263 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/083bfc9fc92ec8fa2ab4becc4b2a0006.docx 741fe68f7fe2aaba33dce44d6c436ea5 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ba8440694572cdac64f29da1fab911ee.pdf 1a7afb2c18a17fe2186b2f0fe46ac84b PDF Text Text Teaching Young Learners: The Importance of voice Michael Fennell Arab American University Jenin/ Jenin, Palestine Key words: Young Learners Voice Chant ABSTRACT This workshop will look at the imporatnce of voice in teaching young learners. It is based on an actual lesson given to fourth year students on a Teaching Young Learners course. It will take as its premise a quote from a British voice coach: "Everyone comes into this world with a beautiful voice but then it becomes blocked. The natural voice wants to come through but it gets stopped by the habitual voice." Participants will be led through a series of drama techniques which focus on the voice (taken from Maley and Duff 2009). These will then be applied to a children's chant. After which the participants will be asked to incorporated the chant into a lesson plan. The feedback discussion will focus on the appropriacy of using the activities both in training teachers and in teaching young learners. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1890 Title A name given to the resource Teaching Young Learners: The Importance of voice Author Author Fennell, Michael Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Young Learners Voice Chant ABSTRACT This workshop will look at the imporatnce of voice in teaching young learners. It is based on an actual lesson given to fourth year students on a Teaching Young Learners course. It will take as its premise a quote from a British voice coach: "Everyone comes into this world with a beautiful voice but then it becomes blocked. The natural voice wants to come through but it gets stopped by the habitual voice." Participants will be led through a series of drama techniques which focus on the voice (taken from Maley and Duff 2009). These will then be applied to a children's chant. After which the participants will be asked to incorporated the chant into a lesson plan. The feedback discussion will focus on the appropriacy of using the activities both in training teachers and in teaching young learners. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1078 Title A name given to the resource TEAMWORK -Activities for Communication in English- Author Author AKBAROV, AZAMAT Abstract A summary of the resource. The intent in putting this book together was to provide students with models of language, and ample opportunities to use them meaning fully, purposively, and creatively for self-expression, and thereby to gain practical experience, communicative skills, and confidence in using English. The emphasis is on performance of language through developing ability to "think in English". The requirement is that students actively engage and participate in using language for communication and thereby develop their skills through interaction in English. While emphasis is on fluency development, accuracy practice is also provided through the language modeled and subsequent exercises to help students enhance their communicative competence in using English. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publications Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05-01 Keywords Keywords. Book PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/553ce794e37bbbac64a96c8ce8b1c43e.pdf 8190aa1dfb06e8922bfe2e6bb788694c PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Mladen Rebić, University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina rebicmladen@yahoo.co.uk Nemanja Šarenac University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina nemanja.sarenac@gmail.com Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), as well as many other countries in transition, was faced with inadequate and insufficient technological progress, which is the result of years of neglect of investment in science, research, and new technology. This paper attempts to present the actual situation in B&H in terms of technological progress, innovation and investment in scientific research, as well as to offer basic guidelines for getting out of this difficult situation. B&H is located at the bottom of the all European countries when it comes to innovation, research and new technologies, and consequently it is not surprising that the B&H economy consistently recorded poor results. Investment in research and development and employee education is the primary goal of any successful company, whether it is a small, medium-sized enterprise or oligopoly. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to determine the guidelines i.e. strategic objectives, which will constitute the basis for future progress of B&H in the field of technological progress. Empirical research, which was conducted in order to determine the strategic objectives, has been carried out by using a questionnaire built on a sample of the leading experts in this field in B&H. Keywords: Technological Progress, Innovation, Research and Development, Patents, ICT Index. JEL Classification: L10, L13 Article History Submitted: 16 April 2013 Resubmitted: 1 July 2013 Accepted: 20 November 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEC OSS11424 73 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac Introduction For decades, technological progress has been considered the key pillar of economic development in the world. Consequently, investment in research and development should be the primary goal of every company in B&H, and also the state. The progress and success of one country largely depends on science and technology, research and innovation, but if one wants to talk about the existence of high-quality research and technological competitiveness it is necessary to have sufficiently good educational system, i.e. educated workforce, young scientists, researchers, and so on. However, a good educational system implies the existence of active support and protection by the state! B&H cannot boast with high quality education and with much care to invest in scientific research activities, new technologies, inventions and inventors. The reason why the educational system, research, and thus technological progress in Bosnia and Herzegovina, is in such a desperate position is the lack of adequate support from the state. Finland can be mentioned as a good example of success and taking care of human capital, education, investing in innovation. In the period 1991 – 1995, Finland increased investment in science and education for incredible 82%! The results were impressive. In 1991, Finland was a country with serious problems i, but in 2000 it realized a budget surplus of 7% and an unemployment rate of 10%. Thanks to investment in education and new technologies, Finland regenerated and significantly increased its technological competitiveness, which was driven by rising exports and industrial production. Here, we speak about industry based on information technology (IT industry), innovation and education, i.e. knowledge economy ii. Position of the EU, in this field is not very good, compared to the rest of the world. For many years, the EU has been trying, by size of funds for investment in research and development, to catch up with the U.S. and Asian countries especially iii. It suffices to say that in the top twenty companies in the world, by number of innovations, EU has only two firms - German Siemens and Finnish Nokia. It should be mentioned that the lead story on this topic belongs to companies from the U.S., followed by Japan and South Korea. Consequently, EU decision to establish "Innovation Union" is no surprise. The main task of “Innovation Union” will be to raise competitive readiness of the EU compared to the rest of the world in the field of technological progress, i.e. investment in research and development. 74 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Therefore, it is necessary for B&H to begin to follow the path already headed by Finland, Turkey, China, India and so on. It is necessary to pay more attention to education, scientific research, new technologies, as well as to prevent the outflow of "brains" from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The fact is that progress in the field of new technologies and technological progress in B&H is not possible without adequate help and support from the state. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a very small investment in science, research and development, and therefore it is very important that the already meager funding available is not put into the wrong hands. Help from the state should primarily be directed towards firms (entrepreneurs) who are willing to invest their capital in research and development, employment, local and regional development, in order to stimulate economic growth and technological progress. What are these companies? Which market structures do they belong to? The first part of this paper will try to provide an answer to these questions, in order to give guidance in which direction the government support should be directed when it comes to research, innovation and technological progress. In fact, all major research and analyses carried out in this area are based on the hypothesis of Schumpeter (1928, 1942), which is based on the fact that most of the innovations are implemented by large companies (monopolies). Attention will be based on Schumpeter hypothesis, and the paper will try to come to the knowledge what size of the company (the market structure) is most prepared for serious investment in research and development, i.e. implementation of innovative activities. On the one hand, there is the attitude of Schumpeter that favors highly concentrated markets, i.e. large firms and on the other hand, especially in recent times, there are more and more supporters of the opposite position involving that the greatest willingness to invest in research and development is shown in the small and medium-sized companies - competitive market structures. It is known that the EU is on its way to increase technological competitiveness, giving special attention and support to small and medium enterprises. In fact, there are serious indications that the oligopoly is the most appropriate and best market structure, and also the fastest market structure to implement certain innovative activities. Due to the loose connection of scientific and business sector, universities and the private sector, the constant neglect of the importance of technological progress, B&H is very low positioned in the field of technological readiness and innovation, which is discussed in the second part of this paper. 75 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac In the end, the paper will talk about ICT index, as one of many indices that will enable us to study the competitor readiness and B&H position, relative to other countries in the region and the world, in the field of technological readiness and progress. Market Concentration and Innovation Schumpeter's hypothesis ‘’The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new products, new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates.’’ (Schumpeter, 1942) As it has been already announced in the introduction of this paper, the starting point of its analysis is Schumpeter's hypothesis, from his work "Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy" (Schumpeter 1942), that larger firms invest more in research and development. Schumpeter’s view was based on the fact that the existence of large firms and their market power are the basis for the implementation of large-scale plans. According to Schumpeter large firms represent "the engine of economic progress." However, the main problem of this approach to the problem might be the fact that Schumpeter never explicitly explained why the big companies are better innovators. On the other hand, Schumpeter has provided two complex arguments - hypotheses (Hutschenreiter, Leo, 1994: 52): • Innovations increase more than proportionally with the size of the company, • Innovations increase along with the increase of concentration. During the past few decades, many experts in this field have tested these arguments. The results to which most of them came are that they could not fully confirm the claims of Schumpeter. The small company also may have a relative advantage in innovation in terms of highly innovative industries, in which highly educated workers are essential components. Also, small firms have a relative advantage in innovation when it comes to radical innovation, and also where production is more labor-intensive than 76 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development capital-intensive. Under these conditions, and if there are no significant barriers to market entry, a small company can access particular industry with more competitive and flexible ideas, products and manufacturing processes, challenging the domicile companies and continuously disrupting the existing patterns of production in a given industry. The advantage of small businesses rely on the idea that firms with high market power usually become "lethargic" in an effort to adapt to certain changes in technology, and that they are more concerned about maintaining the current technological development rather than initiating new investments in process innovation iv. On the other hand, large firms have an advantage in innovation in industries that are capital-intensive, and concentrated, and have the production of differentiated products. Large companies have also advantages in innovation when the environment is stable, where the tastes are not changing fast, and where the product is standardized. Under these circumstances, specialization provides cumulative advantage to current leaders, which allows large companies to achieve abnormal profit, which they will be able to use later for the enormous investment in research and development, and also for the hiring of professional managers and engineers. Large firms possess more assets compared with small firms. Consequently, large firms more easily access loans with more favorable interest rate, they are also capable to quickly reduce their operating costs and invest more in innovation - that finally would lead to the reduction of production costs. All mentioned advantages that large firms can achieve are usually converted to barriers for entry of small firms (Mazzucato, 2000: 33-34). It is certain that Schumpeter's arguments are not entirely acceptable. On of the reasons to be noted here is the diversity and specificity of certain industries. Of course, there are industries in which large firms are the leading innovators (aluminum, computer equipment - software), and on the other hand, there are industries in which the size of the company means greater investment in research and development (steel). It should be noted, that the well-known experts in this field such as Mason, Galbraith, even Schumpeter, did not provide an empirical study with which they could provide answer to the aforementioned dilemma. Yet we can conclude that large firms can be considered as engines of economic growth and development of a country, although they are not exclusively and only the greatest innovators. In the end, it is necessary to mention the term "creative destruction", originating from Schumpeter, where he tried to describe the economic impact of technological 77 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac change. The term creative meant the introduction of new technologies in manufacturing processes that would lead to the reduction of production costs, as well as provide new services and products. However, on the other hand, there is the destructive aspect of technological change. The introduction of new technologies inevitably leads to the question of domicile market power of firms that remained faithful to the old, less efficient, technologies. Creative destruction, therefore, rewards successful innovators and at the same time punishes those firms whose technology is obsolete (Lipczynski, 2005: 496). Firm size and innovation Readiness for the implementation of the research project, the timing of innovation and the nature of patent competition are determined by the market structure in manufacturing and research industries. There are two links between market structure (firm size) and innovation. First, the patent allows the innovator to exercise some market power on the basis of innovation - competitive (small) firms. Second, firms with some market power can prevent the entry of new firms into the market and potential mimicking by defensive patents, or retain their power through the introduction of new products - monopoly (Carlton, Perloff, 2005: 560). When it concerns the size of the company, there are usually two extreme cases meant: small firms (competitive market) and large companies (monopolies). The largest number of executed analyzes take the competitive and monopoly market structure as a base for establishing the importance of the interaction between firm size and innovation. However, this mater should seriously include oligopolistic market structures. Why? It is due to the irrefutable arguments that oligopolies are the very market structure - the size of the company which is facing the most innovation. The oligopolies have adequate market power, and thus can have abnormal, i.e. extra profit. Given the market structure to which they belong, they are very prone to innovation, because it is one of the fundamental aspects of their fight against close competitors, and so on. No one can deny these arguments! But in order to better "understand" the very core of the problem, we will start from the beginning. Monopolies have the best position for innovative activities. The key question that arises here is: Do monopolists need and want to invest in research and development? The answer to this question would be: It depends on the possible competition! Monopolies have a great market power, abnormal profits, low investment risk, low 78 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development degree of diffusion v, the lack of competitive pressure, etc. In other words, monopolies have the money, time and space, which may enable certain technological progress. However, in most cases, monopolies’ decision is not to invest in new technologies, except when faced with potential competitive pressure. Monopolies are usually, due to absence of competition, "put to sleep" - safe market, profit - simply they have no desire to change anything. One of the problems that monopolists often face is a growing bureaucracy, which usually leads to their technical inefficiency. In addition, if the monopolist achieved its current market position based on an earlier successful innovation usually there appears the so-called attachment to existing technology and the shift to another - a new technology is usually considered by the monopoly as a too expensive move. In accordance with the foregoing, it can be concluded that monopolies are not a market structure that most invests in research and development (Lipczynski, 2005: 498). On the contrary, monopolies are often prone to quite opposite strategy. Monopolies decide not to engage in innovative race with the other participants, waiting for the competitors to carry a serious and compelling innovation. After confirmation of innovation as very successful and profitable, monopolies step into action. Thanks to their market and financial power, and already established “brand” - consumer confidence - monopolies easily copy given innovation and take most (almost all) of the profits from the initial innovators. Companies in competitive markets (small companies) have a strong desire to invest in new technologies, because the provision of a new product or production process with lower costs is one of the most effective ways to cope with the extremely tough competition in the market. However, unfortunately, firms in competitive markets are faced with the fact that they can earn only normal profits, leaving them little room to invest in high risk investments. Small firms are also faced with a large degree of diffusion, which further negatively affects their willingness to invest in new technologies. Monopolist usually has only a few research teams, while in a competitive market there exist a lot more of research teams, which compete with each other – who will first succeed to get innovation. Consequently, the conclusion can be drawn that successful innovation could be provided by a competitive market structure rather than by monopolies. Therefore, between monopolies and competitive market, we prefer a competitive market (small businesses). 79 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac Regardless of the strong desire for innovation, competitive market structure is not an ideal solution for innovative activities. Why? It is due to the fact that a large number of competitors operate within a given market structure and they are ready to quickly copy the successful innovation, and therefore, for a short period of time substantially reduce the profit of the company which had originally introduced innovation to the market. After consideration of two basic market structures, attention is going to be paid to the third oligopolistic market structure. Of course, the inclusion of an oligopoly into the consideration further complicates the situation, because oligopolies are just somewhere between the monopoly and competitive market. Two things are important in terms of investing in research and development: the ability of investment (financial, infrastructure) and willingness - mood to invest. So far, it can be concluded that: • monopolies have great opportunities (capital) for investment, but weak – moderate willingness to invest; • perfectly competitive firms have great desire and willingness to invest, but they have little opportunity for it (low - normal profits); • oligopolies possess moderate vi - large investment opportunities, as well as the greatest desire and willingness to invest in new technologies. Based on the above arguments, it can be concluded that oligopolies have the advantage over the monopoly and perfectly competitive firms. The proofs of the previous claim are the industries in which the biggest global oligopolies rule: computer equipment, cars, tires, electronics, cigarettes, beer, power turbines, aircraft, etc. We can claim with high confidence that the large profits achieved in this industry can be used to invest in new technologies. It is known that oligopolies are constantly faced with competitive pressure, and that is why they see investment in new technology as the only successful solution of this competitive struggle. It should be noted that the oligopolies face less degree of diffusion than it is the case with competing firms. Thus, oligopolies have market power, high profits, and great willingness to invest in new technologies because of the constant competitive pressure, the strong interdependence between competitors and the moderate degree of diffusion - as opposed to a competitive market, and so on. The conclusion simply suggests itself: oligopolies are the size of the firm that has the best conditions and the reasons for investing in new technologies. It should also be noted that companies 80 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development that have a market share between 20 – 30% achieve the best results in the field of innovation and patent record, and they are oligopolistic firms. The following table shows the top ten firms in the United States, which achieved the highest number of patents in 2006 along with their ranking in 2005 and 2004. It is important for this study that all ten companies are big companies, of whom the vast majority operate in an oligopolistic market with only a few large firms. Looking at this table, we can draw the conclusion that large firms (oligopoly) in concentrated markets are more innovative (Pepall, Richards and Norman, 2008: 573-574). Table 1. Top ten companies in the largest number of U.S. patents in 2006, and their ranking in 2005 and 2004 Firm International Business Machines Samsung Electronics Canon Kabushiki Kaisha Matsushita Electric Industrial Hewlett – Packard Intel Corporation Sony Corporation Hitachi Toshiba Corporation Micron Technology Number of patents in 2006 3,621 Rang in 2005 1 Rang in 2004 1 2,451 2,366 2,229 2,099 1,959 1,771 1,732 1,672 1,610 5 2 4 3 7 12 8 9 6 3 4 2 6 5 7 8 9 11 Source: Lynne Pepall, Dan Richards and George Norman, 2008. The link between market structure, time and innovation Finally, in addition to the possibility and willingness to invest, it is necessary to take into consideration another important factor - the time of implementation of research programs. When it concerns oligopoly, where there exists a strong interdependence between competitors, the speed has a big impact on the possible success or failure of a particular research project. If the research process is going too slowly, competitors can implement a similar idea before, and take over the patent. However, if the research process is carried out too quickly, it usually leads to some errors, higher costs, but also to less worry about protecting the very idea of imitation - all of these events will inevitably lead to failure in achieving the benefits of their own 81 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac investments (Lipczynski, 2005: 503). Given that consideration includes the cost and time, the time - costs analysis represents ideal solution for eliminating concerns when making investment decisions. This analysis usually takes into consideration the present value of the costs and the present value of benefits. Therefore, it is necessary to find the optimal time for technological development and market structure that is closest to meeting given optimum time for the successful realization of the research project, based on the time - costs analysis. Figure 1. The optimal time for technological development Source: Waldman, Jensen, 2007: 477 The analysis of the previous graph shows that the present value of the costs of developing an innovation is labeled as a curve Cpv (Cost Present Value), where costs are reduced as the development time increases. The present value of benefits from the development of the innovation is labeled as a curve Bpv (Benefit Present Value), which is used to reduce the time required for development increases. Socially optimal time is achieved when the value of the marginal benefits equals the value of marginal costs, for the time To. On this point (To), vertical distance between the two listed curves (profit) is maximized (Waldman, Jensen, 2007: 477). 82 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development After getting acquainted with the manner of determining the optimal time for the development of an innovation, we will first conduct an analysis of a dominant firm and a competitive small firm, and then include oligopoly in consideration as well. Figure 2. Time, costs and benefits of innovators: Monopoly versus small firms Source: Shepherd, 2004: 115 In the Graph 2, it is assumed that there is a base curve that will represent the ratio of the time-cost (TCi) for a given innovation in a given industry. Let's say that this is a radical innovation, new models of mobile phones. This innovation can be implemented quickly with considerably higher research costs or slower and therefore make less research costs. Now, we are going to concentrate on our case, monopolies and small businesses. Monopoly will expect the highest profits from innovation only at some future period. This position is represented by the graph 2, the total revenue curve TRm, 83 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac which is the total revenue that a monopoly could exercise on the basis of a given innovation. It can be noted that the curve is high, reflecting the size of the revenues. It can also be noticed that the given curve is almost a horizontal line, due to the fact that the monopoly has no fear of a possible takeover of innovation and the related future profits from foreign competition. The advantage of monopoly actually lies in the given fact, the dominant firm can realize innovation slowly, and again "grab" a bigger share of profit. However, this is not the case with a small firm. At the start, a small company can expect less revenue from the same innovation, simply because they start as a firm with lower market share. Small firms are now faced with the fear of the fact that other small firms can realize first a given innovation, or copy it very quickly and so grab profits for themselves. For these reasons, the curve of the total income of a small firm is designated as TRc, and it is much steeper and lower than the monopoly one, barely above TCi in a short period of time. Each firm will maximize its profit when the marginal costs are equal to the marginal revenue. When MC = MR, the vertical distance between the curves is maximized. As for the monopoly, it is time Tm, presented as 15 years. For a small business, time is much shorter Tc, and it is represented as 5 years. Small company is also faced with significantly higher costs in the amount of KM 100 million, as opposed to monopoly in which the cost was KM 50 million. Consequently, and due to the fact that it possesses more market power, monopoly has been able to appropriate much more revenue than KM 200 million, and therefore much higher profit of KM 150 million. Small company generated revenue of KM 120 million, and a smaller profit of KM 20 million (Shepherd 2004: 114). If the consumer surplus is taken as a criterion, small innovator imposes as a faster and better solution vii. In these circumstances, the innovation will be implemented by small firms. However, monopolies usually prefer to deliberately "drag" the research process, to make room for the small firms to face the investment risks and the risk of implementation of new ideas. If monopoly notices that some of the ideas implemented by small businesses are successful and profitable, it will react quickly copy a given innovation in order to catch up and to achieve complete ejection of small innovators from the market. This move of monopolies is commonly called "fast - the second" strategy viii (Shepherd 2004: 115). In the former case, the study has analyzed the behavior of monopoly and small competitive firms, assuming that the investment costs are eligible for both participants. It has been found that the small company will carry a given innovation 84 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development for several reasons ix. However, the harsh reality says otherwise. Usually high costs of investing in the development of new innovations represent a stumbling block for small competitive firms. That is why they are out of the race compared to oligopolies x. Thus, oligopolies emerge as a market structure, which is able to implement research projects in the optimal time possible. Now let us attempt to introduce next graphics. Figure 3. The link between the market structure and the time required for technological progress Source: Waldman, Jensen, 2007: 479 This analysis needs the curve of the present value of costs (Cpv), development of given innovation, as well as three curves of the present value of the benefits provided by the development of innovation (Bm, Bc, Bol). The three curves for three different market structures: monopoly (Bm), a small competitive firms (Bc), and oligopolies (Bol). The assumption that the cost function is independent of changes in market structure is understandable, because it is primarily a function of technological 85 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac knowledge and input. On the other hand, the curve varies with the change in market structure. As it can be seen in the graph number 3, the optimal time for the development of innovations in the monopoly is (Tm), and it is higher than in the case of oligopoly (Tol). For small competitive firms, total costs exceed total benefits of given innovation, so there will be no investment (Waldman, 2007: 479). The curve of the present value of the benefits of monopoly Bm is presented as the tallest and straightest. As it has already been said, regardless of the timing of actual innovation, monopolies achieve the greatest benefit because of their largest market share and the minimum degree of diffusion xi. As for the competitive firm, its present value curve is the lowest and steepest. The reason for this is a very small market share of small firms, as well as the highest degree of diffusion. Small firms typically generate smallest benefits of innovation, and the reason for that is the rapid implementation of the innovation process (short time frame). Curve Bc is very vertical, and the reason for this lies in the fact that any delay in presenting new innovations in the market increases the likelihood that another company will imitate a given innovation. Finally, let us analyze the participation of oligopoly. Its curve Bol - present value of the benefits, lies between the previous two curves, because the oligopoly has a larger market share than the competitive companies - but less than monopoly, and because it confronts a moderate degree of diffusion (Waldman, 2007: 478). So, after analyzing all of the above, it can be noticed that the oligopoly allows for the fastest level of technological progress in most cases. Of course, it is possible that the oligopoly gives up the race if the investment costs are much higher. Then only a monopoly can be the bearer of innovation. The fact is that some innovations do not require large investment, so in that case the small competitive firms emerge as carriers of innovation. However, it is the fact that investment costs are usually higher (in many cases) than small firms can bear, and yet they are not abnormally large that only monopolies can bear it. So, an oligopolistic firm represents market structure that usually provides the fastest level of technological progress. What does it mean to Bosnia and Herzegovina? Given the very difficult situation in the country in terms of investment in research and development, and innovation, it is logical that B&H needs a quick solution to this important problem. Companies that can provide the fastest progress in the field 86 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development of technological progress are oligopolistic firms. Thus, in addition to small and medium-sized enterprises that have been already in the focus of the state, any oligopolistic firm in B&H, which is ready to seriously invest in research and development, should be supported and assisted by the government. However, the fact is that in B&H operates a small number of oligopolistic firms, which in turn shifts the focus of the development of technological competitiveness to small and medium-sized enterprises. Technological Progress and Innovation in Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina has made some progress in the field of research and innovation policies. The participation in the Seventh Framework Program for Research (FP7) increased, and teamed with COST and EUREKA. The government has provided funding for entities that prepare projects for FP7, COST and EUREKA. However, administrative and research capacity for taking full advantage of the opportunities offered by European programs and resources to actively stimulate the scientific community is still weak. Efforts have been made to integrate into the European Research Area and the EU contribution to innovation. Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the EURAXESS network aimed at ensuring the mobility of researchers, and the umbrella organization that coordinates the domestic network EURAXESS was established at the Banja Luka University. There is a slightly increased allocation of funding for research, modernization of infrastructure, equipment and publishing, particularly accessing COBISS library information system. The Republic of Srpska and other entities have increased investment in research and development. However, the level of investment in research remains low in general, particularly in private sector investment. As the entities and cantonal policies are financed from their budgets, it is difficult to direct research policy and avoid fragmentation, which is one of the key objectives of the ERA. There are no reliable statistics of scientific and technological progress. The economic recovery of Bosnia and Herzegovina is slow and under the influence of long years of continuous unfavorable economic and political conditions and unstable economic environment, problems and difficulties caused by the global economic crisis, with the decline in industrial production, high unemployment and the trade deficit being some of the main difficulties in faster recovery and development. Technological readiness and innovation of B&H in comparison with 87 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac other countries in the world can be indirectly drawn from data from the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report for 2013. According to the "GCI 2012-2013" B&H occupies 88th place out of 144 countries (Sierra Leone and Burundi were the last ones), which is an improvement compared to 2012 when B&H was at the 100th place out of 142 countries. It should be noted that the progress of the 12 places is equivalent to an increase of 0.1 rating points, which in any case would not be considered as a success. Progress on this year's list has not been achieved through implemented reforms and qualitative improvements, but it is largely determined by the lower results of other countries. B&H ranking viewed by items of interest for technological development is shown in Table 1. Table 2. Position of B&H in the field of technological readiness and innovation according to the Global Competitiveness Report for the period 2009-2012 GCI Indicator for Bosnia and Hertzegovinia Technological readiness Availability of latest technologies Firm-level technology absorption FDI and technology transfer Internet users Broadband Internet subscriptions Internet bandwidth Mobile broadband Innovation Capacity for innovation Quality of scientific research institutions Company spending on R&D University-industry collaboration in R&D Gov’t procurement of advanced tech products Availability of scientists and engineers Utility patents per million population GCI 2010 (of 134) GCI 2011 (of 139) GCI 2012 (of 142) GCI 2013 (of 142) 95 122 131 115 50 56 131 121 126 122 130 129 122 71 85 116 119 102 59 56 71 120 116 104 104 117 116 115 69 73 105 107 117 44 51 56 104 124 98 96 84 109 68 90 68 89 105 98 42 51 66 70 99 101 72 90 48 94 48 50 Source: WEF. (2009,2010, 2011, 2012) Indicators, primarily, indicate a weak association of scientific and economic sectors. Positive developments have been observed over the past three years in technological readiness and innovation. In general, the current situation in B&H is not even close to satisfactory, and in some ways it is the reflection of the overall socio-economic 88 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development status, and also a very low awareness of the importance of technological progress in the development of the society. Regarding The Networked Readiness Index - NRI that measures the propensity of the country to seize the opportunities offered by information technology, Bosnia and Herzegovina is at the 84th position. This position is not due to lack of development of infrastructure and skills of their populations, but is a result of poor political and business environment, the lack of adoption of new technologies (by the public and private sector) and low socio-economic impact of ICT (Figure 4). In addition, there is a serious weakness in its Innovation System, which needs to be restructured and expanded, because it interferes with its ability to use ICT for deeper economic and social changes. Figure 4. Network readiness index of B&H for 2012. Source: WEF, (2012b.) 89 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac The Lisbon review rates Bosnia and Herzegovina as the lowest ranked country. Out of the eight areas to be evaluated, B&H has the worst rating in six. Only in the areas of innovation and network industries, Albania occupies the lower position than B&H. Application of ICT Development Index Unique ICT development (ICT Development Index - IDI) compares developments in the field of ICT in 155 countries. The index is produced in response to calls from ITU Member States to consolidate previous ITU indices into one index, in order to follow the development of the information society. The main index objectives are to survey: • Levels and the evolution of ICT development over time; • Progress in ICT development in both developed and developing countries; • Digital gap, i.e. the difference between countries with different levels of ICT Development; • Development potential of ICT and the extent to which the government can use ICT to enhance growth and development, based on the available capabilities and skills. Development ICT Index consists of 11 indicators grouped into three subgroups: ICT infrastructure and access, ICT efficiency (primarily by individuals and households and businesses) and the intensity of use of ICT and education (human capacity required for the use of ICT). Table 3. Indicators Index ICT development ICT access 1. Fixed-telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 2. Mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 3. International Internet bandwidth (bit/s) per Internet user 4. Percentage of households with a computer 5. Percentage of households with Internet access ICT use 6. Percentage of individuals using the Internet 7. Fixed (wired)-broadband Internet subscriptions per 100 inhab. 8. Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhab. 90 40% 40% Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development ICT skills 9. Adult literacy rate 10. Secondary gross enrolment ratio 11. Tertiary gross enrolment ratio 20% Source: ITU, (2011.) Globally speaking, most progress has been made in the area of ICT access, which includes indicators relating to the fixed (wired) and mobile telephony, Internet bandwidth and volume of households with computers and Internet. Slower progress is achieved regarding the use of information and communication technology, which includes a number of indicators of Internet users, the number of fixed and mobile telephony, and so on. There is still very little progress in most countries in broadband access as the latest technology. The results show that the most developed countries in the top ten come from Europe, except for the Republic of Korea and Japan. Differences between countries are small, but it can be seen that Korea, Sweden and Denmark stand out from the rest. Opportunities for the development of ICT in these countries are truly remarkable. Looking at the first thirty countries, except the U.S. and Canada, all countries come from Europe or East Asia. The index is linked to a high-income countries and the strong correlation between the level of development of ICT and the gross domestic product. Countries with the most dynamic development in ICT Development Index, in the past period, include: Kazakhstan, Brazil, Rwanda (7 places), Bahrain (5 places or 0.66 points), Saudi Arabia (6 places or 0.62 points), Ghana (4 places - with IDI change for 23%). Table 4. ICT Development Index for 2008, 2010 and 2011 Country Republic of Korea Sweden Denmark Iceland Finland Netherland Luxembourg Japan United Kingdom Switzerland Rank 1 2 3 7 12 5 4 11 10 9 IDI 2008 7.80 7.53 7.46 7.12 6.92 7.30 7.34 7.01 7.03 7.06 Rank 1 2 4 3 5 9 7 13 10 8 IDI 2010 8.40 8.23 7.97 8.06 7.87 7.61 7.78 7.42 7.60 7.67 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 IDI 2011 8.56 8.34 8.29 8.17 8.04 7.82 7.76 7.76 7.75 7.68 91 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac Hong Kong (China) Singapore Norway United States Germany New Zealand France Austria Ireland Australia Canada Belgium Estonia Slovenia Spain Italy Poland Czech Republic Greece Lithuania Latvia Portugal Russian Federation Slovakia Hungary Croatia Cyprus Belarus Serbia Bulgaria Romania TFYR Macedonia Bosna and Herzegovina Ukraine Turkey Albania Niger 6 15 8 17 13 16 18 21 19 14 20 22 28 24 25 26 38 37 30 35 39 29 49 40 34 36 43 58 47 45 46 52 63 59 60 81 152 7.14 6.71 7.12 6.55 6.87 6.65 6.48 6.41 6.43 6.78 6.42 6.31 5.81 6.19 6.18 6.10 5.95 5.97 5.70 5.44 5.31 5.70 4.42 5.30 5.47 5.43 5.02 3.93 4.51 4.75 4.67 4.20 3.58 3.83 3.81 2.99 0.79 6 19 11 17 15 12 18 16 23 14 26 22 33 24 25 28 41 37 30 35 40 28 47 39 34 31 36 52 50 49 48 53 63 62 59 78 151 7.79 7.08 7.60 7.09 7.27 7.43 7.09 7.17 6.78 7.36 6.69 6.83 6.16 6.75 6.73 6.57 5.29 5.42 6.28 6.04 5.90 6.57 5.38 5.94 6.04 6.21 5.98 5.01 5.11 5.19 5.20 4.98 4.31 4.31 4.42 3.61 0.92 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 28 29 31 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 44 46 48 51 52 54 63 67 69 80 155 7.68 7.66 7.52 7.48 7.39 7.34 7.30 7.10 7.09 7.05 7.04 6.89 6.81 6.70 6.62 6.28 6.19 6.17 6.14 6.06 6.06 6.05 6.00 5.86 5.77 5.75 4.73 5.57 5.40 5.20 5.13 5.05 4.53 4.40 4.38 3.78 0.88 Source: ITU, (2012.) (Adapted) 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Bosnia and Herzegovina is still at the bottom of all countries in the region, although according to a new report B&H has moved from middle group to a more advanced group of IDI countries. Otherwise, in the report there are four groups: highly advanced, advanced, intermediate and groups with lower levels of the index. Bosnia and Herzegovina has successfully improved its level of ICT, more than countries with similar previous values. It has achieved an improvement by 0.95 points in 2011, compared to 2008, but it stays at the same place (63rd position). B&H has achieved the greatest progress in the second sub-index use of ICT. ICT skills remained at the same level, and access to ICT recorded the worst result. Out of the neighboring countries, only Albania has worse result than Bosnia and Herzegovina. Empirical Research The prime objective of this paper is to determine what are the strategic guidelines, according to the opinion of relevant experts, which represent the key to the improvement of technological progress in B&H. The main goal of this research is to contribute to the development of knowledge about the importance of the set guidelines, which can significantly improve the competitive position of B&H in relation to the region - in terms of technological progress. The empirical research was conducted through a survey of a sample of relevant specific experts in B&H. Interviewed experts were asked to assess the extent to which the following strategic guidelines are relevant to the improvement of technological progress B&H. There were 20 respondents (experts) to the given questionnaire xii, of which 75% were employed in the public sector and 25% in private sector. The following table shows the analysis of the importance of the proposed objectives. 93 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac Table 5. Analysis of the importance of the strategic guidelines for the improvement of technological progress in B&H Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. The importance of technological progress and adoption of new technologies for economic growth and development B&H The importance of active state support to education system, human capital and research The importance of oligopoly firms in research and development activity and investment in new technologies The importance of cooperation between Universities and business sector Not at all important Not important No opinion Is important The most important l 0% 0% 10% 20% 70% 100% 0% 0% 0% 20% 80% 100% 0% 0% 25% 20% 55% 100% 0% 0% 20% 30% 50% 100% Source: Research by author 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Analyzing the table above, it can be concluded that none of the guidelines got a response is not at all important and not important, and the small number of respondents had no opinion. This fact shows the significance of the above mentioned guidelines for the technological development of B&H. When we look at answer very important, it can be noticed that all guidelines were assessed at 50% or more, of which the guideline the importance of active state support to education system, human capital and research achieved the best result. When the final results of the survey on a sample of relevant experts are analyzed, almost the same conclusions can be made as the ones previously mentioned in this study. Conclusion Investment in research and development of new technologies by the state - firm, provides them a technological advantage and superiority over those states - firms that do not take action in that field. If looked at all of the most developed countries in the world, it can be noticed that they are precisely characterized by heavy investment in the development of new technologies and ideas in general. Any country that provides decent and constant investing in research and development will provide continuous annual technological progress, which implies further strengthening of the standard of living of the population and the country's competitive position in the world. Which market structure efficiently implements innovative activities and adopts new technologies? After considering all the facts, the conclusion is that it is oligopoly market structure (oligopolistic firms). On the one hand, monopolies do not have enough interest to include themselves into such a risky investment, but on the other hand, firms in competitive markets (small and medium enterprises) have plenty of interest, but they have little market power, they are moneyless, they have high risk, high possibility of a quick imitation etc. For these reasons it is necessary to pay more attention to oligopolies, because that market structure has sufficient market power, a sufficient amount of money needed for investment, high willingness to innovate, and eventually, a moderate risk of imitation. It can be said that the situation is very bad for B&H and its position in the field of technological progress, investment in research and development. According to all the relevant parameters, B&H is at the very bottom of the rankings related to innovation, technological progress, patents and so on. Of course, this result is not 95 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac surprising, because this country makes "miserable" investments in research and development, and science in general. To move forward, it is necessary to change the approach that B&H has to science, research and technological progress, but also awareness of companies in B&H. The largest number of firms in B&H looks at investment in research and development as one big expense and risk, rather than as an opportunity for future benefits and increase of the competitive position in the European and world markets. It is noted that B&H companies will never be competitive on the world market if they allow obsolescence of their production technology and if they continue to offer products with poor quality on the European and world markets. The results of the ICT Development Index for Bosnia and Herzegovina are not satisfactory. B&H is at the 63rd place, although it recorded a growth of ICT index. Taking into consideration the neighboring countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina has improved a result only in relation to Albania. Furthermore, the results show that out of 155 observed countries, the Scandinavian countries achieved best results. The top ten countries in 2011 come from Europe, with the exception of the Republic of Korea and Japan. The survey shows that most experts share the same opinion on the relevance of the strategic guidelines for the improvement of technological progress in B&H. Interviewed experts awarded the top mark to the guideline which is entitled the importance of active state support to education system, human capital, and research. In order to remedy this bad situation, B&H must take measures to improve technological and business infrastructure. Modern scientific and technological innovation and business improvement cannot be ensured without adequate human resources, scientific research institutions, ICT equipment and systems, the relevant databases, incubation centers and technology parks, networking of all stakeholders in the country, and last but not least, all this cannot exist without adequate financial investments. It is necessary to encourage the use of modern ICT and accelerate development of information society in B&H. In order to increase innovation and competitiveness of its economy, B&H needs to strengthen technological innovation activities and link them with firms, and in that way speed up necessary changes. It should also encourage the employment of highly educated people in the economy and increased cooperation with research and educational institutions. Inclusion in the world of scientific research trends, international cooperation, as well as better 96 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development integration into the European Research Area is a key aspect of further development. To improve the design and monitoring of adopted policies to increase competitiveness and innovation it is needed to build effective institutions, following the European model, which monitor and direct the business sector. Managing of these processes means planning, organizing and directing the human and capital resources to new knowledge and ideas that create a successful production, new products and services and therefore a more competitive position of B&H in the world. Therefore, if it wants to move away from the bottom of the list and become competitive with other countries in the region, it is necessary to: provide greater investment in science and research in general by the state, provide constant encouragement and stimulating of scientific research, increase investment in research and training of companies’ personnel, promote extensively through seminars the importance of investing in research and development, etc. References Pepall, Lynne; Richards,Dan and Norman, George. (2008) Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Empirical Applications. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Shepherd, William G. and Shepherd, Joanna M.. (2004) The Economics of Industrial Organization – Fifth Edition. Long Grove: Waveland Press, Inc. Waldman, Don E. and Jensen, Elizabeth J. (2007) Industrial Organization: theory and practice – 3rd ed. Boston: Addison Wesley. Davies, Stephen and Lyons, Bruce. (1996) Industrial Organization in the European Union: Structure, Strategy, and the Competitive Mechanism. New York: Oxford University Prec Inc. Casson, Mark and Creedy, John. (1993) Industrial Concentration and Economic Inequality. Hants: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Mansfield, Edwin. (1964) Monopoly Power and Economic Performance: An Introduction to a Current Issue of Public Policy. New York: Norton and Company. Reinganum, Jennifer F. (2000) Uncertain Innovation and the Persistence of Monopoly. Readings in Industrial Organization. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 97 �Mladen Rebić, Nemanja Šarenac Rebic, Mladen. (2010) The Importance and Speed of Technological Changes and Investment in Research and Development. Tehnološke inovacije generator privrednog razvoja - Zbornik radova Međunarodnog naučno-stručnog skupa. Banja Luka: Privredna komora RS. Hutschenreiter, Gernot and Hannes, Leo. (1994) Empirical Evidence on Schumpeterian Hypothesis in Austria. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Mazzucato, Mariana. (2000) Firm Size, Innovation and Market Structure: The Evolution of Industry Concentration and Instability. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Carlton, Dennis W. & Perloff, Jeffrey M. (2005) Modern Industrial Organization Fourth Edition. Boston: Addison Wesley. Lipczynski, John; Wilson, John and Goddard, John. (2005) Industrial Organization: Competition, Strategy, Policy – 2nd Edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Utton, M. A. (2003) Market Dominance and Antitrust Policy – Second Edition. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. European Commission. (2011) Bosnia and Herzegovina 2011 progress Report. Brussels ITU. (2012) Measuring the Information Society. Geneva WEF. (2009) The Global Competitiveness Report 2009–2010. Geneva WEF. (2010) The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011. Geneva WEF. (2011) The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012. Geneva WEF. (2012a) The Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013. Geneva WEF. (2012b) The Global Information Technology Report 2012. Geneva Vijeće ministara, DEI. (2010) Strategija razvoja Bosne i Hercegovine. Sarajevo. In 1991, Finland’s GDP has declined by as much as 13%, unemployment rate was 17%, which is a clear signal that the country was faced with difficult problems. i 98 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Not about heavy industry. Japan, Korea, and more recently China are seriously involved in this race, with the goal of becoming the market leaders in technological progress in Asia and the world. iv Innovations that are based on the reduction of production costs through the introduction of newer and more sophisticated technologies in the production process, which will ultimately lead to lower costs. v Weak ability to copy, as opposed to a competitive market. vi Possibilities of oligopoly to invest in research and development are influenced by the size of the profit and the size of profits depends on the intensity of competition it faces within its market. vii Faced with the fact that the monopoly in relation to small business, will launch the same product in another ten years, and when we add twice the price that monopoly will determine for the same product, then it is quite logical why the offer from small firms looks more acceptable to the customer. viii We will quote the example of "fast-second" strategy: Wilkinson was first to introduce the famous razor blades with steel (1960), but the Gillette responded quickly and by using this strategy easily caught up with Wilkinson, Apple was the first innovator in the field of personal computers until the end of the seventies, but the IBM soon took the lead in the eighties of the last century, however, it did not last long. ix It concerns the following reasons: the criterion of consumer excess, fast-second strategy of monopoly and so on. x And the position of monopoly is already known in terms of the race to innovate. xi Diffusion is the time - speed for imitating new ideas - innovation. xii The questionnaire was sent to over 30 experts selected at random. Only 20 of them responded to this questionnaire. ii iii 99 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2407 Title A name given to the resource Technological Progress as a Generator of Economic Growth and Development Author Author Rebic, Mladen Sarenac, Nemanja Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), as well as many other countries in transition, was faced with inadequate and insufficient technological progress, which is the result of years of neglect of investment in science, research, and new technology. This paper attempts to present the actual situation in B&H in terms of technological progress, innovation and investment in scientific research, as well as to offer basic guidelines for getting out of this difficult situation. B&H is located at the bottom of the all European countries when it comes to innovation, research and new technologies, and consequently it is not surprising that the B&H economy consistently recorded poor results. Investment in research and development and employee education is the primary goal of any successful company, whether it is a small, medium-sized enterprise or oligopoly. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to determine the guidelines i.e. strategic objectives, which will constitute the basis for future progress of B&H in the field of technological progress. Empirical research, which was conducted in order to determine the strategic objectives, has been carried out by using a questionnaire built on a sample of the leading experts in this field in B&H. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a20f53392be0918d6b64d5db013d2915.pdf cf21f95d86eb038508a0e30af0194a12 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Technological Structure of Export between Turkey and Brazil İbrahim Arslan Gaziantep University, Turkey arslan@gantep.edu.tr İsmail Taş Tunceli University, Turkey ismailtas@tunceli.edu.tr In recent years, the rapid growth of trade volume causes more rapid diffusion of new technologies to emerging economies. International Monetary Fund (IMF) labels Turkey and Brazil as emerging economies. Brazil is the sixth largest economy and Turkey is the eighteenth largest economy in the world in order of GDP in 2011. Turkey and Brazil are attracting attention among emerging economies lately. Turkey export was 614 million dollar and import was 1.3 billion dollar. Trade volume between Turkey and Brazil was 1.9 billion dollar in 2010 and it is reached 2.9 billion dollar by 52 percent increase and 1.1 billion dollar Turkish deficit in 2011. It is expecting to reach 10 billion trade volumes between two countries. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the technological structure of exports that may help to explain trade performance between Turkey and Brazil. The process of technology structure is analyzed from quantitative and qualitative aspects. This paper used a trade classification system which divided trade structure into ten technological parts such as primary products, resource based, low, medium and high technology products. The trade classification system prepared by Lall and OECD. The study used annual data in the form of STIC revision 2 and 3 digit for the years between 1992 and 2010. The data collected from United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database. The reporter country is Turkey for Turkey’s export to Brazil and Brazil is the reporter country for Brazil’s export to Turkey. As a result of this study, it is expected to determine firstly technological structure of trade between two countries then how technological structure of trade changed between Turkey and Brazil over the years. Policy makers can decide future trade plans for both country according to result of this paper. Keywords: Trade Classification, Technological Structure, Export, Brazil, Turkey. 164 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1643 Title A name given to the resource Technological Structure of Export between Turkey and Brazil Author Author ARSLAN, Ibrahim TAS, Ismail Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, the rapid growth of trade volume causes more rapid diffusion of new technologies to emerging economies. International Monetary Fund (IMF) labels Turkey and Brazil as emerging economies. Brazil is the sixth largest economy and Turkey is the eighteenth largest economy in the world in order of GDP in 2011. Turkey and Brazil are attracting attention among emerging economies lately. Turkey export was 614 million dollar and import was 1.3 billion dollar. Trade volume between Turkey and Brazil was 1.9 billion dollar in 2010 and it is reached 2.9 billion dollar by 52 percent increase and 1.1 billion dollar Turkish deficit in 2011. It is expecting to reach 10 billion trade volumes between two countries. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the technological structure of exports that may help to explain trade performance between Turkey and Brazil. The process of technology structure is analyzed from quantitative and qualitative aspects. This paper used a trade classification system which divided trade structure into ten technological parts such as primary products, resource based, low, medium and high technology products. The trade classification system prepared by Lall and OECD. The study used annual data in the form of STIC revision 2 and 3 digit for the years between 1992 and 2010. The data collected from United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database. The reporter country is Turkey for Turkey’s export to Brazil and Brazil is the reporter country for Brazil’s export to Turkey. As a result of this study, it is expected to determine firstly technological structure of trade between two countries then how technological structure of trade changed between Turkey and Brazil over the years. Policy makers can decide future trade plans for both country according to result of this paper. Keywords: Trade Classification, Technological Structure, Export, Brazil, Turkey. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c3e2e9f1a205ebcc59ce1bcfe274ce75.pdf 712f1e0b082b92b7fbc34df6e32a6422 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Technologies Aiming To Improve Work Efficiency And Sustainability: Personnel Tracking Systems Halil Kaygisiz1, Abdülkadir Çakir1, Seyit Akpancar, Eyüp Çaki1 1Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey 2Rize University, Rize, Turkey E-mails: halilkaygisiz@sdu.edu.tr, abdulkadircakir@sdu.edu.tr, sakpancar@yahoo.com,eyupcaki@sdu.edu.tr Abstract In this study, by dealing with personnel tracking systems used in business sector, it is examined their effects on business productivity and sustainability of these effects. Personnel tracking systems are computer-based electronic systems which enable to record business entry and exit times and preparation of the daily and monthly reports. It is aimed to increase business efficiency by ensuring the continuation and sustainability of personnel. Personnel tracking systems, according to application of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), are performed by using biometric and barcode technologies. RFID can work contactless different from biometric and barcode technologies. RFID is the most common technology used in Personnel tracking systems because of this advantage. It is thought that staff awareness will increase on the use of tracking systems in the workplace with this study discussed the sustainability and dealing with the benefits of the Personnel tracking systems enabling the detection of workplace entry and exit times of workers. Keywords: Radio Frequency Identification, Personnel Tracking Systems, Sustainability, Business Efficiency, Identification Technologies 1. INTRODUCTION It needs to ensure the control of employees in order to work much more quickly and efficiently in companies that have many employees. In workplaces, in order to increase the productivity of personnel and maintain control of the personnel can be achieved by using tracking systems. Personnel tracking systems: having software and hardware equipments and developed for monitoring and control of factory staff, are a control mechanism that follows the monthly fees, all working hours and overtime of staff. With this system, business enterprises are able to follow, without any fault and forgetting, that staff work how many days and hours of within a specified period; lost time such as permit, late coming, early going and 60 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo no-coming. Personnel tracking systems are the contemporary systems of the key productivity. Personnel tracking systems provide to obtain mainly scoring payroll, and a wide variety of reports related to continuity of control. 2. PERSONNEL TRACKING SYSTEMS Personnel tracking systems are the systems which provide monitoring work, overtime, absenteeism, leave, rest periods and the calculation, employees in the workplace is a workplace inputs / outputs to be authorized. Employers with these systems are intended to provide the most efficient use of the total workforce. Thanks to personnel tracking systems, caused by human factor errors are minimized during the preparation of payroll. In addition, these obtained reports help the top management of enterprises by lighting the way to get more reliable decisions for the future. Personnel tracking systems, enterprises that perform calculations by hand due to lost time and human error factor in the prevention of the damage caused to the economies provided by businesses, such as follow-up of operational staff brings discipline and modernity. The business which is able to control the personnel costs of staff and working hours control, can also capture the chances of becoming more effective in highly competitive markets (Buyurgan, N. at al., 2009). Firstly, the follow-up of personnel has been followed up with procedure of the signature. It has not found safe by business since staff write working hours themselves. In order to ensure the safety, it needed manpower, that is, an additional staff to control. In order to confirm the correctness of the staff working hours used card instead of staff constitutes the beginnings of personnel tracking systems. Punch clocks, has been followed up by giving each individual named and anonymous tally cards. After scoring cards, with the systems of barcode cards, personnel tracking have been done. By developing personnel tracking systems, proximity systems have been used. It has began to establish a remote connection with the development of devices connected TCP / IP protocol. With recent technological advances, a lot of systems have become used for personnel tracking (Pala, Z., 2007). 3. TECHNOLOGIES USED PERSONNEL TRACKING SYSTEMS In personnel tracking systems, many automatic identification systems are used. The process of identification automatically makes life easy and most systems are designed for it. Each of these systems used a different technology, have different characteristics (Pala, Z., 2007). In personnel tracking systems, automatic identification systems can be grouped mainly in 5 groups (Fig. 1): 61 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 1. OCR: Optical Character Recognition Systems 2. Biometric Identification System (Face Recognition, Fingerprint recognition ... etc.). 3. Barcode Systems 4. Smart Card Systems 5. RFID: Identification with Radio Frequency Figure 1. Automatic identification systems (AUTO-ID) 3.1. OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION SYSTEM (OCR) Optical character recognition systems (OCR), provides an understanding of different fonts are read by machines. In scanners, to scan text and images, these systems are used. However, because the system is expensive, the field of using remains in a narrow frame. There are personnel tracking systems based on identification of signatures that are taken in entry and exit of staff. 3.2. BIOMETRIC RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Biometrics, on the basis of assets can be defined as the science of measuring and counting. Biometrics, developed to determine the user's identity by recognizing the physical and behavioral characteristics of a computer-controlled, is a general term used for automated systems. Therefore, there are not any problems such as forgotten or stolen in the loss of the card or encrypted systems. Biometric systems aim to provide access controlled passage of individuals, that is, it is allowed for authorized persons it is denied to access the passage / the transition to unauthorized persons (Tuğaç, B., 2007). 62 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Types of biometric recognition system used in personnel tracking systems: • Face Recognition System • Fingerprint Recognition • Voice Recognition • Iris Recognition • Retina Recognition (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 2. Biometric Recognition Systems a)Face recognition device recognition device c)Voice recognition device d)Iris recognition device b)Fingerprint 3.2.1. FACE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Facial recognition systems work on the basis of comparison by computer-aided that already committed to the database face images with an unknown face. These systems are used to select individuals within the access control or crowd (Fig. 2a). The main problem in facial recognition systems, with low quality pictures can cause problems in the comparison whom wearing glasses, etc. accessories (Dağoğlu, M., 2006). 3.2.2. FINGERPRINT RECOGNITION SYSTEMS The fingerprint is unique and does not change according to age or other characteristics. Every person has different fingerprints Therefore; fingerprint is one of the most reliable means of personal authentication (Fig. 2b). The fingerprint is a fingerprint recognition algorithm for each of the received image is different and unique feature of fingerprint ID code by creating a customized database extracts and saves. Each fingerprint code at the base of data is different for each person (Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A., 2004). 3.2.3. IRIS RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Iris recognition does not require close contact between the user and the reader and is an useful biometrics technology. The basic idea in iris recognition technologies is to perform on 63 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo layer of the iris of the eye by taking the picture (Fig. 2c). This image taken from a database with a person's iris removed and processed in accordance with the characteristic values. Then this characteristic in the database is used to the aim of comparing (Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A., 2003). 3.2.4. VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Sound biometry, emerged, determining changes over time in the sound frequency, is a system used to identify the person (Fig. 2d). The advantage of audio systems is the use of hands and eyes freely, but as in the case of the excitement, fear and chills, changes in sound volume, speed and quality, make identifying difficult. In today's technology, voice recognition tools with recorded sound are also possible deceiving. Therefore, application of this technique is not safe (Dağoğlu, M., 2006). 3.2.5. RETINA RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Based on the principle scanning the retina by the unique structure of the optical systems is high reliability of this technology but it is difficult to use, since the user must look at a certain point. Although technology is adequate, it has not been accepted for this reason (Tuğaç, B., 2007). 3.3. BARCODE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Today, Barcodes are ones of used in many areas and at least one cost-effective automatic recognition systems. Nowadays, the generally rectangular, the thickness of the thin lines are drawn parallel to each other and it is a symbol created by the black bars occurring in the gaps between the lines (Dağoğlu, M., 2006). 3.4. SMART CARD SYSTEMS Smart cards are called “smart cards” including plastic cards into the “chips” (microprocessor). This is known as the main reason for smart cards, high information transport, processing, using data on the card, write and delete capabilities 'microprocessor' is carried out through. The applications of smart card technology opened new fields of application faster than before, magnetic media, such as to render safe and low cost, which cannot be possible so far (Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A., 2004). 64 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3.5. RFID RFID systems have similarities with smartcard systems. The main differences are adjacent to smart cards; data is exchanged between the data carrier device and the reader using radio waves rather than being used with the contact surface offers considerable (Kılınç, T., 2007). Without human impact/contribution on the RFID system design are motivated to collect creation of information. It is a newer technology according to barcode technology and a system having advantages. The use around the world has been increasing year by year (Altun Z., 2010). The main advantage of RFID technology systems is characteristic of functioning that does not require contact with the vision and the line Labels, snow, ice, fog, paint, dirt, inside the box, and a warehouse-like vehicle can also be read visually and environmentally challenging conditions. RFID reader with a short response time of 100ms and a lot (several hundred), the label can be read almost simultaneously. With labels combined with sensors can be obtained very important information about the status of the product. In RFID technology, it is much more secure about security on the magnetic cards since the data can be conveyed by being encrypted thanks to many other features. In addition, not needing physical contact enables ease of use. For example, with RFID technology credentials can be read in your wallet (Ismael, N.M., 2010). 4. SUMMARY and CONCLUSION In this study, it is researched the technologies to improve business efficiency and sustainability in their workplace in order to ensure that research on tracking systems used by staff researched used. In addition to increasing the efficiency of business today has great significance in maintaining the Auto-ID systems, personnel tracking systems with optical character recognition systems, biometric identification systems, barcode systems, smart card systems and radio frequency identification system is used. Control technology with the development of more secure systems can be done by employees in the workplace. Although Employee tracking systems improve business efficiency, there are lacks in terms of data security. With the development of future systems more reliable and stable in the workplace will be provided the maximum level of receiving and maintaining productivity. REFERENCES Altun Z. (2010) RFID Okuyucunun Geliştirilmesi. Sakarya University, Ph.D. thesis, 108p, Sakarya. Buyurgan, N., Hardgrave, B.C., Baylor, J.L. and Walker, R.T. (2009) RFID in healthcare: a framework for uses and opportunities, International Journal of Advanced Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1-25. 65 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Dağoğlu, M. (2006) Radyo Frekans Tanımlama Sistem Tasarımı ve Üretimi, Hacettepe University, Ph.D. thesis, Ankara. Ismael, N.M. (2010) Radyo Frekans Kimlik Tanımı (RFID), Selçuk University, Ph.D. thesis, 104p, Konya. Jain, A. K., Ross, A. (2004) Mutlibiometric Systems, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 74, pp. 34-40. Jain, A. K., Ross, A. (2003) Information fusion in biometrics., Pattern Recognition Letters, Vol. 24, pp. 2115-2125. Kılınç, T. (2007) RFID Sistemlerin İncelenmesi ve Sağlık Sektöründe Kullanılması, Maltepe University, Ph.D. thesis, İstanbul. Pala, Z. (2007) RFID Teknolojisi İle Otomasyon Bir Uygulama Olarak: Otopark Takibi, Yüzüncü Yıl University, Ph.D. thesis, Van. Tugaç, B. (2007) Radyo frekans ile kimlik tanıma, Yıldız Teknik University, Ph.D. thesis, İstanbul. 66 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1149 Title A name given to the resource Technologies Aiming To Improve Work Efficiency And Sustainability: Personnel Tracking Systems Author Author Halil , Kaygisiz Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, by dealing with personnel tracking systems used in business sector, it is examined their effects on business productivity and sustainability of these effects. Personnel tracking systems are computer-based electronic systems which enable to record business entry and exit times and preparation of the daily and monthly reports. It is aimed to increase business efficiency by ensuring the continuation and sustainability of personnel. Personnel tracking systems, according to application of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), are performed by using biometric and barcode technologies. RFID can work contactless different from biometric and barcode technologies. RFID is the most common technology used in Personnel tracking systems because of this advantage. It is thought that staff awareness will increase on the use of tracking systems in the workplace with this study discussed the sustainability and dealing with the benefits of the Personnel tracking systems enabling the detection of workplace entry and exit times of workers. Keywords: Radio Frequency Identification, Personnel Tracking Systems, Sustainability, Business Efficiency, Identification Technologies Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3360 Title A name given to the resource TECHNOLOGY HELPS BUT DOES NOT DO A TEACHER'S JOB Author Author Džafo, Amir Abstract A summary of the resource. Modern technology plays an important role in the life of a young language learner and therefore it should be regularly used in the process of language teaching. There are many arguments in favour of using technology and there are some arguments that do not support it. This paper aims to present some basic arguments on both, using and not using technology in the classroom. Unfortunately, most of language teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina do not have anything more than an old CD player that could be considered as teaching technology. In some situations they have very good equipment but they are not very enthusiastic to use it. If we have teachers who are well-equipped and willing to use their equipment, there is usually lack of good software or proper sources to follow the lessons which are to be taught. The main stress of this paper is on the fact that good teaching depends on teachers, not on technology they use. To support this statement the paper gives examples which are to prove that most of the teaching activities can be successfully performed either using modern technology or basic materials such as textbooks, paper, board and chalk combined with teacher’s creativity. The activities cover multiple language skills so we can see what we can do with or without technology when we teach (or revise) vocabulary, when practising reading, pronunciation, speaking or writing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ce662996fe71cca5dabfdd92499815a.pdf 5163d7f51e199c9dffed86c6f5c0813a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City BaĢar Batur ELT Department, Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq b.batur@ishikuniversity.net Abstract In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Key Words: Erbil, information Technologies, high school. Introduction The rapidly developing technologies are in all parts of today‘s world as it is associated with terms information era, information society and globalism. Thus, it is inevitable to use them in education. Technology exists with the existence of humankind and is used in all steps of education (Yanpar, 2005). For a long time, the name of technology in education had been book and blackboard. Later on, some other materials were also begun to be used. Many films, bands, slides, tapes related to the subjects and cinema, projections, cassette players, overhead projectors to show them, and also plenty of physics and chemistry laboratory materials set in schools all over the world (MEB,1983). It is now inevitable for education to make use of scientific and technological facilities. The information burst in this age, which means the rapid and continuous increase in the quantity and details of information, requires renewal of course subjects and educational materials every year and delivery of new information to students and teachers on time (Alkan et. al., 1995; Alkan, 2005). Education is a process that both brings in skills and transfers information. In this process, handling of information is the base. Information technologies, especially computers, generally function as supporting means in teaching and learning processes. Educational institutions both start and direct the social changes and progress. With those characteristics, educational institutions have to follow technological developments, learn how to use them and use these technologies. In other words, educational institutions should build up the students eligible for information age by considering characteristics of information society (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Ozkul and Girginer list the reasons to use technology in education (Ozkul, Girginer, 2001): 1. Increasing the access to education, 2. Increasing the educational quality, 3. Decreasing the educational cost efficacy, 4. Responding the essentiality of changing technology, 5. Providing the skills that students need both in their work and private life. When technology is considered, we think about computers. Computers revolutionized by changing the system and structure of classical education. Today, computers are used in all aspects of education (Ġsman, 2001). The most important product which emerge as a result of technological developments is, certainly, computer. But all other tools and technologies that provide information and help to use it are also called information technologies (Canan and Topaloglu, 2006). Information technologies are used in different ways in education. They can be grouped in four (Yasar, 1998); 1. 2. 3. using as means of instruction, using as report preparation tool, using in development of software, 225 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. using in administrative works Using information technologies as means of instruction has also many benefits. These can be listed as (Yasar, 1998): 1. using information technologies as means of lesson presentation, 2. using information technologies to practice and repetition, 3. using information technologies as a private instructor, 4. using information technologies as means of presenting simulation activities, 5. using information technologies for informative games, 6. using information technologies to communicate, 7. using internet supported activities. In the administrative works content, the first area in which computer is used effectively and intensely is measurement and evaluation. It is obvious that measurement and evaluation activities take teacher‘s time and require great effort. Computer decreases the teacher‘s burden to a little. A teacher can benefit from computer during measurement and evaluation in such ways (Akkoyunlu, 1998); preparation of question banks, preparation of tests, saving exam results, evaluation of exam results, and analysis of test items. Moreover, the use of computer in administrative works in schools facilitates the daily work (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Using management programs such as planning, budget, personnel, payroll, accounting and using special programs about student registration and reporting increase the quality of administrative duties (Baykal, 1991). Internet is the most preferred way of collecting information during lesson preparation process by teachers. Teachers may direct students to internet in order them to search and get information. Searches in internet come after the use of word processing programs and educational software among the computer activities of students in schools (Becker, 1999). As a result, it is obvious that using information technologies, especially computer, internet and projections is indispensable part of today‘s education and education quality and efficacy without using technology is low. The Aim of the Research The aim of this research is to determine how much the high school teachers in Erbil, Iraq, use information technologies during lesson and lesson preparation process, to determine the meaningful differences about it depending on gender, age and experience year. Method of the Research The method of the research is quantitative research approach and survey method. A survey, which had derived from a survey taken from Learning Community Project of Ohio University, USA, and used in a research in Sakarya, Turkey (Isman, 2002), was prepared and applied to high school teachers in Erbil. There were 41 questions in the survey. 8 questions were about teachers themselves. 33 questions were about information technologies. Universe and Sampling Universe of the research comprises high school teachers in Erbil City, Iraq. Sampling includes 65 teachers in 7 high schools. These high schools were chosen according to their successes in national exams. The most successful high schools, the less successful and mean ones were chosen. Survey was filled by randomly chosen teachers who were in break. Information About The Sampling Teachers answered 8 questions about themselves. As a result the following information is obtained about them. Sampling included: 1. Male: 40 people (61, 5 %) 2. Female: 25 people (38, 5 %) Teachers‘ branch of teaching are given in the following table: Number of Course Teachers Percentage 226 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arabic 8 12.3 Physical Education 2 3.1 Biology 1 1.5 Geography 1 1.5 Religion 1 1.5 Physics 7 10.8 Economy 2 3.1 English 9 13.8 Chemistry 6 9.2 Kurdish 10 15.4 Math 14 21.5 Guidance 1 1.5 History 3 4.6 Total 65 100 We grouped teachers into three according to their ages: 1. 30 years old and under : 14 people (21,5 %) 2. between 31 – 40 years old: 30 people (46,2 %) 3. 40 years old and over: 21 people (32,3 %) Most of the teachers were over 31 but in contrast experience year average were low. Teachers had service in government as: 1. 10 years and under: 39 people (60 %) 2. between 11 – 20 years: 24 people (36,9 %) 3. 21 years and over: 2 people (3,1 %) Most of the teachers are university graduates. Educational level of the teachers is: 1. 2-year institute graduates: 1 person (1,5 %) 2. 4-year university graduates: 63 people (96,9 %) 3. Graduate degree: 1 person (1,5 %) In order to understand computer skills level of teachers, there were questions about computer and internet usage. According to teachers‘ answers, their computer skills statistics, owning computer and internet at home statistics are below. The number of teachers who can use computer is high and owning computer and internet connection at home rate is also high. 1. Teachers who can use computer: 57 people (87,7 %) 2. Teachers who can not use computer: 8 people (12,3 %) 1. Teachers who have computer at home: 54 people (83,1 %) 2. Teachers who don‘t have computer at home: 11 people (16,9 %) 1. Teachers who have internet connection at home: 35 people (53,8 % ) 2. Teachers who don‘t have internet connection at home: 30 people (46,2 % ) Findings And Technology Usage Of High School Teachers Of Erbil In the second part of the survey, there were questions about information technologies and teachers were supposed to choose one of the four choices (I have never used, I have rarely used, I have frequently used, I have always used) for each technology. There was another column to obtain whether the technology is available at school. Results are given below, with titles in groups of thirty three technologies and on tables of numbers and percentages. 227 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Black/White Board, Graphics, Big Picture, Book, Panel, Caricature, And Diagram Black/white board, graphics, big picture, book are available in all schools of Erbil. In two (28,5 %) of the seven schools attended the survey, teachers say panel for announcements is not available in their schools. Caricature is not available in five (71,5 %) of the seven schools while diagram is available in four (57,1 %). All of the teachers use boards. They use books as well. The rate of teachers who don‘t use book is 4,6 percent. They are chemistry, English and history teachers and it seems they are using their own lesson notes and make students to dictate. Most of the teachers are not using graphics (61,5 % not using, 23,1 % always used ), caricature (81,5 % not using, 7,7 % always used) and diagram (69,2 % not using, 18,5 % always used) while nearly half of them are using big pictures (50,8 % using, 26,2 % always used). 58,5 percent of the teachers use panels for announcements. It is interesting to observe that most of the teachers are not using graphics, diagrams, and big pictures while 43 percent of the teachers are teaching in scientific branches (biology, physics, chemistry, economy, and math). Desktop Computer, Laptop, Windows, Word, PowerPoint, Excel Except from one (14,2 %) of the seven schools, desktop computer is available while only two (28,5 %) of them have laptop. So Windows, Word, PowerPoint and Excel software are not available only in one (14, 2 %) of the schools. In most of the schools, computers are used for office works. It is remarkable to learn that some schools have computer labs and multimedia classes while some others don‘t have even a computer. 32,3 percent of teachers use desktop computer during lessons (18,5 % always used) and lesson preparation process while only 24,6 percent of teachers use laptop (15,4 % always used). Parallel to these statistics, most of the teachers are not using computer software such as Windows (73,8 % not using, 15,5 % always used), Word (72,3 % not using, 16,9 % always used), PowerPoint (80 % not using, 6,2 % always used), Excel (80 % not using, 1,5 % always used). When we consider that 87, 7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home, these rates of using computers are too low. Thus, most of the teachers are supposed to use traditional presentation methods instead of computer assisted one or preparing materials and documents such as worksheets and exam papers by writing on papers. Scanner, Digital Camera, LCD Panel, Multimedia, Printer, Television, CD/DVD, Film Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have scanner and film. Three (42, 8 %) of them have digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia and television. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have printer, CD/DVD is available in 71,4 percent (5) of the schools. Most of the teachers are not using these technologies. The rates of teachers not used them are higher than the availability rates. The rates of teachers don‘t use scanner (81,5 % not using, 3,1 % always used), digital camera (87,7 % not using, 6,2 % always used), LCD Panel (90,8 % not using, 6,2 % always used), multimedia (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), printer (80 % not using, 12,3 % always used), television (86,2 % not using, 9,2 % always used), CD/DVD (76,9 % not using, 13,8 % always used) and film (84,6 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are very high. Usage of presentation technologies such as television, LCD Panel, projection and computer seems to be similar to each other. Video camera, Radio, Cassette Player, Tape Cassette, Overhead Projector, Smartboard, Projector Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have video camera. Three (42, 8 %) of them have radio and tape cassette. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have projection and cassette player, overhead projector is available in 14,2 percent (1) of the schools. None of the schools have a smartboard. According to the answers of the teachers, 89, 2 percent of the teachers don‘t use video camera (3,1 % always used) while 87,7 percent don‘t use radio (6,2 % always used). 73,8 percent of the teachers don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used) while 78,5 percent don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used). 87,7 percent of the teachers don‘t use overhead projector (7,7 % always used) while 84,6 percent don‘t use projector (7,7 % always used). Since smartboard is not available in any of the schools, none of the teachers use smartboard. 228 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Local network, internet network, www pages, search engines, e-mail Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have internet connection while only one (14, 2 %) of them have local network. But 87,7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home. 53,8 percent of these teachers have internet connection at home. Although teachers have computers and internet connection at home, it seems they are not using them a lot for their courses. According to the answers given for the survey, the rates of teachers not using local network (96,9 % not using, 0 % always used), internet network (86,2 % not using, 6,2 % always used), www pages (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), search engines (96,9 % not using, 3,1 % always used), e-mail (81,5 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are quite high. Gender, age and experience year issues There were teachers from both genders in the survey. Except from few technologies, meaningful differences are not obtained in the survey about the technology usage of male and female teachers. In fifteen technologies, the difference was less than 5 percent. It is identified that female teachers use seventeen of technologies more than male teachers (board, book, Windows, Word, Excel, digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia, printer, television, film, video camera, tape cassette, overhead projector, internet network, www pages and e-mail).Male teachers use fifteen technologies more than female teachers (graphics, big picture, panel, caricature, diagram, desktop computer, laptop, PowerPoint, printer, CD/DVD, radio, cassette player, projection, local network and search engines). There were three age groups in the sampling (30 and under, between 30-40, 40 and over). It is obtained that the older the teachers are the less they use information technologies except from big picture, panel and overhead projector. It is opposite in these three items. 40 years old and older teachers are better in using caricature and diagram while teachers between 31 and 40 are better in using digital camera, multimedia, projection, local network and internet network. Teachers were grouped into two categories according to their experience year; 10 years and under, over 10 years. The more teachers have experience year, the less they use information technologies except from six of technologies (caricature, diagram, digital camera, video camera, overhead projector and projection). 229 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 67,7 4,6 9,2 18,5 75,4 4,6 4,6 15,4 73,8 4,6 6,2 15,4 72,3 4,6 6,2 16,9 80,0 7,7 6,2 6,2 83,1 9,2 6,2 1,5 81,5 9,2 6,2 3,1 87,7 3,1 3,1 6,2 90,8 1,5 1,5 6,2 84,6 4,6 3,1 7,7 CD/DVD Television Printer Film Video camera Radio Cassette Player 44 3 6 12 49 3 3 10 48 3 4 10 47 3 4 11 52 5 4 4 54 6 4 1 53 6 4 2 57 2 2 4 59 1 1 4 55 3 2 5 Internet Local Smartboa Overhead Tape Projection Network Network rd Projector Cassette never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used www pages have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Percentage 0,0 1,5 13,8 84,6 61,5 6,2 9,2 23,1 49,2 4,6 20,0 26,2 4,6 21,5 18,5 55,4 41,5 16,9 23,1 18,5 81,5 7,7 3,1 7,7 69,2 6,2 6,2 18,5 Search Engines I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Number of Teachers 0 1 9 55 40 4 6 15 32 3 13 17 3 14 12 36 27 11 15 12 53 5 2 5 45 4 4 12 E-mail Multimedi LCD a Panel Digital Scanner Excel Camera Powerpoin Word t Windows Laptop Desktop Caricatur Diagram Panel Computer e Book Big Picture Black Graphics /White Board Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Number of Teachers 52 1 4 8 56 2 1 6 50 3 3 9 55 3 1 6 58 3 2 2 57 3 1 4 48 4 2 11 51 2 1 11 57 3 0 5 65 0 0 0 never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used 55 2 3 5 63 1 1 0 56 3 2 4 55 2 3 5 63 0 0 2 53 5 1 6 Percentage 80,0 1,5 6,2 12,3 86,2 3,1 1,5 9,2 76,9 4,6 4,6 13,8 84,6 4,6 1,5 9,2 89,2 4,6 3,1 3,1 87,7 4,6 1,5 6,2 73,8 6,2 3,1 16,9 78,5 3,1 1,5 16,9 87,7 4,6 0,0 7,7 100,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 1,5 1,5 0,0 86,2 4,6 3,1 6,2 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 0,0 0,0 3,1 81,5 7,7 1,5 9,2 Table: Results of Survey about Information Technologies 230 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion The results of the survey can be assessed both for teachers and schools. According to the results, it seems high schools of Erbil are insufficient for most of the information technologies. Even the number of computers is not enough or they are only used for office works instead of lessons. It is observed that some schools don‘t have most of the technologies even a computer while some of them have most of them. Secondly, teachers are not using information technologies sufficiently in their lessons and lesson preparation process. It seems that is because of lock of materials in schools. But teachers don‘t seem eager to use technology in their classes while we consider that most of the teachers have computer at home. We can advise in service trainings for teachers. The holiday periods are long in Iraq. Teachers are free in the summer. There are some curriculum changes in Erbil but teachers are still in adaptation period of using new course books and curriculum. It is more essential to do the educational reforms both in schools and related faculties of universities. References Akkoyunlu, B. (1998). ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler (e-book). Ünite 1-3. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/1265/unite01.pdf (online 15/05/2010) Alkan, C., Deryakulu, D., Simsek, N. (1995). Eğitim Teknolojisine GiriĢ. Ankara: Önder Matbaacılık Alkan, C. (2005). Eğitim Teknolojisi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Baykal, A. (1991). Eğitimde Bilgisayar: Yararları ve Yetersizlikleri. YaĢadıkça Eğitim, Issue:14. Ġstanbul. Becker, H.J. (1999). Internet Use By Teachers. http://www.crito.uci.edu/TLC/findings/internet-use/startpage.htm (online 15/05/2010). Canan ,Ö., Toplaoğlu, S. (2006). 4. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Bilgi Teknolojileri Sınıflarını Aktif Kullanımına Yônelik Tutumları. 6. Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Konferansı. Gazi Mağusa. Ġsman, A. (2002). Sakarya Ġli Öğretmenlerinin Eğitim Teknolojileri Yônùndeki Yeterlilikleri. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Volume 1, Issue 1, Article 10. Ġsman, A. (2001). Bilgisayar ve Eğitim. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Sakarya. MEB. (1983). Eğitim Araçları TeĢkilatı ve Hizmetleri. Ankara: MEB Yayınları. Özkul E. Girginer N. (2001). Uzaktan Eğitimde Teknoloji ve Etkinlik. I.Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Sempozyum Bildirisi. Sakarya. Yanpar, T. (2005). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal GeliĢtirme. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. YaĢar, ġ. (1998). Eğitimde Bilgisayarların Etkin Kullanımı. Ünite 07 – ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/2276/unite07.pdf (online 15/05/2010) 231 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 34 Title A name given to the resource Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City Author Author Batur, BaĢar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3458 Title A name given to the resource TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING Author Author Habul-Šabanović, Izela Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents the project ‘Technology-Enhanced English Language Learning’ which was made to meet the requirements for completion of the course ‘Building Teaching Skills Through the Interactive Web’ within the E-Teacher Scholarship Program offered by the American English Institute, University of Oregon. The project was created and conducted at the Pedagogical Faculty in Sarajevo, University of Sarajevo, in order to meet the students’ needs and address the particular issues and problems by implementing some of the technology-enhanced changes in the actual teaching context, i.e. a Class Blog, a Web Quest and a Nicenet Class. The target class for this project was a group of 30 Bachelor level students, all EFL learners, who attended the third year of Pedagogical Faculty in Sarajevo. The project was envisaged to introduce some novelties into our classes through the implementation of new technology. The aim was to increase the students’ motivation and self-confidence, foster their autonomous learning and enhance their abilities to use English more effectively in a meaningful context. This paper presents all relevant stages of the project implementation, starting from the background information about the learners, the setting, the course goals and the students’ needs, then describing the issues that started the project and the initial solutions, elaborating on the response and changes made, and concluding with reflections about the project and suggestions resulting from it. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4b33f297acf5468e207529f7f0505ccd.docx 9b8eed20caff4fd72a6a4ac93f7bfcf0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b1ecc3fe14ac88bab142ed6e6af984a3.pdf 198ae9247c376c995c7a5c6319bffd1c PDF Text Text TEKKE VE ZAVİYELERİN BALKANLAR’DAKİ ROLÜ VE ÖNEMİ Nedim BAKIRCI - Hüseyin Kürşat TÜRKAN Niğde Üniversitesi, Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı, Niğde / Türkiye Giresun Üniversitesi, Türk Dili Bölümü, Giresun / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Ahmet Yesevi, Hacı Bektaş Veli, Bektaşilik, Anadolu, Balkanlar, Bosna Hersek. ÖZET Türklerde ilk tarikatın kurucusu Ahmet Yesevi Hazretleri’dir. Ahmet Yesevi, yetiştirdiği müritlerini Anadolu’ya göndermiş ve bu müritler Anadolu’nun manevi mimarları olmuşlardır. Halka arasından Anadolu’ya gelen müritlerin sayısı doksan dokuz bin olarak ifade edilmektedir. Ayrıca bu müritlere Horasan erenleri adı da verilmektedir. Her mürit Anadolu’nun çeşitli yerlerini mesken tutmuş ve bulundukları yerlerde birer tekke veya dergâh inşa etmiştir. Bu mistik kurumların (tekke veya zaviyelerin), bunların kurucuları ve yöneticilerinin (pirlerin, şeyhlerin ve dervişlerin) sadece dini, sosyal ve kültürel yaşamda değil, aynı zamanda siyasal ve ekonomik hayatın düzenlemesinde, siyasi hudutların genişletilmesinde, elde edilen toprakların işletilmesinde, imar ve iskânında da önemli etkileri vardı. Anadolu’da tarikatlar arasında en önemlisi hiç şüphesiz Hacı Bektaş Dergâhı’dır. Anadolu’dan Balkanlar’a, kısmen Mısır’a ve Yakındoğu ülkelerine dek geniş bir coğrafyaya yayılmış olan Alevi Bektaşi dergâhlarının ana merkezi Hacıbektaş’taki Pir Evi’dir. Bugün Balkanlarda tespit edilen tekke sayısı yirmi üçtür. İşte bu bildiride de yukarıda sayısını verdiğimiz tekkelerin Balkanlardaki rolü ve önemi üzerinde durulmuştur. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2276 Title A name given to the resource TEKKE VE ZAVİYELERİN BALKANLAR’DAKİ ROLÜ VE ÖNEMİ Author Author BAKIRCI, Nedim TÜRKAN, Hüseyin Kürşat Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Ahmet Yesevi, Hacı Bektaş Veli, Bektaşilik, Anadolu, Balkanlar, Bosna Hersek. ÖZET Türklerde ilk tarikatın kurucusu Ahmet Yesevi Hazretleri’dir. Ahmet Yesevi, yetiştirdiği müritlerini Anadolu’ya göndermiş ve bu müritler Anadolu’nun manevi mimarları olmuşlardır. Halka arasından Anadolu’ya gelen müritlerin sayısı doksan dokuz bin olarak ifade edilmektedir. Ayrıca bu müritlere Horasan erenleri adı da verilmektedir. Her mürit Anadolu’nun çeşitli yerlerini mesken tutmuş ve bulundukları yerlerde birer tekke veya dergâh inşa etmiştir. Bu mistik kurumların (tekke veya zaviyelerin), bunların kurucuları ve yöneticilerinin (pirlerin, şeyhlerin ve dervişlerin) sadece dini, sosyal ve kültürel yaşamda değil, aynı zamanda siyasal ve ekonomik hayatın düzenlemesinde, siyasi hudutların genişletilmesinde, elde edilen toprakların işletilmesinde, imar ve iskânında da önemli etkileri vardı. Anadolu’da tarikatlar arasında en önemlisi hiç şüphesiz Hacı Bektaş Dergâhı’dır. Anadolu’dan Balkanlar’a, kısmen Mısır’a ve Yakındoğu ülkelerine dek geniş bir coğrafyaya yayılmış olan Alevi Bektaşi dergâhlarının ana merkezi Hacıbektaş’taki Pir Evi’dir. Bugün Balkanlarda tespit edilen tekke sayısı yirmi üçtür. İşte bu bildiride de yukarıda sayısını verdiğimiz tekkelerin Balkanlardaki rolü ve önemi üzerinde durulmuştur. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3d4f68b1e54232298da36f22555de425.pdf 76e273b9623bae2620381d4a90d2b132 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Telecommunication Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: An Overview Telecommunication, Regulation & Sustainable Development Oğuzhan ÖZALTIN Ph.D. Student, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Public Administration, Isparta / TURKEY, oguzhan@oguzhanozaltin.com Aykut SEZGĐN Research Assistant, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Economics, Isparta / TURKEY, asezgin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Onur DEMĐREL Research Assistant, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Economics, Isparta / TURKEY, onurdemirel@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of the study is to investigate the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina with respect to the liberalisation process mentioned by the Public Governance Committee of the OECD and the sustainable development goals introduced by the World Bank. It is analyzed that how telecommunication sector has been regulated in the post-war period, the sectoral structure, legal infrastructure and regulatory agency characteristics are represented and finally a SWOT analysis is made for the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Communication Regulatory Agency. Keywords: Regulation, telecommunication sector, sustainable development, Bosnia and Herzegovina Introduction Current discourse is the importance of competition in any sector. It is expected from nation-states that they replace their competition policies with more liberal ones. In other words, the role of the states is expected to be ‘mediator state’. States will delegate their regulatory and supervisory authorities to autonomous administrative authorities. In this way, the wealth of the citizens will foster. In order to experience such a wealth increase monopolistic sectors should be transformed into oligopolistic markets. Then, these oligopolistic markets shall approach to perfect competition. It is the case also for the telecommunication sector. The sector is generally under governmental monopoly or has oligopolistic features. Therefore, the regulation and supervision shall be performed by autonomous administrative authorities. Telecommunication and Regulation in Bosnia and Herzegovina a. A Historical Overview During the first phase of postwar reconstruction in BiH, broadcasting regulation was split between two agencies: the Independent Media Commission (IMC), responsible for licensing radio and television stations, program monitoring and establishing codes of practice, and the Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (TRA), responsible for telecommunications and frequency management. The High Representative merged the two agencies in March 2001, creating the Communications Regulatory Agency (Regulatorna Agencija za Komunikacije-RAK), that has responsibility for both broadcasting and telecommunications areas (CARDS, 2006). Currently there are three telecom enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina. These are BH Telecom, Telekom Srpske and HT Mostar. BH telecom, headquartered in Sarajevo, is a “joint-stock” company, principally divided into four primary service units: (FIPA, 2005) • Fixed telephony BH Telecom; • Mobile telephony GSM BIH; 450 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • Internet service BIHNET; Data transmission BIHPAK. Figure 1: Historical Progress of Former PTT in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: CARDS, 2006. The company employs about 3,000 personnel at the total and provides 22 direct connections with foreign operators, providing a total capacity of 3,471 channels and also direct connections with Bosnia’s other two incumbents, Telekom Srpske (494 voice channels) and HT Mostar (214 voice channels). BH Telecom has commercial roaming contracts with 127 world GSM operators, in 59 countries on all five continents. BH Telecom continues to expand its BIHNET Internet service with subscriber access to broadband capacity via leased lines and ADSL access (FIPA, 2005). Ownership Structure Pre-Privatization 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 10 20 25 90 80 75 Figure 2: Ownership Structure of Dominant Telecommunication Companies before Privatization BH-Telecom HT-Mostar Telekom Source: Cullen International, Country Comparative Report, 2005. Telekom Srpske, headquartered in Banja Luka, employs about 2,400 personnel, and provides its present subscriber base of 275,000 with direct switch links to Serbia-Montenegro, Germany, Slovenia, Croatia, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland. HT Mostar is the second of two telecoms operating in the Federation BiH. HT Mostar was legally established as a limited liability company, with the Federation government owning about 80% of the company capital, the remaining 20% is privately owned capital (currently 37% of the company is private). At present, HT Mostar provides only fixed line telephony and Internet connectivity services. The company possesses about 130,000 fixed line subscribers and Internet subscribers (dial-up and broadband). In 2002, HT Mostar’s GSM operations were spun-off into a separate operating entity, ERONET, but there are now attempts underway to remerge together the two corporate entities (FIPA, 2005). 451 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ownership Structure After Privatization 100% 10 80% 37 35 63 65 60% 90 40% 20% 0% Figure 3: Ownership Structure of Dominant Telecommunication Companies after Privatization Source: CARDS, 2006. Elektroprivreda is Bosnia-Herzegovina’s largest power utility incumbent, which possesses a substantial, and growing telecommunications infrastructure primarily to support the power utility’s generation, transmission, and distribution operations. About 2,000 kilometres of fibre optic cable capacity has been thus far installed by Elektroprivreda, and the company is now installing an additional 2,000 kilometres of fibre optic capacity. In late 2004, Elektroprivreda was awarded an independent telecommunications operator license, which allows the company to develop commercial applications of its excess capacity (FIPA, 2005). As the number of issued licences for fixed operators (13 licences) are much higher than the number of operators operating currently (3 operators), it may be claimed that the telecommunication market in BiH is going to liberalize in 2007, marking the entrance of new players, and therfore distrurbing the position of the dominat operators. The fixed operators also operate as mobile operators and they are the only companies. BH Telecom whose network covers 87,89% of the population and 96% of the roads specified in the licence annex has been operating since 1996. Telekom Srpske whose services reach 95,2% of the population and 95,6% of the roads has been operating since 1999. HT Mostar was launched in 2000 and covers 98,6% of the population and 96% of the overall networks of roads (CARDS, 2006). Infrastructure providers 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 143 64 3 3 40 40 39 Figure 4: Quantities of Infrastructure Providers in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: Cullen International, Country Comparative Report, 2005. Although the licenses are nationwide licences, they operate mainly on geographic basis. Telekom Srpske serves Republic Srpska and BH Telecom serves the north-east part of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of the end of 2007, there were 60 licenced Internet providers in BiH (CARDS, 2006). 452 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo b. Statistics Fixed Telephone Penetration (number of connections per 100 inhabitans) 28 26 23,63 24 24,48 24,76 25,2 25,46 22,35 22 205: Fixed Telephone Penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina Figure Source: CARDS, 2006. The population of BiH is 4,672,165 as of 2007 and the per capita national income adjusted by purchasing power is about USD 6,600. The number of Internet users is about 950,000 at the end of 2007, with a penetration rate of 27.25%. The rate for fixed telephone lines is 26.41%. The broadband penetration rate is only 1.02% as of 2006. The average rate for broadband penetration is 18% for Europe. The number of XDSL lines in 21,664. The dominant technology in the country is XDSL and cable networks follows. There are 52 ISSs in BiH. Mobile penetration rate is 63.29% in the year 2007 (SAS, 2008). Mobile Penetration (number of subscribers per 100 inhabitans) 80 63,29 60 36,62 41,48 48,77 40 20 0 6: Mobile Penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina Figure Source: CARDS, 2006. 453 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Penetration of Internet Users 30 24,5 20,8 25 20 15,1 15 10 7 4 5 Figure0 7: Penetration of Internet Users in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: CARDS, 2006. c. Legal Structure The frame of the legal structure in Bosnia and Herzegovina is constructed through the Law on Communications (Official Gazette, no. 31/2003). The law entered into force in 2002 and confirmed the authorization and responsibilities of the RAK. The Law adopts a convergent approach with a wide scope including telecommunications, radio, broadcasting (including cable television) and connected services and facilities. According to the Law the broadcasting segment of the communication sector is defined as “any pointto-multipoint emission of signs, signals, text, images, sounds or data by wire, optical fibre, radio, or any other electromagnetic means intended for general reception by the public by means of receivers adapted for the purpose” and “any legal or physical person providing broadcasting”. The Law also defines a number of fundamental regulatory principles that in turn assign the scope of the actions of the RAK, such as: • The protection of freedom of expression and diversity of opinion while respecting common standards of decency, non-discrimination, fairness, accuracy, and impartiality; • The development of professional and viable commercial and public broadcasters with the intention of striking an appropriate balance within the two; • The principle that broadcasters shall be separated from political control and manipulation; • Licenses shall be awarded on the basis of a process by which appropriate professional standards of program content, technical operation and financing are ensured; • Broadcast advertising shall be regulated so as to be consistent with the best European practice. In accordance with the Bosnia and Herzegovina Law on Communications, and related to the regulatory work in the field of creating bylaws, the RAK has created a number of various codes, rules and guidelines so far. The Broadcasting Code of Practice and the Advertising and Sponsorship Code are of most important. During 2006, the process of matching the Advertising and Sponsorship Code with European regulation has been completed, as well as the harmonization of the Broadcasting Code of Practice with the EU principles. The Law on Public Broadcasting System of Bosnia and Herzegovina was passed by the Bosnia and Herzegovina Parliamentary Assembly on October 5, 2005. It was adopted in January 2006. As a member of the Council of Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina ratified the European Convention on Trans-frontier Television in 2005, which establishes fundamental rules concerning the content of television transmission and specifically, among others, advertising and tele-shopping, protection of minors and right of reply (Marko, 2008). d. Regulatory Institution The institution in charge of regulating the communication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is the Communication Regulatory Agency (RAK). It was established in March 2001 by the decision of the High Representative that merges the competencies of two regulatory authorities, namely the Independent Media Commission and the Telecommunications Regulatory Agency. This was the first step for a unique regulator in the region that would regulate the whole communication sector, including the radio frequency spectrum (Marko, 2008). 454 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The main duties of the RAK: • to spread rules on broadcasting and telecommunications, and ensure obedience thereto; • to license broadcasters and telecommunications operators pursuant to the provisions of the Law, and monitor their compliance with license conditions; • to plan, manage, allocate and assign the frequency spectrum and monitor the use of it as well as to maintain and publish a frequency usage plan for the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina; • to require the disclosure of such information as is necessary for the due performance of its regulatory obligations; • to apply technical and quality standards, for instance, to ensure interconnection and functionality of public telecommunications networks and services; • to establish and maintain a technical license-fee-system for both broadcasting and telecommunications; • such other duties that are assigned to it under the Law. In order to assure the efficiency of the actions of the RAK the Law attributes an enforcement power including the competence to impose sanctions in case of breaches of the Law or RAK decisions. Also, if a telecommunications or broadcasting network or service is being operated without a license, the Agency has the power to take all necessary steps to stop the activity of such operations. In case of different violations, oral and written warnings; inspection of licensed facilities; demands for action or cessation; financial penalty up to €75,000; order the interruption of broadcasting or the provision of telecommunications services for a period not exceeding three months; revocation of a license are the measures that the RAK may apply (Marko, 2008). Telecommunication-Regulation and Sustainable Development Providing access to the Internet may help to overcome at least some of the problems faced in the development of rural areas. ICT offer the possibility of a very inexpensive access to government information, a simple tool for marketing of agricultural produce, exchange of the market information, better financial support of the agricultural sector, distance education etc. In addition, a better quality of life and improved living standards for the poorest sections of the society would in part result from the expected lowering of the costs of administrative services (fees, access to information, the dissemination of and the increase in the number of services accessible to this social strata, through universally accessible service) (World Bank, 2004). Macroeconomic data is beginning to demonstrate that the expansion and increased sophistication of the ICT sector is vital for the self-sustainability and growth of the country’s overall economy. Government fiscal and FDI policies are beginning to address the issues of encouraging long-term investments in both technology and knowledge. In particular, the government has recently approved a wideranging Information Society Strategy and Action Plan, and established a state-level agency to coordinate the Information Society agenda. One of the most profound influences to the overall economic landscape and to the ICT sector in particular, is Bosnia’s commitment to obtain EU Integration status by 2014. Substantial policy reforms and essential market standards are expected to dramatically expand the economic opportunities for both domestic and foreign investors. A number of the country’s larger economic producers, including the telecommunications incumbents, are scheduled to undergo privatization within 2006-08. Further, Bosnia’s Communications Regulatory Agency (www.rak.ba) whose mission is to facilitate a proper and effective policy environment for the sector, has established a reputation for independence (FIPA, 2005). Recently, the telecoms and energy incumbents have undertaken the responsibility to join together with other leading companies, university programs, and the SME sector to stimulate economic growth, particularly in the fields of R&D and ICT. On a more commercial level, ICT is beginning to experience convergence throughout multiple economic and social sectors. Particularly in the e-banking, e-education, and e-government sectors, ICT goods and value-added services possess substantial growth potential. FDI specifically targeting the ICT sector is already developing, and the success stories clearly demonstrate that the ICT sector is shaping up to be a priority sector for FDI (FIPA, 2005). SWOT Analysis of Telecommunication and Regulation in Bosnia and Herzegovina Strengths: • The independent status of the RAK is well established, in particular the legal arrangements regarding their financial independence and the appointment of its Director General. 455 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • Progress has been made regarding information society services. Bosnia and Herzegovina has ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime. Legislation on electronic commerce has also been passed. The e-signature law was adopted in November 2006. Some progress has been made as regards audiovisual policy and media, in particular in approximating Bosnia and Herzegovina's legislation to the European Convention on Transfrontier Television. The Advertising and Sponsorship Code has been revised in accordance with the Convention. The RAK has also started the revision of the Broadcasting Code of Practice (Commission of the European Communities, 2007: 46). With regard to foreign direct investments, the legal framework gives guarantees to foreign investors willing to entry in the BiH markets (CARDS, 2006). Weaknesses: • • • • • • However, the three incumbent telecom operators (Telekom Srpske, BH Telecom and HT Mostar) still enjoy de facto monopolies of fixed network operations in their respective operating areas (CARDS, 2006). The outdated infrastructure, the monopolistic character of the market, the lack of a clear legislative framework, and the inexperience of the operations of a free market are all shared obstacles (Verikoukis et al., 2004). The RAK needs to be better equipped in terms of human resources to be able to promote competition in the market, in particular by improving the market conditions for alternative operators and by ensuring the introduction and implementation of the necessary competitive safeguards. The capacity of the relevant sections in the Ministry of Transport and Communications also need to be strengthened. No progress has been made to transform the Citizens Identity Protection System Directorate into a Statelevel Agency for Information Society in charge of implementing the Strategy for Information Society and its Action Plan, as well as of coordinating related activities throughout the country. The implementing of e-signature law through by-laws still needs to be adopted. Legislation for conditional access services has not yet been adopted. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been unable to adopt the necessary public broadcasting legislation and the implementation public broadcasting reform continues to be delayed. Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a party to the UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity. Ratifying this Convention is necessary for Bosnia and Herzegovina's participation in media related Community Programmes (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). Opportunities: • In the light of BH strategies, it’s also expected to have a crucial impact in providing to foreign investors the picture of open and attractive market (CARDS, 2006). • The high probability of becoming a member of EU. • Rich cultural diversity. Threats: • • • • Although the Feasibility Study has identified significant progress that was made by BiH in terms of the telecommunication sector reform, the EU still sees a need for a more intensive cooperation, primarily in the area of continued harmonization with the “Acquis Communitaire”. One area of special importance is the continued improvement of legislative, regulative and institutional solutions in the area of ICT and postal services, gradual liberalization, development of an investment friendly environment, and implementation of European standards. The cooperation in the domain of strengthening the ICT infrastructure would assist the development of informatic society in BiH. The Stability and Association Agreement (SAA) is only the starting point in resolving some specific problems and it may serve as a channel for expansion of cooperation in the ICT field (World Bank, 2004). The possible adoption of the draft Law on Wages and Allowances, which would bring the RAK within the civil service, could hinder RAK's independence (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). A major issue is the difficulty in finding a right balance between the levels of wholesale prices (which need to be cost oriented) with correspondent retail prices not yet fully rebalanced. Although a smooth path towards LLU regulation can be agreed, nevertheless, it’s important to provide a clear and reliable timescale of future development of the regulatory framework (CARDS, 2006). 456 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion and Policy Recommendations Only in late 2000 Bosnia and Herzegovina as a country had really started to consider aspects and ramifications of ICT, a field where it still lags behind, not only in comparison with the developed countries of Europe and the rest of the world, but also with most transition countries. There are neither strategic guidelines nor policies aimed at strengthening the awareness of the Bosnian society with regards to the necessity of the broadest application of ICT and their possibilities. The existing legislation is not up to date with the job market, nor does it address the new challenges created by it. The sector of telecommunication infrastructure has been reduced to the telecom operators and their technical and technological development. Liberalization of this market has become a much politicized issue, although liberalization is already present in many segments, for instance, in provision of mobile telephone services. On the other hand, due to significant omissions and lack of regulation in the communication sector, the behaviour of telecom operators in some segments of the business has been unprecedented (World Bank, 2004). Ensuring the independence of the Agency (including maintaining their financial independence and the respect of the procedures in the appointment of the Director General) is of crucial importance to the development of the broadcasting and (tele)communications market (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). As aforementioned, the penetration rates for fixed telephone lines, mobile telephones and Internet have been linearly increasing. However, the private sector ownership of the operators does not increase with the same pace. For instance, as can be seen from Figures 2 and 3, the private sector ownership of BH Telecom remains the same but in the cases of Telekom Srpske and HT Mostar private sector ownerships increase. Yet, the state of BiH still has an ownership of more than 50% at all three companies. This, in turn, reveals that telecommunication sector in BiH has an image of oligopolistic character but operates under the conditions of monopolistic market. As a result, despite the dominant discourse in favour of private sector ownership, the dominance of state ownership in BiH still lasts and therefore liberalisation process has a lot to do. On the other hand, only 2 decades after the fall of real socialism in the territory, the degree of liberalisation so far may be perceived as a success. References CARDS (European Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation Programme), (2006), Overview of the Communications Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Harmonization with the EU Standards and the Role of the Communications Regulatory Agency. Commission of the European Communities, (2007), Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007 Progress Report, Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2007-2008, Brussels, [http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2007/nov/bosnia_herzegovina_progress_reports_en.pdf], last access: May 19th, 2009. Cullen International, (2005), Supply of Services in Monitoring of South East Europe – Telecommunication Services Sector and Related Aspects. FIPA (Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina), (2005), Bosnia and Herzegovina ICT Sector Profile, Sarajevo. Marko, D., (2008), The Impact of the EU Audiovisual Media Services (AVMS) Directive on Freedom of Speech in the PostCommunist Democracies of Central and South Eastern Europe, South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM), Sarajevo. SAS (Sektörel Araştırma ve Stratejiler Dairesi Başkanlığı), (2008), Dünya Telekomünikasyon ve Bilgi Teknolojileri Pazarları, [http://www.tk.gov.tr/Yayin/Raporlar/2008/DunyaTelekomunikasyonPazari-25-03-08.pdf], last access: May 19th, 2009. Verikoukis, CH., Z. Mili, I. Konstas and P. Angelidis, (2004), “Overview on Telecommunications Regulation Framework in Southeastern Europe”, IEEE MELECON, Dubrovnik, Croatia, [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1347003&isnumber=29653], last access: May 19th, 2009. World Bank, (2004), Bosnia and Herzegovina Joint IDA-TMF Staff Assessment of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, Report No: 29034-BH, [http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/05/25/000090341_20040525102031/Rendered/IND EX/29034.txt], last access: May 19th, 2009. 457 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 292 Title A name given to the resource Telecommunication Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: An Overview Telecommunication, Regulation & Sustainable Development Author Author ÖZALTIN, Oğuzhan SEZGiN, Aykut DEMiREL, Onur Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the study is to investigate the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina with respect to the liberalisation process mentioned by the Public Governance Committee of the OECD and the sustainable development goals introduced by the World Bank. It is analyzed that how telecommunication sector has been regulated in the post-war period, the sectoral structure, legal infrastructure and regulatory agency characteristics are represented and finally a SWOT analysis is made for the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Communication Regulatory Agency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory