262 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2afed6f74adec36192d2bbbd6d80676.pdf 8f91f374f7d61a095d3e128b99e64c24 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame u Italiji Gordana BojiĦiĤ Studijski program za italijanski jezik I knjiņevnost Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ, Univerzitet Crne Gore bgole81@yahoo.com Apstrakt: M. Garavelli (1971:2003) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima „una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi‖. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Razlog za njegovu tako veliku upotrebu moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). U radu Ĥemo prenijeti klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila u zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se nalaze subjekat i predikat i ograniĦiti se na primjere u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame. KljuĦne rijeĦi: italijanski jezik, jezik reklame, nominalni stil Uvod Sloboda je bez sumnje najoĦiglednija karakteristika jezika reklame. Ona se prepoznaje u leksici (neprestano stvaranje novih rijeĦi, naziva za proizvode), sintaksi (izostavljanje glagola, Ħlana, predloga) i stilu (izbor rijeĦi, upotreba stilskih figura). Ovako je, u osnovi, Marcel Galliot (1954: 7) opisao jezik reklame, jedan od najņivljih struĦnih jezika, koji, buduĤi da je svakodnevno prisutan u svim zemljama, obuhvata sve aspekte nańeg svakodnevnog ņivota. Zbog ove njegove jedinstvene prirode koja ga stavlja negdje na pola puta izmeħu struĦnog i razgovornog jezika, jezik reklame Ħini taĦku u kojoj se susreĤu daleke i neobiĦne jeziĦke realnosti, tako da mu je povjeren ne bań lak zadatak da uskladi te realnosti i uĦini ih izraņajnim kroz inovativna a ponekad i smjela reńenja. Ako se nadoveņemo na Galliotovo objańnjenje, moņemo bez sumnje tvrditi da je jedna od osnovnih karakteristika ovog jezika, koji ne moņemo nazvati prostim jeziĦkim kodom, buduĤi da je i sam skup raznih kodova i potkodova, njegova velika sloboda. To je jezik Ħije se izraņajne moguĤnosti neprestano ńire, toliko da ponekad, kako tvrde jeziĦki puristi, prelazi granice prihvatljivosti. Testa (1988: 107) smatra da postoje tri osnovna razloga zbog kojih jezik reklame mora biti inovativan: - Una novità formale può rendere curioso un messaggio che non comunica novità sostanziali, ma che d'altra parte intende ricordare alcune importanti caratteristiche del prodotto. - Tra la lingua parlata e il linguaggio pubblicitario l'interscambio è costante. Chi si occupa di comunicazione dovrebbe poter cogliere tempestivamente le mode e i mutamenti verbali, per poi rielaborarli e riproporli al pubblico con le opportune variazioni. - Molto spesso prodotti analoghi vantano performance simili. In questi casi l'originalità del trattamento creativo e del linguaggio può servire a ristabilire qualche differenza. Ad attribuire al prodotto oggettivamente allineato con gli altri un valore soggettivo corrispondente alle attese del target. Reklama, dakle, nije samo mjesto gdje se sreĤu i prepliĤu razliĦiti jeziĦki kodovi, od jezika tehnike do ņargona, od stranih jezika do knjiņevnog jezika, veĤ i plodno tle za jeziĦko eksperimentisanje a istovremeno i jedan od osnovnih razloga, prema lingvistima, takozvanog fenomena jeziĦke anemije koja, kako istiĦe Maria Corti (1978: 142), putem progresivne i stalne kristalizacije formi i rijeĦi, atrofira i sputava potencijale karakteristiĦne za svaki jezik. Jezik reklame je imao pozitivan uticaj u odbacivanju jednog previńe „krutog‖ italijanskog jezika koji je bio bliņi knjiņevnom nego razgovornom jeziku, jer je uveo u upotrebu jednostavnije sintaktiĦke konstrukcije. Jedna od takvih sintaktiĦkih pojava je sve veĤe prisustvo nominalnih knstrukcija u jeziku reklame. 508 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nominalni stil Ńta je to nominalni stil? Brojne su definicije a neveńĤemo samo neke od njih. Orlandoni (2005: 19) smatra da nominalni stil predstavlja transformaciju glagola u imenicu, odnosno prelaz obiĦnog glagola u frazeolońki izraz, i datu pojavu vidi kao osnovnu karakterstiku jezika politike. Scarpa (2001) nominalizaciju definińe kao transformaciju glagolske sintagme u imeniĦku sintagmu Ħime se, eliminacijom relativnih reĦenica, postiņe sintaktiĦka konciznost. Meħutim, nominalizacija dovodi i do velike leksiĦke gustine, ukidanja moĤi samih glagola koji, ukoliko su i navedeni, bivaju svedeni na ulogu kopule, kao i do semantiĦki sloņenih izraza koji mogu nańkoditi razumijevanju teksta. Mortara Garavelli (1971: 273) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima ―una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi.‖ Dardano (2001: 327) smatra da je sasvim pogreńno shvatanje da glagol, odnosno predikat, predstavlja sintaktiĦki centar reĦenice. Kao glavni argument u tom smislu navodi upravo nominalni stil. Fenomen da imenica preovladava nad glagolom karakteristika je razliĦitih sektorskih jezika, ne samo u Italiji, nego svuda u svijetu, prije svega u jeziku novina, birokratskom i tehniĦkom jeziku. U tim poljima autori jeziĦkih poruka, kako u pisanom tako i u govornom jeziku, maksimalno koriste imenice i odnose meħu imenicama, pridjevima, predlozima, prilozima i sl. Klasa glagola se svodi na malobrojne elemente, i to prije svega na glagol biti koji najĦeńĤe moņe biti eliminisan, a da pritom znaĦenje poruke ne bude naruńeno. Dardano, dalje, istiĦe da je upravo jezik reklame uticao na ńirenje nominalnog stila, prije svega u ńtampanim medijima. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Otkuda tolika upotreba imenskih reĦenica? Razlog za to moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame PolazeĤi od Dardanove tvrdnje da se nominalni stil rasprostranio upravo zahvaljujuĤi jeziku reklame, pokuńali smo da utvrdimo koliko je zaista prisustvo ove pojave u tom sektorskom jeziku. Joń je Cardona (1974: 46) prije skoro pola vijeka smatrao nominalizaciju osnovnom karakteristikom jezika reklame koja privlaĦi paņnju primaoca poruke upravo zahvaljujuĤi svojoj neobiĦnosti koja istovremeno uspjeva da prenese osnovnu poruku. Prilikom analize, kao model smo uzeli klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila koju daje Mortara Garavelli (1971) a svi primjeri odnose se na novinske i televizijske reklame. Data klasifikacija Ĥe nam pomoĤi i da utvrdimo koji je to tip nominalnog stila najfrekventniji u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame u Italiji. Mortara Garavelli polazi od stava da u svakoj jeziĦkoj poruci mora postojati subjekat (ono o Ħemu se govori) i predikat (koji govori neńto o subjektu). Odnos izmeħu subjekta i predikata smatra se osnovnim sintaktiĦkim odnosom. U zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se ta dva osnovna elementa nalaze, ona izdvaja Ħetiri osnovne grupe sa odreħenim podgrupama. 1. grupa: kada postoje subjekat koji je nosilac poruke i imenski predikat u okviru kojeg se pretpostavlja postojanje kopule. RazliĦiti podtipovi su konstrukcije u kojima pronalazimo neku od sledeĤih kombinacija: a) dvije imenice: imenica u funkciji predikata mora prethoditi imenici u funkciji subjekta jer bi u suprotnom sluĦaju u pitanju bila apozicija: ―Ecco la novità giovane, la Peugeot 206 station wagon.‖ b) infinitiv (subjekat) + imenica (predikat), i c) infinitiv (subjekat) + pridjev (predikat) u kojima takoħe predikat mora prethoditi subjektu. Nijesmo pronańli primjer za ove dvije konstrukcije u korpusu ovog rada. d) imenica (subjekat) + pridjev (predikat): ―La casa in Laterizio: logica, ed ecologica. Microclima ottimale, acuistica perfetta, resistenza alle intemperie, nessun bisogno di manutenzione, estetica e sicurezza certificate, totale rispetto dell‘ambiente... Oggi come sempre. Andil Assolaterizi‖164; ili Ħesta konstrukcija offerta valida fino al... 164 L‘espresso, n.33, 25/08/2005: 166. 509 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo U prvu grupu spadaju joń neki podtipovi, u kojima je, meħutim, predikat predstavljen imenskim oblikom glagola ili prilogom: e) imenica + particip prezenta: ―Nuovo Colour Surge Impossibly Glossy. Scandalosamente lucido. Spudoratamente brillante. Incredibilmente idratante. In una parola irresistibile. In 10 tonalità ultra sexy. Clinique165. f) imenica + particip prošli: ―Nuova Citroën C3. Decisamente sconsigliata ai timidi‖166; ―MatiSpa: la nuova linea di trattamenti e prodotti con i principi attivi degli estratti marini e oli essenziali, studiata per ogni tua esigenza. Qualità esclusiva. Straordinaria efficacia. Puro piacere‖167. g) imenica + predlog a + infinitiv i h) imenica (ili imenska sintagma) + prilog. Za ove dvije kategorije nijesmo pronańli primjere u korpusu. 2. grupa: kada postoji imenska sintagma, obiĦno prońirena, koja ima ulogu predikata u odnosu na subjekat koji se ne pojavljuje u reĦenici (tzv. soggetto sottinteso). Postoje sledeĤi podtipovi: a) imenica (+ atribut) i b) jedan ili više povezanih pridjeva, iza kojih slijede priloške odredbe za koliĦinu ili relativne reĦenice Nijesmo pronańli primjere u korpusu. 3. grupa: ne postoje posebno izdvojeni subjekat i predikat; nalazimo samo jedan imenski element koji moņe imati ulogu ili subjekta ili predikata. U ovoj grupi se izdvajaju tri podtipa, kako postepeno raste glagolska vrijednost: a) deverbali kojima slijedi neka odrednica: ―risposte per i tuoi bisogni― b) deverbal ili infinitiv kojem prethodi odrednica i c) infinitiv + sintagma koja oznaĦava vršioca radnje: za koje, opet, nema primjera u korpusu. 4. grupa: postoji samo jedan imenski element, koji uvijek ima funckiju subjekta. Predikat se obiĦno odreħuje logiĦkim putem, pomoĤu oblika koji ukazuju na postojanje subjekta (c‘è), koji ustanovljavaju njegovo postojanje (si vede) ili ga smjeńtaju u odreħenu sredinu (si trova). Ovaj tip se najeĦeńĤe sreĤe u reklamama. Navodimo samo neke od primjera: ―Lea ceramiche. Emozioni in casa. STONEHENGE. Atmosfere millenarie per ambienti d‘avanguardia. Superfici naturali o satinate in 4 colori e 4 formati diversi. Lea. La passione della Ceramica168‖; ―Linea solare Sisley. In pieno sole. Per tutte le pelli. Un vero successo‖169. Mortara Garavelli posebno izdvaja druge tri kategorije koje se mogu smatrati nominalnim stilom. To su: 1. giustapposizione, odnosno izostavljanje predloga i veznika: ―‘Unica‘ Tim con super-autoricarica, tutti ti chiamano tutti ti ricaricano‖170; ―Aperol soda, beati gli avidi.‖171 2. imenske grupe u ulozi apozicije (obiĦno ovakve reĦenice pronalazimo na samom kraju reklame): ―Mondiali Fifa 2006, il videogioco ufficiale per PC e Play-station‖172 165 Cosmopolitan, n.5, maggio 2005: 19. TV: Canale 5. 167 Silhouette, n.8, agosto 2005: 12. 168 Casamica, n.4, 5/04/2003: 202. 169 Donna moderna, n.31, 31/07/2002: 35. 170 idem. 171 Gioia, n.8, 26/02/2002: 15 172 TV: Canale 5. 166 510 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Geomar. Bellezza naturale della terra e del mare"173; "Ariston. Il tuo prossimo desiderio"174; ―Collistar. Leader nei trattamenti corpo‖175; ―Leicht. Cucine tedesche"176; ―Iodase complex e Ice. Il personal trainer contro la cellulite. Crema iodase complete‖177 3.imenske grupe u ulozi atributa: ―Nuova Citroën C3. Unica, decisa e inconfodibile‖178; ―Tutti pazzi per il mais. Buono, buonissimo‖179; ―Il Fiat JTD Diesel Common Rail. Più pulito, potente e performante...‖180; ―Mascara extrablack. Allungante. Incurvante. Volume‖181. Osnovna razlika izmeħu imenskih kategorija u ulozi apozicije i atributa ogleda se prije svega u Ħinjenici da kod prvih nukleus nominalne grupe predstavljaju imenice dok je u drugoj grupi ta uloga prepuńtena pridjevima i participima. ZakljuĦak Ukoliko osmotrimo ovaj kratak pregled ostaje nam da zakljuĦimo da su u jeziku reklame najbrojniji primjeri koji se mogu svrstati u prvu i Ħetvrtu grupu, dok primjera za drugu i treĤu grupu gotovo da i nema. Uopńte gledajuĤi, nominalni stil je glavno obiljeņje jezika reklame upravo radi njene ekonomiĦnosti i efikasnosti. Ako je, dakle, nominalni stil sredstvo kojim se postiņe jeziĦka ekonomiĦnost, jasno nam je da je moguĤe eliminisati iz teksta elemente koji imaju malu informativnu vrijednost (Ħlanovi, veznici, predlozi), a da to nije moguĤe kada su u pitanju imenice i pridjevi pomoĤu kojih se postiņe najveĤa ekonomiĦnost uz najmanje upotrebljenih rijeĦi. 173 Silhouette, n.4, aprile 2005: 154. Gioia, n.21, 29/05/2001: 170. 175 Silhouette, n.4, aprile 2005: 69. 176 TV: Rai 1. 177 Cosmopolitan n.6, giugno 2005: 261. 178 TV: Canale 5 179 TV: Rai 1. 180 idem. 181 Donna moderna, n.31, 31/07/2002: 127. 174 511 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCE AA.VV. (1974). Fenomeni morfologici e sintattici nell‘italiano contemporaneo. Roma: Bulzoni. Id. (1991). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Milano: Mursia. Baldini, M. (a cura di). (2003). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Le fantaparole. Roma: Armando. Cardona, G. R. (1974). La lingua della pubblicità. Ravenna: Longo. Corti, M. (1978). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. In A. Chiantera (a cura di), Una lingua in vendita. L‘italiano della pubblicità. Roma: NIS, pp. 139-159. Dardano, M. (1981). Il linguaggio dei giornali italiani, Bari: Laterza. Id. (2003). Il linguaggio dei giornali: il registro pubblicitario. In M. Baldini (a cura di), Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Le fantaparole. Roma: Armando, pp. 199-206. Dardano, M., Trifone, P. (2001). La nuova grammatica della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. Galliot, M. (1954). Essai sur la langue de la réclame contemporaine. Toulouse: Edouard Privat. Mortara Garavelli, B. (1971). Fra norma e invenzione: lo stile nominale. In Studi di grammatica italiana I. Firenze: Sansoni, pp. 271-315. Orlandoni, O. (2005). Tecnica della comunicazione scritta. http://www.scribd.com/doc/51102460/TecnicaDella-Comunicazione-Scritta-Imparare-A-Scrivere-Uniroma Scarpa, F. (2001). La traduzione specializzata: lingue speciali e mediazione linguistica. Milano: Hoepli. Sergio, G. (2004). Il linguaggio della pubblicità radiofonica. Roma: Aracne. Testa, A. (1988). La parola immaginata. Parma: Pratiche. Zingarelli, N. (2001). Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. 512 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 77 Title A name given to the resource Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame u Italiji Author Author Bojičić, Gordana Abstract A summary of the resource. M. Garavelli (1971:2003) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima „una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi‖. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Razlog za njegovu tako veliku upotrebu moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). U radu Ĥemo prenijeti klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila u zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se nalaze subjekat i predikat i ograniĦiti se na primjere u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd87379a5b5f9e65e3583177e2f067ee.pdf b3b9c48741ea0823a10b552507f0b863 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Azize BoĢnak Department of American Culture and Literature Fatih University Istanbul, TURKEY abosnak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection . INTRODUCTION The ultimate aim of reading is to develop better thinking skills while acquiring knowledge. Reading in a sense is more than covering the printed material. Francis Bacon warns against the mistake that people tend to make; either reading to dispute and reject, or reading and accepting it uncritically as if printed materials are all undisputable facts. For him the right way is ―weighing and considering‖ what is read. ―To read without reflection is like eating without digesting,‖ says Edmund Burke to emphasize the importance of reasoning (cited in Adams: 1999, 196). Reasoning in reading sets the mind at work; examining, making decisions, interpreting, comparing, collating, questioning, criticizing and similar mental activities. Reasoning enforces reading to be an active and dynamic process. Reading courses in ELT at college level aim at enabling students to acquire reading skills and strategies at cognitive and meta-cognitive levels. At the cognitive level, as Douglas Brown puts it, the reader uses strategies such as repetition, grouping, recombination, deduction, inferring and so forth. The aim is to manipulate the learning material. The meta-cognitive level is gained through planning, thinking about the learning process and evaluating it (Brown: 2000, 115). While developing the cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and strategies students are also supposed to acquire critical reading. Critical readers are also critical thinkers. They carefully evaluate the evidence presented in the written material, analyze the different views, and make sound judgments. Teaching critical literacy means helping students ―see and question dominant power themes (Wolk: 2003, 101).‖ These themes do not only exist in the text, but also in the society and world. Thus, in a broader sense, textual reading is also about reading the life. Students practice in seeing and questioning without being told what to think, but being encouraged to develop unfixed, versatile points of view with an inquisitive mind. Critical reading: Critical reading is an active, intellectually engaged process in which the reader participates in an inner dialogue with the writer. Most people read uncritically and so miss some part of what is expressed while distorting other parts. A critical reader realizes the way in which reading, by its very nature, means entering into a point of view other than our own, the point of view of the writer. A critical reader actively looks for assumptions, key concepts and ideas, reasons and justifications, supporting examples, parallel experiences, implications and consequences, and any other structural features of the written text, to interpret and assess it accurately and fairly. See elements of thought. Teaching reading is about conveying the ardor for reading across students. Similarly, the joy of reasoning both analytical and critical is transferred into the classroom. However, reasoning, or better thinking are 196 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo not one of the concerns of traditional discipline-based teaching. Explicit instruction of thinking is unusual in most higher education institutions. Thinking is multi-dimensional and can be done in different ways and at different levels. Critical thinking as a higher level thinking in which one evaluates the processes and problems are identified and solved. Some colleges and universities offer specific courses in which models of efficient thinking are designed to be taught to students (Halpern: 1998, 449). I believe that Reading courses provide the good grounds for instructing thinking skills engraved into reading skills. Therefore in the following part of this paper, I am going to focus on some models of instruction in the Reading course, which will contribute to creating a syllabus that includes reading skills as well as analytical and critical thinking skills, . To be analytical is a prerequisite in critical reading; therefore analytical skills will be considered as inherent elements in critical reading ABOUT THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION The first and most important insight necessary for the appropriate design of instruction and curriculum is that content is, in the last analysis, nothing more nor less than a mode of thinking. There is no way to learn a body of content without learning the concepts which define and structure it. There is no way to learn a concept without learning how to use it in thinking something through. Hence, to learn the concept of democracy is to learn how to figure out whether some group is functioning democratically or not. To learn the concept of fair play is to learn how to figure out whether someone is being fair in the manner in which they are participating in a game. To learn the concept of a novel is to learn how to distinguish a novel from a play or short story. To learn the concept of a family is to learn how to distinguish a family from a gang or club. To learn anybody of content, therefore, it is necessary to learn to think accurately and reasonably with the concepts that define the content (DasBender: 2010, 38). To this point the majority of teachers and students approach content, not as a mode of thinking, not as a system for thought, or even as a system of thought, but rather as a sequence of stuff to be routinely "covered" and committed to memory. When content is approached in this lower order way, there is no basis for intellectual growth, no deep structures of knowledge formed, no basis for long term grasp and control. Instructional design involves a teacher thinking about instruction in both structural and tactical ways. Overall structural thinking-for example, about the concept for the course-can help free a teacher from the Didactic Model into which we have been conditioned and the ineffective teaching that invariably accompanies it. Simple and complex tactical thinking can provide the means by which we can follow through on our structural decisions in an effective way. Our teaching will not be transformed simply because we philosophically believe in the value of critical thinking. We must find practical ways to bring it into instruction, both structurally and tactically. The following part includes some teaching techniques and subjects that are expected to improve thinking skills of students while improving their reading skills. The importance of thinking and good reasoning is reminded to students through these techniques and subject s throughout the reading process. Teaching Students How to Question Thinking is not driven by answers but by questions. Questions define tasks, express problems and delineate issues. Answers on the other hand, often signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates a further question does thought continue its life as such. It is true that only students who have questions are really thinking and learning. It is possible to give students an examination on any subject by just asking them to list all of the questions that they have about a subject, including all questions generated by their first list of questions. Unfortunately, most students ask virtually none of these thought-stimulating types of questions. They tend to stick to dead questions like "Is this going to be on the test?" The questions that imply the desire not to think. Most teachers in turn are not themselves generators of questions and answers of their own; that is, are not seriously engaged in thinking through or rethinking through their own subjects. Rather, they are purveyors of the questions and answers of others-usually those of a textbook. We must continually remind ourselves that thinking begins with respect to some content only when questions are generated by both teachers and students. If we want thinking we must stimulate it with questions that lead students to further questions. We must overcome what previous schooling has done to the thinking of students. We must reactivate minds that are largely dead when we receive them. We must give our students what might be called "artificial cogitation" (the intellectual equivalent of artificial respiration). 197 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An example of a preliminary technique to teach creating questions: SQR can be taught as a preliminary questioning technique in which students firstly surveys the main title and the sub-titles, and change them into question forms. After forming the questions they look for the answers by reading the text. This creates a sense of focus in the minds of the students. Having Students Evaluate the Organization of the Text All texts are bound to the organizational rules of the genre they belong to. Even if they do not conform perfectly to the rules, they still bear a sense of organization, and coherence. In Reading courses for freshmen in language departments, organizational rules for the paragraph, the essay and the narrative (the short story) are commonly taught. Students read the details of the text at the same time they analyze the cohesive devices that contributes to overall coherence and unity. In this way students learn to switch back and forth from overall structure of the text to the details in the meaning. This technique provides good grounds to trigger the students‘ evaluative faculties. The teacher should encourage them to criticize the organizational shortcomings of the text. They can also compare different texts of the same genre and evaluate their organizational qualities. For instance; while analyzing the way the thesis statement is presented in an essay, and how the supporting ideas match with the thesis, they can also compare the essay with another one that follows a different organizational system of its own. Another example is that when students analyze the elements of the short story, they can also evaluate which elements are stronger than others and how they contribute to the themes better. Thus, teaching the organization of a text, and having students consider the meaning and the organization together can create the opportunity of evaluating the text in a more intricate way, which would lead to more intensive thinking. Teaching Writing / Discourse Patterns Teaching the discourse patterns of a text separately is another technique to contribute to the thinking skills. By examining the way a writer develops the argument, the reader can better penetrate into the reasoning in the argument. To evaluate what the writer is saying by looking into how the writer is saying it whether through: _ using examples, statistics, or anecdotes, _ comparing and contrasting two or more ideas of subjects, _ using definitions, _ showing the effect of some cause or action, _ classifying, _ persuasive argumentation or objective exposition Analysis of the writing / discourse patterns can enable students to think more distinctly about the argumentation style of the writer. It can facilitate better reasoning about the main idea of the text, and also pave the way for building up to more critical evaluation of the style and the meaning. Teaching Further Analysis towards Making Analytic Distinctions When we analyze, we break a whole into parts. We do this because understanding complex wholes requires understanding them through the interplay of their parts. Success in thinking requires developing, first of all, an analytic mind. The structures that define the parts of thinking include goals and purposes, problems and issues, information and data, inferences and conclusions, concepts and theories, assumptions and beliefs, implications and consequences, viewpoints and perspectives. To assess thinking, we apply universal intellectual standards to both parts and whole. These standards are the criteria by which thinking is judged by educated and reasonable persons. Unfortunately, most people are unaware of these standards. These standards include, but are not limited to, clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, and fairness. 198 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Analysis and evaluation are crucial skills for all students to master. They are required in learning any significant body of content in a non-trivial way. Students are commonly asked to analyze poems, chapters in textbooks, concepts and ideas, essays, novels, and articles. Other than these teachers can have their students get aware of some further analytic distinctions that will lead to critical thinking. For instance, the distinction _ between facts and interpretations, which emphasizes that interpretations or opinions should not be taken as facts; _ between matters of taste and matters of judgment, which is to show that opinion, can be based on a taste, or on a judgment. The former while expressing a preference that may not need strong evidence to support, the latter needs sound argumentation with supportive evidence. What if the controversial issues like any sort of discrimination, mercy killings, voting for a candidate, laws concerning different issues and etc. are being discussed as a matter of taste rather than matters of judgment; _between the author‘s ideological stance and her/his ideas, which is to make students aware that people sometimes display rejection towards the writer without knowing what s/he is saying due to some preconceived ideas about the writer, or contrary to this, they may be inclined to accept whatever exposed by a certain writer. _between the quality of the expression and the validity of the meaning, which is to raise the awareness that some pompous eloquent expressions can evoke a great response the validity of the meaning of which can be quite questionable. On the other hand, poorly expressed realities may not take enough attention (Adams: 1999, 197199). These further analytic distinctions teachers make together with students can motivate students to invest more into thinking, changing their position towards the text from being more receptive and submissive to being more evaluative and dominant. Teaching about Authors‘ Attitude, Tone and Bias An author‘s personal way of approaching a subject is the indication of his/her attitude. Sometimes authors sound objective, sometimes quite subjective by letting their personal feelings known by the reader. The author‘s likes, dislikes, agreements, disagreements, and biases are revealed. The tone of an author becomes conspicuous through his/her choices of words, expressions, and the way the author makes up sentences. For instance, the tone of an author about a serious issue like war can be so humorous that the reader cannot help laughing. This does not mean that the author finds wars funny. Quite opposite, s/he might be trying to show the absurdity of the reasons that sometimes cause the war. An author‘s attitude and tone traced in the text reveal whether s/he is biased for or against a subject. Bias is the mental leaning or inclination. We must clearly distinguish two different senses of the word ‘‘bias‘‘. One is neutral, the other negative. In the neutral sense we are referring simply to the fact that, because of one's point of view, one notices some things rather than others, emphasizes some points rather than others, and thinks in one direction rather than others. This is not in itself a criticism because thinking within a point of view is unavoidable. In the negative sense, we are implying blindness or irrational resistance to weaknesses within one's own point of view or to the strength or insight within a point of view one opposes. To be able to spot the biases is a higher level awareness which require critical reading. Introducing this skill to students can improve their critical look at the text. Teaching the Logical Fallacies and Propaganda Commonly used in the text Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look for them in one‘s own and others' writings, one can strengthen his/her ability to evaluate the arguments they make, read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about fallacies: First, fallacious arguments are very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. One can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious. An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. The goal of teaching this subject is not only to teach how to label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free, but to help students look critically at their own arguments. Some of the most common examples of these fallacies are as follows (Hurley: 2008, 149-173): 199 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hasty generalization: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes about people ("librarians are shy and smart," "wealthy people are snobs," etc.) are a common example of the principle underlying hasty generalization. Missing the point: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws. For example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving." The argument actually supports several conclusions—"The punishment for drunk driving should be very serious," in particular—but it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted. In such cases one should ask himself/herself what kind of evidence would be required to support such a conclusion, and then see if you've actually given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or extreme conclusion is being drawn. Post hoc (also called false cause): This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this." Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later—for example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and event. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation. For example, "This government raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. The president is responsible for the rise in crime." The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other. Weak Analogy: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy. For example: "Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous." While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature hammers do not share—it'd be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the argument based on it. If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind between almost any two things in the world: "My paper is like a mud puddle because they both get bigger when it rains (I work more when I'm stuck inside) and they're both kind of murky." So the mere fact that one draws an analogy between two things doesn't prove much, by itself. It is needed to think more analytically to identify what properties are important to the claim one is making, and see whether the two things being compared both share those properties. Appeal to authority: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority. For example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their opposition to it." While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to do with acting, there's no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political opinions—he is probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the person writing the paper . Other than logical fallacies, teaching how to detect the propaganda techniques used in the text provide good means to empowering students thinking skills. The following can be chosen to teach among the most commonly used propaganda techniques (Adams: 1999, 218-220). Name Calling: This technique uses words, or labels that have bad or negative meanings to certain people. A propaganda that uses the negative labels against others call for the biases against those people. ―Sexist‖, ―leftist‖, ―yuppie‖, ―terrorist‖ can be used to sway people to be for or against a person or a group. 200 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Glittering Generalities: This technique is the opposite of name calling. It is used to win the reader / listener over by using words or phrases that are acceptable to most people: ―motherhood,‖ ―faith in God,‖ ―honesty,‖ ―the wisdom of our founding fathers,‖ ―family- man,‖ ―freedom fighters‖. The fallacy is that they are used in vague and meaningless way, in the hope that the nice words will become associated with the person. The words here glitter with nice sounds, but their sparkle is not real because the meaning is empty. Distortion or Twisting: This technique uses only half-truths or part-truths. Rather than telling the whole truth, propagandists and advertisers sometimes only pick what sounds good or bad and ―twist‖ the facts in a way that best suits the purpose. The materials which include distorted or twisted arguments can be a good material while teaching students thinking better. Good reasoning, alert readers will certainly enjoy not falling into the trap easily. Sloagans: The use of catchy words or phrases is another technique of propagandists. During World War II, the slogan ―Remember Pearl Harbor‖ was used to get people to buy war bonds and to make certain sacrifices needed for the war effort. Phrases such as ―In God We Trust‖ and ―United We Stand‖ are all used to influence our thinking and to make us feel we are together and of one mind. This method can be good or bad. As with all propaganda methods, we need to read or think beyond the words and seek the facts. CONCLUSION We now recognize that analytical and critical thinking, by its very nature, requires, for example, the recognition that all reasoning occurs within points of view and frames of reference; that all reasoning proceeds from some goals and objectives, has an informational base; that all data when used in reasoning must be interpreted, that interpretation involves concepts; that concepts entail assumptions, and that all basic inferences in thought have implications. We now recognize that each of these dimensions of thinking need to be monitored and that problems of thinking can occur in any of them. Independent of the subject studied, students need to be able to articulate thinking about thinking that reflects basic command of the intellectual dimensions of thought: "Let‘s see, what is the most fundamental issue here?‖ ―From what point of view should I approach this problem?‖ ―Does it make sense for me to assume this?‖ ―From these data may I infer this?‖ ―What is implied in this graph?‖ ―What is the fundamental concept here?‖ ―Is this consistent with that?‖ ―What makes this question complex?‖ ―How could I check the accuracy of these data?‖ ―If this is so, what else is implied?‖ ―Is this a credible source of information?‖ In teaching and learning that focuses on analytical and critical thinking is the recognition that critical thinking instruction can be explicitly done, and be facilitated including some teaching items into the syllabus such as questioning techniques, organizational inquiries combined with comprehension of content, analysis of writing/ discourse patterns, some certain analytical distinctions that are made in connection to the biases about the writer and his/her ideas, the validity of the quality expressions, facts and interpretations, issues of taste and issues of judgment and so on. Other than teaching to make these distinctions, students can be equipped with the ability of recognizing logical fallacies and propagandist languages hidden in the text. In addition they can be explicitly taught how to question the attitude, and biases of authors that are revealed in between the lines. With intellectual language, students can be taught thinking skills that moves within any subject field. What is more, there is no reason in principle that students cannot take the basic tools of critical thought which they learn in one domain of study and extend it (with appropriate adjustments) to all the other domains and subjects which they study. As for FLT departments, analytical and critical thinking of the students empowered in reading classes will definitely contribute to students‘ intellectual performance in other classes. 201 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adams, W. Royce and Jane Brody, (1999). Reading Beyond Words. 6 th Ed. New York: Harcourt Color Publisher. Brown, Douglas, (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 4th Ed. NY: Longman. Daspender, Gita, (2010). ―Critical Thinking in College Writing: From the Personal to the AcademicLowe.‖ (Eds. In) Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing. Pavel Zemliansky and Charles Lowe. Volume 2. SC: Parlor Press. Hurley, Patrick J, (2008). A Concise Introduction to Logic. New York: Thomson Learning. Lunsford, Andrea and John Ruszkiewicz, (2010). Everything‘s an Argument. 5th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin. Sears, A., and J. Parsons. ―Toward Critical Thinking as an Ethic.‖ Theory and Research In Social Education, 1991, 19, 45–46. Wolk, Steven. ―Teaching for critical literacy in social studies.‖ The Social Studies. May-June 2003 v94 i3 p101(6) 202 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 31 Title A name given to the resource FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Author Author Bosnak, Azize Abstract A summary of the resource. Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/846030292cb546960fae6f48decab464.pdf c8f3fb1c10ac5386f119ec3b830e559f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Ana BradiĦiĤ Italian High School – Rijeka, Croatia Teacher of English and German Language and Literature ana.bradicic1@ri.t-com.hr Abstract: Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome. Key Words: Lexicon, crosslinguistic influence, similarity perception Introduction For a number of years studies of crosslinguistic influence24 (CLI) focused on the role of the first language in the acquisition of the second language, and the analysis of errors in the learners‘ second language production had the main role in establishing the predictive force of transfer (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1991). The results of more recent studies have shown that all languages acquired after the first language might be the source of CLI when learning a new language (Cenoz, 2001; Dewaele, 1998; Ringbom, 1987; Selinker and Baumgartner-Cohen, 1995; Williams and Hammarberg, 1998). Several factors have been identified as relevant in this process, among which crosslinguistic similarity25, language proficiency, context of communication, age, recency of language use and the ―foreign language effect‖ or the L2 status. In the case of the second language, its ability to function as a source language for CLI is not determined as much by the order of acquisition as by other factors such as proficiency in the source language, frequency and recency of use, and the degree of similarity to the recipient language. Since the majority of studies deal with language production, it is necessary to investigate CLI effects in perception and comprehension in order to gain a deeper understanding of the process of third 24 Crosslinguistic influence, the term proposed by Kellerman and Sharwood Smith in 1986, is used in the literature as the equivalent of the term transfer or interference, and it includes the wide range of psycholinguistic phenomena which result from the contact of two languages, including preference, positive and negative transfer, avoidance and borrowing (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). 25 The phenomenon called linguistic distance, typological similarity, psychotypology and crosslinguistic similarity refers to the degree of similarity between the source language and the recipient language. It determines the possibility of the appearance of transfer (Kellerman, 1977; Ringbom, 1978; Wode, 1976; Cenoz, 2001; Ringbom, 2001, 2007). 140 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language acquisition26. While in language production the speaker starts from the preverbal intention and assigns it a linguistic form, comprehension has its starting point in the lexical form the reader or listener gives meaning to by linking the language form to the semantic knowledge he possess (Ringbom, 2001). Therefore learners try to find similarities between the languages they know in order to establish a relationship of equivalence between them, and in this process formal similarities have a greater importance in comprehension than in language production (Ringbom, 2007). However, it is important to distinguish between objective and subjective similarity, but also between objective and subjective difference. Objective similarities are often not the same as subjective similarities since it is the subjective perception of the speaker to determine the degree of transferability of certain language features from the source language to the recipient language (Kellerman, 1978). The subjective crosslinguistic similarity influences the degree to which the learner relies on the source language in learning and using the target language, whereas objective similarity affects the likelihood that transfer will be positive or negative (Odlin, 1989). However, objective similarities and differences and subjective differences don't lead to transfer, but it is the crosslinguistic similarities that the learners perceive or assume to exist, that form the basis of interlingual identifications that generate most types of transfer (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Perceived language distance is therefore considered the main factor influencing crosslinguistic similarity, and formal similarity between all language systems known to the learner a constant factor of crosslinguistic influence (De Angelis and Selinker, 2001). The importance of perceived crosslinguistic similarity has been attested in all areas of language knowledge, from phonology, morphosyntax to the discourse, but it is mostly evident in the field of the lexicon. Crosslinguistic similarity is most obviously perceived on the basis of formally similar or identical individual items or words. The similarities may also be functional or semantic. Formal similarity is perceived first, in that getting the word form precedes getting the word meaning, and most cases involving the transfer of formal properties seem to reflect perceived similarities, while many cases of semantic transfer seem to occur merely on the basis of assumed similarities and often despite observable differences. Moreover, in the case of formal transfer the source language tends to be a closely related language, that is a source language that the learner perceives as being closely related to the recipient language, whereas semantic transfer strongly tends to come from a language in which the learner is highly proficient, most commonly the L1 but also an L2 in cases where the learner is highly advanced in the L2 (Ringbom, 1987, 2001; Cenoz, 2001). Although perceived similarity mainly facilitates learning, especially when cognate languages are concerned, it can also lead to errors in production and comprehension, as in the case of false friends, i.e. lexemes that belong to different languages, but because of their formal similarity lead to wrong conclusions about their meaning (Gabryś-Barker, 2006, Ringbom, 2007). The first encounter with cognates often leads to an approximate understanding and it doesn't require much cognitive effort on the part of the learners since they easily connect the core meaning of words with the same or similar form. However, on more advanced levels of language learning, it is necessary to invest a greater cognitive effort to acquire the full meaning of lexical units, their stylistic and contextual components (N. Ellis, 1994, 1997; Nemser, 1998; Singleton, 1999). Despite the fact that the research of lexical transfer has received much attention, due to the complexity of this phenomenon that includes several dimensions of lexical knowledge, it is necessary to investigate the implications of this process in multilingual speakers where lateral transfer is manifested, i.e. the transfer from the L2 to the L3 (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Method of the Study The main goal of this study is to gain an insight into the perception of lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers. With regard to objective and subjective similarity, the aim is to establish if the subjects perceive crosslinguistic lexical similarity in reading comprehension, and if so, to which degree they rely on semantic, i.e. formal similarity. Furthermore, the aim is to establish the existence of a relationship between the perception of lexical similarities of L2 Italian and L3 English with the subjects‘ characteristics (first language, Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of L2 Italian, length of studying and language proficiency in L3 26 For the purpose of this paper, it is important to underline the difference between the second (L2) and the third language (L3), since when acquiring the L2 the learner has at his disposal only the knowledge of his L1, whereas when acquiring the third language (L3), he already possesses the knowledge of the previously learnt languages (Hammarberg; 2001). Therefore, an adult learner who starts learning an L3 or an L4, possesses metalinguistic knowledge and learning strategies that a learner of the L2 doesn't have (Hufeisen, 1998). 141 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo English, self-rated language knowledge of English and Italian and formal evaluation in L2 and L3 at the end of the school year) and the features of the lexical items included with reference to word class membership, historical relatedness and semantic and formal similarity. The study of the perception of lexical similarity between L2 English and L3 Swedish (Utgof, 2008) represents the methodological starting point and the basis of this work. Sampling The present study includes 69 subjects, students of a high school in Croatia where the language of instruction is Italian. 35 of them are students of the first class and have been studying English for 7 years and 34 of them are students of the fourth class and have been studying English for 10 years. All informants are bilingual speakers whose L1 is mostly Croatian and the L2 is Italian, which is mainly used only as the language of instruction. The subjects differ also on the following points: Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of the Italian language, self-rated proficiency in L2 and L3 and the formal mark they have in the subjects Italian language and literature and English language at the end of the school year 2009/2010. Materials and Analysis Processes The questionnaire used to gather the data consists of a first part involving similarity judgements for 28 word pairs varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity. Formal similarity was computed by means of the normalized Levenshtein distance, which is a string edit distance for measuring the amount of difference between two strings of characters taking into consideration their length. Since similarity and difference are expressed by a reciprocal measure, the measure of formal similarity is given precedence in consonance with the theoretical assumption that learners tend to rely more on similarities than on differences (Ringbom, 2007). The measure of semantic similarity is given by the similarity ratings of five experienced Croatian-Italian bilingual teachers of English. The included lexical items differ also in their grammatical category, etymological origin, and out of 28 word pairs, there are 23 word pairs that belong to the category of deceptive cognates. Although English belongs to the Germanic language family, a significant number of lexemes has its origin in Latin, so in terms of its lexicon it can plausibly be regarded as a Romance language (Singleton, 2006), which has important implications for the psychotypological effect. It is therefore obvious that a learner who has a knowledge of Italian will encounter a whole array of English words whose meaning he can associate with a previously acquired language. However, deceptive cognates can lead to wrong conclusions since their meaning in English doesn't match the meaning of a similar word in Italian. The importance of context lies in the possibility of lexical and conceptual processing of ambiguous lexemes and in aiding comprehension (Gianico and Altarriba, 2008). All test items have therefore been contextualized and included into sentences provided by the British National Corpus for the English sentences and by Corpora e lessici dell‘italiano parlato e scritto and Corpus dell‘italiano scritto contemporaneo for the Italian sentences. The British National Corpus is an exemplary representative corpus, used in many previous studies, while the corpora of Italian have been chosen for ease of access and their content including spoken and written language as well as literary texts. The sentences were skimmed and chosen at random, and some were edited for length to fit in the form. The included items were checked against the vocabulary list included in the student‘s book used in grade 1 and 4 (Soars, L. and J., 2005, 2009) and chosen according to the researcher‘s judgment. To exemplify the mode of analysis, it has to be mentioned that the similarity ratings have been given on a scale ranging from 10 (totally different) to 100 (completely the same) as in the study of lexical similarity perception between Swedish and English by Utgof (2008). The usage of ciphers was abandoned in hope that the students would place a mark after their intuition rather than concentrate on mechanically choosing a number. The respondents were asked to place a cross on the line to reflect how similar they considered the word pairs to be. Language biography is the second part of the questionnaire supplying information about the biographical characteristics of the informants, context of acquisition and use of L2 Italian and L3 English. Findings and Discussion In order to establish and differentiate the effects of formal and semantic similarity on the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and verify the effects of the grade the subjects attend, i.e. the level of L3 proficiency, a threeway ANOVA with repeated measurements on 2 factors was performed followed by post hoc Scheffé tests where appropriate (i.e. if the F score was statistically significant) (Table 1.). The word pairs have been divided into two categories according to the degree of their formal and semantic similarity with values ranging from 0 – 0.50 for 142 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low similarity and 0.51 – 1 for high similarity. The alpha for achieving statistical significance was set at .05. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated to examine the strength of the relationship between the variables. Table 1. Effects of formal similarity, semantic similarity, grade and their interaction on English-Italian word pair similarity judgements η Factor F1,67 formal similarity 19.23** .22 semantic similarity 25.51** .28 Grade 0.70 .01 formal similarity * semantic similarity 0.01 .00 formal similarity * grade 2.56 .04 semantic similarity * grade 4.46* .06 formal similarity. * semantic similarity * grade 0.19 .00 *p<.05; ** p<.01 As can be seen from Table 1., in analyzing the role of formal similarity and the role of English proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, the only statistically significant effect is that of formal similarity. What is interesting is that there is a negative relationship between formal similarity and similarity judgments, i.e. formally more similar word pairs are perceived as less similar. Based on the size of the effect, 28% of the answers‘ variance can be explained on the basis of semantic similarity and 22% on the basis of formal similarity. As to the effects of formal similarity, English language proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, there is a statistically significant effect of semantic similarity. In other words, highly similar lexical items have received higher similarity ratings. Grade hasn‘t been found statistically significant, whereas there is a statistically significant interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgments although the effect size is relatively small. While the ratings of the grade 1 subjects tend to be more uniform, grade 4 students rely more on semantic similarity when expressing their similarity judgments. Although the strength of the effect of the interaction between semantic similarity and age on similarity ratings is relatively small, it is interesting to note that the effects of semantic similarity on similarity ratings are different with age. As shown in Picture 1., the range of semantic similarity ratings is larger in the ratings of older students (grade 4) than of the younger ones (grade 1), which is in accordance with the finding that crosslinguistic similarity perception on more advanced levels is based on previously acquired lexical knowledge. The first grade students‘ ratings, whose lexical knowledge is on a lower level compared to that of the fourth grade students, are similar to those of the older students, since they have given low similarity ratings for semantically different words and higher ratings for semantically more similar words, but their ratings are in a smaller range, around the middle values on the rating scale, probably due to their fear of giving the ―wrong‖ rating. 143 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 0.70 Similarity rating 0.65 Grade 0.60 first 0.55 fourth 0.50 0.45 0.40 low high Semantic similarity Picture 1. Effects of the interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgements In order to test the correlation between similarity ratings and the subjects' first language, a one-way ANOVA was performed, whereby no significant effect of the first language on the overall similarity rating was found (Table 2.). The subjects gave uniform ratings of crosslinguistic similarity regardless of their L1 since the majority of them have Croatian as their L1 and use Italian as an L2 in the schooling context. However, even when they speak Italian in their family, they use Croatian in everyday communication in the broader community. In view of the language specificity of our subjects, this finding is in line with the results of previous studies indicating semantic transfer taking place from the first language or, in the case of high proficiency, from the second language. Table 2. ANOVA results for the effects of L1 on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor first language F1,67 η2 1.11 .02 In the analysis of variance of the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the experience of the learning of the Italian language, no significant effect of the L2 learning experience on the ratings of the similarity of lexical pairs was found (Table 3.). All informants evaluated their experience of learning Italian as very positive or neutral, and no one expressed any negative experiences connected to the acquisition of their L2. Out of 69 students, 29 of them rated the experience of learning Italian as very positive, 20 positive and 20 neutral. Table 3. ANOVA results for the effects of L2 learning experience on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor Italian language learning experience F2,66 0.46 η2 .01 The correlation between the ratings of crosslinguistic similarity and the use of the Italian language in the formal (school, church) and informal (family, friends) context has been analysed using the linear regression analysis. As can be seen from Table 4., the model can't be regarded as statistically significant. The formal context is generally irrelevant with respect to the similarity ratings, while the use of L2 Italian in the informal 144 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo context is a negative predictor, although on the limit of statistical significance, of similarity ratings. In other words, the subjects rate lexical pairs as less similar the more they use Italian in informal situations. This could be explained by the fact that those speakers that use Italian with family and friends have Italian as their dominant language, whereby there is no effect of the second language which has been recognised as one of the most influential factors of crosslinguistic influence, and a high language proficiency implies a greater attention given to semantic, and not to formal features of a word. Table 4. Regression analysis results for the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the context of use of L2 Italian (formal and informal context). Predictor Formal Informal  p .18 .18 -.26 .05 R2*.0.6; F2,66=2.12, p>.05 As shown in Table 5., no statistically significant correlation between lexical pairs similarity rating and self-rated knowledge of Italian was found. However, it is significantly connected to the mark at the end of the school year in that subject. In fact, L2 proficiency has been recognised as one of the relevant factors in crosslinguistic influence. Table 5. Connection between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in Italian and the mark in the subject Italian language and literature at the end of the school year. 1 1. similarity rating 2. self-rated knowledge of Italian 3. formal evaluation in Italian 2 .15 3 .28* .33** *p<.05; ** p<.01 Similarity ratings don't show a correlation neither with the self-rated knowledge of English nor with the mark at the end of the school year in that subject (Table 6.). However, it is interesting to note that the correlation between self-rated knowledge and the mark at the end of the school year is bigger in the case of L3 English than L2 Italian. This can be explained by the fact that Italian is regarded as the students‘ first language, so the teachers set higher expectations and the students themselves are more self-critical with respect to their knowledge of Italian and rate it lower than is the case with English. Table 6. Correlation between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in English and the mark in the subject English language at the end of the school year. 1 4. similarity rating 5. self-rated knowledge of English 6. formal evaluation in English 2 -.08 3 .01 .70** ** p<.01 145 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In order to test the effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal and semantic similarity on English-Italian word pairs‘ similarity judgments, a series of one-way ANOVAs with repeated measurements on one factor was performed. Word pairs have been divided into two groups according to grammatical category (the same – different), genetic relatedness (the same – different), and membership of the category of deceptive cognates. Effects of all the mentioned variables have been found statistically significant. Words belonging to the same word class are rated as more similar than words belonging to different grammatical categories. Likewise, a statistically significant effect of etymological similarity has been established and in this case the effect size is the largest. True cognates are perceived as more similar than words having a different etymological origin. The effect of the deceptive cognates is also statistically significant. Words of high formal similarity but semantically completely or partially different are rated as less similar (Table.7.). This finding can be brought into relationship with the first finding (Table 1.) regarding low similarity ratings for formally similar items indicating that the subjects rely more on semantic than formal similarity which is in line with the results of the study we took as our starting point (Utgof, 2008). Table 7. Effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal-semantic similarity on English- Italian word pairs similarity judgements η2 Factor F1,68 word class similarity 14.97** .18 etymological similarity 61.54** .48 deceptive cognates 13.84** .17 ** p<.01 The results of this study indicate a statistically significant correlation between crosslinguistic similarity and the experience of learning the Italian language, the context and frequency of use of the Italian language, the length of learning and proficiency in English, self-rated language proficiency in L2 and L3 and formal evaluation. Words belonging to the same word class and of the same etymological origin have been rated as more similar. Whereas in the case of word class membership results can be brought into connection with the lexemes being contextualized and thus facilitating comprehension, explicit knowledge of the etymological origin isn‘t available to high school students since at this level the learning and teaching of both English and Italian is approached from a synchronic view, and the mechanism of forming interlingual associations doesn‘t depend on the origin of a lexical item but on the perception of lexemes as analogous in the mind of the language user (OlujiĤ and Bońnjak Botica, 2007). However, what should be remembered is that transfer is an internal phenomenon that exists in the minds of individual language users and springs from the interaction of languages stored and processed within the same mind. Perceived crosslinguistic similarity also depends on individual learning styles and the characteristics of each individual learner (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, the conclusion is that Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers perceive crosslinguistic similarities between the English and the Italian language, and that their perception is related to both formal and semantic crosslinguistic similarity. As to the words which coincide in both meaning and form, the first grade students rate these words as less similar than fourth grade students since it is necessary to acquire a certain level of language proficiency for transfer to occur and crosslinguistic influence is manifested on more advanced levels of language learning when the learner has acquired additional competences and recognizes similarities between the source language and the recipient language (Wode, 1976; in Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). In the case of deceptive cognates the students on the more advanced level of language proficiency rely more on their lexical knowledge and rate deceptive cognates as more different although they are words of high formal similarity, as opposed to first grade students who rely more on formal similarity. In order to facilitate L3 acquisition, an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity should be adopted so that the knowledge of all previously acquired languages might get activated with the purpose of promoting positive transfer, enhancing learners‘ receptive strategies for inferring word meanings and developing metalinguistic awareness. On the other hand, in the case of deceptive cognates and partial 146 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo translation equivalents there is the need to emphasize semantic and conceptual crosslinguistic differences and to use interlingual comparisons so as to make the students aware of negative transfer. Therefore, CLI implicitly as a reciprocal, multi-directional influence of all the language systems possessed by an individual, and explicitly as a learning strategy, facilitates the process of learning not only the English language, but also for those bilingual speakers whose dominant language is Croatian, the learning of Italian vocabulary by means of lexical similarities with English. Since this study has included a limited sample it is clear that the findings have a limited generalizability and there is a need for replication that would address a wider range of contexts and include appropriate monolingual controls, especially monolingual speakers whose L1 is Croatian and who study both Italian and English in a formal context as foreign languages and are similar to the subjects of this study on a range of sociodemographic variables. 147 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References British National Corpus. Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ Browne, V., Mendes, E. and Natali, G. (2009). More and more False Friends, Bugs & Bugbears. Dizionario di ambigue affinità e tranelli nella traduzione tra inglese e italiano (seconda edizione). Bologna: Zanichelli. Cenoz, J. (2001). 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(ed.), Cross-linguistic Influence in Second Language Lexicon. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Soars, L. and J. (2009). Headway Intermediate. Oxford: OUP. Soars, L. and J. (2005). Headway Upper-Intermediate. Oxford: OUP. Utgof, D. (2008). The Perception of Lexical Similarities between L2 English and L3 Swedish. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from http://liu.divaportal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:128172 Williams, S. and Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language switches in L3 production: Implications for a polyglot speaking model. In: Applied Linguistics, 19 (3), 295-333. Wode, H. (1976). Developmental sequences in naturalistic second language acquisition. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 11, 1-13. 149 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 25 Title A name given to the resource Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Author Author Bradičić, Ana Abstract A summary of the resource. Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b42b26bedbb406296eae0243ec9d8417.pdf 83002f24ee9e6d3852af44573f809bac PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Challenge of Intercultural Communicative Competence for Polish Learners Christopher Brighton Krosno State College, Poland. cwbrighton@yahoo.co.uk Abstract: Intercultural Communicative Competence is a well established field of study with a well documented and constructed theoretical model which also provides clear skills and goals attainable for ICC learners. The skills, goals and attitudes can be evaluated by the use of Self-Awareness Inventories with an ICC training programme utilising SAI data. The question is what are the challenges of developing an intercultural ability which faced by largely homogeneous cultural societies, such as Poland. Much of current Polish research into ICC is limited and focused on investigating Polish intercultural business experiences or examining Hofstede‘s dimensions in relation to specific cultural groups and regions. Little work has been undertaken on the issues that Polish people face in developing ICC. This paper will present findings of research conducted regarding challenges that Polish learners of ICC face in the developing the necessary skills and goals. The paper is based on an SAI which was developed by the author specifically to evaluate socio-cultural background factors and their relationship to the development of ICC skills. The results of the survey provide indicators to certain areas which may hamper or effect intercultural communicative competence. The challenge of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is something which we all face in the current era of globalisation. ICC is an ever present in the interconnected spheres of education, media, business and our own social networks. The issue is not how we deal with ‗the other‘ but how we approach and how we understand the concept of being an Intercultural Communicator. In modern society we can transcend borders virtually and really with little difficulty. No longer are nations as closed to foreign travellers as they once were and great distances across time zones can be made insignificant with messenger programmes. As a result, people are arguably more connected today than at any time in the past and this connectedness creates the real challenge of intercultural communicative competence. The challenge is created by our home nation‘s approach to the issue, the purpose and the reasons of being an intercultural communicator. Most importantly, the challenge is individual and connected to our understanding of the intercultural concept. This paper will examine the challenges and approaches to being an intercultural communicator in Poland. 1.1. Evaluating Intercultural Communicative Competence The development of the notion of intercultural is largely credited to Edward Hall (The Silent Language, 1959). Since this time, the rise of the field has seen a plethora of work and studies conducted into what is understood as being intercultural (for example: Ting-Toomey, 1999; Geert Hofstede; Gert Jan Hofstede, 2005) as well as how to evaluate and measure intercultural communicative competence (Chris Brown; Kasey Knight, 1999). The field has become multidisciplinary and been taken into health care and drama studies, which is far removed from the initial diplomatic and business approach. This in turn has advanced the concept and definition of ICC which can be argued, makes it more difficult to locate and accurately specify (Castle Sinicrope et.al 2007; Rathje, 2007). Moreover, the number of ICC evaluation tools at the disposal of the researcher is ever growing (Pusch, 2004). Each of these tools approaches the concept of ICC in a different manner from a pen and paper test as used by Self-Awareness Inventories (SAI) to observations, evaluations and continuous assessment as used by the Portfolio approach. Which approach the researcher uses can provide a definition and structure of what is intercultural. However, the problem can be alleviated by cross-checking the areas, attitudes and aspects of behaviour the various tools evaluate and the primary definitions of being an intercultural communicator. When this is undertaken several themes emerge which suggest a baseline for evaluation. These are: 275 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The work environment The area in which we live The ability to empathise with others Our curiosity Our ability to adapt to new situations Home and Family life These themes operate both at an intracultural and intercultural level. Within our home society, we build over time the abilities to deal with the situations we face in each category on a daily basis providing an intracultural ability. This ability is rarely challenged or changed until we face an intercultural situation where the realities of the situation differ from those we are used to. The purpose of evaluating intercultural competence is to identify and acknowledge the areas we may have difficulties with. For the current study, English language students of Krosno and Tarnow State College were evaluated to determine their intercultural ability as well as understand the background factors that may influence intercultural competence. In order to achieve this goal, a survey entitled ―The Socio-Cultural Background Survey‖ was created which was part Self-Awareness Inventory and part personal questionnaire. The SAI was developed and utilizes many of the techniques and styles of questions that can be found in major inventories and portfolios. (see: Tucker, 1999; Kelley & Meyers, 2003; Janet M. Bennett; Milton J. Bennett, 2004; Michael Byram et.al 2005). The questions in the SAI were categorized in three areas of Politics, Education and Family, which covered the themes mentioned above. Questions which related to the first two themes of work and our areas of living were assigned as being Politics as they are influenced by the rules, laws and social notions of the society in which we live. The second two themes of empathy and curiosity were assigned to Education as the system and structure of schooling teaches these skills. The final area of Family was given to questions that asked about our ability to adapt and our home life. Accompanying the inventory was a personal questionnaire that evaluated background factors that may influence intercultural competence. The aspects questioned include: time spent abroad either for work or holiday; access to social networks such as Facebook and Twitter; as well as the area the respondent lives in – city, town or village. The data from the inventories has been calculated and correlated to answers provided by the respondents in the inventory creating these three clear categories for evaluation. The corpus of the study was 119 students from Krosno and Tarnow State College, who represent a specific sector of Polish Higher Education. The State College, or PWSZ sector in Polish, was established in 1999 to represent students from non-university cities and provides education to the first degree (Bachelor or Licentiate) level. Current 2008 figures indicate there are over 93,000 students in the State College sector with most students coming from rural or less affluent backgrounds as indicated by scholarships and allowances for almost 20,000 students (2009, pp. 49, 248). This is further supported by the data provided by the corpus as only 24 students declared they lived in a city against 48 who stated town and 47 who stated village. The cities where State Colleges are located are less well known and less popular for tourism than the university cities in Poland. Tarnow has a population of 115,000 and Krosno a population of 50,000 so they can be said to be representative of medium and small city Poland. More importantly, as has been stated, the students of the State College institutions are not necessarily city dwellers, but reflect a more rural background. As such the respondents represent a large portion of the Polish population which are outside the remit of most intercultural studies done so far, which have heavily focussed on business aspects of ICC (Silwa, 2007) or have been conducted in a university setting (Bandura, 2007). 1.2. Challenges Intercultural Competence The research conducted on the corpus of 119 students produced the following mean results for the categories of Politics, Education and Family: Politics Education Family 42.93 44.15 40.73 276 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In order to create a clearer understanding of the challenges and the concept of being an intercultural communicator the data was further analysed based on responses in the background questionnaire. The following information presents the findings and evaluates the data in the areas of: City, Town and Village; Work and Holidays Abroad; and Access to Social Networking sites. 1.2.1. City, Town and Village Where you live can be one of the most influential aspects to developing intercultural competence. In larger cities there is greater diversity as well as greater chances of encountering larger groups of tourists, business visitors and migrants. Other factors may include the location of the city – whether it is on a main transit route or tourist trail – and festivals, celebrations and cross-border links. The size of the city is not directly relevant, although a larger city should be able to support a large base of diversity as well as a larger business community. In Poland the large cities are university cities – Warsaw, Krakow, Lodz, Wroclaw, Poznan, Gdansk, Katowice etc. – with large tourist attractions, business communities and cultural diversity. Krosno and Tarnow, although smaller, are located on principal trade routes and close to the Slovakian border as well as having tourist attractions in the city architecture. This is supported by the scoring for 24 city dwellers from the corpus. In the mean scores of Politics, Education and Family the results were: Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 City Dwellers Corpus of 24 Town Dwellers Corpus of 48 Village Dwellers Corpus of 47 42.92 44.00 43.81 43.58 44.23 42.21 40.71 39.90 41.34 In terms of difference to the overall corpus there is little difference between the mean scores of Politics and Family. However, village respondents have a much lower score in Education which is 1.94 points lower than the overall average. Moreover, town dwellers have a higher score for Politics which is 1.07 higher than the overall average. These slight differences in scores from the overall average for city, town and village dwellers indicates that intercultural competence is not hindered or advanced by the location in which you live. This may be said to go against conventional wisdom or common sense which would consider the location as an important factor in the development of intercultural competence. However, the findings indicate that this is not the case which is a positive comment as if location was an important influencing factor then the lottery of location would be essential for intercultural competence. Therefore, location cannot be said to be a challenge of developing intercultural competence for Polish learners. 1.2.2. Work and Holidays Abroad Due to the increasingly globalised nature of employment it is more common today for people to migrate in search of employment. In the Polish case this has been a long part of history with waves of emigration over the past several centuries. The recent past, since 1989, has seen Western Europe as the major destination with an estimated two million Polish people migrating to the UK since Poland became a full member of the EU on 1st May 2004. Over the following years many of these migrants have returned to Poland, but the UK, Ireland, Sweden and, from 1st May 2011, Germany are the most popular legal destinations. For students, especially learning a foreign language, the attraction of spending a summer or longer abroad is twofold: on the one hand they can improve their language skills and on the other they can earn money. Those who seek work abroad experience culture shock as well as undergoing an unsettling experience as they relocate. Clearly, the difficulties of moving from your home to a foreign country are great and as such not everyone is persuaded to or willing to make such a move. From the student respondents only 37 had spent time working abroad whereas 60 had spent time abroad on holiday. Only 22 students replied that they had never been abroad for a holiday or for work. The mean scores for Politics, Education and Family were: 277 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 Work Abroad Corpus of 37 Holiday Abroad Corpus of 60 Never been Abroad Corpus of 22 43.81 43.77 41.86 45.24 44.13 42.05 42.49 39.80 39.77 As can be seen from the presented data, the students who had spent time working abroad score higher in each category than those who have only been on holiday, never been abroad and the overall average from the corpus of 119. This is a significant finding and indicates the benefits of long-term stay in a foreign country as well as the interaction with others in a normal environment. All of the students who had worked abroad had spent between one month and one year employed abroad. The social setting of their work, no matter what sector of the economy, enabled them to experience and to have contact with members of the foreign culture in a normal non-tourist related environment. Furthermore, the nature of living and working creates the need for greater interaction with different parts of the foreign culture from transportation, shopping, renting accommodation and social settings. All of these factors increase and clearly have an influence on intercultural competence as the six factors mentioned earlier all come in to play. In the case of the students who had been only on holiday the slight rise in the mean score for Politics and the slight decrease in the mean score for Family are not significant. The holiday experience does not provide access to the real foreign culture as tourist centres are often more liberal and accepting of differences among tourists as well as promoting culture in a tourist manner. The tourist centre purpose is to facilitate and provide a service to the guests, providing for their expectations, desires and demands. The results are clearly significant when compared with those students who have never been abroad. In all categories those who had never been abroad scored lower than the average of the corpus of 119. Specifically, in relation to those who had worked abroad, the differences for those who had never been abroad were: -2.21 in Politics; -3.20 in Education; and -2.72 in Family. These differences are significant and indicate the importance of experience which is gained from being abroad. Even in contrast to those students who had been only on holiday, those who had never been abroad scored lower. Therefore, in terms of developing intercultural competence spending time abroad is essential. For Polish learners this is a challenge, especially in light of the economic circumstances for many of the State College students who rely upon scholarships and assistance grants. 1.2.3. Access to Social Networks The final area for comparison is students‘ access to social networks and their range of friends and contacts on the sites. Over the past few years the growth of social networking sites has mirrored or been partly responsible for the greater globalisation of society. No longer can we only speak of business and companies being global, but now ideas, trends and gossip is global with what happens in one part of the world becoming a topic for the whole world. The rise of Facebook and Twitter only illustrate the interconnected nature of people in today‘s world. In Poland, Nasza Klasa, which is a similar portal to Facebook and was originally designed to reunite classmates, has a dominant position in the market. However, even the Polish social network community is becoming influenced by Facebook with its global reach. Out of the 119 students surveyed, 76 have a social network page with 51 having contact with foreigners and 25 having contact only with other Polish people. Forty-three people responded that they had no social network site access. The mean results in Politics, Education and Family were: Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 Social Network with foreign contacts 43.88 44.45 41.76 278 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corpus of 51 Social Network with no foreign contacts 43.08 43.80 40.24 Corpus of 25 No Social Network 43.09 43.84 39.51 Corpus of 43 In comparison, those students who had foreign contacts on their social network site had a higher mean score than those who did not and those who had no social network. The differences between the scores are not very significant, but indicate that contact with foreigners does provide broader horizons and greater intercultural competence. This is an important piece of information and shows how even limited foreign contacts can influence understanding of other cultures. Moreover, all 37 people who had worked abroad had foreign contacts on their social network site, again indicating that even after their period of working abroad was over they kept in contact with those who they had met. Creating cross-cultural networks is an essential part of developing intercultural competence as it provides access to information about other cultures as well as encouraging communication and the exchange of ideas, thoughts and experiences. The challenge is for those Polish learners who do not have access to social network sites to do so at the earliest opportunity. 1.3. Conclusions The learners of English at the State Colleges in Krosno and Tarnow illustrate many of the challenges that are faced by Polish learners. Firstly, the students come from a variety of locations which present specific challenges to overcome. Most importantly, as can be seen from the statistics quoted with regards to scholarships and assistance grants, many of the students who attend the State College sector come from lower income backgrounds which affect their access to modern technology and foreign visits due to the financial costs. However, the location itself does not impair the development of intercultural competence given the right framework and opportunities to develop. The presented data illustrates that greater communication with foreign cultures does increase intercultural competence. In terms of experience of being abroad, work and holiday provide clearer understanding of the rules, laws and social notions of society not only of where we live but also of where we are. This is shown by both groups of respondents scoring higher Politics averages than those who have never been abroad. Furthermore, access to a social network, especially with foreign contacts, creates better intercultural competence. This is because of the global nature of today‘s social society with Facebook campaigns, groups and associations which are open to everyone. Providing access to greater foreign exchange programmes, for example via the Erasmus scheme in Higher Education, and encouraging the development of social network communication, either formally between institutions or informally, will clearly be of benefit to the development of intercultural communicative competence. 279 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bandura, E. (2007). Nauczyciel Jako Mediator Kulturowy. Krakow: Tertium. Castle Sinicrope; John Norris; Yukiko Watanabe. (2007, Fall). Understanding and Assessing Intercultural Competence: A summary of Theory, Research and Practice (Technical Report for the Foreign Language Program Evaluation Project). Second Language Studies , 26 (1), pp. 1-58. Chris Brown; Kasey Knight. (1999). Introduction to Self-Awareness Inventories. In S. M. Fowler, Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods (pp. 19-30). Boston, MA: Intercultural Press. (2009). Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland. Warsaw: Central Statistics Office GUS. Geert Hofstede; Gert Jan Hofstede. (2005). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw Hill. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Random House. IDI_Sample. (2006, 05 04). Retrieved 03 02, 2010, from The OFFICIAL Site of the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI): http://www.idiinventory.com/pdf/idi_sample.pdf Janet M. Bennett; Milton J. Bennett. (2004). Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett, Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 147-165). Thousand Oakes: Sage Publications. Kelley, C., & Meyers, J. (2003). CCAI Sample Report. Chicago: Vangent Inc. Michael Byram; Torsten Kùhlmann; Bernd Mùller-Jacquier; Gerhard Budin. (2005, 01 21). INCA The Theory. Retrieved 02 13, 2010, from Inca project: http://www.incaproject.org/en_downloads/24_INCA_THE_THEORY_eng_final.pdf Paige, R. M. (2004). Instrumentation in Intercultural Training. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett, Handbook of Intercultural Training: Third Edition (pp. 85-128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Portfolio of Intercultural Competence. (2004, 12 17). Retrieved 02 13, 2010, from INCA project: http://www.incaproject.org/en_downloads/24_INCA_THE_THEORY_eng_final.pdf Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural Training in Historical Perspective. In J. M. Dan Landis, Handbook of Intercultural Training (3rd Edition ed., pp. 13-36). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Rathje, S. (2007). Intercultural Competence: The Status and Future of a Controversial Concept. Langauge and Intercultural Communication , 7 (4), pp. 254-266. Silwa, A. (2007, June 03). Overview of Polish Publications about Intercultural Communication in Business. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from http://www.sjo.ae.wroc.pl/Raport%20o%20badanich.pdf Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating Across Cultures. New York: Guilford. Tucker, M. F. (1999). Self-Awareness and Development Using the Overseas Assignment Inventory. In S. Fowler (Ed.), Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods (pp. 45-52). Boston MA: Intercultural Press. 280 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 42 Title A name given to the resource The Challenge of Intercultural Communicative Competence for Polish Learners Author Author Brighton, Christopher Abstract A summary of the resource. Intercultural Communicative Competence is a well established field of study with a well documented and constructed theoretical model which also provides clear skills and goals attainable for ICC learners. The skills, goals and attitudes can be evaluated by the use of Self-Awareness Inventories with an ICC training programme utilising SAI data. The question is what are the challenges of developing an intercultural ability which faced by largely homogeneous cultural societies, such as Poland. Much of current Polish research into ICC is limited and focused on investigating Polish intercultural business experiences or examining Hofstede‘s dimensions in relation to specific cultural groups and regions. Little work has been undertaken on the issues that Polish people face in developing ICC. This paper will present findings of research conducted regarding challenges that Polish learners of ICC face in the developing the necessary skills and goals. The paper is based on an SAI which was developed by the author specifically to evaluate socio-cultural background factors and their relationship to the development of ICC skills. The results of the survey provide indicators to certain areas which may hamper or effect intercultural communicative competence. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f95cc76d7bd72039f654b8c3162d2d3f.pdf 9208c474a828d2c7bd023d5e0b80cc89 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Italian as a foreign language. The experience at the University of Banja Luka Danilo Capasso Department of Italian Studies Faculty of Philology, University of Banja Luka, BiH danilocapasso@italianisticabl.eu Abstract: The aim of the present article is to show how to organize, from the structural and didactic point of view, the study of a foreign language (FL), in this case the Italian language at some different private, university and school institutions where the foreign language had not been taught before.What are the difficulties for teachers in ―making themselves accepted‖ by students, how to meet the needs of a student who wants to learn that specific FL, and what are the teaching methods allowing the student to learn according to his needs. As we will see, the teaching methods already in use to teach a FL very often do not match the ones of a new FL. This non-coincidence is not always a disadvantage, but it may become a challenge between method and learning, whose results do not only concern the learning of the FL, but they also offer a possible opening for the creation of a new ―forma mentis‖ as well as a more adaptable ―modus studiandi‖ for the student. Key Words:Italianas a foreignlanguage- FL, old and newteachingmethods, powertoimagination, studentsexpectations. ―я понял, что родина творчества — будущее. Оттуда дуетветер богов слова‖ В. В. Хлебников Introduction Until 1998 the Italian language as a FL was not part of study plan and optional courses at the schools, University of Banja Luka in Bosnia and Erzegovina and its province. The Italian language was not even part of evening-classes where the teaching of foreign languages was offered. Officially, the foreign languages taught were: English, German, Russian and French. In 1998 the introduction of Italian language as a FL is something new that has to be carried out by solving above all several organizing problems: 1) Where to introduce it? In the school system or only in the university one? 2) How to introduce it? As a study plan or simply as an optional one? 3) How to teach it? Which teaching methods must be used considering the lack of a large number of teachers and the total shortage of teaching equipment? These are the three most important problems a teacher of Italian language had to face before starting the courses of Italian as a FL. History In 1998 the Italian Embassy in Bosnia and Erzegovina offered the University of Banja Luka the opportunity to start the teaching of the Italian language by sending a mother-tongue teacher. The University of Banja Luka accepted and at the beginning of October 1998 the teacher met the Rector of the Bosnian University who pointed out the following situation concerning the teaching of foreign languages, particularly Italian: 1) At the Faculty of Philosophy there are only two working departments of Foreign Language and Literature: English and German; besides them, there are no other foreign language courses, having no reference department, but held by teachers teaching Russian and French as optional subjects. 2) The Italian language is not part at all of school and university system of Banja Luka and its province. There is neither a Chair of Italian languagenor a culture able to train teachers. The Italian language course that should be in the study plan at high schools of music and at the Music 307 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Academy (to get a degree in lyric singing) very often is not working due to the lack of qualified personnel. The started courses are very rare and they are held by teachers having a degree in Italian Language and Literature they got beyond the boundaries of Bosnia and Erzegovina. On the basis of this situation, the Italian language course can be structured only as an optional course to be organized in the classrooms of any Faculty, at the end of the ordinary lesson period, that is in the evening from about 19.00 to 22.00. Being his range of action very limited, the teacher of Italian language decided to prepare a formative proposal of Italian language as FL as it follows: 1) To make inquires about the presence of the Italian language within urban environment (names in Italian of clubs, bar, restaurants, different kinds of shops such as clothing, draper‘s shops, furnishing, tourist offers for Italy at tourist agencies). 2) To make inquires about the presence of Italian language in the media (television, radio, internet websites). 3) To make inquiries about teaching methods of foreign languages at schools and universities (to attend lectures and schematize teaching methods). 4) To prepare a marketing activity of the Italian language (a course open not only to school and university students, but to the whole population as well who might be interested in learning the Italian language). 5) To carry out an information activity about the possibility of attending an Italian language course (ads at the Faculty entrance, a meeting with students following other FL courses, a meeting with the last-year high school students, meeting with different representatives of civil society: ONG dealing with culture, trade-unions, various citizen associations). The results of this work that took 20-30 days to be accomplished, are the following: 1) In the urban environment of Banja Luka about 80% of restaurants has Italian names and/or names of Italian places: pizza-shop, the corner, belvedere, San Remo, Rome, Modena etc… 75% of clothing, draper and furnishing shops has Italian names: beautiful house, Italian style, leather sofas etc. .. Italy is present in tourist offers with the most traditional and geographically the closest destinations: Venice, Garda Lake etc..but also in shopping tours arranged for Trieste. 2) The presence of the Italian language in the media is mainly linked to music and sport. The Italian melodic music (Ramazzotti, Pausini, Nek, Zucchero) is often broadcast by the radio or Tv (by videoclips); the Italian sport is remarkably present and words like calcio (soccer) Ferrari, Formula Uno, are heard very often. 3) The inquiring interviews about the Italian language course as FL turned out to be useful and 200 people enrolled themselves for the course whose beginning was scheduled by the first days of November. Among these people there were: High school students University students Working people Jobless people Retired people The age of enrolled people was in a range going from 15 to 65 years. 4) Considering the number of enrolled people, the teacher decided to organize the optional Italian course as FL as it follows: Ten groups of about 20 students each; Lessons take place twice a week and each lesson can last from 45 to 60 minutes; the students are divided into groups by age. Method of the study Obviously, it goes without saying that the organization of the Italian language course as FL at the University of Banja Luka, is a unique case though the organizing method can be taken as an adaptable example for other experiences, it is now important to assess the scientific quality of principles for the teaching methods of a FL; here the contextualization of this case is not important. Before teaching a FL I think it is unavoidable to use two criteria a teacher must comply with in an exhaustive way:  the reasons why a student decides to learn that specific FL,  what are his expectations, that is to say, what he expects to get from learning that particular FL. 308 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Though the first principle may seem averse to the school system where the student has to learn the FL and the teaching method is bound to the pre-arranged rules, (to the question why do you want to learn a FL the student might answer ―I do not want to learn it, but I have to‖) this principle, apart from obligation, takes into consideration the way the student approaches the FL. These two criteria allow to assess one or different teaching methods to learn a FL starting from the student‘s point of view instead of the FL‘s one. Let us go into details of the teaching method according to the above mentioned criteria: Questionnaire made out in the local language LL for the students, in our case 200 people(Capasso 2001). Sampling 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Name and Surname Sex Age University/school/work Do you come from Italy? What other foreign languages do you speak? Level of knowledge of other spoken foreign languages: a)beginner b)intermediate c)advanced 8) What do you know about Italian culture: a) Literature b) Art (painting, sculpture) c) Geography d) History e) Cinema f) Music g) Sport h) Gastronomy i) Fashion j) Other (specify) 9) In your opinion the Italian language is: a) Easy b) Difficult c) Interesting d) Useful e) Important 10) Why do you want to study Italian: a) Personal reasons b) Work c) Out of curiosity d) Other reasons (specify) 11) Do you know the Italian language? a) Not at all b) A little c) soso d) well 12) Have you ever studied Italian? 13) If yes, where and how long? 14) Have you ever been to Italy? 15) If yes, where and why? 16) Which Italian words do you already know? (write them down) 17) Which teaching method for the Italian language would you like? a) Grammatical b) Communicative c) Supported by audio-visual equipment 18) Express what do you expect from the Italian language course. Among the answers, there are some which very interesting 309 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Question 6 English 100% (16-30 yrs of age) German 54% (25-50 yrs of age) Russian 32% (25-65 yrs of age) Question 7 70% unable to assess their own level of knowledge of FL Question 8 Fashion 100% Sport 90% Gastronomy 90% Other 90% Music 83% Cinema 54% Geography 36% Art 21% History 15% Literature 7% Question 9 Easy 92% Interesting 86% Useful 55% Difficult 37% Important 5% Question 10 Personal reasons 95% Curiosity 90% Other 77% Work 48% Question 11 A little 90% Nothing at all 85% So so 15% Well 2% Question 14 No 100% (16-24 yrs of age) Yes 85% (25-65 yrs of age) Question 15 North (Trieste) 92% Shopping 100% Business/work 65% Tourism 39% Question 16 Trousers Jacket How much does it cost Numbers (from 1 to thousands) Colours (green, red, white, blue, grey) Mafia Boss of the bosses Pizza Lasagna Spaghetti Car Shoes 310 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Vespa (motorcycle) Ferrari Armani Versace Soccer Totti Del Piero Godfather Mussolini Fascism Dante Michelangelo Question 17 More than 80% cannot answer Question 18 To learn the Italian language 100% From the answers obtained we can assume the following specific situations: 1. The Italian language is basically more related to the country image than to its culture, as we mean it in the classical sense. The Italian language is the idiom of made in Italy, of some status symbol concerning fashion, car industry and gastronomy; 2. It is a melodic language, easy to reproduce as for the sound, it is neither seen nor experienced from the grammar point of view and its pronunciation is easy to acquire. 3. It is a ―nice‖ language because it is strictly related to the image of the italian people who enjoy life, always seeking for beautiful and elegant things. 4. From the methodological point of view the most interesting answers are 7 and 17; The inability to assess one‘s own level of knowledge of a FL, as well as the lack of competence in assessing one‘s own preference to the learning methods of a FL, are clear signs of how the study of a FL takes place without considering the student‘s expectations, risking the results of the learning itself. The student does not realize how much he actually knows and does not take active part in the teaching method, he simply experiences it since he thinks and they make him believe that this teaching method is the only one available. In the present work I will put in evidence the reasons and risks for this situation. The predominant model in teaching foreign languages in schools Attending school lessons and lectures of a FL is very important in some cases and in this one it is unavoidable in order to note the student‘s approach to the FL. As for Banja Luka, the teaching methods of a FL can be summarized as follows: FL (English and Russian)  An exclusively grammar approach The teacher explains grammar rules writing them on the blackboard and he asks the students to repeat them in a loud voice. In this way, students learn the rules only passively, extranging them from a context and so they become abstract concepts.  Inductive method The students open their textbooks and servilely apply the rules read before on the blackboard and learnt by heart. The exercise sequence follows the order the students are arranged in, so that the third student already knows he has to do the third exercise and, worried by its solution, he does not pay any attention to the others.  Total lack of any communicative structure The teaching method is always the same. It is divided into two parts: 1. The teacher explains the grammar rules and 2. He makes the students apply them in a methodical way by exercises in the book that very frequently concern sentence transformation, according to the explained 311 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo rule. The student making a mistake misses his turn and the exercise is given to the next student. There is no communication between the teacher and the students: the former never checks his students‘ learning level (he never asks if there are any doubts), the latter very seldom tell the teacher about their difficulties.   Relationship between student and teacher This relationship is univocal, to the teacher‘s advantage. It is he who inductively offers the students some grammar rules that must be applied, denying the students any possible communication in the FL. The last is the DEUS EX MACHINA The teacher is the deus ex machina who explains and solves the ―difficult matters‖ in learning a FL, his opinion as well as his explanations are final. He is a teacher in the etymologic sense of the term, ―magis‖ because he is above students, but he is not at all a teacher in the sense of someone who simplifies, advices and can be maieutic, tutor and organizer. (Balboni 2008) The above given picture shows and explains the backwardness and uselessnes of the teaching methods used to teach and learn a FL in schools and University. The roles The FL is a subject strictly related to a role relationship: the student plays the role of a silent learner, while the teacher is the only learned person. The student has no other role but that of getting data passively without any possibility of selecting them; only the teacher has an active role that sets him as the sole source of knowledge, with a student merely seen as an empty vase to be filled up. Teacher vs. Student The relation between the two roles is the antagonist (the uneducated-the ―bad ―one) versus the protagonist (the learned person-the ―good‖one). This relation completely undoes the results of learning that is based on the pair receiving-producing. The receiving is a totally overlooked aspect: if the student learns it depends on him, while production turns out to be a me a mechanical repetition of grammar rules without any communication. Language vs. culture (Valdes 1986, Byram 1989, Lavinio1992, Kramsch 1993,Bugarski 2005) The FL is taught within a context that is totally torn off from the culture of origin: the student knows about English language that it is mother-tongue in GB and the U.S.A, and it is the predominant foreign language but he does not absolutely know the reasons for that, what is the cultural and social background flowing from this predominance. Tearing off the foreign language from the culture of origin not only impoverishes the language itself, but it reduces its reception degrading it to a number of grammar rules learnt by heart. Moral grammar vs. immoral grammar (De Benedetti 2009) The grammatical approach is considered the only possible and moral one. What do we mean by moral? It means that it is the right, perfect approach. Grammar is considered as a close structure, geometrically perfect, with rules and exceptions leaving no room for doubts, different solutions or possible mistakes. It is just for this reason that grammar does not provide for solutions like ―you can also say in that way‖ ―it is not correct, but it is used‖, it works like a perfect mechanism so it cannot be immoral. Monophonous communication vs. polyphonous one (Ponzio 2001) During the teaching and learning of a FL communication is exclusively monophonous, the sole voice is the teacher‘s one; the other voices repeating and applying mechanically rules to exercises are followers of the teacher‘s messages. There is a complete lack of a poliphonous register. On these premises, the reasons why the student cannot assess by himself his level of language knowledge and he is also unable to express preferences about the teaching methods, are clear. The student thinks he cannot assess his level of knowledge because this is not up to him, but it is up to his teacher who must not only apply the sole possible method, but determine the student‘s competence level as well: it is he who says whether his student is clever or not. From this analysis it appears that sometimes the student has a good grammar knowledge of the FL, but he is totally unable to apply it at any other level but a passive one. The useful methods: power to imagination (Munari 2009) 312 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The method used to teach the Italian language as FL starts from the need of making the student competent and persuading him that his role is not a passive one, antagonist, but protagonist as well as his teacher or even more so. We must prove the student that the teaching method of a FL, in this case Italian, starts from his needs and expectations. Here below I propose some teaching methods whose aim should be to do away with the student‘s incompetence turning him into a competent one: From the questionnaire it is evident that 1. The Italian language is linked to culture which is the motive power, as we said before, the made in Italy. The student already has some knowledge about the Italian culture and consequently about the language: his knowledge of words like caffè, cappuccino, pantaloni, pizza, lasagna etc... makes him able to express a basic communication in Italian. 2. Melody and sonority of the language can be a very good basis to structure an auditory approach of the FL, since its pronunciation is not considered difficult, the phonemic repetition of sounds will certainly give the student a feeling of language competence, to be confirmed afterwards. The teaching methods used to teach the Italian language as FL at the University of Banja Luka have been an upsetting newness, compared to the previous ones, as for the FL. I will report here below a list of some methods used and the results of their application. Levels A1-A239 Power to imagination: from the structural grammar to the situational sounds     Presenting the Italian language as a group of phonemes easy to reproduce. To make students repeat the sounds using ―alfabetiere‖ by Bruno Munari40. Avoiding any grammar approach, the student must listen to the sounds of the language and then repeat them, reading them in the given text without wondering about the meanings and their role within the text. Afterwards, the teacher will show the student some images (video), some situations where those sounds helped by images become meaningful (basic communication scenes: introducing oneself, basic exchange of information ―What is your name?‖ ―Where are you from?‖ ―What do you do?‖ etc... Information exchange among students: they will have to reproduce the sounds/meanings inside the scenes they have already seen, in order to confirm the production of the received messages. Levels B1-B2  The lexical enrichment and written production develop through the correlation of images and writing. The examples given to students by the ―tavoleparolibere‖ by PinoMasnata41 are an incitement to use the learnt words as well as a search for the production of new ones. The fact that some terms are unknown is replaced by image, and then the words are learnt with teacher‘s help.  Writing film dialogues: the teacher shows a selection of some known film scenes without the audio and the student, after seeing the scenes several times, (3-4) tries to picture a dialogue between the protagonists and put it in writing; then he will read it when the scenes are broadcast again.  Forbidden words (Rodari 1997) The teacher, by dialogues and images, informs the students about the forbidden words in the FL such as: coarse language, vulgar interjections, the allusions to genitals, and he will then exhort them to produce dialogues where they have to use coarse words. The learning of coarse language and its practice by dialogue allows the student to feel more competent in the FL and it offers greater fluency in the speaking, since embarassment and shame that might be felt by students in expressing with coarse words in their own language disappear completely while speaking in the FL. (Tartamella 2006) Levels C1-C2  The written and oral production by using hypotyposis and ecphrasis (Eco 2010), that is to say the oral and/or written description of an event, an object, a person, an image such as a work of art (painting, sculpture)allows students to use the acquired words and to be spurred to learn further terms so that he will be able to use circumlocutions necessary to make descriptions take shape. 39 In order to explain the required competences of levels A1,A2,B1,B2,C1,C2, see the following website: http://www.languagepoint.eu/ 40 In the article appendix you can find some compositions by the lyricist Bruno Munari. 41 In the article appendix you will find some compositions of tavole parolibere by Pino Masnata. 313 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Creation of apophenic situations: the image screened offers the students the opportunity to describe both orally and in writing comments disjointed by image reality. In this case, the student‘s imagination spurs the lexicon in order to describe the image according to his own interpretation, regardless the image reality itself42. Conclusions and Recommendations ―La fantasia è quella facoltà umana che permette di pensare a cose nuove non eisstenti prima‖ 43(Munari 2009). I would like to underline that the methods proposed and used do not replace the previous ones (Balboni 19941998, Bettoni 1998). The proposal for the above mentioned methods is to be considered as a scientific model appliable to specific cases of teaching and learning a FL, where there are the same difficulties met, as in our case, at the University of Banja Luka. The scientific value of these methods is confirmed by the results obtained by their application:  The student is a co-protagonist of the couple teaching-learning, because his needs and expectations are the starting point for acquiring the necessary competences (Rodari 2006).  The language competence obtained at the end of each level is definitely greater than the competence (or incompetence) acquired by using traditional methods. The student is aware of his own level of knowledge, his capability of communicating, his written and oral production. Moreover, he will be able to determine the learning process pointing out his gaps as well as his progress within the formative path.  Being aware of his own capabilities and competences makes the student a co-protagonist in evaluating the teaching methods, that are not imposed a priori, but decided together with the teacher considering the student‘s expectations. At the end of each level the students were given the following questionnaire: 1. What do you think about the teaching method applied to your course? 2. At the end of the course how do you consider your knowledge of the FL, compared to the beginning? 3. Do you think you will get on with the course attending an upper level? (Question put at all levels except C2) 4. What do you think about your teaching relationship with your teacher? 5. At the end of this course, do you feel that your expectations and/or needs have been fulfilled? These are five questions written in the local language that go together with the usual standards evaluation by institutional school organs, and they do not obviously provide for multiple answers but spur the student to express his ideas and to judge himself. The answers are really enlightening: 1. To the first question the student answers critically facing the problem of teaching methods in a positive way and very seldom in a negative one. He expresses his ideas and preferences about the method used, showing the teacher which teaching path has to be changed or continued. 2. In the second question the student is able to judge his own linguistic competence, proving that he is able to put his knowledge into practice. 3. In the third question he can determine his linguistic needs so that he can realize if they are suitable for his purposes or have to be improved. 4. In the fourth question the student does not consider the teacher as a ―deus ex machina‖ anymore, but he sees him as a co-protagonist whom he must apply to, to put questions and get explanations. The student is now aware that his teacher proposes a teaching method that takes into account his needs and expectations. 5. The fifth question is not an abstract concept anymore, but it shows the student‘s awareness of his aims. Clearly, the examples reported in this study, the teaching of Italian language as a FL at the University of Banja Luka44 has the purpose to be a solution to students‘ learning problems within schools and universities that are 42 In the appendix you can find some apophenic images. 43 Imagination is the human power allowing to think of new things that did not exist before In order to complete the history of the teaching of Italian language as FL, at the University of Banja Luka, we must say that at first the FL was optional in evening-classes, but in 1999 it became part of the study plan in the degree of touring science. In 2000 the FL became also part of study plan at the Faculty of Philosophy and in 2003 at the Faculty of Philosophy (today Faculty of Philology) the Italian language was acknowledged by inaugurating the Dept. of Italian Language and Literature that is the only one in Bosnia and Erzegovina. 44 314 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo regulated by a pre-existing structure. In our case, the teaching methods presented are adaptable and for this reason they can, up to a certain point, co-exist with the previous ones. The case of Banja Luka puts in evidence that the pre-existing teaching methods had to make way for the new ones. The reason for this change is that the teaching methods of the Italian language as FL shift the heart of their action from teacher to student. Appendix Alfabetiere by Bruno Munari 315 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tavoleparolibere by PinoMasnata 316 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 317 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Apophenic images 318 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 319 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 320 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Balboni P.E. (1994). Didattica dell‘italiano a stranieri. Roma: Bonacci. Balboni P.E. (1998). Tecniche didattiche per l‘educazione linguistica.Torino: Utet Balboni P.E. (2008). Le sfide di Babele. Insegnare le lingue nelle società complesse. Torino: Utet. Bettoni C. (2001). Imparare un‘altra lingua. Bari: Laterza. Bugarski R. (2005). Jezik i kultura. Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek. Byram M. (1999). Cultural Studies in ForeignLanguageEducation. Clevendon: MultilingualMatters. Capasso D. (2001) Alcuni consigli strutturali per l‘attivazione di un corso di lingua italiana come lingua straniera. Cultura italiana. Educazione linguistica. Università europee. Lecce: Penza, 259-274. De Benedetti A. (2009). Val pi÷ la pratica. Piccola grammatica immorale della lingua italiana. Bari: Laterza. Eco U. (2010). Dire quasi la stessa cosa. Milano: Bompiani. Kramsch C. (1993). Context and Culture in LanguageTeaching. Oxford University Press. Lavinio C. (1992). Lingua e cultura nell‘insegnamento linguistico. Firenze: La Nuova Italia. Masnata P. (1932). Tavole Parolibere. Roma: Edizioni futuriste di poesia. Munari B. (1998). L‘alfabetiere. Mantova: Corraini. Munari B. (2009). Fantasia. Bari: Laterza. Ponzio A. (2001). Enunciazione e testo letterario nell‘insegnamento dell‘italiano come LS. Perugia: Guerra. Rodari G. (2006). Esercizi di fantasia. Roma: Editori Riuniti. Rodari G. (1997). La grammatica della fantasia. Torino: Einaudi. Tartamella V. (2006). Parolacce. Perché le diciamo, che cosa significano, quali effetti hanno. Milano: BUR. ValdesJ.M. (1986). Culture Bound. Cambridge University Press 321 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 47 Title A name given to the resource Teaching Italian as a foreign language. The experience at the University of Banja Luka Author Author Capasso, Danilo Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the present article is to show how to organize, from the structural and didactic point of view, the study of a foreign language (FL), in this case the Italian language at some different private, university and school institutions where the foreign language had not been taught before.What are the difficulties for teachers in ―making themselves accepted‖ by students, how to meet the needs of a student who wants to learn that specific FL, and what are the teaching methods allowing the student to learn according to his needs. As we will see, the teaching methods already in use to teach a FL very often do not match the ones of a new FL. This non-coincidence is not always a disadvantage, but it may become a challenge between method and learning, whose results do not only concern the learning of the FL, but they also offer a possible opening for the creation of a new ―forma mentis‖ as well as a more adaptable ―modus studiandi‖ for the student. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d569b7bea50073035d138cde92e00a2f.pdf 4cd44ece182decea6599db11a9d9cb07 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An Overview of Case Studies About the Influence of Multiple Intelligences on Teaching Language Suleyman Celik Faculty of Education Ishik University, Arbil/ Iraq cheliksuleyman@gmail.com Abstract:There are more intelligences than g-factor and those intelligences learn in different ways. Teaching language to those different intelligences needs different methods and activities. Howard Gardner introduced eight different intelligences and each of the intelligences has different characteristics. This study provides a brief overview of the case studies which have been done through different ages and grades. Also this article suggests some new specific ways to the aducators to incorporate the multiple intelligences into thier daily lesson planning. Finally it allows each learner to recognize their strengths and limits, solving the age of dilemmas. Key words: Multiple intelligence, language teaching Introduction The concept of general intelligence which had been emerged into different aspects was replaced by multiple intelligences theory founded by Howard Gardner (1983). Gardner defines the intelligence as ‘‘the ability to solve problems or to create fashion products that are valued within one or more cultural settings‘‘ (Gardner, 81). His view of intelligence shifted the conventional view of intelligence which is a single capacity to logical and mathematical thought. Within the same purpose, Gardner(1993) described intelligence as a bio-psycholigical potential that could be influenced by experience, culture, and motivational factors. Gardner‘s theory (1993) suggests different and independent intelligence capacities that result in many different ways of knowing, understanding, and learning about the world to have a better understanding of it. Gardner argues that we have at a minumum eight different forms of intelligence, each relatively independent of the others: musical, bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, verballinguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist. According to Gardner, each of these multiple intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain (Gardner, 1999). According to Gardner (1999), all human beings possess all different intelligences invarying degrees and each individual manifests varying levels of these different intelligencesand thus each person has a unique "cognitive profile"; that is, a) all human possess alldifferent intelligences in varying amounts; b) Each individual has a different composition; c)Different intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either work ; d) By applying Multiple Intelligences we can improve education;and e) These intelligences may define human species. Moreover, although the eight basic types of intelligence are presented individually, Gardner suggests that these separate intelligences do not operate in isolation. Normally, any activity encompasses several kinds of intelligence together. independently or together. A summary of Gardner's eight intelligences is given as follow: Linguistic/ verbal Intelligence:Gardner has described Linguistic intelligence as sensitivity to spoken and written language and the ability to use language to accomplish goals, as well as the ability to learn new languages. According to Gardner (1993), lawyers, public speakers, writers, and poets all possess high levels of linguistic intelligence. Verbal comprehension involves the ability to understand the meanings both of individual words and of passages of written or spoken texts. Word fluency, in contrast, involves the ability to generate rapidly many examples of words that meet some specification (e.g., words beginning with a given letter, words rhyming with a target word, words naming objects that have some property, etc.). Logical/Mathematical Intelligence: Gardner (1995) described logical/mathematical intelligence as the ability to study problems, to carry out mathematical operations logically and analytically, and to conduct scientific investigations. Gardner identified mathematicians, logicians, and scientists as persons who would possess high levels of this hypothesized intelligence. 1154 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Spatial/Visual Intelligence: Gardner defined spatial intelligence as the ability to recognize both large and small visual patterns. He suggested that navigators and pilots would possess high levels of spatial intelligence, as would sculptors, surgeons, chess players, and architects. Musical Intelligence: Gardner (1999) suggests that musical intelligence is parallel in structure to linguistic intelligence, and that it is reflected in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. With regard to the underlying abilities involved in his musical intelligence, Gardner has claimed that the two most central constituent elements of music are rhythm and pitch (or melody), followed in importance by timbre (which Gardner, 1983, p.105, describes as the characteristic qualities of a tone). Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Gardner (1999) described this intelligence as the potential of using the whole body or parts of the body in problem-solving or the creation of products. Gardner identified not only dancers, actors, and athletes as those who excel in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, but also craftspeople, surgeons, mechanics, and other technicians. Thus, Gardner does not appear to differentiate between gross motor skills (i.e., involving the whole body or the larger muscle groups) and fine motor skills (i.e., involving smaller muscle groups, especially those controlling the hands and fingers) in describing bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Interpersonal Intelligence: According to Gardner (1983), an individual who is high in interpersonal intelligence understands the intentions, motivations, needs, and desires of others, and is capable of working effectively with them. Gardner stated that teachers, clinicians, salespeople, politicians, and religious leaders all use interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Gardner (1999) described intrapersonal intelligence as the ability to understand and to have an effective working model of oneself. Intrapersonal intelligence, as conceptualized by Gardner, includes the awareness of one's own desires, fears, and abilities, and also using this information to make sound life decisions. Naturalistic Intelligence: Gardner (1999) described a naturalist as one who is able to recognize and classify objects. According to Gardner, hunters, farmers, and gardeners would have high levels of naturalistic intelligence, as would artists, poets, and social scientists, who are also adept at pattern-recognition. He stated that a marketing professional who promotes the small differences between competing products is applying naturalistic intelligence, as is the individual who can recognize cars from the sounds of their engines. Undoubtedly this new perception of notion of intelligence has shifted the traditional, authoritative teacher-centered instruction methods to the learner- centered mode of instruction in ELT classes. Educators started paying attention to the impact of learners‘ diversity in their learning style at their classrooms(Larsen-Freeman, 2000). The multiple intelligence theory opens the doors to a variety of teaching strategies which can easily be applied in the language classroom. It gives teachers opportunities to widen modern teaching strategies by using various assignments and activities (Armstrong, 2009, 51). The theory can be used in many different ways and works well in the entire school system. It offers opprtunities for students to use and develop all the different intelligences, not just the ones that they excel in. It also offers different learning styles and methods as well as various activities. Each of the intelligence is prospective in every learner and it is part of the teacher‘s job to look after and help children to develop their own intelligences( Bakic-Miric, 2010). It is interesting to see that acknowledgement of the theory exist within many different language teaching methods. For example, The Silent Way emphasize the development of student‘s inner thinking (Interpersonal Ġntelligence). Total phsical response emphasizes language learning through pysical action( bodily-kinsthetic Intelligence) while Suggestopedia emphasizes the use of music (Musical Intelligence) to deepen understanding of learning. The Communicative Approach as well as cooperative learning stress the importance of interpersonal relationships (Interpersonal Intelligence) (Christison, 1996; Arnold &Fonseca, 2004). The primary objective of this study is to indicate, by overviewing two case studeies, the students‘ performance and improvement in larning English after the MI theory has been implemented in the English Language courses. 1155 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method of the Study Th e study was conducted in qualitative research approach in which the action research review technique has been used. The purpose of this study was to investigate the implementation of Multiple Intelligences Theory in an educational setting by overviewing an action research which has been done in a third-grade classroom in Washington. Data Analysis Processes With the aim of gathering the data first relevant literature reviewed. Books, dissertations and articles which are related to topic has been gathered and all those items have been examined carefully. Also it was asked to experts‘ ideas. Ġn the process of gathering the data generally electronical database of the university has been used. Case studies which had been done to implent the MI theory in educational settings have been searched and also interviewed with a few of the teachers who had implement the MI theory in their classrooms. Findings and Discussion To implement Gardner's theory in an educational setting, the teacher organized his third-grade classroom into seven learning centers, each dedicated to one of the seven intelligences. The students spend approximately two thirds of each school day moving through the centers—15 to 20 minutes at each center. Curriculum is thematic, and the centers provide seven different ways for the students to learn the subject matter. Each day begins with a brief lecture and discussion explaining one aspect of the current theme. For example, during a unit on outer space, the morning's lecture might focus on spiral galaxies. In a unit about the arts of Africa, one lecture might describe the Adinkra textile patterns of Ghana. After the morning lecture, a timer is set and students in groups of three or four start work at their centers, eventually rotating through all seven. What Kinds of Learning Activities Take Place at Each Center? All students learn each day's lesson in seven ways. They build models, dance, make collaborative decisions, create songs, solve deductive reasoning problems, read, write, and illustrate all in one school day. Some more specific examples of activities at each center follow: In the Personal Work Center (Intrapersonal Intelligence), students explore the present area of study through research, reflection, or individual projects. In the Working Together Center (Interpersonal Intelligence), they develop cooperative learning skills as they solve problems, answer questions, create learning games, brainstorm ideas, and discuss that day's topic collaboratively. In the Music Center (Musical Intelligence), students compose and sing songs about the subject matter, make their own instruments, and learn in rhythmical ways. In the Art Center (Spatial Intelligence), they explore a subject area using diverse art media, manipulative, puzzles, charts, and pictures. In the Building Center (Kinesthetic Intelligence), they build models, dramatize events, and dance, all in ways that relate to the content of that day's subject matter. In the Reading Center (Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence), students read, write, and learn in many traditional modes. They analyze and organize information in written form. In the Math & Science Center (Logical/Mathematical Intelligence), they work with math games, manipulative, mathematical concepts, science experiments, deductive reasoning, and problem solving. Following their work at the centers, a few minutes are set aside for groups and individual students to share their work from the centers. Much of the remainder of the day is spent with students working on independent projects, either individually or in small groups where they apply the diverse skills developed at the centers. The daily work at the seven centers profoundly influences their ability to make informative, entertaining, multimodal presentations of their studies. Additionally, it is common for parents to comment on how much more expressive their children have become at home (Borich, 2011). The Results of the case study An action research project was conducted in his classroom to assess the effects of this multimodal learning format. The research data revealed the following: The students develop increased responsibility, self-direction, and independence over the course of the year. Although no attempt was made to compare this group of students with those in other third- 1156 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo grade classes, the self-direction and motivation of these students was apparent to numerous classroom visitors. The students became skilled at developing their own projects, gathering the necessary resources and materials, and making well-planned presentations of all kinds. Discipline problems were significantly reduced. Students previously identified as having serious behavior problems showed rapid improvement during the first six weeks of school. By mid-year, they were making important contributions to their groups. And by year's end, they had assumed positive leadership roles that had not formerly been evident. All students developed and applied new skills. In the fall, most students described only one center as their "favorite" and as the one where they felt confident. (The distribution among the seven centers was relatively even.) By mid-year, most identified three to four favorite centers. By year's end, every student identified at least six centers that were favorites and at which they felt skilled. Moreover, they were all making multimodal presentations of independent projects including songs, skits, visuals, poems, games, surveys, puzzles, and group participation activities. Cooperative learning skills improved in all students. Since so much of the center work was collaborative, students became highly skilled at listening, helping each other, sharing leadership in different activities, accommodating group changes, and introducing new classmates to the program. They learned not only to respect each other, but also to appreciate and call upon the unique gifts and abilities of their classmates. Academic achievement improved. Standardized test scores were above state and national averages in all areas. Retention was high on a classroom year-end test of all areas studied during the year. Methods for recalling information were predominantly musical, visual and kinesthetic, indicating the influence of working through the different intelligences. Students who had previously been unsuccessful in school became high achievers in new areas. The results of the case study project indicates that students who were taught by the use of Multiple Intelligence Theory developed more than it used to be. This is due to the fact that the Multiple Intelligence Based Teaching of English is more effective than the conventional method of teaching English (Christison, 1996). Multiple Intelligence based teaching helps the students not only to improve the academic achievement in English but also provides opportunity to develop their multiple capabilities of learning. Implementing the Multiple Intelligence Theory in the classroom develops the readiness of the students to gain the knowledge of English. Besides it motivates the students to understand the concept easier than the traditional way (Christison, 1998). On the other hand, by the awareness of their learners‘ diversity in the classroom, teachers develop new ways and activities related to the MIT in the process of their courses. Using innovated ways of teaching helps the teachers to solve the teaching difficulties. Here are some activities which can be done by the teachers who implement the MIT in the classroom; Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence Vocabulary & Grammar Learning -- learning new words and grammatical points and practicing using them accurately in regular communication Listening -- listening to tapes of stories, dialogues, and lectures, etc. Formal and Informal Speaking -- making verbal presentation to others, making conversations, having discussions and debates, etc. Humor or Jokes -- creating puns, limericks, and telling jokes on topics of study Impromptu Speaking -- instantly speaking on a randomly drawn topic Storytelling -- telling stories about any topic one is studying Reading -- silent reading, oral reading, and group/choral/chain reading for comprehension Writing -- doing written exercises, note-taking, summary/report writing, and journal/log/diary keeping to keep track of one's own thoughts and ideas Creative Writing -- writing original pieces (e.g., stories, essays, poems, novels, etc.)(Christison, 1998) Logical/Mathematical Intelligence Logic Pattern Games -- creating riddles or puzzles that challenge students to find a hidden rationale or pattern Logical/Sequential Presentation -- inventing point-by-point logical explanations for items or making systematic presentation of subject matter Number Sequences/Patterns -- investigating numerical facts or gathering and analyzing statistics on a topic Problem Solving -- listing appropriate procedures for problem solving situations Forming Relationships -- creating meaningful connections between different ideas 1157 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Syllogisms -- making "if…, then…" logical deductions about a topic (Lazear, 1999). Visual/Spatial Intelligence Visual Aids Using/Making -- using flash cards, pictures, paintings, charts, collages, graphs, grids, diagrams, flowcharts, slides, sculptures and video/film-viewing, etc. to facilitate learning and encouraging students to make the visual aids by themselves Active Imagination -- finding connection between visual designs (or pattern) and prior experiences (or knowledge) Mind Mapping -- creating or arranging visual mapping activities (e.g. word maze, visual webs of written information) Environment Arranging/Decorating -- encouraging students to decorate bulletin boards, and arranging learning corner (e.g. English reading corner) to achieve the effect of peripheral learning (Po-Ying, 2010). Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence Physical Actions -- arranging and doing TPR and hands-on activities Body Language -- "embodying" meaning, interpretation, or understanding of an idea in physical movement Role Playing/Mime -- performing skits or characters to show understanding of topics of study Dramatic Enactment -- creating a mini-drama that shows the dynamic interplay of various topics of study Sports Games -- creating a contest or game based on specific knowledge about a topic of study Field Trips -- arranging trips to gain firsthand knowledge away from the classroom (Po-Ying, 2010). Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence Music/Song Listening -- listening to rhythmic patterns, recorded music, or songs Singing/Humming -- creating songs for a class, a team, a topic of study or finding existing songs that complement a topic Musical Instruments Playing -- employing musical instruments to produce sounds for a lesson (e.g., background accompaniment, enhancement for the teaching) Music Composition/Creation -- composing and creating music for the sound effect of a play performance or for the enhancement of teaching Jazz Chants/Rapping -- producing or using rhythmic patterns, such as jazz chants, or raps to help communicate, or to remember certain words, sentence structures, concepts, ideas, or processes Vocal Sounds/Tones -- producing sounds with one's vocal cords to illustrate the meaning of a word, or a concept (e.g., hiccup, gasp, etc.) (Po-Ying, 2010). Interpersonal Intelligence Person to Person Communication -- focusing on how teachers and students relate to each other and how to improve their relating Giving and Receiving Feedback -- offering input on one's performance or about one's opinions; and accepting another's input or reaction to one's performance/ opinions Cooperative Learning Strategies -- using structured teamworks for topic learning and/or practicing peer learning Pair Works and Group Projects -- investigating and discussing a topic problem with a partner or with others in teams Jigsaw Puzzle/Strip Story -- dividing a picture or a story into distinct segments so that students can learn from each other on the process of putting it back to its original form (Po-Ying, 2010). Intrapersonal Intelligence Independent Studies/Projects -- encouraging students to work independently for goal-setting, processplanning, self-assessing, and homework choosing Journals/Logs/Diaries keeping -- working with reflection tools, such as reflective journals, thinking logs, learning diaries, etc. Focusing/Concentration Skills -- learning the ability to focus one's mind on a single idea or task Thinking strategies -- learning what thinking patterns to use for what task (Po-Ying, 2010). 1158 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Naturalist Intelligence Nature Encounters/Field Trips -- going outside for firsthand experiences in nature and/or bringing nature in the classroom via videos, objects, animals, plants, etc. Species Classification -- working with classification matrices to understand characteristics of natural objects Sensory Stimulation Exercises -- exposing the senses to nature's sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and sights Hands-On Labs -- performing experiments or activities that use objects from the natural world Nature World Simulations -- re-creating or representing nature in some form (e.g. photographs, drawings, etc.)(Singh, 2009). Conclusions and Recommendations The MI theory offers a richly diversified way of understanding and categorizing human cognitive abilities, and combinations of abilities, heightening awareness of what makes learning possible and effective for individual students. Moreover, teaching strategies grounded by the MI theory offers students choices in the ways they will learn and demonstrate their learning (Arnold &Fonseca, 2004). By focusing on problem-solving activities that draw on multiple intelligences, these teaching strategies encourage learners to build on existing strengths and knowledge to learn new content and skills. To this end, the implementation of the MI theory in the English language teaching offers a better understanding of students‘ learning preferences and a greater appreciation of their strengths. Students likely become more engaged in learning as they use learning modules that match their intelligence strengths that, in addition, increase students‘ engagement and success in learning. Generally speaking, implementation of the MI theory into the English language course provides numerous opportunities for students to use and develop all eight intelligences not just the few they excel in prior to matriculation. English language teachers should be aware of that there are different learners with different intelligence and each of their learning way is unique. the Multiple intelligence Theory offers the language teachers different ways of teaching to different learners and also it inspires the teachers new innovative teaching techniques. 1159 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD Arnold, J & Fonseca C. (2004). Multiple intelligence theory and foreign language learning: A brain based Perspective. International journal of English studies. 4, (1), 119-136 BakiĤ-MiriĤ, N.(2010). Multiple intelligences theory – A Milestone Innovation In English Language Teaching at the University of Niń Medical School. Acta Medica Mediana.48,( 2), 15-19 Borich, G. D. (2011). Effective teaching methods: research- based practice (7th ed). Boston: Allyn& Bacon Christison, M. A. (1996). Teaching and learning language through multiple intelligences. TESOL Journal, 6, (1), 10-14. Christison, M. A. (1998). Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory in Pre-service and In-service TEFL Education Programs. English Teaching Forum, April-June: 3-13. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1995). Are There Additional Intelligences? The Case for the Naturalist Intelligence. Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Howard College. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books Larsen-Freeman D.(2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press Lazear, D. (1999). Eight ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Eight Ways of Teaching with Multiple Intelligences. (3rd ed). Skylight Training & Publishing Inc. Po-Ying, L. (2010). Multiple intelligence and English language teaching. Retrieved from http://www.52en.com/xl/lunwen/lw_3_0015.html. Singh Chauhan, R. (2009). Effectiveness of multiple intelligence based teaching in teaching English for primary school students. International research journal, 2, (10), 49-52 1160 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 594 Title A name given to the resource An Overview of Case Studies About the Influence of Multiple Intelligences on Teaching Language Author Author Celik, Suleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. There are more intelligences than g-factor and those intelligences learn in different ways. Teaching language to those different intelligences needs different methods and activities. Howard Gardner introduced eight different intelligences and each of the intelligences has different characteristics. This study provides a brief overview of the case studies which have been done through different ages and grades. Also this article suggests some new specific ways to the aducators to incorporate the multiple intelligences into thier daily lesson planning. Finally it allows each learner to recognize their strengths and limits, solving the age of dilemmas. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ee2dcaa9e20d3d2fb35a039259afb02.pdf e6d9a252832efbd6b938c1e417d8b34d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ASPECTS OF GT PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Dr. Volkan Cicek Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq volkancicek@gmail.com Abstract: GT (Gifted and Talented) program is one of the three major educational programs, implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools, that is subject to extra funding along with other two programs of SPED (Special education) and ESL (English as a Second Language). In this review, technical details of Gifted and Talented Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of goal and benefits of the program, terminology, identification of GT students via nomination, assessment, testing, selection, and notification; other related issues such as appeals, re-evaluations, transferring from other schools, grade acceleration, GT program implementation, and pull-outs. Key Words: Gifted and Talented, Nomination, Assessment, Selection, Notification, Modifications, Regular and Specific Class Settings, Pull-outs, Furlough, Reevaluation Introduction Basis US Law, Education Code, Chapter 29, Subchapter D §29.121 defines a Gifted and Talented student as a child or youth who performs at or shows the potential for performing at a remarkably high level of accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experience, or environment and who: (1) exhibits high performance capability in an intellectual, creative, or artistic area; (2) possesses an unusual capacity for leadership; or (3) excels in a specific academic field. Renzulli states that it is important to point out that no single characteristic "makes giftedness." Rather, it is the interaction among three clusters of characteristics that research has shown to be the necessary ingredient for creative-productive accomplishment in his study dated 1978. These clusters consist of above average (though not necessarily superior) ability, task commitment, and creativity. Differences betwwen bright children with gifted learners are established well in the litrature. Major differences stated by Janice Szabos are; A bright child knows the answers, while a gifted learner asks questions A bright child is interested, while a gifted learner is highly curious A bright child is attentive, while a gifted learner is mentally and physically involved A bright child has good ideas, while a gifted learner has wild, silly ideas A bright child works hard, while a gifted learner plays around yet tests well A bright child answers the questions, while a gifted learner discusses in detail, elaborates A bright child is in the top group, while a gifted learner is beyond the group A bright child listens with interest, while a gifted learner shows strong feelings and opinions A bright child learns with ease, while a gifted learner already knows A bright child needs 6 to 8 repetitions for mastery of a subject, while a gifted learner needs 1 to 2 repetitions A bright child understands ideas, while a gifted learner constructs abstractions A bright child enjoys peers, while a gifted learner prefers adults A bright child grasps the meaning, while a gifted learner draws inferences A bright child completes assignments, while a gifted learner initiates projects A bright child is receptive, while a gifted learner is intense A bright child copies accurately, while a gifted learner creates a new design A bright child enjoys school, while a gifted learner enjoys learning A bright child is a techinician, while a gifted learner is an inventor A bright child is a good memorizer, while a gifted learner is a good guesser A bright child enjoys straightforward sequential presentation, while a gifted learner thrives on complexity A bright child is alert, while a gifted learner is keenly observant 1279 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A bright child is pleased with own learning, a gifted learner is highly self-critical Goal As a result of implementation of Gifted and Talented Program in schools, the gifted student is expected to  Develop a realistic concept of self and work cooperatively with peers and adults,  Develop the higher level and critical thinking skills of knowledge comprehension, synthesis, application, analysis, and evaluation in order to solve problems logically,  Create original projects that reflect critical thinking skills as supplemental learning to the regular classroom curriculum,  Develop research skills and use information gathered to implement a group research project,  Demonstrate the ability to use creative problem solving strategies,  Recognize how change in and around their world affects their relationships. Findings and Discussion Identification Process The identification process usually consists of three steps; 1. Nomination 2. Assessment/Testing 3. Selection Nomination Students may be nominated by;      Parent(s), Teacher(s), Peers, Other Professional Personnel, and/or themselves Nomination forms must be completed by the individual who nominates the child; however parents must give consent that the student be tested and evaluated. Parent Nomination Forms and Teacher/Professional Nomination Forms shall be available at an accessible location such as the front office. Forms that are out by parents, teachers, peers, etc. and submitted to Gifted and Talented Identification committee. Nominations can be made at any time during the school year, however, testing and identification will be completed periodically during the academic year. Minimum periodicity should be twice a year, in the beginning of each academic year when there are new enrollees to the school. Written parental permission is required before screeninGTesting begins. No student may be denied access to Gifted and Talented Programs on the basis of race, creed, or handicapping conditions. Transfer Procedures Students newly enrolled to the school who were active GT students in their previous schools may be directly placed in the GT program provided necessary official documentation. Without appropriate documentation, and/or upon recommendations from the receiving teacher or counselor, the incoming student may be screened for the GT Program off-schedule using the standard procedures and measurements. Assessment and Testing Students seeking admission to GT Program are usually assessed via two kinds of tests:  Ability Tests which consist of two parts: Part I: To measure cognitive abilities through verbal and quantitative skills Part II: To measure non-verbal abilities in reasoning and problem solving using spatial symbols  Achievement Tests are used to determine student academic level in the academic core areas of English/Language Arts, Math, Science, and Social Studies. Testing may take place during the school hours, after-school, and/or weekend. Selection Selection is based on the following:  The student's ability and achievement test scores 1280 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo      Nomination forms Report card grades AR and STAR reports Teacher observations Previous GT enrolment The GT Committee convenes and uses both Quantitative and Qualitative data when making selection decisions Notification Parents are notified in writing of the GT Committee's decision. This is done usually using two forms that are parent notification of assessment results and parental permission to enroll, in which the parents are informed officially of the assessment results and are asked for legal permission. The parents may have the right to approve or reject this request given that the parents are legal guardians and the student is under 18 years of age. Appeals Appeals to the decisions of GT Committee shall be made within 7 days of the notification of placement or non-placement in the GT program. Appeals must be made in writing by presenting additional information to the committee not previously seen by the committee. Furlough At times a student may seek a furlough or have such a "time-out" recommended for many reasons: emotional trauma, family considerations, health issues etc. The GT Committee, the parent(s), and the student may agree to grant the student a furlough, by executing a Furlough Contract, for a period not to exceed one year. During the period of the contracted furlough, the GT Facilitator or designee shall monitor the student‘s academic status and periodically report to the GT Committee. At the end of the time period stated in the Contract, the student may be considered for readmission to the GT Program conditional upon the decision of the GT Committee. The exited student may apply for admission to the GT Program again at any time in the future, at which time the application will be processed following standard screening and placement procedures. Re-evaluation All students who are identified as gifted and talented should be re-tested for no longer than two years. During the current school year, if the program appears to no longer meet the needs of the student, a re-evaluation may be requested. Exiting the Program Occasionally, there may be students who are identified for the GT Program who do not perform at expected standards in the program. Before a student is exited from the program, the student's teacher(s), and/or school administrator will talk with the student's parent and explain the procedural safeguards to request a review of the decision to exit the student. The following guidelines specify when a student may be exited from the GT program:  Repeated failure to complete work assigned.  Substantial difficulty in understanding work that other students do independently (without parental or tutorial assistance).  Consistent pattern of low grades (C's, D‘s or F's) over 6 weeks.  Behavioral concerns, distractions, etc. If a teacher or parent requests a student be exited, the student may not re-enter the GT program during that school year. The student may not return to the program the following school year without re-testing. Grade Acceleration If a teacher or parent recommends grade acceleration for a child who outperforms his/her peers in class, then the GT coordinator and parent meet to discuss the student‘s case. The GT coordinator collects data from the student‘s teachers and if there is agreement that the student will socially and academically succeed, then the student is scheduled for a state-accredited grade acceleration test (Exam for Acceleration). Tests are ordered in four core areas: Math, English/Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, which the student is expected to score 90 and above. Implementation of GT Program 1281 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The GT program is available for students from Kindergarten thru twelfth grade. Identified students are provided with options of taking Honors courses, GT courses, and Advanced Placement courses, where they have the opportunity to work with other GT students, non-identified students, and to work independently. Differentiated GT curriculum shall be taught in the academic core areas of English/Language Arts, Math, Science, and Social Studies to begin with and may be broadened based on resources and demand. The gifted curriculum will offer enriched and accelerated learning opportunities for the gifted learner. The curriculum will be differentiated in terms of content, process, and products. Students will be involved in inquiry based lessons, group problem-solving settings, independent investigations, and group discussions. Pull-Outs The Pull-Out Program design allows students to be grouped homogeneously with other gifted and talented students and participate in enriched academic experiences. Students meet for one or two periods every week to work on activities, labs, and projects outside the scope of the standard curriculum. Enrichment and extension of advanced concepts are explored through a project-based application. Students in the Pull-Out Program are required to complete all regular class activities and assignments that are due or were assigned on the day/period that they leave these classes to attend the Pull-Out Program. Exemplary enrichment activities in the regular classroom settings for the purpose of GT program implementation are; for Kindergarten thru 3rd Grade Math Pull-out sessions (1 period per week) Language Arts/Reading Pull-out sessions (1 period per week) Upper level reading books in Accelerated Reader (AR) Program Vocabulary and Literacy tests in AR will be mandatory for identified students while optional for regulars Studying more advanced and challenging curriculum Opportunity to participate in Elementary-level academic competitions such as science fairs, project competitions, Olympiads, etc for 4th thru 8th Grade Accelerated Math after school sessions (2 hours per week) Accelerated Language Arts/Reading after school sessions (2 hours per week) Upper level reading books in Accelerated Reader (AR) Program Vocabulary and Literacy tests in AR will be mandatory for identified students while optional for regulars Studying more advanced and challenging curriculum Opportunity to participate in Middle school level academic competitions Opportunity to work on advanced science fair projects Enrichment activities in the classroom Participation in Advanced Writing Programs Eligible to take Pre-AP and/or Honor courses Participation in G/T camps for 9t thru 12th Grade Graduation under Distinguished High School Plan Eligible to take Pre-AP, AP, and/or Honor courses Upper level reading books in Accelerated Reader (AR) Program Vocabulary and Literacy tests in AR will be mandatory for identified students while optional for regulars Opportunity to participate in High school level academic competitions Opportunity to work on advanced science fair projects Enrichment activities in the classroom Participation in Advanced Writing Programs Participation in G/T camps Conclusions and Recommendations US Kindergarten thru 12 Public School System is among the largest public school systems in the world with the most number of foreign students incorporated into the system each year. US public school system is a very dynamic system that is updated regularly with the latest findings in research done in many Colleges of Education throughout the country. Postgraduate research done in Educational Sciences in US is amongst the 1282 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo leaders of the world in terms of quality and quantity. Thus, it would be very reasonable to evaluate and try to adapt parts of this system as needed. Unlike systems of other sciences, which would need the appropriate infrastructure to adapt, educational systems are relatively easier to adapt due to little physical infrastructure involved. However, one cannot underestimate the human factor that is the readiness of the society, thus it would be a safe bet to say that adapting portions of such a system would be easier for smaller school systems. References Renzulli, J.S. (1978), What Makes Giftedness? Reexamining a Definition. Phi Delta Kappan, 60(3), pp. 180-184 Janice Szabos (1989), Note the Difference, Challenge Magazine, Tennessee Association for the Gifted, Issue 34 Adaptations for Special Populations 19 TAC Chapter 29, Subchapter D§29.121 (2007), US Division of Policy Coordination Gifted and Talented Handbook (2009), Harmony Science Academy, Fort Worth, US, pp. 4-17 National Excellence (1993), A Case for Developing America‘s Talent, United States Department of Education, pp.1 1283 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 676 Title A name given to the resource ASPECTS OF GT PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Author Author Cicek, Volkan Abstract A summary of the resource. GT (Gifted and Talented) program is one of the three major educational programs, implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools, that is subject to extra funding along with other two programs of SPED (Special education) and ESL (English as a Second Language). In this review, technical details of Gifted and Talented Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of goal and benefits of the program, terminology, identification of GT students via nomination, assessment, testing, selection, and notification; other related issues such as appeals, re-evaluations, transferring from other schools, grade acceleration, GT program implementation, and pull-outs. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/623529495d5e288c303e6f8d79509926.pdf 0944b02593f960a963a86723e5207eae PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo INSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF ESL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Dr. Volkan Cicek Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq volkancicek@gmail.com Abstract:Instructional aspects of ESL/Bilingual Education Program currently implemented in K thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of Legally Enforced Instructional Standards, Modifications/Accommodations in Regular Class Settings, Standardized Testing of Eligible LEP Students; LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) and English Language Proficiency Assessment System (TELPAS), Direct and Indirect Linguistic Accommodations for LAT Reading, Mathematics, and Science Tests, Types of Holistic Rating Components of TELPAS (Grade 2-12 Writing Collections), TELPAS Rating Standards and Assessed Levels.. Key Words: English as a Second Language, Bilingual Education, Modifications, Accommodations, Regular and Specific Class Settings, Standardized Testings, Holistic Rating Components Basis Basis for Instructional Services English language learners come from a variety of language backgrounds, cultures, and educational settings. Some are born in the U.S. and educated here from kindergarten on, while others are immigrants who may be in any grade when they arrive in the U.S. Immigrant students come to the U.S. with varying knowledge of the English language. They also have widely differing educational backgrounds. Some immigrants have had excellent academic preparation; others have had only limited prior school experience. Ensuring the academic success of ELL(English Language Learner)s is a national concern. While some U.S. schools have well-established programs that help second language learners reach their full potential, other schools need to take steps to effectively address the special needs of this student population. Effective instructional programs enable ELLs who have a solid academic foundation to stay in step academically as they learn English. Effective programs also intervene quickly on behalf of students who enter the U.S. with limited prior schooling. Due to differences in instruction it is essential for decisions concerning instruction and assessment for LEP students to be made on an individual basis. Objectives The goal of English as a second language programs shall be to enable limited English proficient students to become competent in the comprehension, speaking, reading, and composition of the English language through the integrated use of second language methods. The English as a second language program shall emphasize the mastery of English language skills, as well as mathematics, science and social studies, as integral parts of the academic goals for all students to enable limited English proficient students to participate equitably in school. Bilingual education and English as a second language programs shall be integral parts of the total school program. Such programs shall use instructional approaches designed to meet the special needs of limited English proficient students. The basic curriculum content of the programs shall be based on the essential skills and knowledge. Legally Enforced Instructional Standards for ESL/Bilingual Education As stated in Chapter 74 of title relating to Curriculum Requirements in bilingual education programs using Spanish and English as languages of instruction, districts shall use state-adopted English 1226 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and Spanish instructional materials and supplementary materials as curriculum tools to enhance the learning process; in addition, districts may use other curriculum adaptations which have been developed. The bilingual education program shall address the affective, linguistic, and cognitive needs of limited English proficient students as follows; Affective: Limited English proficient students shall be provided instruction in their home language to introduce basic concepts of the school environment, and instruction both in their home language and in English which instills confidence, self-assurance, and a positive identity with their cultural heritages. The program shall address the history and cultural heritage associated with both the students' home language and the United States. Linguistic: Limited English proficient students shall be provide d instruction in the skills of comprehension, speaking, reading, and composition both in their home language and in English. The instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher order thinking skills in all subjects. Cognitive: Limited English proficient students shall be provided instruction in mathematics, science, health, and social studies both in their home language and in English. The content area instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher order thinking skills in all subjects. ESL programs shall be intensive programs of instruction designed to develop proficiency in the comprehension, speaking, reading, and composition in the English language. In prekindergarten through Grade 8, instruction in English as a second language may vary from the amount of time accorded to instruction in English language arts in the regular program for non-limited English proficient students to a full-time instructional setting utilizing second language methods. The language proficiency assessment committee may recommend appropriate services that may include content courses provided through sheltered instructional approaches by trained teachers, enrollment in English as a second language courses, additional state elective English courses, and special assistance provided through locally determined programs. Districts shall use state-adopted English as a second language instructional materials and supplementary materials as curriculum tools. In addition, districts may use other curriculum adaptations which have been developed. The district shall provide for ongoing coordination between the English as a second language program and the regular educational program. The English as a second language program shall address the affective, linguistic, and cognitive needs of limited English proficient students as it is the case for bilingual education with the sole difference that all instruction is in English language for ESL students. In subjects such as art, music, and physical education, the limited English proficient students shall participate with their English-speaking peers in regular classes provided in the subjects. The district shall ensure that students enrolled in bilingual education and English as a second language programs have a meaningful opportunity to participate with other students in all extracurricular activities. Except courses of art, music, and physical education, English as a second language strategy, which may involve the use of the students' home language, may be provided in any of the courses or electives required for promotion or graduation to assist the limited English proficient students to master the essential knowledge and skills for the required subject(s). The use of English as a second language strategy shall not impede the awarding of credit toward meeting promotion or graduation requirements. Instructional Implementations Modifications Modifications for ESL students in regular class settings are determined and notified by LPAC, which are usually categorized as follows; Pacing     Avoid any assignments requiring copying (writing in a timed situation) Shorten/lengthen time required for each task Give work in smaller amounts Reduce length of exams or allow more time for completion of exams Methods      Set special needs student close to you so that you can supervise his/her activity Pre-teach vocabulary Ask questions requiring short answers Let student do written assignment on computer Reduce distractions 1227 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo            Assign tasks at the appropriate level (lower difficulty) Reduce distractions Assign tasks at the appropriate level (lower difficulty) Reduce reading level of the regular assignment (reword, paraphrase, edit, etc.) Let the student type, record, or give answers orally instead of writing them Let student copy from a card or teacher‘s manual instead of from the blackboard Provide alternative methods in completing assignments: o Buddy system within the classroom (reading/writing assistance, etc.) o Older student, volunteer tutoring, or teacher aide assistance Avoid penalizing for spelling errors Provide tactile aids to spelling (letters of sandpaper, slat box, etc.) Exam modifications o Reduce the length of the regular exam o Use objective term o Give same exam orally o Grade on basis of individual achievement/ability Individual grading Materials        Use concrete materials to provide additional cues (manipulative, pictures, etc.) Use visuals when possible (charts, slides, films, maps, handouts, demonstrations) Use audio materials (tapes, records, films, etc.) Highlight textbooks and materials Use-adapted textbooks if available Weighted scores (ex. Daily work given heavier weight than tests) Modify and/or limit paper/pencil tasks Standardized Testing of Eligible LEP Students LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) The LAT process enables eligible immigrant ELLs to be assessed with linguistic accommodations that help them better understand the language used on the tests. LAT administrations are available for  Grades 3–8 reading and grade 10 ELA  Grades 3–8 and 10 mathematics  Grades 5, 8, and 10 science Linguistics Accommodations The linguistic accommodations used during LAT administrations must not include explanations, definitions, pictures, gestures, or examples related to mathematical or scientific terminology, concepts, or skills assessed because such accommodations would invalidate the test results. The test administrator must NOT provide any direct or indirect assistance or reinforcement that identifies or aids in the identification of the correct response to a test item. After a LAT administration, no discussion or scoring of test items is allowed at any time. Objective evidence is the information provided as the rationale on the Accommodation Request Form, and it clearly indicates why the student needs the accommodation. Strong objective evidence might include, but is not limited to, the following information:  Explanation of disability and how it relates to the requested accommodation,  Observational narrative describing how the student performs with and without the  Accommodation, and  Test scores with and without the use of the accommodation. An accommodation should not be provided simply as a matter of convenience, nor should it compromise the content being tested. It should be used only as a tool that is necessary to help ensure student success. Ongoing assessment of individual need should be part of every student‘s instructional program. 1228 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Linguistic Accommodations for LAT Reading Tests Indirect Linguistic Support A) Accommodation: Clarification of Test Directions Type of Assistance: The test administration directions may be translated, reworded, or repeated as needed to ensure understanding. B) Accommodation: Breaks at Request of Student Type of Assistance: Breaks during the test administration should be provided in accordance with the needs of the student. C) Accommodation: Testing over Two Days Type of Assistance: Students participating in LAT reading and ELA administrations are assessed over two days. The administration directions in the LAT test administrator manual specify where in each test to stop at the end of Day 1. Direct Linguistic Support A) Accommodation: Bilingual Dictionary Type of Assistance: Throughout the reading test, a student may use a bilingual dictionary to find the translation of words he or she does not understand. Paper and electronic bilingual dictionaries are permitted. Many English words have multiple meanings that may be unfamiliar to an ELL. For this reason, the test administrator may, upon request; help a student locate the applicable meaning/translation of a word in the dictionary if this type of assistance is part of regular classroom instruction. B) Accommodation: English Dictionary Type of Assistance: Throughout the reading test, a student may use an English dictionary, ESL dictionary, or picture dictionary. Paper and electronic dictionaries are permitted. Many English words have multiple meanings that may be unfamiliar to an ELL. For this reason, the test administrator may, upon request, help a student locate the applicable meaning of a word in the dictionary if this type of assistance is part of regular classroom instruction. C) Accommodation: Reading Aloud—Word or Phrase Type of Assistance: At the request of the student, the test administrator may read aloud words or phrases in selections or test items. Sentences and longer portions of text may not be read aloud. D) Accommodation: Reading Aloud—Entire Test Item Type of Assistance: At the request of the student, the test administrator may read aloud an entire test item (i.e., test question and answer choices). Voice inflection must be kept neutral during the reading of test questions and answer choices. E) Accommodation: Oral Translation—Word or Phrase Type of Assistance: At the request of the student, the test administrator may orally translate words or phrases in selections and test items that the student does not understand. The test administrator is not permitted to translate entire sentences, longer portions of text, or tested vocabulary words. F) Accommodation: Clarification—Word or Phrase Type of Assistance: At the request of the student, the test administrator may clarify the meaning of words and phrases in selections and test items that the student does not understand. The test administrator is not permitted to clarify the meaning of entire sentences, longer portions of text, or tested vocabulary words. Synonyms, definitions, explanations, pictures, and gestures may be used to provide clarification. Linguistic Accommodations for LAT Mathematics and Science Tests Indirect Linguistic Support 1229 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo First two Indirect Linguistic Support Accommodations for LAT Reading Tests, which are Clarification of Test Directions, and Breaks at Request of Student aforementioned above both apply to Linguistic Accommodations for LAT Mathematics and Science Tests with the same types of assistances. Direct Linguistic Support A) Accommodation: Linguistic Simplification Type of Assistance: A student may ask the test administrator to say in simpler language what a test question is asking. Test administrators may provide this assistance using simpler words, pictures, and/or gestures, as long as they do not define or explain mathematical or scientific terminology or a concept that the test question is assessing. Secure LAT linguistic simplification guides are provided to test administrators for use with this accommodation. The guides for English-version LAT tests provide suggested linguistic simplifications. For the test versions in both English and Spanish, the guides delineate which subject-area terms may not be simplified. At the request of the student, test administrators may provide additional allowable linguistic simplifications to meet the individual student‘s needs. B) Accommodation: Oral Translation Type of Assistance: At the request of a student, the test administrator may orally translate words, terms, phrases, and sentences that the student does not understand. The test administrator is not permitted to define or explain mathematical or scientific terms, concepts, or skills. The test administrator is permitted only to give the equivalent word or words in the other language. Examples: If a Spanish-speaking student asks what ―sodium‖ means in an item, the test administrator may say the equivalent term sodio. If the student asks what ―row‖ means in the context of rowing a boat, the test administrator may say remar. C) Accommodation: Reading (Decoding) Assistance Type of Assistance: At the request of the student, the test administrator may read aloud any words, terms, phrases, or sentences in the test question, prompt, or answer choices that the student is having difficulty reading, including terms directly related to the content being assessed. Reading assistance is allowable regardless of whether the student is using the English version or the Spanish version of the LAT test form. Note that all grade 3 students are permitted to request reading (decoding) assistance on the mathematics test. For grade 3 mathematics, it is not necessary to predetermine and document this as an accommodation. D) Accommodation: Bilingual Dictionary Type of Assistance: Students may use a bilingual dictionary to find the translation of words they do not understand. Paper and electronic dictionaries are permitted; however, bilingual dictionaries that contain explanations, definitions, pictures, or examples of mathematical or scientific terminology may not be used. Many English words have multiple meanings that may be unfamiliar to an ELL. For this reason, the test administrator may, upon request, help a student locate the applicable meaning (equivalent translation) of a word in the dictionary if this type of assistance is part of regular classroom instruction. Example: At the request of the student, the test administrator may identify which of several translations of ―due‖ in the bilingual dictionary fit the way the word is used in the test question. E) Accommodation: Bilingual Glossary Type of Assistance: Students may use locally developed or other customized bilingual glossaries to find the translation of words they do not understand. The glossary must not include definitions, explanations, examples, or pictures that will aid students in understanding the mathematical or scientific terms or concepts assessed. In the case of mathematical or scientific terms, only nativelanguage equivalents are allowed. Example: It would be appropriate to translate ―square inch‖ as pulgada cuadrada in Spanish in a bilingual glossary. It would not be appropriate to define what a square inch is or to include a picture of a square inch. F) Accommodation: English and Spanish Test Side by Side (Grades 3–5) Type of Assistance: For grades 3–5 mathematics and grade 5 science, a Spanish-speaking student may refer to both the English-version and Spanish-version LAT tests to enhance comprehension. If 1230 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo a student does not understand something in one language, the student may refer to it in the other language. English Language Proficiency Assessment System (TELPAS) TELPAS is prepared based on The ELPS (English Language Proficiency Standards) that includes cross-curricular second language acquisition essential knowledge and skills that teachers of all foundation and enrichment subject areas are required to teach ELLs. A key difference between TELPAS and standardized test, e.g., TAKS is that TELPAS measures reading ability according to distinct stages of second language acquisition, or English language proficiency levels. These proficiency levels, which are defined in the ELPS, allow a student‘s English reading ability to be measured according to a continuum of second language development. This proficiency continuum starts with an initial understanding of high-frequency English words and phrases and culminates with the ability to read and understand texts similar to those written for English-proficient students. Students new to the English language progress in a similar way through each stage of second language acquisition whether they are in elementary school or high school. Another key difference is that TELPAS assesses to a greater degree than standardized tests the ability to read and understand language used in core content areas such as mathematics and science. The domain of reading in grades 2-12 is assessed through a multiple-choice test. The grade clusters for the TELPAS reading assessments are grade 2, grade 3, grades 4–5, grades 6– 7, grades 8–9, and grades 10–12. TELPAS is composed of holistically rated assessments and multiple-choice tests. The TELPAS holistically rated assessments are based on student observations and written student work. These assessments are administered for:  Grades K–1 observational assessments in listening, speaking, writing, and reading  Grades 2–12 observational assessments in listening, and speaking  Grades 2-12 writing collections Types of Grades 2-12 Writing Collections Type 1: Basic descriptive writing on a personal/familiar topic Examples:  Writing about self, family, best friend, school, etc.  Describing what is seen in a picture, photo, piece of art, etc.  Comparing self to a friend or relative by describing the similar and different aspects  Comparing two friends, two pictures, two photos, two places or houses lived in, etc. Students shall be encouraged to include biographical information, physical traits, and personality traits. The writing collection should include a copy of any pictures used. Type 2: Writing about a familiar process Examples:  A daily routine (getting ready for school, what is done after school or on weekends)  How to prepare a familiar food or recipe (sandwich, taco, fruit drink, scrambled eggs)  How to play a familiar game or sport Type 3: Narrative writing about a past event Examples:  Stories based on something shown in a picture or pictures  Narratives about something that happened or that you did that was disappointing, unforgettable, surprising, interesting, unexpected, funny, unfair, etc.  Original stories composed in creative writing activities  Narratives about what was done this morning, yesterday, this weekend Students should be encouraged to write in as much detail as they can. The more vivid and detailed their narratives are, the more useful they will be in evaluating their vocabulary development, ability to narrate and describe using the past tense, and grasp of basic versus complex language structures. Narrative writing about a past event is required in each collection. Type 4: Reflective writing Examples:  A time when a lesson is learned, a problem is resolved with another person, etc. 1231 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo       What true friendship is, the importance of believing in self, setting goals, etc. What is liked and not liked, or would like to see changed about certain school rules or policies A person that is admired, a person who has influenced your life, etc. How first impressions of people can change What it was like to move to the United States, learn a new language, etc. Thoughts about the United States before moved in here compared to thoughts now Type 5: Extended writing on a topic from language arts Examples:  Reflective pieces linked to stories and literature read in class (for example, comparing events in a text with personal experiences; relating a character‘s conflict in a text to a personal experience, experience of a friend, experience of a relative, etc.)  Describing and analyzing a change that a character undergoes  Comparing story variants, a movie and novel based on the same story, etc. Type 6: Academic writing from science, mathematics, or social studies This type of writing should give students the opportunity to write connected paragraphs using the academic/abstract vocabulary and language structures needed for developing academic language proficiency in these subject areas. Academic writing tasks for less proficient students should be appropriately adapted for their level. Two samples of this type of writing are required in each collection. Examples from science:  Explaining a scientific process that is learned about  Explaining the steps in an experiment or scientific investigation that is done  Writing about something learnt in science class  Writing about something that is difficult or easy to learn and why  Writing about why lab rules are important  Writing about how to use a certain device or piece of science equipment  Writing about something liked or not liked to do in science class Examples from mathematics:  Writing about a way using mathematics outside of school  Explaining the steps used in a mathematical process.  Writing about something learnt in math class  Writing about something that is difficult or easy to learn and why  Writing to reflect the thinking done to solve a problem  Writing about something liked or not liked to do in math class Examples from social studies:  Writing about a historical figure, the person‘s contributions or significance, etc.  Writing an expository piece about an important historical or current event  Writing about something learnt in social studies class  Writing about something that is difficult or easy to learn and why  Defending a point of view about a governmental policy or controversial issue  Writing a persuasive piece to influence a change in policy or law  Writing about something liked or not liked to do in social studies class TELPAS Rating The TELPAS rating process calls for raters to consider both the social and academic language proficiency of students. Second language learners who can engage in everyday, casual interactions have not necessarily developed the command of English needed for the ongoing learning of new and often complex academic concepts. The TELPAS English language proficiency continuum focuses on both a student‘s ability to use English to interact with others and to use English as a medium for learning. Academic language proficiency is not the same as academic achievement but is an essential component of academic achievement. English language learners who have academic language proficiency can understand and use the English needed for effective participation in regular, all-English instructional settings. 1232 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Students rated beginning demonstrate little ability to understand and use the English language. They may know a little English but not enough to function in ―real-world‖ or ―authentic‖ social or academic settings. Students rated intermediate have some ability to understand and use English. They can function in real world social and academic settings when the language tasks involve simple language structures and high frequency English vocabulary within routine contexts. Students rated advanced have the ability to understand and use grade-appropriate English, although with supports that address their linguistic needs. Advanced students function beyond the level of simple, routinely used English. They have a sufficient command of the English language to engage in gradeappropriate academic tasks as long as linguistic supports are provided. Students rated advanced high have the necessary levels of social and academic English language proficiency to participate in grade-appropriate academic instruction in English with only minimal linguistic support. Observing Students Listening There are many settings in which to gather information about an individual student‘s English language listening proficiency level. How well the student understands the English he or she hears shall be reflected during activities such as:  reacting to oral presentations  responding to text read aloud  following directions  cooperative group work  informal, social discourse with peers  large-group and small-group interactions in academic settings  one-on-one interviews  individual student conferences Listening/Beginning Level Beginning English language learners (ELLs) have little or no ability to understand spoken English used in academic and social settings. These students:  struggle to understand simple conversations and simple discussions even when the topics are familiar and the speaker uses linguistic supports (e.g., visuals, slower speech and other verbal cues, gestures)  struggle to identify and distinguish individual words and phrases during social and instructional interactions that have not been intentionally modified for ELLs  may not seek clarification in English when failing to comprehend the English they hear; frequently remain silent, watching others for cues. Listening/Intermediate Level Intermediate ELLs have the ability to understand simple, high-frequency spoken English used in routine academic and social settings. These students:  usually understand simple or routine directions, as well as short, simple conversations and short, simple discussions on familiar topics; when topics are unfamiliar, require extensive linguistic supports and adaptations (e.g., visuals, slower speech and other verbal cues, simplified language, gestures, pre-teaching to preview or build topic-related vocabulary)  often identify and distinguish key words and phrases necessary to understand the general meaning(gist) during social and basic instructional interactions that have not been intentionally modified for ELLs  have the ability to seek clarification in English when failing to comprehend the English they hear by requiring/requesting the speaker to repeat, slow down, or rephrase speech. Listening/Advanced Level Advanced ELLs have the ability to understand, with second language acquisition support, gradeappropriate spoken English used in academic and social settings. These students:  usually understand longer, more elaborated directions, conversations, and discussions on familiar and some unfamiliar topics, but sometimes need processing time and sometimes depend on visuals, verbal cues, and gestures to support understanding  understand most main points, most important details, and some implicit information during social and basic instructional interactions that have not been intentionally modified for ELLs  occasionally require/request the speaker to repeat, slow down, or rephrase to clarify the meaning of the English they hear 1233 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Listening/Advanced High Level Advanced high ELLs have the ability to understand, with minimal second language acquisition support, grade-appropriate spoken English used in academic and social settings. These students:  understand longer, elaborated directions, conversations, and discussions on familiar and unfamiliar topics with only occasional need for processing time and with little dependence on visuals, verbal cues, and gestures; some exceptions when complex academic or highly specialized language is used  understand main points, important details, and implicit information at a level nearly comparable to native English-speaking peers during social and instructional interactions  rarely require/request the speaker to repeat, slow down, or rephrase to clarify the meaning of the English they hear Speaking There are many settings in which to gather information about an individual student‘s English language speaking proficiency level. How well the student speaks English shall be reflected during activities such as:  cooperative group work  oral presentations  informal, social discourse with peers  large-group and small-group interactions in academic settings  one-on-one interviews  classroom discussions  articulation of problem-solving strategies  individual student conferences Speaking/Beginning Level Beginning English language learners (ELLs) have little or no ability to speak English in academic and social settings. These students:  mainly speak using single words and short phrases consisting of recently practiced, memorized, or highly familiar material to get immediate needs met; may be hesitant to speak and often give up in their attempts to communicate  speak using a very limited bank of high-frequency, high-need, concrete vocabulary, including keywords and expressions needed for basic communication in academic and social contexts  lack the knowledge of English grammar necessary to connect ideas and speak in sentences; can sometimes produce sentences using recently practiced, memorized, or highly familiar material  exhibit second language acquisition errors that may hinder overall communication, particularly when trying to convey information beyond memorized, practiced, or highly familiar material  typically use pronunciation that significantly inhibits communication Speaking/Intermediate Level Intermediate ELLs have the ability to speak in a simple manner using English commonly heard in routine academic and social settings. These students:  are able to express simple, original messages, speak using sentences, and participate in short conversations and classroom interactions; may hesitate frequently and for long periods to think about how to communicate desired meaning  speak simply using basic vocabulary needed in everyday social interactions and routine academic contexts; rarely have vocabulary to speak in detail  exhibit an emerging awareness of English grammar and speak using mostly simple sentence structures and simple tenses; are most comfortable speaking in present tense • exhibit second language acquisition errors that may hinder overall communication when trying to use complex or less familiar English  use pronunciation that can usually be understood by people accustomed to interacting with ELLs Speaking/Advanced Level Advanced ELLs have the ability to speak using grade-appropriate English, with second language acquisition support, in academic and social settings. These students:  are able to participate comfortably in most conversations and academic discussions on familiar topics, with some pauses to restate, repeat, or search for words and phrases to clarify meaning 1234 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     discuss familiar academic topics using content-based terms and common abstract vocabulary; can usually speak in some detail on familiar topics have a grasp of basic grammar features, including a basic ability to narrate and describe in present, past, and future tenses; have an emerging ability to use complex sentences and complex grammar features make errors that interfere somewhat with communication when using complex grammar structures, long sentences, and less familiar words and expressions may mispronounce words, but use pronunciation that can usually be understood by people not accustomed to interacting with ELLs Speaking/Advanced High Level Advanced high ELLs have the ability to speak using grade-appropriate English, with minimal second language acquisition support, in academic and social settings. These students:  are able to participate in extended discussions on a variety of social and grade-appropriate academic topics with only occasional disruptions, hesitations, or pauses  communicate effectively using abstract and content-based vocabulary during classroom instructional tasks, with some exceptions when low-frequency or academically demanding vocabulary is needed; use many of the same idioms and colloquialisms as their native Englishspeaking peers  can use English grammar structures and complex sentences to narrate and describe at a level nearly comparable to native English-speaking peers  make few second language acquisition errors that interfere with overall communication  may mispronounce words, but rarely use pronunciation that interferes with overall communication Reading Reading observations are performed only for Kindergarten thru 1 st grades since 2nd thru 12th grades are assessed via online multiple choice reading tests. Reading (K–1 Only) The reading rating will be based on observations of the student‘s reading during language and literacy instruction and in other academic settings. The rater should also consider informal and spontaneous reading that occurs naturally, such as when a student reads bulletin boards, labels, and other environmental print around the classroom and school. How well each student understands the English used shall be reflected during activities such as:  paired reading  sing-alongs and read-alongs, including chants and poems  shared reading with big books, charts, overhead transparencies, and other displays  guided reading with leveled readers/text  reading subject-area texts and related materials  independent reading  literature circles  cooperative group work  reading response journals  sustained silent reading Reading (K–1 Only)/Beginning Level Beginning English language learners (ELLs) have little or no ability to use the English language to build foundational reading skills. These students:  derive little or no meaning from grade-appropriate stories read aloud in English, unless the stories are– read in short ―chunks‖ – controlled to include the little English they know such as language that is high-frequency, concrete, and recently practiced– accompanied by ample visual supports such as illustrations, gestures, pantomime, and objects and by linguistic supports such as careful enunciation and slower speech  begin to recognize and understand environmental print in English (e.g., signs, labeled items, names of peers, logos)  have difficulty decoding most grade-appropriate English text because they – understand the meaning of very few words in English – struggle significantly with sounds in spoken English 1235 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo words and with sound-symbol relationships due to differences between their primary language and English Reading (K–1 Only)/Intermediate Level Intermediate ELLs have a limited ability to use the English language to build foundational reading skills. These students:  demonstrate limited comprehension (key words and general meaning) of grade-appropriate stories read aloud in English, unless the stories include – predictable story lines – highly familiar topics – primarily high-frequency, concrete vocabulary – short, simple sentences – visual and linguistic supports  regularly recognize and understand common environmental print in English (e.g., signs, labeled items, names of peers, logos)  have difficulty decoding grade-appropriate English text because they– understand the meaning of only those English words they hear frequently – struggle with some sounds in English words and some sound-symbol relationships due to differences between their primary language and English Reading (K–1 Only)/Advanced Level Advanced ELLs have the ability to use the English language, with second language acquisition support, to build foundational reading skills. These students:  demonstrate comprehension of most main points and most supporting ideas in gradeappropriate stories read aloud in English, although they may still depend on visual and linguistic supports to gain or confirm meaning  recognize some basic English vocabulary and high-frequency words in isolated print  with second language acquisition support, are able to decode most grade-appropriate English text because they – understand the meaning of most grade-appropriate English words – have little difficulty with English sounds and sound-symbol relationships that result from differences between their primary language and English Reading (K–1 Only)/Advanced High Level Advanced high ELLs have the ability to use the English language, with minimal second language acquisition support, to build foundational reading skills. These students:  demonstrate, with minimal second language acquisition support and at a level nearly comparable to native English-speaking peers, comprehension of main points and supporting ideas (explicit and implicit) in grade-appropriate stories read aloud in English  with some exceptions, recognize sight vocabulary and high-frequency words to a degree nearly comparable to that of native English-speaking peers  with minimal second language acquisition support, have an ability to decode and understand grade-appropriate English text at a level nearly comparable to native English-speaking peers Writing Districts are not required to assemble writing collections for students enrolled in grades K–1. The rating of writing for students enrolled in grades K–1 will be based on classroom observations. Each writing collection must contain at least 5 writing samples and must include at least 1 narrative writing sample about a past event and 2 academic writing samples from mathematics, science, or social studies. In assembling a collection, writing samples that reflect the student‘s proficiency level shall be chosen, and samples that interfere with the ability to rate the student effectively shall be avoided; some may be linguistically complex for students at lower proficiency levels to address, others may be appropriate for students at lower levels of proficiency but may not be challenging enough for students at higher proficiency levels. For example, an early intermediate writer whose collection contains mainly abstract or academically complex writing assignments may appear to be at a beginning level because the student is not given enough opportunity to demonstrate the ability to write in simple sentences using high-frequency, everyday English. On the other hand, an advanced high writer whose collection contains too many assignments that elicit undetailed responses or social language may appear to be at a lower proficiency level because the assignments do not elicit the ability to use academically complex, abstract English to give precise and detailed explanations. Writing (K–1) 1236 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo For kindergarten and grade 1, the writing rating will be based on observations of the student‘s writing during language and literacy instruction and in other academic settings. How well each student writes in English shall be reflected during activities such as:  journal writing for personal reflections  shared writing for literacy and content-area development  language experience dictation  organization of thoughts and ideas through prewriting strategies  publishing and presenting  making lists for specific purposes  labeling pictures, objects, and items from projects  cooperative group work  first drafts  revising and editing skill application Writing (K–1) / Beginning Level Beginning English language learners (ELLs) have little or no ability to use the English language to build foundational writing skills. These students:  are unable to use English to explain self-generated writing(e.g., stories they have created or other personal expressions),including emergent forms of writing (pictures, letter-like forms, mock words, scribbling, etc.)  know too little English to participate meaningfully in grade-appropriate shared writing activities using the English language  cannot express themselves meaningfully in self-generated, connected written text in English beyond the level of high-frequency, concrete words, phrases, or short sentences that have been recently practiced/memorized  may demonstrate little or no awareness of English print conventions Writing (K–1) / Intermediate Level Intermediate ELLs have a limited ability to use the English language to build foundational writing skills. These students:  know enough English to explain briefly and simply self-generated writing, including emergent forms of writing, as long as the topic is highly familiar and concrete and requires very highfrequency English  can participate meaningfully in grade-appropriate shared writing activities using the English language only when the writing topic is highly familiar and concrete and requires very highfrequency English  express themselves meaningfully in self-generated, connected written text in English when their writing is limited to short sentences featuring simple, concrete English used frequently in class  frequently exhibit features of their primary language when writing in English (e.g., primary language words, spelling patterns, word order, literal translating) Writing (K–1) / Advanced Level Advanced ELLs have the ability to use the English language to build, with second language acquisition support, foundational writing skills. These students:  use predominantly grade-appropriate English to explain, in some detail, most self-generated writing, including emergent forms of writing  can participate meaningfully, with second language acquisition support, in most gradeappropriate shared writing activities using the English language  although second language acquisition support is needed, have an emerging ability to express themselves in self-generated, connected written text in English in a grade-appropriate manner  occasionally exhibit second language acquisition errors when writing in English Writing (K–1) / Advanced High Level Advanced high ELLs have the ability to use the English language to build, with minimal second language acquisition support, foundational writing skills. These students:  use English at a level of complexity and detail nearly comparable to that of native English-speaking peers when explaining self-generated writing, including emergent forms of writing 1237 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo   can participate meaningfully in most grade-appropriate shared writing activities using the English language although minimal second language acquisition support may be needed, express themselves in selfgenerated, connected written text in English in a manner nearly comparable to their native Englishspeaking peers Writing (Grades 2–12) For grades 2–12, the writing rating will be based on the student‘s writing collection, which should be representative of the writing the student does during language and literacy instruction and in a variety of academic content areas. Writing (Grades 2–12)/Beginning Level Beginning English language learners (ELLs) lack the English vocabulary and grasp of English language structures necessary to address grade-appropriate writing tasks meaningfully. These students:  have little or no ability to use the English language to express ideas in writing and engage meaningfully in grade-appropriate writing assignments in content area instruction  lack the English necessary to develop or demonstrate elements of grade-appropriate writing (e.g., focus and coherence, conventions, organization, voice, and development of ideas) in English  Typical writing features at this level:  ability to label, list, and copy  high-frequency words/phrases and short, simple sentences (or even short paragraphs) based primarily on recently practiced, memorized, or highly familiar material; this type of writing may be quite accurate  present tense used primarily  frequent primary language features (spelling patterns, word order, literal translations, and words from the student‘s primary language) and other errors associated with second language acquisition may significantly hinder or prevent understanding, even for individuals accustomed to the writing of ELLs Writing (Grades 2–12)/Intermediate Level Intermediate ELLs have enough English vocabulary and enough grasp of English language structures to address grade-appropriate writing tasks in a limited way. These students:  have a limited ability to use the English language to express ideas in writing and engage meaningfully in grade-appropriate writing assignments in content area instruction  are limited in their ability to develop or demonstrate elements of grade-appropriate writing in English; communicate best when topics are highly familiar and concrete, and require simple, highfrequency English  Typical writing features at this level:  simple, original messages consisting of short, simple sentences; frequent inaccuracies occur when creating or taking risks beyond familiar English  high-frequency vocabulary; academic writing often has an oral tone  loosely connected text with limited use of cohesive devices or repetitive use, which may cause gaps in meaning  repetition of ideas due to lack of vocabulary and language structures  present tense used most accurately; simple future and past tenses, if attempted, are used inconsistently or with frequent inaccuracies  descriptions, explanations, and narrations lacking detail; difficulty expressing abstract ideas  primary language features and errors associated with second language acquisition may be frequent  some writing may be understood only by individuals accustomed to the writing of ELLs; parts of the writing may be hard to understand even for individuals accustomed to the writing of ELLs Writing (Grades 2–12)/Advanced Level Advanced ELLs have enough English vocabulary and command of English language structures to address grade-appropriate writing tasks, although second language acquisition support is needed. These students:  are able to use the English language, with second language acquisition support, to express ideas in writing and engage meaningfully in grade-appropriate writing assignments in content area instruction 1238 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo        know enough English to be able to develop or demonstrate elements of grade-appropriate writing in English, although second language acquisition support is particularly needed when topics are abstract, academically challenging, or unfamiliar Typical writing features at this level: grasp of basic verbs, tenses, grammar features, and sentence patterns; partial grasp of more complex verbs, tenses, grammar features, and sentence patterns emerging grade-appropriate vocabulary; academic writing has a more academic tone use of a variety of common cohesive devices, although some redundancy may occur narrations, explanations, and descriptions developed in some detail with emerging clarity; quality or quantity declines when abstract ideas are expressed, academic demands are high, or low-frequency vocabulary is required occasional second language acquisition errors• communications are usually understood by individuals not accustomed to the writing of ELLs Writing (Grades 2–12)/Advanced High Level Advanced high ELLs have acquired the English vocabulary and command of English language structures necessary to address grade-appropriate writing tasks with minimal second language acquisition support. These students:  are able to use the English language, with minimal second language acquisition support, to express ideas in writing and engage meaningfully in grade-appropriate writing assignments in content area instruction  know enough English to be able to develop or demonstrate, with minimal second language acquisition support, elements of grade-appropriate writing in English  Typical writing features at this level:  nearly comparable to writing of native English-speaking peers in clarity and precision with regard to English vocabulary and language structures, with occasional exceptions when writing about academically complex ideas, abstract ideas, or topics requiring low-frequency vocabulary  occasional difficulty with naturalness of phrasing and expression  errors associated with second language acquisition are minor and usually limited to lowfrequency words and structures; errors rarely interfere with communication Nonallowable Writing Collections  papers containing language directly copied from a textbook, lesson, or other written source o Students need to write using their own words.  papers in which the student relies heavily on a dictionary or thesaurus  papers that show a teacher‘s corrections  papers that have been polished through editing by peers, parents, or teachers  Students may revise their writing as long as the revisions are their own. It is natural for students to seek occasional assistance and guidance when writing. If you believe a student received too much assistance on a piece of writing, do not include it in the collection.  papers in which the student writes primarily in his or her native language o Even students at the beginning level should have five writing samples that show their ability to write in English. Samples written primarily in the native language should not be included.  worksheets or question-answer writing assignments  photocopies of state standardized test written compositions or responses to state standardized test open-ended questions  papers that are brief, incomplete, or obviously reflect writing that was rushed o Rushed pieces will not accurately portray the student‘s English language proficiency level. Students should be given plenty of time to complete the writing assignments. o Brief writing samples should not be included in the collections of students who are capable of extended writing. (It is to be expected that the limited English of beginning and lower intermediate students will cause some writing to be brief.) Conclusions and Recommendations US Kindergarten thru 12 Public School System is among the largest public school systems in the world with the most number of foreign students incorporated into the system each year. US public school system is a very dynamic system that is updated regularly with the latest findings in research done in 1239 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo many Colleges of Education throughout the country. Postgraduate research done in Educational Sciences in US is amongst the leaders of the world in terms of quality and quantity. Thus, it would be very reasonable to evaluate and try to adapt parts of this system as needed. Unlike systems of other sciences, which would need the appropriate infrastructure to adapt, educational systems are relatively easier to adapt due to little physical infrastructure involved. However, one cannot underestimate the human factor that is the readiness of the society, thus it would be a safe bet to say that adapting portions of such a system would be easier for smaller school systems. References LPAC Decision-Making Process Procedural Manual (2008), Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, pp. 14-16, 24, 32-35, 42, 49-50, 77. Standardized Test Accommodations Manual for Students Including General Education Students, Students Receiving Special Education Services, Students with 504 Plans, English Language Learners (2009), Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, pp. 14-15, 48-52, 61. Adaptations for Special Populations, Commissioner's Rules Concerning State Plan for Educating Limited English Proficient Students 19 TAC Chapter 89, Subchapter AA and BB (2007), US Division of Policy Coordination. Guidelines for Identification Process of Prospective LEP (Limited English Proficient) Students (2009), Harmony Science Academy ESL&SPED Services, pp. 2, 5. The English Language Proficiency Standards (ELPS) 19 Texas Administrative Code §74.4, Chapter 74, Subchapter A, English language proficiency level descriptors and student expectations for English language learners (ELLs) (2009), US Division of Policy Coordination TELPAS (Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System) Rater Manual Grades K–12 Texas (2009), pp. 4, 38-42, 55-56. Student Testing Requirements, Subchapter A, General Provisions, §101.5, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, http://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter101/ch101a.html Commissioner‘s Rules Concerning the Participation of Limited English Proficient Students in State Assessments, Subchapter AA, §101.1001 Policy, English Language Proficiency Assessments, §101.1003, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Role of the Language Proficiency Assessment Committee, §101.1005, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Limited English Proficient Students at the Exit Level, §101.1007, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Limited English Proficient Students at Grades Other Than the Exit Level, §101.1009, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division 1240 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 672 Title A name given to the resource INSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF ESL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Author Author Cicek, Volkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Instructional aspects of ESL/Bilingual Education Program currently implemented in K thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of Legally Enforced Instructional Standards, Modifications/Accommodations in Regular Class Settings, Standardized Testing of Eligible LEP Students; LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) and English Language Proficiency Assessment System (TELPAS), Direct and Indirect Linguistic Accommodations for LAT Reading, Mathematics, and Science Tests, Types of Holistic Rating Components of TELPAS (Grade 2-12 Writing Collections), TELPAS Rating Standards and Assessed Levels.. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/07860b1ad1ba6e5c09ebb108e7a3c1d0.pdf 6ed9dfaba1f7cfba38b72b874d5d16d7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo INSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SPED PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Dr. Volkan Cicek Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq volkancicek@gmail.com Abstract: Special Education program is implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools and it is the major educational program that is subject to extra funding. In this review, instructional aspects of Special Education Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of eligibility categories in regards to characteristics and educational approaches, referral process, RTI (response to intervention), standardized testing, accommodations during testing and regular class settings. Key Words: Special Education, Referral, Response to Intervention, identification, ARD (Admission, Review, and Dismissal), IEP (Individualized Educational Plan), FIE (Full and Individual Evaluation), Modifications, Accommodations, Learning Disability, Other Health Impairment, Attention Deficit disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Speech Impairment, Autism, Dyslexia, Tier-I-II-III Interventions, Standardized Testing Introduction According to The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of US law, the term special education means specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability. It is important to note that under this law;  Not all struggling learners have a disability.  A child with a disability who does not need special education services is not eligible for special education. In other words, there should be an educational need sourced by student‘s disability. Such an example is when a child‘s low achievement is caused by lack of appropriate instruction or Limited English Proficiency (LEP). Eligibility Categories There are 13 disability categories in special education: 1. Learning disability 2. Other health impairment 3. Speech impairment 4. Autism 5. Emotional disturbance 6. Orthopedic impairment 7. Auditory impairment 8. Visual impairment 9. Deaf-Blind 10. Mental retardation 11. Developmental delay 12. Traumatic brain injury 13. Non-categorical Early Childhood 1. Learning Disability (LD) 1241 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LD is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, perform, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as  perceptual disabilities,  brain injury,  minimal brain dysfunction,  dyslexia, and  developmental aphasia . The term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Characteristics Researchers estimated that 90% of all children identified as learning disabled are referred for special education services because of reading problems. Approximately half of the students in special education receive services in the category of Learning Disability. Many students with learning disabilities show one or more of the following characteristics:  Deficits in written language  Underachievement in math  Poor social skills  ADHD  Behavior problems  And low-self- esteem. In addition to their academic and social-skills deficits, students with learning disabilities possess positive attributes and interests that teachers should identify and try to strengthen. Educational Approaches Best practice is characterized by explicit instruction, the use of content enhancements, and teaching learning strategies to students. Explicit instruction is unambiguous, clear, direct teaching of targeted knowledge or skills: Students are shown what to do, given frequent opportunities to practice with teacher feedback, and opportunities to later apply what they have learned. Content enhancements such as graphic organizers, note-taking strategies, and mnemonics help make curriculum content more accessible Learning strategies help students guide themselves successfully through specific tasks or general problems Ways the student learns best: Does he or she learn by hands-on practice, looking, or listening? Breaking tasks into smaller steps, and giving directions verbally and in writing; giving the student more time to finish schoolwork or take tests; letting the student with reading problems use textbooks-on-tape (available through Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic, listed under Organizations); letting the student with listening difficulties borrow notes from a classmate or use a tape recorder; and letting the student with writing difficulties use a computer with specialized software that spell checks, grammar checks, or recognizes speech. Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties such as inaccurate word recognition and poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Characteristics Dyslexic students have  difficulty segmenting spoken words into individual sounds- mat; m-a-t.  difficulty in accurately decoding nonsense words.  difficulty in reading single words when they are not in context. Reading becomes extremely difficult and fluency is slow and inaccurate. Reading comprehension is difficult as well as learning the names of the letters and associated sounds. Spelling, rapid naming - vocabulary - and word findings are all difficult. Written composition, learning and saying the alphabet in correct sequence are very difficult. Three times as many boys as girls are affected, 1242 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bad spelling, problems remembering telephone numbers and appointments, and bad handwriting can also be signs of dyslexia, particularly in the many high-achieving dyslexics who have managed to compensate for their reading difficulties. Educational Approaches Teachers need to spend time with the dyslexic children in their classes and make an effort to help them. The most important thing to do is to be understanding and supportive. All successful dyslexics attribute their success to a crucial someone who believed in them when they were struggling in childhood. Students shall not be blamed or to be put pressure on for not achieving. They have to be explained that their dyslexia is a real physical condition, like deafness or having to wear glasses. To help the child distinguish between letters that confuse him, they have to be taught to begin writing each of the letters at a different point on the letter. Students identified as dyslexic may receive accommodations in classroom instruction and testing. These accommodations usually are;  Orally reading all proper nouns associated with each passage (from the state-supplied propernouns list) before the students begin individual reading  Orally reading all test questions and answer choices to students,  Extending the testing time over a two-day period. Eligible students should be tested individually or in small groups. 2. Other Health Impairment (OHI) OHI is defined as having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment adversely affecting a child's educational performance, that is due to chronic or acute health problems such as;  asthma,  attention deficit disorder (ADD)  attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),  diabetes,  epilepsy,  a heart condition,  hemophilia,  lead poisoning,  leukemia,  nephritis,  rheumatic fever,  sickle cell anemia Characteristics Students with other health impairments may have limited mobility and may get tired easily, depending on their illness. They may appear inattentive, depending on their illness. They may experience social isolation due to stigma related to their illness and/or frequent absences. The student with ‗other health impairments‘ does not have the strength or alertness to keep up with their class. Common ‗other health impairments‘ on the reservations are asthma, ADD, ADHD and diabetes, less common health impairments are epilepsy, heart conditions, or hemophilia. OHI is basically caused by health problems and diagnosed by medical person, not school personnel. Educational Approaches Students may miss many days of school due to illness, so, accommodations should be made to keep students from falling too far behind, including sending work home and providing a tutor in the child‘s home or after school. Most students actually want to go to school, as they see it as a distraction from their illness and they need to socialize with their friends, attending school and being with their friends helps them to feel ―normal‖. If a student misses class a lot because she is sick, the teacher needs to change around the curriculum for her so she is not so far behind. She can receive lecture notes, videotaped lectures, or can use the Internet in researching topics from home. The teacher must also be aware of the student‘s physical condition and mental abilities, often students with health impairments do not have the same stamina as other students. They can be paired 1243 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo up with another student, given assignments that are shorter, or given more time to complete their work. They can use art instead of writing in an assignment if their writing abilities or other intellectual abilities have become limited. 3. Speech Impairment (SI) SI (A speech or language impairment) is a communication disorder such as  stuttering,  impaired articulation,  a language impairment, or  a voice impairment that adversely affects a student‘s educational performance. Students eligible for Speech Impairment (SI) usually receive speech therapy from a certified speech therapist (audiologist) or speech pathologist at certain times. Characteristics A child's communication is considered delayed when the child is noticeably behind his or her peers in the acquisition of speech and/or language skills; delays in speaking may be the first sign to parents that something might be wrong in their child's development. Sometimes a child will have greater receptive (understanding) than expressive (speaking) language skills, but this is not always the case. Speech and language development is affected by the physical, cognitive, and sensory-motor characteristics of each child. They may say "see" when they mean "ski" or they may have trouble using other sounds like "l" or "r." Listeners may have trouble understanding what someone with a speech disorder is trying to say. People with voice disorders may have trouble with the way their voices sound. Educational Approaches As the child with specific speech and language difficulty may have additional difficulties which impact on his/her learning it is important that the child sits near the teacher. This will facilitate both teacher and child in utilising the prompts, cues or other strategies employed to engage the child. Before initiating a conversation it is important to make eye contact with the child. This will ensure to have his/her attention. Depending on the child‘s language difficulties it may be important to simplify language and using a slower speech rate. This will facilitate communication and the processing of information through the auditory channel. It is important, however, that speech rate is not so slow as to lose continuity in the message. It is important to simplify sentence structure. Teacher language should be aimed at the level of language functioning of the child. This will aid the decoding of incoming information. Where children experience serious difficulty with the understanding of what is being said, repetition, exaggeration, modelling, gesture and the rephrasing of sentences should be used to aid communication. Depending on the age of the child it sometimes helps to involve the child in selecting the strategy that works best for them. 4. Autism (AU) A child may be considered to be a child with autism if the child has a developmental disability significantly affecting:  Verbal communication;  Nonverbal communication; and  Social interaction; Other characteristics often associated with autism are  engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements  resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines  unusual responses to sensory experiences Autism is generally evident before age 3. The most accurate statement regarding the cause of autism is in most cases a specific cause cannot be confirmed. Characteristics Autism may be defined as any diagnosis on the Autism Spectrum ranging from Pervasive Developmental Disorder to Aspergers Syndrome. Individuals who fall under the Pervasive Developmental Disorder category in the DSM-IV exhibit commonalties in communication and social deficits, but differ in terms of severity. Here are some major points, (from the Autism Society of America), that help distinguish the differences between the specific diagnoses used:  Autistic Disorder, impairments in social interaction, communication, and imaginative play prior to age 3 years. Stereotyped behaviors, interests and activities. 1244 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     Asperger's Disorder (Mild Autism), characterized by impairments in social interactions and the presence of restricted interests and activities, with no clinical significant general delay in language, and testing in the range of average to above average intelligence. Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (commonly referred to as atypical autism)a diagnosis of PDD-NOS may be made when a child does not meet the criteria for a specified diagnosis, but there is a severe and pervasive impairment in specified behaviors. Rett's Disorder, a progressive disorder which, to date, has occurred only in girls. Period of normal development and then loss of previously acquired skills, loss of purposeful use of the hands replaced with repetitive hand movements beginning at the age of 1-4 years. (Rett was not used to be classified as an Autistic Disorder before, but it is now) Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, characterized by normal development for at least the first 2 years, significant loss of previously acquired skills.  Educational Approaches Children with autism are among the most difficult students to teach. Those children require instruction that is carefully planned, meticulously delivered, and continually evaluated and analyzed. Learning style best suits the child shall be determined and emphasized. It is common for an autistic child to be unable to process multiple sensory inputs at the same time. For example, it may be impossible to process both visual and auditory input simultaneously. In such cases, teaching has to be separated into "channels" and focus has to be on only one sense at a time. Autistics often have trouble with generalization, which can affect the way they learn skills. When teaching a child to look both ways before crossing a street, it may be necessary to show them in several locations. If not, they may think they need to look only when crossing at that particular spot. Autistic children may fixate on something they enjoy, such as trains. Incorporating this fixation into their lessons by including stories of trains, math problems involving trains, and so on gives motivation to learn. It is common for an autistic to have trouble connecting two events even if they are very close together. If teaching reading with flash cards, use cards with both the written word and the picture of the object on the same side of the card. If they are on different sides, the child may not understand that they represent the same idea. 5. Emotional or Behavioral Disorders (ED) Emotional or behavioral disorder is a condition in which one or more of the following characteristics are exhibited for a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a student‘s educational performance. Such inabilities are;  An inability to learn that which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or other health factors.  An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.  Inappropriate type of behavior or feeling under normal circumstances.  A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.  Schizophrenia is also included as part of the definition.  Characteristics Although various factors such as heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning have been suggested as possible causes, research has not shown any of these factors to be the direct cause of behavior or emotional problems. According to the federal definition of emotional disturbance, children and youth who are socially maladjusted are not eligible for special education and related services unless it is determined that they are also emotionally disturbed. Some of the characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have emotional disturbances include:  Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness);  Aggression/self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting);  Withdrawal (failure to initiate interaction with others; retreat from exchanges of social interaction, excessive fear or anxiety);  Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills); and  Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).  They can get out of their seats, yell, talk out and curse, disturb peers, hit or fight, ignore the teacher, complain and argue excessively, steal and lie. Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings. Some are identified as children who have a severe psychosis or schizophrenia. Many children who do not have emotional disturbances may display some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have 1245 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time. Their behavior thus signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers. Educational Approaches To increase appropriate behavior, a necessary first step is for the teacher to explicitly, clearly, and fairly define behavioral expectations. Other educational approaches include;  Presenting materials at independent level, not frustration level,  Providing short, manageable tasks,  Setting short-term expectations,  Repeating directions frequently,  Using special education staff for problem solving,  Following through on everything  Be willing to modify classroom expectations and homework problems,  Not placing hands on students, keeping a sense of humor and using it,  Solving problems privately and not publicly Teachers can most effectively change behavior when they avoid fulfilling the function of an undesired behavior, and assist a student fulfill the behavioral function or purpose through a desired behavior. For example, if the function of a student‘s yelling is to gain the teacher‘s attention, the teacher may remove the student from the class (time-out) and deliberately avoid fulfilling the behavioral function to gain the teachers attention. However, when the student speaks in an appropriate tone of voice the teacher gives the student the attention he/she desires and assists the student in choosing a desired behavior. Referral Process Referral process is a very delicate component of identifying eligible students that will receive special education services and it is mandated by RtI (Response to Intervention). Only major aspects of RtI will be described in this section. RtI Tiered Intervention Categories: Tier I interventions: Tier I interventions are available to all students. They are basically classroom modifications, e.g., checking homework of the child each day. Tier II interventions: Tier II interventions are individualized to the needs of students in general education setting. They are;  Problem-solving interventions: They are classroom-based interventions implemented by teacher.  Standard-protocol interventions: They are stand-alone interventions given outside of the classroom. Ex: tutorials  Tier III interventions: Tier III interventions are for severe and chronic students. They are given only through special education. Referral Process Steps 1. Classroom teacher notices the sign of academic difficulty. 2. Teacher independently puts Tier I interventions into place and monitors/documents the performance. 3. If the student fails Tier I, the teacher refers him/her to Student Support Team for Tier II interventions by completing a referral form. 4. Student Support Team starts collecting data and meets with the teacher in order to brainstorm about interventions (must be scientific, research-based interventions) likely to meet the needs of the referred student. 5. The student is observed/monitored with Tier II by Student Support Team for a reasonable period of time (i.e. 6 weeks). If the student fails, change the intervention. 6. A student, who continues to show chronic and significant academic deficits despite a history of intervention attempts, may need to be found eligible for special education. Then Tier III. 7. If a child continues to experience difficulty in general education after above interventions, school personnel may refer the child for a FIE for special education services. 1246 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Standardized Testing As other students, students receiving special education services have to be tested via standardized state tests for federal and state accountability purposes. In the example state of Texas, Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) measures a student‘s mastery of the statemandated curriculum that is the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). TAKS (Accommodated) Test TAKS includes a form called TAKS (Accommodated) for students receiving special education services who meet the eligibility criteria for specific accommodations. This is a general assessment based on the same grade-level academic achievement standards as TAKS. The TAKS (Accommodated) includes format changes (larger font, fewer items per page) and contains no embedded field-test items. TAKS, including TAKS (Accommodated), is administered in English for  Grades 3–9 reading  Grades 3–10 and exit level mathematics  Grades 4 and 7 writing  Grade 10 and exit level English language arts (ELA)  Grades 5, 8, 10, and exit level science  Grades 8, 10, and exit level social studies  TAKS, including TAKS (Accommodated), is administered in Spanish for  Grades 3–5 reading  Grades 3–5 mathematics  Grade 4 writing  Grade 5 science TAKS-M (Modified) Test TAKS–M is an alternate assessment based on modified academic achievement standards and is designed for students receiving special education services who meet participation requirements for TAKS–M. Each test covers the same grade-level content as TAKS, but TAKS–M tests have been changed in format (larger font, fewer items per page, etc.) and test design (fewer answer choices, simpler vocabulary and sentence structure, etc.). TAKS–M is administered in English for  Grades 3–9 reading, including SSI retest opportunities in grades 5 and 8  Grades 3–11 mathematics, including SSI retest opportunities in grades 5 and 8  Grades 4 and 7 writing  Grades 10 and 11 English language arts (ELA)  Grades 5, 8, 10, and 11 science  Grades 8, 10, and 11 social studies TAKS-Alt (Alternate) Test TAKS–Alt is an alternate assessment based on alternate academic achievement standards and is designed for students with significant cognitive disabilities receiving special education services who meet the participation requirements for TAKS–Alt. This assessment is not a traditional paper or multiple-choice test. Instead, it involves teachers observing students as they complete state-developed assessment tasks that link to the grade-level TEKS. Teachers then evaluate student performance based on the dimensions of the TAKS–Alt rubric and submit results through an online instrument. This assessment can be administered using any language or other communication method routinely used with the student. TAKS–Alt is administered for  Grades 3–9 reading  Grades 3–11 mathematics  Grades 4 and 7 writing  Grades 10 and 11 English language arts (ELA)  Grades 5, 8, 10, and 11 science  Grades 8, 10, and 11 social studies Other Standardized Tests Linguistically accommodated testing (LAT) and Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System (TELPAS) are other tests assess students with limited English proficiency to 1247 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo address federal requirements by NCLB. Students eligible for special education services may also be a LEP (Limited English Proficient) student and in that case LAT and TELPAS tests may apply as well. For such students, ARD committee must include an LPAC member to address educational needs due to limited English proficiency and decide whether an exemption is appropriate. Accommodations Most students with disabilities can achieve grade-level academic content standards when they receive  instruction from teachers who are highly qualified to teach in the content areas  addressed by state standards and know how to differentiate instruction for diverse learners;  specialized instruction within the framework of an IEP; and  appropriate accommodations to help them access grade-level content. Accommodations are practices and procedures that provide equitable access to grade-level curriculum during instruction and assessment for all students. This includes general education students with special needs, eligible ELLs who need linguistic accommodations, as well as students with disabilities who receive special education services. Accommodations do not reduce learning expectations. Therefore, their use should not replace the teaching of subject-specific knowledge and skills as outlined in the state curriculum for each grade. Certain accommodations may be needed more often at some grades than others depending on academic content and rigor. Although some accommodations may be appropriate for instructional use, they may not be appropriate or allowed on a standardized assessment. The decision to use an accommodation should be made on an individual basis and take into consideration both the needs of the student and whether the student routinely receives the accommodation in classroom instruction and testing. It is neither appropriate nor effective to provide ―one size fits all‖ accommodations to students. For example, one student with a visual impairment might use large-print textbooks and worksheets while another would benefit from a magnification device. In most cases, accommodations are unique to a student and should not be provided to an entire group of students, such as those in the same class or disability category. It should be kept in mind that students unaccustomed to using specific accommodations may be hindered rather than helped by the use of accommodations not routinely used in classroom instruction. In some cases students need ample experience with accommodations for them to be effective. The process of making decisions about accommodations requires, in essence, that educators attempt to ―level the playing field‖ so that students can participate meaningfully in the general education curriculum and assessments. Accommodation decisions should not be made for entire groups of students, such as those in the same class or with a particular disability. The more extensively students are involved in the selection process; the more likely appropriate accommodations will be used, especially as students reach adolescence and the desire to be more independent increases. Students need opportunities to learn not only which accommodations are most helpful to them but also how to make use of those accommodations in their classes. Types of Accommodations The accommodations except linguistic accommodations are categorized in four groups: presentation (P), response (R), setting (S), and timing and scheduling (T). Presentation Accommodations allow students to access information in alternate formats other than regular print. These alternate modes of access may include auditory, multi-sensory, tactile, and visual modes. Response Accommodations allow students to complete activities, assignments, and assessments using methods other than paper-and-pencil or machine-scorable responses. Response accommodations may also include allowing students to solve or organize problems using a supplemental aid. Setting Accommodations change the location in which a test or assignment is given or the conditions of the assessment setting. Timing and Scheduling Accommodations increase the standard length of time to complete an assignment or assessment or possibly change the way the time is organized. Presentation Accommodations Braille (Available in all standardized tests but TELPAS Reading) A student who has a visual impairment and routinely uses Braille materials in the classroom may use a Braille version of the test. Braille tests are available in both contracted and uncontracted Braille*. Uncontracted Braille tests may be ordered only for students who use uncontracted Braille materials routinely in classroom instruction. 1248 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Test items with a visual element that cannot be rendered in Braille will include a description of what is depicted in the print version of the test. Special consideration should also be given to lighting conditions for students with low vision. Student responses for all Braille and large-print tests must be transcribed and transferred to a scorable test booklet or answer document. If this is not done, the student‘s test cannot be scored. Transcribing may be done by the test administrator during or after testing. *Uncontracted Braille is the most basic form of Literary Braille and requires the least amount of cognitive burden on the reader. Uncontracted Braille is very limited in use, as it is not suitable for most reading material beyond a beginning scope of a Braille reader, and is not suitable for math and science. Uncontracted Braille simply consists of the 26 characters of the alphabet and various punctuation symbols such as the period (.) and comma (,) but does not include abbreviations or contractions. Contracted Braille is more advanced than uncontracted and is considered to be the universal standard form of Literary Braille. Contracted Braille consists of several abbreviations and contractions that provide the reader with greater ease of use. Braille readers often learn uncontracted Braille first and then learn contracted, which requires more cognitive processing by the Braille reader to decipher the translation. Large Print (Available in all standardized tests) The student who has a visual impairment and has difficulty decoding grade-level material and reads quickly over unknown words, compromising comprehension as a result. The larger print allows the student to track carefully and more effectively, which causes fewer decoding mistakes and increases comprehension. Magnifying or Low-Vision Devices (Available in all standardized tests) Some students with visual impairments read regular print materials using magnification devices such as eyeglass-mounted magnifiers, or freestanding or handheld magnifiers. Some students also use a closed-circuit television (CCTV) or a document camera to enlarge print and display printed material with various image enhancements on a screen. For TELPAS reading tests, technology-based accommodations such as LCD projectors and interactive white boards, which enlarge the display of the online test, can be used to enable ELLs with visual impairments to test online. Photocopies of Test (Available in all standardized tests) Having a visual impairment (macular degenerative optic nerve hypoplasia) and vision loss is progressive over time. Doctor recommends print size of 20 point font enlargement and the use of optical visual aids for all school work. Although optical visual aids are available, student is not proficient with their use and takes longer to complete tasks. Student is able to complete assignments successfully in less time with larger print. Photocopying test to a 20 point font size is necessary because the state-provided large-print test is smaller. To maintain security and confidentiality, districts must ensure that all standard test security policies and procedures are followed. Place Markers (Available in all standardized tests) A student may use a blank place marker on the test and answer document. These place markers may include index cards, adhesive notes, etc. Colored Overlays (Available in all standardized tests) A student may use colored overlays. Markers may be used to make notes on the colored overlay. Reading Test Aloud to Self (Available in all standardized tests) A student may read aloud or read into a recording device during testing and play it back while working. A student may also use a voice feedback device (e.g., PVC phone). If the use of these accommodations is distracting to other students or compromises the security of the test, an individual administration is required. Oral/Signed Administration for Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies (Available in all standardized tests but TELPAS Reading) An oral administration by a test administrator may include different levels of reading support for each student, such as reading only a few words or phrases, reading multiple sentences throughout the test, or reading the test in its entirety. Reading Aloud Test Questions for TAKS–M Reading Selections (Available for TAKS-M reading sections only) On TAKS–M reading tests and the reading section of the TAKS–M ELA tests, reading the test questions and answer choices aloud is an accommodation for students whose ARD committees have determined a need and who routinely use this type of assistance in classroom instruction. It is the 1249 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo responsibility of the ARD committee to determine if a student needs all of the test questions and answer choices read aloud or if the accommodation will be provided only if the student asks for assistance. Dyslexia Bundled Accommodations (for TAKS and TAKS Accommodated Reading 3rd thru 8th Grades only) The dyslexia bundled accommodations include orally reading all proper nouns associated with each passage before students begin individual reading, orally reading all test questions and answer choices to students, and extending the testing time over a two-day period. These three accommodations must be ―bundled,‖ meaning the accommodations must be provided together. Sign/Translate Directions (Available in all standardized tests) Test administration directions given orally before or after the test may be either signed to a student who is deaf or hard of hearing or translated into the native language of a student with limited English proficiency. Translating directions into the native language of the student is not considered an accommodation for an ELL taking a TELPAS reading test or LAT. For these tests, translating directions is part of the test administration procedures. If a student‘s primary access to the TEKS is provided by a deaf educator in a classroom setting, then the deaf educator would be the test administrator. In some cases, a certified sign language interpreter may be needed to facilitate communication between the test administrator and student. The test administrator should employ the sign language that the student routinely uses as part of daily instruction. When the test is administered in sign language, it may be necessary for the print versions of the test administration directions and/or test content to be projected on a screen so that the student can access the test in both print and sign; however if a test booklet must be photocopied onto transparencies for use on an overhead projector, an Accommodation Request Form must be submitted unlike direct projection onto a screen. A) If a sign exists, the test administrator should use it when it occurs in print on the test. Signs that are commonly used in sign language are allowable in the signed administration of state assessments. Occasionally a commonly used sign that is ―conceptually accurate‖ may appear to give the student an unfair advantage; however, conceptual accuracy is a critical component of American Sign Language and most sign systems. Conceptually accurate signs incorporate meaning in the production of the sign. For example, if an item asks the student to identify a triangle, the commonly used sign is a pantomimed drawing of a triangle. This is the commonly accepted sign used in conversation and instruction, and therefore should be the sign that is used when the English word ―triangle‖ appears in the test. Finger spelling is not an acceptable substitution because it increases the difficulty of the item by requiring the student to recognize ―triangle‖ by its spelling. A hearing student would not be required to recognize a word by its spelling in an oral administration; therefore, it should not be required of a deaf student. B) If a sign has been locally developed and routinely used in instruction, the test administrator may use it when it occurs in print on the test. For much of the vocabulary used in instruction, there are not commonly used signs. In many cases, teachers or sign language interpreters will develop signs for frequently used vocabulary, with the understanding that these are locally developed signs for a particular academic setting. These locally developed signs may be used in a signed administration if they are regularly used during instruction. An example of a locally developed sign might be for the English word ―fission.‖ It is not a commonly used word and it would be extremely rare to find it in any sign language dictionary. However, if ―fission‖ is used frequently during science instruction, the teacher or sign language interpreter might develop a sign to be used only in the instructional setting. The concept of ―splitting apart‖ might be incorporated into the formation of the sign. It would be allowable to use this locally developed sign in the testing situation. Conceptual accuracy in a sign that exists or in a sign that has been locally developed is a key component of sign language and should not be denied to the sign language user. C) If there is no commonly accepted sign and a local sign has not been developed, the test administrator must determine if the word or phrase is or is not the concept being assessed. If the word or phrase is the concept being assessed, the test administrator must fingerspell the word. It is not acceptable to create new signs or to use an equivalent or expansion to explain vocabulary that is being assessed. For instance, in the following question of ―What is the range of the sale prices for a Stunt-Pro bicycle at these stores?‖ the word ―range‖ is the concept being assessed. Therefore, if a sign for this word does not exist or has not been locally developed, the test administrator must fingerspell it. If the word or phrase is not the concept being assessed, the test administrator may use a reasonable equivalent or expansion. The test administrator has more flexibility when signing words or phrases that are not the concepts being assessed. On the other hand, it is unlikely that a sign exists or has been locally 1250 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo developed for the phrase ―Stunt-Pro‖. However, since this is not the concept being assessed, the test administrator may provide a reasonable equivalent or expansion. Amplification Devices (Available in all standardized tests) Amplification devices help reduce the interference of background noise, override poor acoustics, and reduce the effect of distance between the student and the test administrator. A student may use an amplification device, such as a frequency modulated (FM) system, if the student is identified as having a hearing impairment and/or has a disability that affects the student‘s ability to focus or concentrate in large-group situations. Manipulating Test Materials for Students (Available in all standardized tests) A student may have a temporary or permanent disabling condition that interferes with the ability to physically manipulate test materials, such as test booklet pages, rulers, etc. The student must direct the test administrator very specifically regarding all steps necessary when manipulating the materials (for example, when to turn the page or where to place the ruler). For online administrations, the test administrator may assist a student who is unable to move the mouse to navigate the online test. The student must provide specific directions to the test administrator regarding how to navigate the test. The test administrator may not provide feedback regarding the correctness of the student‘s directions. Response Accommodations Other Methods of Response (Available in all standardized tests) A student may have a temporary or permanent disabling condition that interferes with or limits the ability to make notes, do computations, or record responses on a scorable document. This may include, but is not limited to, students with an injury (e.g., broken arm), physical condition (e.g., cerebral palsy), visual difficulties (e.g., extremely limited vision, broken eyeglasses, or tracking difficulties), or a significant deficit in written expression. Students who simply have poor handwriting or spelling skills will most likely not fall into this category. However, this accommodation may be appropriate for students who have such severe fine motor or spelling deficits that they cannot communicate meaning through writing. Any of the following methods of response are allowed for students who meet the conditions above. Students  may respond orally or sign responses to test items;  mark responses in the test booklet;  point to their response;  use an augmentative communication device;  record responses on a dry-erase board, chalkboard, or scratch paper (e.g., blank, lined, or  graph paper);  or type responses on a typewriter, portable word processor, or computer. All special features of assistant devices (e.g., spell check, word predictor) must be disabled for all TAKS writing/ELA tests and the TAKS (Accommodated) or TAKS–M grade 4 writing test. In addition, these special features should be disabled for all other writing/ELA tests unless the student receives spelling assistance as an accommodation. Student responses may not be saved to a disk or hard drive. Scribe A scribe is the trained test administrator who writes down what a student indicates through an assistive communication device, pointing, sign language, print, or speech. Being a scribe requires understanding the boundaries of the assistance to be provided. A scribe may not edit or alter student responses in any way and must record word for word on the standard answer document exactly what the student has indicated. The scribe may not provide feedback regarding the correctness of the student‘s response. Written Composition The role of the scribe is to write exactly what is dictated. The scribe should ask for clarification from the student about the intended use of capitalization, punctuation, and spelling of key words that are unique to the student‘s creativity and word choice (not basic grade-level sight words) since these conventions are part of the score the student receives. The student must have the opportunity to review and edit what the scribe has written; for example, the scribe may intentionally leave out all capitalization and punctuation for the student to edit. The student must be made aware of the space allowed for his or her response so that the transcribed composition will fit onto the two lined pages provided on the standard answer document. Open-ended Responses 1251 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The role of the scribe is to write exactly what is dictated. The scribe is not required to ask for clarification from the student about the intended use of capitalization, punctuation, and spelling of key words since these conventions are not part of the scoring rubric used to assess students‘ short-answer responses. The student must be made aware of the space allowed for his or her responses so that the transcribed responses fit in the spaces provided on the standard answer document. Griddable Items When transcribing a student‘s response to a griddable item for a mathematics or science test, the student‘s response must fit in the spaces provided on the standard answer document. The student must be made aware of the spaces allowed for his or her response so that the transcribed response fits in the spaces provided on the standard answer document. Computation/Notes If the student is physically unable to record mathematical computations, the student must direct the scribe very specifically regarding all steps necessary to complete the computation (for example, digit by digit, how to align numbers, etc.). For transcription of notes during the test, the scribe must follow the student‘s exact instructions. This may include making notes in the margins of the test booklet or underlining phrases or words in passages. The scribe may not provide feedback regarding the correctness of any computations or relevance of any notes. If the use of any of these accommodations is distracting to other students or compromises the security of the test, an individual administration may be required. Spelling Assistance (Available in TAKS Accommodated and TAKS M only) If a student is capable of organizing thoughts and ideas in written responses but has a disability that affects the physical reproduction of letters and words or the ability to remember spelling rules, word structures, or letter patterns, spelling assistance may be used. For example, a list of frequently misspelled words would be appropriate only for a student who can select a word with an irregular spelling pattern for use on his or her written response but is unable to reproduce the letters or pattern needed to correctly and consistently spell the word without assistance.  A student taking the TAKS (Accommodated) or TAKS–M grade 4 writing test may only use word lists. Word lists may not contain definitions or examples of how to use words in a sentence.  A student taking the TAKS (Accommodated) or TAKS–M grade 7 writing test, grade 9 reading test, or grade 10 or 11/exit level ELA test may use spelling assistance (e.g., spell check, pocket spell checkers, word lists) Calculation Devices (Available in TAKS Accommodated and TAKS M only) Student‘s deficits are in basic math calculation and memory retrieval. There is no deficit in math reasoning. Before the use of the calculator, student failed tests by making mistakes on all operations. Student would ―draw out‖ calculation problems but would miscount the final answer. A multiplication chart would also help, but only with multiplication facts. It is important to determine whether the use of a calculation device is a matter of convenience or a necessary accommodation. Calculators may be adapted with large keys or voice output (talking calculators). In some cases, an abacus may be useful as it serves as a paper and pencil for some students with visual impairments. If the use of the accommodation is distracting to other students, an individual administration may be required. Supplemental Aids (Available in all standardized tests but TAKS) A supplemental aid is a resource that assists a student in recalling information. If a student‘s disability affects memory retrieval, a supplemental aid may be allowed. The student must be able to understand the material being assessed, but may need assistance recalling the information. The supplemental aid must serve only as a tool and not as a source of direct answers—meaning it cannot provide direct answers to the TEKS being assessed. It is important to determine whether the use of a supplemental aid is a matter of convenience or a necessary accommodation. Manipulatives (Available in TAKS Accommodated and TAKS M only) Manipulatives are concrete objects that a student can move and touch in order to visualize abstract concepts. The manipulative must serve only as a tool and not as a source of direct answers— meaning it cannot provide direct answers to the TEKS being assessed. The following manipulatives are allowed; 1252 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo        real or play money, clocks, base-ten blocks, various types of counters (e.g., two-sided chips, blocks, etc.), algebra tiles, fraction pieces, non-labeled geometric figures. Blank Graphic Organizers (Available in all standardized tests but TAKS) A student who has a processing problem may benefit from the use of blank graphic organizers. Examples of common graphic organizers include webs, charts, and boxes. Blank graphic organizers do not contain any words, numbers, or symbols. Graphic organizers that contain any words, numbers, or symbols are considered supplemental aids. Setting Accommodations Minimizing Distractions to the Student (Available in all standardized tests) A student may need an accommodation that minimizes external and/or internal distractions. Some examples of this accommodation may include, but are not limited to, headphones or a stress ball. Individual Administration (Available in all standardized tests) A student may receive an individual administration. A trained test administrator must be present in the testing room at all times. Small-Group Administration (Available in all standardized tests) A student may be tested in a small group. A trained test administrator must be present in the testing room at all times. The state does not define how many students constitute a small-group administration. Groupings for this accommodation should be based on student need and, in all cases, should be smaller than the number of students in a traditional testing room. Timing Accommodations Extended Time—Testing Over Two Days (Available in all standardized tests) Testing over two days will be approved only for a very small number of students who have unique situations. Some examples of students who may need extended time on a test include those who take a Braille version of the test, have a serious medical condition or a severe physical impairment, or have a severe emotional disturbance. For example, it would not be appropriate to submit a two-day request for all students who have autism, but it would be appropriate for those who have documented success with the use of extended time on assignments similar in length and rigor to the state assessments. It is not appropriate to request this accommodation for students with test anxiety, attention deficit disorder, or for students needing extra time to complete specific testing strategies unless there are other extenuating factors that make a student‘s situation unique. Visual, Verbal, or Tactile Reminders to Stay on Task (Available in all standardized tests) A student who loses focus easily may need general visual, verbal, or tactile reminders to stay on task. For example, a test administrator may say ―You need to continue working‖ or ―You are on page X.‖ Or, the test administrator may gently tap a student‘s shoulder to redirect his or her attention to the test. The use of this accommodation may require an individual or small-group administration. Multiple or Frequent Breaks (Available in all standardized tests) A student who cannot concentrate continuously for an extended period or who becomes frustrated or stressed easily (e.g., a student with autism or a severe behavioral disability) may need frequent or extended breaks. This accommodation may also be helpful for a student who takes medication that causes fatigue or affects his or her ability to stay Alert. The test booklet may be divided into short sections (e.g., by using paper clips or adhesive notes) so that a student can take a break between each section. A timer may be used so that the student can take breaks at planned intervals. A student may be allowed to take brief breaks in the testing room during a test session. However, testing personnel should ensure that while taking a break, the student does not participate in any activity that may potentially provide access to information related to any subject-area test content. For example, activities such as reading books or magazines are not permitted. The test booklet must be closed with the answer document inside, and it is essential that the student be closely monitored at all times so the content of the test is not discussed with others. The use of this accommodation may require an individual or small-group administration. 1253 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusions and Recommendations US Kindergarten thru 12 Public School System is among the largest public school systems in the world with the most number of foreign students incorporated into the system each year. US public school system is a very dynamic system that is updated regularly with the latest findings in research done in many Colleges of Education throughout the country. Postgraduate research done in Educational Sciences in US is amongst the leaders of the world in terms of quality and quantity. Thus, it would be very reasonable to evaluate and try to adapt parts of this system as needed. Unlike systems of other sciences, which would need the appropriate infrastructure to adapt, educational systems are relatively easier to adapt due to little physical infrastructure involved. However, one cannot underestimate the human factor that is the readiness of the society, thus it would be a safe bet to say that adapting portions of such a system would be easier for smaller school systems. References Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division (2008), LPAC Decision-Making Process Procedural Manual, pp. 14-16, 24, 32-35, 42, 49-50, 77. Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division (2009), Standardized Test Accommodations Manual for Students Including General Education Students, Students Receiving Special Education Services, Students with 504 Plans, English Language Learners, pp. 14-15, 48-52, 61. Division of Policy Coordination (2007), 19 TAC Chapter 89, Subchapter BB, Chapter 89. Adaptations for Special Populations, Commissioner's Rules Concerning State Plan for Educating Limited English Proficient Students, pp. 2, 7. Guidelines for Identification Process of Prospective LEP (Limited English Proficient) Students (2009), Harmony Science Academy ESL&SPED Services, pp. 2, 5. The English Language Proficiency Standards (ELPS) (2009), 19 Texas Administrative Code, Chapter 74, Subchapter A, §74.4, English language proficiency level descriptors and student expectations for English language learners (ELLs) TELPAS (Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System) Rater Manual Grades K–12 Texas, pp. 4, 38-42, 55-56. Effective Instruction for Struggling Readers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired: Research-Based Practices, (2003), FL Handout 2A, University of Texas. Hong, S. & Erin, J. N. (2004), The Impact of Early Exposure to Uncontracted Braille Reading on Students with Visual Impairments, Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 98, 325-340. Miller, C. & Rash, A. (2001), Reading for Everyone: Expanding Literacy Options, See/Hear, 6, 22-26. Steinman, B. A., LeJeune, B. J., & Kimbrough, B. T. (2006) Developmental Stages of Reading Processes in Children Who Are Blind and Sighted. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100, 3646. A Student‘s Guide to the IEP by the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, (2005), http://nichcy.org/pubs/stuguide/st1book.htm Scheiber, B., & Talpers, J. (1985). Campus Access for Learning Disabled Students: A Comprehensive Guide, Pittsburgh: Association for Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities. 1254 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 673 Title A name given to the resource INSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SPED PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Author Author Cicek, Volkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Special Education program is implemented in each and every US Kindergarten thru 12 public schools and it is the major educational program that is subject to extra funding. In this review, instructional aspects of Special Education Program currently implemented in Kindergarten thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of eligibility categories in regards to characteristics and educational approaches, referral process, RTI (response to intervention), standardized testing, accommodations during testing and regular class settings. Key Words: Special Education, Referral, Response to Intervention, identification, ARD (Admission, Review, and Dismissal), IEP (Individualized Educational Plan), FIE (Full and Individual Evaluation), Modifications, Accommodations, Learning Disability, Other Health Impairment, Attention Deficit disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Speech Impairment, Autism, Dyslexia, Tier-I-II-III Interventions, Standardized Testing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6899d9513932b064689a653eb906234e.pdf f9ccd59c234be55cc1e2203bc8ce43f1 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LEGAL ASPECTS OF ESL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Dr. Volkan Cicek Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq volkancicek@gmail.com Abstract:Legal aspects of ESL/Bilingual Education Program currently implemented in K thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of basis on federal and state laws, Bilingual Education vs ESL (English as a Second Language) Education, hiring certified personnel, training of employed personnel, identification of ESL/Bilingual Education students, ESL/Bilingual Education nomination process, testing for ESL/Bilingual Education, testing criteria to be selected LEP (Limited English Proficient), LPAC (Language Proficiency Assessment Committee), LEP notification of LPAC decisions, accommodations, Documentation and Confidentiality, Standardized Testing of LEP students based on federal AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) Requirements, LEP exemptions, LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) test that LEP exempt students take replacing regular standardized tests, Exit Level LEP Postponement, TELPAS (English Language Proficiency Assessment System) tests that all LEP students take based on federal NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act and Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives (AMAOs), TELPAS Raters, TELPAS Verifiers, Summer Programs for LEP students, LPAC Annual Review/ LEP Status Exit Criteria. Key Words: English as a Second Language, Bilingual Education, Limited English Proficient, Language Proficiency Assessment, linguistics accommodations, standardized testing Legal Basis Federal Assessment Requirements for English Language Learners Titles I and III of NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act hold schools, school districts, and states accountable for the achievement of English language learners through NCLB Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) measures in reading and mathematics and Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives (AMAOs) related to English language proficiency. These accountability measures are intended to ensure that English language learners receive the instruction they need to become academically proficient in English and meet the same challenging academic achievement standards as other students are expected to meet. NCLB requires that English language learners participate annually in state academic skill assessments as well as in English language proficiency assessments that align with and support attainment of the state‘s academic achievement standards. In the example of Texas state, the percentage of LEP students has increased steadily over the past decade. According to the Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS), there were 775,645 limited English proficient students enrolled in Texas public schools in the 2007–2008 school year. State Requirements for English Language Learners In US State Law, Education Code, and Chapter 29 and in Subchapter B, it is stated that every student who has a home language other than English and who is identified as limited English proficient shall be provided a full opportunity to participate in a bilingual education or English as a second language program. Based on this requirement, to ensure equal educational opportunity, as required in the same Education Code §1.002 (a), each school district shall: (1) Identify limited English proficient students based on criteria established by the state; (2) Provide bilingual education and English as a second language programs, as integral parts of the regular program as described in the Education Code, §4.002; (3) Seek certified teaching personnel to ensure that limited English proficient students are afforded full opportunity to master the essential skills and knowledge required by the state; and 1255 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (4) Assess achievement for essential skills and knowledge in accordance with the Education Code, Chapter 39, to ensure accountability for limited English proficient students and the schools that serve them. Is Education in English a Must? No, section 89.1220 states that ―Students participating in the bilingual education program may demonstrate their mastery of the essential knowledge and skills in either their home language or in English for each content area‖ with the following condition of stated in subsection b of the same chapter that is, ―bilingual education program shall be a full-time program of instruction in which both the students‘ home language and English shall be used for instruction. The amount of instruction in each language within the bilingual education program shall be commensurate with the students‘ level of proficiency in each language and their level of academic achievement‖. Objectives Bilingual education and English as a second language programs shall be integral parts of the total school program. Such programs shall use instructional approaches designed to meet the special needs of limited English proficient students. The basic curriculum content of the programs shall be based on the essential skills and knowledge. Bilingual education and ESL programs shall be located in the regular public schools of the district rather than in separate facilities. In order to provide the required bilingual education or ESL programs, districts may concentrate the programs at a limited number of schools within the district provided that the enrollment in those schools shall not exceed 60% LEP students. If these services are not provided, the parent of a student may appeal to the commissioner of education if the district fails to comply with the law or the rules. Teachers assigned to the bilingual education program and/or ESL program may receive salary supplements as authorized by the Education Code, §42.153. Bilingual Education vs English as a Second Language Education Each school district which has an enrollment of 20 or more limited English proficient students in any language classification in the same grade level district-wide shall offer a bilingual education program as described in subsection (b) of section 89.1205 ―Required Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language Programs‖ for the limited English proficient students in pre kindergarten through the elementary grades who speak that language. "Elementary grades" shall include at least prekindergarten through Grade 5; sixth grade shall be included when clustered with elementary grades. All limited English proficient students for whom a district is not required to offer a bilingual education program shall be provided an English as a second language program as described in subsection (e) of section 89.1210 of title relating to Program Content and Design, regardless of the students' grade levels and home language, and regardless of the number of such students. Hiring Certified Personnel/Training of Employed Personnel Ensuring the provision of appropriate services within the first four weeks of school/student enrollment is required by law, thus hiring an ESL (English as a Second Language) certified teacher unless there is no ESL students to be serviced at school are required. ESL certification is given by department of education of each state upon required examinations, and degrees in addition to the requirements to be a regular licensed teacher. Besides hiring an ESL certified teacher that does teach classes in special class settings, training the school teachers and administrators before/during the first week of the school, which school principal must keep a copy of attendance list and training materials, is required by law. This is due to implementing the necessary modifications required for ESL students in regular class settings. Physical Needs Purchasing of necessary materials such as file cabinets, ESL Tests, etc. as well arranging the location and schedule for the ―ESL Room‖ must be done ahead of time. Identification Process Nomination Identification of eligible LEP (Limited English Proficient) students is done through forming a suspect list via results of Home Language Surveys, teacher recommendations, and previously taken standardized tests and their scores. Regulations state that ―If the response on the home language survey 1256 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo indicates that a language other than English is used, the student shall be tested in accordance with §89.1225 of title relating to Testing and Classification of Students‖. If one of the languages for a student is different from English, that student is placed into the suspect list. Suspect list splits into two parts: For grades 4 and above: Student‘s state standardized test history, e.g. TAKS is checked at website of the testing company. If student has passed TAKS Reading and Writing, not counting the Spanish TAKS, in his/her testing history, the student is removed from suspect list. Remaining students should be tested for LEP. For grades Pre Kindergarten thru 3: Student‘s classroom teacher is asked whether student needs to be tested for LEP. Testing For identifying LEP students, districts shall administer to each student who has a language other than English as identified on the home language survey; (1) In prekindergarten through Grade 1, only an approved OLPT (oral language proficiency test) is implemented due to early literacy (insufficient language reading/writing capabilities for a Normreferenced Achievement Test), e.g. test LAS Links Language Assessment (OLPT test) (2) In Grades 2-12, an approved OLPT (oral language proficiency test) and the English reading and English language arts sections from an approved norm-referenced measure, or another approved test, unless the norm-referenced measure is not valid in accordance with subsection (f)(2)(C). Example tests are; For 2nd Grades; LAS Links (OLPT test) and Terra Nova Survey (Norm‐referenced Achievement Test), 2nd edition (Reading and Language Arts parts only) For 3rd thru 12th Grades; LAS Links (OLPT test) and Terra Nova Survey (Norm‐referenced Achievement Test), 3rd edition (Reading and Language Arts parts only) Districts which provide a bilingual education program shall administer an oral language proficiency test in the home language of the students who are eligible for being served in the bilingual education program. If the home language of the students is Spanish, the district shall administer the Spanish version of the approved oral language proficiency test which was administered in English. If the home language of the students is other than Spanish, the district shall determine the students' level of proficiency using informal oral language assessment measures. All the oral language proficiency testing shall be administered by professionals or paraprofessionals who are proficient in the language of the test and trained in language proficiency testing. Students with a language other than English shall be administered the required oral language proficiency test within four weeks of their enrollment. Norm-referenced assessment instruments, however, may be administered within the established norming period. Testing Criteria to be LEP For entry into a bilingual education or ESL program, a student shall be identified as LEP using the following criteria; (1) At prekindergarten through Grade 1, the score on the English oral language proficiency test is below the level designated for indicating limited English proficiency (2) At Grades 2-12: (A) the student's score on the English oral language proficiency test is below the level designated for indicating limited English proficiency, (B) the student's score on the reading and language arts sections of the approved norm-referenced measure at his or her grade level is below the 40th percentile; or (C) the student's ability in English is so limited that the administration, at his or her grade level, of the reading and language arts sections of an approved norm-referenced assessment instrument or other approved test is not valid. Districts may enroll students who are not limited English proficient in the bilingual education program in accordance with the Education Code, §29.058, however no allotments are given. LPAC (Language Proficiency Assessment Committee) Chapter §89.1220 states that ―Districts shall by local board policy establish and operate a language proficiency assessment committee‖. The LPAC includes, but is not limited to, the following individuals for a campus implementing a bilingual education program:  a campus administrator  a professional bilingual educator 1257 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  a professional transitional language educator (a bilingual teacher or ESL teacher). A parent of a limited English proficient student (not employed by the school district or charter school) This membership is voluntary based and must be advertised by the school administration to all eligible parents. The LPAC includes, but is not limited to, the following individuals for a campus implementing an ESL program:  one or more professional personnel (it is recommended that this include a campus administrator and a certified ESL teacher)  a parent of a limited English proficient student (not employed by the school district or charter school)  Teachers that are regularly managing ESL modifications and accommodations may be in LPAC although not required. The number of LPACs a school district or charter school operates will depend on the number needed to perform their duties within four weeks of the enrollment of limited English proficient students. LEP Notification LPAC shall give written notice to the student's parent advising that the student has been classified as limited English proficient and requesting approval to place the student in the required bilingual education or English as a second language program. The notice shall include information about the benefits of the bilingual education or English as a second language program for which the student has been recommended and that it is an integral part of the school program. Pending parent approval of a LEP student's entry into the bilingual education or ESL program recommended by LPAC, the district shall place the student in the recommended program, but may count only LEP students with parental approval for bilingual education allotment relating to extra funding received from state and federal funds for students in ESL and bilingual programs. For the specific case of students that qualify for services in the special education program, a professional member of the LPAC shall serve on the admission, review, and dismissal (ARD) committee. Documentation The student‘s permanent record shall contain documentation of all actions impacting the LEP student. This documentation shall include; (1) the identification of the student as LEP; (2) the designation of the student's level of language proficiency; (3) the recommendation of program placement; (4) parental approval of entry or placement into the program; (5) the dates of entry into, and placement within, the program; (6) the dates of exemptions from the criterion-referenced test, criteria used for this determination, and additional instructional interventions provided to students to ensure adequate yearly progress; (7) the date of exit from the program and parent notification; and (8) the results of monitoring for academic success, including students formerly classified as LEP, as required under the Education Code, §29.063(c)(4). Instructional Implementations Accommodations Accommodations are practices and procedures that provide equitable access to grade-level curriculum during instruction and assessment for all students. This includes general education students with special needs, eligible ELLs who need linguistic accommodations, as well as students with disabilities who receive special education services. Accommodations do not reduce learning expectations. Therefore, their use should not replace the teaching of subject-specific knowledge and skills as outlined in the state curriculum for each grade. Certain accommodations may be needed more often at some grades than others depending on academic content and rigor. Although some accommodations may be appropriate for instructional use, they may not be appropriate or allowed on a standardized assessment. 1258 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The decision to use an accommodation should be made on an individual basis and take into consideration both the needs of the student and whether the student routinely receives the accommodation in classroom instruction and testing. It is neither appropriate nor effective to provide ―one size fits all‖ accommodations to students. For example, one student with a visual impairment might use large-print textbooks and worksheets while another would benefit from a magnification device. In most cases, accommodations are unique to a student and should not be provided to an entire group of students, such as those in the same class or disability category. It should be kept in mind that students unaccustomed to using specific accommodations may be hindered rather than helped by the use of accommodations not routinely used in classroom instruction. Sides that needs accommodation information are;  Regional Level Education service center staff  District Level Superintendents  Testing coordinators  Curriculum directors  Special education administrators  Bilingual/English as a second language (ESL)  coordinators  Campus Level Principals and other administrators  Testing coordinators  Test administrators  Educational diagnosticians  Licensed specialists in School Psychology  Counselors  Teachers  Special education staff  Bilingual/ESL staff  Parents Participation of LEP Students to Standardized Tests Immigrants who enter the U.S. with little or no knowledge of English may not be able to learn English well enough in one or two years to demonstrate their academic skills meaningfully on standardized tests written in English. Immigrant Spanish speakers in bilingual programs may not be able to meet the curriculum requirements in Spanish in their first year in the U.S. if they have had insufficient schooling outside the U.S. Both administering standardized assessments to second language learners too soon and delaying the assessments too long can have undesirable consequences. Measuring LEP students‘ academic skills in English before they have had time to learn English confounds assessment results. Students appear to be behind academically when, in fact, lack of English comprehension prevents a reliable measure of either academic strengths or weaknesses. In addition, requiring immigrants with limited prior schooling to participate to these assessments too soon may cause instruction in U.S. schools to appear lacking when, in fact, there has not been time to teach students the required skills. On the other hand, delaying the testing of struggling second language learners until they no longer struggle distorts information about how well schools are meeting these students‘ educational needs. ELLs must learn not only academic content but also a second language. Their learning load increases substantially when academic instruction is not delivered in a comprehensible manner or when they come to the U.S. with limited prior schooling. When their special needs are not identified and addressed promptly, they may struggle academically long after they have learned the English language. AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) Requirements To meet the AYP requirements of Federal NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act in reading and mathematics, LEP students in grades 3–8 and 10 must be included in state reading and mathematics assessments. NCLB authorizes states to use native language assessments or other linguistically accommodated assessments aligned to state academic standards. Upon their initial enrollment and at the end of each school year, LPAC shall review all pertinent information on all limited English proficient students. Before the administration of the state criterion-referenced test each year, the LPAC shall determine the appropriate assessment option for each limited English proficient student as outlined in Chapter 101, Subchapter AA of title relating to Commissioner's Rules Concerning the Participation of LEP students in State assessments. The assessment options shall be; (1) Administration of the English version criterion-referenced test; 1259 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (2) Administration of the Spanish version criterion-referenced test; or (3) For certain immigrant students, exemption from the criterion-referenced test. In determining the appropriate assessment option, LPAC consider the following criteria for each student; (1) Academic program participation (bilingual education or ESL) and language of instruction; (2) Language proficiency, including literacy, in English and/or Spanish; (3) Number of years enrolled in U.S. schools; (4) Previous testing history(e.g. whether the student has already taken the Spanish-version state assessment for three years or whether the student‘s years of LEP exemptions combined with administrations of the Spanish-version state assessment already total three years) (5) Level achieved on the state English language proficiency assessment in reading; (6) Consecutive years of residence outside of the 50 U.S. states; and (7) Schooling outside the U.S. Standardized tests in Spanish are generally the appropriate assessment for nonexempt LEP students in bilingual programs who are receiving most of their instruction in Spanish. Standardized tests in English are generally the appropriate assessment for nonexempt LEP students in bilingual programs who are receiving most of their instruction in English. Students must take standardized tests in English after they have taken the Spanish-version state assessment for three years or after their years of LEP exemptions combined with Spanish-version administrations total three. Case 1: A student who took the Spanish-version reading test in grades 3, 4, and 5 is not eligible to take the Spanish-version reading test in grade 6 (or again in grade 5 if the student is retained). Similarly, an immigrant student who was exempt in grade 3 but took the Spanish version reading test in grades 4 and 5 is not permitted to take the Spanish-version reading test in grade 6 (or again in grade 5 if the student is retained). These students must take standardized tests in English. Case 2: When a student is absent from a subject-area test, the student is not eligible for an additional year of exemption or an additional year to take Spanish standardized tests. Students in English as a Second Language (ESL) Programs Standardized tests in English are generally the appropriate assessment for nonexempt LEP students in ESL programs because academic instruction in these programs is usually delivered in English. An LPAC may determine, however, that standardized tests in Spanish is appropriate for a student in an ESL program if the assessment in Spanish will provide a valid measure of the student‘s academic progress. For example, an LPAC may determine standardized tests in Spanish to be appropriate for a student who has enrolled in U.S. schools shortly before the standardized tests administration and who has received sufficient schooling in Spanish outside the U.S. When determining whether Spanish standardized tests is appropriate for students in ESL programs, the LPAC should carefully consider the student‘s language of instruction. A student who has not had recent, ongoing academic instruction in Spanish may not be able to demonstrate in Spanish what he or she has been taught in English. To demonstrate certain knowledge and skills in Spanish, the student will need to have learned academic terminology in Spanish and acquired grade-level Spanish literacy. Non-LEP Students in Two-Way Immersion Dual Language Programs School districts may administer Spanish standardized tests to a student who is not identified as limited English proficient but who participates in a two-way immersion dual language program. In these cases, the LPAC will determine whether standardized tests in Spanish or English will provide the more appropriate measure of the student‘s academic progress. The student may not, however, be administered the Spanish-version assessment for longer than three years. Non-LEP students in two-way immersion dual language programs are not eligible for LEP exemptions. LEP Exemptions LEP students may be exempt from the regular academic assessments of their grade level provided the required conditions based on Senate Bill 676 and the Administrative Code, Chapter 101, Subchapter AA. A small percentage of eligible recent immigrant ELLs (LEP-exempt) take the state academic skill assessments using a linguistically accommodated testing (LAT) process. Instead, they have specific assessments for grade promotions; such as LAT (Linguistically Accommodated Testing) and TELPAS (English Language Proficiency Assessment System). LEP students in grades 3–10 must meet all of the following general exemption criteria before an LPAC may consider the need for a LEP exemption from standardized tests. A LEP student who does 1260 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo not participate in a bilingual or ESL program because of a parental denial is not eligible for a LEP exemption from state assessments. Recent immigrant ELLs within their first three school years in U.S. schools who are LEPexempt under state law and enrolled in AYP grades (grades 3–8 and 10) are included in AYP mathematics accountability measures through LAT administrations. While all ELLs participating in LAT administrations are required to take mathematics tests for AYP participation purposes, their results begin to count in AYP performance measures as of their second school year in U.S. schools. Regardless of their category, immigrant LEP students enrolled in U.S. schools for all of first, second, and third grade are not eligible for a LEP exemption. Students who have been in U.S. schools for all of grades 1, 2, and 3 do not meet the specific exemption criterion related to having had insufficient schooling outside the U.S. A partial year of school enrollment in the U.S. counts as one school year for purposes of both state assessment exemption eligibility and TELPAS data collection. Students in their fourth or subsequent school year of enrollment in a U.S. school are not eligible for a LEP exemption even if they have been enrolled for partial school years. Note, however, that schools should not include enrollment in prekindergarten or kindergarten in these counts. School records or signed verification from the child‘s parent or guardian must be used to indicate the number of school years of enrollment in the U.S. If a student meets all five general exemption criteria, the LPAC will examine additional criteria termed specific exemption criteria to determine whether the student qualifies for an exemption. The specific exemption criteria differ according to whether students are in  the first school year of enrollment in the U.S., or  the second or third school year of enrollment in the U.S. Specific Exemption Criteria—First School Year in U.S. Schooling outside U.S. The student‘s schooling outside the U.S. did not provide the foundation of learning that US requires and measures by standardized tests, whether the foundation is in knowledge of the English language or specific academic skills and concepts in the subjects assessed (Evidence of Inadequate Foundation of Learning Upon Initial Enrollment in U.S. Schools and Instructional Interventions for Students Who Entered U.S. Schools with an Inadequate Foundation of Learning Forms apply). Effect of Current Year‘s Progress The student‘s progress by the spring of the school year has not been sufficient to make up for the differences in his or her schooling outside the U.S. (Documentation of Insufficient Progress by Spring of Year forms depending on the category apply). Specific Exemption Criteria—Second and Third School Years in U.S. Academic Language Proficiency By the spring of the second or third school year in the U.S., the student continues to lack the academic language proficiency in English necessary for standardized tests in English to provide a valid and reliable measure of the student‘s academic progress. The specific exemption criteria differ according to whether students are in the following categories of 1 or 2. Fewer exemptions are necessary for students in category 1 because of the availability of standardized tests in Spanish. Category 1: Immigrant LEP students in Spanish bilingual education programs in grades 3–6 Category 2: Other immigrant LEP students in grades 3–10, including students in ESL programs and students in non-Spanish bilingual education programs Grades lower than 3rd grades do not take standardized tests, also grades above 10th grade, e.g. 11 grade standardized tests are high school exit level tests and no exemptions may be granted. Grade 11 recent immigrant LEP students served through special education for whom TAKS–M is appropriate may be eligible for a LEP exemption even though they are beyond grade 10 if they meet the exemption criteria. LEP exemptions are not normally permitted for students beyond grade 10 because they are subject to exit level testing requirements; however, grade 11 students taking TAKS–M are not subject to exit level testing requirements. The specific exemption criteria require the LPAC to examine an immigrant student‘s schooling outside the U.S. in order to determine whether it is reasonable by the spring test administration to expect the student to meet the curriculum requirements as measured by standardized tests. Even if a student is identified as LEP but is not an immigrant according to the definition used for assessment purposes, he/she cannot be eligible for a LEP exemption. th 1261 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Unlike the PEIMS definition, which uses country of birth and number of years in the U.S., the definition for assessment purposes specifies that a LEP student is considered an immigrant when he or she has resided outside of the 50 U.S. states for at least two consecutive years. Testing decisions may vary by subject area as long as the student meets the eligibility criteria. For example, an LPAC may determine that it is appropriate for a LEP student in grade 5 to take the TAKS mathematics test in English and the TAKS reading test in Spanish. Specific Cases of Immigrant LEP students who have moved in and out of the U.S. more than once These students are eligible for exemption only during their first three school years in the U.S. When the total number of school years in which the student has been enrolled in U.S. schools exceeds three, the student is no longer eligible for a LEP exemption. Example-1: A LEP student lived in Mexico for grades 1–3 and then was enrolled in U.S. schools for grades 4 and 5. The student returned to Mexico for two years and re-enrolled in U.S. schools as an eighth grader. Because grade 8 marks the third school year of enrollment in the U.S., this student could still be eligible for a LEP exemption if he meets the other eligibility criteria in this manual. Example-2 If an immigrant LEP student was exempt from TAKS in Spanish in grade 3, but took TAKS in Spanish in grades 4 and 5, he/she cannot take TAKS in Spanish in grade 6, because students must test in English once they have tested in Spanish for three years or, in the case of immigrants, once any LEP exemptions plus Spanish administrations exceed three. Example-3: If an immigrant LEP student is absent from a subject-area test, he/she is not eligible for an additional year of exemption or an additional year to take TAKS in Spanish also because being absent on test day has no effect on the maximum years allowed for exemptions or Spanish version tests. Example-4: An immigrant student moved to the U.S. when she was five and has been enrolled in U.S. schools continuously since grade 1. This student is not eligible for a LEP exemption in third grade because students who come from other countries but have been enrolled in U.S. schools continuously since the beginning of first grade are not eligible for a LEP exemption. Such students would not meet the exemption criteria related to having had insufficient schooling outside the U.S. In addition to academic content assessments, US federal legislation requires ELL (English Language Learner)s to take annual English language proficiency assessments in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. TELPAS for ELLs in kindergarten through grade 12 has been developed to fulfill this federal requirement. It is important to note that neither LEP exemptions nor linguistic accommodations are permitted for these assessments, as they are designed specifically to measure the English language proficiency level of the students. LEP-exempt immigrants in their first school year in the U.S. are counted as participants in AYP through participation in TELPAS reading tests. The test results for these students are excluded from AYP performance calculations, as allowed by federal regulations. LEP-exempt recent immigrant ELLs in their second or third school year in the U.S. participate in LAT administrations of reading and ELA in AYP grades. LAT reading and LAT ELA assessments are used in both AYP participation and performance measures. To meet federal regulations, states are also required to administer science assessments in at least one elementary, middle school, and high school grade. Accordingly, LAT science assessments are available for LEP-exempt recent immigrant students in grades 5, 8, and 10. While states are required to administer science tests, federal regulations do not require their use in AYP. LAT science assessments are, therefore, not used in AYP measures and also excluded from the state accountability rating system. LEP-exempt students who take LAT administrations are eligible to receive certain types of linguistic accommodations that align with accommodations used during instruction. LAT administrations provide for a more valid and reliable assessment of what these students know and can do in federally required academic content assessments. LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) LAT is an assessment process for eligible immigrant English language learners (ELLs) who are granted a limited English proficiency (LEP) exemption under state law but are required to be assessed in certain grades and subjects under federal law. LAT administrations are available in mathematics and science for recent immigrant ELLs who are LEP-exempt under state policy and within their first three school years in U.S. schools. LAT administrations are available in reading for recent immigrant ELLs who are LEP-exempt under state policy and in their second or third school year in U.S. schools. LEP-exempt recent immigrant ELLs in their first school year in the U.S. take just the TELPAS reading test for federal AYP accountability. 1262 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LAT administrations are available for  Grades 3–8 reading and grade 10 ELA  Grades 3–8 and 10 mathematics  Grades 5, 8, and 10 science Decisions about LEP exemptions and LAT participation should not be made until shortly before spring testing because students are expected to make progress in English language proficiency throughout the school year. For instruction and testing, more than one type of linguistic accommodation is often necessary. For example, an ELL who uses a bilingual dictionary or receives translation assistance may also need linguistic simplification or clarification in instruction and testing. As another example, an ELL would rarely benefit only from hearing text read aloud during classroom instruction and testing. Decisions regarding LAT accommodations must be documented by the LPAC in the student‘s permanent record file. In the case of a LEP student served by special education, testing and accommodation decisions must be made by the student‘s ARD committee in conjunction with the LPAC. LAT decisions for LEP students receiving special education services must be documented by the LPAC in the student‘s permanent record file and by the ARD committee in the student‘s IEP. ARD committees and LPACs should keep in mind that students who participate in LAT administrations may be eligible for accommodations related to a disability or other special need in addition to linguistic accommodations. The accommodations provided in LAT mathematics and science administrations are designed to help students understand the language used on the tests. However, linguistic accommodations must not assist students with the subject-area terminology, concepts, or skills assessed. The linguistic accommodations used during LAT administrations must not include explanations, definitions, pictures, gestures, or examples related to mathematical or scientific terminology, concepts, or skills assessed because such accommodations would invalidate the test results. The test administrator must not provide any direct or indirect assistance or reinforcement that identifies or aids in the identification of the correct response to a test item. After a LAT administration, no discussion or scoring of test items is allowed at any time. LAT mathematics and science administrations are given in one day. LAT reading/ELA administrations for TAKS, including TAKS (Accommodated), are given in two days, with a fixed stopping point at the end of Day 1. Students taking LAT administrations must not be tested in a room with students taking regular TAKS tests. Students taking LAT administrations should be provided individual or small-group administrations. When small-group administrations are used, students should be seated far enough apart that they are not disturbed by interactions between the test administrator and other students. It may be possible to group students taking LAT administrations from more than one grade in the same testing room. Testing personnel should review the needs of the students, their accommodations, their grade levels, and the test administration directions in the LAT test administrator manual when planning how to group students. Exit Level LEP Postponement LEP students are not eligible for an exemption from exit level testing on the basis of limited English proficiency. Like other public school students, they are required to perform satisfactorily on the exit level tests in order to fulfill the assessment portion of their graduation requirements. Although exemptions are not permitted, the LPAC may postpone the initial exit level administration of a LEP student if the student first enrolled in U.S. schools no more than 12 months prior to the administration of the exit level test for which the postponement is sought. This deferral is called the exit level LEP postponement. Content area teachers as well as ESL teachers should provide specialized instruction to the newly arrived immigrants in their classes. In order to help these students succeed in academic courses, teachers should receive training in methods that accelerate the English acquisition and academic achievement of immigrants who enter the U.S. in high school. English Language Proficiency Assessment System (TELPAS) Under the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), English language proficiency assessments must assess students annually in kindergarten through grade 12 in four language domains: listening, speaking, reading, and writing until they meet state exit requirements and are reclassified as non-LEP. AMAO (Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives) 1263 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AMAOs were implemented as NCLB accountability measures in states to evaluate services provided to limited English proficient students for federal accountability purposes.  AMAO 1 relates to the percentage of ELLs who make progress in learning English.  AMAO 2 relates to the percentage of ELLs who attain English language proficiency.  AMAO 3 relates to the percentage of ELLs who are successful on the state‘s reading and mathematics assessments.  AMAO 1—Progress in Learning English measures whether districts meet AMAO targets related to the percentage of LEP students who make at least one proficiency level of progress a year based on their TELPAS composite proficiency rating. AMAO 2—Attainment of English Language Proficiency measures whether districts meet AMAO targets related to the percentage of LEP students who attain an advanced high TELPAS composite proficiency rating. AMAO 3—Meeting AYP in Reading and Mathematics measures whether districts meet AYP targets related to the percentage of LEP students who are successful on the state‘s reading and mathematics tests. AMAO 3 is met when a district meets AYP for its LEP student group. The TELPAS reading tests, in the example state of Texas, are administered annually to fulfill aforementioned federal requirements to LEP students in grades 2–12, including LEP students who do not participate in a bilingual or ESL program because of a parental denial. LEP exemptions are not permitted from this assessment. The exception to this is the specific case when a student first arrives in U.S. schools in the second semester of a school year who may be assigned a rating of beginning without actually taking the TELPAS reading test if the LPAC determines that the student has too little English reading ability to assess. This rating is the point from which the student‘s growth is measured in future years. Each district is responsible for developing a local schedule to administer TELPAS assessments during the four-week TELPAS testing window. Because the span of reading ability is so broad on the TELPAS reading tests and the purpose is to measure annual growth in English acquisition, the tests should be an appropriate tool for most LEP students served by special education. Exceptions include students who need a braille version (since a braille version of the TELPAS reading test is not available) and students whose reading instruction is below the level of reading simple words and sentences. In such cases, the LPAC and ARD committee may collaboratively decide that the student‘s special education needs prevent an appropriate measurement of growth in English reading proficiency. This decision will be recorded at the time of testing, and the student will not participate in the assessment. Purposes of TELPAS 1. TELPAS assesses the progress of recent immigrants during the time they receive a LEP exemption from the state academic skill assessments. During the time a student receives a LEP exemption or postponement, TELPAS reading tests assess progress in English language acquisition in reading. A student‘s ability to learn academic content in English will be hindered until the student is able to use the English language as a medium for acquiring challenging academic skills. 2. TELPAS reading test results help indicate when LEP exemptions are no longer necessary. Many LEP students enter U.S. schools with some knowledge of English and do not need three years of exemption. Recent immigrant students with limited English proficiency who attain designated levels of proficiency on the TELPAS reading tests are not eligible for a LEP exemption in any TAKS, TAKS(Accommodated), or TAKS–M subject area in future years. 3. TELPAS provides a way to monitor the English proficiency of students who take academic skill assessments in Spanish. TELPAS helps LPACs ensure that students in bilingual programs are making steady annual progress in English language development during the time their academic progress is measured with TAKS in Spanish. TELPAS is also an indicator LPACs may use to help make decisions about when students who have previously tested in Spanish are ready to begin testing in English. 4. TELPAS provides a way to monitor the English proficiency of students who take academic skill assessments in English. TELPAS allows educators to continue to monitor the English language development of students who are no longer eligible for a LEP exemption from TAKS, TAKS (Accommodated), or TAKS–M but who are still developing proficiency in English. TELPAS results help schools examine to what extent poor academic performance may be caused by an insufficient command of English as opposed to or in conjunction with non-mastery of academic concepts. This information helps in planning for instructional interventions. 1264 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo TELPAS Raters A TELPAS rater is a teacher designated to be the official rater of a LEP student‘s English language proficiency. All designated raters receive special training. For each domain assessed, raters are trained to use a set of holistic proficiency level descriptors to determine whether students are at the beginning, intermediate, advanced, or advanced high level of English language proficiency. Each teacher selected to rate a student must  have the student in class;  be knowledgeable about the student‘s ability to use English in instructional and informal settings;  hold valid education credentials such as a teacher certificate or permit; and  be appropriately trained as required by the holistic rating training procedures in accordance with 19 TAC §101.3005.  Substitute teachers who meet the above criteria may serve as raters. TELPAS raters may include:  bilingual education teachers  English as a second language (ESL) teachers  elementary general education teachers  middle or high school general education teachers of foundation subjects  special education teachers  gifted and talented teachers  teachers of enrichment subjects Paraprofessionals may not serve as raters. On each student‘s answer document, you will indicate which of the above best describes your teaching relationship to the student you are rating. TELPAS Verifiers for Grades 2-12 Writing Collections In conjunction with the district coordinator and principal, the campus testing coordinator will designate one or more persons to verify the contents of the writing collections on the campus. Note that TELPAS raters and paraprofessionals are NOT permitted to perform this function. Note also that training in verifying tasks and TELPAS administration procedures for the holistically rated components is required for TELPAS writing collection verifiers. The writing collection verifier will ensure that  each collection contains at least 5 total writing samples;  each writing collection includes at least 1 narrative about a past event and 2 academic writing samples from science, social studies, or mathematics;  all writing assignments include the student‘s name and date;  no writing samples come from before February 1, 2008;  no papers showing teacher corrections are included;  no worksheets, question-answer assignments, or TAKS written compositions are included; and  each collection includes samples written primarily in English. The rater is responsible for assembling the writing collections according to all criteria in this manual. The rater, not the verifier, is solely responsible for ensuring that the following types of papers are NOT included in the collections:  papers containing language directly copied from a textbook, lesson, or other written source  papers in which the student relies heavily on a dictionary or thesaurus  papers that have been polished through editing by peers, parents, or teachers  papers that are brief, incomplete, or obviously reflect writing that was rushed o For schools with many LEP students, one ESL certified teacher may not be enough to rate all TELPAS exams. o Additional teachers may get licensed easily for being a TELPAS rater via a short workshop for a few days. o Also a TELPAS verifier usually is the ESL coordinator, who can be licensed online easily. TELPAS Decision-Making Process Decisions about TELPAS accommodations for ELLs should be made by the LPAC and, in the case of an ELL receiving special education services, by the ARD committee in conjunction with the LPAC. Because TELPAS holistically rated assessments are based on student class work and observation of students during daily instruction, most accommodations that are used during regular classroom instruction are appropriate. Exceptions are any accommodations that would interfere with the ability of the assessment to provide a clear picture of the student‘s English language proficiency. For example, submitting writing samples for which a student relied heavily on a dictionary for word selection would not be appropriate. 1265 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Summer Programs for LEP Students Purpose of summer school programs; (A) LEP students shall have an opportunity to receive special instruction designed to prepare them to be successful in kindergarten and first grade. (B) Instruction shall focus on language development and essential knowledge and skills appropriate to the level of the student. (C) The program shall address the affective, linguistic, and cognitive needs of the LEP students in accordance with §89.1210(c) and §89.1210(e) of title relating to Program Content and Design. Each district required to offer a bilingual or special language program in accordance with The Education Code, §29.053, shall offer the summer program, however enrollment in the program is optional with the parents of the student. To be eligible for enrollment, a student must be eligible for admission to kindergarten or to the first grade at the beginning of the next school year and must be LEP. Limited English proficiency shall be determined by screening students using informal oral language inventories or oral proficiency instruments approved by the commissioner of education, or other appropriate instruments. Programs for students who will be in bilingual education kindergarten and first grade programs shall be bilingual education as well. The program shall be operated on a one-half day basis, a minimum of three hours each day, for eight weeks or the equivalent of 120 hours of instruction. The student/teacher ratio for the program district-wide shall not exceed 18 to one. A district is not required to provide transportation for the summer program. Teachers shall possess certification or endorsement as required in the Education Code, §29.061, and §89.1245 of title relating to Staffing and Staff Development. Reporting of student progress shall be determined by the board of trustees. A summary of student progress shall be provided to parents at the conclusion of the program. This summary shall be provided to the student's teacher at the beginning of the next regular school term. A district may join with other districts in cooperative efforts to plan and implement programs. The summer school program shall not substitute for any other program required to be provided during the regular school term stated in the Education Code, §29.153. LPAC Annual Review/ LEP Status Exit Criteria At the end of each year, the LPAC will meet to review student progress and determine whether the student will continue in the program or qualifies for exiting the program (only after first grade). Students must meet established exit criteria and show mastery in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and comprehension in English to successfully exit the bilingual and ESL programs. A student that is identified as are identified as Bilingual, ESL or LEP Parental Denial may be considered for exit from the ESL/Bilingual program or to change an identified LEP student to a nonLEP status based upon tests that measure the extent to which the student has developed oral and written proficiency and specific language skills in both the student‘s primary language (for students enrolled in bilingual education) and English, and one of the following as stated in reference 19 TAC§89.1225(h); 1) Meeting state performance standards on the reading and writing portions of the English Language criterion referenced test, e.g. TAKS as stated in reference TEC §39.023. 2) Scoring at or above the 40th percentile on the language arts and reading portions (only) on a norm referenced standardized achievement test. Norm-referenced standardized achievement tests (Woodcock Munoz which is used at the beginning) are required only for entry of students in grades 2-12. They MAY be used for program exit (when TAKS is not available) but are NOT required. School districts are not required to administer a norm-referenced standardized achievement test to LEP students each year after initial placement unless there is a district policy requiring the administration of norm referenced standardized achievement tests for all students. Students in Pre-Kindergarten, Kindergarten and 1st grade may not be exited from a Bilingual or English as second language programs. (§89.1225) An annual review is still conducted by the LPAC but students cannot be reclassified as English proficient at these grade levels. Students exited from the program will be monitored for two years to determine academic success. A student may not be exited from the bilingual education or English as a second language program in prekindergarten or kindergarten. Based on Chapter §89.1240, students meeting exit requirements may continue in the bilingual education or ESL program with parental approval but are not eligible for inclusion in the district bilingual education allotment. 1266 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusions and Recommendations US Kindergarten thru 12 Public School System is among the largest public school systems in the world with the most number of foreign students incorporated into the system each year. US public school system is a very dynamic system that is updated regularly with the latest findings in research done in many Colleges of Education throughout the country. Postgraduate research done in Educational Sciences in US is amongst the leaders of the world in terms of quality and quantity. Thus, it would be very reasonable to evaluate and try to adapt parts of this system as needed. Unlike systems of other sciences, which would need the appropriate infrastructure to adapt, educational systems are relatively easier to adapt due to little physical infrastructure involved. However, one cannot underestimate the human factor that is the readiness of the society, thus it would be a safe bet to say that adapting portions of such a system would be easier for smaller school systems. 1267 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References LPAC Decision-Making Process Procedural Manual (2008), Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, pp. 14-16, 24, 32-35, 42, 49-50, 77. Standardized Test Accommodations Manual for Students Including General Education Students, Students Receiving Special Education Services, Students with 504 Plans, English Language Learners (2009), Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, pp. 14-15, 48-52, 61. Adaptations for Special Populations, Commissioner's Rules Concerning State Plan for Educating Limited English Proficient Students 19 TAC Chapter 89, Subchapter AA and BB (2007), US Division of Policy Coordination. Guidelines for Identification Process of Prospective LEP (Limited English Proficient) Students (2009), Harmony Science Academy ESL&SPED Services, pp. 2, 5. The English Language Proficiency Standards (ELPS) 19 Texas Administrative Code §74.4, Chapter 74, Subchapter A, English language proficiency level descriptors and student expectations for English language learners (ELLs) (2009), US Division of Policy Coordination TELPAS (Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System) Rater Manual Grades K–12 Texas (2009), pp. 4, 38-42, 55-56. Student Testing Requirements, Subchapter A, General Provisions, §101.5, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, http://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter101/ch101a.html Commissioner‘s Rules Concerning the Participation of Limited English Proficient Students in State Assessments, Subchapter AA, §101.1001 Policy, English Language Proficiency Assessments, §101.1003, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Role of the Language Proficiency Assessment Committee, §101.1005, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Limited English Proficient Students at the Exit Level, §101.1007, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Limited English Proficient Students at Grades Other Than the Exit Level, §101.1009, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division Limited English Proficient Students Who Receive Special Education Services. US Division of Policy Coordination. Commissioner‘s Rules Concerning the Student Success Initiative, Subchapter BB, §101.2001 Policy, http://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter101/ch101aa.html Interpreting Assessment Reports, Annual publication, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division, http://www.tea.state.tx.us/student.assessment/. 2008 District and Campus Coordinator Manual, Texas Education Agency Student Assessment Division 1268 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 674 Title A name given to the resource LEGAL ASPECTS OF ESL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM IN US PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM APPLICABLE TO OTHER EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Author Author Cicek, Volkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Legal aspects of ESL/Bilingual Education Program currently implemented in K thru 12 US Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of basis on federal and state laws, Bilingual Education vs ESL (English as a Second Language) Education, hiring certified personnel, training of employed personnel, identification of ESL/Bilingual Education students, ESL/Bilingual Education nomination process, testing for ESL/Bilingual Education, testing criteria to be selected LEP (Limited English Proficient), LPAC (Language Proficiency Assessment Committee), LEP notification of LPAC decisions, accommodations, Documentation and Confidentiality, Standardized Testing of LEP students based on federal AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) Requirements, LEP exemptions, LAT (Linguistically accommodated testing) test that LEP exempt students take replacing regular standardized tests, Exit Level LEP Postponement, TELPAS (English Language Proficiency Assessment System) tests that all LEP students take based on federal NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act and Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives (AMAOs), TELPAS Raters, TELPAS Verifiers, Summer Programs for LEP students, LPAC Annual Review/ LEP Status Exit Criteria. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics