use spelling rules to spell words correctly rather than simply memorizing the spelling of words for testing purposes. Point out the subtle differences between letters and numbers that she reverses. Have him scan 5-10 typewritten lines containing only the letters or numbers that are confusing. 1272 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Make certain he correctly hears those letters or sound units omitted, substituted, added, or rearranged when spelling words. Have him say the words aloud to determine if he is aware of the letters or sounds in the words. If possible, he should be allowed to have an opportunity to explain any lack of clarity in the writing. Modeling organization and appropriate use of work materials would be very appropriate for him. 7. Other Health Impairment (OHI) OHI is defined as having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment adversely affecting a child's educational performance, that is due to chronic or acute health problems such as;  asthma,  attention deficit disorder (ADD)  attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),  diabetes,  epilepsy,  a heart condition,  hemophilia,  lead poisoning,  leukemia,  nephritis,  rheumatic fever,  sickle cell anemia Other Health Impairment (OHI) Sample ARD Minutes This is an annual and review ARD for Student X. Members present will be noted on the signature page. Mrs. X, the parent, had no questions at this time. Existing information data was reviewed. The evaluation report from 9/20/2005 indicates that he qualifies for special education services under Other Health Impairment category. His Report and Progress cards show that Student X was doing well in all classes. Behavior Rating Scale completed by classroom teacher indicates that Student X adapts adequately and is social. He doesn‘t have any problem with completing his assignments or adapting to changes. He may need help with extra-curricular activities and writing because of delay in his motor skills. Student X will take TAKS in the areas of Reading and Math. However, TAKS-M Writing (TAKS Modified) will be given to him. The committee agrees to keep him in general education setting for all areas. Student X‘s behavior is appropriate and therefore a behavior intervention plan is not needed at this time. Assistive Technology, extended school year, special transportation and related services were discussed and not needed at this time because there is no educational need. Modifications were discussed. His assignments should be broken into small parts and extra time should be provided for writing. The committee adjourned on agreement. 8. Speech Impairment (SI) SI (A speech or language impairment) is a communication disorder such as  stuttering,  impaired articulation,  a language impairment, or  a voice impairment that adversely affects a student‘s educational performance. Students eligible for Speech Impairment (SI) usually receive speech therapy from a certified speech therapist (audiologist) or speech pathologist at certain times. Speech Impairment (SI) Sample ARD Minutes #1 This is an annual and review ARD for Student 1. Members present will be noted on the signature page. Mr. X, the parent, had no questions at this time. Existing information data was reviewed. The speech/language evaluation report from 03/03/2006 indicates that she qualifies for 1273 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo special education services under speech impairment category. However, dismissing her from Special Education service was discussed. Based on the feedback from speech therapist, the committee may meet later for dismissal. Her Report and Progress cards show that Student1 was doing very well in all classes. Behavior Rating Scale completed by classroom teacher indicates that Student1 cooperates well and is social. She doesn‘t have any problem with completing her assignments or adapting to changes. The committee agrees to keep her in general education setting for all areas with content mastery support. But, she will be pulled out for speech therapy 60 mins per 6 weeks. Student1‘s behavior is appropriate and therefore a behavior intervention plan is not needed at this time. Assistive Technology, extended school year, special transportation and related services were discussed and not needed at this time because there is no educational need. Based on the feedback from teachers, her current performance in the classroom and full individual evaluation report, an IEP was developed and accepted by ARD committee. Modifications were discussed. The committee adjourned on agreement. Speech Impairment (SI) Sample ARD Minutes #2 (Combined case, SI with LD) This is an annual and review ARD for Student X. Members present will be noted on the signature page. Ms. X, the parent, received a copy of procedural safeguards and had no questions at this time. Mr. Y, Special Education Teacher, reviewed existing information data. The full and individual evaluation report from 5/9/2002 indicates that she qualifies for special education services under specific learning disabilities and speech impairment. The committee reviewed the following data:  LD Classroom Observation  Sociological data from parent  Health information  Screening for adaptive and assistive technology  Current progress report and report card  Current classroom based assessment and observation  State assessment reports  Sample work from different classes  The committee concluded that Student X still qualifies for special education services and no additional testing is needed at this time. A Review of Existing Evaluation Data report was completed and signed by the committee members. Also a specific learning disability report was completed. The committee then reviewed spring 2005 TAKS reading results. Student X passed the reading test. She took SDAA in math and writing and met the ARD expectations as well. She will take TAKS reading, social studies and science; SDAA math this year. Student X is currently making progress in her IEP and passing all courses she is taking. She will be in high school next year. A graduation plan was completed. There is no concern in Student X‘s behavior and therefore a behavior intervention plan is not needed at this time. The committee discussed the need for Assistive Technology, extended school year, special transportation and related services and agreed that there is no need at this time. Based on the feedback from teachers, her current performance in the classroom and full individual evaluation report, an IEP was developed and accepted by ARD committee. Modifications were determined and accepted. The minutes were read and approved. The committee adjourned on agreement. 9. Autism (AU) A child may be considered to be a child with autism if the child has a developmental disability significantly affecting:  Verbal communication;  Nonverbal communication; and  Social interaction; Other characteristics often associated with autism are  engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements  resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines  unusual responses to sensory experiences Autism is generally evident before age 3. The most accurate statement regarding the cause of autism is in most cases a specific cause cannot be confirmed. 10. Emotional or Behavioral Disorders (ED) Emotional or behavioral disorder is a condition in which one or more of the following characteristics are exhibited for a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a student‘s educational performance. Such inabilities are; 1274 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo      An inability to learn that which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or other health factors. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. Inappropriate type of behavior or feeling under normal circumstances. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. Schizophrenia is also included as part of the definition. Confidentiality Written or oral information about student with disabilities is shared only with other school personnel who have an explicit need to know. Information about one student is not shared with another student or parent under any circumstances. Only necessary information will be shared with those who have an ―educational interest‖ in the student. Information should not be obtained from a parent or other person based on a promise that the information so obtained will not be shared with other appropriate personnel. Discussions concerning confidential information are to take place in secured locations, not in hallways, stairwells, staff lounges or parking lots, on the playground, or elsewhere where others may overhear. Page covers shall be used when transferring related documents Documentation Confidential written documentation or notes of oral confidential communications should be stored in secure locations, and when in use, should be shielded from the view of others approaching the desk, and should not be left on a desk at all when the staff member has occasion to leave the desk. A sample SPED folder should consist of the following documents; Page 1 Access sheet Communication Records Page 2 Notices Receipt of ExplanationProcedural Safeguards Consents for initial and Reevaluation Transfer Agreement Form Page 3 Current ARD/IEP, BIP (placement) Page 4 Current Assessment Data FIE Page 5 Only for students who have been enrolled for more than one year. Past ARDs and FIEs (been out of date recently) Page 6 Only for students who have been in the school more than 2 years Take page 5 at the end of year 5 and place it here 1275 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Personnel comments are never to be inserted on documents in student folders Communication Teachers are supposed to forward any information that is received from the parent of a student with disability to special education coordinator immediately. During referral process, parents may give the required written notice of referral to classroom teachers or let them know in written via mail, fax, or email. It is also teacher‘s responsibility to forward this information to special education coordinator at school so that proper actions are taken. Modifications/Accommodations One of the most important concepts in special education is implementation of required modifications. Classroom teachers of a student with disabilities will be given modifications at the beginning of the school year. These modifications should be applied properly by classroom teachers. Most students with disabilities can achieve grade-level academic content standards when they receive  instruction from teachers who are highly qualified to teach in the content areas addressed by state standards and know how to differentiate instruction for diverse learners;  specialized instruction within the framework of an IEP; and  appropriate accommodations to help them access grade-level content. Accommodations may be used to enhance the way instruction or materials are presented to a student or to provide different ways for a student to respond to instruction or materials without changing the content being addressed. The decision to use a specific accommodation with a student should ensure the following:  The accommodation addresses the individual student‘s needs.  The accommodation is used routinely in classroom instruction and testing.  The accommodation is documented in the student‘s IEP or in accordance with district policies and procedures.  The accommodation is effective and appropriate as evidenced by grades and observations.  The rigor of the grade-level curriculum is maintained.  The accommodation is allowed or approved if used on a state assessment. Adjustment on Grading In most cases, student with disabilities can be overwhelmed by coursework. Therefore, grading policy needs to be adjusted for students with disabilities. Parties that Need Accommodation Information  Regional Level Education service center staff  District Level Superintendents  Testing coordinators  Curriculum directors  Special education administrators  Bilingual/English as a second language (ESL)  coordinators  Campus Level Principals and other administrators  Testing coordinators  Test administrators  Educational diagnosticians  Licensed specialists in School Psychology  Counselors  Teachers  Special education staff  Bilingual/ESL staff  Parents 1276 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Discipline As a general rule, the consequences written in student handbook apply to all students, including children with disabilities. However, there are special rules and limitations that may apply to a child with a disability. These rules are determined by ARD committee and written in student‘s IEP documents. Students with disabilities are treated like all other children until the end of the tenth day of suspension. Students with disabilities can be suspended for more than 10 days but are entitled to receive FAPE on the 11th day. For suspensions beyond 10 school days, the student‘s IEP team must determine the need to conduct a FBA and develop a BIP or document the need for the decision if a FBA will not be conducted. Suspension of a student with disabilities for more than 10 school days in a school year constitutes a ―change of placement.‖ An IEP meeting must be convened within 10 school days after a ―change of placement‖ occurs to conduct a manifestation determination. Within 10 days, following tasks have to be completed;  Notifying Parents  Providing Procedural Safeguards Notice  Conducting Manifestation Determination  Providing FAPE If the IEP team determines the behavior was not a manifestation of the student‘s disability, the student may be subjected to the same disciplinary action as a regular education student, but the student remains entitled to FAPE. If the IEP team determines the behavior is a manifestation of the student‘s disability, the student may not be suspended. Conclusions and Recommendations US Kindergarten thru 12 Public School System is among the largest public school systems in the world with the most number of foreign students incorporated into the system each year. US public school system is a very dynamic system that is updated regularly with the latest findings in research done in many Colleges of Education throughout the country. Postgraduate research done in Educational Sciences in US is amongst the leaders of the world in terms of quality and quantity. Thus, it would be very reasonable to evaluate and try to adapt parts of this system as needed. Unlike systems of other sciences, which would need the appropriate infrastructure to adapt, educational systems are relatively easier to adapt due to little physical infrastructure involved. However, one cannot underestimate the human factor that is the readiness of the society, thus it would be a safe bet to say that adapting portions of such a system would be easier for smaller school systems. 1277 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division (2008), LPAC Decision-Making Process Procedural Manual, pp. 14-16, 24, 32-35, 42, 49-50, 77. Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division (2009), Standardized Test Accommodations Manual for Students Including General Education Students, Students Receiving Special Education Services, Students with 504 Plans, English Language Learners, pp. 14-15, 48-52, 61. Division of Policy Coordination (2007), 19 TAC Chapter 89, Subchapter BB, Chapter 89. Adaptations for Special Populations, Commissioner's Rules Concerning State Plan for Educating Limited English Proficient Students, pp. 2, 7. Guidelines for Identification Process of Prospective LEP (Limited English Proficient) Students (2009), Harmony Science Academy ESL&SPED Services, pp. 2, 5. The English Language Proficiency Standards (ELPS) (2009), 19 Texas Administrative Code, Chapter 74, Subchapter A, §74.4, English language proficiency level descriptors and student expectations for English language learners (ELLs) TELPAS (Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System) Rater Manual Grades K–12 Texas, pp. 4, 38-42, 55-56. A Student‘s Guide to the IEP by the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2005), http://nichcy.org/pubs/stuguide/st1book.htm Scheiber, B., Talpers, J. (1985), Campus Access for Learning Disabled Students: A Comprehensive Guide. Pittsburgh: Association for Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities 1278 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 675 Title A name given to the resource LEGAL ASPECTS OF SPED PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Author Author Cicek, Volkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Special Education program is implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools and it is the major educational program that is subject to extra funding. In this review, legal aspects of Special Education Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of basis on federal and state laws, ARD (Admission, Review, and Dismissal) committee, Disability categories, ARD meetings specific to disability categories, identification of eligible students, confidentiality, documentation, Modifications and Accommodations, Discipline Issues Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/609c18347eedce7c3559869631192096.pdf 9651c3de44f43552957a1ba02ab7ae72 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Intercultural Education And The New Social Reality Of The Value Dimension EĢi Marius-Costel Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava (Romania) mariusesi@yahoo.com Abstract: The intercultural education emphasizes a social reality within which a paradigm is assumed by a certain community. In this way, the social responsibilities relate to a strategic pragmatism of an educational nature. Moreover, the architectonics of the epistemology of the intercultural education legitimizes the existence of axiological structures found within the social policies. There are significant from this point of view the different intercultural modalities "responsible" for the concretization of a value hierarchy in a social system. Therefore, the comprehension of an intercultural dimension of the social reality reminds of a rational substantiation of the axiological structures through which the epistemological connections acquire meaning and significance. Keywords: intercultural education, social responsibility, axiological structures, value hierarchy, epistemology of the cultural education 1.1. Introduction The activities which take place within a social system aim at a series of peculiarities meant to justify the existence of an intercultural "logic". In other words, the applicative-theoretical connections express within the educational reality situations corresponding to a social methodology. Moreover the intercultural contextual situations constitute a pragmatic operationalization of some approaches initiated at the level of the reality. Thus, the intercultural dimension projected at the level of the operationalization of the human competences illustrates the fact that the educational process in general represents a true potential of knowledge. Therefore a methodological restructuring of the social strategies which apply to the intercultural dimension generates a special form of communication through which there are emphasized the professional responsibilities. 1.2. The socio-educational phenomenon and its intercultural dimension The social flexibility validates the conceptual-theoretical structures within the educational reality. It has to do with an approach of the intercultural phenomenon from the perspective of a social epistemology. In these conditions, the scientific analysis made on the new paradigms concentrates specific modalities of approach through which the socio-educational activity becomes concrete. In fact the organization of some competences from a socio-professional standpoint can explain the methodology specific to the intercultural activities carried out in a given contextual situation. Moreover, the following of some socio-cultural criteria supposes some thorough understanding of the value principles from the perspective of an epistemological model. Therefore, the relationship competence-autonomy transposes the form of scientific reasoning in a system of the social praxis. The scientific dimension of the intercultural phenomenon reflects the idea of a social psychology through which the explanations are related to optimum forms of understanding. One can assert that at the level of a socioeducational system, a methodological strategy is necessary exactly in order to emphasize the normative nature and value of the process of understanding of the intercultural phenomenon related to different cultural spaces (Ghosh; Tarrow: 1993, 81-92). Also, one has in mind the innovative character of the social strategies applied and assumed in a contextual situation. From this point of view one has to mention the fact that the educational value of the intercultural dimension supposes the taking into consideration of some pedagogical approaches through which there are emphasized social mentalities. This situation expresses the idea that an analysis of education corroborated with an analysis of the social fact remind of various meanings of interpretation regarding the intercultural dimension of the society in general. That is why the motivation within the instructive process represents a psychological support in the process of assuming some socio-intercultural strategies where an important role is played by the style itself. In fact, the cultural style perceived as a determined and stable modality of life and human creation (Boboc: 2001, 20), reminds of a professional reorganization and moral regeneration. From this point of view we have in mind 446 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the fact that the organization of the professional competences within a social system plays an important role in understanding the intercultural phenomenon. Approaching such a perspective supposes a specific mechanism of individualizing the assumed strategies. First and foremost, one must take into consideration the means by which the context of communication is created and secondly the language used at the level of the relation. In this mode, the evaluation of the cultural phenomenon aims at the important role that the social methodology of a new paradigm plays which the actors assume in a certain period of time. In other words an optimum evaluation of the socioeducational activities can do nothing but express the idea of an authority that should coordinate the strategies of an intercultural policy. The axiological and pragmatic valences specific to the intercultural dimension do nothing but support the idea that the justifying reasonings of an intercultural psychology contain different degrees of complexity understood as basic conditions in promoting and assuming some logic of the social. From this point of view we consider that the dynamics of the intercultural phenomenon emphasizes to a great extent the social reality. Moreover within this reality one can find a series of criteria of eligibility which represent a value impact zone regarding both the application of the socio-educational policy strategies and the concretization of the intercultural competences which are not born with (Bennett: 1993). Therefore we consider that such an image legitimizes the idea of a value-educational support in promoting the intercultural phenomenon. The value universe of a cultural society supposes some special hermeneutics of the social reality. Thus the specific and significant phenomena of the intercultural education reflect a process of understanding the social reality which cannot be separated from the educational act itself. In other words, different mentalities transpose in this way at an organizational level a series of normative models which generate a panoramic view on the idea of intercultural education understood as a dimension of the professional training. (Cîrligeanu: 2010,122). In addition, in the picture of individualization of a specific form of education, the educational process and implicitly the one of culturalization is considered to be included in the dimension of the motivational behaviour. Therefore, the evaluation of the intercultural dimension depends at the level of the social organization on the way in which the value principles are promoted. Beyond the conceptual-theoretical approaches we also have in mind the pragmatic aspect resulted from such an approach. On the one hand there are obvious a series of methodological correspondences through which the representation of the intercultural reality is nothing but an image of what is perceived at a rational-affective level. On the other hand, the general characteristics which can be found at the level of the social dimension reflects in the context of the new cultural paradigms elements of a cognitive nature through which the strategies assumed within the intercultural education rather illustrate aspects meant to support the idea of professional (self)training. From this point of view, the substantiation of a special form of education emphasizes a reality where one can validate the quality of an instructive-educative approach. We have in mind the role that a conventional education can have in a concordance rapport with the intercultural education. Also, in this context we underline the role that the criteria of eligibility have regarding the existence of a dynamics of the axiological structures. In fact, the axiological problem brought into discussion reflects at the level of a social system the necessity of an intercultural education through which the subjective experience accumulated is transposed in a reevaluated system of values. Therefore, an axiological hermeneutics on the intercultural dimension of a social system can be validated completely as long as the goal of the instructive activities relates to a social-pragmatic structure. The possibilities of representing the interpersonal relations illustrate exactly the features characteristic to the pragmatic dimensions resulted from an operationalization of the competences specific to the actors involved in this approach. The existent methodology emphasizes individual structures which have a special impact on the social strategies. Also, we stress out the fact that a pertinent understanding of the intercultural phenomenon supposes a special way of thinking one that concentrates on taking into consideration the value principles. The mechanism of such a phenomenon reflects the social actors' valuable behaviour. The reevaluation of the social responsibilities implies in this way a professional training of the people who take part in concretizing the intercultural process. Particularly, the problem brought into discussion expresses at the level of a scientific approach an axiological model through which the valuable behaviours acquire meaning. The description of this reality emphasizes the assumption of some social strategies through which the actors involved in the intercultural phenomenon must take into account their own criteria of professional training. The analysis of such an approach resides in the fact that the assumed strategies relate to a special form of managerial activity which can be validated at the level of social-educational policy. Consequently the reality of a social system illustrates value principles in accordance with which the human behaviours express axiological valences specific to the intercultural dimension. As a social phenomenon the intercultural education represents a specific form of communication which must undergo a whole process of evolution. This aspect emphasizes the fact that the social organization 447 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo transcends the will of the subjectivities involved in the socialization process. Thus the independence of consciousness towards the restrictions of the social expresses the idea of a cultural substantiation. In fact the existence of a consistent liaison at an interpersonal level emphasizes an affective dimension of the human consciousness. Therefore, the understanding of such a reality stresses the cognitive assumptions which have a methodological character. This situation emphasizes an image reality where the possibilities of manifestation of the intercultural act acquire axiological significance. In this context, we support the necessity of a social model where the idea of interculturality can be described in accordance with the establishment of some value and deeply value reference points. Also, the substantiation of such an intercultural model supposes the making of some socialmethodological correspondences. Moreover, the form of manifestation of the intercultural dimension legitimizes at a social level the existence of some operationalization degrees of an axiological nature. From this point of view we have in mind the dynamics existent between the social-axiological hermeneutics and the social-cognoscible one through which any form of education is emphasized. The problem brought under discussion emphasizes at the level of the creation act a social reality within which the fundamental activities remind of methodological responsibilities. The conclusions of such an approach also underline at a social level the necessity itself of an intercultural education. 1.3. The social-axiological hermeneutics versus the social-cognoscible hermeneutics The activities initiated at the level of the intercultural education must have in mind a social-affective correspondence. In these conditions such an assumption legitimizes a capacity of interpreting the social reality. The assumed context depends on the values which relate to the new cultural paradigms. Moreover we consider that the informational substantiation must be based at the level of the human consciousness on axiological structures specific to the social fact. Thus, the general characteristics at a contextual level generate intercultural models through which the process of (self) training reintegrates in a perspective complementary to the one recently assumed by the social actors. The acquisitions of the human experience can be found at the level of the intercultural education as long as they generate specific forms of symbolical behaviour. This image resides in the manifestation form itself of the intercultural education. In this way the experience accumulated in time emphasizes the foundation of an educational model. In fact, the methodological problem brought into discussion reminds of emphasizing the idea of individualizing the intercultural education. Therefore, an epistemological foundation of the social-educational principles supposes a reintegration of the intercultural approach at a pragmatic level It is considered that such an assumption depends exactly on the existence of degrees of operationalization through which in its quality of component of the educational activity the intellectual paradigm promotes social attitudes. The cultural reality by relating to an axiological meaning puts emphasis on the theoretical importance of the social structures at the level of the educational policies. From this point of view the methodological openings towards new educational paradigms (Honor: 1996, 53) reflect different modalities of approaching the social reality. Thus, it is obvious the presence of a methodological substantialism regarding the competitive education. An efficient intercultural model emphasizes a process of communication which supports an educational policy promoted on the basis of performance criteria. From this point of view one has to mention the specific methods of research which have at their basis the taking into consideration of some different levels of reality. Consequently the transmission and the reception of some social-educational typologies represent a pragmatic operationalization of some approaches initiated at the level of the specific cultural realities. The existence of some significant phenomena which should emphasize this reality imposes that at the level of the interpersonal relations there should be promoted a series of strategies which should become concrete in the name of a value principle. In other words, the organization of some competences in the socio-professional plan can explain the fact that the efficiency and the professionalism relate both to a methodological logic and an epistemology of the cultural education. From this point of view we can assert that at the level of a socioeducational system a methodological strategy is necessary in order to focus on the instrumental value of the intercultural process. An epistemological substantiation of the intercultural education supposes a reinterpretation of the cultural dimension in the context of the social aspect. Thereby, the nature of human subjectivity marks the beginning of a specific form of education, through which respecting some performance criteria depends on the idea of responsibility. Therefore, the objective valences of the intercultural dimension emphasize a methodological problem through which one can ensure an optimum functioning of the assumed approaches. Thus, a very good understanding of the behavioral relations illustrates an explanatory perspective on the cultural and professional identity (Bagnard: 2009, 55). In this mode the evaluation of an intercultural dimension supposes the acceptance of an educational culture which pinpoints the existence of some significant phenomena of a social nature. The organization of 448 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo some competences on a socio-professional plan generates on the basis of some performance criteria a substantiation of the intercultural norms. In fact the strategic role that the used social methodologies have validates the epistemic capacities of understanding the intercultural approach. However this assumption transposes on a comprehensive plan a form of scientific reasoning in a system of the social praxis. Also, we consider that the educational process must be in a tight relationship with a scientific dimension of the intercultural education, becoming concrete through the methods and means which highlight collaboration, co-working, solidarity, justice and equality. (Colibaba; Cocari: 2009, 12). Moreover this complementarity relationship underlines the autonomy of the socio-educational actors in accordance with which there is a certain social standard. Thus we admit that at the level of a socio-educational system a methodological strategy is necessary exactly in order to emphasize the instrumental value of the intercultural dimension. The perspective of an intercultural dimension at the level of the society illustrates on an axiological plan approaches and explanations which are based on human possibilities of knowing and interpreting the laws of a certain social system. From this perspective the social actors must have among the assumed objectives the assuming and promoting in a conscious way of those pragmatic aspects through which the intercultural dimension acquires meaning and value. Therefore the quality of a social system implies a thorough systematization of the strategies of educational and (inter)cultural policy. An interesting problem referring to the social-methodological actions is that through which a wellfounded educational model can support a social system which wants to be pragmatic. In these conditions the organization of the social-educational competences is directed towards different levels of communication. Moreover a well-founded scientific theory can offer a unitary perspective on the conceptual frame characteristic to the process of interpersonal communication. The relational dimension of communication illustrates explanatory dimensions of the discursive understanding. We can admit thus at the level of a cultural script the existence of a social responsibility through which the professionalism of the social actors is transposed in a specific educational environment. The idea that we have in mind in this context is that the cognitive experience acquired in time supposes a process of reconsideration and reevaluation of the system of values. Of course from a methodological point of view one needs a pertinent understanding of the strategies assumed at a social level. Also, the methodological truth put in correlation with the consensual-scientific dimension illustrates the "wild" nature of the intercultural education. In this case we have in mind the limits, the flaws which stem from the assuming of such an approach: the loss of originality, traditions, cultural spirit. The substantiation of the interculturalism by reevaluating the social system represents a benefit meaning that the normative-methodological reality is open towards the new cognoscible paradigms. Such an image emphasizes exactly the methodological functionality of the learning process. In other words, the analysis of the social system generates a certain pedagogical coherence where a certain methodological consistence is obvious. The methodological approach existent at the level of intercultural dimension reflects on the axiological plan a problem specific to the education where the understanding is related to the informational content. In other terms the efficiency of such an approach depends on the quality of an activity meant to stimulate the intercultural education. The social condition represents a determining factor in the process of manifestation of consciousness within which a pertinent evaluation of the intercultural act reminds of the idea of social functionality of a pragmatic nature. Therefore the influence of the models of social development is relevant as long as at an intercultural level there are visible representative functional features of the educational actors. The cultural ambiance supposes the following of a cognoscible structure through which any activity becomes efficient. This image rather has to do with the formative orientation of the training activities but also with the modality in which one accesses to an intercultural education. In fact by relating to the specific of such an approach, a perspective of this type proves its efficiency due to its axiological criteria promoted and supported by the social actors. These approaches do nothing but legitimize the experience of a new society of knowledge. The peculiarities of such understanding generate a reasoning effect of the assumed approach. It is obvious that at the level of the social reality the transmission and the assimilation of information suppose a whole process of legitimizing the knowledge. From this point of view the scientific perspective illustrates the fact that the evaluation of the intercultural act represents specific forms of socialization. Therefore, a methodological foundation of the cultural dimension fully finds its justifications as long as the argumentative performances are corroborated with the strategies of social-educational policy. 449 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1.4 Conclusions The acceptance of an intercultural dimension reminds thus of a judicious understanding of the socialization phenomenon. In other words, the social performance criteria can be explained through the fact that the educational environment must relate to the social interactions between the actors involved in the activities characteristic to the intercultural dimension. Also, the social actors involved in this approach subordinate to a competitive education meant to validate exactly the methodological consistence of the socialization/culturalization process. From this point of view the pragmatism of the intercultural education results from the capacity itself of integrating and facing the challenges of the new social reality. Therefore, the scientific explanations meant to legitimate somehow the suppositions that have to do with a philosophy of interculturalization illustrate the possibilities of (self) organizing the society. The importance given to the value dimensions becomes exemplary as long as the educational reality reflects an efficient social model. In this mode, the benefit of such a perspective reflects a methodological functional process through which there are accepted at the level of the social reality conceptual-methodological connections. Moreover, the practice of the instructive activity generates a social architectonics where the interculturality expresses a starting point in the value approach. Also, we consider that one must take into consideration the behaviour of the community in accordance with which one can establish intercultural correspondences between different levels of organization of the social reality. Consequently the range of conceptual application subordinates to some different axiological criteria in accordance with the knowledge horizon which expanded can offer alternatives to the problems characteristic to the intercultural environment where the strategies of social policy concentrate. References Bagnourd – Périsset, Danièle (2009), ‖Former à l‘ accompagnement et à la supervision pédagogique en stage: enjeux et défis‖, in Education et francophonie, Volume XXXVII, numéro 1, printemps 2009 (http://www.acelf.ca/c/revue/pdf/EF37-1-051_PERISSET.pdf, accessed 02.02.2011). Bennett, M. (1993), ‖Towards ethnocentrism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity‖, in R.M. Paige (ed.), Education for the intercultural experience, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME. Boboc, Alexandru (2001), "Cultural Style and Value Pluralism" (‖Stil cultural Ģi pluralism valoric‖), in SorinTudor Maxim; Viorel Guliciuc (Coordinator), Humanism and Education (Umanism Ģi educaţie), University Publishing House (Editura Universităţii), Suceava. Cîrligeanu, Maria (2010), "Communication and Culture in the European Context" (‖Comunicarea Ģi cultura în context european‖, in Iulia Baltazar (coordinator editor), Education and European Culture (Educaţie Ģi cultura europeană), "George Tohan" Publishing House (Editura ‖George Tofan‖), Suceava. Colibaba, Georgeta; Cocari, Dorina (2009), "Intercultural Education through educational partnership")‖Educaţie interculturală prin parteneriat educaţional‖ in Alina ġandru (coordinator editor), Creativity and Innovation in Education (Creativitate Ģi inovaţie în învăţământ), "George Tofan" Publishing House ( Editura ‖George Tofan‖), Suceava. Ghosh, Ratna; Tarrow, Norma (1993), ‖Multiculturalism and teacher educators: views from Canada and USA‖, in Comparative education, vol. 29, No.1, Taylor and Francis Ltd. Honor, Mark (1996), Enseigner et apprendre dans une classe multiculturelle, Chronique Sociale, Lyon. 450 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 66 Title A name given to the resource The Intercultural Education And The New Social Reality Of The Value Dimension Author Author Costel, EĢi Marius Abstract A summary of the resource. The intercultural education emphasizes a social reality within which a paradigm is assumed by a certain community. In this way, the social responsibilities relate to a strategic pragmatism of an educational nature. Moreover, the architectonics of the epistemology of the intercultural education legitimizes the existence of axiological structures found within the social policies. There are significant from this point of view the different intercultural modalities "responsible" for the concretization of a value hierarchy in a social system. Therefore, the comprehension of an intercultural dimension of the social reality reminds of a rational substantiation of the axiological structures through which the epistemological connections acquire meaning and significance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/23069ac5e5cf9ecb12143923541ac84d.pdf ecb2486b506c1c2c828e2676aeef5cab PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Klâsik Türk Edebiyatı Metinlerindeki ―Efendi/ Sultan (Sevgili) – Kul/ Köle (ÂĢık)‖ Mazmunu Hakkında Bazı Tespitler Gamze DEMĠREL Sùleyman ġah Üniversitesi Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bôlùmù Ġstanbul-Tùrkiye gdemirel@ssu.edu.tr Özet: BaĢlangıçta sevgiliye ―sahip olmak‖ arzusuyla yola çıkan aĢıkın aĢkı, aĢk yolunda ilerledikçe ilahî bîr boyut kazanmaya baĢlar. Bu zorlu yolda aĢık, sevgiliye ulaĢtığını zannettiği anda, kendisinin bir ―Hiç‖ olduğunu tekrar tekrar anlar. Bu his, aĢıkın ―(…) ruhundaki boĢluğu durmadan bùyùtmektedir (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. AĢık, kendini kaybettiği aynı aĢk denizinde, tekrar kendini bulmaya çalıĢır. AĢk oyununun baĢında, meclisin mumu olan sevgilinin ıĢığını, oyunun sonunda ondan devralacak ve ondan aldığı bu ıĢığı, ilahî olana yônlendirecektir. Dolayısıyla aĢıkın kulluğu hiçbir Ģekilde değiĢmeyecek; baĢlangıçta, efendi (sevgili) sinin kul (kôle) u olan aĢık, sonraları ilahî sevgili (yaratıcı) karĢısındaki kulluğuna devam edecektir. Nesneler değiĢse de aĢıkın gôrevi değiĢmemektedir. Klâsik Tùrk edebiyatı metinlerinde, ―Sevgili-AĢık‖ mazmunu etrafında geliĢen bu tarzda pek çok ôrneğe rastlamak mùmkùndùr. Anahtar kelimeler: Klâsik Tùrk Edebiyatı, Sevgili, ÂĢık, Efendi, Kôle Bùtùn dùnya edebiyatlarında olduğu gibi, Klâsik Tùrk edebiyatı‘nın da ônemli konularından biri olan, bireyin; hayatını anlamlandırıp devam ettirebilmesinde; yetenekleri (sevebilme/ sevilebilme) ni keĢfederek kendini gerçekleĢtirebilmesinde vazgeçilmez bir yere sahip olan aĢkın ve sevginin, baĢlangıç aĢaması ile sonucu arasında bir takım farklılıkların olduğu dikkati çeker. AĢk hikayesinin baĢlangıcında, aĢık, ―ben‖ iyle ve dolayısıyla ―sahip olma‖ arzusuyla hareket etmektedir. Bencil duyguların ôn plana çıktığı bu tarzdaki sevgi ya da aĢk anlayıĢı, edebiyatımızda kabul gôren bir anlayıĢ değildir. Geleneksel edebiyatımızda asıl olan, aĢkın, aĢıka nasıl bir boyut kazandırdığıdır. AĢk, bireyin ―olması‖ nı, yani kendini gerçekleĢtirmesini sağlayan bir aktivite olmalıdır. ―(…) ‗olmak‘, ‗sahip olmak‖ ın, aynı bencillik ve ben‘ ine bağlılığın karĢıtıdır (FROMM, 2003: 96)‖. AĢık, sevgiliye ulaĢmak ve onunla bir ―olmak‖ arzusuyla yola çıkmalıdır; çùnkù sadece somut olarak bir Ģey (ler) e ―sahip olmak‖, aslında ―hiçbir Ģey olmamak/ olamamak‖ demektir. Oysa aĢk, ―sahip olmak‖ fikrinden uzak, ―olmak‖ fikrine yakın; aĢıkın kendini geliĢtirdiği bir duygu olduğunda gerçek anlamını kazanacaktır. Ġlk ônce, ―sahip olmak‖ dùrtùsù ile harekete geçen aĢık, bu duygunun, onu, kendisine ve sevgiliye yabancılaĢtırdığını; kendisini ve sevgiliyi ―ôteki‖ leĢtirdiğini hissettiği andan itibaren, ruhunda bir sıkıntı hissetmeye baĢlar. ―(…) sevgi, ―sahip olmak‖ tùrùnde ele alınacak olursa, kendinin kılmak, denetimi altında tutmak anlamlarına gelecek ve bôylece de canlandırmak ve hareketlendirmek yerine, boğucu, engelleyici ve kıĢkırtıcı bir eylem haline dônùĢecektir. (FROMM, 2003: 73)‖. Oysa aĢk, insanı geliĢtiren bir duygu olmalı; aĢık (lar) ın ―olma/ olgunlaĢma‖ sùrecini tamamlayabilmesine katkı sağlamalıdır. Zirâ, ―Ġnsanlığın kurtulabilmesi için ilk ve tek Ģart, ―sahip olmak‖ ilkesinden ―olmak‖ ilkesine geçmektir (FROMM, 2003: 9)‖. AĢık, yanlıĢ bir yolda ilerlediğini fark eder ve aĢıkın arzuları, zaman içerisinde, farklı bir boyut kazanarak, onun ―yoldan çıkma (yônùnù değiĢtirme)‖ sına; ―sahip olmak‖ arzusundan ve Ģehvet duygularından uzaklaĢarak, gerçeğe yônelmesine vesile olur. Bireyin olabilmesi, onun sevgiyi teorik olarak değil bizzat fiilen yaĢaması, bu vesileyle hem kendisini hem de sevgilisini aktif olarak bu oyuna dâhil etmesi ile mùmkùn olacaktır. ―(…) ―olmak‖ ancak bir hareketlilik, canlılık ve değiĢim içinde anlam kazanacaktır. Canlı olan yapılar (ya da varlıklar) olgunlaĢtıkları zaman ―olmak‖ tadırlar ve ancak değiĢebildikleri sùrece vardırlar. Çùnkù geliĢme ve değiĢme, yaĢam sùrecine sıkı sıkıya bağlı iki temel ilkedir (FROMM, 2003: 49)‖. AĢık, artık ôteki yarısı (sevgili) nı aramalıdır. ―(…), kiĢi aslında kendi farkında olmadığı içsel zorlamaların etkisi ve gùdùsù altındadır (FROMM, 2003: 127)‖. Aslında ―Sevgi bir soyutlamadır. Belki garip bir varlık, belki de kimsenin gôremediği bir Tanrıça. Gerçekte var olan, sevme eylemidir. (FROMM, 2003: 72)‖. Bu sebeple aranan Ģey, aslında sevgili değil sevgidir, aĢktır. AĢık için aĢk oyunu, kendisinin baĢkahramanı olduğu, bir tùr hayata katılma ve hayatı anlamlandırma çabasıdır ve bu oyunda aĢık, kurmaca bir sevgili ùretir. AĢk, ―(…), bir doğurma, bir ùretme sùrecidir ve kiĢi ile ùrettiği Ģey arasında doğrusal bir iliĢki, bir bağ vardır (FROMM, 2003: 128)‖. AĢık, sevgilisine, efendisine ancak kendi istidadı ôlçùsùnde anlamlar yùkleyecek; aĢkını, kendi yeteneği ve gùcù ôlçùsùnde yaĢayacak ve yaĢatacaktır. 487 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sevgiliyi sevgili yapan ve ulaĢılmaz kılan, aĢıkın, ona yùklediği anlamdır. Sevgili, tanımların ve algımızın dıĢındadır; o, aĢığın algısı ve tanımlamaları ile gôzùmùzde canlanır. BaĢlangıçta aĢık için ―ôteki/ yabancı‖ olan sevgili, yola çıktığı andan itibaren ezelden beri tanıdığına dônùĢmekte; ôzellikle de, aĢığın bilincinde, aĢkının bùyùklùğùne bağlı olarak, diğer bùtùn unsurlar ―ôteki‖ olmaktadır. AĢıkta oluĢan bu yeni bilinç, aĢığı; aĢık ile maĢukun, seven ile sevilenin, efendi ile kulun aslında tek bir bilinç olduğu, ―bir‖ olduğu gerçeği ile yùzleĢtirmektedir. Bir sùre sonra, ―aĢık-sevgili‖ Ģeklindeki tanımlar ortadan kalkmakta; aĢık, sevgili ile bùtùnleĢmekte, ―bir‖ olmaktadır. AĢık için artık, ortada kôle de efendi de yoktur, sadece ―bir‖ vardır ve bir tek kavram vardır; o da her ikisinin etrafını kuĢatan ―AĢk‖ ya da ―IĢk‖. AĢkın filiz verdiği ilk zamanlar ―(…) kôle ile efendi arasında bôlùĢùlen ikizleĢme, Ģimdi tek bir (benlikte) toplanmıĢtır. (…) bu yeni biçim, kendi kendinin çifte bilinci olduğunu bilen bilinçtir; kendini ôzgùrleĢtiren ve değiĢmeyen, kendiyle ôzdeĢ ve kendi baĢını dôndùren, kendini yoldan çıkaran: kendinin bu çeliĢik doğasının bilincidir (GĠRARD, 2001: 15)‖. Bu duygularla yaratılan birey, kaderindeki aĢkı bulmak ùzere yola çıkar ve bôylece―kendini gerçekleĢtirme‖ nin kapısını aralamaya‖ ve ―olma‖ nın yolunu aramaya baĢlar. AĢık, aĢk ile, aĢk için yola çıktığında, sevgili ile aralarında, fiziksel uzaklıktan ziyâde, ruhsal olarak bùyùk bir mesafe olduğunun farkındadır. Çùnkù aĢık ve sevgili birbirine tamamen zıt iki kiĢiliktir. Zaten kainatta yaratılan her Ģey, zıttı ile kâimdir. Ama aĢık―AĢkın uyumsuzluğunda bir yazgı gôrùr (GĠRARD, 2001: 147)‖. Sevgili ile aralarındaki bu farklılıklar; uyumsuzluktaki uyum; zıtların uyumu olarak nitelenmelidir. AĢıkı, sevgiliden vazgeçilmez kılan da zıtlar arasındaki bu gizli çekimdir. AĢık, ruhunun diğer yarısını, zıtlıklarda ararken; sevgili de ―(…), kendisine karĢı koyacak nesneyi aramaktadır (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖; ki bu da, aĢıktır. Sevgilinin ―(…) ıĢığını sùzen ve ona (…) ôzgù niteliğini veren hemen her zaman bir kôlenin bilincidir (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖. ―Sevmek yaratıcı bir etkinliktir. Sevmek, sevilen insanı (ya da Ģeyi) canlandırmak, onun yaĢam duygusunu arttırmak anlamına gelir. Aynı zamanda, kiĢinin kendisini de canlandıran, yenileyen ve hareketlendiren bir sùreçtir (FROMM, 2003: 73)‖. AĢık, bùtùn dikkatini ve ilgisini sevgilisine yônelterek; kendi gùcùnù ve enerjisini tamamen sevgiliye aktarmakta; bôylelikle onu canlı tutmaya çalıĢmaktadır. ―(…) insan, tùm gùçlerini, kendi yarattığı bu Ģeye yansıtınca, gerçek gùçlerinden uzaklaĢmıĢ olur ve zayıflar. Kendini kendi yarattığı Ģeylere tutsak eden insan, yeniden kendisini bulabilmek için, kendisinin dıĢlaĢıp, yabancılaĢmıĢ bir biçimi olan bu puta daha çok bağlanmak, ona daha çok tutsak olmak durumunda kalır.‖ (FROMM, 2003: 70)‖. Her an sevgilinin yanı baĢında olup, onun eĢiğini beklemek; tùm dikkatini ve kalan gùcùnù onun ùzerine yônlendirmek, aĢığın vazifesidir adetâ. AĢk oyununda ―Kôleliğe doğru bu yôneliĢ (…) yapının temel bir ilkesidir (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖. Sevgili efendidir ve ―Tanrının verdiği hakla imparator olmak, urbi et orbi(Ģehre ve dùnyaya) kendi iradesini ilan etmek ve tùm evreni ona boyun eğmeye zorlamak ister (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. Bunu aĢıklarına kabul ettirebilmek için çeĢitli tutum ve davranıĢlar içerisine girer: Nâz u niyâz eder, istiğnâ eder, aĢığı dıĢlar, kùçùmser v.s. Fakat, aĢıklar ―(…) aranmaya o kadar alıĢkınlardır ki kendilerinden kaçan biri onlara Anka kuĢu gibi gôrùnùr (GĠRARD, 2001: 143)‖. Gerçekte kaçan, sevgili gibi gôrùnse de, asıl kaçan aĢıkın arzularıdır ve aĢık da aslında arzularının peĢinden koĢmaktadır. Sevgilinin, aĢıka naz yapması, ona ilgisizmiĢ gibi davranması ―(…), fiziksel Ģiddetin olmadığı bir evrende bilinçlerin çatıĢmasının yeni biçimidir (GĠRARD, 2001: 101)‖. ―(…) arzu uğruna çilecilik evrensel bir zorunluluktur (GĠRARD, 2001: 143)‖. AĢık, bu bilinçle yola çıkmıĢtır ve sevgili uğruna çile çekmeye razıdır. Evren, ―Psikopatolojik (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖ tir; zirâ orada mutluluktan çok acının yaĢanıyor olması aslında âlemdeki yaĢamın bir imtihandan ibaret olduğu gerçeğini gôstermektedir. ―(…) acı çok gùçlù olduğunda beceriksiz davranıĢlara atarız kendimizi, yazarız, birisini araya koyarız, gidip gôrùrùz, sevdiğimiz kiĢiden vazgeçemeyeceğimizi kanıtlarız (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖. AĢık da, bir sùre sonra, sevgili karĢısındaki çaresizliğini kabullenecektir. Bu durumda, efendi, vazgeçilemeyecek kadar sevildiğinden tam anlamıyla emin olacak; ―(…) oynanan oyunu açığa vurmadan ilgisizlik gôsterisinde (GĠRARD, 2001: 142)‖ bulunacaktır. Ona her baktığında ―Özgùr, ilgisiz ve mağrur (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖ bir sevgili ile karĢılaĢan aĢık, daha fazla harekete geçecek, sevgiliye ulaĢabilmenin tùrlù yollarını deneyecektir. AĢığı baĢarıya gôtùren de, sevgilinin bu tarzdaki davranıĢlarıdır. ―(…) her parlak baĢarı gerçek ya da yapmacık bir ilgisizliğin ùrùnùdùr (GĠRARD, 2001: 142)‖. AĢıkın, aĢk ile imtihan edilerek cezalandırıldığı dùĢùnùlse de, asıl cezalandırılan ve daimi kadere mecbur bırakılan efendi (sevgili) dir. Zirâ, çekilen her sıkıntı sonunda bir ıĢıkla sonlanacaktır. AĢığın gerçek ve daimi sevgiye ulaĢma ihtimali, efendiye gôre daha yùksektir; çùnkù ―Kôleliğin efendiliğin geleceği olduğunu biliyoruz (GĠRARD, 2001: 144)‖. Oysa, aĢk oyununda, ―(…),kendine hâkimiyet hep arzusunu en iyi saklayan tarafın ôdùlùdùr (GĠRARD, 2001: 43)‖. AĢık, bir nev‘î ―nefs sınavı‖ diye de adlandırabileceğimiz aĢk oyununu, kurallarına gôre oynayarak, baĢlangıçta hep acı çeken ve kaybeden tarafmıĢ gibi gôrùnmesine rağmen sonraları kazanan taraf olacaktır. Dùnyayı ve tùm yaratılanları, efendi gôzùyle seyreden sevgili, ―(…) her zaman kendi yıkımına doğru yùrùyordur (GĠRARD, 2001: 142)‖; çùnkù ondaki bu ―(…) mutlak-gùç arzusu da baĢarısızlığının tohumlarını içinde taĢımaktadır (GĠRARD, 2001: 142)‖ ve bu bùyùklenmeci tutum, onu evrene katılmaktan; evrende var olan Ģeylerle içselleĢmekten alıkoymaktadır ve geliĢimine engel olmaktadır. Bu durumda ―(…) efendi de amacından kôle kadar uzaktadır. (GĠRARD, 2001: 140)‖. Uğruna her Ģeyin gôze alındığı sevgili, ônceleri, ĢanslıymıĢ gibi gôrùnse de, her zaman ―(…) hayal kırıklığına ve can sıkıntısına mahkømdur. (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. Ġlk bakıĢta, 488 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo aĢık, esir; efendi, ôzgùr gibi gôrùnse de aslında durum bôyle değildir. Sevgili ―(…) hapishaneden çıktığını sanır ama bir azizin halesi gibi hapishanesini de beraberinde gôtùrùr. Bôylece sùrdùrecektir o kederli ve sonu gelmez gerçeklik arayıĢını (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. AĢık, arzu ùreten sevgilisini kendisi seçer; onu adetâ bir puta dônùĢtùrùr ve bu ―(…), arzusunun dônùĢtùrdùğù bir dolayımlayıcıya mıhlanıp kalır. Bu kiĢiyi arzulayarak bireyselliğini elde ettiğini sanır, ama aslında onu yitiriyordur çùnkù herkes aynı yanılsamanın kurbanıdır (GĠRARD, 2001: 147)‖. AĢık, ―Nesneyi elde eder ama bu nesne elde edilmesine izin verdiği için tùm değerini yitirir (GĠRARD, 2001: 140)‖; o andan itibaren, peĢinde koĢtuğun Ģeyin gerçek olmadığını fark eder ve ―(…), nesneyi eline geçirdiğinde yalnızca boĢluğu kucakladığını gôrùr‖ (GĠRARD, 2001: 140)‖; ―(…) arzunun anlamı ùzerinde dùĢùnùr ve sonuç bôlùmùnde tutkudaki gùlùnç ve acı yanlıĢ anlamanın altını çizer (GĠRARD, 2001: 147)‖. Sevgiliye duyduğu arzu, aslında yaratıcıya duyduğu aĢkın yansımalarıdır. AĢık, iĢte tam da o anda, tam anlamıyla ―ôzgùrleĢmekte‖ dir. Bu aslında aĢığın ―kendini bil‖ diği andır ki, bôylelikle ona Rabbini bilmenin yolu da açılmıĢ olur. Bu noktada aĢık (kul), beĢerî aĢktan sıyrılarak, ilahî olana yônelmeye baĢlar. BeĢerî olana duyulan aĢkın altında, ilahî olana ait izleri aramanın, insanın yaĢama sebebini anlamlandırma içgùdùsùnùn bir sonucu olduğu gôz ardı edilmemelidir. Asıl amaç ―(…) tùm engelleri aĢıp, tùm ilgi ve istekleri yok edip, çıplak ve açık bir biçimde Tanrı‘ ya koĢmak ve ona ulaĢıp, bir olmaya çalıĢmaktır. (Franz Pfeiffer‘ den alıntı.) (FROMM, 2003: 68)‖. Özetleyecek olursak, AĢık; efendisini aramak ùzere yola koyulan bir kuldur. Gerçeğe ulaĢamadığı ve madde aleminde kaybettiği her an için acı çekmektedir. Sevgiliye ulaĢtığını zannettiği anda, oyunun en baĢına dônmekte ve bu aĢk denizinde, yeniden, kendisini kaybetmeye; aslında kaybolduğu bu denizde kendisini tekrar bulmaya çalıĢmaktadır. AĢık ―(…) zaferin tam ortasında kendisinde hiçbir Ģeyin değiĢmediğini keĢfeder ve bu onu ùmitsizliğe iter. Hâlâ ele geçiremediği bu tanrısallığın bir yansımasını baĢkalarının bakıĢlarında yakalamak ister. (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. AĢık, her arayıĢla birlikte ve her baĢarısızlıkla beraber, ―Hiç‖ olduğunu tekrar tekrar anlar. Bu his, aĢıkın ―(…) ruhundaki boĢluğu durmadan bùyùtmektedir (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖ AĢık, sevgiliye ―sahip olmak‖ arzusuyla yola çıkar; ancak yolda, aĢkı ilahî bîr boyut kazanır. AĢk oyununun baĢında, meclisin ıĢığı, sevgili iken; oyunun sonunda, ıĢığı; aĢık temsil etmektedir. O halde, aĢıkı ―olmak‖ kelimesiyle tanımlamak mùmkùndùr. ―Olmak‖, yùzeysel gôrùntùleri aĢıp, onların ardındaki gerçeği kavramakla gerçekleĢebilir ancak (FROMM, 2003: 138)‖. Klâsik Tùrk edebiyatı metinlerinde, ―sevgili-aĢık‖ mazmunu etrafında geliĢen bu tarzda pek çok ôrneğe rastlamak mùmkùndùr. References FROMM, ERĠCH, Sahip olmak ya da Olmak, çev.: Aydın Arıtan, Ġst. 2003 GĠRARD, RENE, Romantik Yalan ve Romansal Hakikat - Edebi Yapıda Ben ve Öteki, çev.: Arzu Etensel Ġldem, Ġst. 2001 489 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 73 Title A name given to the resource Klâsik Türk Edebiyatı Metinlerindeki ―Efendi/ Sultan (Sevgili) – Kul/ Köle (ÂĢık)‖ Mazmunu Hakkında Bazı Tespitler Author Author DEMiREL, Gamze Abstract A summary of the resource. BaĢlangıçta sevgiliye ―sahip olmak‖ arzusuyla yola çıkan aĢıkın aĢkı, aĢk yolunda ilerledikçe ilahî bîr boyut kazanmaya baĢlar. Bu zorlu yolda aĢık, sevgiliye ulaĢtığını zannettiği anda, kendisinin bir ―Hiç‖ olduğunu tekrar tekrar anlar. Bu his, aĢıkın ―(…) ruhundaki boĢluğu durmadan bùyùtmektedir (GĠRARD, 2001: 141)‖. AĢık, kendini kaybettiği aynı aĢk denizinde, tekrar kendini bulmaya çalıĢır. AĢk oyununun baĢında, meclisin mumu olan sevgilinin ıĢığını, oyunun sonunda ondan devralacak ve ondan aldığı bu ıĢığı, ilahî olana yônlendirecektir. Dolayısıyla aĢıkın kulluğu hiçbir Ģekilde değiĢmeyecek; baĢlangıçta, efendi (sevgili) sinin kul (kôle) u olan aĢık, sonraları ilahî sevgili (yaratıcı) karĢısındaki kulluğuna devam edecektir. Nesneler değiĢse de aĢıkın gôrevi değiĢmemektedir. Klâsik Tùrk edebiyatı metinlerinde, ―Sevgili-AĢık‖ mazmunu etrafında geliĢen bu tarzda pek çok ôrneğe rastlamak mùmkùndùr. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1a94df71810f881db3d990bb9d69eca4.pdf 6eaec96fac4e643f62134e5693c9b95c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Rhythm and Stress at Practice: Rhythmic Anomalies of Foreign Speakers of English : A Case Study of Mostaganem University Students Amel DERRAZ Department of English Studies Faculty of Letters and Arts, Mostaganem University (Algeria) Email : derraz.amel@gmail.com Englishmel2002@yahoo.fra Abstract: Today, more than ever, languages are becoming more and more an essential means for the human kind to get in touch with each other and/or to improve his professional situation. Indeed, learning has always been basic for the shaping of social life and so have foreign languages. Knowing a foreign language implies speaking and being understood by others who know that language. Learning a foreign language implies learning a foreign culture, a foreign way of thinking, a foreign grammatical structure, a foreign phonological system. However, knowing the phonological sound system of a language includes knowing more than the phonemic inventory of sounds, it includes knowing which sound start the word, end a word and the possible consonant clusters, the syllable structure, etc. Most foreign language learners of English aim at achieving a perfect native-like pronunciation as well as displaying a certain degree of fluency and naturalness as they speak English. The great majority of foreign learners centre their attention on the actualization of individual segments that is achieved by a tedious repetition of sounds/ phonemes of the target language in isolation or within simple words. However, a relative mastery of the English pronunciation lies in mastering what the American phoneticians call: supra-segmental features, and the British call: the prosodic features. As a way of illustrating, one can mention stress, intonation and rhythm. The latter is said to be of significant importance in the sense that it procures a native touch to the speech of a foreign learner of English. That was stressed by a number of phoneticians and specialists, as Peter Roach, who states clearly that « rhythm is not an optional extra; it is all part of the prosodic package of being native speaker in English ». Indeed, the ignorance or the neglect of such a prosodic feature which shows to be of a significant importance seems to be at the roots of the difficulties foreign learners face while speaking English. In this respect, two main questions are addressed in this paper. What are, then, the main problems learners of English face while learning and / or acquiring English rhythm (knowing and mastering English rhythm will be brought to the fore in this paper). Furthermore, in this paper, rhythmic structure of Arabic and English will be compared to try to explore the possibilities of finding the reasons lying beneath the mispronunciation or the mis-reproduction of English rhythm by Arabic speakers. Although Arabic and English rhythmic modes are said to be similar to each other, Arabic speakers of English tend to miss the amount of reduction in duration (of unstressed syllables) and thus seem somehow unable to master the English rhythm fully and achieve thus a native like pronunciation. Put differently, although English and Arabic are said to be stress- timed languages, the Arabic learners of English still have difficulties in reproducing correct English rhythm. It should be interesting to explore further the sources lying beneath that incompetency. Key Words: Arabic rhythm, English rhythm, stress-timed, stress 1405 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1-Introduction: Foreign learners of English, almost all over the world, strive to sound like native speakers and display a certain degree of fluency and naturalness as they speak. Students and to a certain extent even teachers believe that this could be achieved through a tedious repetition of isolated elements known as phonemes and struggle to actualize them in a native-like manner ignoring, much to their dismay, that this would not be of a great help. Lacking important elements about what is known as the prosodic features may hinder the mastery of the pronunciation and a native touch dreamt of by almost all foreign students. Stress and rhythm are two important features that one should have knowledge of and/or at least be aware of when native fluency is sought. As put by Peter Roach in his lecture on rhythm and production, ―Rhythm is not an optional extra; it‘s all part of the prosodic package of being native speaker of English‖. Thus speaking a language requires not just knowing and mastering the phonemes of that language but also knowing the patterns of timing and accentuation typical to the flow of syllables in sentences, the ignorance and the neglect of which can be at the roots of much of the difficulties of foreign learners while speaking English, for instance. Linguists and phonologists have been and still are fascinated and interested by the speech and by that item that maintains regularity dubbed rhythm. The traditional descriptions of speech rhythm identified two types of rhythmic structures of languages: stress-timed languages (like: English, Arabic, Russian) and syllable-timed languages (like: French and Spanish) .See (Pike: 1945; Jones: 1948; Abercrombie: 1967). This distinction was based on impressionistic, auditory description. To those two categories was added another type, another rhythmic structure namely: mora-timed languages (e.g,. Japanese). The present study considers the problems students of the English department of Mostaganem University-Algeriaface with regard to the pronunciation of English and in reproducing the correct rhythm or at least approximating a native-like production of rhythm ensuring an isochronous occurrence of stressed units. Although, English and Arabic are said to cluster within the same classification as stress-timed languages, it would be interesting to see how come that the Algerian students who are native speakers of Arabic (a North African Arabic dialect (Algerian Arabic) classified as stress-timed just as English is) encounter problems in reproducing the correct rhythm? What are the reasons that may lie beneath this ―incompetency‖? What can be done to remedy for these anomalies? 2- The Notion of Rhythm and Rhythmic Structures of English and Arabic The term rhythm derives from the Greek word rhythmos meaning ―measured motion‖. In general rhythm refers to a regulated flow of movement which can be either aural or visual. It represents the principle of succession. Rhythm tends to manifest its presence in every matter relating to man, whether directly or indirectly from the regular beating of human heart, the breathing of a silent animal to the ticking of the clock. Rhythm is the underlying feature of all arts including music, poetry, or meter just as it is also exhibited in natural phenomena as : day and night, sleeping and waking, the seasonal changes, tides, etc. Not forgetting to mention speech. Speech rhythm has been described by linguists as a set of varying patterns related to periodicity and emphasis and which govern the phonation of syllables in an utterance. (See Patel: 2008).Rhythm thus represents an effect of isochronous recurrence of some speech units (stressed syllable or individual units). Allowing thus a well-known dichotomy of languages according to their rhythmic structure: stress-timed and syllable-timed to which was added another one dubbed mora-timed (a best example of mora- languages is Japanese) introduced by Han, 1968; Hoequist, 1983. A number of studies were carried out by many phoneticians to try to prove the distinction in the rhythmic structure of languages which was a distinction made on the basis of auditory impressions. Roach tried to study some languages acoustically known to belong to different rhythmic categories, starting from the results of Pike and Abercrombie. Roach failed to show measureable differences between theses languages. Later, a research study was conducted by Tajima, Port and Zaydaweh. The group has studied the rhythmic structure of Arabic, Japanese and English, using a technique known as speech cycling. What was interesting in their study, as far as this paper is concerned, is that part of study which is devoted to see to which extent two languages which belong to the same rhythmic category have the same rhythmic structure? The study was conducted upon Arabic subjects speaking a Middle East dialect ( Ammani-Jordanian accent). The results were compared to English and Japanese; I was interested in the study in the sense that I wanted to try that on my students who are native speakers of an Arabic dialect, more precisely, a North African dialect representing along with the Morocco Arabic the western pole of a continuum of the Arabic language. It would be interesting to see to which extent does that apply to the Arabic speakers of the North African dialect. What are the conclusions that one can draw? 3-Method To consider the questions addressed above, I conducted a case study on students (3rd students and Master students) of the department of English Studies of Mostaganem University. On the basis of my observations, readings, open-ended, structured interviews asking for the informants‘ opinions and 1406 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo questionnaires addressed to the students, a maximum of data was collected. Since the case study is an empirical investigation of a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context, I relied heavily on my own observations (and that of my colleagues and even some of the students) of the students at practice. I recorded and videotaped the students in phonetics and phonological classes after being ensured that the students has already dealt with stress and rhythm, or at least are aware of such phenomena. I then tried to apply ―innocently‖ or ―naively‖ the speech cycling task: asking five students two males and three females to repeat short phrases; varying in each phrase the number of syllables but keeping the same rhythm unit. A metronome was used as a stimulus to incite the subjects to be highly rhythmical or at least to maintain rhythm while repeating the phrases. The subjects were given seven phrases to repeat in English and then in Algerian Arabic. All the subjects had a good mastery of English (including a good pronunciation) and were very fluent in French. The repetitions of the phrases were recorded, and then were played to native English native French speakers to listen to. 4- Results and discussion: In almost 57% of the cases the listeners succeeded to identify the Algerian accent (Algerian rhythm) reading Arabic phrases, especially by French listeners. Native speakers of English, and they were few, did manage to identify the speakers of English (subjects) as foreign speakers of English belonging to North African speakers but hesitated to decide whether they were Moroccans or Algerians. However, native speakers of English could identify some anomalies with regard to the correct production of rhythm in English (spoken by the subjects) as well as stress placement. Obviously, I noticed that in my students even among the most competent ones. This fact may be drawn to the influence of stress placement of Arabic on the North African Arabic speakers. Indeed stress placement in Arabic, as was mentioned by Hayes (1995), is purely a cognitive entity, as he puts it, which can be actualized or given various physical shapes. Kenneth de Jong and Adnan Bushra Zawaydeh has worked in their article entitled: ―Stress Duration and Intonation in Arabic word-level prosody‖ in which they beautifully show how stress placement shifts in the word depending on the dialect of Arabic spoken, sometimes on the penultimate syllable and sometimes on the antepenultimate syllable and that was particularly difficult to determine because it depends on the analytical theory which is used. But then, the dialect that was used in their study was that of Ammani-Jordanian Arabic. To which extent would that apply to Algerian students? On the basis of the observations made which were basically, impressionistic and auditory, the subjects (Algerian students in this case study tend to speak quickly and tend to reduce the long vowels which would result in the majority of time in complex syllable structures. A more accurate research work was conducted by Hamdi and Barkat in the university of Lyon 2. 5- Conclusion: As a way of concluding, one would say that this study was just an attempt to verify the degree of naturalness in the English language being a foreign language spoken by Algerian students in the department of English Studies of the university of Mostaganem. It must be underlined that the result obtained were highly impressionistic that is they were based on the auditory clues and impressions of non-native and native speakers of English on the production of English as a foreign language by non-natives and a way of thinking about some solutions to remedy for the incompetency that we encounter in our classes and why not hope that these issues will be dealt with and taken into consideration by other researchers with more technical backgrounds using more scientific methods to get to the core of the matter and hopefully draw generalizations to remedy for such problems. 1407 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 6- Refernces: Abercrombie, D. Elements of General Phonetics, Edinburgh University Press, 1967. Bolinger, D. (1965). Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm. In Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. ed. by I. Abe & T. Kanekiyo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University press. 139-180. Cummins, F. and Port, R. F. (1998). Rhythmic Constraints on Stress timing in: English Journal of Phonetics 26, 145-171. De Jong, K. and Zawaydeh, B. A. (1999). Stress, Duration, and Intonation in Arabic Word-level Prosody. Journal of Phonetics, 27, 3-22. Han, M. (1962). The Feature of Duration of Japanese. (Study of Sounds) 10, 65-75. Hoequist, Jr. C. (1983). Syllable Duration in Stress, Syllable, and Mora-timed Languages. Phonetica, 40, 203-237. Pike, K., The Intonation of American English, 2nd Edition. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1945. Roach, P., On the Distinction Between Stress-timed and Syllable-timed languages. In Linguistic Controversies, Crystal. Ed, London: Edward Arnold, pp.73-75. Roach, P., Rhythm and Production, http://www.youtube.com/watch v=xh-flp6ATI. 1408 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 695 Title A name given to the resource Rhythm and Stress at Practice: Rhythmic Anomalies of Foreign Speakers of English : A Case Study of Mostaganem University Students Author Author DERRAZ, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Today, more than ever, languages are becoming more and more an essential means for the human kind to get in touch with each other and/or to improve his professional situation. Indeed, learning has always been basic for the shaping of social life and so have foreign languages. Knowing a foreign language implies speaking and being understood by others who know that language. Learning a foreign language implies learning a foreign culture, a foreign way of thinking, a foreign grammatical structure, a foreign phonological system. However, knowing the phonological sound system of a language includes knowing more than the phonemic inventory of sounds, it includes knowing which sound start the word, end a word and the possible consonant clusters, the syllable structure, etc. Most foreign language learners of English aim at achieving a perfect native-like pronunciation as well as displaying a certain degree of fluency and naturalness as they speak English. The great majority of foreign learners centre their attention on the actualization of individual segments that is achieved by a tedious repetition of sounds/ phonemes of the target language in isolation or within simple words. However, a relative mastery of the English pronunciation lies in mastering what the American phoneticians call: supra-segmental features, and the British call: the prosodic features. As a way of illustrating, one can mention stress, intonation and rhythm. The latter is said to be of significant importance in the sense that it procures a native touch to the speech of a foreign learner of English. That was stressed by a number of phoneticians and specialists, as Peter Roach, who states clearly that « rhythm is not an optional extra; it is all part of the prosodic package of being native speaker in English ». Indeed, the ignorance or the neglect of such a prosodic feature which shows to be of a significant importance seems to be at the roots of the difficulties foreign learners face while speaking English. In this respect, two main questions are addressed in this paper. What are, then, the main problems learners of English face while learning and / or acquiring English rhythm (knowing and mastering English rhythm will be brought to the fore in this paper). Furthermore, in this paper, rhythmic structure of Arabic and English will be compared to try to explore the possibilities of finding the reasons lying beneath the mispronunciation or the mis-reproduction of English rhythm by Arabic speakers. Although Arabic and English rhythmic modes are said to be similar to each other, Arabic speakers of English tend to miss the amount of reduction in duration (of unstressed syllables) and thus seem somehow unable to master the English rhythm fully and achieve thus a native like pronunciation. Put differently, although English and Arabic are said to be stress- timed languages, the Arabic learners of English still have difficulties in reproducing correct English rhythm. It should be interesting to explore further the sources lying beneath that incompetency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3bb53c815d9f0a70fbf423a47615638.pdf 65264272179df15a2d44210367ffab69 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Izabela DankiĤ Faculty of Philosophy University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina izabela.dankic@gmail.com Abstract: Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Key Words: practitioner research, teacher training, reflective practice Introduction In FL language teacher education, it is assumed that student teachers need to acquire the knowledge taught in introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses to become effective practitioners. The extent of impact of these courses on pre-service teacher beliefs, knowledge and practice is the subject of many debates and studies. Some even claim that teacher education courses seem to have little impact (Woods, 1996; Peacock, 2001; Lo, 2005; Busch, 2010) because students resist changing their pre-existing beliefs and position on learning resulting from their previous experiences. Therefore, they suggest that pre-service teachers should take into account the belief systems of their students in order to improve the outcome of training and promote reflective teaching since it seems to have a stronger effect on the belief systems than exclusive declarative knowledge teaching. Mann (2005, p. 108) points out that findings of several studies indicate that more reflective teachers are better able to monitor, make real-time decisions and respond to the changing needs of learners than less reflective teachers‖. Reflection, reflective practice or reflective teaching are all terms which are differently defined, but they encompass processes which involve ―meta-thinking (thinking about thinking) in which we consider the relationship between our thoughts and our actions in a particular context‖ (Shkedi, 2000, p. 95)‖ or ―inner dialogue‖ (Mann, 2005, p. 33). Loughran states that ―for others, it [reflective practice] is a well defined and crafted practice that carries very specific meaning and associated action‖ (Loughran, 2002, p. 33). Reflective teaching can also be seen as „an approach to teaching which is based on a belief that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences‖ (Richards, 2002, p. 23). They are to collect data on their own teaching practices by recording them, to reflect on their actions through journal writing and to review them by discussing them with their peers or by examining the recordings (Richards, 2002, p. 23). Halbach (2002) reports in her research that all entries made by teachers in their reflective journals could be classified into three types: summarizing, exemplifying and commenting. Amobi (2005) discusses a framework for analyzing reflectivity. It consists of four categories: describing, informing, confronting and reconstructing. She asked the teacher trainers to direct their attention in their teaching journals to answering these three questions in order for her to be able to construct their ―reflective thinking on their teaching practice‖ (Amobi, 2005, p. 119) according to the four categories: 1) What did I intend to do in this lesson? (informing) 2) What did I do? (confronting and reconstructing) 3) What would I do differently if I were to teach this lesson again? (confronting and reconstructing) The subjects in Amobi‘s study had minimal difficulties answering the first two questions, but some of them experienced problems in answering the third question related to confronting and reconstructing aspect of reflection. 656 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Different personal, professional and contextual factors may contribute to problems related to the teacher‘s ability to reflect, and, therefore, Stanley (1998) introduces several phases in the development of reflective teaching which involve engaging in reflection, thinking, using, sustaining and practicing reflection. Although many experts agree on the importance of reflection in pre-service teacher training, practitioners indicate that some students might find it difficult to reflect. One of the reasons stated was that some students could not see any value in writing reflections (Gunn, 2010, p. 218). We decided to explore the extent to which a reflective approach to teacher training is suitable for the students of English language and literature at the Mostar University (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The Outline of the Study The courses under study are the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University. These students study to become English teachers and it is expected that after these courses they will master basic theoretical postulates behind the second language acquisition and methods of teaching English. The practical experience of teaching in these courses is limited to peer teaching each other (microteaching experience) and the real classroom experience (field experience) is a separate course and left for the last semester of their education. The Mostar University is a public university, but due to the difficult financial and political situation, it is forced to find outside sources to support its operations. As far as the English teaching program is concerned, the lack of field experience is not felt in the long run due to the mandatory requirement that all graduates planning to work as teachers must pass a state teaching exam which among other requirements asks from students to observe, teach and study for a lengthy period of time with the state appointed mentors who are experienced elementary and/or secondary school English teachers. Using the principled framework of Exploratory Practice (EP), we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in these classes in order to follow their development. We have decided to apply EP because it is an approach to practitioner research which is devoted to understanding the quality of foreign language classroom life. In teaching pre-service teachers to develop reflective habits of mind, it is recommended that teacher educators determine the content to be reflected on and the quality of reflection (Valli, 1997). The present study inquired into reflective practice of pre-service teachers when asked to revisit their experience in the observed classes, their teaching actions and peers‘ and teacher‘s evaluation in a microteaching experience. As Amobi (2005) successfully analyzed recurring themes of reflectivity, we have also decided to conduct the analysis of the themes of reflectivity but our analysis is based on the free participants reflective journals and their position papers after the observed courses. Participants and Instructional Procedures Participants (N=35) were students enrolled in the fourth year second language acquisition (SLA) course and later as the fifth year students in a general methods (GM) course in 2010. They ranged in age from 22- 26 with no prior teaching experience. These courses met for 135 minutes once a week for 15 weeks. The SLA course did not include any microteaching. Students were required as a part of this course to write a journal which might include reflections on their experiences in the class, content and issues covered in the course, assignments they had to complete or in general to contribute to the class through their own critical thinking. The GM course did not include any field experience, but one microteaching activity. The students prepared a micro-lesson to teach to their peers exclusively using one of the 10 selected modern methods. This activity was commented on by the peers after the lesson, but was evaluated by the teacher. Data Collection and Analysis Processes We gathered the data during the courses from the participants‘ journals and in the GM course also from the post-course reflection in the form of 5-6 page long assumption paper in which they were asked to present their personal/philosophical perspective on the conclusions they were drawing about a particular assumption of teaching and learning based clearly on their readings, their experience in the course and their past experiences as a learner. Halbach (2002, pp. 245-246) writes that the type of reflection the students are able to produce and whether they comment on the course methodology indicates the effect of the course on their ability to be reflective and think critically. She distinguishes three degrees of reflection: - Summarizing – Students do not show any significant degree of introspection or reflection, but simply summarize the ideas and content covered in class. 657 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - Exemplifying – Students show a certain degree of introspection supported with their own experience as students. Commenting – As a result of meaningful reflection on the issues presented in the class, students comment and pose questions clearly indicating critical thinking. Findings and Discussion Judging from the type of reflection students were able to carry out at the end of the SLA course, only three students produced entries which reflected their own critical thinking. The rest of the students stayed at the level of exemplifying, with ten students staying at the level of summarizing. Only three of these students had struggled with the course material, and eventually needed more time to complete requirements and pass the course later than the other observed students The puzzle area was that none offered any comments in relation to the methodology used in the course, except for offering comments which can fall in the category of evaluation. We supposed that their awareness towards methodological questions has not been raised sufficiently as a result of their first encounter with such requirement. Nevertheless, the journal entries students kept for the GM course did not change. They were primarily made as a reflection to course readings and included limited introspection, although the classroom participation of the majority of students indicated active involvement and critical thinking. In discussion with them, we found out that there were several reasons for their limited journal entries. The first one was that they found that reflective and critical approach to writing consumes time which they decided not to spend on a requirement which carried only 10 % of their final grade. They also pointed out that they felt more comfortable to comment participating in classroom discussions, rather than to write their comments in the journal. When asked to explain this position they agreed that they would not be able to be direct and open, as they were when participating in the classroom discussions, because of the problems of how to put their comments in writing and also because these comments are a written record of their position. As one student said, they wanted to complete assignments to pass the course and they did not want to risk ―offending‖ the teacher if it turns out that their position is opposite to one presented by the teacher or if it questions the position of the teacher. In some other courses, they might risk having their grade lowered by being openly reflective. The advantage of the GM course in comparison to the SLA course was that students were required to write an assumption paper which would indicate whether attitudes to language learning/teaching changed as a result of the work done in the course. Halbach (2002) following the same group of students during two academic years found that rate of change was quite low and about half of her 23 students produced final paper which did not reflect communicative language teaching methodology the course was oriented towards. Unlike the students in the Halbach study, all students in our study reflected on the modern methods in their assumption papers. One could suggest that all students changed their attitudes towards learning/teaching upon completing this course. But, further analysis of their papers revealed that only six students offered reflective comments which would indicate critical thinking on selected aspects of modern methods, while 11 of them did not move beyond the first degree of reflection – summarizing. The others exhibited the second degree of reflection – exemplifying and reflected on their personal experiences. Only four students reflected on their experience related to the microteaching activity in the class. The students who were highly reflective were also the students whose English skills were more advanced in comparison to those who stayed at the level of summarizing. The Bologna reformed higher education allows English students to transfer courses which they do not successfully complete into next academic year, so it might happen that students are completing even 10 courses at the same time. If their English proficiency is not up to the requirement to freely reflect, the cause might be in low university entrance requirements and a system which allows students to combine courses, collect points and pass courses with minimal effort. Throughout their education from elementary school up to university in Bosnia and Herzegovina, students are not encouraged to critically think and reflect. Although the higher system of education got reformed, it is still heavily founded on the transmission of knowledge and students are required to reproduce it to prove that they have mastered it. Conclusions and Recommendations This short study points to similar results as Halbach found in her study. These English students in Mostar are not fully prepared for and open to reflection. Socio-cultural issues involving the educational system which does not encourage critical thinking and personal perspective which indicates that the objective is to complete the requirements to pass the course might suggest that reflective practice should not be encouraged. On the contrary, reflection should be used as a means to help the English students become aware of their teaching practice and themselves as learners and future teachers (Farell, 2004). Discussion proved to be a successful 658 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo instrument for finding the causes of resistance to reflection and teachers should not hesitate to use any means which would help their students become independent life-long learners and being reflective is just one of them. References Allwright, D. (2005). Developing principles for practitioner research: The case for exploratory practice. The Modern Language Journal, 89, iii, Amobi, F. (2005). Pre-service teachers‘ reflectivity on the sequence and consequence of teaching actions in a microteaching experience. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(1), 115-130 Busch, D. (2010). Pre-service teacher beliefs about language learning: The second language acquisition course as an agent of change. Language Teaching Research, 14 (3), 318-337. Farrell, T. S. C. (2004). Reflective practice in action. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press Halbach, A. (2002). Exporting methodologies: The reflective approach in teacher training. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15 (3), 243-250. Lo, Y. (2005). Relevance of knowledge of second language acquisition: An in-depth case study of a non-native EFL teacher. In N. Bartels Ed.), Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education: Vol. 4. Educational linguistics (pp. 135-158). New York: Springer. Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (1), 33-43. Mann, S. (2005). Language teacher‘s development. Language Teaching, 38, 103-118. Peacock, M. (2001). Pre-service ESL teachers‘ beliefs about second language learning: A longitudinal study. System, 29, 177-195. Richards, J. C. (2002). Theories of teaching in language teaching. In J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 19-25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Shkedi, A. (2000). Educating reflective teachers for teaching culturally valued subjects: Evaluation of a teachertraining project. Evaluation and Research in Education, 14 (2), 94-110. Stanley, C. (1998). A framework for teacher reflectivity. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), 584-591. Valli , L. (1997). Listening to other voices: A description of teacher reflection in the United States. Peabody Journal of Education, 72, 67-88. Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making, and classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 659 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 98 Title A name given to the resource Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Dankić, Izabela Abstract A summary of the resource. Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bef3ef51a45240643689431efd06a0bb.pdf 7e885757e04714e099c25f1f964ddf98 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Why objectives in teaching English? Shpresa Delija Faculty of Foreign Language Semantics Applied Linguistic and Glotodidactica Tirana University Albania delija.sh@gmail.com Abstract: Being under constant political, economical and social change especially after the 90-s our country has had an urgent need to change its education system. So in recent years, the Albanian Government has shown great interest in teaching and learning English in accordance with European standards by amending new laws (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) to promote English teaching and learning in order to meet the needs and interests of students. In order to make English teaching available for our students it is important to lead EFL teachers towards successful teaching, which means having a well designed lesson plan via well organized objectives. As Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky say in their book (1999, 22), objectives will be addressed concurrently and throughout the course, which means that without objectives there will be no language lesson. So the paper deals with the reasons why teachers need to be upgraded professionally and how objectives help them enhance language teaching in their language classes. The paper also gives answers to the following questions: What principles should the language teachers consider while setting objectives? Why should they follow them? How do students benefit from a well planned lesson plan? Data collection from these questions pointed out the importance of professionalism in teaching English in our schools. Identifying the reasons of the big changes made teachers become aware of their professional development in order to implement contemporary teaching methods. Key words: design lesson plan, implement teaching methods, objectives, professionalism, set objectives. Why objectives in teaching English? Over the last 21 years Albania has changed a lot in all spheres of life, education system included. The opening of Albania to Europe and the world set big tasks to the people to learn foreign languages especially English as an international means of communication. People of all ages and especially young people love to go abroad for different reasons: study, work, research or travel. So learning English as a foreign language has become a necessity for every one by making it a must. Nowadays, English teaching and learning comprise an important part of the school curricula, which reflect the National Strategy for the Development of pre university education (2008) that states Foreign languages policy of the Ministry of Education and Science are designed and applied in accordance with the development in our country and in concert with the EU policy in this regard, following two basic EU directives, multilingualism and intercultural education. Being the Government‘s priority new laws and amendments are passed by the Government and the Parliament in order to further develop English teaching in Albania. According to the Law of the Higher Education in Albania (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) everyone has the right to be educated, and in 2012 the high school students are not going to do four exams but five, where English is obligatory (Revista Mësuesi no.1, 2010). Therefore, great tasks were set forth to the English teachers to change their way of teaching that leads towards communicative learning. The need to regulate the Albanian school system to the European standards and to the levels of foreign language competence as described by the Council of Europe (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) 2002), asks for professional English teachers that meet the above standards. There is a growing demand for wellqualified EFL teachers who are able to teach communicatively but also have the desire and responsibility for growing professionally in order to keep up with the changing needs and interests of their students. This demand can be met if methods of teaching and learning are modified in line with 1123 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the curricula and syllabus objectives in oder to provide them with language skills. As Don Snow has pointed out (2007, 3, 19) students‘learning depends ultimately on their own efforts and the teachers on their own side should be reasonably successful learners of English, which means that they themselves should give their students a better understanding of how to learn and use the language correctly. In 2005 an analysis of the higher education in Albania was made in order to see which statndards were to be fulfilled hence the implimentation of Bologna System would be easier. This study concerned the following: a) Get sufficient information about Bologna System; b) Teaching quality in our schools; c) ELP for university and high school students d) Language text books and other teaching materials. In the study, therefore, we, faculty teaching staff made a deep analysis of all the problems we encountered such as the qualification of teaching staff in line with the European standards in education, authentic textbooks, the design of ELP, and improvement of teaching methods. We made a deep analysis on these problems, and after getting the sufficient information about Bologna System, and then afterwards we started to apply it in all levels of high education. These changes asked for teaching quality in English and the best thing to start with was through setting clear objectives and goals in teaching. Focus on Objectives The focus of this paper is on the importance the teacher growth has in setting clear objectives and goals during the course planning. Don Snow emphasizes the idea that the goals of the language course serve as the focus around which everything else is built (2007, 37). Through a good planning of the course the teachers know where their students are going. They also lead students to climb up the ladders of the language knowledge towards the acquisition of communicative language skills through cooperative learning, thus making possible the throw out of their traditional lessons (Spencer Kagan & Miguel Kagan, 2009, 1.5, 1.6). There are two assumptions in this research: Why professionalism in the teaching process and Why objectives help teaching EFL? The first assumption has to do with learning teaching and how teachers could be throughout the teaching career (Jim Scrivener, 2009, 370). They should understand curriculum content and goals, including the subject matter and skills to be taught, and the students‘ needs as well. Teachers should know their students‘ needs and interests and at the same time they should know how their students learn and develop during the teaching and learning process within social contexts. The second assumption concerns the way teachers should set objectives in order to accomplish successfully their duty. Course aims and objectives should be: a) explicit and shared, b) knowledgeable and c) practicable (Angi Malderez & Caroline Bodòczky, 1999, 22 – 23). In studies conducted about Teacher Education by Viljo Kohonen (2002, 40) it is stated that teachers should clarify their personal aims and interests for themselves to promote reflective learning. He goes further with the idea of the teacher‘s portfolio as a tool for teachers to get upgraded professionally (40). To have portfolio teachers need to know how to identify students‘ needs and interests which help them set course objectives in order to cascade them in objectives for their lesson plans. This assertion was based on research which has shown that without group discussion you cannot come to the right solutions. Providing teachers with sufficient knowledge on teaching and learning objectives results from the research prove that training teachers how to design course objectives should influence professional development of teachers. Method In the context of the drawbacks traditional teaching methods have I constructed a study to identify teachers‘ professional development via the set of teaching objectives that could benefit English language student teachers in Albania. I started with the proposition that teachers‘ growth could affect better organized course design and lesson plans, which, with well designed objectives, could affect English language learning. Participants I did a case-study which was focused on some questions addressed to some student teachers (A), newly assigned teachers (B), and experienced teachers in 5 primary schools in Tirana. I examined the following research questions: 1124 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A: What pedagogical skills and strategies should the student teachers need to have in EFL learning and teaching? B: What methods can be used to create a communicative language environment in your classes? Both groups of participants of this research (A and B) answered the above questions, which data was used for this study. Group A and B were composed of student teachers and newly assigned teachers, whose goal in life was to become English language teachers in undergraduate levels of schooling. The young teachers teach in 5 primary schools, whereas the student teachers study to become English teachers. There were mainly 10 newly assigned teachers and 20 student teachers, all of them females of 21 – 26 years old. They were selected randomly. There were no male because there are few male teachers in the primary schools in Albania. It has not yet become a profession for men to teach young learners. The study occurred in a six - month period (January- June 2008), in course of which I observed the needs and interests of the respective study groups. I handed out questionnaires and then interviewed the young teachers and the student teachers as well. I had talks with them in order to get sufficient data for my research. I made the interviews once in a month for three months in a row (from January – April). The interviews concerned professional development of the young EFL teachers in Albania. Each interview lasted 15 minutes. There were experienced teachers that participated in this research. They played mostly a shaded role but of student teachers‘ benefit. The student teachers and the newly assigned teachers observed the experienced teachers‘ lessons for exchanging experiences. Procedure The data was collected at the end of April 2009 from all the actors that took part in the study. I interviewed them randomly. I interviewed the newly assigned and the student English language teachers at different times of the day to get to know better their needs, interests and their mood. I used these techniques for the interview because I wanted to judge them from the psychological point of view and what the effect their mental state at different times of the day gave on the teaching process. I evaluated their background in English as well. I involved these actors in the study in order to better see how teacher professionalism can help learning in the English class. The student teachers also observed 10 English classes in primary schools and attended the classes of experienced teachers in order to see the pedagogy they used. The student teachers talked with the experienced teachers and noted down the skills and the strategies they should have as future teachers to make the lessons effective. After the observed lesson they exchanged ideas about teaching and especially about course design and lesson plan. They were concerned mainly in the setting of course and lesson plan objectives. During the observation of the EFL classes the student teachers were divided into groups of five because classes are very big in the Albania. As the focus in this study was to find ways to professionalize EFL teaching I asked the student teachers to dot down all the steps that experienced teachers used during their teaching. The student teachers contrasted their teaching with their own theoretical background together with the theory they were provided at the university. So, during the observation 5 student teachers focused on lesson planning mainly on objectives, the next 5 focused on course design mainly on course objectives, the other 5 focused on the objectives of the tests, and the last 5 focused on the objectives the learners have set for their own learning. I used the following rubrics for the observation, questionnaires, and the interview. The ranking was: ―strongly disagree,‖ ―disagree,‖ ―neutral,‖ ―agree‖ and ―strongly agree‖, and the ranking of ―never‖, ―sometimes‖, and ―always‖. Participants in this study collected data about classroom setting, classroom conditions, the students conduct during the English lesson, the teachers‘ behavior and their communication in class (gestures, eye contact, and intonation). The use of all these techniques in data collection provided me with evidence from which strategies and teaching tips were identified. Findings and Results Data collected from the interviews, questionnaires and observations are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 in the Appendix. The data were not only in quantity but also qualitative while examining the questions. In examining the collected data either in quality or quantity, there were clear distinctions between what the student teachers get at the university and what they face in the real life in the schools they have started teaching. So the newly assigned teachers confessed that they never face the same situation as they are taught at school. Four of them said that they are sometimes treated well by the senior teachers, and what is very much to be deserved is the training. They never get training at schools, which affect their teaching and especially the setting of the course and lesson objectives. As for their psychological state concerning teaching during the parts of the day they emphasized that they always feel good while teaching in the morning. This shows that in the morning they are fresh and full of energy to give their utmost in their teaching process. This means that they sleep well during the night which according to Gais and Born (2001) sleep debt affects considerably the teachers‘ thinking and mood, whereas Sirito 1125 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (2003) says that lack of sleep brings loss of energy, lethargy and emotional instability. The teachers‘ mood in teaching is very important during the teaching process. The merrier, the more tranquiller, the more organized and the more love they put on their teaching, the better the results are on the students and the teachers‘ sides. Class conditions also affect teaching. According to the results of table 1 I may say that classroom environment in the piloted schools does not attract the language learners towards a standardized learning, which needs to be improved. Conclusion This study gives evidence on the importance of teacher training at school and outside it. It also emphasizes the fact that EFL course design and lesson plans in terms of clear set objectives are very crucial in teaching in line with the European standards. It is also important to point out what works best in teaching EFL to student teachers and the newly ones in order to give them the possibility to get developed professionally. The collected data provided by all the actors in this study made possible the identification of the actual situation in our schools and what is more important the tasks set for the national trainers in order to apply teacher trainings in the schools. Training EFL teachers and especially the young teachers for professional growth can be applied in all the schools in Albania. This will increase the desire for students to learn English better and at the same time it will motivate the student teachers to teach professionally. 1126 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky (1999), Mentor Course A resource book for trainer-trainers, 2223. Don Snow, (2007), From Language Learner to Language Teacher, 3, 19. Gais, S., Plihal, W., Wagner, U and Born, J., 2000. Midlife in Insomnia. National Neuroscience Journal, 13 Pp 1335 – 1339. Jim Scrivener, (2009), Learning Teaching, 370. Julian Edge, Continuing Professional Development, 2002, 40. Sirota, A., Csisovari, J. Buhl, D and Buzsaki, G., 2003. Proceeding of National Academy of Science, U.S.A. 100: Pp 2065 – 2069. Spencer Kagan & Miguel Kagan, 2009, Kagan Cooperative Learning. 1.5, 1.6. Revista Mësuesi no. 1, May 2010. The Law on Higher Education amended by a new law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010 Strategjia Kombëtare për Arsimin e Lartë ‗SKALA‘ - 2008-2013 APPENDIX 1 Table 1. Observation by student teachers and newly assigned teachers Strongly Disagree Neutral disagree Lessons are done in lively and comfortable classrooms. Quotes and posters on the walls inspire teaching. Bulletin boards are found in all the language classrooms. Students are interested in the language lesson. Teachers are kind, helpful and do their best to upgrade professionally. Language teachers attract their students by using authentic materials in class. Teachers use only communicative teaching methods Students are always in the center of teaching. Total 15 - - 12 - 8 3 13 14 Agree Strongly agree 3 22 - 15 10 5 - 20 7 - 4 - 3 7 - 13 5 - - 11 3 - 20 12 66 37 73 49 15 15 APPENDIX 2 1127 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Never Sometimes Always Table 2 The interview to the newly assigned teachers 3 4 5 1 2 APPENDIX 3 1. Are you faced with the same teaching situation you were taught at school? 2. Do you find a friendly situation in the school since at the very beginning of the school year? 3. Do you exchange experience with the older teachers at your school? 4. Do you get teacher training at your school by the senior teachers? 5. Do you read professional books in order to develop professionally? 6. Have you observed classes from the experienced teachers? 7. Do all of you talk about your teaching methods and especially about course objectives? 8. Do you find setting objectives to your teaching difficult? 8. Do you feel good while teaching in: a. the morning? b. the afternoon? c. the evening? TOTAL 10 - - - - 6 4 - - - 3 5 - - 2 - - - 10 - 2 - 8 - - 6 - - - - 25 2 4 - 3 31 7 - - 3 20 8 Always 4 - 3 1 2 - 4 Never Sometimes 8 5 1128 37 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Do student teachers study teaching because they have a goal in their life? 2. Do they take part in micro-teaching while they have seminars in class? 3. Are they conscious of what they study and why they study teaching English? 4. Do you find teaching English interesting? 14 7 5. Does teaching make you feel always inspiring? 2 6. Are the teaching materials useful for you in the future career? 3 6 12 8 16 4 3 10 12 6 9 7. Do you set objectives easily? 9 5 3 12 8. Do setting objectives help you in your teaching? TOTAL 20 - 33 62 - 1129 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 591 Title A name given to the resource Why objectives in teaching English? Author Author Delija, Shpresa Abstract A summary of the resource. Being under constant political, economical and social change especially after the 90-s our country has had an urgent need to change its education system. So in recent years, the Albanian Government has shown great interest in teaching and learning English in accordance with European standards by amending new laws (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) to promote English teaching and learning in order to meet the needs and interests of students. In order to make English teaching available for our students it is important to lead EFL teachers towards successful teaching, which means having a well designed lesson plan via well organized objectives. As Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky say in their book (1999, 22), objectives will be addressed concurrently and throughout the course, which means that without objectives there will be no language lesson. So the paper deals with the reasons why teachers need to be upgraded professionally and how objectives help them enhance language teaching in their language classes. The paper also gives answers to the following questions: What principles should the language teachers consider while setting objectives? Why should they follow them? How do students benefit from a well planned lesson plan? Data collection from these questions pointed out the importance of professionalism in teaching English in our schools. Identifying the reasons of the big changes made teachers become aware of their professional development in order to implement contemporary teaching methods. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72ffbb027bcd7da1a132d9122daf5f2a.pdf 2796d16fddb75b68bb1c272c19f5a910 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Difficulty of North American – r: an Analysis as a Pronunciation Difficulty Prof. Dr. Mehmet Demirezen Department of ELT, Hacettepe University, Ankara/ Turkey md49@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: The American-r phoneme, whose IPA sign is , which is a retroflex case of pronunciation, represents a very serious stumbling block in teaching standard American pronunciation to Turks. Due to use of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum, the American English phoneme / / has long been associated with relatively large amounts of articulatory variabilities as tap, flap, approximant, and the like. The endpoints of the articulatory continuum for / / can be analyzed via functionally different articulatory configurations with the accompaniment of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum). These endpoints as a different type of / / have been characterized in the literature as ―bunched‖ which means the use of tongue dorsum and ―retroflexed‖ that signifies the use of the tongue blade/tip, which gets to be a pronunciation difficulty for Turkish teachers of English. The primary purpose of the current study is to investigate the problematic pronunciation issue of American English /r/ phoneme for Turks. The goal of the present study is twofolded. The first goal is to solve the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in North American English (NAE) and tapping in British English (BrE) via its ambiguous perception by Turks due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sound, intervocalic positioning through phonotactics and crosslanguage phonetic interference. Key words: flapping, retroflexion, bunched articulation, tapping, neutralization Introduction There is a confusion in the explanation and definition of terms concerning a flap and a tap, and there apparently seems to be very little agreement among the phonologists on the definition of these two terms. Although the IPA takes flaps and taps to be the same thing, some phonologists insist on distinguishing them (Carr, 2008: 55; Trask, 1996). Giving phonetic explanations based on the place, point and manner of articulation of them inevitably lead to neutralization of flap and tap that happen to be misleading for the non-native learners of English. Such a dubious definition is given by Malmkj ker (1995:34-35): A flap or tap is a sound in whose articulation one speech organ strikes against the other just once….a retroflex: the curled-up tip of the tongue and the hard palate. A structural description among the flap, tap, and retroflex occurrences can be necessary here. To clarify the confusions on these two terms, some definitions given by the philologists must be compared and contrasted. Statement of the Problem: North American-r as a Wrong Pronunciation case The articulation and production of North American English-r is ambiguous. Many of Turkish English teachers are wrong in its pronunciation. This claim is specified by an analysis of the Turkish English teachers. Data is gathered from an examination of the oral English exam conducted at the Department of English Language Education in July 2010 on 27 Turkish English teachers, 9 of whom were males, 18 females, within age range of 25 to 34. They had a teaching experience of one year to 13 years. Each one has got an MA degree in Teaching English Education from 20 different state universities in Turkey. The subjects were all on-the-job teachers. The subjects were observed by the researcher while they were being asked questions on applied linguistic, ELT and EFL by five jury members. The speeches of the 27 MA applicants were listened in by the researcher when they were taking the Oral exam while answering the questions asked by five jurors. The subjects had no idea that they were being graded on the efficiency of pronunciation articulation of flaps, retroflex-r, and taps. Through critical listening techniques, their repeated pronunciation errors on the form of /r/ are captured by using the error hunt approach, shown in the following three diagnostic charts given below. The diagnostic test utilized here depends on the suggestion made by Baker (1993: 895 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 134) and is further modified by the author of this article. For each student via this diagnostic test, an inventory of the primary articulations in word-initial, word-medial, and word-final occurrences is kept for each and every student. The diagnostic test given below is kept, via a tracking activity by the present researcher, on each applicant‘s articulation over the problem-causing consonants at word-initial, word-medial, and word-final occurrences, and the result was: As a calculation, as it is seen in diagnostic chart 3, it was understood that only two of the applicants were using the bunched form of /r/ phoneme because they had earned their AM degree in USA while the rest of the applicants were using a Turkish variant of NAE-r in all environments. There are several reasons of this ambiguous articulation of NAE-r by Turkish English teachers. In fact, the secondary goal of this paper is to show the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in NAE and tapping in BrE and its ambiguous perception by Turks, due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sounds, intervocalic cases and cross-language phonetic interference. The Phonetic Structure of /r/ in North American English The IPA-system recognizes at least eight kinds of /r/, which are articulatorily different from each other. The articulation of /r/-phoneme in form of retroflexion, in a back-bounded form of pronunciation, is impressive in North English English (NAE), pointing to its difference from British variant which is called a tap. The American flap is treated ambiguously by Turkish teachers and teacher trainees, who seriously fail to recognize and articulate it in its native form. A possible reason for this ambiguity stems from the impact of Turkish /r/- phoneme plays a serious on this failure as a cross phonetic influence. In NAE or GA , /r/ phoneme is a voiced alveolar flap (retroflex) or a bunched semivowel; in BrE, it is a/r/ is a voiced alveolar tap semivowel. Phonetically, it has four types of 896 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo occurrences in the structure of the English language, exhibited in the following words: The symbol / / stands for a retroflex-r: When it is a consonant, it is accepted as a liguid in both NAE and BrE /r/, being a semi-vowel, in a syllableinitiating position, functions as on-glide; in a syllable-terminating position, it functions as off-glide, without any hold (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:102). Different Varieties of /r/ in NAE and BRE In the structure of English, the /r/ phoneme very frequently takes place in form of different variants, like a consonant, semi-vowel, approximant, glide, or retroflex. Among NAE and BrE dialects, the usage of /r/ phoneme differs characteristically. When consonant r is an on-glide as in run or red there occur only a few distinguishing differences among the dialect regions. There are however, many phonetic situations where the General American speaker uses r as an off-glide but where the typical New Englander or Southerner drops the sound or uses a non rcolored glide. The word car for instance, would be kar in GA but might be k : in some other regions. Note that the vowel is characteristically lengthened in this case (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:345). There are also some differences of the definition on /r/. For example, the American r is classified as a voiced linguapalatal glide. It is produced by the gliding movements of the organs of articulation. (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987: 345). The retroflex- r, when it functions as a consonant is considered to be a liquid… .. Thus, at the beginning of a word and followed by a vowel, the retroflex r typically functions as a consonant while at the peak of a syllable it appears to function as a vowel low (Wolfram and Johnson, 1982: 21). The alveolar continuant , produced with the tongue blade raised towards the alveolar ridge and the sides of the tongue in contact with the molars, forming a narrow channel down the middle of the tongue, heard in many kinds of English including RP (Davenport and Hannahs, 1998: 32). Thus, these definitions indicate that it is bound to be pronunciation problem causer to non-native speaking teachers and trainees because of its tap, flap, and retroflex allophones. Confusion: Different Definitions on TAPS and FLAPS There is a serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps because there are many dubious definitions on them (Platt et al., 372 ; Ladefoged , 2006: 171-172) Some phoneticians distinguish between taps and flaps in terms of the articulatory movements involved (Crystal, 2008: 477). Phonetically dubious definitions of terms are harmful to learners since they curtail and blur the learning process. Often there is no strict distinction between taps and flaps (Bussman,1996:1178). Trask (1996:146) states, the confusion of definition on them must be avoided. Similarly, some phoneticians distinguish systematically between flaps and taps, on the grounds that in the case of flaps the articulator which makes the contact is returning to a position of rest, whereas in the case of taps this is not so, and the contact 897 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo resembles a very rapid stop articulation (Crystal, 2008: 191). This is a very sensible definition that carries phonetic plausibility. The term retroflex is a phonetic classification of consonant sound on the basis of place of articulation. It ―refers to a sound made when the tip of the tongue is curled back in the direction of the front part of the hard palate – in other words, just behind the alveolar ridge. The degree of retroflexion varies considerably between sounds and dialects. The quality of r sounds traditionally associated with American English, and with many rural British English dialects (especially in the South West), illustrates one main group of retroflex sounds‖ (Crystal, 2008: 415). There are two basic varieties of retroflex-r in NAE. The first one is the retroflex flap-r during the articulation of which the tip of the tongue raised up to the hard palate to touch in a back-bounded manner; that‘s why it is retroflex flap-r. For the tongue tip raised version, the tip of the tongue (apico) is elevated and points directly towards the rear of the alveolar ridge (postalveolar). For the retroflex articulation, the body of the tongue is hallowed and the tongue is bent backwards in a more retroflex position. Here the term apico refers to the underside of the tongue as it curls backward approximating the front portion of the palatal area (prepalatal) (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140- A great majority of Turkish learners of English and teachers on-the-job do not articulate it in the retroflex position, but pronounce it as Turkish /r/, which is very much similar to British-r in word-initial positions and before or after consonants. An other common articulation is the so-called bunched /r/. It has the following specific feaure of articulation: The middle part of the tongue is raised (mediodorsal) toward the middle part of the hard palate (mediopalatal); the tongue tip is relatively low, near and behind the front lower incisors. In addition, the tongue is retracted into a compact ―bunched form‖, giving this articulation its characteristic name (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140. According to IPA notation system, the bunched system does not have a representative phonetic symbol, the tongue-tip-raised version is / /, and the symbol / / is used for retroflexed central approximant (BaumanWaengler, 2009: 141). (Retroflex-r) (Bunched-r) Figure 1: Adapted from (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140) 898 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 2: Adapted from (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140) (Combined Form) The articulations of Turkish teachers on NAE-r do not even approximate to this bunched form of /r/. Instead, they articulate it as they do in BrE-r in the environments of word-initial and post consonantal positions, the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar/dental teeth ridge that is almost like the Turkish form in terms of point and place of articulation, which boils down to mean that Turkish – r and British – r are very similar, as seen in in figure 3. Figure 3: British English –r (Adapted from: Kelly, 2000: 51) Conclusion The transcription of /r/ phoneme appears to be confusing right from the beginning because the r sounds have been transcribed in such a variety of ways and phonetic symbols in the IPA system. There is a considerable disagreement on the phonetic nature of flapped-/r/ in NAE; two forms of utterances are accepted: retroflex and bunched shapes. One of their observations is that NAE retroflexed / / is actually produced by a raised, laminal tongue blade, and not a curled tongue blade, but with a curled apex. In fact, a flap is a retroflex tap. The Turkish teachers can never approximate to this position because no comparable r-sound exists in the phonemic inventory of Turkish. In the bunched form of articulation the tip of the tongue is relatively kept low, but Turkish teachers again cannot approximate their r-articulations to the bunched form either. Turks tend to approximate their r-articulation through a phonetically oriented neutralization process in all environments. Apparently, both the phonetic characteristics and phonological structure of a speaker's native language are also influential on this issue. In fact, /r/ is also difficult sound to be acquired infantile speech for Americans (Shriberg, 1993; Sander, 1972) and Turkish infantile speech as well. It is notoriously difficult for American children to learn to produce (McGowan et al., 2003). Sander (1972) reported that the median age for acquisition of /r/ for American children was 3 years, and it was not until age 6 years that 90% of children produced /r/ correctly. By nature and composition as a speech sound, /r/ in itself poses an intrinsic difficulty for the non-native language teachers. Foreign speakers have a multitude of problems with the r sounds. A principal reason is that many modern languages have r‘s that differ conspicuously from the American. When the foreign sound is carried into English, the result may be a very prominent dialect feature. The fact that foreigner‘s native sound bears some general resemblance to American r may make learning the r all the more difficult (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:346; Yamada and Tohkura, 1992) One of the greatest difficulties seems to be teaching the foreign speaker to treat r as a retroflex or bunched form. Such a difficulty of pronunciation inefficiency, which damages the beauty of pronunciation and points to the heavy existence of native accent in the subjects, waits to be rehabilitated. 899 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Baker, A. (1981). Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate Pronunciation Course, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Baker, A. (1993). Introducing English Pronunciation. A Teacher‘s Guide to Tree or Three and Ship or Sheep. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bauman-Waengler, J. (2009). Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology: From concepts to Transcription. Boston: Pearson. Bussmann, H. (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and linguistics. London: Routledge. Carr, P. (2008). A Glossary of Phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. 900 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (76th ed.). Maldon: Blackwell Publishing Company. Davenport, M. and Hannahs, S. J. (1998). Introducing phonetics and phonology. London: Arnold. Kelly, G. (2008). How to Teach Pronunciation. Longman: Pearson Education Limited. Ladefoged, P. and Maddieson, I. (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. Malmkj r, C. (1995). The Linguistics Encycplopedia. London: Routledge McGowan, R. S. and Nittrouer, S. and Manning, C. (2004). Development of in young, Midwestern, American children. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115, February 2004, 871-884. Richards, J. C., Platt, J, and Platt, H. (1992). Dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman Group Limited. Roach, P. (2009). Glossary. A little Encyclopeida of phonetics. Sander, E. K. (1972). ‗‗When are speech sounds learned?‘‘ J. Speech Hear Disord. 37, 55–63. Skandera, P. and Burleigh, P. (2005). A manual of English Phonetics and Phonology. Gunter: Narr Verlag Tùbingen. Shriberg, L.D. (1993). Four new speech and prosody-voice measures for genetic research and other studies in developmental phonological disorders. J. Speech Hear. Res. 36, 105-140. Tiffany, W. and Carrell, J. (1987). Phonetics: Theory and Application. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Trask, R. L. (1996). Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology. London: Routledge. Wolfram, W and Johnson, R. (1982). Phonological analysis: Focus on American English. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Inc., p. 24). Yamada, R.A., Tohkura, Y. (1992). Perception of American English /r/ and /l/ by native speakers of Japanese. In Tohkura, Y., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E., Sagisaka, Y. (Eds.), Speech Perception, Production, and Linguistic Structure. IOS Press, Burke, VA. 901 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 554 Title A name given to the resource The Difficulty of North American – r: an Analysis as a Pronunciation Difficulty Author Author Demirezen, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The American-r phoneme, whose IPA sign is , which is a retroflex case of pronunciation, represents a very serious stumbling block in teaching standard American pronunciation to Turks. Due to use of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum, the American English phoneme / / has long been associated with relatively large amounts of articulatory variabilities as tap, flap, approximant, and the like. The endpoints of the articulatory continuum for / / can be analyzed via functionally different articulatory configurations with the accompaniment of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum). These endpoints as a different type of / / have been characterized in the literature as ―bunched‖ which means the use of tongue dorsum and ―retroflexed‖ that signifies the use of the tongue blade/tip, which gets to be a pronunciation difficulty for Turkish teachers of English. The primary purpose of the current study is to investigate the problematic pronunciation issue of American English /r/ phoneme for Turks. The goal of the present study is twofolded. The first goal is to solve the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in North American English (NAE) and tapping in British English (BrE) via its ambiguous perception by Turks due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sound, intervocalic positioning through phonotactics and crosslanguage phonetic interference. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77c4b173ff73b6c9179dfddff6966dd0.pdf 8e0520c9a415559e41c18bfb3c38b95c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIOCULTURAL DISTANCE Beatrice Demont PhD Student in University of Genoa, Italy beadbea@hotmail.com Abstract During a research period in Japan I had the opportunity to follow a number of students learning the Italian language, both from Universities and private contexts. According to an anthropologic interpretation, meetings between cultures is based on practices that cannot be reduced to feelings or individual ideas; the sociocultural aspect is an open system, and not sheltered from external influences; so there is not a privileged point of view for a detached observation, because a meeting is equal and is an exchange of meanings produced from both the parts. Meeting another culture carries a number of differences that can be misunderstood. The singular knowledge of the foreign language, even if useful, does not constitute a guarantee to understand the culture of a society. Incomprehension of attitudes or an improper use of the language are maybe not sufficient to damage a relationship, but they have the ability to complicate it, and for the same reason stereotypes often block other possible interpretations. Teaching implies a bi-directional communication that needs to give an input to the student but also an understandable feedback for the teacher. The communicative exchange between two cultures is furthermore difficult when we try to understand the psychological influence of linguistic signals in verbal and non-verbal communication. In that way, the relationship between teacher and student is a delicate balance that can easily be upset, especially in cultures such as the Italian and Japanese ones which are very far from one another. I shall illustrate, in a summarised form, the description of the subjects under study by means of appropriate tables in this report, analyzing the oral production, the learning processes and the cultural differences that could create misunderstandings. Key words: stereotypes, cultural differences, learning processes. INTRODUCTION An American anthropologist, Ralph Linton, said that culture was like water for a fish: a fish lives in water but is not aware of the fact of being surrounded by water. We are just like that fish in our own culture and we do not realize this fact, instead we see the culture of the others (Linton, 1961). In order to observe our culture from the outside it requires the desire to do it and the skill to decentralize oneself, accepting the fact that also others can be at the centre of things. In order to do this, sciences such as anthropology, ethnology, psychology and sociology propose different methods which allow man to study and understand culture and cultures. The greatest difficulty lies in the fact that each individual tends to have an innate ethno-centric mechanism (Geertz, 1988), and due to this he has the tendency to classify and evaluate others in order to categorize them into his own group (in-group) or out of it (out-group). Cultural stereotypes are born from this point onwards which give rise to a higher resistance and are very difficult to modify or uproot (Pike, 1954). In their turn these stereotypes easily predispose an action in that they are closely associated to cultural prejudices and they very often provoke negative or even hostile behaviour towards other cultural groups (Anolli, 2004). Intercultural psychology notably reduces risks of ethno-centrism in that it observes, values and interprets the differences in individual functioning between different cultural and ethnic groups, relationships and psychological, socio-cultural, ecological and biological variables as well as the changes that concern such values, without classifying the groups (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, Dasen, 1994). Cultural differences are born out of numerous factors: historical, environmental, economic, political ones etc. and the actual act of comparison which permits the discovery of new values: we are what we are in incessant acts of becoming (Anolli, 2006). Naturally, ethnical barriers may be overcome but they cannot be absent because they serve the purpose of manifesting social production of cultural differences. Focusing on the language, cultural and location unit brings to the mind‘s eye an ethnic group as an immutable entity having closed and clear-cut barriers. In effect, the definition of an ethnic group should instead 232 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo base itself on criteria used by those involved to feel united one with the other or to possibly outline a distinction (Barth, 1969,1994). Therefore, the meeting with another culture carries with itself a series of differences which may, in some ways, be misunderstood. The sole knowledge of the foreign language, however useful it may be, does not constitute a guarantee for the comprehension of the cultural structure (Gannon, 1997). In fact, words limit our representation of the world and of ourselves (Kitayama, 2004), in that we translate that which we feel by means of a linguistic code that already, in itself, represents a category. (Wierzbicka, 1999). In a certain sense, behaviour is always a type of state of predisposition to act in a certain way, but it is only one of the factors that intervene in determining effective behaviour side by side with the circumstances of that situation on one hand, and then with the regulations, values and daily habits of the social community on the other hand (Berruto, 1995). Many considerations can be interpreted with a somewhat limited vision if not even a stereotypical one, and this precludes many other possible interpretations. It is sufficient to consider that one type of behaviour then may be seen as polite in one country, may be seen quite mistakenly as hostile or sheepish in another, and as a consequence one often arrives at a negative classification of it. This is due to prejudices, or rather behaviour that we have in mind beforehand, independently of having ever had direct contact or knowledge with the next person. In fact prejudice is based on that pre-established category (stereotypes) which come to be attributed to an object based on an unfounded (or wrong) generalization (Baroni, 1983). METHOD OF STUDY This type of research includes both social and educational contexts in a set of holistic and empirical research at the same time. Thanks to an interdisciplinary approach based on the foundations of anthropology, psychology, sociology and education, it has been possible to have a right assessment about the problem. Anyway thanks to questionnaires and interviews with the directly and indirectly involved persons, it has been possible to converge views and data, describing the thoughts of the social actors involved. SAMPLING The research has been carried out in two geographical contexts and different school contexts of language learning, both in Italy and in Japan. In Japan approximately a quantity of 220 students has been observed. In Italy a quantity of about 30 Japanese students has been under observation. In Japan, students have been examined mainly in the city of Kyōto in both academic and private sectors. We have taken into consideration 5 Universities, where Italian is studied as a foreign language: the Kyōto Gaikokugo Daigaku, Kyōto Daigaku, Dōshisha Daigaku, Kyōto Sangyō Daigaku, Ritsumeikan Daigaku. In the private sector we have taken the data given by the Italian Institute of Culture in Kyōto and Tokyo. In Italy, on the other hand, the research has been carried out mainly in the city of Genoa in a private school. As a confirmation of the main aspects noted during this research, there is a corroboration of interviews with different, both Italian and Japanese, teachers met both in Italy and Japan. Anyway the general framework that is possible to obtain from the Japanese students remains linked, in spite of all efforts, to a Western perspective, and it is very difficult to be able to provide the details of a decentralised vision on a scientific basis, or to be able to assess the foreign teacher as in the perspective of a Japanese student. MAIN SOCIO-CULTURAL PROBLEMS The act of teaching in itself includes two-directional communication, or rather the input provided by the teacher to the student and then the return act, or the feedback; then also the output provided by the student to the teacher which above all is useful for the teacher to understand if the provided input has been taken in. The area that shall be dealt with in the next chapter concerns communication because, as is somewhat predictable, it is not a simple process; in fact, communication is nothing else than a delicate balance which may be easily interrupted or render particularly difficult the requisite compatibilities which do not subsist for the exchange of messages. The communicative exchange between two cultures is rather complex in that factors come into play which are not always noted; in this case there are not only linguistic signals but also those parameters tightly bound to the culture which concerns non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is the psychological dimension that produces and supports the definition of the self and the other in a more or less explicit manner. By means of this faculty it is possible to carry out different 233 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo functions that take on an important role in human social behaviour, it in fact allows the definition of the act taking place, the addition of implicit messages, to contain indirect requests bound to the behaviour of the interlocutor and to make richer the verbal content with elements and nuances laden with meaning. According to elementary psychology, non-verbal communication is held to be more spontaneous and ‗natural‘ than verbal communication in that it is less subject to forms of voluntary control. For this reason, it would be a greater ‗revealing agent‘ of the individual‘s state of mind since it would allow a filtering through of the individual‘s reactions and intentions. This would also happen in spite of what is actually said (Anolli 2002). Therefore, the verbal form would serve the function of denoting, the non verbal one of connoting; if the former includes the relevance of semantic material, then the second includes emotional information (D‘Urso, 1988) Non verbal communication varies notably from culture to culture and cannot be seen as just a ‗colouring agent‘ of the verbal version (Rimé, Schiaratura, 1991) but rather as a basic action for obtaining an enlightened comprehension where the word is not sufficient. Kinesics, taken from the Greek ‗kynesis‘-movement- as we have already said refers to facial expressions, looks, body language, physical contact between the interlocutors and to gesticulatory behaviour. In a way similar to verbal behaviour, every culture develops its own kinetic language and it shares its signs and meanings based on a network of rules and conventions. Traditionally, eye contact in oriental cultures is limited, more over in Japan, and is regarded as the boundary between bad manners and an invasion of one‘s privacy. However, in the majority of western countries, the act of looking directly into a person‘s eye is seen as a sign of sincerity, spontaneity and of interest. In fact, during a normal day to day conversation the look on a person‘s face takes up a ponderous quantity of time and serves the function of sending and gathering information. In the west, without this eye contact people do not get the actual impression to be communication with one another. Generally speaking, people who look at other people with greater frequency are perceived as being extroverts, socially skilled, enterprising and gifted with a good amount of self-control. In contrast to this, people who have the tendency to avoid eye contact are often thought to be suffering from some type of psychological problem. As with all cultures that come into contact with one another, these behavioural types are subject to variations, but nevertheless they leave their marks. In Japan, eye contact is however seen as a sign of aggression if it takes place between two strangers, and the use of a ‗glance‘ between members of different genders remains different (Balboni, 1999) In the field of gestural behaviour, of great expression, generally speaking, are nods of the head and hand gestures. Head gestures play an important role in the rate of progress of an interaction, for example a nod of the head from a person who is listening is commonly seen by the person who is speaking as a sign of attention or assent and can also be seen as a sign to continue with the output of information. This does not mean to say that the same nod of the head in Japan for example is seen with approval; in this country it is more tied in with the concept of listening, in that each frank and direct declaration gets considered more or less as a manifestation of vulgarity (Zimmerman, 1985). Hand gestures vary greatly from culture to culture; there are cultures with a small usage of the hands when communicating and also cultures with a high usage. The Italian people would be classed as ‗high gestural‘, where as well as semiotically independent gestures (emblems), therefore provided with a precise meaning and which are shared socially, illustrator agent gestures are very pronounced (they accompany verbal communication and they ‗illustrate‘ that which is being said), the emotive indicators, (tied to an emotional state) and illustrator gestures (they regulate the interaction, they permit the stressing of the speech in ‗points‘ of emphasis or for indicating a change of ‗position‘ in the speech strategy). In this context the Japanese culture is diametrically opposed, the only gestures used are generally speaking ‗emblems‘, and in this case hand gestures become more animated only in cases of refusal or prohibition. Facial mimicry serves important different functions in interaction between people; in fact the face represents the part of the body that is more specialized on an expressive and communicative level. Through facial gestures we manage to express spontaneous emotions, and also deliberate ones, which have the objective of dissimulating other emotions or of showing a form of social convention such as, for example, ‗circumstantial smiles‘. Precisely under this aspect, once again Japan has a true and proper culture, the smile is often seen as a type of condescending behaviour that is very often misunderstood by the foreigner. The smile‘s social convention therefore frequently hides embarrassment or difficulty. 234 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We have to remember that there is a certain grade of separation between facial expressions and internal psychological states, in the sense that not everything that appears on the face necessarily indicates an internal emotional experience. Also there is a certain dissociability between that internal and external. Facial movements are also an important element in the coordination of the communicative exchange, they facilitate the alternation of the ‗who speaks next?‘ situation, and then the synchronism between the interlocutors. The glance generally makes a contribution in this exercise, for the collection of feedback information, to show attention and interest, and also to understand whose turn it is to speak during a conversation. As we have already said, the glance is however somewhat limited in Japan. On this point we must include a type of non-verbal conversation typically Japanese which is called ‗Haragei‘, that literally means ‗visceral language‘. It is a language/non-language made up more or less of silences, lulls in exchanges, and slow reflexions in which the interlocutor is scrutinized. This could be compared to a type of intuition in which words only act as an adjunct and do not express the true concept (Corddry, 1975). At this point a form of communication shall be added which constitutes a strategic way of communicating and has numerous meanings- this is quite simply, silence. Silence is not simply the absence of communication but it has well-defined rules with numerous variable standards from culture to culture. Generally speaking, western cultures are characterized by a type of communication with low contextualization and one witnesses a rapid change over in exchanges, conversational lulls are relatively reduced and silence is considered to be a threat or lack of cooperation in conversational management. As opposed to this, oriental cultures are typified by a high-contextualized communication, the participants exercise long periods of silence between one exchange and another and these are signals of reflexion and deliberation. In the Japanese culture, silence or mugon 無言 (むごん) is very often a symptom of trust, harmony and understanding (McVeigh, 1997). Chronemics, from the Greek ‗Khrñnos‘ or ―time‖, studies the use of time, and also in this case it varies greatly according to the culture. As well as the rhythm of the speech, the turns taken to speak and the length of the pauses in relation to the content, one must also add the sense of time in general (Anolli, 2003). This would be the punctuality, perception of future and past events, time management (Hall, 1983), etc. One presupposes that the concept of time not only has a notable influence on socio-cultural competence, but also operates in the syntactical construction of the language itself (D‘arcais, Wiley, 1978). Examples of chronemic differences between Italian and other cultures are numerous, but in this case the risk is run of losing count of historical, cultural and individual variables and then to be overly influenced entirely by stereotypes (Lipovetsky, 1989). The fact however remains that generally speaking there is a certain diffidence upon the concept of punctuality when we turn towards Italians and that this contributes to relationships with Japanese people. Proxemics studies the use that a person makes of the distance and the space of social and working organization and of interpersonal relationships. In particular, in the field of communication, inter-personal distance and orientation towards the interlocutor have important consequences on the efficacy of the interaction. The distinction between the different types of distance includes four areas which may vary from a maximum and a minimum according to the influence due to socio-cultural factors. The Japanese culture may be located between those cultures having a distance where spatial reduction is perceived as an encroachment, against the Italian culture which is characterized by a culture of vicinity and which considers distance as a symptom of coldness and hostility. At the same time, from an anthropological point of view, given the elevated population density in the big urban centres, life in Japan forces upon man a lifestyle in which distance is reduced, and for this reason right from infancy respect for interpersonal space is inculcated so as not to bother the next person. In this category, Japan may be placed among the countries having a ‗no-contact‘ culture, in fact the haptic is very limited and as a consequence bodily contact between people is avoided as much as possible (Balboni, 1999). On the other hand, in line with many other Latin or Arab cultures, Italy plays a part in the culture of contact. Maybe the socio-cultural aspects are not the most complex to describe, but they are when it comes to an analysis. This is because often they are the ones that, more than anything else, are subjectively bound. Beneath are those aspects that shall be taken into consideration that may influence the class didactic progress, and this phenomenon shall be looked into further on in this paper. 235 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Shame culture‖ 恥の文化(はじのぶんか - hajinobunka) is one of these. This has been analysed by numerous psychologists and, according to an analysis carried out by Kent (Kent, 1992), it may be understood both as a private phenomenon (embarrassment) and a public one. Shame has fundamentals based upon society itself and on psychological ideals. (Sakuta, 1967). Along with many other oriental cultures, Japan can be located in the area of collectivism, while individualism is found in many western cultures. It would be opportune to add to this that, ‗ Individualism and collectivism do not constitute two opposing poles in a unique dimension, but are rather two independent dimensions, further defined within their internal areas‘. (Anolli, 2004). Among its various characteristics, collectivism often has a strong sense of ‗social harmony‘ and lends priority to group objectives with respect to those of the individual. The sense of belonging to a group, that may be either for work or study, is very important in the Japanese culture, therefore competition stands at an acceptable limit between different groups, but even in this case it is always experienced with a collective spirit aimed at achieving a wider social wellbeing. In one group on its own, the competition on the contrary would shatter a fundamental balance, and this is one of the reasons why competition is also avoided in the classes. Amongst the various forms brought into play to avoid competition, ‗haji‘ (understood as shyness) is the ideal, in that it tends to flatten out the personality as it were, and not put the individual on show (Sumiko, 2000). The concept of ‘on‘ is tied to a sense of duty, to which each and every Japanese person is tightly bound; the concept of ‗giri‘ instead represents the good name and reputation. In the case of the Japanese, the ‗giri‘ must never in any way be dishonoured (Benedict, 1968). There is an aspect of communication that is not separable from socio-cultural characteristics, or rather the communicative competence relative to the conquest of the emotional filter. This filter is a psychological-emotive block due to a form of mental self-defence against states of anxiety. This anxiety, as also reported in Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning by Krashen, in fact has had a very powerful influence and jeopardises linguistic acquisition (Balboni, 2004). There are many characteristics that cause the emotive block to come into the field of linguistics; this is because the higher the knowledge of a language, the easier it is to get over the emotive block. However, a psychological factor remains which is consequence of being tied to both to the typology of the student (behaviour towards studying or the teacher, personal confidence, individual organisational skills, a more or less extrovert character etc.) and to the cultural origin. This is due to the fact that was discussed previously; students may be more predisposed than others to this emotive block. According to the Communication Accommodation Theory worked on by Giles and Coupland (Giles, Coupland, 1991), following determined strategies of synchronisation and accommodation of linguistic and extra-linguistic signals, it is possible to arrive at a position of convergence which allows a good interaction in communicative exchange, avoiding in this way divergence which would on the contrary not facilitate the understanding of an input. The Communication Accommodation Theory is favourable towards a meeting point that does not include a masking of culture or, even worse, the imitation of others. It uses a perspective that works side by side with a balanced management, which in the case of education respects that which the student thinks without giving up other positions on the part of the teacher. It therefore requires a pause control, the use of proxemics and gestemics, vocal intensity, enunciation length and also the use of vocal frequency (a tone of voice which is too high and strident can cause problems in much the same way that low and monotonous tone of voice can be boring). Psychological social research of language has illustrated how behaviour and reactions towards a person are strongly determined also by the way that person speaks and by the relative ‗speaker‘s paradigm of evaluation‘ which is activated by the listener (Giles, Johnson, 1995). In every communicative relationship between two people a continuous work of deconstruction and reconstruction equivalent to an upturning of perspective is necessary to an exchange. The occurrence of a true and proper inter-subject communication is in fact tied to the capacity of an individual to alternately take on his own and the other person‘s plan of reference, reconstructing the field every time without ever making his own point of view that specific privileged moment. (Mizzau, 1974). Teaching to an audience made up of different culture classes includes as a consequence a certain conscience of the use of these abilities that, above all in the collectivist culture, is particularly felt. On the other hand however, we find a more accommodating behaviour in the more individualistic cultures. (Gallois, Giles, 236 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Jones, Cargile, 1995). Therefore, one has to succeed in creating a type of empathy that allows the lowering of the emotional filter (Krashen, 1981). Also, according to Schumann, an increase in empathy between student and teacher would diminish the negative conditions caused by factors such as anxiety, stress, and it would obtain an improvement in learning as a result (Schumann, 1975). A condition of empathy leads the student to feel less the cultural distance in that this factor is of an emotional nature, and as a consequence can be managed with an approach of the psychological type. CONCLUSION Thanks to cultural psychology and other sciences, in this study we have been able to observe some of the more evident characteristics in the Japanese culture. The field circumscribed by education in the student-teacher relationship has given way to an understanding of the importance of the knowledge of various communicative signals, in that only a continuous interaction between them has allowed us to interpret signals and to understand the relative prerequisites. It has been also possible to also observe how some communication systems are to be limited to certain cultures and that it is not always possible to generalize by classifying behaviours; suffice it to bear in mind that among the western, non-verbal, vocal (shouting, crying, voice intonation) signal communication systems, and the non-vocal (smiles, a global motivator), some behavioural traits such as the lowered head, the fleeting glance, the scanty use of gestures, the absence of facial mimicry, the attenuated tone of voice etc. are more or less classified as characteristics of the depressed subject (Jones, Cumming, Horowitz 1981), characteristics which cannot obviously by applied to an intercultural context. Many reasons for intercultural incomprehension are born directly out of the absence of knowledge of certain communicative forms. An individual must know how to use a communicative signal in the same way in which the others use it. This mechanism ensures that the interlocutor comprehends that which he has learnt and that he is employing a ‗shared‘ communicative social sign, in this way one is able to produce and understand the same symbol with the same meaning. REFERENCES Luigi Anolli, Psicologia della comunicazione, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2002, p. 78. Luigi Anolli, Psicologia Generale, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2003, p.185. Luigi Anolli, Psicologia della cultura, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2004, p.266. Luigi Anolli, La mente multiculturale, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 2006, p.123. Paolo E. Balboni, Parole Comuni Culture Diverse - Guida Alla Comunicazione Interculturale, Saggi Marsilio, Venezia, 1999, p. 52. Paolo E. Balboni, Motivazione ed affettività nell'acquisizione di una lingua straniera, articolo in Punto Edu, 2004. Maria Rosa Baroni, Il linguaggio trasparente. Indagine psicolinguistica su chi parla e chi ascolta, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1983, p. 23 in Gaetano Berruto, Op. cit, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 111. Fredrik Barth, Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of cultural difference, George Allen&Unwin, London, 1969, pp. 117-134. Fredrik Barth, I gruppi etnici e i loro confini, in V. Maher (a cura di), Questioni di etnicità, Torino, Rosenberg & Sellier 1994, p. 47 Ruth Benedict, Il crisantemo e la spada, Dedalo, Bari, 1968. Gaetano Berruto, Fondamenti di Sociolinguistica, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 110. 237 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo John W. Berry, Ype H. Poortinga, H. Segall, Pierre R. Dasen, Psicologia transculturale. Teoria, ricerca e applicazioni, Guerini e Associati, Milano, 1994. Noam Chomsky, Aspetti della teoria della sintassi, in Saggi Linguistici, Bollati Boringhieri, pp. 39- 258, 1979. Noam Chomsky, La conoscenza del linguaggio, Il saggiatore, Milan, 1989. Jane A. Corddry, Hara in A hundred things Japanese, p. 102, 1975. G.B.Flores D‘arcais, John Wiley & Sons, Studies in the perception of language, W.J.M.Levelt, Bath, 1978. Valentina D‘Urso, Rosanna Trentin, Psicologia delle Emozioni, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1988, p.101. Gallois, Giles, Jones, Cargile, etc, Accommodating intercultural encounters. Elaborations and Extensions, in R.L. Wiseman, Intercultural communication theory, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 1995, 115-147. Martin J. Gannon, Global-Mente - Metafore culturali per capire 17 Paesi, Baldini & Castoldi, Milano, 1997 Clifford Geertz, Antropologia Interpretativa, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1988. Edward Twitchell Hall, The dance of life, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, 1983. Giles & Coupland, Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991. Howard Giles and Patricia Johnson, Ethnolinguistic identity theory: a social psychological approach to language maintenance, 1987 (cit. in Gaetano Berruto, Fondamenti di Sociolinguistica, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 112). E. E. Jones, J. D. Cumming, & M. J. Horowitz, <Another look at the nonspecific hypothesis of therapeutic effectiveness>, in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1988 e P. H. Waxer, <Channel contribution in anxiety displays>, in Journal of Research, in Personality, 15, 44,1981. Pauline Kent, Shame as social sanction in Japan, Japan Review, 1992, 3. Osamu Kitayama, Cross-Cultural Varieties in Experiencing affect, in The Language of emotions, Akhtar & Blum, USA, 2004, p. 37. Stephen D. Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, cap. II, p. 23., 1981 Ralph Linton, abridged by Adelin Linton, The Tree of Culture, Knopf, 1961. Gilles Lipovetsky, L‘impero dell‘effimero, la moda nelle società moderne, Garzanti, Milano, 1989, p. 182. Marina Mizzau, Prospettive della comunicazione interpersonale, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1974, pp. 60-61. Brian J. McVeigh, Life in a Japanese Women's College, The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series, London, 1997, p. 76. Kenneth Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Structure of Human Behavior, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Glendale, California, 1954 Sakuta, K., Haji no bunka saiko [Reconsideration of shame culture],Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1967. Bernard Rimé & Loris Schiaratura, Gesture and Speech, in Fundamentals of Nonverbal Behavior, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 239-283. John H. Schumann, Second language acquisition: the pidginization hypothesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1975, p. 401. Iwao Sumiko, Problem‘s among Japan‘s young, in Japan Echo, 2000, pp. 256-260. Anna Wierzbicka, Emotions Across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 61. Mark Zimmerman, Dealing with the Japanese, Allen & Unwin, London,1985. 238 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 35 Title A name given to the resource FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIOCULTURAL DISTANCE Author Author Demont, Beatrice Abstract A summary of the resource. During a research period in Japan I had the opportunity to follow a number of students learning the Italian language, both from Universities and private contexts. According to an anthropologic interpretation, meetings between cultures is based on practices that cannot be reduced to feelings or individual ideas; the sociocultural aspect is an open system, and not sheltered from external influences; so there is not a privileged point of view for a detached observation, because a meeting is equal and is an exchange of meanings produced from both the parts. Meeting another culture carries a number of differences that can be misunderstood. The singular knowledge of the foreign language, even if useful, does not constitute a guarantee to understand the culture of a society. Incomprehension of attitudes or an improper use of the language are maybe not sufficient to damage a relationship, but they have the ability to complicate it, and for the same reason stereotypes often block other possible interpretations. Teaching implies a bi-directional communication that needs to give an input to the student but also an understandable feedback for the teacher. The communicative exchange between two cultures is furthermore difficult when we try to understand the psychological influence of linguistic signals in verbal and non-verbal communication. In that way, the relationship between teacher and student is a delicate balance that can easily be upset, especially in cultures such as the Italian and Japanese ones which are very far from one another. I shall illustrate, in a summarised form, the description of the subjects under study by means of appropriate tables in this report, analyzing the oral production, the learning processes and the cultural differences that could create misunderstandings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1ee61fd37af88b1c2240d87083832f.pdf 31d17047411f990eaed18725ed607e9f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Doc.dr. Amel Alic University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sedin Habibovic, psychologist-therapist al-amel@bih.net.ba Abstract: Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Key words: cultural shock, enculturation, acculturation, Bosnian immigrants The experience of culture shock The process by which we come to know that there is a "proper" way of thinking, expressing, acting, etc, or, in other words, the process through which we learn our culture, is called socialization. It is a process through which individuals learn what is required of them to be successful members of certain groups, regardless of which group is concerned. The socialization process is unique in that it is simultaneously directed to the future and the past. It is directed forward in the sense of a man as he should be compared to expectations of a socio-cultural community, and backwards in terms of determining what are the important behaviours, values, and beliefs which we should continue to preserve. The socialization process is so powerful that people socialized in a particular socio-cultural context, are hardly aware that there are different realities. This results in culturocentrizam, a tendency to evaluate other people from the perspective of their own culture, believing in the fact that it is the only right and proper way of perceiving the world. This has also resulted in, among other things, occurrence of culture shock in situations when an individual comes into contact with new and unfamiliar cultural patterns. In the process of socialization, or enculturation, there is a greater variety of various influences that formatively affect the behaviour and thinking patterns of individuals (for example, their sexuality, nationality, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religious beliefs, etc). Cultural shock in the recent literature is most often defined as a process of adjustment to a foreign and unfamiliar culture and environment. Psychological and sociological understanding of culture shock is used to describe the process of emotional, cognitive and physiological impact on the individual. In a multicultural context, the cultural shock is a kind of immersion in the non-specific conditions under which an individual is unsure of the expectations of others around him, but the uncertainty also 115 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo applies to his / her own actions. The term culture shock was introduced by Oberg Klaver (1960, according to Pedersen, 1995) to describe the distress caused by ignorance about a new culture and behaviour patterns of the same. In this state, the individual becomes aware of the fact that previously enacted symbols become invalid or acquire new meanings, resulting in a wide range of reactions, from the foggy and vague discomfort to profound disorientation. More recent literature suggests that understanding the process of culture shock is applied in every new situation in which a person can find himself/herself, such as changing jobs, establishing new relationships with others, or taking adequate social and emotional positions, as well as taking roles in each new environment. So over the past several decades, from Oberg to date, elucidating the process of cultural shock, spread from a mere encounter with a new culture on every situation where an individual is forced to adapt to an unfamiliar social system in which previously learned patterns of behaviour are no longer of any use. Experiencing culture shock is too often unpleasant (and unexpected) experience in which the individual simultaneously re-evaluate the old - a domestic, but also a new - a visiting culture. Until recently, researches have suggested that cultural shock involves only negative experiences. Thus, the Oberg originally cited only the negative aspects of this process:  the tension and pressure caused by psychological adjustment,  a sense of loss and deprivation increased by the loss of previously close people, friends, roles, etc.,  rejection of newcomers by a new culture and new society, confusion in terms of defining new roles, expectations, feelings, self-concept and self-determination,  unexpected nervousness, indignation towards new cultural forms, and  a sense of helplessness and discouragement after possible failures in the new environment. Educational model as opposed to medical, describes cultural shock as a process that takes place in several stages, which are developed and through which an individual passes - from the lower, more painful and more loaded with adaptive problems, to the higher stages, where the individual finally exceeds the initial problems and at the same time benefits psychologically, emotionally and socially. Each person in the new culture is going through at least five stages of culture shock (Pedersen, 1995): 1. Stage "honeymoon" or the first contact. On this stage differences intrigue, person research and inspect, select; emotional extent is desrcibed as excitement, stimulation, euphoria, everything is a game; on interpretation level person and groups noticing the difference, differences and similarities still work together, rationalization. 2. On stage of disintegration in person‘s perception of the environment differences collide and begin to bother, while common emotional reactions are confusion, disorientation, loss of empathy, isolation, loneliness. Besides depression and withdrawal, differences begin to bother crisis of confidence, seeking support and cultural ties. 3. Stage of reintegration is stage where differences are discarded, person‘s emotions fulfilled by anger, fury (conflict?), nervousness, and frustrations. As a result, some might behave rebelliousness, suspicion, hostility, opposition, and afterwards, this is the stage of the birth of the concept of "I like-i do not like", and rebellion as a way of searching for the confidence. 4. Stage of autonomy is the stage when differences and similarities are starting to legitimize. Person feels presumption, relaxation, re-occurring of empathy, and behaves safer, controlled, autonomous, and confident. On this stage the individual is negotiating with other cultures, and feel confidence that one can survive there. 5. Interdependent stage is the final stage on which differences and similarities are evaluated, and given the significance, person feels trust, humour, elements of the initial emotional response, expressiveness, creativity, updating, and starting to enjoy in some differences through discovering the benefits of new experiences. Experience and research of this problem points to the fact that the social frame of reference, specific cultural traditions, but also specific (idiosyncratic) learned patterns and strategies to cope with the phenomenon of culture shock, may lead to different outputs, particularly important in the understanding of cultural sensitivity. As previous findings suggest, strategies and stereotyped patterns of confrontation with the diversity also belong to common uniform strategies of raising children, which with the next generation can cause, not just a lack of sensitivity toward a new culture, but also distancing from the culture of origin. This phenomenon could be called the "boomerang effect" in which the younger generation often opts for a new culture in which they socialize on their own, while also standing up against the culture of origin of their parents. Comparing the social, emotional and intellectual resources and capital offered by a new society, children recognize inferiority of the culture of origin of their parents and are rebelling against the inefficiency of solving everyday problems suggested by 116 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo parents. This rebellion is often manifested in the refusal to communicate in their native language, in order to send a symbolic message of abolition of attachment to the culture of origin. If one adds the fact that circles in which the immigrant parents move, mostly belong to lower socio-economic strata of the new society (often the consequence of a lower educational culture), the impression of inferiority of the parents‘ culture gains in intensity. Research methods and results In this study, we combined qualitative and quantitative methods, with the obtained results derived from the semi structured interviews with members of two generations, the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, using the scale of intercultural sensitivity and scale of family relations in a sample of 40 children aged between 12 and 15, gathered in the Bosnian Cultural Centre in Phoenix, Arizona. We felt that the degree to overcome the culture shock towards other cultures can be established by examining the dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, and thus determine the relationships between the generations that represent the culture "in itself". This is especially important due to the fact that to the second generation in the Diaspora cultural shock is actually meeting with the culture of origin. To make that connection possible it is of great importance to take into account factors such as environmental background of parents, current family situation, family composition, parents' personal characteristics and personal characteristics of the child. This means that the issues on which it was possible to understand the context of the family treated the level of parental education levels and different socio-economic factors, family life, socio-psychological characteristics of family relations and communication between parents-children, and that would help to identify specificity of such influences on the level of intercultural sensitivity and overcome the culture shock, arose from the characteristics of families that are directed to the parent function: strategy for disciplining children, pedagogical logic on which parents insist, and perceptions of family circumstances and characteristics of relations parents - children. Application of intercultural sensitivity scale enabled us to connect information about family circumstances with scores of five factors of IC: cultural integration, behaviour scale, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others and the empathy scale. As we said before, it is noticeable that the first generation (today's parents) encountered a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the society in which they had to integrate, while for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment when the process of getting acquainted with the culture of origin, the culture of their ancestors began. The logical consequence of such strategies of coping with a new culture, especially because of the lack of a sense of emotional and intellectual capital, seeks to compensate for the increased activities in the field of creating social capital on the level of the generation of parents, and that capital is most easily achieved through forms of associating in jams, cultural clubs or similar. Unfortunately, the social capital that does not follow the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, in a number of immigrants has as a result placing the position of assimilation on one or conflict on other side, as exits in situations of intercultural meeting. Communication between generations of Bosnian immigrants in USA is overloaded with doubts whether to assimilate or to acculturate into, so called, American culture. Adopting of value system is rather difficult psychological state in which immigrants have to choose appropriate strategy how to be the part of American society, but still preserve basic and core cultural elements of their own tradition. In that sense, members of two different generations within families prefer opposite strategies: generation of parents keeps fresh memories, attitudes, and values adopted in culture of origin, and try to adjust life dynamic to traditional beliefs; on the other side, younger generations experience culture shock while being introduced with their parents culture, and feel themselves much more comfortable if choose opposite way of acculturation – the process of enculturation they associate to American culture, which means that they acculturate with parents culture. Children of immigrants are in some case in a better position to see strengths and weaknesses both of American and Bosnian culture than the origin Americans and Bosnians can do – they still have another culture (at home or at school, etc.) with which they compare. Being somehow in-between seems to be for most of Bosnian immigrants an advantage, since they have opportunity to pick the better sides of living in American society. In list bellow, we offer both advantages and disadvantages of Bosnian families, as members of minority groups in American society: STRENTGHS CHALLENGES Strong work orientation Dealing with the opposite system of values and beliefs 117 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strong motivation to achieve Being judged and as financially risk Religious orientation Building self-esteem Caring parenting Remaining family centred Shift to concept of egalitarian marriages Maintaining tradition Familism Overcoming the language barrier both between family, society, and generations High family cohesion and adaptation Extended – family system Acculturating and enculturation across generations Traditional beliefs Bilingual language skills Adaptability into WASP culture Table 1. Strengths and challenges of Bosnian families in USA For those who come from functional families, who take an advantage of adaptability of family system, it is much easier to adapt to society. It is obvious that being the part of majority provides speaking English language, to achieve higher educational achievement, mobility in job market, avoid discrimination, to prefer life style of majority having in mind that life style reflect the taste and values of social status. Yet, in the same time the younger generations of Bosnian immigrants, at the contrary to their American peers, still experience the advantages of extended families, collectivism, and emotional kinship bands etc. As already indicated in the introduction, in this paper we describe our experiences and results of research methods. The following are basic observations with no intention of entering into the deeper nature thereof. We believe that the listed observations can be a good basis for future researches or future programmes work with communities in the Diaspora. Analysis of the subscales revealed that the observed groups within the subscales of the cultural integration showed with the scores that the arithmetic mean is 42 compared to a maximum of 63, which represents a moderately high rank of the achieved scores of culture integration. On the subscale of intercultural behaviour we also obtained moderately high scores. On the subscale of intellectual interaction the observed group achieved scores slightly above average. On a scale of empathy results may assess high. On a scale of attitudes toward others they achieve scores below average, and it could be used as a possible interpretation the earlier observations of parents who belong to immigrant cultures in which the transmission of distance to children was observed as a reaction to fears of a potential interruption of communication with the culture of origin. The total score on all five subscales showed a slightly above average score, as the arithmetic mean is 132.66. We were interested in whether gender can be considered a significant criterion variable, and in this sense we have observed different styles of upbringing in conjunction with the five factors of intercultural sensitivity. For all observed subscales, the total score revealed no statistically significant differences in gender. This indicates that there is approximately a similar style of bringing up the boys and the girls in this immigrant culture. Analysis of all five subscales of intercultural sensitivity in relation to domination of pedagogical logic that parents use showed no statistically significant difference in the observed sample. The only, but insignificant difference was noticed within the subscales of cultural integration, where it was shown that those children whose parents more often use praises and encouragements to raise their children achieve higher scores compared to children whose parents use more bans and punishments. Next interesting fact, worth of additional consideration, lies in the fact that unlike the previous, children whose parents use the bans and punishments achieve a bit higher scores on a scale of attitudes towards others in relation to children whose parents used more praise and encouragements. From this data we could draw the conclusion that a bit more authoritarian parental behaviour may, to some extent, result in the eventual escape from the culture of origin (the family milieu) in a new culture (especially in cases of immigrant cultures). Here it is important to remind you of the fact that the authoritarian behaviour in the domestic culture would probably have as a consequence conflicting results: 118 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo xenophobia, authoritarian submission, ethnocentrism ... This data suggests that identical behaviour in different cultural and socializing circumstances may result in different outcomes. Comparing with the assessment of family relationships within the scale we find that respondents who believe their family is a source of comfort and satisfaction showed higher scores on all subscales of intercultural sensitivity. From this it can be concluded that a greater degree of openness towards others is based largely on coordinated and well-ordered family relationships. Analysis of the item "When I grow up and I have a family it will be in many ways similar to my current family" shows that 37% disagreed with this statement, while 38% were not sure, which makes a total of 75% sample of those who do not identify with their family in terms of living in a foreign culture. This points to the fact that the Bosnian families in the U.S. (at least within the sample), do not represent an adequate working model of identification and intercultural integration into the culture of the United States. Evidence for this claim is found in data obtained by observation within family relationship, where it was noticed that the children of immigrants refuse to communicate with their parents in the Bosnian language as a symbolic act to break the culture of origin. Poorer language skills can be attributed to time spent together in everyday interactions because of the parents being too busy but also some other important criteria variables such as parental level of language production, socio-economic status, educational level, the development of receptive-expressive language, greater participation of lower auto and congrate language in relation to a higher literal and abstract language, etc. At the level of understanding within the family, analysis of the item ―In my family no one understands me" shows that the family itself has the potential to overcome the gap between generations and considering different circumstances of socialization. In this part, the recommendation to parents would be related to overcoming these kinds of problems by adopting a more suitable strategy for the overall pedagogical culture of parental behaviour. Analysis of the items "I am proud of my family" and "Members of my family are good to each other," showed that there are still emotional attachments between parents and children, indicating a significant potential for the family as a place that is a source of emotional energy and the subsequent potential for intercultural sensitivity. These items showed that most respondents pointed to their family as a place to develop safe relations and adequate interaction which is reflected in high scores across all subscales. It is interesting that the analysis of beliefs and following religious practices proved to be a very important criterion variable. Specifically, respondents who claim that their families believe in religious values, and regularly practice religious customs, achieve higher scores across all five factors of intercultural sensitivity. Conclusion We see that most immigrants consistently idealize their own culture, the culture of origin, or subjective culture. This phenomenon is also evident when observing the emigrants during their stay in their own culture, but the process of idealizing is then reversed, i.e. during a visit to their homeland immigrants tend to idealize the culture of the country where they are currently living. Because of this contrary emotional reactions depending on the current physical positions, this could be marked as a notion of two-way idealization, with positive emotions obviously directed to the own, but also to the new, current culture. Just for the reason of super saturation with the phenomenon of two-way idealization in every conversation we find it appropriate to call this phenomenon the phenomenon of binoculars. Persistence in such a perception of reality shows that most members of these communities are certainly at the stage of autonomy, explaining the degree of their integration and overcoming the cultural shock of the previously elaborated model. We observed that when introducing guests with the symbols of culture in which they reside expatriates express pride and satisfaction. They are very satisfied with showing the progress of culture, achievements, ordering, natural beauty, which could be considered as indicators of successful adaptation of most immigrants. This opinion clearly points to the fact that a number of immigrants are in a state of disintegration. It would be very important in future studies to examine the relationship between the length of residence in a new culture and the stage at which the subjects are, and what other variables significantly affect, within the branching of the observed sample, the inversely proportional idealization. It is evident that the stages in which are some respondents have a powerful impact on the cohesion within the immigrants organization. Belonging to a certain stage also produces attitudes towards community organizations. People who are on a level of disintegration propose greater community cohesion and a kind of prudence and closeness to the members of the new culture. People on a level of autonomy alleviate such proposals and explain the benefits of cooperation. It would therefore be very important to continue with strengthening the position of the people on the level of autonomy and the work of the subgroups in the community following the model of overcoming culture shock. In this regard we consider that it would be necessary to develop programmes for each stage of adjustment. Significant influence on overcoming culture shock is related to the functionality of the family system. Families that have 119 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo managed to balance the dimensions of adaptation and internal cohesion, but also change and stability, with its structurality and flexibility have much more successful encounter with another culture. In this way, they more effectively respond to situations to reconcile differences between the system of family values (culture of origin) and wider social circles of a new culture that imposes a different value system. This is confirmed by the results of the analysis of the perception scales of family relations and all five dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, where it turned out that functional family relationships highly correlated with cultural integration, scale of behaviour, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others, and scale of empathy. Total family relationships have proved to be, ultimately, the essential and with the ability to cope with cultural shock on both relations: family - new culture, but also generations of parents - generations of children. The functionality of family relationships is definitely a key criterion variable to reach the stage of reintegration and autonomy. REFERENCE Furnham, A., Bochner, S. (1986). Culture Shock – Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments. London: Methuen & Co. Hofstede, G.H. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Olson, D.H., DeFrain, J. (2003). Marriages and Families: Intimacy, Diversity and Strengths. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Sue, D.W., Sue, d. (2008). Counseling the Culturally Diverse. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Pedersen, P. (1995). The Five Stages of Culture Shock. Greenwood Press. Ward, C., Bochner, S., Furnham, A. (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. Routledge. 120 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 21 Title A name given to the resource HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Author Author Doc.dr. Alic, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60ed8b20b56c7dbba11808f15ea9cca7.pdf 50ebe38f18f784f0b0c845fef34ac1fc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ÇağdaĢ Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Vazgeçilemezlik Nedenleri Doç. Dr. Candemir Doğan Fen Edebiyat Fakùltesi Dicle Üniversitesi, Turkey can.dogan@hotmail.com Yrd.Doç.Dr.Süleyman Doğan Eğitim Fakùltesi Fatih Üniversitesi, Turkey sdogan@fatih.edu.tr, sudogan@yildiz.edu.tr Özet Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde kullanılan sistemli ilk yôntem olarak bilinir. Hedef dilin, dilbilgisi kuralları yoluyla ôğretimi ve buna dayalı olarak anadile çeviri yapma yôntemiyle, yabancı dil ôğretme geleneğini baĢlattı, hala değiĢik biçim ve farklı yôntemler içinde varlığını sùrdùrmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dilin ôğretiminde dilin, dilbilgisi sisteminin ôğretilmesi gerekliliği ùzerine kurulmuĢtur. Gùnùmùz çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin hem kaynağı hem de tùm istenmezliğine rağmen yabancı dil ôğretiminin bir vazgeçilemezidir. Bu bildiride yôntemin tamamen birbirine zıt olan kabul ile ret konumları arasına sıkıĢan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde yeri ve değerinin belirlenmesine çalıĢılacaktır. Yôntemin temsil ettiği ya hep ya da hiç iki aĢırı uçlu dùzleminin, kabul tarafında yer alan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin bağımsız bir yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemi olarak yùklendiği iĢlevleri, ôğretim uygulamaları ve ôzellikleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenecektir. Ret yônùnù oluĢturan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemine tepki olarak ortaya çıkan çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemlerinin içinde bile vazgeçilemez bir parça olarak yer almasının nedenleri ayrıntılı olarak belirlenmeye çalıĢılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabanca dil ôğrenimi, dil bilgisi, çeviri yôntemi, ôğretim. 1. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yönteminin Tarihçesi Ġnsanoğlunun bilinen ilk dil ôğretim çalıĢmaları, yaklaĢık iki asır ôncesinden baĢladığı sanılmaktadır. Yabancı bir dilin ôğretimine ilk ihtiyaç duyulmasıyla birlikte baĢlayan dilbilgisi yapılarının analizi ve yazılı metinlerin çevirisi bu yôntemin baĢlangıcı sayılır. Genelde ilk sistematik hale geldiği için daha çok yabancı dil ôğretiminin ilk denemesi olarak ôn plâna çıkan Yunanca ve Lâtincenin analizi için geliĢtirilen dilbilgisi ôğretim yôntemi, yabancı dili sekiz ayrı bôlùmde inceler. Bunlar; isim, fiil, sıfat, tanımlıklar, zamirler, edatlar, zarflar ve bağlaçlardır. Bu dillerin yazılı metinlerden sekiz kategoriyle ilgili dil kuralları çıkarılarak, çeviri çalıĢmalarıyla birlikte ôğretilmeye çalıĢılmıĢtır. Dilbilgisi ôğretimi, 18. yùzyıl dilbilimcileri tarafından Yunan ve Roma klâsik dil ôğretiminin ôtesine taĢındı ve dilbilgisi kurallarının oluĢturulması için yine aynı sekiz kategori odağa alınarak Ġngilizce ôğretimine uyarlandı. GeliĢmelere bağlı olarak, bir dil analiz edilirken kelime yapısı ve sôzdizimi kuralları değiĢebilen sôzel iletiĢimde dilbilgisel iĢlevin etkin kullanımının pek uygun olmayacağı ile genelde her bir kuralın birden çok istisnası olduğu gerçeği ortaya çıkarıldı. (Herron, 1976). Bununla birlikte, geleneksel Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yaklaĢımı, yakın zamana kadar pek çok ùlkede yabancı dil ôğretim pedagojisinin temelini oluĢturmayı sùrdùrdù. Halen de yabancı dil ôğretiminde birincil yôntem olarak bazı ùlkelerde kullanımı devam etmektedir. Özellikle de hedef dilin bir yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminde; dilbilgisi kurallarının analizi, anadile çevirisi, kelimelerin ezberlenmesi esas alınarak ôğretildiği sınıflar için ônemini hala korumaktadır. 2. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ĠletiĢimsel Dil YaklaĢımları Dilbilimciler, 19. yùzyılın sonu ve 20. yùzyılın baĢlarından itibaren yaptıkları, dùnya dilleri arasındaki karĢılaĢtırmalarla, sekiz parçalı dilbilgisi ôrgùtsel ôğretim çerçevesinin, dilin iletiĢim maksatlı ôğretimine uygun olmadığını tespit ettiler. Özellikle hiçbir yazılı biçimi olmayan pek çok dùnya dilinin mutlaka ses sisteminin kullanımıyla ôğretilmesi gerektiğini savundular. Bu yaklaĢıma uygun olarak hedef dil Ģu ùç alt sisteme ayrılarak, 256 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo analiz edilmeye baĢlandı: Ses sistemi (fonoloji) ile kelimelerin yapısını inceleyen (morfoloji), bu iki bilim dalı tarafından ùretilen ayrı birimleri, iletiĢim maksadıyla birleĢtirerek anlamlı bir yapı biçimine getiren (sözdizimi) sistemi, yapısalcı veya tanımlayıcı dilbilim yaklaĢımı Ģeklinde geliĢmeye baĢladı. Dil, yapısalcı gôrùĢ ve davranıĢçı psikolojinin uyarı-tepki prensipleri doğrultusunda değerlendirilerek, yabancı dil ôğrenimi için ĠĢitselDilsel ve Direkt yaklaĢımlar ortaya çıktı. Ġkinci Dùnya SavaĢı'ndan sonra ĠĢitsel-Dilsel ve onu izleyen yıllarda doğrudan dil ôğretim yaklaĢımlarının ortaya çıkmasıyla, yabancı dilde iletiĢim becerisinin akıcılığını geliĢtirmek için çalıĢmalar yapıldı. Bu çabalar, aynı zamanda ônemli dil yapıbilgisine sahip olan ancak, dili bir tùrlù iletiĢimde kullanamayan ôğrencileri yetiĢtiren Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemine bir tepkiyi temsil etti. Bu tepkilere rağmen yôntem, daha da sistemleĢtirilerek kurallar dizileri halinde sunulan, genellikle kural ve istisnaları Ģeklinde baĢlayan ve daha karmaĢık biçimleriyle anlatılan ve doğrusal bir Ģekilde devam ederek resmi bir dilbilgisi ôğretimi biçiminde varlığını sùrdùrmeyi baĢardı. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri ôğretim programı, hedef dil yapısıyla karĢılaĢtırmalı analizlerine bağlı ve potansiyel zorlukları vurgular. Bu yaklaĢımın pedagojik temelleri, hedef dilde alıĢtırmaların tekrarı ve bùyùk bir gayretle doğru ùretiminin ôğretimine dayanır. Krashen, yabancı dil edinim hipotezini, dinleme, konuĢma, zevk için okuma ve anlamlı dil kullanımı gibi faaliyetleri, "Monitör Modeli"yle çeĢitli yônlerden yoğun anlaĢılır girdiye maruz kalan ve gerçek iletiĢim sùrecinde dil yeterliliğini doğal dil edinimi yoluyla elde eden ôğrenciler ùzerine kurmuĢtur. Bunun için iletiĢimsel yôntemin yabancı dil ôğretiminde açıktan dilbilgisi ôğretim, ôğrenim veya yanlıĢları dùzeltme ôzelliği yoktur. Dil kurallarının ôğrencilerin kendi dil sezgileriyle "doğruluk" deneyimi kazanarak oluĢacağı kabul edilir. (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) Yabancı dilde sağlıklı iletiĢim yetkinliği için dilbilgisinin çok ônemli olduğunu kabul eden araĢtırmacı, yôntembilimci ve uygulayıcılar, dilbilgisinin talimatlarla değil, anlamlı girdi yoluyla elde edilmesi gerektiğini savunmaktadırlar. Sadece iletiĢimsel yaklaĢım yoluyla, akademik ve meslekî yabancı dilde belirli konuĢma, yazma biçimbilgisi veya becerileri olmadan, doğal ôğrenme sùreciyle ulaĢmanın zor olduğu kabul edilir. Yabancı dilde yùksek dùzeyde akademik, profesyonel, meslekî sôzlù ve yazılı bilgi aktarımında yetkinlik ve performans için dilin doğrulama yeterliliği ve etkin iĢleyen geliĢmiĢ dilbilgisine sahip olma zorunludur. ĠletiĢim yôntembilimi, bu salt sınırlamaları aĢmak için yeni bir yaklaĢımla dilbilgisi ôğretimini iletiĢimsel dil kullanımıyla birlikte ôrgùn ôğretimle birleĢtirmiĢtir. Çùnkù dilbilgisi ôğretimi olmadan yabancı bir dilin gerçek yapısal biçimiyle bilinçli ôğrenilemeyeceği anlaĢılmıĢ ve "biçime odaklanmak" olarak adlandırılan dilbilgisi ônem kazanmıĢtır. Sadece iletiĢimsel ùretim için daha çok hedef dilbilgisi yapısının gerekmesi, anlama odaklı kullanımın ôğretimde yer almasına sebep olmuĢtur. Yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin geldiği bu noktada; hedef dilin, dilbilgisinin bizzat kendisinin ônemsiz veya gereksizliğinden daha çok dilbilgisi kurallarının belli dizilerle ôğretildiği salt yapısal geleneksel mùfredatla ôğretimine tepkilerin geliĢtiği açıkça anlaĢılır. Çùnkù bir dilin dilbilgisi, yabancı dil olarak ôğrenimi ve o dilde iletiĢim yeterliliğinin bir gùvencesidir. Yabancı dil ôğrenen ôğrencilerin, hedef dilde iletiĢim sùrecine sağlıklı katılımları için dilbilgisi kurallarının sadece resmi bilgi niteliğinde değil, ôğrencileri akıl, ruh ve dilsel olarak doyuma ulaĢtırması da gerekir. Hedef dilin talimat formlarını elde etmiĢ, geliĢtirmiĢ ve ùretim aĢamasına hazır hale getirmiĢ bir ôğrenci o dili doğru ve endiĢesiz konuĢabilir. ĠletiĢimsel yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemleri, Dilbilgisi-Çeviri mùfredatlarının resmi talimatlar altında yapıldığı, çağın gerisinde kaldığı ve dili sınıfta iletiĢimde kullanmadığından doğruluk dùzeyi çok dùĢùk dilbilgisel ùretimin gerçekleĢmediğini ileri sùrerler. Aslında bu dùĢùnce, ôğrencilerin dil ôğrenme ve baĢarı dùzeyi oranları bakımından, ôğretimde sağladığı avantajları belirleme ve karĢılaĢtırılmasının araĢtırılmasını destekler. Ancak araĢtırmalar, aynı zamanda iletiĢimsel dil ile dilbilgisi ôğretimini bùtùnleĢtiren yôntemlerin ôğretimi hedeflenen yapıların ôzelliklerini, bağlamında tanıyarak ve kullanarak ôğrencilerin geliĢmeleri gerektiğini de ortaya koymuĢtur. (Ellis & Fotos, 1991). Birçok yabancı dil ôğretmeni ve araĢtırmacı, mevcut dilbilgisi ôğretiminde ôğretilen kuralı, ôğrenciler bir kez dahi kullanmasalar bile; "bilincin yükseliĢi" duygusuyla farkındalık bilincini geliĢtirdiğine inanıyorlar. Yabancı dilde kazanılan dilbilgisel farkındalık, belirli formlarda talimatlarla değil, sadece ùretilen "girdi geliĢtirme" nin ortaya çıkarabileceği anlam odaklı bilgi giriĢiyle yapılan iĢlemlerin ôzelliklerinin kavranmasıyla ôğrenilebilir. Bazı araĢtırmacılar, dilbilgisinin yine hedef dilin dilbilgisi niteliğiyle ôğreniminin de ayrıca iletiĢimsel girdi sağlamaya hizmet edebileceğine dikkat çekerler. Ancak dilbilgisinin bu nitelikte bir iĢlevi yùklenebilmesi için ôğrencilerin kuralları ôzùmsemesi gerektiğini de Ģart koĢarlar. (Fotos & Ellis, 1991). Bu ôzellikler edinilerek 257 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bir yabancı dilin iletiĢimsel kullanımının az olması, ôğretim hedeflerinin eksik kalmasından kaynaklanan bir durumdur. Bu nedenle, ôrgùn eğitim kurumlarında geliĢtirilen dilbilgisi yapılarının ôğrenciler için daha anlamlı ve uygulanabilir yapılarak daha kolay içselleĢtirilebileceği kabul edilir. Dilbilgisi ôğretiminin akıl, ruh ve dilbilim temelleriyle biçimlendirilmesini gerektiren bu gôrùĢe gôre dilbilgisi ôğretimi Ģu iki temel ôzelliği taĢıması gerekir: 1. Dilbilgisi sistemin açık veya nedenlerini açıklayıcı bilgisi: Hedef dilin alıĢtırmalar yoluyla dilbilgisi kuralları ve biçimleri hakkında bilinçli saklı ya da uygulamayla geliĢtirilmiĢ bilgiler edinilmelidir. 2. Dilbilgisi bilinçaltı anlam odaklı sistem bilgisi: Hedef dil sisteminin bilinçsizce anlam odaklı iletiĢim eylemleri yoluyla geliĢtirilmesine hizmet eden ve dili konuĢmayı sağlayan bir yetenektir. ĠletiĢimsel yôntem, yabancı dil edinimini ôğrencilerin kendi sezgisel "doğruluk" yetilerinin geliĢmesi için aĢırı girdiye maruz kalmasıyla deneyim kazanmaları olarak gôrùr. Buna karĢın dilbilim araĢtırmacıları, yôntembilimcileri ve uygulayıcıları dilbilgisel yetkinlik için maksatlı ôğretimin zorunlu olduğunu ifade ederler. (Brown, 1994). Öğrencilerin bu ihtiyacı dilbilgisi formlarını edinmeleri için ayrıca bilinçlendirme faaliyetleri yapılması ve dilbilgisi kurallarına karĢı farkındalık bilincinin oluĢumuna destek verilmesi ve teĢvik edilmesi gerekir. Dil sistemleri son derece karmaĢık bir dùzlemde çok birleĢenli iĢlerler. Dilbilgisi; sesbilim, kelimebilimi, sôzdizimi, anlambilimi, iletiĢim ortamı gerçeklerine uygun dilsel ùretim ve dili konuĢan toplumun sosyokùltùrel yapısı gibi çok sayıda ôzelliklerin aynı anda gôrevleriyle bilinmesi gerekir. Tùm bu bileĢenlerin birlikte çôzùmùnde bilinçaltına egemen olan iyi bir dilbilgisi becerisinin gerekliliği tartıĢmasızdır. Ancak bir yabancı dilin, dilbilgisinin ôğretiminde diller arasındaki, ôğrenenler arasındaki farkların, ôğrenme durumları, tùrleri ve ulaĢmak istenen hedefe uygun bir ôğretim yolunun belirlenmesi de ôğretimin bir baĢka gereğidir. 3. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve Doğrudan Dil Öğretimi Doğal yollardan dil ôğrenmenin sağladığı iletiĢimsel doğruluk gùvenine eĢdeğer bir gùvenin yabancı dilde de sağlanması gerekir. Bu gùveni sağlamanın tek yolu, yabancı dilin dilbilgisini açık maksatlı ôğretmektir. Nitelikli dilbilgisi bilmenin iletiĢimde ôzgùven sağlama gibi olumlu bir gôrevi vardır. Yani hedef dilin dilbilgisini çok iyi bilen ôğrenci, hedef dili endiĢesiz ve yetkin bir biçimde kullanır. Dilin yapıları, sôzlù iletiĢim ve yazılı metin çôzùmùyle ilgili çalıĢmalarda kendisini rahat hisseder. GeçmiĢe gôre gùnùmùzde artık dilbilgisinin iletiĢimi etkileme biçimi daha iyi biliniyor. Dùzenli gôrevler yapan kurallardan oluĢan temel bir niteliği olan dilbilgisi, kendi ôzgùn yapısının daha iyi bilinmesiyle daha verimli ôğretimini de mùmkùndùr. Sôzlù ya da yazılı iletiĢimde dilbilgisinin etkisiyle ilgili yapılan araĢtırma ve deneysel çalıĢmalar, ôğrencilerin ihtiyaçlarına hizmet eden ve sôzlù yapılan yazılı dil analizleri, konuĢma ve dilin temel niteliği olan dilbilgisi kurallarının ôğretiminin zorunlu olduğunu belirlemiĢtir. Pek çok farklı dùzeylerde sınıf içi uygulama araĢtırma ve teknikler de, en iyi dilsel yeterliliğin dilbilgisi ôğretimi içeren yaklaĢımlar olduğu da belirlenmiĢtir. (Biber, 1988). Dil yapılarının içeriksel ve yapısal kullanımı birlikte incelenerek yapıyla anlam arasındaki bağlantıları dilbilgisi analizleriyle belirlenir. Analizler, konuĢma veya yazılı metinlerin içinde çeĢitli etkileĢimsel anlamların nasıl ifade edildiğine ıĢık tutar. Dilbilgisi analizleri, yazılı ve sôzlù ifadelerin dilbilgisi yapılarını ôğretme ve ôğrenmede pratik bir yol da sağlar. Öğrenciler, iletiĢim bağlamlarıyla dilbilgisi arasındaki etkileĢimin nasıl olduğunu, anlam ile sôylem arsındaki iliĢkiyi sosyolinguistik ôzelliklerine bağlı kalarak, anadil yapılarıyla karĢılaĢtırdıklarında değiĢim nasıl olduğunu fark ederler. Ancak sôzlù ve yazılı dil incelemesi yapılabilmesi ve anlaĢılır olması için dilbilgisinin, ôğrencilerin dilsel dùzenliliklerle ilgili iç gôrù elde etmiĢ olmaları gerekir. Dilbilgisel yapıların açıklanmasıyla yabancı dilin, dilbilgisinin ôğretimi, dilin genel yapısı hakkında ôğrenciyi bilgilendirir. Dilbilgisi analizleri çoğu zaman iletiĢim etkinliklerinde kullanılacak yapıların oluĢumunda kilit rol oynar. Örneğin yancùmlelerin ôğretimi, anlamlarına uygun kullanımını, niteliklerini, tùrleriyle ilgili bilgileri ôğrenciler, ôğretmenler ve ders aracı yazarları için bir ôlçù oluĢturabilir. Analiz anlaĢmaları ôğretmenler, ôğretim programları ve ders kitabı yazarları için eğitimin odaklarını belirlemeye yardımcı olabilir. Deneysel araĢtırmalar, doğal yollarla ôğrenilen anadil ile dilbilgisi yoluyla ôğrenilen bir yabancı dilin, farklı mantık sistemiyle kullanıldığını belirlemiĢtir. Bunun için anadilleri farklı olanlar, yabancı bir dili ôğrenirken, dilbilgisi geliĢimi de farklı olur. Bir yabancı dili ôğrenenler, farklı yaĢlarda olursa yabancı dilin dilbilgisini ôğrenmeleri de farklılık gôsterir. Aynı Ģekilde farklı mùktesebatlı yabancı dil ôğrencilerinin ôğrenimi 258 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo de farklı olur. Bir dili ôğrenenler doğal olarak meydana gelen dilbilgisiyle ilgili dùĢùnceleri farklı Ģekillerde ortaya koydukları ve farklı ortamlarda dilin kullanımına tahsis ettiklerini belirlemiĢtir. Bunun için uygulamalı dilbilim, ôğretim araçlarının etkinliğini arttırmak için bulguların zenginliğine gôre ôğretmen ve yôntembilimcilere teknik bir ortam oluĢturmaya çalıĢır. (Ellis & Fotos, 1991). 4. Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisinin Yeri Dilbilgisi ôğretim ve ôğrenimi, ôğrencinin hedef dilin sôzdizimsel sistemini içselleĢtirerek yetkinlikte ve doğrulukta geliĢmesini kolaylaĢtıracak akıcılık geliĢimiyle baĢlamalıdır. ĠletiĢimsel ve etkileĢimsel etkinlikler yoluyla ôğrencilerin ôğrendikleri biçim ùzerine kesin dilbilgisi kuralarının yerleĢtirilmesi gerekir. Öğretimle ilgili mùfredat, kitaplar ve gôrev plânları gibi araçların tùmù sağlıklı dilbilgisi kurallarını gùçlù bir biçimde temsil edilebilecek biçimde dùzenlenmelidir. Sınıf etkinliklerinin etrafında odaklandığı faaliyetlerin tùmù etkili dilbilgisel kullanıma hizmet edecek nitelikte dùzenlenmelidir. Bunlar; ôğretmen ile ôğrenci, ôğrenci ile gôrev arasındaki dilbilgisel yoğun ôğretim maksadıyla etkileĢimsel olarak birbirini desteklemesi gerekir. Öğretmenler, dilbilgisi ôğretimini ilgi çekici faaliyetlerle ôğrencinin Ģahsıyla kiĢiselleĢtirir, baĢarı odaklı faaliyetlerle katılımcı ôğrenmeyle dilbilgisi yeteneklerini geliĢtirebilirler. Aslında katılımcı dilbilgisi ôğrenimi için kesin bağlı kalınması gereken ôzel ôğretim yôntemlerinden daha çok her fırsatın maksada uygun hale getirilerek değerlendirilmesi daha etkili olur. Dilbilgisi ôğretimine bu iĢlevleri kazandırma ôğretmenler, ôğretmen eğitimcileri, yôntembilimciler için en sıkıntılı konulardan biridir. Bir yandan yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisi ôğretimine karĢı Ģiddetli sakındırmaya karĢı, Ġngilizce uzman dil eğitiminin dùnya çapında en ônemli dayanaklarından birinin hala dilbilgisi olması, dilbilgisine karĢı olumsuz tutumların yeniden gôzden geçirilmesini gerektirmektedir. Öyle ki; Ġngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak ôğreten ônde gelen tùm kurumların ôğretim kitapları ve yayın listelerinde dilbilgisi kitapları en baĢta gelmekte ve en çok satan kitaplar arasında yer almaya devam etmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemi, tùm aleyhte tutumlara rağmen hala pek çok ùlkede yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemi olarak kullanılmakta, hatta yabancı dil ôğretiminin çekirdeğini oluĢturmaktadır. Bugùn gelinen noktada, dilbilgisi ve çeviri çalıĢmaları olmaksızın yabancı dil ôğretim uygulamalarının baĢarısız olacağı açıktır. Bu zorunluluktan dolayı dilbilgisine en karĢı yôntemlerde dahi dilbilgisi ôğretimiyle ilgili yeniden bir yumuĢama baĢlamıĢtır. 5. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Öğretiminin Zamanlaması Geleneksel yaklaĢımlar dilbilgisi ôğretiminin, dil ôğretimin ilk baĢlangıç aĢamasında yapılması gerektiği yônùndedir. Ancak bu uygulama ôğrenme alıĢkanlığı oluĢumuyla ilgili davranıĢçı ôğrenme kuramı kaynaklı olduğu için eleĢtirilmiĢtir. Dilbilgisi dilsel yeteneklerle iç içe yoğrulmuĢ bir biçimde ôğretilmelidir. Öğretimin baĢından itibaren aĢamalı ve dilbilgisi kuralları tam ôğretilirse, ôğrenciler daha sonra yanlıĢları unutma, doğrularını ôğrenmek zorunda kalarak emek ve zaman harcamazlar. Bu yol, yabancı dil edinim teorileri tarafından desteklenmese de dilsel "hata, günah gibi sirayet edicidir, her ne pahasına olursa onun sinmesinden kaçınılmalıdır." (Brooks, 1960). Gùnùmùz yabancı dil eğitiminde yaygın karĢılaĢılan hatalar, dil ôğrenim sùreçlerinin hem doğal hem de kaçınılmaz bir sonucu olarak kabul edildiğinden ônemsenmez. Bunun için artık dilsel hataları ônleme maksatlı dilbilgisi ôğretiminin teorik bir dayanağı da kalmamıĢtır. Ancak yabancı dil ôğretiminde hataların aĢırı toleransla karĢılanması, alıĢkanlık oluĢturmasına sebep olmaktadır. Bir dili anadil olarak ôğrenen ve bilinçaltında dilin doğruluk sistemi olanların dahi zaman azman dilsel hatalarını doğrulama aracı olarak kullandıkları dilbilgisinin, bu niteliklerden yoksun ve yabancı dil olarak ôğrendiği için her an doğrulama dùzeneğine sahip biri için gereksiz gôrmek zaten pek doğru olamaz. Bunun için dilbilgisiyle ilgili tartıĢmalar, gereksizliğinden daha çok ôğretim biçimi ve zamanlamasıyla ilgilidir. 6. Görev Odaklı Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Öğretimi Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemi, ôğrencilere yapısal olarak dili doğru kullanma yeteneği kazandırmasına rağmen, genellikle gerçek iletiĢimde kullanma yeteneği eksik ôğrenciler yetiĢtirmekle eleĢtirilir. Hedef dilin dilbilgisi kurallarını, kelime ve diğer bilgilerin tekrar ve ezberlenmesiyle ôğrenimi, konuĢma, okuma ve yazmada en kùçùk bir hatanın dahi hemen dùzeltilmesi gibi yapısal ôğretim yaklaĢımları belirgin ôzelliklerdir. Bu 259 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ôzellikleri de eleĢtirilen Dilbilgisi-Çeviri, dil ôğretiminde son yıllarda tamamen baĢarısız iĢlemi gôrmesine neden olmuĢtur. Ancak dilbilgisi odaklı ôğretimin araĢtırma bulgularıyla yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisinin gerekliliği açıkça ispatlanmıĢ ve dil ôğretiminde; "Sunma, Uygulama ve Üretim" (Presentation, Practice and Production, PPP) yaklaĢımının temelini oluĢturan teori geçerliliğini yitirmiĢtir. Belirli bir biçim ùzerinde aĢırı odaklanmanın neden olduğu ôğrenme ve otomatikleĢme, yani ôğrencilerin ôğretilen Ģeyi sırayla ôğretildiği için ôğrendikleriyle ilgili inanç artık dilbilim ve psikoloji için çok gùvenilir değildir." (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002). Dilbilgisel bilgilerin zayıf kaldığı uygulamaların gùçlendirilmesi için Asya ùlkeleri devlet okullarında geçerli eğilim, ôğretim yôntembilim tùrùnù belirleme ve geliĢimini sağlama maksatlı yapılan giriĢimler, dil ôğretiminin bir birleĢeni olarak dil incelemelerini Ģu esaslara dayandırılması gereğini ortaya koymuĢtur: 1. Dilsel Yapılar: Fonetik, diksiyon, yapıbilim, biçimbilim, sôzdizimi, anlambilim gibi dili oluĢturan tùm yapısal birimlerin ihtiyaçlar ôlçùsùnde bilinmesi gerekir. 2. Durumsal Müktesebatlar: Bir dil birimini çevreleyen, ondan ônce veya sonra gelen, birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim veya birimler bùtùnùnùn kavranması gerekir. Bir sôzùn geliĢi, sôzùn ônù arkası, bağlamı, olaylar, durumlar, iliĢkiler ôrgùsùyle bağlantısı, kısaca her yapının hem gôrùntùsel, hem de anlamsal bir bùtùnlùğù vardır ve bunun sağlanması dil ôğretiminin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. 3. ĠletiĢimsel Uygulamalar: Dil ôğretimi, iletiĢimle bùtùnleĢen bir yapıda anlamlı olur. ĠletiĢim, dilin yapısal ve anlamsal ôgelerinin ôtesinde nitelikler taĢır. Sôzùn nerede sôylendiği, kim tarafından sôylendiği, ne zaman, ne biçimde, neden, nasıl jest mimik ve vùcut dili kullanılarak sôylendiği de ônemlidir. Zaten "iletiĢimsel iĢlev" ya da dilin temel "hedefi" de budur. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisine odaklanama, ôğrenimin Ģu farklı basamaklı ôğrenme sùreci içinde olmasını gerektirir: 1. Girdi: Dilsel ùretime esas oluĢturacak bilgi, dil kullanımını gerçekleĢtirmeye yardımcı olan gùç ve araçların birleĢimi, iletiĢim hazırlıklarıdır. 2. Ġdrak: EdinilmiĢ bilgileri ôğrencinin kendi ôz malı durumuna getirmesi, ôzùmsemesi ve kendi ùsløbuna benzer bir hala getirmesidir. 3. Edinim: Öğrencinin edinilen bilgileri kendi mùlkù haline getirdikten sonra dilediği gibi ùzerinde tasarruf yaparak kullanmasıdır. 4. EriĢim: Edinilen bilgileri her zaman hakkıyla kullanıma açlma yeteneğini kazanma, gerektiğinde bilgilere kolayca ulaĢma, anadil ile hedef dil arasında kolayca bilgi ve kullanım geçiĢleri yapabilme becerisini kazanmaktır. 5. Çıktı: Bu basamağa kadar yapılan iĢlemlerden elde edilen ùrùn, dilsel ùretim maksatlı ortaya çıkan iletiĢimsel sonuçlardır. Yabancı dilin edinim ve kullanım sùreci olan bu beĢ iĢlemin omurgasını dilbilgisi oluĢturur. Bunun için hedef dilin ôğretiminde, biçimin ôğretimine odaklanan bir yôntemin izlenmesi gerekir. Bu ilkeler, aynı zamanda genel anlamda dilsel iletiĢim ôğretiminin de parçaları sayılır. Öğrenci, ôğrenimin her iĢleminde dilbilgisinden mutlaka yararlanır. Yapısal iĢlemler için uygun kelime seçimi, morfoloji bilgisine, cùmle dizimi iĢlemleri için sôzdizimi bilgisine gerek vardır. Doğru yapılı, anlamlı anlatımlı iletiĢim ancak yeterli dilbilgisi bilgisiyle baĢarılabileceğinden ôğretimi de kaçınılmazdır. Sonuç Dilbilgisi-Çeviri her zaman iletiĢim gôrevinin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır ve ondan soyutlanan anlamlı bir iletiĢim etkinliğinin olması mùmkùn değildir. Dilbilgisi-Çevirinin yabancı dil ôğretiminde odak bir gôrevi vardır ve yabancı dil ôğretiminin bu çerçevede biçimlenmesi zorunludur. Vazgeçilemez niteliği sebebiyle determinist dilbilgisi, yùzyıllardır yabancı dil ôğretiminde kullanılmıĢ ve kullanımı devam etmektedir. Geleneksel dilbilgisi dilin; daha soyut mùkemmel bir sistem olması için daha çok, her dilin kendi eski yazılı metinlerinden kuralların sùzùlmesi ve dilin temel birimi ôzelliğini taĢıyan cùmlenin çôzùmlenerek insan davranıĢlarına odak Ģeklinde sistemleĢmesiyle oluĢan kurallar dizisidir. Bu sistemin ôğretimiyle ilgili problemler, onun yok sayılmasıyla çôzùlememiĢ bilâkis artmıĢtır. Öyleyse çôzùm dilbilgisinin programlarda nasıl yer alıp ôğretileceğinin belirlenmesindedir. Hacı Mehmet Zihni Efendinin: "Sözde dilbilgisi, yemekte tuz gibidir" (Efendi, 1991), ôlçùsùyle dilbilgisi ôğretilirse ne yokluğu ne de varlığı problem olur. Dilbilgisi ôğretimine karĢı çıkma yerine bu ôlçùlù yaklaĢım problemin çôzùmùne ônemli katkılar sağlayacağına inanıyoruz. 260 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Biber, D. (1998). Variation across sprtih andwriting. Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press. Brooks, B. (1960). Language and language learning. New York: Harcourt Brace and World. Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Efendi, M. Z. (1991). el-MùĢezzeb fî sarfi ve nahvi lisâni‘l-‗Arab, Ġstanbul, Marifet Yayınları. Herron, C. (1976). An investigation of the effectiveness of using an Advance Organizer in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78. 190–198. Hinkel, Eli; Fotos, Sandra, (2002) New Perspectives On Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms ESL and Applied Linguistics Professional Series, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. New York: Pergamon. 261 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 39 Title A name given to the resource Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ÇağdaĢ Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Vazgeçilemezlik Nedenleri Author Author Doç. Dr. Doğan, Candemir Yrd.Doç.Dr. Doğan, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde kullanılan sistemli ilk yôntem olarak bilinir. Hedef dilin, dilbilgisi kuralları yoluyla ôğretimi ve buna dayalı olarak anadile çeviri yapma yôntemiyle, yabancı dil ôğretme geleneğini baĢlattı, hala değiĢik biçim ve farklı yôntemler içinde varlığını sùrdùrmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dilin ôğretiminde dilin, dilbilgisi sisteminin ôğretilmesi gerekliliği ùzerine kurulmuĢtur. Gùnùmùz çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin hem kaynağı hem de tùm istenmezliğine rağmen yabancı dil ôğretiminin bir vazgeçilemezidir. Bu bildiride yôntemin tamamen birbirine zıt olan kabul ile ret konumları arasına sıkıĢan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde yeri ve değerinin belirlenmesine çalıĢılacaktır. Yôntemin temsil ettiği ya hep ya da hiç iki aĢırı uçlu dùzleminin, kabul tarafında yer alan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin bağımsız bir yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemi olarak yùklendiği iĢlevleri, ôğretim uygulamaları ve ôzellikleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenecektir. Ret yônùnù oluĢturan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemine tepki olarak ortaya çıkan çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemlerinin içinde bile vazgeçilemez bir parça olarak yer almasının nedenleri ayrıntılı olarak belirlenmeye çalıĢılacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics