261 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f57b84bb217f04ac03db30bca0d95b21.pdf 60d87a286beacff3fdcad17f2b51abc6 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Eliot's Rose Garden: A Sufi Interpretation Fatemeh Azizmohamadi Faculty member of Azad University, Arak Branch. meena_mina_mina@yahoo.com Shahram Afrougheh Faculty member of Azad University, Boroujerd Branch. sh_afrougheh@yahoo.com Abstract: Eliot's theosophical poetry supports the idea that God's willingness to relate to the world gives his creatures the possibility of personal knowledge of him, although this can be acquired only through difficult and serenuous spiritual exercises. The variety of poetic works, which Eliot produced such as Four Quartets and Hollow man, are a blend of philosophical and mystical ideas which attempt to explore the inner meaning of faith and represent a creative and influential stream that both draws upon and contributes to Sufism. Key Terms: Sufism, Eliot, Rose – Garden, Schimmel Introduction One of the recurring symbols in the later poetry of T. S. Eliot is that of the rose. Appearing in the Hollow Man (1925) for the first time, it acquires newer and deeper connotation in the succeeding poems till it assumes its full significance in Four Quartets (1943). Most discussions of the rose in Eliot's poetry relate the symbol either to Dante or to the medieval Christian tradition. Leonard Unger (1966:69-70) notes that for Eliot the rose garden symbolizes an early sexual awakening comparable to that described by Eliot in his discussion of Dante's Vita Nuova. Eric Thompson (1963:99) too traces the rose garden to Dante's earthly paradise. Barbara Seward (1960:156) in her detailed account of the symbolic rose considers Eliot's rose not "wholly modern" and traces its origin to the Middle Ages and the Catholic symbol of spiritual love incarnated in Christ. "Combining the romanticism of a yearning, nostalgic, insatiable age with the absolute authoritarian standards of medieval times," Seward (Ibid: 156) notes that "Eliot has created a symbol suited to religious present needs." A large body of scholarly and critical writing on Eliot is available today, yet it is to be noted that no critic has alluded to the Sufi tradition in the discussion of the rose and the rose garden in Eliot's poetry. Even those critics who have dealt with the oriental influence on Eliot limit themselves either to the Hindu or to the Buddhist traditions. In both the cases there is enough evidence to show that Eliot was influenced by these traditions. No such evidence, as yet, is available to show that Eliot ever came under the influence of the Sufis or their poetry. Nonetheless, it is possible to draw certain parallels between Eliot's imagery and the Sufi imagery for the simple reason that certain archetypal images and symbols with mystical connotations transcend the barriers of language and tradition and find expression in poetry written at different periods and places. The mystics, in whichever language they express themselves, have always been fascinated by "the symbol" since it enables them to express certain complex and inexpressible ideas which the ordinary words fail to do. Though essentially a poet, Eliot at times uses the language of the mystics in order to express moments of mystical experience. Sufism and Eliot The rose and the rose-garden which dominate Eliot's later poetry can be abundantly found in Persian and Turkish mystic poetry. Sānāi, the first major mystic poet of Persia, preaches the Sufi doctrine through the symbol of the rose and the bird (Arberry 1966:8): The nightingale hath no repose For joy that ruby blooms the rose; 455 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Long time it is that philomel Hath loved like me the rosy dell. Tis sure no wonder if I sing Both night and day my fair sweeting: Let me be slave to that bird's tongue Who late the rose's praise hath sung! O Saki, when the days commence Of ruby roses, abstinence By none is charged; then pour me wine Like yonder rose incarnadine. A host of notable mystic poets following Sānāi have employed the rose symbol in their poems to relate the mystic experience. Sádi, a thirteenth century classical poet from Persia, entitled one of his principal works as Gulistan or The Rose Garden which is "recognized by the most eminent Sufis as concealing the whole range of the deepest sufi knowledge" (Shah 1968:90). In her book The Mystical Dimensions of Islam Annemarie Schimmel recounts an interesting story to explain the Sufi's love for the rose. According to a tradition when the Prophet saw a rose, he kissed it and pressed it to his eyes and said, "the red rose is part of God's glory" (Schimmel 1975: 222). Schimmel thinks that the "Prophet's love of roses may have induced the poets to call him the 'nightingale of the Eternal Garden' for he discloses to the faithful some of the mysteries of God, the Everlasting Rose" (Ibid: 22). Abu 'Ali Qalandar, the 14th century mystic poet, says (Ibid: 217): "Welcome, O Nightingale of the Ancient Garden! / Speak to us about the Lovely Rose." For Eliot too the rose symbolizes the mystery of God manifest in created forms. Similar to Sufi poetry, his poetry also relates the rose, the bird and the garden with one another. "Burnt Norton," the first poem of Four Quartets is central to the understanding of Eliot's rose garden. According to Unger (1966: 79), "Burnt Norton" displays on its surface "the spiritual quest, the constant endeavor to interpret the experience and relive it." The poem, he observes, "is a discourse on the ultimate significance" of the experience in the rose-garden (Ibid). In the poem, there are at least three rose gardens — the rose garden of the past which the poet regrets of having not entered but might have entered; the actual rose-garden of "Burnt Norton;" and most important of all, the mystical rose garden of the Timeless moment which contains the past, the present and the future symbolizing "those moments that show more than any others, the meeting of the Eternal and the temporal" (Weitz 1969: 146). It stands "as a symbol of those temporal experiences which reveal most poignantly the immanent character of the ultimately real' (Ibid). The ecstasy experienced in the timeless moments in the rose garden is similar to the Wajd experienced by the Sufis. Wajd literally means "finding" i.e., finding God and attaining quitted and peace. The Sufi, overwhelmed by the happiness of having found Him, becomes enraptured in ecstatic bliss. This ecstatic experience is often a consequence of having attained Fanā. Nicholson (1976: 14) explains Fanā as "the passing away of consciousness in mystical union." During this momentary period of intoxication "all the attributes of the self are negated" (Ibid: 20). In Fanā, there is a complete annihilation of the self and the obliteration of the self in God. However, Sufis like Ibn-al-Fartd, a 13th Century Sufi from Arabia have suggested that the highest mystical experience is not negative but positive. Nicholson, quoting profusely from Taiyyatu-i-Kubra, elaborates Ibn-alFarid's concept of fanā. Ibnl-Farid distinguishes between three modes of experiences/ normal abnormal, and super normal corresponding to "sobriety" (Sahw), "intoxication" (Sukr) and the "sobriety of union" (Sahau-iJam). In the first stage of his journey the Sufi is aware of the distinction between his individual self and God; in the second stage these distinctions vanish; and in the third stage he is aware of himself as being one with the Creator from whom he as a created one is distinct. Hence during the momentary intoxication of Fanā all the attributes of self are negated and in the sobriety of union they are resolved (ibidem:19). In Sufi thought fanā is a correlative of Baqa which means "persistence" or "subsistence in God" (Schimmel 1975: 143). While the Persian Sufi Bayazid of Bistam taught the negative doctrine of Fanā, Abu Syed Ali Kharraz propagated the view that "the ultimate goal is not death to self (Fanā) but life in God (Baqa)" (Nicholson 1976: 14). Some parallels to this thought could be traced in "Burnt Norton." "Burnt Norton" opens with a striking comment on the co-existence of time past, present and future (Eliot 1936: 213): "Time present and time past / Are both present in time future, / And time future contained in time past." In these lines Eliot "collapses the division of time giving us the eternal presence of all time" (Williamson 1966:211). Past, present and future possibility all point to an end which is always with us, the Eternal or timeless moment. Muslim thinkers and mystics have always been pre-occupied with the problem of Time. Hujwri‾ (1988: 367) in The Kashf al Mahajub or "The Revelation of the Hidden," the oldest Persian treatise on Sufism, says "Waqt (Time) is that where a man 456 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo becomes independent of the past and the future, as for example, when an influence from God descends into his soul and makes his heart collected, he has no memory of the past and no thought of that whatever is not yet come." Hujwri‾ (ibidem:369) further states "time cuts the root of the future and the past and obliterates cares of yesteryears and tomorrows from the heart." Iqbal (1984:75) explains the Sufi poet Iraqi's concept of divine time as that "which is absolutely free from the qualities of passage, and consequently does not admit of divisibility, sequence and change. It is above eternity; it has neither beginning nor end." For the Sufis, the experience of Waqt or time is "the moment at which they break through created time and reach the Eternal Now in God" (Schimmel 1975: 220). Iqbal, in his interpretation of the mystical symbols, understands time as a reference to the moment at which the "infidel's girdle" namely "serial time is torn, and the mystic establishes a direct contact with God" (Ibid). The "still point of the turning world" which Eliot mentions in the second movement of the "Burnt Norton" is comparable to the moment when the Sufi establishes a direct contact with God. However, in order to gain Tajalli or the moment of illumination, it is necessary to open the door to the rosegarden. Eliot (1936: 213) regrets that he did not open the door in the past: Footfalls echo in the memory Down the passage which we did not take Towards the door we never opened Into the rose-garden. Hujwrī relates the story of a man in Basra who once went to his garden and found the beautiful wife of the gardener there. After dismissing the gardener on some pretext he ordered the woman to shut the gates. She replied "I have shut them all except one which I cannot shut." On being asked which gate it was she answered "the gate that is between us and God." On receiving this answer the man repented and begged to be forgiven (Hujwrī 1982: 13). Sa'di of Shiraz in one of his poems, perhaps refers to the same door when he says "the unfortunate one is he who averts his head from this door. For he will not find another door" (Shah 1968: 91). As mentioned earlier, Seward (1960) considers Eliot's rose-garden as a symbol of natural ecstasy of divine grace, of Christ and the eternal God in the four poems of the Quartet. We have already observed how in the Sufi tradition, the mystical experience or the moment of illumination or Fanā is ecstatic. For the Sufis, the rose also stands for divine grace and the manifestation of God. Many writers have seen the rose-garden symbol as Christ incarnate. The Christian doctrine of Incarnation finds echos in Mansur-al-Hallaj, the Persian mystic who declared "An-al-Haqq" or "I am Truth" or I am God." Considering this to be blasphemy, Hallaj was executed in Baghdad in 922. Hallaje's was an attempt in Islam to explain the meaning of mystical union in terms of the Christian doctrine of the two natures of God "Ahuf" and "Asut," the divine and the human. While describing the union of the two Hallaj, according to Nicholson, employs the term "Hulul" which in the Muslim mind was associated with the Christian doctrine of Incarnation. In one of his poems Hallaj declares (Nicholson 1976: 30): I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is I We are two spirits dwelling in one body If thou seest me, thou seest Him, If thou seest Him, thou seest us both. The rose-garden of Eliot has very often been considered to represent Paradise. For the Sufi, everywhere and everything in Paradise is nothing but Allah since "everything is lost in Him." The Paradise of the Sufi is "the vision of the divine beloved" and "those who are deprived of this vision experience Hell in every place" (Schimmel 1975: 332). Throughout Four Quartets roses are associated with love. A large number of Sufi Poets have also sung of the experience of love in the imagery of roses and nightingales. For instance in Ghazzali's Aphorisms on Love or Sawamh the Rose very often symbolizes the beloved. About Ghazzali and Sawarii/i, Schimmel (Ibid: 295) writes: "In those short paragraphs, interspersed with verses, we recognize him as the master of chaste love, who puts between himself and the beautiful beloved a rose, contemplating now the rose, now the beloved." A study of the Sufi poets reveals that love is a major theme of their poetry. Divine love is celebrated so often in their poetry that they have come to be considered as masters of mystical love. Love is described by Ruzbihan Baqli, one of the foremost Sufi poets of Shiraz, in these words: "Look well, for the heart is the market place of His Love, and 457 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there the rose of Adam on the branch of Love is from the color of manifestation (Tajjali) of His Rose" (Ibid:298). Critics like Unger are of the opinion that the ecstatic experience in the rose-garden in Eliot is implicitly sexual. Ibn Arabf, the 12th century Sufi, wrote love poetry to express the embodiment of divine love in a human ideal. His poetry, though essentially religious and mystical in nature, has sexual and erotic overtones. Under the influence of Arab, many later Sufi poets have used erotic symbolism in allegorical terms in their poems. Conclusion Eliot's mystical poetry concentrates on gaining knowledge of God through study of His manifestation, and a theosophical tradition that approaches God through his impact on creation. Eliot claims that, although veridical, his Sufi experiences cannot be adequately described in language, because ordinary communication is based on sense experience and conceptual differentiation: mystical poetry is thus characterized by metaphor and simile. For him it is not controversial here whether all Sufi experiences are basically the same, and whether the apparent diversity among them is the result of interpretations influenced by different cultural traditions. Finally, it can be stated that despite the lack of any evidence of Sufi influence on Eliot, it is possible to draw parallels between his poetry and Sufi poetry. The parallels between the two show that Eliot's poetry can lend itself to different interpretations, thereby indicating its universal dimensions. 458 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arberry, A. J. 1966. Muslim Saints and Mystics. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bergonzi, Bernard 1969. Editor T. S. Eliot: Four Quarters. London: Macmillan Press. Eliot,T. S. 1936. Collected Poems. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company . Hujwri-, Ali Bin Uthaan. 1982. The Kashaf al Mahajub. Translated by A. R. Nicholson. New Delhi. Taj Company. Iqbal, Sir Mohammed. 1984. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought In Islam. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan. Nicholson, A. R. 1976. The Idea of Personality in Sufism. Delhi: ldaah-I-Adabiya-t. Delhi. Schimmel, Annemarie. 1975. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. Seward, Barbara. 1960. The Symbolic Rose. New York: Columbia University Press. Shah,Idries. 1979. The Way of the Sufi. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Thompson, Eric .1963. T. S. Eliot: The Metaphysical Perspective. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Unger, Leonard. 1966. T. S. Eliot: Moments and Patterns. Minnesota Press. Williamson, George. 1966. A Reader's Guide to T. S. Eliot. New York: Noonday Press. Weitz, Morris. 1969. T. S. Eliot Time as a Mode of Salvation. In Bergonzi: 146-180 . 459 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 68 Title A name given to the resource Eliot's Rose Garden: A Sufi Interpretation Author Author Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Afrougheh, Shahram Abstract A summary of the resource. Eliot's theosophical poetry supports the idea that God's willingness to relate to the world gives his creatures the possibility of personal knowledge of him, although this can be acquired only through difficult and serenuous spiritual exercises. The variety of poetic works, which Eliot produced such as Four Quartets and Hollow man, are a blend of philosophical and mystical ideas which attempt to explore the inner meaning of faith and represent a creative and influential stream that both draws upon and contributes to Sufism. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6fc63bca8b37d915c0aba8023415f04f.pdf 0582826fd8aa72ad26a355546ee250c7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Dr Fatemeh Azizmohammadi , Faculty Member of Islamic Azad, University ,Arak Branch ,Iran meena_mina_mina@yahoo.com Dr Jillah Mashhadi Faculty Member of Islamic Azad , University , Arak Branch , Iran Abstract As is well-known the concept of the Absurd is an off-shoot of Existentialism which was born in the 19th century and reached almost global acceptability in the early 20 th century thanks to the works of Kafka, Camus, Sartre and the Absurd playwrights like Beckett and Pinter. This paper tries to show that the Absurd had literary manifestations in earlier literatures also. This does not aim to be an exhaustive survey of ―the tradition of the Absurd‖ as in Martin Esslin‘s The Theatre of the Absurd. A unique feature of this paper is the linkage which it establishes between the Absurd and the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Though Existentialism as a philosophical school emerged in the 19 th century, the ideas it propagated were not totally unknown. They had manifested themselves in the literature of earlier periods. For instance in Sophocles‘ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus, once the mystery surrounding his birth stands fully revealed, blinds himself, crying out that he cursed the day when he was born. More relevantly, Hamlet in his celebrated soliloquy raises the overwhelming question: To be or not to be, and discusses the problem of suicide. He asks why man, when he suffers the ―slings and arrows of an outrageous fortune‖ does not end his troubles by ending his life. For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor‘s wrong, the proud man‘s contumely, The pangs of dispriz‘d love, the law‘s delay, The insolence of office and the spurns That patient merit of the unworthy takes, When he himself might his quietus make With a bare bodkin? 1 Whereas Camus finds his answer in joie de vivre, Hamlet finds it within the Christian framework. The line of suicide is based on the assumption that there is an after-life and that it will be better than earthly existence. But unfortunately, there is no warrant for such an assumption. Hamlet continues his meditation on suicide Who would fardels bear, To grunt and sweat under a weary life But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all. 2 In short, Hamlet‘s answer is that though life is full of trials and tribulations, it is at least a known devil; but there is no knowing about life after death. Who knows it may be worse than this life! It is an unknown devil. And if the choice is between two devils, the known devil is always better than the unknown one. Similarly in the earlier speech-what a noble piece of work is man — Hamlet reduces this angelic creature, this paragon of all animals to ―quintessence of dust‖. Later on, almost at the end in the famous Grave-digger‘s scene, Hamlet meditates further on the nothingness of man. Holding the court-jester Yorick‘s skull in his hand, he 460 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo wonders on the fate of such movers and shakers of the world as Alexander, the Great and Julius Caesar. He suggests very frighteningly that after the decomposition of their bodies, their dust must have got mixed up with other dust, which may have been picked up by some farmer or someone else. As a result, for all we know, Alexander is now guarding the cottage-wall of a farmer and Julius Caesar may be a stopper of some beer-barrel! Beneath the almost clinical dispassionateness with which the Existentialists describe La conditione humaine one can discern an implicit note of discontent with things as they are. Certainly there is no joy, no exultation in the description. And this under-lying discontent may be linked up with, to borrow the famous phrase of Mario Praz, the Romantic Agony. In other words, the existentialist angst can be seen as a prolongation, a continuation in our times of the Romantic Agony. This agony is the result of the perception of two basic facts of our existence: 1) the fact of change (mutability) and 2) the fact of death (mortality). These twin spectresѢ mutability and mortality — have always haunted the human imagination, but with especial virulence since the Romantic Age. In the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, as it is known, the dominant world-view was a mechanistic one which looked at the universe as a pre-fabricated, perfect machine. Newton described the world as a great watch and God as the Great Watchmaker. The world was the perfect creation of a perfect God. Any imperfections or inconsistencies were interpreted as man‘s inability to understand ways of God or were covered up by taking recourse to the Original Sin in the case of a deist or to the corruptions of civilization in the case of a sentimentalist. It was inevitable that such a metaphysic should collapse by its own internal contradictions and so it did in the late18th century. Now questions which were earlier silenced ruthlessly began to be raised. Human existence had far too may discordant facts. It was asked, for instance, if God made the world, and that God is perfect, how does one account for the myriad unpleasant aspects like poverty, disease, pain, death transience of beauty and joy, ugliness and so on? Perhaps it is better to look at the problem this way: if God made the world, he must have been either in a hurry — for he made it in six days, as the Bible tells you — or he must be a bad engineer. Look at the world he has made. as Keats says memorably in ―Ode to a Nightingale‖ Here, where men sit and hear each other groan; Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs, Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies; Where but to think is to be full of sorrow And laden-eyed despairs, Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes Or new love pine at them beyond tomorrow, 3 This is Romantic Agony in a nut-shell, for you. According to Keats, it is better to be a stone, that has ―happy insensitivity‖ about there things. That is why he would like to fly away ―into the forests dim‖ with the Nightingale and forget the ―weariness, the fever and the fret‖ of life which the bird is blissfully unaware of. In a world, where ―but to think is to be full of sorrow‖, sensitivity is a curse. Wordsworth also says at one place that ―consciousness is a disease of the matter‖. Similarly Shelley in ―A Hymn to Intellectual Beauty‖ complains as to why we do not have a rainbow every day If these Romantic poets raise questions of an aesthetic nature, later poets like Hopkins and Hardy ask ethical questions. For instance, in his celebrated sonnet, ―Thou Art, indeed, Just My Lord‖, Hopkins asks his God, ―Why do sinners‘ ways prosper?‖ Paraphrased into our world, Hopkins‘s question makes God answer as to why in his world, a Jesus is crucified, but malefactors like drunkards, criminals rule the roost? In The Wreck of the Deutschland, beneath the acceptance, there is a seething anger against the ―justness‖ of the Lord in the death by water of five Franciscan nuns who had set sail on that ship in the service of the same Lord. At the end of his novel, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy reiterating the melancholy of Romantics, says that the lesson Elizabeth-Jane learnt was that ―happiness is but an occasional episode in the general drama of pain.‘ Similarly in Tess, he comes out for more indignantly against the traditional notion of divine omnipresence, omniscience and omnipotence. When Tess is raped in the primeval forest called the Chase by Alex d‘urberville, Hardy asks uncomfortable questions. But, might some say, where was Tess‘s guardian angel? Where was the providence of her simple faith? Perhaps like that other god of whom the ironical Tishbite spoke, he was talking, or he was pursuing, or he was in a journey, or he was sleeping and not to be awaked.4 Hardy‘s poem ―To an unborn Pauper child‖ comes closer to Paul Tillich‘s existential insight into the mystery of the unconsulted human birth. In this poem after cataloguing the ―terrestrial chart‖ of woes and travails, he asks the unborn child, ―wilt thou take life thus‖? Though the answer is bound to be in the negative, the child has no choice. Hardy knows his words of warning will not reach the child and even if they could, 461 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hardy most despairingly says ―thou wilt thy ignorant entry make‖. And so foolishly optimistic, so hypocritical are we that though not to be born is the best way-out, we congratulate the child on its birth, wish him all the best though, we know even nothing good is likely to come by. Perhaps the closest parallel to the existentialist vision comes from an altogether different corner — the 11th century Persian poet Omar Khayyam, whose Rubaiyat was translated by Edward Fitzgerald in the 19th century. It would be both unfair and incorrect to regard Khayyam as the exponent of unbridled alcoholism as he is made out to be by the mass media. He was a deeply serious poet concerned with the nature of our existence and offered his strategy of dealing with it through his symbolic verse. The transience of both the power and the glory in the face eternal Time is one of the themes that he strikes earliest in the Rubaiyat, as the following verse shows — Think, in this batter‘d Caravansarai Whose Doorways are alternate Night and Day How Sultan after Sultan with his Pomp Abode his Hour or two, and went his way.5 In the very next stanza, while bringing out the nothingness of man he reaches Shakespearean heights. Hamlet-like, he cruelly brings out human impotence against the fact of death. They say the Lion and the Lizard keep The Courts where Jamshy‘d gloried and drank deep And Behram, that great Hunter— the Wild Ass Stamps o‘er his Head, and he lies fast asleep.6 In verses 29 and 30, Khayyam raises basic overwhelming questions answers to which are badly required and are sadly not available. Into this universe and Why not knowing Nor Whence, like water willy-nilly flowing And out of it, as wind along the Waste, I know not Whither, willy-nilly blowing What, without asking, hither hurried Whence? And, without asking, Whither hurried hence! Oh, many a cup of this forbidden Wine Must down the memory of that insolence! 7 From where have I come? Why am I here? Where do I go after death? Who made skies, the stars? What is beyond them? These might look like questions asked by a child as it lies with its parent on the terrace on a summer night, looking at the star-lit sky. But not only the hapless parent but even the Nobel-Prize laureate physicists like Sir Penrose or Stephen Hawking can answer these questions. And it goes without knowing whence, why we have come here and wither we go from here, no meaningful way of living our life can be found. This, in short, is Khayyam‘s, existentialists‘ and Kafka‘s position in life. No body knows the answers and there is no point in seeking guidance anywhere or making appeals to Heavens. As Khayyam says, And that inverted Bowl they call the sky Where under crawling coop‘d we live and die Lift not your hands to It for help — for It Rolls impotently on as Thou or I.8 Under the circumstances, all that one can do is to regard the world as a caravanserai where one is to stay for a while and go away God knows where. Wisdom, therefore, lies in not breaking one‘s head about the whats and whys of existence through religion or philosophy, but in making merry while one‘s stay here lasts. Yesterday This Day‘s Madness did prepare; Tomorrow‘s Silence, Triumph or Despair Drink! For you know not whence you came, nor why Drink! For you know not why you go nor where.9 ―Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die‖. This is Khayyam‘s strategy of living in a condition of total agnosis which need not be understood literally. Do what pleases you, for that is all you can do. Thus just 462 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo as Camus‘ Absurd Man rejoices in joie de vivre, Khayyam goes in for merriment under the cloud of unknowing. Whether in Camus or Khayyam, this kind of hedonism has a touch of desperation about it, where human laughter and tears at the absurdity of life get inextricably mixed up. Notes and References William Shakespeare, Hamlet III,i 70-6 ed. by Sir E. K. Chambers ( London: Blackie and Sons, 1948 ) 7980. Ibid. John Keats, Poetical Works ed. by H.W.Garrod (London: Oxford University Press 1959 ) 207 . Thomas Hardy, Tess of The D‘Urbervilles ( London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd. 1954 ) 93 Omar Khayyam, Rubaiyat trans. By Edward Fitzgerald (Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House, 1948) 32 . Ibid. 34. Ibid. 160. Ibid. 171. Ibid. 463 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 69 Title A name given to the resource Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Author Author Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Mashhadi, Jillah Abstract A summary of the resource. As is well-known the concept of the Absurd is an off-shoot of Existentialism which was born in the 19th century and reached almost global acceptability in the early 20th century thanks to the works of Kafka, Camus, Sartre and the Absurd playwrights like Beckett and Pinter. This paper tries to show that the Absurd had literary manifestations in earlier literatures also. This does not aim to be an exhaustive survey of ―the tradition of the Absurd‖ as in Martin Esslin‘s The Theatre of the Absurd. A unique feature of this paper is the linkage which it establishes between the Absurd and the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc2cf2253d2935b45bab5bf4d2bc6474.pdf bf5c3a6b4e3a24fd2fd0706bda4ff38b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo BoĢnaklara Türkçe Öğretiminde Nasreddin Hoca Fikralarının Yeri Ve Önemi Zülfikar BAYRAKTAR Gediz Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakùltesi Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bôlùmù zulfikar.bayraktar@gediz.edu.tr Yusuf Ziya SÜMBÜLLÜ Sùleyman ġah University, Turkey Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakùltesi Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bôlùmù yzsumbullu@yahoo.com Özet: Yerelden evrensele uzanan yolda, tùm insanlığa mal olmuĢ mizah karakterimiz Nasreddin Hoca, bugùn sadece Anadolu‘da değil, tùm dùnyada tanınır ve fıkraları dilden dile anlatılır olmuĢtur. Biz, bu bildirimizde, Bosna Hersek‘te fıkraları anlatılan ve BoĢnak halkının sıkıntılarına, dertlerine ve sevinçlerine ortak olan Nasreddin Hoca fıkra tipini ele alarak, bu tipin BoĢnak kùltùrù içindeki yerini ve ônemini incelemeye çalıĢacağız. Bununla beraber, hem Tùrk, hem de BoĢnak halk kùltùrùnde hala canlılığını koruyan Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde nasıl yararlı olabileceği ve bu fıkraların iki kùltùr arasında nasıl bir kôprù vazifesi gôrdùğù bildirimizin ana konusunu oluĢturacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Nasreddin Hoca, Bosna Hersek, Eğitim, Dil, Kùltùr The Place and the Importance of Anecdotes of Nasreddin Hodja in the Teaching of Turkish Language to Bosnians Abstract: Nasreddin Hodja is another name for humour used not only in the most secluded places but in the biggest centres of the world as well. At present, anecdotes and jokes of Nasreddin Hodja are talled and re-talled not only in Anadolia but in every part of the world. In this work, we tried to present Nasreddin Hodja as somebody who left an important mark on Bosnian culture. Considering that fact, we will present the role and place of Nasreddin Hodja inside of that culture. However the anecdotes of Nasreddin Hodja are beeing alive in both folk cultures, in Turkish and Bosnian, it is going to be a bridge between the two cultures when it comes to teaching of the Turskish language to Bosnians. This methode is going to be a main part of our discussion. Key Words: Nasreddin Hodja, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Education, Language, Culture. Nasreddin Hoca, bugùn birçok coğrafyada tanınan ve fıkraları dilden dile anlatılan bir fıkra tipidir (Bayraktar: 2010; 72). Nasreddin Hoca fıkra tipine bağlı olarak anlatılan fıkraların sayısının bugùn için bile ne kadar olduğunu tahmin etmek hiç de kolay değildir (Bayraktar: 2007; 354). Nasreddin Hoca Anadolu‘da dùnyaya gelmiĢ, zaman içinde yerelden evrensele uzanan yolda tùm dùnyaya mal olmuĢ bir mizah kahramanıdır (Tùrkmen: 1984; 141). Nasreddin Hoca‘nın fıkraları Osmanlı Devletinin Bosna Hersek‘te hùkùm sùrmesiyle beraber bu sahada da yayılmıĢ, Anadolulu olan Nasreddin Hoca zamanla BoĢnakların da mizah kahramanı olarak varlığını bugùnlere değin sùrdùre gelmiĢtir (MuftıĤ:1998; 721). BoĢnak halkı arasında Nasreddin Hoca, Nasrudin Hodža adıyla bilinir (BajraktareviĤ: 1998; 707). Hocanın fıkraları Bosna Hersek‘te zevkle anlatılıp dinlenir. Fıkraların birçoğu Anadolu sahasındaki fıkralarla benzerlik gôstermektedir (TucakoviĤ: 2009; 4). Bunun yanında bu fıkralar BoĢnakların da yeni ekledikleri fıkralarla zenginleĢmiĢ ve bugùn Bosna‘da zengin bir Nasreddin Hoca kùlliyatı oluĢmuĢtur (IsakoviĤ: 1984; 9). BoĢnak halkının ince zekâsının pırıltıları olan bu fıkralar geleneksel kùltùrùn aktarımı açısından bùyùk ônem taĢımaktadır. BoĢnak halkının hayata bakıĢını ve hayat karĢısındaki duruĢunu bu fıkralardan okumak mùmkùndùr (Bayraktar, Solak: 2010; 2). 1384 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bosna Hersek sahası Nasreddin Hoca fıkraların bùyùk kısmı Anadolu sahası Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarıyla paralellik gôstermektedir. Bunun temel nedenlerinden biri, Bosna Hersek‘in bir zamanlar Osmanlı toprağı olmasıdır. Bu dônemde gerek matbu gerekse elyazması eserlerle iki toplum arasında kùltùrel etkileĢimler ùst dùzeyde olmuĢtur. Bunun yanında fıkralar, coğrafyanın ve kùltùrùn de etkisiyle az da olsa değiĢikliklere uğramıĢlardır. Bazen fıkralardaki yer isimleri değiĢmiĢ bazen de var olan fıkraların bir benzeri ortaya çıkmıĢtır (Bayraktar, Solak: 2010; 2). Bu durum gayet normaldir. Bu halk kùltùrùndeki folklorizasyonun bir sonucudur (Tùrkmen: 1999; 17). BoĢnak halkı Nasreddin Hoca‘yı benimsemiĢ ve ona BoĢnak millî kahramanı diyecek kadar sahip çıkmıĢtır (MuftıĤ:1998; 723). Konuyu bu bağlamda değerlendirdiğimizde, Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının Bosna Hersek‘te yayılması ve bu fıkraların gùncellenerek gùnùmùze kadar gelmesi farklı iki kùltùrùn birbirini anlayıp karĢılıklı iletiĢim kurmasında bir kôprù vazifesi gôrmùĢtùr. Nasreddin Hoca Tùrk ve BoĢnak halkı arasında bir kùltùr elçisi olmuĢ ve bu iki farklı kùltùre mensup insanlar Nasreddin Hoca‘nın tebessùmùnde hayat bulmuĢlardır. Nasreddin Hoca iki toplumda gùldùren, dùĢùndùren, eğiten, sevdiren, yol gôsteren bilge olmuĢtur. Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının BoĢnaklar ve Tùrkler arasında yaygın olmasının iki toplum arasındaki kùltùrel iliĢkiler açısından ônemli olduğunu daha ônce vurgulamıĢtık. Bu kùltùrel iliĢkiler arasında en ônemli paya sahip alanlardan biri de eğitim ve ôzellikle de dil eğitimidir. Bizler bu dùĢùnceden hareketle bildirimizde, BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretimi sùrecinde Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarından yararlanılmasının yeri ve ônemi ùzerinde duracağız. Yabancı dil ôğretimi sùrecinde kùltùrùn ônemi tartıĢılmaz bir yere sahiptir. Öyle ki, bizler dili kùltùrùn taĢıyıcısı olması yônùyle ôğrenir ve ôğretiriz. Kùltùr olmadan dilin aktarabileceği hiçbir değer olmaz. Dil kùltùrle vardır ve kùltùr unsurlarıyla hayatiyetini devam ettirir. Bir kùltùrde unutulan ya da değiĢen unsurların karĢılığı olan dil malzemesi de zamanla unutulur ve kaybolur. Yabancı dil ôğreniminde dili ôğrenen kiĢi ôğrendiği dilin kùltùrùne yabancı kalamaz. Dili ôğrenebilmesi için kùltùr unsurlarını da iyi algılamalıdır (Barın: 2008; 61). Mesele bu bakıĢ açısıyla değerlendirildiğinde, Tùrkçeyi yabancı dil olarak ôğrenen ôğrencilerin Tùrk kùltùrùne kayıtsız kalması dùĢùnùlemez. Özellikle de bir zamanlar beraber yaĢamıĢ ve birçok ortak değeri paylaĢmıĢ iki milletin bu anlamda karĢılıklı olarak bir değerler bùtùnù etrafında toplanması gayet normaldir. Bu değerler bùtùnù içerisinde Tùrk ve BoĢnak kùltùrùnùn en ônemli kùltùr dinamiklerinden biri de Nasreddin Hoca‘dır. Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının her iki kùltùrde de geçmiĢte var olması ve gùnùmùze kadar çeĢitlenerek ulaĢması bu fıkra tipinin iki farklı toplumda da ihtiyaçlara cevap verdiğinin bir anlamda gôstergesidir. Yine, Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının iki toplumda da yaygın olması BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde bu fıkraların kullanılması noktasında kolaylık sağlayacaktır. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde karĢılaĢılan en ônemli sorunlardan biri ôğrenilen dilin kùltùrùne karĢı bir ôn yargı içinde olunmasıdır. Bu problemin birçok nedeni olabilir. Bunun yanında ôğrenilen dilin ôğretilmesi aĢamasında kullanılan dil malzemesinin, dili ôğrenen ôğrencinin dùzeyine, kùltùrùne ve gùdùsùne uygun olup olmadığı da bir diğer ônemli meseledir. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde sınıf ortamında ôğrencileri motive ederek dersi devamlı olarak zevkli hale getirmek kolay değildir. Motivasyonu en ùst noktada tutabilmek için zaman zaman birçok teknik kullanılır. Bu teknikler içinde mizahın ve dramanın ônemli bir yeri vardır. Mizah ve drama ile ôğrencinin dikkati derse çekilir, zaman zaman da ôğrencinin rahat bir nefes alarak dinlendirilmesi sağlanmıĢ olunur. Gerek Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının ôzellikleri, gerekse bu fıkraların her iki toplumda da var olması BoĢnaklara Tùrkçeyi ôğretmede bir fırsat aracı olarak gôrùlmelidir. Bu fıkraların her iki toplumda var olması, fıkraların kısa ve ôz oluĢu, fıkraların konuĢma, dinleme, yazma ve anlama becerilerine katkı sağlaması, yeni kelimelerin ôğrenilerek okuma hızının arttırılması, bilinmeyen kelimelerin fıkra içinde daha rahat anlaĢılabilmesi, dil bilgisi kurallarının basite indirgenmiĢ bir metin içinde ôğrenilmesi, ahlaki normların ve değerlerin ôğretilerek istenilen davranıĢların pekiĢtirilip istenilmeyen davranıĢların mizah yoluyla eleĢtirilmesi Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarını bir dil ôğretim malzemesi olarak kullanmada cazip hale getirmektedir. Nasreddin Hoca sempatik ve pozitif bir fıkra tipidir. O fıkralarında, Ģunu yap, ya da bunu yapma, demek yerine dinleyicisini dùĢùnmeye sevk eder. Fıkralarındaki iki farklı çatıĢmadan doğan doğrunun anlaĢılması için dinleyicisini zorlamaz. Bu bağlamda Hoca‘nın fıkraları hiç sıkılmadan dinlenir ve anlatılır. Dil bir yônùyle bir milletin tarihinde meydana gelen maddi ve manevi değerlerin anlatım aracıdır. Millet bu değerler etrafında kenetlenir ve hayatiyetini devam ettirir. BoĢnak ve Tùrk halkı Nasreddin Hoca etrafında birçok kùltùrel değer oluĢturmuĢ ve bunu nesilden nesile aktara gelmiĢlerdir. BoĢnak bir ôğrenci Tùrkçe dersinde Nasreddin Hoca‘nın ağzından duyduğu bir fıkrayı her zaman sempati ve ilgiyle dinleyecektir. Çùnkù Nasreddin Hoca ona gôre BoĢnak‘tır ve kendi kùltùrùnùn bir parçasıdır. Kendi kùltùrùnùn bir parçası olan Nasreddin Hoca ile beraber Tùrkçe ôğrenmek her zaman motive edici olacaktır. Yabancı olmadığı bir kùltùrù benimsemesi ve bôylelikle bu dili kolayca ôğrenmesi mùmkùn olacaktır. Sonuç olarak Ģunları sôyleyebiliriz: Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının hemen hemen bùtùnùnde sadece BoĢnak halkının değil, bùtùn dùnya insanların ortak sorunları genel ôzellikleriyle ele alınır. Nasreddin Hoca‘nın tùm dùnyada kabul gôrmesinin en ônemli nedenlerinden biri de budur. Tùm insanlık, sorunlarının ustaca çôzùmùnù 1385 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bu fıkralarda bulur. Bu fıkralarda neredeyse ele alınmayan bir tip, ùzerinde durulmayan sosyal bir mesele yok gibidir (Bayraktar, Solak: 2010; 2). Nasreddin Hoca fıkraları BoĢnak halkı tarafından sahiplenilerek gùnùmùze kadar gelmiĢtir. Kùltùr ve ôzellikle de geleneksel sôzlù kùltùre sahip çıkma bakımından bu durum son derece ônemlidir. Bir diğer ônemli unsur ise fıkraların gùncellenerek geleceğe taĢınmasıdır. Geleneksel kùltùrùn canlı kalabilmesi, benimsenmesi onun gùncellenmesi ile mùmkùndùr (Ekici: 2009; 280). Konuya bu açıdan baktığımızda, Nasreddin Hoca BoĢnak halk geleneğinde kendini gùncellemiĢ ve çağ ùstù bir kimlik kazanmıĢtır. Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarındaki gùlme sadece sıradan bir refleks değildir. Bu bilinçli bir gùlmedir. Gùlen kiĢi bu yolla kendini ve karĢısındakini belli bir hoĢgôrù atmosferi içinde yargılar ve bu durumu yine hoĢgôrù ile çôzùme bağlar. Bu durum, BoĢnak halkının kendisiyle barıĢık olduğunu, komplekslerinden arındığını, kendi eksikliklerinin farkına varıp buna gùlebildiğini gôstermektedir. KiĢinin eksikliklerini fark etmesi, buna gùlebilmesi ve bununla ilgili çôzùm ùretmeye çalıĢması sağlıklı bir zihnin sonucudur (Kırman: 2005; 318). Kùltùrler arası ortak değerlerin dil ôğretimine katkısı tartıĢmasız bùyùktùr. Bu açıdan bakıldığında Nasreddin Hoca fıkraları BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde bùyùk bir katkı sağlayacak zengin bir kaynak niteliği taĢımaktadır. Bosna Hersek sôzlù ve yazılı halk kùltùrùnde yaygın olarak bilinen, anlatılan ve zevkle dinlenen Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının sayısını bugùn için tespit etmeye çalıĢmak kolay değildir. Bu fıkraların sayısı her geçen gùn gelenek içerisinde daha da zenginleĢerek artmaktadır. Bizler sabrınızı daha fazla zorlamadan bundan sonraki sôzù BoĢnak ve Tùrk milletinin mizah kahramanı Nasreddin Hoca'ya bırakıyoruz: Koga je više Ono pitali Nasrudin-hodņu : '' Vjere ti, hodņa, znań li ti koga je vińe na svijetu, muńka ili ņenska? '' '' Vińe ņena '', odgovori Nasrudin-hodņa. '' Ama kako Ĥe to biti ? Otkuda ti znadeń, nisi ih valjda brojio? '' '' E '', veli hodņa, ja raĦunam ņenama i one ljude koji sluńaju ņene. (IsakoviĤ: 1984; 182) Kim Daha Çok Nasreddin Hoca'ya sormuĢlar: —Allah için hocam, sen biliyor musun, dùnyada kim daha fazla? Kadınlar mı, erkekler mi? Nasreddin Hoca cevap vermiĢ: —Kadınlar daha çok! —Ama bu nasıl olur? Saydın mı Hocam? —Eee demiĢ Hoca, ben, kadınları dinleyen erkekleri de sayıyorum. ĥuĤe se sutra Jedne noĤi poħe Nasrudin da krade i tako doħe duĤanu koji je bio zakatanĦen. Izvadi turpiju, poĦne turpijati. Uto naiħu straņari i zapitaju Nasrudina: ―Ńta to, hodņa, radiń?‖ A on im odgovori: ―Gudim.‖ I opet zapitaju straņari: ―A zańto ti se gusle ne Ħuju?‖ A hodņa im na to: ―ĥuĤe se sutra.‖ (IsakoviĤ: 1984; 143) 1386 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Yarın Duyulur Bir gece Nasreddin Hoca hırsızlığa çıkar. Kilitli bir dùkkânın ônùne gelir, tôrpùyù eline alır ve kilidi tôrpùlemeye baĢlar. Tam o sırada bekçi gelir. —Ne yapıyorsun Hoca? Hoca cevap verir: —Tôrpùlùyorum. Bekçi yine sorar: —Ama tôrpùnùn sesi çıkmıyor! Hoca da cevap verir: —Yarın sesi çıkar. Neka znaju vrijednost posuħene stvari Ko je god bilo ńta zatraņio od hodņe, on je obiĦavao dati mu to tek sutradan. Upitaju hodņu zańto tako Ħini a on im odgovori: ―Neka znaju vrijednost posuħene stvari!‖ (IsakoviĤ: 1984; 186) Ödünç Aldığın Emanetin Değerini Bileceksin Nasreddin Hoca‘dan kim ne istese hoca bir gùn sonra veriyormuĢ. Buna ĢaĢıran kôy halkı sormuĢlar: —Sen neden bôyle yapıyorsun Hocam? Hoca da cevap vermiĢ: —Aldıkların emanetin değerini bilsinler diye. Nasrudin Hodţa i ljekar Nasrudin-hodņa slomio se niz basamake, te se grdno udario u krsti i u obje ruke, pa odmah pońalje po heĤima, a kad heĤim doħe i reĦe mu da Ĥe ga izvidati, upita ga hodņa: ―Kaņi ti meni najprije jesi li se kada lomio niz basamake?‖ A ljekar kaņe da nije nikada, i ne dao Bog. Onda mu hodņa reĦe: ―Jok, jok! Ti me ne moņeń izvidati kad nisi padao, nego ili se hajde slomi oklen sam ja pao, ili naħi drugog heĤima, koji je padao niz basamake kao i ja.‖ (IsakoviĤ: 1984; 166) Nasreddin Hoca ve Doktor Nasreddin Hoca bir gùn merdivenden dùĢerek iki kolunu ve ayağını kırmıĢ. Bunun ùzerine hemen hocanın evine bir doktor çağrılır. Doktor çabucak geldi ve hocaya, onu bir an ônce iyileĢtireceğini sôyledi. Bunun ùzerine hoca hemen sordu: —Sen hiç benim gibi merdivenlerden dùĢùp bir yerini kırdın mı? Doktor: —Yok, kırmadım, Allah korusun! Bunun ùzerine hoca da cevap verdi: —Yok yok sen beni iyileĢtiremezsin. Ya git benim gibi bir yerden dùĢ; ya da benim gibi bir yerden dùĢen doktor bul! 1387 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References BajraktareviĤ, Fehim; ―Nasredın Hodņın Problem‖, BońnjaĤka Knjıņevnost u Knjıņevnoj Krıtıcı, Sarajevo: 1998, s. 707–720. Barın, Erol; ―Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Nasrettin Hoca Fıkralarının Yeri‖ Tùrk Yurdu, Ankara: 2008, S 255, s. 61–63. Bayraktar, Zùlfikar; ―Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarında Ġdeolojik YaklaĢımlar Sonucu Meydana Gelen DeğiĢimler‖, Uluslararası Tùrk Dùnyası Kùltùr Kurultayı Bildirileri, ÇeĢme–Ġzmir: 2006, C I, TĠKA Yayınları, Ankara: 2007, s. 353–358. Bayraktar, Zùlfikar; Edina Solak; ―Bosna Hersek‘te Nasreddin Hoca Fıkraları‖, KIBATEK 27. Uluslararası Edebiyat ġôleni, 5–6 Aralık, Ġzmir: 2010, s. 1–9 (YayınlanmamıĢ Bildiri). Bayraktar, Zùlfikar; Mizah Teorileri ve Mizah Teorilerine Gôre Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarının Tahlili, Ege Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitùsù, Tùrk Dùnyası AraĢtırmaları, Tùrk Halk Bilimi Ana Bilim Dalı, Ġzmir: 2010. (BasılmamıĢ Doktora Tezi) Ekici, Metin; ―Gùlme Teorileri ve Nasreddin Hoca Fıkraları‖, 21. Yùzyılı Nasreddin Hoca Ġle Anlamak, [Uluslararası Sempozyum, 8–9 Mayıs, AkĢehir: 2008], Atatùrk Kùltùr Merkezi Yayınları, Ankara: 2009, s. 271– 280. IsakoviĤ, Alija; Nasrudin Hodņa, , Svjetlost, Sarajevo: 1984. Kırman, Ümral Deveci; ―Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarında Eksikliğe Dayalı Gùlmeceyi Yaratan KarĢıtlıklar‖, I. Uluslararası AkĢehir Nasreddin Hoca Sempozyumu Bilgi ġôleni, 6–7 Temmuz, 2005–AkĢehir, s. 318–335. MuftıĤ, Edib; ―Nasrudin Hodņa ı Bońnjacı‖, BońnjaĤka Knjıņevnost u Knjıņevnoj Krıtıcı, Sarajevo: 1998, s. 721–729. TucakoviĤ, Ekrem; Pripovijesti o Nasrudin-Hodņi, Tugra, Sarajevo: 2009. Tùrkmen, Fikret; ―Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarının Yayılma Sahaları‖, Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı AraĢtırmaları Dergisi, S 3, Ġzmir: 1984, s. 141–152. Tùrkmen, Fikret; Letâif-i Nasreddin Hoca (Burhaniye Tercùmesi)-Ġnceleme, ġerh, Kùltùr Bakanlığı Millî Folklor AraĢtırmaları Dairesi Yayınları, Ankara 1989. [Ġlaveli Ġkinci Baskı: ―Nasreddin Hoca Latifelerinin ġerhi (Burhaniye Tercùmesi) Transkripsiyon, Ġnceleme, Metin‖, - Akademi Kitabevi, Ġzmir 1999.] 1388 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 691 Title A name given to the resource BoĢnaklara Türkçe Öğretiminde Nasreddin Hoca Fikralarının Yeri Ve Önemi Author Author BAYRAKTAR, Zülfikar SÜMBÜLLÜ, Yusuf Ziya Abstract A summary of the resource. Yerelden evrensele uzanan yolda, tùm insanlığa mal olmuĢ mizah karakterimiz Nasreddin Hoca, bugùn sadece Anadolu‘da değil, tùm dùnyada tanınır ve fıkraları dilden dile anlatılır olmuĢtur. Biz, bu bildirimizde, Bosna Hersek‘te fıkraları anlatılan ve BoĢnak halkının sıkıntılarına, dertlerine ve sevinçlerine ortak olan Nasreddin Hoca fıkra tipini ele alarak, bu tipin BoĢnak kùltùrù içindeki yerini ve ônemini incelemeye çalıĢacağız. Bununla beraber, hem Tùrk, hem de BoĢnak halk kùltùrùnde hala canlılığını koruyan Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde nasıl yararlı olabileceği ve bu fıkraların iki kùltùr arasında nasıl bir kôprù vazifesi gôrdùğù bildirimizin ana konusunu oluĢturacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/80004ba3594ce156252c2581280ac551.pdf f23b22c3ec36d58456ef16acacbe0663 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ethnocentrism and Xenophofia in Bosnia and Herzegovina Implication on Cross-cultural Education AZRA BRANKOVIC International University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina azrabrankovic@yahoo.com VELID DRAGANOVIC International University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina draganovic@hotmail.com Abstract: World is full of people, group, nations, who think, feel and act differently. However, all these people in global world have to cooperate in order to solve global warming, poverty, terrorism, swaine or avian flu, AIDS, pollution, extintion of animals, economic problems. In global economy customers, partners, suppliers, workers come from different location. People, groups and nations must have awareness of cultural differences and have ability to work with people from diverse background. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a place where many cultures encountered. The country population has a distinct ethnic and confessional composition consisting of Bosniak (44%), Serb (31%), and Croat (17%) and other ethnisities (8%), of Muslim (40%), Orthodox (31%), Roman Catolic (15%) and other religions (14%). People are closed in their ethnic and confesional groups, as a result of the war and nourish fear, anger and hate. It has strong and negative implication on education. The aim of this paper is to research ethnocentrism, xenophofia and social trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina and its implication on education. Secondary research will be done based on UN, OSCE and media reports. Primary research will be done using as a target group students from International University Sarajevo. Inductive method of expert system will be applied to analyze the questionnaire. Recommendations for overcoming this situation will be made in the end of paper. Key words: globalization, ethnocentrism, xenophobia, cross-cultural education, Bosnia and Herzegovina 1. INTRODUCTION Bosnia and Herzegovina is a place where many cultures encountered. The country population has a distinct ethnic and confessional composition consisting of Bosniak (44%), Serb (31%), and Croat (17%) and other ethnisities (8%), of Muslim (40%), Orthodox (31%), Roman Catolic (15%) and other religions (14%). People are closed in their ethnic and confesional groups, as a result of the war and nourish fear, anger and hate. It has strong and negative implication on education. The aim of this paper is to research ethnocentrism, xenophofia and social trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the era of globalization and its implication on education. Secondary research will be done based on UN, OSCE and media reports. Primary research will be done using as a target group students from International University Sarajevo. Inductive method of expert system has been applied to analyze the questionnaire. Recommendations for overcoming this situation will be made in the end of paper. 2. GLOBAL WORLD World is full of people, group, nations, who think, feel and act differently. However, all these people in global world have to cooperate in order to solve global warming, poverty, terrorism, swaine or avian flu, AIDS, pollution, extintion of animals, economic problems. In global economy customers, partners, suppliers, workers come from different location. Companies search for the best people all around the world and the people search for the best jobs all around the world. People, groups and nations must have awareness of cultural differences and have ability to work with people from diverse cultural background. Letter I in IBM means international, but it could easily means intercultural, as IBM had 325 000 employees that speak 165 languages and sells to the clients in 175 countries all around the world. Ford sells its cars to 130 countries. Out of ten biggest American 203 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo export markets, just two (Great Britain and Canada) speaks English. In the era of globalization, education is the most important asset. People understand that competition is very strong in global world. 33 millions professional people live today in the developing countries. Number of graduate students increases at the rate 5.5% annually in these countries. One million students graduate in China every year. India has one of the best educational systems in the world and the best experts from the field of engineering, informational technologies, medicine. People from various cultures are connected and communicate today via Face-book, My Space, and Twitter. 500 million people log on Face-book. If this web site were granted terra firma, it would be the world‘s third largest country by population, two-thirds bigger than the US. Face-book is global, 70% of users are not Americans. People share on Face-book more than 25 billion information and put one billion photos every month. Twitter had 175 millions of registered users in September 2010. LinkedIn, professional network, published that it reached number of 100 millions of users. It gets a new member every second. 3. SHORT HISTORY OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Bosnia and Herzegovina is a place where many cultures encountered, coexisted peacefully for centuries benefitting from each other. People inhabited Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Palaeolithic, hundred thousand years ago. During neolith, people in Bosnia established permanent settlements. The first tribes in Bosnia and Herzegovina were Illyrians. Celts from Northern Italy attacked Bosnia from the north in 370 century BC. They stayed only in the north of Bosnia, but their influence spread all over Bosnia as they have been technologically advanced and Illyrians took over and adopted new technologies. Greeks established their colonies at the Adriatic coast and islands in the 4th century BC, but they spread their influence also on Bosnia and Herzegovina through trade. Greeks were advanced and Illyrians learned from Greeks making coins, building cities, producing arms, tools, jewellery, dishes. Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 3 rd century BC, but Rome would not complete its annexation of the region till 9th year AD. Illyrians were defeated at last, after 3centuries of battles and stayed 5 centuries in Roman Empire sharing the same destiny as many nation of Europe, Asia and Africa. In the Roman period, settlers from all over the huge Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians or just travelled to Bosnia for various reasons. Young people from Bosnia were obliged to serve in Roman army, sometimes for 30 years and returned after that. So, population of Bosnia in the Roman period was very heterogeneous. It came from Orient, Greece, Egypt, Trakia, Iran and many other countries. It is noted that 40 different religions co-existed at that time and people in Bosnia worshiped 52 different gods. Following the crises of the Roman Empire between end of 3rd and beginning of 4 th century AD, barbaric tribes started with attacks. Region was conquered by the Goths, Alans, Huns, Byzantine Empire and finally by the Avars and Slavs, who crossed the river Sava in the year 602 nd AD. We do not know a lot about life of Slavs upon their arrival and political situation in Bosnia during the Early Middle Ages. It was around this time that the Bosnia was Christianized and was probably one of the last areas to go through this process. Bosnia emerged as an independent state in the 12th century under the rule of local bans. During the rule of Kulin ban (1180-1204), one of the most important rulers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, country started to develop economically and culturally. Official church in Bosnia was Bosnian Church and official religion was bogumilism, considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church and Byzantine church. This religion survived till Ottoman Empire arrived at Bosnia. In the 14 th century, during the bans and kings from Kotromanic dynasty, Bosnia reached the top of political and territorial power and king Tvrtko I Kotromanic was the greatest ruler at Balkans. Bosnia acquired with territorial expenditure also catholic and orthodox believers, so three religions have existed in Bosnia. First encounter with Ottomans happened in 1386th in Neretva valley and then again in 1388th. Ottomans lost these battles, but their activities and influence in Bosnia have been increasing since that time till the final fall of Bosnia in 1463th. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. According to historical sources almost all Bosnian bogumils accepted Islam, but also a lot of people from catholic or orthodox religion. However, people were not forced to accept Islam. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) as well as the Orthodox community in Bosnia was free to exercise their religions. Ottomans ruled in Bosnia and Herzegovina almost 500 years but with the decline of Ottoman Empire were forced by Great Power to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the treaty of Berlin in 1878. During that period from 1878 till 1918, what was Austrian Hungarian occupation of Bosnia, people from other countries started to immigrate to Bosnia and Herzegovina and change cultural structure. Immigrants reached the number of 114 591 in the year 1910. They mainly came from Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Czechoslovakia. Following World War I, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Bosnia and Herzegovina was prosperous part of Socialistic 204 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Yugoslavia from the end of World War II till the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1992 and the war that devastated the country. Discussions between Croat and Serb presidents included "...the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia." were held as early as March 1991 known as Karadordevo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs from Bosnia and Herzegovina with support from Serbia, attacked different parts of the country. The Serbs wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, eastern and western Bosnia. The Croats and their leader also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The objectives of nationalists from Croatia were shared by Croat nationalists in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Bosnian branch of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union, proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole", on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina on November 18, 1991. Serb Democratic Party members established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on January 9, 1992. War in Bosnia and Herzegovina is known for brutal ethnic cleansing, genocide, mass rape and concentration camps. The most recent research places the number of killed people in Bosnia and Herzegovina at around 100,000–110,000, (some sources cited over 300 000), and the number displaced at over 2.2 million, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II. Today 117,000 are still refugees or internally displaced persons. In August 2010, 10.402 persons were still missing from the conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 4. ETHNOCENTRISM AND XENOPHOFIA Ethnocentrism is tendency to judge all other group according to the standards, behaviours and customs of one‘s one group. When making such comparison, people too often decide that their own group is superior. Racism assumes that one group is superior over other and often use it to justify violence for the purpose of maintaining that superiority. These theories have been responsible, among other things, for the holocaust organized by Nazi during the World War II. Totalitarian ideologies like apartheid often impose definition which group is better and which were inferior. Xenophobia is fear of strangers and foreigners. What is different is dangerous. In the United States there been periodically scientific discussion on whether certain ethnic groups, in particular blacks, could be genetically les intelligent than whites. However, Americans reported recently that black segregation in US drops to lowest in century. Europe seems to have reached a stage in its development in which countries have joined a supranational union. 5. SOCIAL TRUST IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 5.1. Trust index Social trust can be measured by trust index, created by The World Values Survey. It is an ongoing academic project by social scientists to assess the state of socio-cultural, moral, religious, and political values of different cultures around the world. In order to build the map of a Trust Index for each country, calculations are based on the following formula: Trust index = 100 + (% Most people can be trusted) - (% Can´t be too careful) In this way, index over 100 corresponds to countries where a majority of people trust others, while an index under 100 corresponds to countries where a majority of people think one can never be too careful when dealing with others. Countries that have high trust index are Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, Netherlands, and Canada. These countries generally trust people. Bosnia has trust index of 32.4. This index is very low and shows that people in Bosnia and Herzegovina do not trust each other. This index puts Bosnia and Herzegovina at 91st place out of 171 countries. 5.2. UNDP research on social trust Oxford research International on behalf of the UNDP, with support of Netherlands Government has carried out comprehensive research on social and political situation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, addresses 205 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo general well being, trust, social capital, politics, corruption, etc. One of finding of this research is that people in Bosnia and Herzegovina do not trust each other. In fact, with only around one in 14 respondents (7.2%) saying that you can trust other people, there appears to be breakdown in social trust. Research finds that social trust is ‗virtually non-existent‘ in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the social fabric in the country is characterized by an ‗absolute weakness of social bonds of trust, reciprocity, and solidarity: international comparisons, including countries as Iraq put Bosnia and Herzegovina to the last position. Also, people in Bosnia do not expect much fairness from their fellow citizens. Next UNDP research, carried out later on did not found any improvement on social trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Findings of this research are presented in table below: Table – People‘s trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina Percent trusting all or most of each group Family Close friends Neighbours Own ethnicity Other ethnicity General level of trust 11.0 11.0 10.9 10.2 People with a different way of life 8.7 8.8 9.0 1.7 Total BiH FBiH RS BrĦko (118) Bosniak Croat Serb Of local ethnic majority Of local ethnic minority Of ethnically balanced community Men Women Urban Rural Under 30 30 to 65 Over 60 82.7 83.4 81.0 92.4 61.1 59.3 63.2 69.5 33.5 33.6 33.0 45.8 21.3 21.3 21.0 32.2 81.6 83.5 83.4 83.2 58.5 56.6 64.6 63.0 33.1 34.9 33.6 35.3 20.9 20.7 22.3 22.1 10.8 12.3 10.2 10.5 9.1 7.7 8.8 8.8 7.4 11.2 12.2 10.5 77.0 44.4 25.9 22.2 16.7 12.0 9.2 85.0 60.1 24.7 13.7 11.0 6.1 2.7 81.4 84.0 81.0 84.0 88.1 81.7 80.9 61.7 60.4 57.1 64.1 71.9 58.8 56.3 34.1 33.0 26.1 39.1 25.5 30.3 45.7 18.8 23.7 16.9 24.7 19.0 18.3 28.3 9.9 12.0 10.4 11.4 10.4 9.0 15.0 7.9 9.6 8.3 9.1 9.6 7.3 10.6 8.7 11.0 9.6 10.1 8.9 9.8 10.6 9.9 8.5 12.2 5.1 The report also found that the highest levels of trust are reserved for family and friends, from whom people derive considerable support. Trust levels are lower vis-à-vis neighbours, and are much lower for ‗outsiders‘–nonfamily members and non-neighbours, including those of one‘s own ethnicity. Rather than describing a society suffering from ethnic polarization, these suggest that Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by very low levels of trust towards ‗strangers‘. In this respect, there were almost no differences across gender, age, and ethnic groups, or across the two entities. 206 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 5.3. Research at International University Sarajevo Students at International University Sarajevo who took the course Business Communication in spring semester 2010 answered the questionnaire regarding 5 dimensions of national culture in June 2010. Class consisted of 44 students, half from Turkey and the other half from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Inductive method of expert system has been applied to analyze the questionnaire and give answer on differences regarding national cultures between Turkey and Bosnia and possible convergence. Results show that the most dominant cultural characteristics of Turkish students are related to the quality of future work and private life. However, the most dominant cultural characteristic of Bosnian students was related to the fear. The most dominant question was:‖Would you work for the manager of other nationality?‖ Bosnian students answered negative. It might be surprising as target group were young people, educated, from rather wealthy families, and someone would expect more tolerance and openness. However, this primary research just confirmed above mentioned UNDP research that did not find any differences in social trust across age group. 6. IMPLICATION ON EDUCATION IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA There is no cross cultural education in Bosnia. There are three different education systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Every ethnic group in Bosnia and Herzegovina has its own educational plan, program and curricula. This is result of Dayton agreement which gave responsibility over education to entities and cantons. So, some students learn that their country is Bosnia and Herzegovina, other that it is Serbia and third that it is Croatia. First students follow Bosnia‘s curricula, second Serbia‘s curricula and third Croat‘s curricula. The biggest problem is teaching ethnically sensitive courses such as history, geography, religious history, and languages, so called national group of courses. Croat textbooks are in large part taken from Republic of Croatia and all examples in such textbooks are connected with people, language, literature and cultural heritage of Croatia. The Serb curriculum textbooks magnified their belonging to Serbia. Such textbooks cite only names, towns, rivers and poets from Serbia or Republica Srpska. The Bosnian textbooks are the only one that encourages sense of belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina and use the both Latin and Cyrillic alphabets, but they also describe material from one nation‘s perspective. Ethnic-based curricula are deeply rooted, as they have been freely functioning since the early 1990s. Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is highly politicized, a reflection of the country‘s lingering struggles with ethnic division. Schools have become a battlefield in the fight for ethnic dominance, resulting in a system of ethnically ―clean‖ schools where children learn from ethnically specific curricula and textbooks, and have little interaction with their peers from other ethnic groups. Primary school in Capljina, small town in Herzegovina, is a perfect example of a post-war Bosnian phenomenon called ―Two Schools under One Roof‖. The system is mainly found in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the region with a predominantly Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) and Croat population. Under this concept, Bosniak and Croat students and teachers use the same school facilities but have no contact with one another, and follow divergent, ethnic-based curricula. In many such schools, Bosnian and Bosnian Croat children, as well as their teachers, have no mutual contact. Students often arrive at school via different entrances, they take separate breaks, and the teachers have separate common rooms. However, since establishment of these schools, there have been many reports of conflict between students of different nationalities. In the Federation there are currently 57 schools which operate in this way. In the Bosnian Serb-dominated entity of Republika Srpska, Bosnian and Croat returnees similarly attend their own ethnic schools. This situation is highly supported by political parties in power. Education Minister of the Federation‘s Middle Bosnia canton (where the largest number of ―Two Schools Under One Roof‖ exist) told local media that authorities were not going to suspend the project because she saw no problem with it and ―because it helps in reducing education expenses.‖ But she also said something more illustrative of the larger problem. ―The ‗Two Schools under One Roof‘ project will not be suspended because you can‘t mix apples and pears. Apples with apples and pears with pears,‖ Minister explained. 207 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The segregated system affects not only students, but teachers as well, as they continue to be appointed based upon ethnic criteria. For instance, there is an unwritten rule that a Croat teacher cannot teach geography or history subjects in Republika Srpska, while a Serb cannot teach those subjects in the Federation. Research done by OSCE, Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina shows that for many parents it is more important that their children attend the schools that offer curricula they want for the children than the quality of education and nearness of the school. So, it is not a rare case that parents decide that their children should go to schools which are much further than their designated schools in order to learn by their national curricula and to be among students of same ethnicity as their own. Parents explain this decision with fear that "their children will lose their national identity if thought on accordance with other ethnicities‘ curricula. Bosnian parents specifically point to history classes in the Republica Srpska as particularity unacceptable. Several studies and analyses have been conducted on textbooks on national subjects from three ethnic curricula. Studies concluded that existing textbooks on these subjects are filled with nationalist and intolerant language regarding the other ethnic groups, particularly when talking about the recent war and are in many cases fascist in nature. Examined textbooks represent in fact an extension of wartime nationalist rhetoric, filled with hatred and intolerance. The analysis of the ‗National Group of Subjects‘ contents in textbooks done by Open Society Fund Bosnia and Herzegovina concludes that that textbooks on national group of subjects and on religious education, are predominantly dealing with only one nation and that they are not in favor of multicultural society. This encourages segregation of students as well as of society as a whole. Also, these textbooks point out that its own people are threatened by other peoples living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is underlined as a lesson taught in the past which should be a guideline for relations between peoples in the future. In their research Open Society Fund Bosnia and Herzegovina also found that textbooks contain parts which interpret differences in Bosnia and Herzegovina primarily as a problem, and rarely as potential or wealth. This content in curricula encourages the attitude that living in multicultural society is complicated because different groups have different values, expectations and tradition which are not complementary. This supports attitudes of governing ideologies that it is impossible to live together in this area. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are 13 separate education laws. The two entities have their own laws, the Federation‘s 10 cantons have theirs, and the self-governing District of Brcko has its own. The international community, created an education bill intended for state-wide implementation, which it then forced the Bosnian Parliament to pass. However, the relevant authorities have never implemented the law. Bosnia and Herzegovina has also ratified several international conventions that guarantee high quality education to all children in multicultural environment, free from political, religious, cultural and other prejudice, but current educational system in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not respect or implement it. 7. CONCLUSIONS Bosnia and Herzegovina has always been a place where many cultures encountered, coexisted peacefully for centuries, benefitting from each other. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ethnocentric and xenophobic place where people are closed in their ethnic and confesional groups, as a result of the war nourishing fear, anger and hate towar others. Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, even fifteen years after the end of the war, remains the least reformed sectors in Bosnian society. Students and teachers at all levels continue to experience ethnic and religious segregation, intolerance, and division. Educational systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina do not create positive attitude toward the country. 208 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Educational system in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not promote respect for other cultures and for cultural differences, but consider other cultures different and dangerous. Educational system in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not promote multicultural learning, but learning and promoting just culture of only one nation. Education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina created generation of young, intolerant, ethnically isolated, and ethnically overfed students. Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not build but destroys country. The quality of education itself in Bosnia and Herzegovina falls well below European standards. 8. RECOMMENDATIONS Bosnia and Herzegovina has to abolish segregated educational system and create modern system based on European standards. Bosnia and Herzegovina has to create unified curricula and textbooks on a state level, which would prepare students for the work and life in Europe and global world teaching them cultural tolerance, openness to other culture and cultural diversity. 209 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 9. References Azra Brankovic, Savo Stupar, ―Cultural Differences between Turkey and Bosnia: Does convergence exist?‖, International Symposium, Balkans and Islam: Encounter-Transformation-Discontinuity-Continuity Cannakale, Turkey, 3-5 November, 2010. Balkan insight, Bosnia: No End to 'Two Schools Under One Roof', 18 Feb 2010, available at http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-no-end-to-two-schools-under-one-roof European Commission, Joint Report on Social Inclusion. Commission of the European Communities, 2004, p.10. Available at http://www.socialinclusion.ie/JointSocialInclusion Report2004.html. Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, 3 rd edition, 2010, McGraw Hill Companies, USA, Group of authors, Bosnia and Herzegovina from the old times till the end of 2 nd world war, Press center of BH Army, 1994, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Open society fund Bosnia and Herzegovina and Promente, Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: What do we teach out children, Sarajevo 2007, available on http://www.promente.org/userfiles/What%20do%20we%20teach%20our%20children.swf OSCE Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007, reports on education available on http://www.oscebih.org/Documents.aspx?id=146&lang=EN UNDP and Oxford Research International, The Silent Majority Speaks: Snapshots of Today and Visions of the Future in BiH, Sarajevo, 2007. Available at http://www.undp.ba/index. aspx?PID=7&RID=413. UNDP, National Human Development Report: Social Inclusion, Sarajevo, 2007. Available at http://www.undp.ba/index.aspx?PID=36&RID=63. UNDP, Assessing Social Exclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, 2010, available at http://www.undp.ba/index.aspx?PID=3&RID=56 World value survey, available on www.worldvaluessurvey.org 210 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 32 Title A name given to the resource Ethnocentrism and Xenophofia in Bosnia and Herzegovina Implication on Cross-cultural Education Author Author BRANKOVIC, AZRA DRAGANOVIC, VELID Abstract A summary of the resource. World is full of people, group, nations, who think, feel and act differently. However, all these people in global world have to cooperate in order to solve global warming, poverty, terrorism, swaine or avian flu, AIDS, pollution, extintion of animals, economic problems. In global economy customers, partners, suppliers, workers come from different location. People, groups and nations must have awareness of cultural differences and have ability to work with people from diverse background. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a place where many cultures encountered. The country population has a distinct ethnic and confessional composition consisting of Bosniak (44%), Serb (31%), and Croat (17%) and other ethnisities (8%), of Muslim (40%), Orthodox (31%), Roman Catolic (15%) and other religions (14%). People are closed in their ethnic and confesional groups, as a result of the war and nourish fear, anger and hate. It has strong and negative implication on education. The aim of this paper is to research ethnocentrism, xenophofia and social trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina and its implication on education. Secondary research will be done based on UN, OSCE and media reports. Primary research will be done using as a target group students from International University Sarajevo. Inductive method of expert system will be applied to analyze the questionnaire. Recommendations for overcoming this situation will be made in the end of paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0f29278c8d8a167a7a3d5690e7b53d5a.pdf e758a973d6268014235b6f2f0c241546 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mass Media (TV and Radio) News and Language Learning Taher Bahrani Taher_bahrani@yahoo.com Faculty of language and linguistics, University of Malaya Tam Shu Sim tams@um.edu.my Faculty of language and linguistics University of Malaya Abstract: Two important issues regarding the selection and preparation of TV news for language learning are: the content of the news and the linguistic difficulty. Content is described as being specialized or universal. Universal contexts are likely to be more comprehensible than specialized contexts. As for the linguistic difficulty, it consists of acoustic, lexical/syntactic and text-type difficulties. With regard to texttype, four types of spoken and visual elements are identified: symbolic, referential, schematic, and iconic. Audiovisual texts with greater iconic combinations are likely to be more comprehensible for language learning. Key words: mass media, news, selection, content, linguistic difficulty Introduction In the last few years, the output of TV news has exploded both in English and non-English speaking countries such as Iran and Japan. For example, in Iran, there are two channels broadcasting English news. One is Press TV which is broadcasted 24 hours 7 days a week in English and IRINN which is broadcasted some hours in English every day. In Japan, the satellite channel NHK 1 alone provides more than 24 hours of TV news in English each week, including the news bulletins of CNN, BBC, etc. TV news programming in English is not only a vast and growing language learning resource which provides meaningful opportunities for non-reciprocal listening but a vital and immediate alternative source of information. The pedagogical and informative aspects of news broadcasts in English may therefore often and dramatically intersect. Although much has already been written about the pedagogical values, selecting and using mass media technologies such as video, film, and CDs in general in the second language classroom (Cooper et al., 1991; Joiner, 1990; Rubin, 1995; Stempleski & Arcario, 1992), less research has focused on the pedagogical problems of selecting and presenting TV news (Brinton & Gaskill, 1978; Cooper, 1996; Gruba, 1997; Meinhof, 1998). Regarding the increasing accessibility of TV news in English, this paper focuses on the criteria for selecting TV news stories to be used as a pedagogically valuable material for language learning. This paper mainly aims at the selection criteria for TV news stories. The two main categories for assessing the pedagogical value of TV news are: a) background knowledge or content schemata and b) the linguistic difficulties of processing combinations of visual and auditory messages This research is based upon a course I have taught in current affairs to a group of Iranian University EFL students, including both males and females, of intermediate proficiency (N=30). Although these students have low self-confidence with regard to their abilities to listen to authentic materials such as TV news, they are very much motivated and have a high degree of interest in this kind of authentic materials. In terms of understanding TV news, factors such as interest and motivation may be more important than linguistic ability for native and non-native speakers alike (Wodak, 1987). The class met 4 hours per week for 3 months in a foreign language context. Moreover, the responsibility for selection of materials was on the teacher. 1161 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo TV and radio news in language learning Exposure to mass media news, for example, TV and radio news, the pedagogical value of such materials, and the possibility of using TV and radio news at all levels of EFL/ESL settings in order to enhance different language skills have been the focus of so many studies. In a research conducted by Brinton and Gaskill (1978), the effect of listening to TV and radio news on improving EFL students‘ listening comprehension was studied. Brinton and Gaskill (1978) argue that using TV and radio news utterances as teaching material has proved effective on improving listening comprehension of EFL learners having difficulty in dealing with comprehending news utterances. However, Brinton and Gaskil do not mention any thing about the kind of news to be selected. A similar study which focused on using TV news to improve listening proficiency was also conducted by Poon (1992). In addition to the above mentioned studies, Baker (1996) also focused on the pedagogical value of TV news in EFL classes and listening comprehension. According to Baker (1996), TV and radio news can help EFL students improve their listening comprehension. The use of fast speech such as those of TV and radio news in EFL/ESL classrooms has also been studied by some other scholars. In this regard, Cauldwell (1996) conducted a study aiming at discovering the relationship between direct encounters with fast speech such as TV and radio news and teaching listening to EFL students. Accordingly, students may have some problems copping with fast speech at first. However, EFL students can diminish these problems and improve their listening through great amount of exposure to fast speech. Another short study conducted by Mackenzie (1997) also highlighted the possibility of using TV and radio news reports at all levels of EFL learning. The study rejected the assumption that because the reporters speak too fast, the content is too complex, and the vocabulary is too difficult, TV and radio news cannot be used at lowest levels of EFL situations. Mackenzie study included some techniques to be used by the teachers while trying to use news in their classes. As the matter of fact, Mackenzie did not say anything about criteria for the selection of news. What he focused on was the use of fast news at all levels with different techniques. Regarding proficiency and comprehension of television and radio news in a foreign language, a research by Berber (1997) highlighted the point that through enough exposure to these materials, students can easily cope with the comprehension of such materials. Cabaj and Nicolic (2000) also noted that a great amount of exposure to TV and radio news could help students to cope with TV and radio news broadcasts easier. Moreover, through exposure to TV news and radio programs students acquire the knowledge, structures, strategies, and vocabularies they can use in everyday situations. In the same line, a study was conducted by Bell (2003) focusing on the pedagogical value and informative aspects of TV and radio news broadcasts in EFL settings. He considered background knowledge or content schemata, formal schemata, and linguistic difficulty as three broad categories for selecting any kinds of TV and radio news stories for the EFL classrooms. However, Wetzel et al. (1994), in their study, found that TV news is not always helpful in comprehension. In short, the majority of the aforementioned descriptive and experimental works have been conducted on the pedagogical value and the effect of exposure to TV and radio news genre on promoting different language skills especially listening comprehension but none of them has specifically focused on the discovering the nature of the news to set a clear criteria for the selection of the news. This is one of the initial reasons to carry out the present study. Research design The research design of this paper is in the tradition of the hermeneutic paradigm of naturalistic and action research (Freeman, 1998). It focuses on two modes of enquiry. First, by introspection, it seeks to make explicit the process of material selection by the teacher-researcher. This is seen as part of an ongoing process in teacher research to articulate and represent what teachers know and are learning through their work in the classroom. Second, the paper reflects upon the use of selected materials in the classroom within the framework of action research. Content Schemata Research in cognitive science suggests that knowledge is organized in the form of schemata (Rumelhart, 1980). Weaver (1994, P.18) defines a schema as ―an organized chunk of knowledge or experience, often accompanied by feelings‖. According to Bell (1991), Schemata aid the interpretation 1162 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of both linguistic and non-linguistic sensory data by providing a context in order to predict meaning and fill in missing information. In second language reading research, Carrell (1983, 1984, and 1987) has highlighted the connection between comprehension and background knowledge established in first language research. Non-native readers are often unable to make the necessary connections between text and background knowledge and so tend to rely more on linguistic cues than background knowledge. In L2 listening research, several studies have noted the link between topic familiarity and comprehension (Chiang & Dunkel, 1992; Long, 1990; Tchaicha, 1996). The practical implication of studies of comprehension and background knowledge for the teaching of listening comprehension has been to stress the importance of activating appropriate schemata in pre-listening activities. Here, this paper is concerned with how schema theory informs the selection of TV news items and how schemata interact with context. Exogenous context and endogenous context Exogenous contexts require prior knowledge. The nature of this prior knowledge may be specialized or universal. Specialized contexts such as Iran, Japan, or Iraq require such massive prior knowledge that even many native speakers may lack the appropriate schemata. Endogenous contexts, such as news film of a sporting incident or natural disaster, require little or no prior knowledge in that they create their own contexts (although, of course, learners will need the appropriate vocabulary to be able to talk about what they see happening in the video sequence). In other words, the visuals speak for themselves. Of course, individual TV news items may be made up of degrees of exogenous and endogenous contexts. According to Cooper (1996), episodic news stories are dependent on knowledge of the previous events in the story and so put special conditions on comprehension. Similarly nonepisodic news items, while not requiring knowledge of a prior story, may still require large amounts of background knowledge. In news items which required more declarative knowledge, the media literacy of individual students became a more important factor in understanding. From this discussion, certain pedagogical implications for material selection emerge. Endogenous contexts are likely to be the most exploitable type of news story in the language classroom, but such contexts are likely to account for a small fraction of the news items in any one bulletin. TV news items with universal exogenous contexts, though somewhat less accessible to students, are likely to be far more available. A key factor is the degree to which students can empathize with such items through their own experiences, for example having a bike accident or having a bike stolen, etc. In this case, the participants in this study showed their interest in TV news items with universal exogenous contexts more. It is important to remember that schemata are socially constructed and therefore often culturally specific mental categories into which events and individuals are sorted. Although Japanese and Iranians may share the mental category of carry-on luggage, the content of that category may vary. Carry-on luggage in Iran may be stereotypically associated with the frustration of flying brought on by both the need to carry on as much luggage as possible and the inadequacy of the space provided. From the Japanese perspective, carry-on luggage may be considered a convenience and passengers feel obliged to allow others space for their carry-on items. News items with imputed universal appeal may therefore facilitate understanding not only with regard to the discourse under study but on the larger level of cross-cultural communication. The news, therefore, provides a particularly illuminating view of the stereotypical categories and preoccupations of a particular culture. The selection and treatment of news items reflects shared stereotypes of media producers and consumers of news within a particular social context; news may be seen as a creation of a journalistic process. It is suggested that TV news items with universal exogenous contexts are likely to be the most available and the most accessible to students. Yet before such items are used in the classroom their 1163 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appeal needs to be tested through such devices as questionnaires. And during their presentation their value as newsworthy items in the culture of origin needs to be made explicit. This was actually done in this research and related news episodes were selected based on the participants of this study. As the matter of fact, at the end of each session, the researcher asked the participants about their favorite topic for the next news item to be selected and prepared for them. Linguistic Difficulty Linguistic difficulties are defined here under three headings of text characteristics: acoustic, lexis/syntax and text-type (which include both visual and linguistic text):  Acoustic: The acoustic characteristics of a text include speech-rate, pause phenomena, hesitation, stress and rhythmic patterning. 1. Lexis/Syntax: TV news as a whole and news items in particular contain a high degree of redundancy. Redundancy in input is generally understood to aid second language comprehension (Chaudron, 1983; Chiang & Dunkel, 1992). Chiang & Dunkel found that repetition of constituents, paraphrase, and synonyms work best with higher levels.  Text Type: Narrative vs. non-narrative text: Research into native speaker comprehension of TV news suggests that viewers experience substantial comprehension and recall difficulties (Bell, 1991). Stories with a clear narrative story line tend to be processed easier than those without, but for the most part TV news is made up of non-narrative text. In L2 listening comprehension research, Shohamy and Inbar (1991) found that when they compared the relative comprehensibility of three text types: TV news broadcast using a prewritten, edited monologue, and an interactive consultative dialogue, the news item was the most difficult to process. Brown (1995) has shown that narrative texts are easier for L2 learners to listen to and recall than expository texts are, and further, events described in chronological order are easier to recall than narratives with disrupted sequences or flashbacks. This suggests that the general trend of network American TV news towards dramatic framing of news stories, news as ―infotainment‖ and the conversationalization of TV news discourse are likely to have beneficial effects for L2 processing. A. The union of spoken and visual texts: Perhaps one of the least understood features of TV news broadcasts is the combination of words and pictures, especially which has primacy in the process of decoding. The established semiotic view exemplified by Gruba (1997) is to argue for the dependence of images on verbal text or, to be more exact, the narrowing down of the multiplicity of imagistic interpretations by the spoken text. As Gruba (1997) notes, such a view appears to be rather simplistic. First, distinguishing between what we hear and what we see is not necessarily a difference between words and pictures but a difference in the way we receive the information though our eyes and ears (Meinhof, 1998). Inscriptions, captions, posters, diagrams for example appear on the visual track while the soundtrack may carry background noises and music as well as the spoken text. Second, it may be better to conceive of words and pictures creating a whole message unit rather than separate entities. Certainly, there will be instances when the linguistic text drives the comprehension of the visual input and there will also be instances where the visuals are dominant, but for the most part comprehension will depend on the interaction between the two. Gruba notes: Visual elements do not ‗merely‘ provide support for verbal elements: they are better thought of as an integral element in videotext that interplays with verbal elements to influence a listener‘s emerging interpretation. (1997, P.134). Written language is also considered a notational symbol but the degree of unambiguity between the symbol and the concept referred to is weaker. On the other end of the continuum, nonnotational symbol systems like film, video and abstract art may suggest multiple meanings that may not consistently refer to specific concepts. Meinhof (1998) has identified three ways in which text and images can be said to interrelate: overlap, displacement, and dichotomy. When words and pictures overlap they are identical or in a 1164 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo metonymic relation. Text and images which can be described in terms of displacement refer to different action components, such as the cause and effect of an action. The images may be of the effects of an explosion while the spoken text discusses the causes. Other examples of displacement are the way that images can be used thematically to illustrate the spoken text or to comment on and draw inferences from the spoken text. Meinhof gives the example of a speech asking for more money to fight drugs with accompanying visuals of police raids and treatment centers, which make comments on how that money might be spent. And finally texts and images may be dichotomous where they refer to different actions altogether–the input from the visual channel may be unhelpful, distracting, or misleading. Consequently, the degree of fit between words and images is very important factor regarding comprehension. In a research into the comprehension of video materials by native speakers, Wetzel et al. (1994) conclude that whereas audio-video material is on the whole more comprehensible than audio material, in the area of TV news the visual element is not always found to be a help to comprehension. Information recall from the news seems to be positively affected by the degree to which the auditory and visual elements meaningfully correspond and negatively affected when they are incongruent. Gruba (1997), studying L2 learners‘ comprehension of a Japanese TV news item found that more proficient viewers were less dependent on visuals for comprehension of the text–a finding which supports earlier work with other visual material (Mueller, 1980, Wolff, 1987) and favored the audio track if the visual element mismatched. Gruba notes that there was a sense that the listeners knew that the ―real story‖ was in the audio track and that images were misleading. Although more proficient listeners tended to rely less on the visual elements for comprehension, they nevertheless noticed more detail in the visuals than less proficient viewers, who were far more dependent on visuals for comprehension. Visual elements were more closely attended to when they were judged to be salient or provided novel information to the listener. Gruba found evidence to suggest that images and words worked together to confirm a listener‘s understanding of a particular element: audio clues could be confirmed by visuals and vice-versa; visual clues could be confirmed by the spoken track. The ramifications of the above discussion for the exploitation of TV news material in the second language classroom are therefore two folds in terms of criteria for selection and criteria for use. All news items are made up of varying degrees of symbolic, referential, schematic and iconic relationships between words and images. However, TV items which have more of an iconic or overlap relationship between words and pictures are likely to be better understood. In an overlap or iconic situation the viewer may be able to pick up cues from both image and wording. And the more iconic the relationship between words and pictures the more likely the TV news item is to provide an endogenous context. But again, as Wetzel (1994) has pointed out, it is the degree of fit between words and pictures which is crucial. In sum, the more iconic the relationship between words and images, the greater the likelihood that words and images will be self-supporting; the more symbolic the relationship between words and images (and this is more often the case with TV news), the greater the likelihood that the relationship will be dichotomous. Tuffs and Tudor (1990) comparing native speaker and non-native speaker interpretations of visual images used in British television, argue that non-native speaker comprehension is seriously disadvantaged by their lack of familiarity with both the denotation and connotation of these images in British culture. As such the isolation of pertinent visual images can be a powerful tool for the teaching of cultural aspects of the target language. Cooper (1996) suggests focusing students‘ attention primarily on the visual channel and using their speculations about the meanings of these images as a way of structuring the listening task. Cooper notes that such an approach brings to the surface not only the students‘ knowledge of how their countries‘ media work but how media works in the target language culture. Meinhof (1998) suggests that such ―metadiscursive‖ knowledge can have a wider learning effect by not only supporting language and cultural learning but also by helping learners critically assess TV itself, both in their own culture and in the target culture. Conclusion Those elements in TV news which make a particular news item suitable pedagogical material for the second language classroom can be considered now. 1165 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo First, universal exogenous and endogenous contexts are more accessible and understandable to language learners than specialized exogenous contexts, which may require more background knowledge and schema building. While endogenous contexts require little or no prior knowledge, these kinds of TV news stories tend to be less common. Universal exogenous contexts also require prior knowledge, but it is a kind of prior knowledge that language learners can be expected to already have, even though they may not have the vocabulary to express that knowledge. Questionnaires are a good way of monitoring whether students have the expected prior knowledge of universal topics such as studying, working, sleeping, etc. At the same time, an important point to remember is about expecting that the existence of a shared mental category presumes that the category will contain the same knowledge. For example, Japanese and Iranians perceptions of carry-on luggage may differ markedly. Such divergent interpretations of the same experience might be a source of cross-cultural enquiry that could shed light on both the target and the student‘s own culture. Second is the issue of criteria in linguistic difficulty. Intensive listening fulfills students‘ needs to work on bottom-up processing difficulties and balanced top-down approaches to listening comprehension. A selectional criterion based on words suggests that news items that use nonspecialized, componential lexical sets will be easier for second language learners to handle. Redundancy of input, both linguistic and visual, are important in selecting appropriate material, and increased redundancy of input is often found in news stories with a high degree of thematic unity. With regard to text type, many difficulties in processing TV news can be assigned to the nonnarrative structure of the news. News as infotainment and the use of dramatic framing tend to ―narrativize‖ TV news and make it more accessible for native and non-native speakers alike. A further element of text type is the mix of talking heads and voiceover visuals. Language learners may best benefit from a balance of delivery modes. And, with respect to the complex interplay of words and images, the iconic relationship of words and images is likely to have the greatest degree of fit between the visual and spoken channels, and this together with the higher likelihood that iconic word/image relationships will appear more in narrative texts, makes iconic audiovisual texts easier to process for second language learners. News items consist of combinations of iconic, schematic, referential and symbolic relationships between words and pictures. Symbolic relationships between words and images are more likely to be dichotomous, driving language learners either to seek understanding in the visual or the audio tracks depending on their proficiency. It should be noted here that this paper tried to help the teachers in the selection of appropriate TV news material for the second language classroom. However, Nothing can be said to be one hundred percent true based on these criteria, just the claim that where these criteria coalesce, the greater the possibility that these selections will prove to be accessible and stimulating and will provide meaningful material for both linguistic development and cultural understanding. 1166 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Baker, N. (1996). Using the TV news in the EFL classroom. Zielsprache, 26(2): 30-33. Bell, D. M. (2003). TV news in the EFL/ESL Classroom: Criteria for Selection. TESL-EJ, 7 (3). pp. 117. Available at: http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej27/a2.html. Accessed, February 2007. Bell, A. (1991). The Language of News Media. Language in Society, 16. Oxford: Blackwell. Brinton, D. & Gaskill, W. (1987). Using news broadcasts in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 12(4), 403-413. [-15-] Berber, S. A. (1997). 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Unpublished doctoral dissertation: Harvard University. Tuffs, R. & Tudor, I. (1990). What the eye doesn‘t see: cross cultural problems in the comprehension of video material. RELC Journal, 21, 29-44. Weaver, C. (1994). Reading Process and Practice. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman. Wetzel, C. D., Radtke, P. H. & Stern, H. W. (1994). Instructional effectiveness of video media. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wodak, R. (1987). ―And where is Lebanon?‖ A socio-psycholinguistic investigation comprehension and intelligibility of news. Text, 7(4), 377-410. Wolff, D. (1987). Some assumptions about second language text comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 307-26. 1168 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 595 Title A name given to the resource Mass Media (TV and Radio) News and Language Learning Author Author Bahrani, Taher Sim, Tam Shu Abstract A summary of the resource. Two important issues regarding the selection and preparation of TV news for language learning are: the content of the news and the linguistic difficulty. Content is described as being specialized or universal. Universal contexts are likely to be more comprehensible than specialized contexts. As for the linguistic difficulty, it consists of acoustic, lexical/syntactic and text-type difficulties. With regard to texttype, four types of spoken and visual elements are identified: symbolic, referential, schematic, and iconic. Audiovisual texts with greater iconic combinations are likely to be more comprehensible for language learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d4b4cf17b060ab4fb9a86b67f72a035b.pdf c1ae51c1a1b882e70f06a19a40583a2f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Gurgen Balasanyan Department of Foreign Languages Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute gurgenbalasanyan@yahoo.com Abstract: The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Keywords: culture, culturology, dimensions of culture, intercultural communication, interculturality, non-formal education. Introduction As one of the founders of the contemporary disciplines on the study of culture – Edward Tylor states: ―…culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‖ (Haas, 1944). The statement claims that everything directly or indirectly related to the mankind, anything created or maintained is subjected to cultural influence. Does this mean that to be able to understand a person, to effectively communicate and to build proper relationships, one needs to master the cultural specifics of each and every individual? What is the relation of the individual to the nation? Is the culture necessarily brought down to nations and ethnicities or is this a concept which extends beyond demographic dimensions? The hypothesis we are putting before ourselves are the following: - Should interculturality be analyzed as a separate discipline in the learning agenda; - What is the effectiveness of non-formal education? Is it an alternative to formal education or a separate distinguished methodology kit that can be applied for particular needs. The work tends to serve the needs of the modern multinational society in terms of elaborating on what makes up an ―interculturally competent‖ individual; what it takes to understand a person, to avoid or to tackle intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup clashes of cultural coloring. It furtherly dwells upon how those competencies should be developed in a classroom and a non-classroom atmosphere. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper proposes an alternative viewpoint on developing the intercultural competences and intercultural sensitivity – non-formal education. The particular attention on the non-formal methodology block is justified by the fact that non-formal education gains more and more worldwide prioritization as an effective tool-kit which manages to best combine the usefulness with entertaining process. Already today and even more tomorrow, it is no longer sufficient to think only in terms of formal education. It is therefore necessary to widen our understanding of education, making life-long learning a 525 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reality. People continuously seek for alternative means of education; systems that would prove to be effective and goal-oriented and that would best satisfy human curiosity. The practical value of the work consists in the fact that the two interrelated areas that are taken under observation – the concept of interculturality and intercultural society and the development of intercultural competence through non-formal education, are underobserved and underapplied in Armenia. Being a vastly homogeneous monoethnic country, Armenia lack intercultural communication skills which makes it much harder to interact with the international visitors, to adopt tolerance and respect towards diversity and to be able to best get assimilated into a new cultural environment when shifting to a new country for a long- or short-term stay. Secondly, despite the educational reforms and innovations that are continuously being advocated in Armenia and despite the fact of her joining several reforms of the European Commission including the ―White Paper on Youth‖, the non-formal education is not only underapplied but also underestimated and not recognized. That‘s why the work draws parallels between formal and non-formal education trying to differentiate the ideology and implementation peculiarities that lie under each of them. Method of the Study The chain the work follows is based on the principle of ―general-specific-practical continuum‖: The study was mainly carried out in two phases. The first phase was to find out what are the tendencies for intercultural learning in the world, what is perceived by saying diversity at present, and how it is viewed in terms of learning and comprehension. The second phase, which derived primarily from the discovered need for new approaches to intercultural learning, was carried out through theoretical research on the main concepts and strategy frameworks. Finally, the paper was concluded with the classification of non-formal educational tools and the introduction of specific methods for stimulating intercultural learning. Apart from introducing different concepts and theories, it goes on proposing definite practical tools on intercultural learning. The icebreakers, energizers, role plays, and simulation games aim to give the non-formal education practitioner a vast diversity of tools that can be adopted according to the specific aim, atmosphere and audience characteristics. Stages of Intercultural Learning One of the first models on intercultural learning stages was suggested by Milton J. Bennett who viewed intercultural learning as a process of evolving the intercultural sensitivity. Bennett predicted the close link between the personal development and intercultural sensitivity and claimed that the development of cultural sensitivity should be an inseparable part of intercultural learning to reach effective communication process; his developmental model deals with the continuum of increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural difference, starting with ethnocentrism and decreasing to the recognition and acceptance of difference. He calls this stage as ethnorelativism. The main underlying concept of Bennett‘s model is what he calls ―differentiation‖ (Bennet, 1993), and how one develops the ability to recognize and live with difference. Differentiation can be interpreted in two ways: firstly, it refers to reality when people look at one and the same thing differently; secondly, it refers to the fact that cultures differ from one another in the way they maintain patterns of differentiation.; in other words, it refers to how people interpret the world around them. Therefore, intercultural sensitivity aims at developing the capacity in every individual to perceive the fact that people see things differently and respect the different worldviews. Ethnocentrism and Ethnorelativism as Stages for Intercultural Awareness As defined by Bennett, ethnocentrism is the stage when the person assumes his worldview being the only possible and the only right one. The most characteristic thing for ethnocentrism is denial: this is the stage when the person simply denies the existence of other worldviews. Denial leads either to isolation when the person cuts himself off the surrounding not to encounter the reality of difference; or to separation when the person intentionally puts the difference far away. However, we should note that separation is a stage up from isolation since in this case the person at least recognizes the difference (but of course, he does not accept it). The second stage identified by Bennett is defense: this is the process when the individual perceives difference as a threat since it offers an alternative to his form of reality. The attitude that is most probably to be adopted is denigration when the different worldview is perceived negatively and is strongly criticized. The other implication of defense is superiority, i.e. when the person considers his worldview as being superior and pays practically no attention on the other coexisting worldviews. Bennett also considers the opposite reaction – the socalled ―reversal‖, when the person perceives the other culture as superior and undervalues his own one. The last stage of ethnocentrism identified by Bennett is minimization, i.e. when the other culture is clearly recognized, yet an attempt is made to minimize or overlook its meaning. 526 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The key idea for ethnorelativism is the assumption that cultures can only be understood relative to one another and that particular behavior can be understood within a cultural context only. The first stage for ethnocentrism is acceptance; this is the stage when the person comes to accept the verbal and non-verbal difference behavior variations within cultures and to realize that those differences deserve respect. This ultimately leads to the recognition of values and the variations within those values that strongly predetermine the worldview and behavioral conduct. The following stage towards cultural sensitivity is adaptation; this is the reverse process for acceptance, i.e. when the person gives up his own values and norms to accept those of the other /dominant/ culture. This might ultimately lead to the loss of identity. Central to adaptation is empathy – the attempt to think of a particular thing or situation through the prism of the other culture only with no reference to his own one. Empathy might later enlarge to pluralism, i.e. looking at things through multiple cultural frames. The final stage as identified by Bennett is integration, when an attempt is made to integrate different frames into one. This might ultimately lead to the development of a person with no cultural identity, i.e. as someone being an integrated outsider. The first stage to integration is the contextual analysis of the situation through multiple cultural backgrounds. One thing to be made clear is that this final stage is identified by Bennett as an ―arrival point‖ not a final one. What Bennett‘s model tries to prove is that intercultural learning is a process that is described by continuous advancement (with the possibility to move back and forth in the process), and that it is possible to measure the person‘s intercultural awareness according to his degree of intercultural sensitivity. Summing up, we should say that Bennett‘s model proves how complex the process of intercultural learning is: starting with cultural identity and the realization of the identity to the recognition of the other worldviews and ultimately to their integration for better understanding the differences emerging on day-to-day basis. Finally, one of the key messages brought forth by Bennett is that although intercultural learning is analyzed on the individual level, it ultimately suggests the capacity to leave peacefully in a diverse environment. Intercultural Competence Regardless of the actual communication being of global or international character, intercultural communication principles remain the key guiding the process of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism. These principles may have equal relevance when a tourist seeks help or when a politician advocates world peace. Intercultural principles concentrate on openness to the other, active respect for difference, mutual comprehension, active tolerance, validating the cultures present, providing equality of opportunities, fighting discrimination. Communication between different cultural identities can appear paradoxical in the sense that it requires recognition of the other both as similar and as different. In this context, according to Ouellet (Oullet, 1991), intercultural education can be designed to promote and to develop: a better comprehension of cultures in modern societies; a larger capacity of communication between people from different cultures; a more flexible attitude to the context of cultural diversity in society; a better capacity of participation in social interaction, and the recognition of the common heritage of humanity. As stated by different scholars /Brislin, Yoshida, Pedersen, Tong-Toomey/, the goal of intercultural learning is to prepare people for more effective interpersonal relations when they interact with individuals from different cultures other than their own; in other words, it is about facilitating effective communication. As we will later on touch upon the idea, most of the scholars identify the need for the intercultural communication and learning being organized in the way to ensure the process itself is enjoyable and interactive. Advancing with the main competences identified as important for intercultural communication, especially that in an educational environment, we should bring them down as follows: observing, identifying and recognizing; comparing and contrasting; negotiating meaning; dealing with or tolerating ambiguity; effectively interpreting messages; limiting the possibility of misinterpretation; defending one's own point of view while acknowledging the legitimacy of others; accepting difference. Interculturally competent are the students who possess the above identified capacities that can be classified under knowledge (cognition), attitudes (emotions) and skills (behavior) and who are able to: 527 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (i.e. have a good understanding and awareness of their own culture); be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures; understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (i.e. understand and be aware of what other people think of their own culture); be aware of how they see the target culture. In other words, intercultural learning is a bilateral process; you observe the target culture and get to understand your own one in between. The better perception of one‘s own culture will undoubtedly contribute to the better understanding the other cultures, recognizing and accepting the difference, and living in diversity with tolerance and open for new information with every step one makes with a representative of another culture. Above all, despite the fact that there is not an educational discipline as intercultural learning, there are keys that aim at guiding the process of acquisition of proper skills, among them: Confidence and Respect : Building up confidence is a cornerstone of intercultural learning; it is a prerequisite that we feel comfortable to share different viewpoints, perceptions and feelings, to arrive at acceptance and understanding. It requires a lot of patience and sensitivity in order to create such a learning atmosphere which enables us to listen to each other as equals, to empower each individual‘s self-confidence. This means that we need to give space to everybody‘s expression; to value all experiences, talents and contributions; our various needs and expectations. When the big part of what we might share is about values, norms and strong basic assumptions, we will need a lot of confidence in the ones we share with. Mutual trust goes hand in hand with mutual respect, honesty in our sharing. Experiencing Identity: We, as human beings, have our own cultural identity, which means, our own background and experience; and the learning process is achieved through overcoming the obstacles and the barriers stemming for the culture. We have all a personal reality which has shaped us, and we will continue to live there, enriched with new knowledge and experience. That means, in intercultural learning processes, we have to deal constantly with where we come from, what we have lived and encountered. Trying to understand ourselves, our own identity, is a prerequisite to encounter others. Constructed Realities: Nothing is absolute. There are many ways to read and discern reality. Even the representatives of one and the same culture interpret the situations and the circumstances differently; this is true in all its senses: we have seen it both in the verbal and non-verbal communications as well as in basic assumptions such as that of time and space. Consequently, the learning process should be accompanied by some efforts: to respect personal freedom and decision, to accept other views equally and seek the reconciliation of different viewpoints, and to be conscious of our personal responsibility. In Dialogue with the Other Intercultural learning places ―the other‖ at the heart of understanding. It starts through dialogue. Oftentimes it is challenging to perceive your own self and the other as being different yet complementing each other. In this understanding, the other becomes indispensable for a new discovery of the self. The process towards such an intercultural sensitivity implies – understood as a process towards the other – to touch and change our very self. Intercultural learning opens up the chance to identify with the perspective of the other, the respectful experience of attempting to ―walk in each others‘ shoes‖ without pretending to live what the other lives. It can enable us to experience and learn real solidarity, believing in the strength of co-operation. Intercultural learning in this context is as well a way to discover our own capacity for action. And this, again proves the theory of mutuality that we have touched upon in the previous section when speaking of the mutuality of the discovery and learning process in intercultural communication. Questions and Change Therefore, we need to accept that there is not always an answer, but remain in constant search, accepting and welcoming change. Reflecting on it, we will need the capacity to question ourselves. Intercultural education places the other at the center of relations. It encourages a continuous questioning of presuppositions, of things we normally take for granted and encourages a constant opening to the unknown and the not understood. In a process of interaction and mutual discovery every human being can fulfill himself or herself – personally, socially and globally. In the intercultural context, the shame is to avoiding asking questions rather 528 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo than vividly showing that something is new and unknown to the interlocutor; the important thing here is the openness of the latter for new information and perception of the other culture with all its diverse system. Comprehensive Involvement Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behavior in an intensive way. The comprehension of the complexity of this process and all its implications demand a lot from us. Language as element of culture is a central aspect in intercultural communication, and at the same time limited, often a source of misunderstanding. It must thereby not be used as a means of dominance – especially considering different language skills – but can be one tool of communication. All other signs – like body language – have to be equally respected. Since we are fully involved in this kind of learning, we should allow ourselves to be completely part of the processes happening (*see Chapter 2 – Interculturality for a more comprehensive information on the cultural coloring of verbal and non-verbal communication). Potential for Conflict If we see the variety of perceptions different cultures have of time, space, social and personal relations, etc. it will be very probable to suppose the raise of conflicts or uneasy situations in intercultural communication. Hence, we need to develop conflict management skills, while considering the complexity when dealing with the notion of culture. The key factor here is the belief that diversity is helpful and enriching, and it creates ground for new information and joyful learning. Not every conflict has necessarily a solution, but it certainly needs to be expressed. Under the Surface Intercultural learning aims at very deep processes and changes of attitudes and behaviors. It means to deal a good part with the invisible forces and elements of our culture, of our inner self (see: Iceberg Model presented in Chapter 2), many things beneath the ―water surface‖ are unconscious and cannot be expressed clearly. This discovery implies tensions with which we have to deal. It is obviously not easy to accompany people in this process. The most important thing is that we need the courage to go further, to challenge ourselves and others. A Complex Matter in a Complex World Trying to summarize the issues pointed out above, it becomes clear that we need very careful and comprehensive approaches allowing a maximum of discernment. Even culture goes beyond national borders and knows many forms and overlapping. Moreover, the cultures themselves are not homogenous; they are comprised of cultures held by community groups or even individuals. Many perspectives have to be met, tensions have to be considered. It is a challenge to any educational approach not to simplify the variety of reasons and implications present, the different values emphasized, the different realities and histories lived. Intercultural learning approaches need to respect these diverse experiences, interpretations and knowledge and adopt diverse methodologies accordingly. Conclusion The study has shown that culture is neither a homogeneous unit not a static, clear-cut phenomenon; it is a complex system of shared values, behavioral conduct, worldview and treatment that guide the human interaction wherever he/she is involved. It is a system characterized by its dimensions and components which come together as a whole shaping the human individuality and its unity with the community; hence, culture is directly communication-relevant. What we have meant by saying communication-relevant is that the whole communication process, starting with initiating a conversation with a particular person on a particular topic to its effective flow and the final conclusion is determined by the condition of how culturally competent the interlocutors are. The modern world has erased the boundaries between the states and therefore, for any specialist, for any full member of the present-day society, it is far not enough to limit oneself by the genetic cultural competence that is delivered by nature to be able to interact with the ―species‖ of one‘s own culture. One should be able to be as sensitive when talking to a Muslim /if we are allowed to generalize it to this largest scale/ as one would be when talking to a Buddhist; and how can a person possibly do so if he/she does not know that the single movement of the thumb denotes completely different concepts in those cultures, let along the perception of time of positioning; One should never be offended when being avoided to look in the eye and vice versa – to be as direct as holding the hand of someone one has known for less than an hour; One should never predict that the 529 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low-context information that would be easily interpretable by his culture would be as easily digested by a person holding another culture; and finally one should never think that to ask ―How much do you earn‖ is as nonprovocative as it would be in his culture. The study helps to identify why in cultures like Armenian it is more common to see isolation and defense towards something that seems, new, different and why people with monoethnic communities have got the perception of superiority towards other cultures. It has shown that the cultural or intercultural adaptation is a long lasting process, and the degree to which the person would shift from the denial of the foreign culture into accepting it depends on how tolerant and interculturally sensitive the person is. This is all that makes up the subject-matter of intercultural learning. Furtherly, the thesis brought into comparison the different educational settings and drew parallels between the effectiveness of each of them as being structured, half-structured and non-structured. It managed to show that the horizontal relationship between the instructor and the pupil is more effective compared to the vertical relationship when dealing with intercultural learning and capacity development. The diversity of the tools and methodologies offered in the work show that non-formal education, being more dynamic and more adjustable to the specifics and the needs of the particular classroom, offers instructor/trainer/teacher more varieties for being able to reach the learning objective to the most possible extent. The work furtherly showed that being inclusive and entertaining in character, the non-formal education methodologies are more acceptable in the diverse audience. A person would feel more reluctant to identify himself and his opinion when directly asked the question than when it is done through a simulation game; the education and learning process would be more inclusive when the student himself is part of the process through a simulation game on an unknown culture than when having to read and prepare a report on it; the instructor would more easily break the ease of communication between the newly formed group through an icebreaker on the names and the ability to remember those names than when going through the register and identifying each one‘s full name separately. And finally, the study showed that the non-formal learning process is not genuine and perfect in character either; it more difficult to assess in terms of evaluation and in terms of holding the learner accountable for the knowledge he has to acquire. The non-formal education tools presented in the work are designed primarily for developing the intercultural competence and sensitivity; however, they can be adjusted to other learning needs. The latter can be done in accordance with the peculiarities of the audience, the preference of the participants and the instructor and on the resources available at hand. The proposed continuation of the work might be the investigation of intercultural learning on an educational policy level to bring it into the school curricula to be applied directly or in-between the other school subjects. The question that should be raised is whether intercultural learning should be investigated mandatorily a t school or the outdoor and non-structured activities are enough to meet the basic needs. The second question that remains unaddressed as relevant for the Armenian reality is the following: what hiders the spread recognition of both of the non-formal education as a methodology skit and of the achievements one can mark in a non-formal structure in Armenia; what are the steps needed for advocating nonformal learning and its recognition on a state level; why the YouthPass and the like still under the shadow as certificates for competence and knowledge. 530 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCE Allport, G. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact Hypothesis and Ethnic Relations. Psychological Bulletin , pp. 319-342. Baepler, P. (2003). White Slaves, African Masters. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 588(1) , 90-111. Bennet, M. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. Paige. Boas, F. (1907). Anthropology. Boas, F. (1909). Decorative Designs in Alaskan Needlecases: A Study in the History of Conventional Designs Based on Materials in the US National Museum. The University of Chicago Press. Brewer, M. (1996). When Contact is not Enough: Social and Intergroup Cooperation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 291-303. Carron, G., & Carr-Hill, R. (1991). Non-FOrmal Education: Information and Planning Issues. Internaitonal Institute for Educational Planning, Research: UNESCO. Cirigliano, G. (1981). La Educacion Abierta. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. Combs, P. (1973). New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth. New York: International Council for Educational Development. Croft, T., & Crolla, V. e. (2003). Toolkit 8: Social Inclusion. Council of Europe: Department of Youth and Sport. Gaertner, S. D. (1996). Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Induction of a Common in Group Identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 271-290. Haas, M. R. (1944). Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati. Language, Vol. 20, No. 3 , 142-149. Hager, D. (2010). New Problems in Intercultural Education. 30 (4), 162-167. Hal, E. &. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences: Keys to Success in West Germany, France, and the United Sates. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. Harper, D. (2001). Online Etymological Dictionary. Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural Differences in Learning and Teaching. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10 , pp. 301-320. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Humphreys, D. (n.d.). Diversity in College Curriculum: How Colleges and Universities are Preparing Students for a Changing World. Retrieved September 20, 2002, from Diversity Web: http://www.diversityweb.org/leadersguide/DREI/bod.html Jeunesse, Y. F. (2005). Policy Paper on Recognition of Non-FOrmal Education: Confirming the Competences of Young People in the Knowledge Society. Juffer, K. (1985). Researching Culture Shock: The Culture Schock Adoptation Inventory. US Information Agency. Kleis, J. L. ((1973)). Toward a contextual definitionof non-formal education. Non-formal education discussion papers , pp. 3-6. Marginson, S. (2000). Rethinking academic work in the global era. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management (22), pp. 23-25. 531 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mason, D. (n.d.). Culture Shock: A Fish out of Water. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from http://international.ouc.bc.ca/cultureshock/printext.htm McGrew, W. (1998). Culture in Nonhuman Primates. Annual Review of Anthropology , p. 323. Mills, H. G. (1954). Character and Social Structure. London: O.U.P. Mitter, S. (2002). Coyote 6. Strasbourg: Council of Europe: Direcotrate of Youth and Sport: European Youth Cenre, Strasbourg. Otton, M. (2002). Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education. Oullet, F. (1991). L‘Éducation interculturelle: essai sur le contenu de la formation des maîtres. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. Paige, R. (1993). Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press. Rose, C. (2008). Intercultural Learning. British Council, Italy. Ruth, B. (1934). Patterns of Culture. Boston: Houghton Miflin. Smith, D. (1997). Diversity Works: The Emerging Picture of How Students Benefit. Washington, DC: AAC&U. Teekens, H. (2001). Teaching and Learning in the International Classroom. Amsterdam: Nuffic. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Understanding Intercultural Communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company. Tomasello, M. (1999). The Human Adaptation for Culture. Annual Review of Anthropology 28. Tylor, E. (1920). Primitive Culture. London: John Murrain. Tylor, M. (2007). European Portfolio for Youth Leaders and Youth Workers. Council of Europe: Directorate of Youth and Sport. Tylor, W. (1948). A Study of Archeology Memoir 69. American Anthropological Association , 96. UNESCO. (2006). Guidebook for Planning Education in Emergency and Reconstruction. UNESCO. Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 6th Edition. Oxford University Press. Yoshida, R. B. (1994). Intercultural Communication Training: An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA. 532 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 80 Title A name given to the resource Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Author Author Balasanyan, Gurgen Abstract A summary of the resource. The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d8159db02732c1f9259835df34afcdbd.pdf 79743106bdb5a90e13805efd702de25a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Gözde Balıkçı Department of Foreign Language Education, Faculty of Education Middle East Technical University, Turkey balikci@metu.edu.tr Abstract: The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Introduction In the field of second language learning and teaching, the question of how to learn/ teach huge amount of vocabulary of a foreign language has always been discussed. There have been lots of methods and techniques developed to find solution to this vocabulary learning problem. ―With the growth of corpus linguistics there has been increasing interest in collocations. In addition, Lewis‘ influential Lexical Approach (1993) stressed the importance of learning collocations.‖ (Shin& Nation, 2008). Firth who was the introducer of the term ―collocation‖ claims that ―you shall know a word by the company it keeps" (as cited in Kennedy, 2003).Therefore, he claimed that collocations should be taken into consideration while teaching and learning vocabulary. This small scale study primarily concerned with the concept of collocation and the use of collocations by advanced learners of English who are also prospective teachers‘ of English. It is important to know how advanced learners of English who are probably learning and using that language for at least five years are dealing with collocations. While the necessity of teaching and learning collocations are widely accepted among the researchers, it is worth investigating the use of collocations by the prospective teachers who are real practitioners in the classroom. If they give importance to the collocations and make use of them, then it may be concluded that they will teach collocations to their students, as well. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate twenty advanced learners‘ of English writings studying in the Foreign Language Teaching Department to explore their use of collocations specifically adjective- noun and noun -noun collocations. The main questions are; do they use these types of collocations while writing essays, how many noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations do they use and what are their mistakes while producing these collocations. In order to answer these questions, twenty students‘ analysis papers are investigated and noun-noun and adjective-noun pairs are manually extracted from the text. Then, these pairs are counted and it is decided whether they can be called as collocations so their collocational strength is determined by using Oxford Collocations Dictionary (OCD) and British National Corpus (BNC) and Google. It is believed that the results obtained from this study will probably make positive contribution to the field and it will provide us with insights into the use of collocations by advanced learners. Firstly, as there are various definitions of collocations among the linguists, these definitions and different approaches to collocations and the classification of them will be mentioned and discussed. Then, the importance of collocations for second language learners will be discussed. The studies carried out to investigate the use of collocations by advanced learners will be under investigation and their common findings will be thoroughly examined. Afterwards, the procedure of the study and the results will be explained. The findings and the implications of the study for the field will be carefully examined. 513 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Defining Collocations As stated above the term ―collocation‖ was first introduced by Firth (1957) who argued that ―you shall judge a word by the company it keeps.‖ ―Although the concept has long been a popular topic in linguistics there is no universally accepted formal definition of collocation (Lewis, 2001; Grant and Bauer 2004, as cited in Wang& Shaw,2008). ―Therefore, there are various terms such as ―fixed expression, word-combination, idiom, phrase, prefabricated language.‖ (Wang& Shaw,2008) Leśniewska (2006) has stated that ―collocations are notoriously difficult to define and different (often slightly contradictory) definitions proliferate in the literature‖. In his much quoted study, ―Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency‖ Howarth (1998) has examined various approaches to define collocations and he defines them as ―combinations of words with a syntactic function as constituents of sentences (such as noun or prepositional phrases or verb and object constructions). He also pointed out another problem and stated that: Although the term phraseology (the study of word combinations) is increasingly used by writers in a number of language related disciplines, the field has perhaps not yet achieved wide recognition in applied linguistics nor are the implications of research within the field fully understood by or easily available to language teachers. (p.24). Howarth (1998) has provided us with a figure illustrating this continuum; Free combinations Restricted Figurative Idioms collocations Blow a fuse Blow your own Lexical composites Blow a trumpet trumpet verb+noun Under the table Under attack Under the Grammatical microscope composites Preposition+noun Figure 2 Collocational continuum (Howarth, 1998) Pure idioms Blow the gaff Under the weather According to Howarth (1998); Free combinations (also referred to as open and free collocations) include elements used in their literal senses and freely substitutable (carry a trumpet, on top of the table). Restricted collocations have one component (usually the preposition, verb or adjective ‗collocator‘ of the base noun, to use Haussmann‘s (1979) terms) that is used in specialized, often figurative sense only found in the context of a limited number of collocates. (p. 28) Wang&Shaw (2008) define restricted collocations (also referred to as fixed combinations or collocations) usually have one item used in a non-literal sense, often a specialized, or figurative sense, and the other used in its normal meaning such as run a company, bitterly contested. The vocabulary choice is less predictable in this category of collocations than in free collocations. In terms of idioms, figurative ones have metaphorical meanings and have a literal interpretation, pure idioms have a unitary meaning that cannot be derived from the meanings of the components, and are the most opaque and fixed category. (p. 28). The role of collocations in second language learning and teaching Lewis (1997), in his ‗lexical approach‘ theory points out that fluency in a foreign language is conditioned by the acquisition of a number of pre-fabricated chunks. He also regards collocation as central feature of a language production. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Lewis (2000) has also claimed that the number of collocations understood as word combinations is greater than the number of all words because the same words can occur in various collocations. That is the reason why even advanced learners have difficulties in producing collocations. In addition, collocational competence which is suggested by Hill (1999) enables learners to produce texts which not only grammatically correct or merely probable or hypothetical but, authentic, which means it is this collocation which a native speaker would use in this specific situation. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Shin & Nation (2008) has discussed the question of why collocations should be learned and taught. They stated that the main reason is ―they help learners‘ language use, both with development of fluency and native like selection.‖ (p.340). 514 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pawler and Sydner (1983) argue that there is usually more than one possible way of saying something but only one or two of these ways sound natural to a native speaker of the language. (as cited in Shin & Nation ,2008) Moreover, Oxford Collocations Dictionary claims that ―with the right choice of word combinations you can express your ideas much more convincingly‖. Therefore knowledge of collocations can be considered very important for developing writing skills in a second language, as well. Collocations as a source of difficulty for advanced learners Although Nesselhauf (2003) has stated ―especially at an advanced level, learners‘ difficulties with collocations have not been investigated in much detail so far‖, some important researches have been carried out in this field. DeCock et al(1998), Oppenheim (2000), Foster (2001), and Adolphs and Durrow (2004) have all looked at the use of formulaic language in advanced non-native speech, while Yorio (1989), Granger (1998), Lorenz (1999), Howarth (1998), Kaszubski (2000) and Nesselhauf (2005) have investigated writing (as cited in Durrant &Schmitt, 2009). Durrant and Schmitt (2009) pointed out the general picture emerged from these studies; Advanced learners do appear to use formulaic language (in some cases quite selfconsciously (Oppenheim 2000), but often not to the same extent as natives (Foster 2001, Granger 1998; Howarth 1998). At the same time, learners tend to overuse (in comparison to native norms) a small range of favourite phrases, especially if they are frequent/ neutral items or are cognate to L1 forms. (Foster (2001) Granger (1998) Kaszubski (2000) Lorenz (1999), Nesselhauf (2005), DeCock et al(1998). Wang & Shaw (2008) have summarised the results of some other studies investigating collocational errors made by EFL learners. They have stated that one of the difficulties in collocation use is the lack of knowledge as to collocational possibilities of verbs (Lennon, 1996); hence mismatches between lexical items as in stop the fire instead of put out the fire. A second type of error is blending (Howarth, 1998) such as pay care (blend of pay attention and take care). Nesselhauf (2003), in his much quoted study, found out that all errors made by advanced learners of English stem from the mismatch between the verb and noun. Prepositional errors as in the raise the question about (raise the question of) and determiner errors as in get the permission (get permission) are also fairly frequent among advanced EFL learners. Most of the studies focusing on the analysis of verb- direct object collocations in a corpus of academic writing (Nesselhauf, 2003, Howarth, 1998) suggest that ―the most problematic area for learners in terms of collocational knowledge is made up by the collocations which are on the borderline between free combinations and restricted ones.‖ (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Howarth claimed that; It may be claimed that the problem facing the non-native writer or speaker is knowing which of a range of collocational options are restricted and which are free. Unlike idioms and more restricted collocations, the ‗somewhat restricted‘ word combinations are not learned as wholes. It appears that the ability to manipulate such clusters (collocations which are partly restricted) is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a useful indicator of degrees of proficiency across the boundary between non-native and native competence‖(p.38). Although it is not possible to find out studies analysing noun-noun or adjective-noun collocations, most of the studies investigating verb- noun collocations find out that the most problematic category for even advanced learners of English is the use of restricted collocations such as take a picture (as we cannot say take a movie or film). Leśniewska (2006) states that these findings fit in with certain implications of the psycholinguistics research, namely, that fixed multi-word units, such as idioms, may be less problematic for learners than subtler kinds of restrictions. Because when a second language learner encounters idioms that are opaque and figurative compared to the collocations, the idioms will probably attract the attention of the learners. Therefore; they will be more permanent as they are perceived as salient. In addition, Leśniewska (2006) has claimed that ―because of the demanding nature of foreign language production, learners seem to rely on familiar expressions, which recalled as wholes, contribute fluency. While there is no empirical support for the view that the learners use fewer formulaic expressions, there is evidence that they use fewer restricted collocations.‖ Siyanova&Schmitt (2008) conducted a study investigating processing of adjective –noun collocations (social services) among advanced learners of English. Overall, the studies carried out by them suggest that ―L2 learners are capable of producing a large number of 515 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appropriate collocations but that underlying intuitions and the fluency with collocations of even advanced learners do not seem to match those of native speakers.‖ Waller (1993) has carried out research exploring the characteristics of near-native proficiency as they are thought to demonstrate themselves in writing. The texts are collected from both native speakers and non native speakers at the advanced level. In the light of this study, Waller concluded that in learners‘ writings the most tangible marker of non- nativeness is the use of collocations. He states that ―what is even more interesting, however, is that problems in collocational usage were found to be restricted to the texts written by non-native speakers, whereas other problems (e.g. syntactic errors, or lexical errors other than collocational) were found in both groups of texts. Therefore, Waller concludes that the use of collocations may create ―a foreign accent in writing‖. (Waller, 1993, as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Kälkvist (1998) reached similar conclusions in his study analyzing the types of collocational errors made by advanced Swedish learners of English. ―The most common type of error was that of overextension, which resulted in awkward collocations, pointing to the unawareness of usage restrictions on the part of the students.‖(as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Three main findings aroused from Durrant and Schmitt‘ study (2009) which investigated both advanced learners and native speakers of English. When compared to native speakers, learners use more high frequency collocations. Also learners make at least as much use of collocations as do natives. In addition, they overuse strong collocations in comparison to native norms. Learners rely on forms which are common in the language. Thus, it may be concluded that second language learners do acquire quite effectively much of the high-frequency phraseology of the target language. (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). It is suggested that ― language teachers wishing to hasten their students along the route of developing an authentic native like phraseology may benefit from drawing their attention to collocations that are less common but strongly associated items (e.g. densely populated, bated breath, preconceived notions)‖ (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). These are the studies analysing advanced learners‘ use of collocations in their written productions. In essence, most of them suggest that advanced learners make use of collocations however; they make mistakes while using the restricted collocations rather than free combinations or idioms. In addition, they may overuse most frequent collocations probably due to the greater exposure to these collocations. Although these various studies appear to give the same results, prior to making generalisations, one should be careful. As Howarth (1998) has warned; While analyzing what makes an individual collocation non-standard can help in understanding what the non-native has done on a particular occasion, and some general conclusions can be drawn, there is a need for alternative perspectives to increase our understanding of deeper processes of acquisition such as learner strategies. In discussing strategies in relation to phraseology, one must distinguish between two different phenomena. On the one hand, there is the repeated use of routines and patterns as an early communication strategy used by a speaker to overcome a lack of linguistic resources (discussed in Krashen and Scarcella 1978), on the other hand, there are cognitive strategies used by more advanced learners when consciously attending to collocational knowledge. (p.39). Howarth (1998) has also listed five strategies the learners adopted while using collocations. Therefore, one should take these strategies into consideration while investigating the use of collocations by the learners. These strategies are ―avoidance, experimentation, transfer, analogy, and repetition.‖ Avoidance refers to the strategy that learners adopt when they cannot produce the target collocation, they can simply avoid using it. Experimentation can be adopted by the risk taker learners. When they do not know an English restricted collocation, they can try to find a synonymous one (free combination). Also the learners can simply transfer a L1 collocation to L2 if they cannot find a suitable one. The process of adapting a known L2 collocation which is called analogy (by substituting one element for another known lexical item) could be regarded as a form of intralingual L2 transfer and it is claimed to be highly productive. Lastly, ―repetition can be adopted if the learners do not have enough confidence or inclination to extend collocations by analogy, a writer may fall back on the repeated use of a limited number of known collocations‖. (p. 41). Methodology The participants: For this study, I worked with twenty students nearly at the age of twenty who are first year students in the Foreign Language Education Department at METU. Their educational background and level of English is nearly same. All of them graduated from teacher training high school. They passed YDS and EPE exam to enter the department at which they are studying now. Therefore, they are at advanced level. At the department, they are taking courses contextual grammar, linguistics, advanced reading and writing, oral 516 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo communication skills, English literature. Therefore, they are mainly focusing on English language; they also try to develop their language skills. In addition to these must courses, all of them took an elective course; ―Critical Reading and Thinking‖. Throughout the semester, I attended that course in order to make observations. The Data: During the course, they read articles on some controversial issues such as abortion, gun control, bilingualism, gay marriages and international adoption. Each week is spent on one controversial issue. Besides reading articles on the topic, they watched a movie about the same issue. Then each student is required to write a rhetorical analysis of one issue. In these analysis, they are expected to evaluate the writer‘s and the director‘s point of view, their approach to the topics, their way of expressing their thoughts and refuting other people‘s ideas. While analysing the articles and movies, they try to detect the specific strategies that the writers and directors use. In addition, they try to find out the appeals (logical, emotional, and ethical) that writers achieve to have. Finally, they try to examine the fallacies in the movie or in the articles. Therefore, my data include twenty rhetorical analysis reports sixty seven pages long. Their topics are gun control, gay marriages and international adoption. According to Leśniewska (2006), there are different ways of assessing collocational knowledge such as analyzing the language production of learners either written or spoken, using corpora of L2 writing analyzing only specific, pre-selected collocations, eliciting collocational decisions of learners for specific items using gap filling tasks or in the form of closed tasks such as multiple choice.(p.96). The procedure: Of these data collection methods mentioned above, I only used the first one, analyzing the language production of learners in a written form. First of all, I read all of the papers, and then I chose to investigate noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations. In the literature, nearly all of the researchers study the verb-noun collocations as they are more frequent and they are more widely used than the noun-noun or adjective- noun collocations. Identification of word combinations: The present analysis is limited to directly noun-noun and adjective-noun combinations. They are chosen because they are particularly common in the texts analysed. First of all, all of the noun-noun and adjective- noun pairs are extracted manually. Combinations such as pronouns, possessives, semi determiners- as listed in Biber et al. (1999), i.e. same, other, next, such (as cited in Durrant& Schmitt, 2009) are not included. Also the quotations are not included in the analysis as they do not represent learners‘ real performance. However, as these papers are analysis papers so learners quoted extensively from the writers of the articles. In addition, when encountered such phrases currency of the subject matter I did not separate them. The total number of words that learners write in their papers (including content and function words) is 43986. This procedure retrieved a total of 937 noun-noun and adjective- noun combinations. However, this number includes repeated word combinations as well. I do not name them as collocations yet as some of them have never appeared in the British National Corpus (BNC) or Oxford Collocation Dictionary (OCD). Calculation of collocational strength: While evaluating these combinations in terms of collocational strength I used BNC, OCD and Google. The main aim of the evaluation is first to find out if the words are really collocating with each other and how frequently they are collocating. BNC is apparently preferred by many researchers (Nesselhauf, 2005, Shin &Nation, 2008, Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). Nesselhauf (2005) explains why he uses BNC in his much quoted study; The British National Corpus consists of 100 million words of modern British English. It contains about 90 million words of written language and 10 million words of spoken language of various text typed ranging from formal academic prose and popular fiction to transcribed radio shows and informal conversation. (Nesselhauf, 2005). OCD is also well known collocation dictionary which contains 150.000 collocations of 9.000 nouns and verbs and adjectives. (Oxford Collocation Dictionary, 2002). The reason why I used Google is trying to find out the frequency of the word combinations. Google can be unreliable source of information; therefore I used it with meticulous care. I examined the websites that Google offered to find out whether they are trustable or not. For most of the word combinations I looked at first OCD to find out if the dictionary gives the collocation. If the word combination is in the dictionary, it is accepted as collocation. If not, then I searched the word combination in the BNC. When I could not find the pair in the BNC, then I googled it. If the number of the results given by the Google is under thousand, then the word pair is not accepted as collocation, some of them are accepted as free collocations. The results: The total number of words is retrieved from the twenty papers are 43989. (including content, function words and quoted words). There are sixty seven pages of papers. 285 word combinations are noun –noun collocations, 652 combinations are adjective-noun combinations. All of the collocations in the papers can be found in Appendix A. If we exclude the repeated collocations, there are 698 combinations in which 188 noun-noun combinations and 510 adjective noun combinations occur. Only one noun-noun combination is considered as wrong; humane sentiment. (it may be human sentiment). 15 adjective-noun combinations are considered as wrong. These findings can be seen in the table and in the figure below; 517 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Number of papers analysed: 20 The total number of words : 43989 Total page of the papers: 67 The number of combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of noun-noun combinations (repeated combinations included): 937 285 The number of adjective-noun combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of adjective-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations The number of adjective-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations Table 1 Summary of the numbers of retrieved combinations 652 698 188 510 1 15 Figure 3 Analysis of the types of collocations Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations The possible source of error 518 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. interrupted internet L1 transfer first hand related events Intralingual error certain happenings Intralingual error neat mantage Grammatical error second hand alternative Intralingual error oncoming questions Intralingual error well known reputation L1 transfer ethnic roots L1 transfer respectable awards L1 transfer furious comments Intralingual error pathetic movies Grammatical error pitiable feelings Intralingual error legitimate judgements L1 transfer constant beliefs Intralingual error first hand opinions Intralingual error Table 2 Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations and possible sources of errors The Discussion The study has aimed to find out the extent to which advanced learners of English make use of word combinations, how learners are dealing with collocations. Although the learners wrote these papers at their homes without time pressure, it may be inferred from the results that they did not use collocations extensively. To be able to write effectively, they should have made use of these word combinations. As Howarth (1998) suggested that learners can use some strategies while using collocations, maybe these students opt to make avoidance and avoid using collocations. If the collocations are examined thoroughly, it can be clearly seen that the collocations used frequently are the ones used in the course frequently. While they are reading the passages, watching the movies, discussing about the controversial issues, they both use the collocations and they are exposed to these collocations such as controversial issue, striking movie, logical appeal, violent history, gun issue, emotional issue, single mother, contradictory issues....Therefore, it may be inferred that exposure to collocations may affect the use of collocations in a positive way. Furthermore, the learners repeated these collocations so they use another strategy Howarth (1998) mentioned; repetition. Although I did not intend to categorise collocations as free, restricted ones; the findings demonstrate that most of the collocations are free combinations. There are not much strong collocations. Therefore, this study also supports the other studies investigating the use of collocations in advanced learners‘ writings. As they also find out those learners heavily rely on free collocations as restricted ones are difficult to use (they can be considered more marked than the free collocations.) 519 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Durrant, P. Schmitt, N.(2009). To what extent do native and non-native writers make use of collocations? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 47, pp.157-177. Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency. Applied Linguistics. 19/1. 24-44. Kennedy, G. (2003). Amplifier Collocations in the British National Corpus: Implications for English Language Teaching. Tesol Quarretly 37/3, Lesnievska, J. (2006). Collocations and Second Language Use. Studia Linguistica.123, 95-105 Martynska, M. (2004). Do English language learners know collocations. Investigationes Linguisticae. 9/1-15. Nesselhauf. (2003). The use of Collocations by Advanced Learners of English. Applied Linguistics 24/2: 223242. Shin, D., Nation, P. (2008). Beyond Simple Words: The most frequent collocations in spoken English. ELT Journal. 62/4. 339-48. 520 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 78 Title A name given to the resource The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Author Author Balıkçı, Gözde Abstract A summary of the resource. The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7b3290aea07841cc4526699ed11ed6a8.pdf 0b73db7109a9b2dd30184f615f2f79e6 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey Daniel Basílio Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal dgsbasilio@ua.pt Maria Helena de Araújo e Sá Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal helenasa@ua.pt Ana Raquel Simões Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal anaraquel@ua.pt Abstract: This paper proposes to present an ongoing research project aiming at diagnosing the reciprocal language and cultural images of Portuguese learners of Turkish and Turkish learners of Portuguese as foreign languages in the Higher Education context. As a case-study format project following an eminently qualitative approach, it includes the application, analysis and interpretation of the results of three distinct and sequential data-collection instruments: two questionnaires/surveys, a collective interview, and an on-line platform that will serve as a space for the interaction of the students of both countries. Conclusions are to be taken on how the images/social representations the two groups of students construct of each other pertain on their knowledge and attitudes towards each other, and, ultimately, on their intercultural competence. Based on these conclusions, ―cultural awareness‖ and intercultural competence development guidelines, at the level of foreign language learning – teaching, are to be devised and provided to be applied in Portuguese and Turkish higher education institutions. In this article we intend to account for the first questionnaire/survey, a more quantitatively devised data collection instrument, which has been already applied to the students involved in the study. Key Words: Images / Social Representations, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Language Teaching Introduction Given the importance of intercultural dialogue in an increasingly globalized world, this research Project − ―Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey‖− intents to contribute to the rapprochement of two countries that appear to be distant in what concerns the linguistic, cultural, social, and religious factors that structure them, although they share a similar peripheral geographical position in the European continent, a recent past of some economical frailty, and an imperial history: Portugal and Turkey. In the present geopolitical conjuncture, in which Turkey is a candidate for European Union (EU) membership, the EU must be regarded as constituting, in its plurality, a unitary entity when confronted with a non-member state, with a majorly Muslim population, and most of its territory geographically located in the Asian continent. This project, centered on the reciprocal images of Portuguese and Turkish students who are learning, respectively, Turkish and Portuguese, as a foreign language, in the higher education context, aims at answering the need for a cultural mediation between the two countries, and at contributing to a tightening of the relations between them. 292 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As higher education institutions are a privileged space for the creation and maintenance of contact and cooperation between their public, namely through foreign languages teaching /learning programs and internationalization strategies, they more and more assume the responsibility of fostering ways of developing their public‘s competences to cope with the raising complexity inherent to contemporary societies. As this complexity reflects itself on the identity and communication processes, the images/ social representations37 of the language and culture that each group builds of the other will be analyzed as to set forth a diagnosis of the shared reciprocal images. This diagnosis will be taken as a basis for the identification of factors of rapprochement and distancing between the two groups and the conception of cultural mediation strategies within the framework of an intercultural approach that, at a formative level and in the context of Higher Education in both countries, should concur to the promotion of intercultural dialogue as a means of strengthening mutual understanding between the people from either culture. 1. Theoretical framework 1.1. Educational challenges of a new century – the intercultural requirement Delors (1996) and Morin (1999) claimed that education in the 21st century ought to be envisaged as a continual process of individual and collective development, in what respects competences and knowledge. They also highlighted its role in the tightening of interpersonal, communal, and international relationships, before the challenges mankind would have to face, realizing that human beings are as deeply involved in each other's existence as they are in each other's rejection. Bohm (1980) and Morin (2008) connected the factors hindering human beings from working together for a common goal with a fragmented and disconnected view of reality, and urged for its reconstruction: it is the way thought is organized that will enable human-beings to find their place and act in the world as individuals, and as members of mankind. In this sense, Abdallah-Pretceille (1999), adopting an intercultural perspective, proposes a conceptual and methodological paradigm of diversity. He highlights the processes that define individuals and groups in relation to the Other, regards the questioning of identity facing alterity as an essential value, and adopts a way of thinking that simultaneously tells apart and reconstructs universality. Proposing a rethinking of cultural knowledge in a heterogeneous context, and privileging an analysis of complexity over one of structures and states, implying interpreting and analyzing interactions on a hermeneutical basis that opposes "doing culture" to "being culture" (cf. Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006). This conception has a deep bearing on Intercultural Education (IE), which aims at promoting intercultural competence and dialogue for the development of multicultural democratic societies, by raising the individual's consciousness of cultural differences; on the construction of a common basis of dialogue rooted on the knowledge of other cultures and one's own; on the psychological processes of acculturation and intercultural contact; and on intercultural communication. We thus recognize, with Birzea (2003), that interculturality is fundamentally characterized by reciprocal relations and by the capacity of entities to take on shared responsibilities, and create common identities by developing common projects. It should, therefore, be instituted as a universal element of education at all levels (Bleszynska, 2008). 1.2. Intercultural Education in Higher Education In the field of educational policies, the Council of Europe (CoE) has fostered strategies that make the European space one of privileged Intercultural Dialogue (ID), the role of the higher education institutions being seen as of paramount importance in its re-enforcement. ID is defined as a process of open exchange of ideas between individuals and groups of different ethnical, cultural, religious, and linguistic traditions, upon a basis of mutual respect, aiming at improving understanding of diverse practices and world views, strengthening cooperation, enabling adaptation of individuals, and promoting tolerance and acceptance of the other (cf. CoE, 2008). 37 As, in this text, the concept of images is used in close association with the concept of social representations we will choose to maintain the use of only the term ―images‖ as it is the one mostly used in the field of Language Didactics. 293 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo For the CoE, one of the priority purposes of contemporary educational systems is to supply learners with language and intercultural competences that enable them to efficiently act as citizen members of an increasingly larger and more complex community, to acquire knowledge, and develop attitudes of openness to alterity (cf. Beacco, Byram, Coste & Fleming, 2009: s/p), i.e. to develop a view of language and culture learning based on plurilingual and intercultural educational principles. Therefore, one of the greatest challenges Foreign Language Teaching faces today is that of supplying learners with language and intercultural competences that allow them to efficiently interact in a progressively broader community. 1.3. Images of languages and cultures in Foreign Language Education To face this challenge with the necessary tools it is of paramount importance for Language Education to act upon the images of the language that students are learning, of the people who speak it, and of their culture. To achieve this aim, Language Didactics (LD) proposes a concept of images as systems of interpretation of reality anchored in historical, social-identitary, cognitive and discursive processes, specific to each subject or group, and partaking in their process of grasping and constructing reality, influencing the ways in which the subject or group interact with it (Andrade, Araöjo e Sá & Moreira, 2007). The notion of images in LD adopts the characteristics of an ―immigrant‖, ―nomad‖ and ―carrefour‖ concept (cf. Vasseur, 2001; Muller & De Pietro, 2001), which simultaneously avert its conceptual crystallization and contribute for it to be approached by multiple theoretical and methodological perspectives. The reciprocal images of the individuals are understood to be crucial in cross-cultural communication (cf. Doise & Palmonari, 1986), and the LD reference framework for the images of languages and cultures constitutes an effective contribution to educational strategies and practices that aim at developing intercultural communication as an interaction of different world visions. Consequently, LD, as a scientific discipline aiming at playing an active role within the framework of complex cultural social-political contexts (cf. Alarcão, Andrade, Araöjo e Sá, Melo-Pfeiffer & Santos, 2009), puts forward a conception of images rooted on the principle that its comprehension gives access to individual or group world views, permitting to explain how subjects build reality, and proposes to effectively intervene in the teaching /learning context (cf. Mariko, 2005; Andrade, Araöjo e Sá & Moreira, 2007 ). In this sense we intend to follow two approaches to the study of images in the context of Language Didactics: as diagnosis, testimony, or evidence of social reality; as constitutive of social reality, which implies working on images through images, so as to contribute to their (re/des)construction (cf. Mariko, 2005). 2. Proposal of a research baseline hypothesis: images of language and culture are related by mutual implication to Intercultural Competence This project is developed in the confluence of these two trends of imagological studies in LD. The ways social images relate to the dimensions focused on by the multidimensional models of intercultural competence (e.g. Byram, 1997; Risager, 2007) are analysed so as to contribute to the development of the Portuguese and Turkish students' IC, and promote ID between the two countries. We, thus, depart from the relation of mutual implication between the dimensions contemplated in the multidimensional models of IC, and the images of language and culture individuals build of each other. This relation is implicit in the baseline definitions of both concepts: − Images: socially constructed, shared knowledge, with practical bearings that contribute to the construction of a common reality for a determined social group; systems of representation of reality responsible for the orientation and organization of social behaviour (Jodelet, 1997), accounting for the ways of interaction with the Other (Doise & Palmonari, 1986, Abric, 1994), and for the subject's understanding of the social dynamics he takes part in (Vala, 1993). − IC: adequate, effective management of the interaction between individuals with different affective, cognitive, behavioral orientations that are a result of different group or cultural affiliations, as this interaction becomes an intercultural process (Spitzberg & Chagnon, 2009). We thus intend to contribute to an optimization of diversity on the basis of "reciprocal valuing" constituted by heterogeneousness − realizing how differences can enrich us, considering how fundamentally identical we are". (Abdallah-Pretceille & Porcher, 1996: 20). It this sense of mutual enrichment that heartens this study, and prevails throughout it. 294 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Research project ―Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey‖ description 3.1. Main objectives Three main research objectives structure this project: 1) To diagnose the reciprocal images of Portuguese and Turkish higher education students, respectively learning Turkish and Portuguese language; account for the factors involved in the construction of such images; identify and analyse the relations between these images. 2) To devise a theoretical tool based on a referential framework for the development of the students' Intercultural Competence, and of ID in the Portuguese and Turkish higher education context. 3) To contribute to Intercultural Education and Foreign Language Teaching with the proposal of strategic guidelines focused on language education practices aiming at developing the students' Intercultural Competence, and promoting ID between Portugal and Turkey. 3.2. Main stages As an eminently imagological comparative study, this project will focus on the reciprocal images of students of a Turkish university, and of two Portuguese universities, respectively, learning Portuguese and Turkish as a foreign language in their Higher Education language learning context. Two distinct, but complementary, sequential stages are contemplated: a) The first stage is intended to identify, describe and categorize the reciprocal images of the two groups in question. A comparative analysis of these images will be developed, aiming at the understanding of how they interrelate in terms of similarity or difference regarding their nature and function, and of the factors involved in their construction. The interference of the images on both groups' ability to communicate and relate to each other will also be scrutinized. Based on the results, a theoretical referential framework will be constructed highlighting the interconnection between the conclusions of the analysis and categorization of the images, and the multidimensional model of Intercultural Competence. b) The second phase is focused on the development of strategic guidelines of intervention at the foreign language (Portuguese and Turkish as foreign languages) education level. Based on the objectives inherent to IE, and on the interconnection of images and Intercultural Competence, it is intended to improve the students' Intercultural Competence, their awareness of the intrinsic value of the each other's language and culture , and their ability to reflect upon their own culture when faced with the other's, as crucial to the development of positive attitudes regarding diversity. 3.3. Methodological design Considering that the field of Education research is that of an unrepeatable, mutable reality, with an undetermined number of conditioning factors, assumptions, and purposes (cf. Amado & Boavida, 2008: 226), a constructivist approach was adopted, of an ontological and epistemological nature, based on the conception of knowledge as co-constructed in a collaborative process, focusing on the research process itself, and not disregarding the intervention and influence of the researcher himself. (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994). It takes the form of a "multiple cases" variant of a case study project, as it includes more than only one case (cf. Yin, 2009). A contemporary phenomenon is focused on, in a real life context, by means of a comprehensive research strategy, aiming at approaching its understanding through a systematic, detailed, intensive, deepened, and interactive examination (cf. Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). The results obtained are not intended to be generalized, as they aim, on the contrary, at achieving a deeper level of understanding of the issues in study. Two imagological complementary approaches are adopted: a thematized approach, which takes images as elements liable to explain competences inherent to an individual or group, and which aims at 295 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo understanding the individual's world organization system; and a non-thematized or constructivist approach, which focuses on the dynamical nature of images, and aims at devising educational activities that should favour the (re)construction of those very images (cf. Vasseur, 2001; Mùller & de Pietro, 2001). Data collection and analysis are, thus, carried out according to quantitative-qualitative continuum model (Niglas, 2004), and the following data collection tools were adopted: 1) inquire by questionnaire − Two distinct questionnaires are applied: (1) ―Images‖ will focus on the reciprocal images of the inquired; (2) "Intercultural‖ will take the form of a selfreport by the inquired on aspects connected with intercultural communication; it is intended to gather information on how the inquired describe and assess themselves in what concerns their own intercultural capacities, rather than to assess their intercultural competence levels. 2) focus group technique − inherent to a qualitative research, it propitiates an approach to different individuals' diverse views on a predefined theme. Based on inductive research strategies, results are largely descriptive, seen as a way of complementing or deepening the information gathered through other methods, and contributing to hypothesizing in subsequent data collecting and analysis phases and / or future research (cf. Stewart; Shamdasani & Rook, 2007); 3) on-line interaction platform − interaction between the two publics in study is recorded in the form of an on-line platform specially designed for the purpose, in which groups are intended to interact in order to fulfill a task within the context of a collaborative work to be integrated in the teaching programs of Portuguese and Turkish language courses attended by the classes of the students participating in this project. 4. Description of the ―Images‖ questionnaire This questionnaire is applied to the Higher Education Portuguese and Turkish students attending, respectively, Turkish and Portuguese as FL language courses in both countries. Four different classes were selected: two classes of a Portuguese Language course of a Turkish University and two classes of a Turkish language course of two different Portuguese Universities. The students are attending the second semester of either the first or second year of the respective language courses. The construction of this questionnaire, its application and the planning of the subsequent processes of analysis of its results were guided by the following main research questions: 1. What is the biographical, academic and professional profile of the students involved? 2. What images of the native and foreign languages (Portuguese and Turkish), and of their speakers and culture are shared by the participants? 3. What are the main factors which are likely to interfere in the construction of the reciprocal images of the participants? 4. At what level can the images of the two groups of participants be inter-related? 5. What are the implications of these images on the processes of approaching/distancing of the students regarding their counterpart‘s language, people and culture? The questionnaire was structured as to obtain an answer to these questions, focusing mainly on the collection of data related to the reciprocal images of the two groups, and divided in five distinct sections, presented in Table 1. Table 1: ―Images‖ questionnaire sections and respective data collection objectives. Sections Objectives 1. Personal Data Describe the subjects in what concerns: Sex, age, nationality. Professional experience. Academic experience (level of education, study cycle, institution, department, and name of the course being taken, participation and/or desire to participate in mobility programs). 2. Linguistic Biography Describe the subjects' linguistic biography: Mother language(s); parents' mother language(s). Significant experience abroad; reasons for experience; acquisition of the language(s) of the host country. FLs learnt; learning context; competence (self-assessment); motivations for learning 296 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FLs used (contexts and motives). 3. Images of the Turkish and Portuguese Languages 4. Images of the Turkish and Portuguese people and cultures 5. Opinions and attitudes regarding the EU Describe the self- / hetero – images of the subjects regarding Turkish and Portuguese languages: Motivations for learning Portuguese/Turkish as FL. Level of difficulty in learning Portuguese/Turkish Images of the Turkish Language. Images of the Portuguese Language. Images of the status of the Turkish/Portuguese language in different contexts, and of its future development. Describe the images regarding the Turkish and Portuguese people and cultures: Visits to Turkey/Portugal; contexts of the visit; interest in visiting the country. Contacts/relationships with Turkish/Portuguese natives or descendents; nature of contact/relationship. Images of the Turkish people (self- / hetero-images) Images of the Portuguese people (self- / hetero-images) Images regarding the general representation of Turkish people shared by the Portuguese people. Images regarding the general representation of Portuguese people shared by the Turkish people. Factors concurring to the rapprochement between Portuguese and Turkish people. Factors concurring to the distancing between Portuguese and Turkish people. Degree of comfort to establish social and affective relations with Turkish/Portuguese people. Political and social images of Turkey and Portugal. Degree of identification with the Turkish/Portuguese people. Images of the influence of religion on different social and political spheres in Portugal and Turkey. Images of the status of Turkey and Portugal at the intellectual, cultural, economical, and industrial level in different contexts, and of the future development of the two countries. Describe the opinions and attitudes of the participants regarding the UE: Positioning regarding the membership of Portugal/Turkey in the EU. Political and social aspects of the EU. European identity. Degree of confidence regarding the future of the EU. Level of a sense of belonging to a progressively larger geographical or cultural context. Association of certain political, social, economical, and religious values to the EU, Turkey, Portugal, or none of them. Degree of support, or opposition, to the integration of Turkey in the EU. Challenges that Turkey faces as a candidate State to the integration in the EU. Concerning the questions typology, a range of Open-ended and Closed-ended formats were selected: Open-ended; word-associations; multiple-choice (open- and closed-ended); categorical (open- and closedended); Likert-scale. This instrument had already been subjected to a validation and pre-testing process, having also been adapted to a digital format to be available on-line. Both the divulgation and filling of the ―Images‖ questionnaire is processed through the internet. 4.1 Expected outcomes and future valence of the use of the ―Images‖ questionnaire The treatment of the collected data is expected to: - present a characterization of the students' profile; understand their motivation to learn Portuguese and Turkish as foreign language; know the nature and level of communicational and relational experiences with their counterpart; present a characterization of the images that both groups construct regarding their own language and culture and their counterpart‘s; 297 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - understand the level of influence of the participants‘ opinions and attitudes regarding the EU on their reciprocal images (Portugal being a member-State of this institution, and Turkey being a longtime candidate to the integration in the EU) These results will propitiate the reaching of conclusions on the participants‘ self- and hetero-images that should provide a basis for a comparative analysis intended to highlight the main similarities and differences of the nature, characteristics, and background of the reciprocal images of the two groups of students, and elicit some further conclusions on the factors that might come to play a role in intercultural communication between Portuguese and Turkish people. A set of conclusions on the images that either group constructs and shares regarding the other will have an intrinsic value for the academic research in Language Didactics and IE, as well as for other disciplines in the area of the social studies. It will also provide a basis for the planning and construction of the data collection instruments and techniques to be applied in the development of this research project: the collective interviews (based on the technique of focus-group) and the on-line interaction platform. The data collection instruments based on an eminently qualitative methodology will help deepen the knowledge and understanding of the participants‘ reciprocal images, and of the interconnection between these images and the participants‘ ability to be involved in effective intercultural communication with each other. Conclusion The ultimate aim of this research project is to promote an effective ID between Turkish and Portuguese people through the proposal of strategic guidelines focused on education practices in foreign language education (Portuguese and Turkish), in a Higher Education context, intended to further develop the students' IC and raise their awareness of their counterpart‘s language and culture. The tightening of the connections between the two countries is seen as extremely beneficial not only in a conjectural intercultural communication framework to be promoted and developed in the Higher Education context, at an intellectual, economical, political, and cultural level. In face of the complexity and variety of the factors involved in the construction and use of the images of languages and cultures, as well as in the different dimensions that are part of IC, we chose to follow a holistic paradigmatic approach, in the planning, structuring, and developing stages of the present project. This approach was based mainly on the epistemological and scientific frameworks presented by Bohm (2008) and Morin (2008), which are based, respectively, on the conceptions of ―Wholeness‖ and ―Complexity‖. These approaches are considered fundamental when studying the factors involved in the study of images and intercultural communication, primarily because both approaches present a conception of the self as a simultaneously individual and collective reality and give emphasis to the complexity and interconnectedness of this same reality. The contemporary challenges facing all human beings and nations stress the urgency for a further epistemological development in science, which has to be based on the development of a ―new way of thinking‖ (Bohm, 2008; Morin, 2008). In this sense, and viewing the world as a ―complex wholeness", this project answers the need for a transdisciplinary perspective that propitiates the problematization of the questions under study in a wider and more complex way, allowing for the dissolution of barriers intrinsic to the disciplinary stratification of sciences, in particular of the Social and Human Sciences (cf. Geertz, 1989). In clear opposition to the latter's fragmentary view of reality we chose to make use of theoretical frameworks from different disciplinary scientific areas, as well as to adopt and implement different methodologically based data collection instruments and processes of analysis of their products. We believe that only by interconnecting different views and methodologies will it be possible to answer the questions that orientate this project, following, at the same time, the principle that scientific explanations do not consist in the reduction of complexity to simplicity, but rather in replacing a less intelligible complexity by a more intelligible one (cf. Levi-Strauss, 1996). We therefore chose to adopt a holistic approach to face the questions we raised, assuming that only a holistic approach will make it possible to achieve a simultaneously broader and deeper understanding not only of the ties that unify individuals as human beings, but also of the factors involved in bringing them apart. It is through the profound understanding of the complexities involved that strategies based on the notion of ID may be designed and carried out to promote tolerance and openness to diversity. 298 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As a final conclusion and a way of portraying the holistic paradigm prevailing throughout this project we transcribe Daniel Faria's words from his poem ―Labirinto I‖: ―Never again shall I divide The birds – their singing and their wingsTo find the precise weight Of their rising body.‖ References Abdallah-Pretceille, M. (1999). L‘éducation interculturelle. Paris: PUF. Abdallah-Pretceille, M., & Porcher, L. (1996). Éducation et communication interculturelle. Paris: PUF. Abric, J. C. (1994). Pratiques sociales et représentations. Paris: PUF. Alarcão, I., Andrade, A. I., Araöjo e Sá, M. H., Melo-Pfeiffer, S. & Santos, L. (2009). Intercompréhension et plurilinguisme: (re)configurateurs épistémologiques d‘une didactique des langues? ÉLA, Revue de didactologie des langues-cultures et de lexiculturologie, Approches plurielles et multimodales, 153, 11-24. Amado, J. & Boavida, J. (2008). Ciências da Educação: Epistemologia, Identidade e Perspectivas. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. Andrade, A.I. , Araöjo e Sá, M.H. & Moreira, G. (coord.) (2007). Imagens das Lìnguas e do Plurilinguismo: Princìpios e Sugestões de Intervenção Educativa. Cadernos do LALE . Série Propostas. Aveiro: Universidade de Aveiro Beacco, J., Byram, M., Coste, D. & Fleming, M. (2009). Plateforme de ressources et de références pour l‘éducation plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Strasbourg : Division des Politiques Linguistiques, Conseil de l‘Europe. Birzea C., (2003). ―Learning Democracy. Education Policies within the Council of Europe‖. Session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education on Intercultural education: managing diversity, strengthening democracy, Athènes, Grèce, 10-12 novembre. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1994). Investigação qualitativa em educação: uma introdução à teoria e aos métodos. Porto: Porto Editora Bleszynska, K. M. (2008). Constructing intercultural education. Intercultural Education, 19(6), 537-545. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bohm, D. (2008). Wholeness and the implicate order. London; New York: Routledge. Byram, M. (2007). Plurilingualism in Europe and its implications. In British Council (Ed.), Berlin Conference 26-27January 2007 - Preparing for the world of work– language education for the future - conference report. Berlin: British Council. Castellotti, V., & Moore, D. (2002). Social Representations of Languages and Teaching. Reference Study. Strasburg: Language Policy Division, DGIV, Council of Europe. Council of Europe(2008). White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue: ―Living together as equals in dignity‖. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Delors, J (1996). Learning the treasure within: report to UNESCO of the international commission of education for the twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO. Doise, W., & Palmonari, A. (1986). L‘étude des représentations sociales. Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé. Geertz, C. (1989 ). ―El impacto del concepto de cultura en el concepto del hombre‖. La interpretaciñn de las culturas (pp. 43-59). Barcelona Gedisa 299 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994) Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Jodelet, D. (1997). Les représentations sociales. Paris: PUF. Lévi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Mariko, H. (2005). La notion de représentation en didactique des langues. Enseignement du français au Japon, 33, 69-86. Morin, E. (2008). On complexity. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Morin, E. (1999). Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l‘éducation du futur. Paris: UNESCO. Mùller, N., & De Pietro, J. F. (2001). Que faire de la notion de représentations? Que faire des représentations? Questions méthodologiques et didactiques à partir de travaux sur le róle des représentations dans l‘apprentissage d‘une langue. In D. Moore (Coord.), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage. Références, modèles, données et méthodes (pp. 51-65). Paris: Didier. Niglas, K. (2004). The combined use of qualitative and quantitative methods in educational research. Tallin: Tallin Pedagogical University. Risager, K. (2007). Language and culture pedagogy: From a national to a transnational paradigm. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. Spitzberg, B., & Chagnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercultural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 2-52). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P. N., & Rook, D. W. (2007). Focus groups: theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Vala, J. (1993). Psicologia Social. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Vasseur, M. T. (2001). Places discursives, imaginaire dialogique et apprentissage de la langue. In D. Moore (Coord.), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage. Références, modèles, données et méthodes (pp. 133-148). Paris: Didier. Yin, R. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. California: Sage Publications. 300 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 45 Title A name given to the resource Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey Author Author Basílio, Daniel de Araújo e Sá, Maria Helena Simões, Ana Raquel Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper proposes to present an ongoing research project aiming at diagnosing the reciprocal language and cultural images of Portuguese learners of Turkish and Turkish learners of Portuguese as foreign languages in the Higher Education context. As a case-study format project following an eminently qualitative approach, it includes the application, analysis and interpretation of the results of three distinct and sequential data-collection instruments: two questionnaires/surveys, a collective interview, and an on-line platform that will serve as a space for the interaction of the students of both countries. Conclusions are to be taken on how the images/social representations the two groups of students construct of each other pertain on their knowledge and attitudes towards each other, and, ultimately, on their intercultural competence. Based on these conclusions, ―cultural awareness‖ and intercultural competence development guidelines, at the level of foreign language learning – teaching, are to be devised and provided to be applied in Portuguese and Turkish higher education institutions. In this article we intend to account for the first questionnaire/survey, a more quantitatively devised data collection instrument, which has been already applied to the students involved in the study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ce662996fe71cca5dabfdd92499815a.pdf 5163d7f51e199c9dffed86c6f5c0813a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City BaĢar Batur ELT Department, Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq b.batur@ishikuniversity.net Abstract In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Key Words: Erbil, information Technologies, high school. Introduction The rapidly developing technologies are in all parts of today‘s world as it is associated with terms information era, information society and globalism. Thus, it is inevitable to use them in education. Technology exists with the existence of humankind and is used in all steps of education (Yanpar, 2005). For a long time, the name of technology in education had been book and blackboard. Later on, some other materials were also begun to be used. Many films, bands, slides, tapes related to the subjects and cinema, projections, cassette players, overhead projectors to show them, and also plenty of physics and chemistry laboratory materials set in schools all over the world (MEB,1983). It is now inevitable for education to make use of scientific and technological facilities. The information burst in this age, which means the rapid and continuous increase in the quantity and details of information, requires renewal of course subjects and educational materials every year and delivery of new information to students and teachers on time (Alkan et. al., 1995; Alkan, 2005). Education is a process that both brings in skills and transfers information. In this process, handling of information is the base. Information technologies, especially computers, generally function as supporting means in teaching and learning processes. Educational institutions both start and direct the social changes and progress. With those characteristics, educational institutions have to follow technological developments, learn how to use them and use these technologies. In other words, educational institutions should build up the students eligible for information age by considering characteristics of information society (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Ozkul and Girginer list the reasons to use technology in education (Ozkul, Girginer, 2001): 1. Increasing the access to education, 2. Increasing the educational quality, 3. Decreasing the educational cost efficacy, 4. Responding the essentiality of changing technology, 5. Providing the skills that students need both in their work and private life. When technology is considered, we think about computers. Computers revolutionized by changing the system and structure of classical education. Today, computers are used in all aspects of education (Ġsman, 2001). The most important product which emerge as a result of technological developments is, certainly, computer. But all other tools and technologies that provide information and help to use it are also called information technologies (Canan and Topaloglu, 2006). Information technologies are used in different ways in education. They can be grouped in four (Yasar, 1998); 1. 2. 3. using as means of instruction, using as report preparation tool, using in development of software, 225 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. using in administrative works Using information technologies as means of instruction has also many benefits. These can be listed as (Yasar, 1998): 1. using information technologies as means of lesson presentation, 2. using information technologies to practice and repetition, 3. using information technologies as a private instructor, 4. using information technologies as means of presenting simulation activities, 5. using information technologies for informative games, 6. using information technologies to communicate, 7. using internet supported activities. In the administrative works content, the first area in which computer is used effectively and intensely is measurement and evaluation. It is obvious that measurement and evaluation activities take teacher‘s time and require great effort. Computer decreases the teacher‘s burden to a little. A teacher can benefit from computer during measurement and evaluation in such ways (Akkoyunlu, 1998); preparation of question banks, preparation of tests, saving exam results, evaluation of exam results, and analysis of test items. Moreover, the use of computer in administrative works in schools facilitates the daily work (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Using management programs such as planning, budget, personnel, payroll, accounting and using special programs about student registration and reporting increase the quality of administrative duties (Baykal, 1991). Internet is the most preferred way of collecting information during lesson preparation process by teachers. Teachers may direct students to internet in order them to search and get information. Searches in internet come after the use of word processing programs and educational software among the computer activities of students in schools (Becker, 1999). As a result, it is obvious that using information technologies, especially computer, internet and projections is indispensable part of today‘s education and education quality and efficacy without using technology is low. The Aim of the Research The aim of this research is to determine how much the high school teachers in Erbil, Iraq, use information technologies during lesson and lesson preparation process, to determine the meaningful differences about it depending on gender, age and experience year. Method of the Research The method of the research is quantitative research approach and survey method. A survey, which had derived from a survey taken from Learning Community Project of Ohio University, USA, and used in a research in Sakarya, Turkey (Isman, 2002), was prepared and applied to high school teachers in Erbil. There were 41 questions in the survey. 8 questions were about teachers themselves. 33 questions were about information technologies. Universe and Sampling Universe of the research comprises high school teachers in Erbil City, Iraq. Sampling includes 65 teachers in 7 high schools. These high schools were chosen according to their successes in national exams. The most successful high schools, the less successful and mean ones were chosen. Survey was filled by randomly chosen teachers who were in break. Information About The Sampling Teachers answered 8 questions about themselves. As a result the following information is obtained about them. Sampling included: 1. Male: 40 people (61, 5 %) 2. Female: 25 people (38, 5 %) Teachers‘ branch of teaching are given in the following table: Number of Course Teachers Percentage 226 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arabic 8 12.3 Physical Education 2 3.1 Biology 1 1.5 Geography 1 1.5 Religion 1 1.5 Physics 7 10.8 Economy 2 3.1 English 9 13.8 Chemistry 6 9.2 Kurdish 10 15.4 Math 14 21.5 Guidance 1 1.5 History 3 4.6 Total 65 100 We grouped teachers into three according to their ages: 1. 30 years old and under : 14 people (21,5 %) 2. between 31 – 40 years old: 30 people (46,2 %) 3. 40 years old and over: 21 people (32,3 %) Most of the teachers were over 31 but in contrast experience year average were low. Teachers had service in government as: 1. 10 years and under: 39 people (60 %) 2. between 11 – 20 years: 24 people (36,9 %) 3. 21 years and over: 2 people (3,1 %) Most of the teachers are university graduates. Educational level of the teachers is: 1. 2-year institute graduates: 1 person (1,5 %) 2. 4-year university graduates: 63 people (96,9 %) 3. Graduate degree: 1 person (1,5 %) In order to understand computer skills level of teachers, there were questions about computer and internet usage. According to teachers‘ answers, their computer skills statistics, owning computer and internet at home statistics are below. The number of teachers who can use computer is high and owning computer and internet connection at home rate is also high. 1. Teachers who can use computer: 57 people (87,7 %) 2. Teachers who can not use computer: 8 people (12,3 %) 1. Teachers who have computer at home: 54 people (83,1 %) 2. Teachers who don‘t have computer at home: 11 people (16,9 %) 1. Teachers who have internet connection at home: 35 people (53,8 % ) 2. Teachers who don‘t have internet connection at home: 30 people (46,2 % ) Findings And Technology Usage Of High School Teachers Of Erbil In the second part of the survey, there were questions about information technologies and teachers were supposed to choose one of the four choices (I have never used, I have rarely used, I have frequently used, I have always used) for each technology. There was another column to obtain whether the technology is available at school. Results are given below, with titles in groups of thirty three technologies and on tables of numbers and percentages. 227 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Black/White Board, Graphics, Big Picture, Book, Panel, Caricature, And Diagram Black/white board, graphics, big picture, book are available in all schools of Erbil. In two (28,5 %) of the seven schools attended the survey, teachers say panel for announcements is not available in their schools. Caricature is not available in five (71,5 %) of the seven schools while diagram is available in four (57,1 %). All of the teachers use boards. They use books as well. The rate of teachers who don‘t use book is 4,6 percent. They are chemistry, English and history teachers and it seems they are using their own lesson notes and make students to dictate. Most of the teachers are not using graphics (61,5 % not using, 23,1 % always used ), caricature (81,5 % not using, 7,7 % always used) and diagram (69,2 % not using, 18,5 % always used) while nearly half of them are using big pictures (50,8 % using, 26,2 % always used). 58,5 percent of the teachers use panels for announcements. It is interesting to observe that most of the teachers are not using graphics, diagrams, and big pictures while 43 percent of the teachers are teaching in scientific branches (biology, physics, chemistry, economy, and math). Desktop Computer, Laptop, Windows, Word, PowerPoint, Excel Except from one (14,2 %) of the seven schools, desktop computer is available while only two (28,5 %) of them have laptop. So Windows, Word, PowerPoint and Excel software are not available only in one (14, 2 %) of the schools. In most of the schools, computers are used for office works. It is remarkable to learn that some schools have computer labs and multimedia classes while some others don‘t have even a computer. 32,3 percent of teachers use desktop computer during lessons (18,5 % always used) and lesson preparation process while only 24,6 percent of teachers use laptop (15,4 % always used). Parallel to these statistics, most of the teachers are not using computer software such as Windows (73,8 % not using, 15,5 % always used), Word (72,3 % not using, 16,9 % always used), PowerPoint (80 % not using, 6,2 % always used), Excel (80 % not using, 1,5 % always used). When we consider that 87, 7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home, these rates of using computers are too low. Thus, most of the teachers are supposed to use traditional presentation methods instead of computer assisted one or preparing materials and documents such as worksheets and exam papers by writing on papers. Scanner, Digital Camera, LCD Panel, Multimedia, Printer, Television, CD/DVD, Film Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have scanner and film. Three (42, 8 %) of them have digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia and television. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have printer, CD/DVD is available in 71,4 percent (5) of the schools. Most of the teachers are not using these technologies. The rates of teachers not used them are higher than the availability rates. The rates of teachers don‘t use scanner (81,5 % not using, 3,1 % always used), digital camera (87,7 % not using, 6,2 % always used), LCD Panel (90,8 % not using, 6,2 % always used), multimedia (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), printer (80 % not using, 12,3 % always used), television (86,2 % not using, 9,2 % always used), CD/DVD (76,9 % not using, 13,8 % always used) and film (84,6 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are very high. Usage of presentation technologies such as television, LCD Panel, projection and computer seems to be similar to each other. Video camera, Radio, Cassette Player, Tape Cassette, Overhead Projector, Smartboard, Projector Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have video camera. Three (42, 8 %) of them have radio and tape cassette. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have projection and cassette player, overhead projector is available in 14,2 percent (1) of the schools. None of the schools have a smartboard. According to the answers of the teachers, 89, 2 percent of the teachers don‘t use video camera (3,1 % always used) while 87,7 percent don‘t use radio (6,2 % always used). 73,8 percent of the teachers don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used) while 78,5 percent don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used). 87,7 percent of the teachers don‘t use overhead projector (7,7 % always used) while 84,6 percent don‘t use projector (7,7 % always used). Since smartboard is not available in any of the schools, none of the teachers use smartboard. 228 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Local network, internet network, www pages, search engines, e-mail Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have internet connection while only one (14, 2 %) of them have local network. But 87,7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home. 53,8 percent of these teachers have internet connection at home. Although teachers have computers and internet connection at home, it seems they are not using them a lot for their courses. According to the answers given for the survey, the rates of teachers not using local network (96,9 % not using, 0 % always used), internet network (86,2 % not using, 6,2 % always used), www pages (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), search engines (96,9 % not using, 3,1 % always used), e-mail (81,5 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are quite high. Gender, age and experience year issues There were teachers from both genders in the survey. Except from few technologies, meaningful differences are not obtained in the survey about the technology usage of male and female teachers. In fifteen technologies, the difference was less than 5 percent. It is identified that female teachers use seventeen of technologies more than male teachers (board, book, Windows, Word, Excel, digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia, printer, television, film, video camera, tape cassette, overhead projector, internet network, www pages and e-mail).Male teachers use fifteen technologies more than female teachers (graphics, big picture, panel, caricature, diagram, desktop computer, laptop, PowerPoint, printer, CD/DVD, radio, cassette player, projection, local network and search engines). There were three age groups in the sampling (30 and under, between 30-40, 40 and over). It is obtained that the older the teachers are the less they use information technologies except from big picture, panel and overhead projector. It is opposite in these three items. 40 years old and older teachers are better in using caricature and diagram while teachers between 31 and 40 are better in using digital camera, multimedia, projection, local network and internet network. Teachers were grouped into two categories according to their experience year; 10 years and under, over 10 years. The more teachers have experience year, the less they use information technologies except from six of technologies (caricature, diagram, digital camera, video camera, overhead projector and projection). 229 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 67,7 4,6 9,2 18,5 75,4 4,6 4,6 15,4 73,8 4,6 6,2 15,4 72,3 4,6 6,2 16,9 80,0 7,7 6,2 6,2 83,1 9,2 6,2 1,5 81,5 9,2 6,2 3,1 87,7 3,1 3,1 6,2 90,8 1,5 1,5 6,2 84,6 4,6 3,1 7,7 CD/DVD Television Printer Film Video camera Radio Cassette Player 44 3 6 12 49 3 3 10 48 3 4 10 47 3 4 11 52 5 4 4 54 6 4 1 53 6 4 2 57 2 2 4 59 1 1 4 55 3 2 5 Internet Local Smartboa Overhead Tape Projection Network Network rd Projector Cassette never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used www pages have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Percentage 0,0 1,5 13,8 84,6 61,5 6,2 9,2 23,1 49,2 4,6 20,0 26,2 4,6 21,5 18,5 55,4 41,5 16,9 23,1 18,5 81,5 7,7 3,1 7,7 69,2 6,2 6,2 18,5 Search Engines I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Number of Teachers 0 1 9 55 40 4 6 15 32 3 13 17 3 14 12 36 27 11 15 12 53 5 2 5 45 4 4 12 E-mail Multimedi LCD a Panel Digital Scanner Excel Camera Powerpoin Word t Windows Laptop Desktop Caricatur Diagram Panel Computer e Book Big Picture Black Graphics /White Board Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Number of Teachers 52 1 4 8 56 2 1 6 50 3 3 9 55 3 1 6 58 3 2 2 57 3 1 4 48 4 2 11 51 2 1 11 57 3 0 5 65 0 0 0 never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used 55 2 3 5 63 1 1 0 56 3 2 4 55 2 3 5 63 0 0 2 53 5 1 6 Percentage 80,0 1,5 6,2 12,3 86,2 3,1 1,5 9,2 76,9 4,6 4,6 13,8 84,6 4,6 1,5 9,2 89,2 4,6 3,1 3,1 87,7 4,6 1,5 6,2 73,8 6,2 3,1 16,9 78,5 3,1 1,5 16,9 87,7 4,6 0,0 7,7 100,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 1,5 1,5 0,0 86,2 4,6 3,1 6,2 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 0,0 0,0 3,1 81,5 7,7 1,5 9,2 Table: Results of Survey about Information Technologies 230 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion The results of the survey can be assessed both for teachers and schools. According to the results, it seems high schools of Erbil are insufficient for most of the information technologies. Even the number of computers is not enough or they are only used for office works instead of lessons. It is observed that some schools don‘t have most of the technologies even a computer while some of them have most of them. Secondly, teachers are not using information technologies sufficiently in their lessons and lesson preparation process. It seems that is because of lock of materials in schools. But teachers don‘t seem eager to use technology in their classes while we consider that most of the teachers have computer at home. We can advise in service trainings for teachers. The holiday periods are long in Iraq. Teachers are free in the summer. There are some curriculum changes in Erbil but teachers are still in adaptation period of using new course books and curriculum. It is more essential to do the educational reforms both in schools and related faculties of universities. References Akkoyunlu, B. (1998). ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler (e-book). Ünite 1-3. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/1265/unite01.pdf (online 15/05/2010) Alkan, C., Deryakulu, D., Simsek, N. (1995). Eğitim Teknolojisine GiriĢ. Ankara: Önder Matbaacılık Alkan, C. (2005). Eğitim Teknolojisi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Baykal, A. (1991). Eğitimde Bilgisayar: Yararları ve Yetersizlikleri. YaĢadıkça Eğitim, Issue:14. Ġstanbul. Becker, H.J. (1999). Internet Use By Teachers. http://www.crito.uci.edu/TLC/findings/internet-use/startpage.htm (online 15/05/2010). Canan ,Ö., Toplaoğlu, S. (2006). 4. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Bilgi Teknolojileri Sınıflarını Aktif Kullanımına Yônelik Tutumları. 6. Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Konferansı. Gazi Mağusa. Ġsman, A. (2002). Sakarya Ġli Öğretmenlerinin Eğitim Teknolojileri Yônùndeki Yeterlilikleri. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Volume 1, Issue 1, Article 10. Ġsman, A. (2001). Bilgisayar ve Eğitim. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Sakarya. MEB. (1983). Eğitim Araçları TeĢkilatı ve Hizmetleri. Ankara: MEB Yayınları. Özkul E. Girginer N. (2001). Uzaktan Eğitimde Teknoloji ve Etkinlik. I.Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Sempozyum Bildirisi. Sakarya. Yanpar, T. (2005). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal GeliĢtirme. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. YaĢar, ġ. (1998). Eğitimde Bilgisayarların Etkin Kullanımı. Ünite 07 – ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/2276/unite07.pdf (online 15/05/2010) 231 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 34 Title A name given to the resource Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City Author Author Batur, BaĢar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c747e5392a7c68471de0bf2184cd36e2.pdf 35f9dca322b13cc17e90ac358df640a2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Francesca Bertonazzi Università degli Studi di Parma francesca.bertonazzi@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Key words: multilinguistic and multicultural analysis; Indo-European and Semitic languages; cultural studies; embryo; applied linguistics. Introduction The concept of ―embryo‖ is hard to define nowadays, and so it was in the ancient world. Modern tecnologies help us in defining stages of development and features, but many problems emerge talking about the existence before birth: why some parts take shape before others? Why are some embryos male and others female? When does the sparkle of life enter into the foetus allowing it to be considered a person? Today some of these questions find a complete answer in medicine and biology. This presentation wants to display how the Indo-European world answers to the questions mentioned above and a few others. In some cases, Semitic culture will be examinated for a comparison. Starting point of the presentation is a Sanskrit medical-philosophical essay, the Garbhopaniṣ ad, which illustrates, in a chronological order, the development of the embryo (garbhas in Sanskrit) from the fertilization to the birth: for every stage of development there will be a comparison with other significant texts from Greek, Latin and Semitic culture, underlining linguistic and cultural affinities or differences. Texts regarded for this paper: Garbhopaniṣ ad (hereafter abbreviated as Garbh.Up.), Aristotle‘s Tw%n periè taè z§%a i|storiéon (History of Animals, H.A.), Aristotle‘s Periè z§éwn geneésewv (Generation of Anilmals, G.A.), Hippocrates‘ Periè gonh%v (On generation, On Gen.), Hippocrates‘ Periè fuésiov paidiéou (On the nature of the Infant, Nat.Inf.), Macrobius‘ Somnium Scipionis (Dream of Scipio), Aulus Gellius‘ Noctes Atticae, Censorinus‘ De Die Natali, the Bible, the Torah, the Koran. This short presentation of the embryo‘s question does not claim to be complete and exhaustive 106; only significant texts will be presented and discussed; in particular only the most significant pieces of the Latin tradition, largely related to the Greek one, will be offered. 106 For a general bibliography see at least: Benveniste (1945), Edde (1993), Filliozat (1943; 1975), Hoernle (1905), Krug (1990). 464 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo All translations from Sanskrit, Greek and Latin are mine; for Hebrew and Arabic the translations are provided by the critical edition of texts. A short linguistic apparatus in the endnotes, especially for the Sanskrit pieces, is aimed at a better understanding of the text. Stages of development Fertilization The traditional idea, accepted by most of the ancient authors, is that the embryo is formed from the union of blood (woman‘s product) and sperm (man‘s product). In the very beginning of Garbh.Up. the anonymous Author claims that the embryo has ―two origins‖107, and further in the text he adds: ―the embryo is born of the union of blood and sperm‖108; more precisely blood is produced by a sort of liquid secreted by the body whereas sperm originates from the spinal cord109. Hippocrates instead joins two different theories: according to the first one, sperm comes from all over the body; while, according to the second one, it comes from the brain and through the spinal cord arrives into kidneys and then into testicles110. In Garbh.Up. there is no an indication of when a woman can surely know she is pregnant; Aristotle on the contrary says she can be sure of it because of the dryness of the womb, ideal condition for sperm to remain into uterus; if it does not slide out within seven days, the woman is pregnant111. Another question is how the gender of the embryo can be established; Garbh.Up. makes the issue clear in few words: ―A male is created by a male flux excess, a female is created by a female flux excess‖ 112. Similarly Hippocrates: ―If the weakest semen is bigger than the strongest one and controls it, (the embryo) becomes female; if instead the strongest semen is bigger than the weakest one and controls it, (the embryo) is male‖113. Aristotle, on the other hand, amply deals with the gender issue and presents different hypothesis elaborated by Greek philosophers in order to refute them. First of all, Anaxagoras asserts that the opposition of gender is in the semen: a male embryo places itself on the right part of the uterus, a female embryo on the left part. According to Empedocles, a hot uterus generates a male, a cold one a female: high or low temperature is caused by menstruation flow; Democritus affirms that the difference is due to the prevalence of sperm over the blood (G.A., 4,1 764a). However, the Aristotle‘s position is very clear: ―the male's semen is different, because the male possesses in itself the principle that can make it able to move and to concoct the nourishment, instead the female's semen contains material only‖114. After defining the causes which create a male or a female foetus, Aristotle adds that the complete development of each part of the female embryo is slower than the development of the male one: as a matter of fact, girls born at ten months are more common than boys 115; the reason of this delay is the different heat between male, whose flesh is hotter, and female, whose flesh is warmer. Similarly Hippocrates considers the female semen weaker and moister and this is the reason of the delay in the growth of female foetus116. 107 ―dviyoni ‖. Dvi-: two; yoni-: womb, from √yu- ―to join‖. ―śukraśo itasa yogād āvartate garbho‖. śuklo: ―white; sperm‖, attested also as śukras-, from √śuc- ―to shine‖; śo itā-: ―blood‖; garbha-: ―embryo‖, from √grah- ―to receive‖. 109 ―rasāc cho ita (āvartate); majjātaḥ śukra (āvartate)‖. Rasa- ―liquid secreted by the body‖; cho ita = śo itā ―blood‖; majja- ―spinal cord‖. 110 ―[...] teiénei gaèr kaiè e\v tou%ton e\k pantoèv tou% swématov, kaiè diacwrei% e\k tou% e\gkefaélou e\v thèn o\sfuèn kaiè e\v paèn toè sw%ma kaiè e\v toèn mueloén, kaiè e\x au\tou% teiénousin o|doié, w$ste kaiè e\pieénai tou% u|grou% e\v au\toèn kaiè a\pocwrei%n. \Ephèn deè e!lq+ e\v tou%ton yoèn mueloèn h| gonhé, cwrei% paraè touèv nefrouèv: tauèt+ gaèr h| o|doév e\sti diaè flebw%n, kh!n oi| nefroiè e|lkwqeèwsin, e!stin o£te kaiè ai/ma sumfeéretai: paraè deè tw%n nefrw%n e!rcetai diaè tw%n o\rciéwn mesaétwn e\v toè ai\doi%on [...]‖. On Gen., 1,2-3. 111 ―Giénetai deè shmei%on tou% suneilhfeénai tai%v gunaixién, o£tan eu\quèv geénhtai metaè thèn o|miliéan o| toépov xhroév [...]. \Eaèn deè e|ptaè e\mmeién+ (toè speérma) h|meérav, faneroèn o£ti ei!lhptai: ai| gaèr kalouémenai e\kruéseiv e\n tauétaiv giénontai tai%v h|meéraiv.‖. H.A., 7,3,583. 112 ―pitū reto‘tirekāt puruṣo bhavati | mātūḥ reto‘tirekāt striyo‖. Pit - ―father‖; retas-: ―flux‖; ‘tirekāt: ati+reka: ―excess‖; puruṣa: ―male‖; māt - ―mother‖; striyo: ―female‖. 113 ―h!n gaèr poll§% pleéon toè a\sqeneèv speérma +& tou% i\scuroteérou, kratei%tai toè i\scuroèn kaiè micqeèn t§% a\sqenei% e\v qh%lu perihneécqh: h!n deè pleéon +& toè i\scuroèn tou% a\sqeneéov, krathq+% te toè a\sqeneév, e\s a!rsen perihneécqh‖.On Gen., 6,2. 114 ―Diafeérei deè toè tou% a!rrenov speérma, o£ti e!cei a\rchèn e\n e|aut§% toiauéthn oi£an kinei%n kaiè e\n t§% z§é§ kaiè diapeéttein thèn e\scaéthn trofhén, toè deè tou% qhéleov u£lhn moénon.‖. G.A., 4,1 766b. 115 ―Teéwv meèn ou&n pa%san thèn teleiéwsin tw%n moriéwn braduéteron a\polambaénei toè qh%lu tou% a!rrenov, kaiè dekaémhna giénetai ma%llon tw%n a\rreénwn‖. H.A., 7,3, 583b. 108 116 ―Ai!tion d‘ e\stin o£ti toè qh%lu ph%gnutai u£steron kaiè a\rqrou%tai,o£ti h| gonhè a\sqenesteérh e\sti kaiè u|groteérh th%v qhleéhv h! tou% a!rsenov: kaiè a\naégkh e\stiè kataè tou%ton toèn loégon u£steron toè qh%lu ph%gnusqai h! toè a!rsen [...]‖. On Gen., 18,8. 465 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From initial stages to 3rd month As regards the growth of each part of the body, Aristotle claims that is not so easy to define an exact order: ―it is not easy affirming if the parts formed first are those which exist with a view to something else, or if something else exists with a view to those‖ 117. A philosophic answer can be found few lines ahead: ―the parts formed first are those which contain the principle and are on the top of the body. Indeed the head and the eyes are more developed in the appearing of embryo, instead the bottom parts, like legs, are small‖118. Starting point of Aristotle‘s theory is totally rational and philosophical, unlike the Garbh.Up.‘s point of view: as all the aspects of life, the order of embryo‘s growth is governed by a deity119 too, and so there is no uncertainty about development. ―At the right time, from perfect union, in one night, the embryo becomes a infinitesimal part, in seven nights roundness, after half month spherical mass, in a month compact structure, in two months the head is formed, in three months the feet are too‖120. The Authors disagree about the very initial stages: Aristotle affirms that after the fertilization a thin membrane surrounds sperm, taking the form of egg (H.A. 7,6,586a), but he does not specify how long it takes. Hippocrates claims that female and male semen, joining together, make a single semen; staying in the uterus, being warmed up, it receives and emits a breath; then it grows and surrounds itself with a continuous and viscous membrane. At a certain point, something thin comes out (i.e. umbilical cord) while the rest of semen becomes a sphere into the membrane (Nat.Inf. XII,6). Then he describes accurately a six-day embryo: ―It is like removing the shell from an egg, in which the liquid inside membrane is clear; the mass is red and spherical; in the membrane, there are white and thick fibres, rolled up with a light-red and thick liquid, and around it, on the external side, some blood clots. In the middle of the membrane, something leans out, and it seems the umbilical cord: it enables inspirations and expirations‖121. Similarly Gellius, quoting Marcus Terentius Varro, claims that, after fertilization, in seven days the embryo coagulates and takes shape; in four weeks penis, head and spinal cord are formed; in seven weeks a foetus completes its shaping in the uterus122. In a piece of numerology in his Somnium Scipionis, talking about the number seven, Macrobius quotes Hippocrates about the description of a six-day embryo123, then, two other philosophers, Straton and Diocles, about the development of the embryo in following weeks 124. The opinion that, at beginning of life, embryo has a round shape is shared by both Koran and Torah. The very first Sura revealed by God to Muhammad is just about al'alaq, the clot125. Also a well-know psalm, Psalm 139,16, states: ―Your eyes saw my golem; all the days ordained for me were written in your book before one of them came to be‖126; golem can be translate roughly as 'unformed body', suggesting an idea of something living, 117 ―Dioè ou\ r|çédion dielei%n poétera proétera tw%n moriéwn, o£sa a!llou e£neka, h! ou/ e£neka tau%ta‖. G.A., 2,6, 742a. ―Kaiè diaè tou%to prw%ton meèn toè e!con thèn a\rchèn giénetai moérion, ei&t‘ e\coémenon toè a!nw kuétov. Dioè taè periè thèn kefalhèn kaiè taè o!mmata meégista kat‘a\rcaèv faiénetai toi%v e\mbruéoiv, taè deè kaétw tou% o\mfalou%, oi/on taè kw%la mikraé‖. G.A., 2,6 742b. 119 In Garbh.Up. Prajapati, the demiurge who had created Universe and material world. 120 ― tukāle sa prayogād ekarātroṣita kalala bhavati saptarātroṣita budbuda bhavati ardhamāsābhyantare a pi ḍo bhavati māsābhyantare ka hino bhavati māsadvyena śiraḥ sa padyate māsatrayena pādapradeśo bhavati‖. Sa prayogād: ―perfect union‖; kalala : ―infinitesimal part‖; budbuda : ―roundness‖; pi ḍo: ―spherical mass‖; ka hino: ―compact structure‖; śiraḥ: ―head‖; pādapradeśo: ―feet‖. 121 ―[...] oi/on ei! tiv §\ou% w\mou% toè e!xw lepuérion perieéloi, e\n deè t§% e !ndon u|meéni toè e!ndon u|groèn diafaiénoito: o| troépov meén tiv h&n toiou%tov a$liv ei\pei%n: h&n deè kaiè e\ruqroèn kaiè strogguélon: e\n deè t§% u|meéni e\faiénonto e\neou%%sai i&nev leukaiè kaiè paceéai, ei\lhmeénai suén i\cw%ri pacei% kaiè e\ruqr§%, kaiè a\mfi toèn u|meéna e!xwqen ai|maélwpev: kataè deè meéson tou% u|meénov a\pei%ce leptoén ti o$ moi e\doékei ei&nai o\mfaloév, ka\keién§ thèn pnohèn kaiè ei!sw kaiè e!xw poiei%sqai toè prw%ton: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 13,3. 118 122 ―'Nam cum in uterum' inquit 'mulieris genitale semen datum est, primis septem diebus conglobatur coagulaturque fitque ad capiendam figuram idoneum. Post deinde quarta hebdomade, quod eius virile secus futurum est, caput et spina, quae est in dorso, informatur. Septima autem fere hebdomade, id est nono et quadrigesimo die, totus' inquit 'homo in utero absoluitur'‖. Noctes Atticae, III,10,7. 123 ―Verum semine semel intra formandi hominis monetam locato, hoc primum artifex natura molitur ut die septimo folliculum genuino circumdet umori ex membrana tam tenui qualis in ovo ab exteriore testa clauditur et intra se claudit liquorem‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,63. For the original Hippocrates‘ text see endnote n.16. ―Straton vero Peripateticus et Diocles Carystius per septenos dies concepti corporis fabricam hac observatione dispensant, ut hebdomade secunda credant guttas sanguinis in superficie folliculi de quo diximus apparere, terzia demergi eas introrsum ad ipsum conceptionis humorem, quarta humorem ipsum coagulari ut quiddam velut inter carnem ac sanguinem liquida adhuc soliditate conveniat, quinta vero interdum fingi in ipsa substantia humoris humanam figuram, magnitudine quidem apis, sed ut in illa brevitate membra omnia et designata totius corporis liniamenta consistant‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,65. 125 ―Read! In the name of the Father who had created! Who had created human being from a clot‖. Sura 96th, 1-2. 126 ―Golmi ra'u 'enèkha / we'al sifrekha kullam jikkatèvu / jamim jutztzàru / welo' echad bahem‖, Psalm 139,16. 124 466 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of human being nevertheless. Similarly a passage by Jeremiah 127 and another one by Isaiah128 seem to grant a status of person to the embryo. However, an extract in the Book of Exodus, which deals with crimes, claims that punishment is heavier in case of injury for the woman, but not in case of premature birth 129. From 4th to 6th month ―In four months ankles, digestive system and hips (are formed), in five months the back and the vertebral column, in six months mouth, nose, eyes, ears‖130. According to Garbh.Up., during the fourth month a very important stage takes place: the foetus is provided with internal organs and bones; from this moment, the foetus can receive nourishment from its mother through the umbilical cord and it is able to move into the uterus. Hippocrates does not provide exact time of each stage of development, but he draws up a list of each part 131: ―Bones hardens due to heat; so the foetus ramifies like a tree. The internal side and the external one become more articulated. The head is fixed on shoulders; arms and forearms on sides; legs are separated; tendons are connected with joints; nose and ears lean out of flesh and becomes punctured; eyes are filled with crystal liquid and gender is known. Internal organs becomes complete‖ and then the foetus starts breathing. Special attention must be paid to growth of bones and tendons. In Archaic Greek there was not a specific word to define ―living body‖ 132, however a stock expression ―gui%a kaiè meélh‖133, suggesting the union of tendons and limbs, is attested. Recognized as fundamental parts of the human being, skin, flesh, bones and tendons are what God created first in a man according to Job134. The anonymous Author of Garbh.Up. says that tendons are produced from fat and bones from tendons135, and both develop themselves during the fifth month. According to Aristotle, tendons and bones are created from the same elements, that is spermatic and nutritional residual; that is why they do not develop in adulthood, instead nails and hair grow lifelong because they receive an external nourishment136. Tendons and bones are deprived of moistness due to interior heat, and so they become strong and fire can not burn them, like clay137. One more detail: both in Garbh.Up. and in Aristotle, nails and hair are considered as impurities: ―there are three kind of impurity‖138, ―Nature makes flesh and the other sense organs with a better material, and with residual it makes bones, tendons, hair, nails, hooves and similar parts‖139; Hippocrates instead does not consider them as impurities, however he claims that nails and hair grow up at the same time140. 127 ―Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart: I appointed you as a prophet to the nations‖. Jeremiah,1,5. 128 ―Before I was born the Lord called me: from my mother's womb he has spoken my name‖. Isaiah 49,1. 129 ―If men who are fighting hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman's husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise‖. Exodus, 21,22-25. 130 ― ṣ | ṣaṣthe māse mukhanāsikākṣ ‖. Gulpha-: ―ankles‖; ja hara-: ―digestive system‖; ka a-: ―hips‖; ṣ -: ―back‖; : ―vertebral column‖; mukha-: ―mouth‖; nāsikā:- ―nose‖; ākṣi:- ―eyes‖; śrotrā-: ―ears‖. 131 ―Kaiè taè o\steéa sklhruénetai u|poè th%v qeérmhv phgnuémena: kaiè dhè kaiè diozou%tai w|v deéndron: kaiè a\rqrou%tai a!meinon kaiè taè ei!sw tou% swématov kaiè taè e!xw: kaiè h£ te kefalhè giénetai a\festhkui%a a\poè toi%n w!moin, kaiè oi| braciéonev kaiè oi| phéceiv a\poè tw%n pleureéwn: kaiè taè skeélea diiéstatai a\p‘ a\llhélwn: kaiè taè neu%ra e\pai^ssetai a\mfiè taèv fuésiav tw%n a!rqrwn kaiè au\taè stomou%tai: kaiè h| r|ièv kaiè taè ou!ata a\fiéstatai e\n t+%si sarxiè kaiè tetrhénetai: kaiè oi| o\fqalmoiè e\mpiéplantai u|grou% kaqarou%: kaiè toè ai\doi%on dh%lon giénetai o|koéteroén e\sti: kaiè taè splaégcna diarqrou%tai: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 17,2-3. 132 In fact, the homeric word sw%ma suggests the dead body, the cadaver. 133 For the explanation of this stock expression see Snell (1948). 134 ―Did you not pour me out like milk / and curdle me like cheese, / clothe me with skin and flesh / and knit me together with bones and tendons?‖. Job, 10, 10-11. 135 ―medasaḥ snāyavaḥ snāyubhyo ‘stīni ‖. medo: ―fat‖; snāyavaḥ: ―tendons‖; asthi: ―bone‖. 136 ―Toèn au\toèn deè troépon toi%v o\stoi%v kaiè taè neu%ra suniéstatai kaiè e\k tw%n au\tw%n, e\k th%v spermatikh%v perittwésewv kaiè th%v qreptikh%v. !Onucev deè kaiè triécev kaiè o|plaiè kaiè keérata kaiè r|uégch kaiè taè plh%ktra tw%n o\rniéqwn, kaiè ei! ti toiou%ton e£teroén e\sti moérion, e\k th%v e\pikthétou trofh%v kaiè th%v au\xhtikh%v, h£n te paraè tou% qhéleov e\pikta%tai kaiè th%v quéraqen. Diaè tou%to taè meèn o\sta% meécri tinoèv lambaénei thèn au!xhsi ‖. G.A., 2,6, 744b-745a. 137 ― |Upoè deè th%v e\ntoèv qermoéthtov taé te neu%ra kaiè taè o\sta% giénetai, xhrainomeénhv th%v u|groéthtov. Dioè kaiè a!lutaé e\sti taè o\sta% u|poè tou% puroév, kaqaéper keéramov‖. G.A., 2,6, 743a. 138 “ ”; tri-: “three”; mala-: “impurity”. “Ou£twv e\n toi%v ginomeénoiv au\toi%v h| fuésiv e\k meèn th%v kaqarwtaéthv u£lhv saérkav kaiè tw%n a!llwn ai\sqhthriéwn taè swémata suniésthsin, e\k deè tw%n perittwmaétwn o\sta% kaiè neu%ra kaiè triécav, e!ti 139 467 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From 7th to 10th months, pregnancy duration and birth As far as the last stages of gestation are concerned, Garbh.Up. affirms that in seven months the foetus becomes a human being, it is viable and can survive in case of premature birth; during the eight month the foetus has in nuce its characteristics and features, and at ninth month it is born completely provided with sense organs and cognitive ability, it remembers the previous life and knows good karma from evil karma141. Also Aristotle declares that the foetus is not able to live before the seventh month; if it is born during the seventh months, it is possible that some parts like ears and nostrils are not completely formed, but they can develop after birth and the baby can live nevertheless142. Common experience teaches that the normal duration of pregnancy is 38 weeks, that corresponds to nine months and a half. Obviously the ancient texts confirm this situation, some in implicit way (like Garbh.Up., see further), some in explicit one, like Aristotle: ―Pregnancy lasts seven, eight, nine months, usually ten months; for some women it lasts until eleventh month‖143. Macrobius, more interested in numerology than in medicine, says that Nature has fixed the term for birth at nine months, but in some cases, due to a mathematical calculation, it can be anticipated at seventh144. Instead Censorinus displays a Chaldean theory which explains that men can be born only at seventh, ninth or tenth month because of the position of the stars and the Sun 145. Normally the foetus, in the initial stages, has the head at the top of the uterus, then during the last weeks of gestation, it turns itself until it puts the head at the bottom of the uterus, and it is born from the head; this natural fact is confirmed by Aristotle146, nevertheless Hippocrates seems to doubt about it147. The moment of birth is considered from foetus‘ point of view both in Hippocrates' text and in Garbh.Up.: ―But the foetus, who was in a condition of happiness, arrived to uterus‘ opening, with its mind oppressed by a mechanic grip, unhappy, new-born, touched by Visnu‘s wind, does not remember previous births and deaths and does not know good karma from evil karma‖148. Hippocrates asserts the foetus, having no enough nourishment from its mother during the tenth month149, breaks with hands and legs one of membranes in which is surrounded and then is able to be born (Nat.Inf., 30,1). Instead Aristotle presents birth from mother‘s point of view. He focuses on the pain the woman feels: ―if the pain is very hard and concentrated on the womb, birth will be faster; if it is concentrated on ankles, birth will be painful; if it is concentrated on the bottom of the womb, birth will be fast‖ (H.A. 7,9,586b ). d‘ o!nucav kaiè o|plaèv kaiè paénta taè toiau%ta: dioè teleutai%a tau%ta lambaénei thèn suéstasin, o£tan h!dh giénetai periéttwma th%v fuésewv‖. G.A., 2,6,744b. 140 ― £Ama deè toi%sin o!nuxi kaiè ai| triécev e\n t+% kefal+% r|izou%ntai […]‖. Nat.Inf., 20,1. 141 ―saptame māse jīvena sa yukto bhavati / aṣ ame māse sarvasa pūr o bhavati [...] atha navame māsi sarvalakṣa a pūrno bhavati pūrvajāti smarati k tak ta ca karma vibhāti śubhāśubha ca karma vindati‖. Saptame: ―seven‖; jīvena: ―life‖; aṣ : ―eight‖; : ―full of features‖; navame: ―nine‖; sarvalakṣ : ―full of features and provided with sens organs‖; : ―previous life‖. 142 ― £Osa meè ou&n giénetai proétera tw%n e|ptaè mhnw%n, ou\deèn ou\dam+% duénatai zh%v: taè d' e|ptaémhna goénima giénetai prw%ton, a\sqenh% deè taè pollaè (dioè kaiè spargaou%sin e\riéoiv au\taé), pollaè deè kaiè tw%n poérwn e\niéouv e!conta a\sciéstouv, oi/on w!twn kaiè mukthérwn: a\ll' e\pauxanomeénoiv diarqrou%tai, kaiè biou%si pollaè kaiè tw%n toiouétwn‖ . H.A., 7,4, 584b. 143 ―[...] kaiè gaèr e|ptaémhna kaiè o\ktaémhna kaiè e\nneaémhna giénetai, kaiè dekaémhna toè plei%ston‖. H.A., 7,4, 584a. 144 ―Humano partui frequentiorem usum novem mensium certo numerorum modulamine natura constituit, sed ratio sub adsciti senarii numeri multiplicatione procedens etiam septem menses compulit usurpari‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,14. 145 ―Sed nunc Chaldaeorum ratio breviter tractanda est, explicandumque cur septimo mense et nono et decimo tantummodo posse hominnes nasci arbitrentur [...] Itaque eum (Sun), qui stellas ipsas quibus movemur permovet, animam nobis dare qua regamur potentissimumque in nos esse moderarique, quando post conceptionem veniamus in lucem‖. De Die Natali, VIII, 13. 146 ― !Ecei d o|moiéwv paènta taè z§%a thèn kefalhèn a!nw toè prw%ton: au\xamoémena deè kaiè proèv thèn e!xodon o|rmw%nta kaétw periaégetai, kaiè h| geénesiév e\stin h| kataè fuésin e\piè kefalhén‖. H.A., 7,8,586b. See also On Gen., 4,9,777a. 147 ―Toè deè paidiéon e\n t+%si mhétr+sin e\oèn twè cei%re e!cei proèv t+%si geénusi kaiè thèn kefalhèn plhsiéon toi%n podoi%n: kaiè ou\k e!stin a\trekeié+ kri%nai, ou\d h!n i!d+v e\n t+%si mhétr+si toè paidiéon, poéteron thèn kefalhèn a!nw e!cei h! kaétw: e\k deè tou% o\mfalou% tetameénoi ei\sièn oi| u|meénev, a\nteécontev au\toé.‖. Nat.Inf., 28,1. 148 ―atha jantuḥ ranprīyo niśata ḍyamāno mahatā duḥkhena jātamātrāstu vaiṣ ṣ ‖. 149 ―Ou£tw deè kaiè toè paidiéon, o|koétan au\xhq+%, ou\k e!ti duénatai h| mhéthr trofhèn pareécein a\rkeéousan: zhteéon ou&n pleiéw trofhèn th%v pareouéshv toè e!mbruon a\skariézon r|hégnusi touèv u|meénav, kaiè luqeèn tou% desmou% cwrei% o|mou% e!xw: kaiè tau%ta giénetai e\n deéka mhsiè toè makroétaton‖. Nat.Inf., 30,9. 468 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Twins, malformations, sterility In short, few words about some marginal aspects. According to Garbh.Up., twins are generated from the separation of man's semen in two parts by the action of (sacred) wind150. Similarly Hippocrates affirms that twins are generated from one fertilization only151; when man's semen comes into the uterus, it divides itself in two parts, and each of these is surrounded by one membrane152. If the semen into one part only is strong, embryo becomes male; if it is weak, it becomes female; if the strong semen comes into both parts, there will be two males, if the weak one comes into both, there will be females 153. Aristotle specifies the maximum number of twins is five; in one special case only, a woman generated twenty newborns in four pregnancies, five each time; he affirms also that for the human beings (unlike others animals) few twins survive if they are male and female twins (H.A. 7,4,584b ). As regards of malformations, Aristotle says they are caused by an excessive lack of movement of spermatic residual154; similarly Garbh.Up.'s Author affirms the cause of blindness, limp, hump and dwarfism is excessive quantity of tamas155. Hippocrates contemplates only cripples: ―if foetus is a cripple into the uterus, I say that is the product of a contusion, due to a mother's blow or fall or some kind of violence; [...] or foetus can be a cripple for another reason: if uterus' space is too small for the complete articulation, body moves backwards and foetus becomes a cripple inside the uterus‖156. In conclusion, sterility is due to equality of male and female semen in Garbh.Up., instead in Deuteronomy it is caused by a devine punishment157. Conclusions Despite the differences carried by the classical texts - especially about the gender issue, the first weeks' development and each part's formation - there is a substantial agreement among the authors about the main questions of the embryo‘s growth: both male and female‘s semen are involved in its formation; in the beginnig it has a nearly round shape; the fetus is viable from the seventh month and it may be born from that time until the tenth month of gestation. Most of all, a common feature between Indo-European and Semitic culture is the idea of human life's beginning connected with a round form (see endnotes n.15, 20 and 21): the embryo is considered like a clot or a lump, something already potentially viable, as the Biblical God talks to it in its mother‘s womb (endnotes n.22 and 23). However, unlike Greek and Latin tradition, an accurate description of the stages of embryo and foetus‘ prenatal life seems generally to lack in the Semitic texts. 150 ―anyonyavāyuparipīḍitaśukradvaividhyāt tanuḥ syāt tato yugmāḥ prajāyante‖. Yugmāḥ: ―twins‖. 151 ―Diéduma deè giénetai meèn a\f‘ e|noèv lagneuématov: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. ―[...] £Otan deè h| gonhè tuéc+ scisqei%sa e\v duéo koélpouv a\fikomeénh kaiè ai| mh%trai deéxwntai thèn gonhèn kaiè toi%n koélpoin mhdeéterov e\v toèn e£teron calaés+, cwrisqei%sa dhè e\n e|kateér§ koélp§ u|menou%tai kaiè zwou%tai t§% au\t§% troép§ §/per kaiè toè e£n ei!retai‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. 153 ―[...] \Ev o|koéteron d‘ a!n tw%n koélpwn tuéc+ h| gonhè pacuteérh kaiè i\scuroteérh e\selqou%sa, kei&qi a!rsen giénetai: e\v o|koéteron d‘ a!n u|groteérh kaiè a\sqenesterhè, kei&qi qh%lu giénetai: h!n d‘ e\v a!mfw i\scurhè e\seélq+, a!mfw a!rsena giénetai: h!n deè a\sqenhév, a!mfw qhélea giénetai [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,3. 154 ―Kaq' o£son d' a!n e\lleiép+ h! u|perbaéll+, h! cei%ron a\potelei% h! a\naéphron toè ginoémenon [...]‖. On Gen., 2,6,743a. 155 ―vyākulitamanaso‘ndhāḥ khaðjāḥ kubjā vāmanā bhavanti ‖. Andhāḥ: ―blind‖; khaðjāḥ: ―limp‖; kubjā: ―hump‖; vāmanā: ―dwarf‖. Tamas, ―passive power‖, is one of the three nature's elements with rajas (passionate power) and sattva (rational power). 156 ―Toè deè phrwqeèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si paidiéon fhmiè au\toè h! flasqeèn phrwqh%nai th%v mhtroèv plhgeiéshv kataè toè e!mbruon h! pesouéshv h! a!llou tinoèv biaiéou paqhématov prov genomeénou t+% mhtrié:[...] h! e|teér§ troép§ toi§%de phrou%tai paidiéa, e\phèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si kataè toè cwriéon kaq‘ o£ ti kaiè h\rqrwéqh stenoèn +&, a\naégkh e\n sten§% kineumeénou tou% swématov phrou%sqai kat‘ e\kei%no toè cwriéon: [...]‖. On Gen., 10,1-2. 157 ―And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee: he will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee. Thou shalt be blessed above all people: there shall not be male or female barren among you, or among your cattle‖. Deuteronomy, 7,13-14. 152 469 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Armisen-Marchetti, M. (2001). Macrobe, Commentaire au Songe de Scipion, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Benveniste, E. (1945). La doctrine médicale des Indo-Européens. Revue de l‘histoire des religions, n. 130 (1945) 5-12. Cavazza, F. (1985). (a c. di), Aulo Gellio, Le notti attiche, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. Edde, G. (1993). La medicina indiana, Milano: Xenia. Filliozat, J. (1943). Magie et médicine, Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Filliozat, J. (1975) La doctrine classique de la médicine indienne; ses origines et ses parallèles grecques, Paris: Ecole francaise d'Extreme-Orient Fontanella, V. (1992). Censorino, Il giorno natalizio, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. G.A. = Louis (1961) H.A. = Louis (1964) Hoernle, A. F. (1905). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Génération, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Nature de l‘Enfant, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Krug, A. (1990). La medicina nel mondo classico, Firenze: Giunti. Louis, P. (1961). Aristote, De la Génération des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Louis, P. (1964). Aristote, Histoire des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Nat.Inf. = Joly (1970) On Gen. = Joly (1970) Snell, B. (1948). Die Entdeckung des Geistes. Studien zur Entstehung des europäischen Denkens bei den Griechen, Hamburg: Claasen Verlag. 470 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 70 Title A name given to the resource The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Author Author Bertonazzi, Francesca Abstract A summary of the resource. The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics