259 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dae801c25e4875049a6c0e682daaafc3.pdf 536bd84b2f699401fd632be86fbe8187 PDF Text Text TAX EVASION IN ALBANIAN ECONOMY AFTER ’90 Viola Tanto European University of Tirana Albania viola.tanto@gmail.com Abstract: Albanian economy has gone through some difficult processes during different periods. For 45 years, it was a centrally planned economy, because of the dictatorial system. Albanian economy suffered a defeat during its adoption from centralized economy to a liberal economy. The main difficulty was the concentration of the Albanian economy in the cooperative system. In this type of system, all properties were owned by the state, there was no right of privatization. After ‘90 the identity of properties was returned. The banking sector, as one of the most important sectors of economy, was not having an appropriate development. Not only inflation would be the problem of the economy, but also the loss of trust for the deposit of money in the second level banks that could be opened, which would lead to the failure of the financial sector. An important factor which characterize the economy is the informality. This article seeks to explain the factors that influenced informality in economy, in specific, tax evasion. Tax evasion is an illegal action as it constitutes a deed where the person is breaching the provisions found in the Tax Procedures Law and Penal Code. This paper shall discuss such provisions in the Albanian legislation. Keywords: tax evasion, legislation, liberal economy, informality, economic growth JEL Classification: K4 Introduction Recently, we have been witnesses to a significant increase in the quantitative and qualitative level of tax evasion and tax avoidance. Often, the “battle” between fiscal system and contributors in bad faith (or suspected as such) is made on the basis of power of probation (burden of proof) regarding the elements of the transaction that must be verified by the tax administration. Nowadays, tax evasion is leaving more and more space to avoid refined, in contrast to what might generally be thought, it is not only the prerogative of big companies, corporations or powerful groups of business, but it’s become a common management tool for small and medium enterprises and in some cases for natural persons. Economy evolved with the same steps with the evolution of mankind. The need for economic change and the adoption of economic was the result of evolution of the society. Application of transition in Albania was very difficult, because Albania was one of the poorest country of Europe. It was a communist country with similar features with other socialist countries but with a centralized economy, in other words Albanian people did not have the right to have a property. Structural changes in the banking system started since 1992 with the economic reforms, which began with the change of legal basis. The structure changed with the adoption of the law on ‘Bank of Albania’ and the approval of the law “On the banking system in the Republic of Albania”. The banking system with its inefficiency as a financial intermediary created spaces for pyramids (in 1997) to absorb the growing ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 257 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) savings, especially savings of immigrants. Interest rates on deposits offered by these companies were too high and ranged from 6-8% per month. Main causes of pyramid schemes were lack of appropriate legal framework and political factor. The developments in the real sector, during ‘92-96’ were characterized by a sensitive economic increase of 9 % per year, a decline in the average level of inflation of 17.5 % , and a sensitive improvement of current account and budget deficit. Progress in the macroeconomic stabilization was based on the design and implementation of strong monetary and fiscal policies and also on rapid privatization in agriculture, retails, wholesales, small and medium enterprises which helped economic growth of the country. The desire and effort to fill the budget theoretically one side and ignorance of the Albanian reality, made to fixed quotas excise arbitrary values, provoked by withholding production firms or tax evasion. Refering to the Working Document of the Secretariat of the Investment Council (SIC): Informality, A Common Government-Business Challenge, December 2015, since the 1st of September 2015, the Government officially initiated an extensive campaign against informality in the country. This campaign was preceded by public statements during July–August 2015 on the necessity to fully establish rule of law in the economic and commercial sphere of the country. The campaign was also preceded by a series of concrete, but not published, steps by the Government, including the establishment of a working group within the Council of Ministers, discussions in the Inter-ministerial Strategic Planning Committee (SPC), and the presentation of the campaign to the National Economic Council (NEC). The process was accompanied by a large number of on-site tax inspections (fiscal visits) aimed at scanning the informality situation, numerous media statements by all stakeholders, followed by a series of legal initiatives. A “unique” intensity of debate and reaction was observed concerning this campaign, involving the Government, the business and its representative associations, as well as international institutions. Informality and the tax system The informality in Albania is identified mainly in the form of unregistered businesses, fiscal evasion, and informal employment. An important aspect of “informal economy” is “criminal economy,” the kind of economy resulting from the illegal production of products and services and activities forbidden by the law. The difference between the two is that in criminal economy, what is forbidden is the activity itself, but in informal economy, the activity itself is legal, but the income is concealed and avoided through illegal means. Tax evasion, as a phenomenon of corruption overall economy of our country, in this extended period of transition, tends not only by moral anti-law to benefit, above all, the adoption of the law, not in the real conditions of development our economic, mentality, transitions and versatile infrastructure fiscal. Albania, with the entry into the market economy felt a duty to adopt Western laws in various sectors of the economy, and specifically, in the fiscal sector. Western Europe, in reality it enforced these laws for a long period, subject to supply and demand. This resulted in the harmonization of the price upon request. Due to the low level of life and fiscal mentality, excises were put under a strict technical control, not produced rampant evasion. They defined levels of tax payable and especially, excise duties to 258 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation achieve the objective of their optimum absorption by the state, to realize not only the budget revenues (out lower). In order to create an anti-evasion atmosphere because populations larger than our country and not only that, but the state tradition most part, these countries rushed to recognize capitalists young and teach the masses, with the tradition of the new tax reduction tax evasion by using tax policy carefully. The tax system represents one of the main pillars that facilitates or impedes the formalization of economy, also making the business climate more attractive or not. Regarding the tax system, businesses have identified the following concerns: tax burden, fragmentation of the tax system, tax administration, and tax procedures. The administration of taxes is mentioned as an issue in different recent reports of international organizations on the business climate of Albania. As it’s stated in the Working Document of SIC, businesses have continuously emphasized and made different comments, generally negative ones, over the capacities of the administration, interpretation of the legislation, and frequent tax inspections. Tax avoidance is one of the most difficult issues with which they are confronted tax authorities, courts and legislation throughout the world, especially in places where it is hard to believe or doubt that the tax system is the main instrument to increase revenues that support government investment (Orow, 2000). Tax avoidance and other forms that deviate from the failure of taxes or reduce them can be called without hesitation more widespread phenomenon in recent centuries. Tax avoidance involves arranging a transaction or a series of transactions, as to obtain a tax advantage, distinguishing the tax planning, which is lawful and tax evasion, as the incidence of serious violations of tax rates. Increasing cases of avoidance must be given a choice and must take immediate and concrete measures. This poses a serious challenge against the effectiveness of the tax laws. In all the multitude of books, articles or reports on this subject are noticed contradictions and different currents of thought on the nature and causes of tax evasion, ways of responding to it or address it, citing the fact that some perpetrators tax avoidance is a problem which requires a response by the legislation. The divergence in the views of different groups of researchers, doctrine or jurisprudence come as a consequence of the legal traditions of the countries that belong or individual rights and obligations in tax law. The main issues and the most vulnerable areas (Palumbo, 2011) which have been and continue to be problematic for Albania, as well as for other countries include: - The lack of a clear and coherent policy to tackle the structural choices provided by tax legislation; - The fact that the tax system exists as an economic reality in the business world and as a real and substantial cost affects the shape of the majority of transactions; - The existence and application of formal principles characterizing many of the transactions and creating differences which are more formal than substantive; - Different taxes for different businesses and the lack of a coherent framework of income tax on investment. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 259 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Ways that are followed to address tax avoidance have been different. Abuse of the law doctrine is used in all areas of law, including the right to tax. The European Court of Justice (De La Feria & Vogenauer, 2011) alluded to more than thirty years connected with the terms “abuse or abusive practices”, but for a long time the meaning of these references has been unclear. Recent years there has been a radical change in attitude, mainly due to the development by the Court of a test for finding of abuse and its application in the field of taxation. The European Court of Justice has formulated a principle of general anti-avoidance according to this doctrine. The principle of prohibition of abuse of rights can be used as an effective basis for addressing tax avoidance, which is a manifestation of abuse of the right of the taxpayer. The principles that govern tax avoidance and evasion are provisions that prohibit the performance of complex structured transactions intentionally by the taxpayer, to divert from paying the tax. Before determining these principles, we need to make the difference of the behaviors of the taxpayer, in order to better understand the link between the illegal conduct and general principles. One of the manners of tax benefit, which is in any case illegal is tax evasion. Tax evasion is the taxpayer’s behavior (Galdieri, 2009), that consists in a direct violation of tax liabilities as a result of existence of some elements related to the birth of the tax. In practice, the taxpayer avoids the payment, wholly or partially, of the tax liability using tools / illegal ways to hide all or part of the taxable base. These behaviors of taxpayers, which are illegal, can come as a result of gross negligence or intent on committing acts or omissions e.g failure of invoices or lack of billing transactions (such as omission of the taxpayer), or may result in active actions as fulfillment of invoices for transactions that are really nonexistent (Caraccioli, 2009). In this way the definition of conduct for tax purposes is very simple: there is tax liability specified in the relevant rules, the person/business is not aimed at changing the legal structure, but illegally, evading this obligation. Usually these situations occur in the case of creating models or transactions, for e.g corporate mergers, divisions, transformations, created as entities without a “valid reason economic”, but to take an advantage of tax. Ratio (reason) is a savings/ evasion of taxes (Terracina, 2012). Tax avoidance and tax planning Tax avoidance should not be confused either with tax evasion (as discussed above), which is in breach of a legal obligation to pay taxes, nor with tax saving. The taxpayer can make the choice among of the various options offered by the legal system to minimize the tax burden. The concept of tax saving is broader and more general than that tax avoidance. Well, we can say that the tax saving is a grouping that includes all sub-groups considered. Methods, tools, techniques of conducting tax avoidance are different from those of the realization of tax planning. 260 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation In fact, there is absolutely nothing wrong in choosing between two or more different transactions that lead to the same result, where the choice of one leads to lower taxes, reduction or elimination of the tax burden. The possibility for taxpayers realizing a savings (Pistone, 1995) allowed by the legal system (the so-called tax-free zone) is characteristic of capitalist economic systems. It is symbolic that such opportunity was given without hesitation the former communist countries after leaving the planned economy system. The benefit of tax savings by planning when there is no exceed of the limits of legality, can be very useful and socially. It was argued that the specific weight of the tax burden is an instrument to stimulate (or discourage) a certain kind of social or economic choices of taxpayers. Meanwhile, the essential features of tax avoidance is avoidance or deviation from the definition of tax rates or the use of legal space for the performance of certain transactions. The tax burden is not mitigated by falsifying the facts of tax relevant (as in the case of tax evasion), or through simulation of certain transactions (as in the case of fraud), but through careful use of tax rates existing gaps (Palumbo, 2011). Often, (Galdieri, 2009) taxpayers willing to avoid taxes, create more complex schemes with the sole purpose to avoid the law. Tax avoidance, in other words, consists in acquiring a particular economic outcome, using the not the normal procedure provided for by the legal system. The main problem lies in the fact that how far can go the taxpayer, choosing less heavy taxation without avoiding the law. Conclusions This paper has explored a number of issues regarding shadow economy and fiscal evasion. Although in different levels and ways, shadow economy is present in every country. Tax evasion is an important and significant phenomenon that affects both developed and developing economies. Size of the informal economy and fiscal evasion associated with it should be clearly understood, in order to forecast the appropriate policies to deal with these issues. Generally countries with low tax rate, tend to have less fiscal evasion. However, Albania is an exception, since it has or had a low tax rate, but fiscal evasion is still a major problem. As the tax rate increase, the probability of evading taxes increases, too. Tax payers lack trust on governmental institution, so they evade taxes or pay only the amount they believe they can be caught. In order to reduce tax evasion, Tax Administration should increase the quality of audits and controls. This can be done through an improvement in tax audit methodologies and existing topics, creating a unique database with the results of inspections made on businesses and individuals. Strengthening of financial control may also help in the reduction in the size of informal economy. Government should develop business management tools for a more precise control or a database including taxpayer’s taxpaying habits. Fiscal evasion can be reduced also by the improvement of enforcement procedures. In order to control tax evasion government should: ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 261 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) a)Build business- friendly policies abolish repressive practices against business and fiscal arbitrariness, b)Increase cooperation between different state agencies c)Increase the capacity and professionalism of customs and tax administration, in order to improve the control of fiscal evasion in the labor market it is required the education of both employees and employers; d)Strengthening the legal and financial penalties for individuals and companies who manipulate company balance sheets. International experiences suggest that stronger penalties function better when adequate incentives have been created preliminarily for formalization purposes and when informal companies have a more successful transition towards formalization. On the other side there are many question marks on the efficiency of the complaint system, including tax appeal procedures and complaints procedures through the judicial system. The formalization reform must also have a goal to relieve the administrative burden for taxpayers, by promoting compliance with the tax system and the regulatory system as well as a higher standard of the final goods and services in the following aspects: For e.g. Improvement of public institutions’ infrastructure in relation to application of online systems and enhancing the exchange of information in real time. More concretely, the online coordination of State Inspectors and online exchange of information on Inspections as well as coordinated registration of private entities, with institutions such as the NRC, Tax Office, Employment Office and other Inspectorates (e.g. NFA, the Environment Inspectorate, etc.) or the General Directorate of Customs for imports of raw materials (necessary for agro-business). References • Antonini L., 1966, Equivalenza di fattispecie tributarie ed elusione di imposta, Riv. dir. Fin, 167-174. • Amatucci F., 2009, L’abuso del diritto nell’ordinamento tributario nazionale, Clausola generale antielusiva, Corriere giuridico. • Brown Karen B., A comparative look at regulation of corporate tax avoidance, Comparative prespectives on law and justice,12, Springer editor, p.p 1-5, 198199. • De la Feria R. & Vogenauer S., 2011, Prohibition of Abuse of Law, A New General Principle of EU Law?, Studies of the Oxford Institute of European and Comparative Law. • Ivo Caraccioli, 2009, Elusioni o forzature nell’applicazione dell’imposta di registro, Gianni Marongiu; Spunti di metodo in tema di “abuso del diritto”, Paolo Gentili; Neotepa- Periodico ufficiale dell’A.N.T.I. – Associazione Nazionale Tributaristi Italiani, Milano. • Galdieri E., 2009, General anti-avoidance rules & doctrines, EUCOTAX Wintercourse 2009, Barcelona, Università LUISS – “Guido Carli” – Roma, Facoltà di Giurisprudenza, Cattedra di Diritto Tributario, p.p 27, 191. • Garbarino C., 2009, The development of a judicial anti-abuse principle in Italy, British Tax Review, B.T.R. • Lavoisier, 2099, L’abuso di diritto nell’ordinamento tributario italiano. • Losurdo F., 2011, Il divieto dell’abuso del diritto nell’ ordinamento europeo, storia e giurisprudenza, G.Giappicheli Editore, Torino. 262 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation • Orow Nabil BEc, LLB (Hons), 2000, Department of Business Law and Taxation, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University, Victoria, Australia, General anti-avoidance rules, A comparative International analysis, Jordans Editor, Bristol. • Palumbo G., 2011, Elusione fiscale e abuso del diritto, L’aggiramento degli obblighi impositivi tra legittimo risparmio ed evasione fiscale, Cesi Multimendia, Milano, 1-3. • Piantavigna P., 2011, Abuso del diritto fiscale nell’ ordinamento europeo, G.Giappicheli Editore, Torino. • Pistone P., 1995, Abuso del diritto ed elusione fiscale, Padova, p.p 7-8. • Terracina D., 2012, Riflesi penali dell’ evasione fiscale, Tra ricchezza nascosta e regime del dichiarato, Dike Giuridica Editrice, Roma, 183-190. • Jarvis, Chris, 1999, The Rise and fall of the Pyramidic Schemes in Albania. • World Bank, 1994, “Albania and the World Bank. Building the Future”, Washington DC. • World Bank, 1998, ”Albania Beyond the Crisis”, Washington, D.C • INSTAT • Secretariat of the Investment Council: Working Document – Informality, A Common Government-Business Challenge, December 2015. • Annual Report of National Registration Center, 2015, Albania ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 263 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3337 Title A name given to the resource TAX EVASION IN ALBANIAN ECONOMY AFTER ’90 Author Author Tanto, Viola Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Albanian economy has gone through some difficult processes during different periods. For 45 years, it was a centrally planned economy, because of the dictatorial system. Albanian economy suffered a defeat during its adoption from centralized economy to a liberal economy. The main difficulty was the concentration of the Albanian economy in the cooperative system. In this type of system, all properties were owned by the state, there was no right of privatization. After ‘90 the identity of properties was returned. The banking sector, as one of the most important sectors of economy, was not having an appropriate development. Not only inflation would be the problem of the economy, but also the loss of trust for the deposit of money in the second level banks that could be opened, which would lead to the failure of the financial sector. An important factor which characterize the economy is the informality. This article seeks to explain the factors that influenced informality in economy, in specific, tax evasion. Tax evasion is an illegal action as it constitutes a deed where the person is breaching the provisions found in the Tax Procedures Law and Penal Code. This paper shall discuss such provisions in the Albanian legislation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be9ee1d641005cc3d4a9d381f4e5a06c.pdf b9d79a0721772203bfe7b96765e3ce47 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Tax Policy within Fiscal Policies: Evaluation of Tax Measures Taken Against Economic Crises Recep Tekeli Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey rtekeli@adu.edu.tr Hakan Arslaner Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey hakanarslaner@yahoo.com Tarık Ilıman Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey tarik.iliman@adu.edu.tr Through the history the countries have been examined by economic crises all over the world. After the Great Depression of 1929, the beginning of which is named as ‘’ Black Tuesday ‘’, we again experienced a new world-wide crisis that broke out in the United States in 2008. When it comes to explaining the economic crisis, it is simply a sudden and unexpected downturn in the economy of a country. Primarily, The United States, and then the all countries in the world have been severely influenced by the negative effects of this crisis. With the Great Depression in the United States, it was obvious that ‘’ Market Economy ‘’ that maintained by classical economists couldn’t be competent by itself alone. In that period, Keynesian economists which emphasized the ’’ State Intervention’’ emerged against their classical counterparts. According to Keynesians, ‘’ State Intervention ‘’ is so essential in depression eras. Governments can interfere with ongoing period of depression in two different ways. These are monetary policies and fiscal policies. If a decisive struggle and respond to the crisis are desired, both of these policies must be enforced simultaneously. On the other hand, governments are more efficient to use fiscal policies in comparison with monetary policies, in an effort to control the economy at that cyclical period. However, it is known that fiscal policies have their own instruments which may be listed as tax policy, spending policy and budget policy. Tax policy is the most effective way of all fiscal policies in stages of recession. As one of the main purposes of fiscal policy is to sustain economic stability, tax policies are often used to achieve the mentioned purpose. Hence, this study focuses on the tax measures taken by the governments to deal with the economic crises by giving inner examination of some countries severely hit by the recent global crisis. Overall, the study will elaborate the significance and the impact level of tax policies in crises periods. Keywords: Economic Crisis, Cyclical periods, Fiscal Policy, Tax Policy. 244 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1642 Title A name given to the resource Tax Policy within Fiscal Policies: Evaluation of Tax Measures Taken Against Economic Crises Author Author TEKELI, Recep ARSLANER, Hakan ILIMAN, Tarik Abstract A summary of the resource. Through the history the countries have been examined by economic crises all over the world. After the Great Depression of 1929, the beginning of which is named as ‘’ Black Tuesday ‘’, we again experienced a new world-wide crisis that broke out in the United States in 2008. When it comes to explaining the economic crisis, it is simply a sudden and unexpected downturn in the economy of a country. Primarily, The United States, and then the all countries in the world have been severely influenced by the negative effects of this crisis. With the Great Depression in the United States, it was obvious that ‘’ Market Economy ‘’ that maintained by classical economists couldn’t be competent by itself alone. In that period, Keynesian economists which emphasized the ’’ State Intervention’’ emerged against their classical counterparts. According to Keynesians, ‘’ State Intervention ‘’ is so essential in depression eras. Governments can interfere with ongoing period of depression in two different ways. These are monetary policies and fiscal policies. If a decisive struggle and respond to the crisis are desired, both of these policies must be enforced simultaneously. On the other hand, governments are more efficient to use fiscal policies in comparison with monetary policies, in an effort to control the economy at that cyclical period. However, it is known that fiscal policies have their own instruments which may be listed as tax policy, spending policy and budget policy. Tax policy is the most effective way of all fiscal policies in stages of recession. As one of the main purposes of fiscal policy is to sustain economic stability, tax policies are often used to achieve the mentioned purpose. Hence, this study focuses on the tax measures taken by the governments to deal with the economic crises by giving inner examination of some countries severely hit by the recent global crisis. Overall, the study will elaborate the significance and the impact level of tax policies in crises periods. Keywords: Economic Crisis, Cyclical periods, Fiscal Policy, Tax Policy. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59e3a327d891f91708746832c9cbb900.pdf beba306fa9c687fb9ecfa43904e00781 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700♣ Süleyman DEMĐRCĐ Assoc. Professor, Chair/Lecturer in Early Modern Ottoman Studies Erciyes University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of History 38039 Kayseri-TURKEY sdemirci@erciyes.edu.tr Abstract: Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Keywords: Ottoman economy, taxation, tax collection, tax house units The extra-ordinary levies were among the most important of the regular sources of government revenue in the Ottoman empire during the seventeenth century, but there has been relatively little study of them. Originating in the late fifteenth century as irregular imposts levied at times of military need, it is clear that by the first quarter of the seventeenth century these levies had become virtually annual levies throughout the majority of the Rumelian and Anatolian provinces. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. In this paper we will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. It is important to determine how many real households (gerçekhâne) constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne). The term avârizhâne denotes an administratively-defined 'tax household' or 'tax house unit'. The usually accepted generalisation for the empire as a whole, that one tax-unit/avârizhâne could be made up of between 3 and 15 real households (gerçekhâne), is too broad to be of much practical value. The number of gerçekhânes within an avârizhâne varied considerably from place to place and from region to region. It is clear from the archival documents consulted, that the number of real households/gerçekhânes was determined by the wealth of the taxpayers within the region for which the survey was carried out. The archival document examined shows that the final registration status of tax-payers were subject to the central government's final approval as the end-product of a process of negotiation. It is clear that one tax-unit (avârizhâne) was clearly made up of one real households (gerçekhâne) in the 16th-century. Similarly, Bernard Lewis found the word avârizhâne in his documents on sixteenth-century Palestine to be equivalent to one gerçekhâne(see Demirci 2006). However, it is not clear from the available sources, when the classical households were no longer used for avârizhâne tax assessment purposes and when the change occurred to avârizhânes counting of several gerçekhânes. The tax registers from the turn of the sixteenth century show that avârizhânes were by then composed of a number of gerçekhânes. A record of Balıkesir in 1603, indicates the number of individuals or gerçekhânes in one tax-unit (avârizhâne), prescribing that three married men and six bachelors constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne)(Darling 1996& Akdağ 1950). An entry relating to Alaiye shows that one tax-unit (avârizhâne), was made up of three real household/gerçekhâne in 1606 (Güçer 1964), while Muslims settling in Cyprus in 1606 were counted as five nefers per tax-unit/avârızhâne. Here, nefer clearly does mean heads of household. For example, entries in MM 2576 Maliye Ahkam register /Finans Registers, dating from 1633-1640, reveals that taxunit/avârizhâne assessment in both Rumeli and Anadolu, was figured at an even 5 nefers per tax-unit/ avârizhâne, except that of Dimetoka where it was placed at 7 nefers per hâne and Beyşehir at 3 nefers per taxunit/avârizhâne (see Darling 1996&Demirci 2006) ♣ Author’s note: I would like to take this opportunity to thank Erciyes University for the finacial support provided to me towards my treval expences in order to participate in this scholary event. 446 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Considering the changes in the number of gerçekhânes within one tax-unit/avârizhâne during the 16th and early 17th centuries one therefore could suggest that in various parts of the empire one avârızhâne was composed of at least around 3 to 5 gerçekhâne at the beginning of the seventeenth century, while between 1610 and 1650, the number of gerçekhânes in one avârizhâne ranged more widely, from 3 to 15. This is, however, based only on a small sample of available material. The existence of these carefully considered variations in the nefer/avârizhâne ratio in table 1 show the differentiation principle at work in the mid-17th century. It is clear evidence of extreme flexibility in graduated allocations as well as the functioning of the avârizhâne-tax-unit system. The detailed tax registers (mufassal avâriz defter) shows that the nefer/avârizhâne ratio was set at kaza level. It is clear from material used that most tax-payers were organised into particular avârizhâne groups (Demirci 2009). The Collection Procedure This section considers how tax collection proceeded, how the collectors were required to work with provincial kadıs and other prominent local leaders, and the various stages of performing the collection (See Demirci 2005). The main source of evidence are the sicils /court records of Kayseri, which contain a number of imperial decrees relating to the collection of these taxes, and to complaints about problems of payment, extortion and malpractice. From these imperial decrees we are able to explain, to a certain degree, how the tax (avâriz) collection was made in the Ottoman Empire. Appointing the Collector Evidence on the appointment and verification of a tax collector appears in the Kayseri sicil for 1626. Imperial order regarding the bedel-i nüzul collection; To the kadıs of sub-province of Niğde (Niğde livası) when my sublime firman arrives, let it be known that, the bedel-i nüzul substitute in the year 1036/1626 for each avârizhânes in the districts of Niğde livasi is to be collected at the rate of 600 akçes by Cafer Mustafa, from 209 standing cavalry regiment of ulufeciyan-i yemen, in accordance with sealed and stamped register in his hand. … when my noble command arrives, you should act in accordance with the firman issued for this matter, and the bedel-i nüzul in those districts for the year should be collected by my servant (Cafer Mustafa) at 600 akçes from each avârizhânes in accordance with the beratlu and sealed mevkufat register (avârizhâne defteri). The record for this matter should be kept in a register and that …you shall act justly in this matter and not let anything be demanded contrary to my firman and the register. You should know this and trust in the Noble Tuğra … Written on 9 July 1036/1626." (See Gündüz 1995, p. 811-812). This entry shows that the collector was appointed centrally, in Đstanbul, to serve for bedel-i nüzul collection in all the kazas within the liva of Niğde. The liva was the standard collection unit, with collectors usually appointed to most, if not all, the livas in a province for a given year. The rate per avârizhâne is clearly stated to be 600 akçes. Kadıs are instructed to assist the named collector, and to see that no malpractice occurs. Personal information was also given in this decree explaining who the collector was, i.e. Cafer Mustafa, for which year the levy was about to be collected, and the actual rate that was set by the central government. Before setting off from Đstanbul Cafer Mustafa was given an official order, emr, to prove his status, and a copy of the avârizhâne tax registers for the liva, listing all the taxable population liable for avâriz levies, to enable him to collect the right amount of money set for each tax-unit / avârizhâne in the areas concerned. Archival evidence shows that the extra-ordinary (avâriz) levies’ collection was made in the following stages: • The selection of the collectors. It was the central government's job to select the potential collector from variety of people. The available information on avâriz and nüzul collectors in both avâriz defters and sicils used in this study do not indicate how collection appointees were selected. • An order was issued, and sent to the local area where the collection was about to be made. • A copy of the order was given to the actual collector in order to verify his position as tax collector to the kadıs of the area and other officials. • Then the named collector carried out the collection in accordance with this emr and the avârizhâne register, in accordance with the actual rate set for each avârizhâne. • In case of any dispute or complaint regarding the collection, written evidence was needed. • Once the collection was made then the collector of the levies reported the money collected to the local kadı who issued a certificate stating the amount of money collected and handed it over to the collector (more on this see Demirci 2005). The following discussion raises further matters of detail relating to these various stages. 447 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Collection How was the money actually collected and handed over to the collectors? Did collectors collect separately from each avârizhâne in a karye or mahalle, or did they expect to collect the full total for a given village or mahalle from a headman or another leading person who had previously collected it from the others? Was one person responsible for collecting the cash ready for the official avariz collector? To answer all these questions from the registers available is very difficult, because the central government's tax records stop at the point when the tax collector is sent out and begin again when he returns, or sends back money or communications. It is possible, however, that the collection process within a village, a mahalle, or kaza varied according to the nature of the community. That is, whether or not it was religiously homogeneous, whether the people shared a common lifestyle or a way of living etc. A homogenous community would be more likely to be collected as a unit, whereas if it were diverse religiously, ethnically, or in some other way, the different groups might be treated separately. For example, in the very beginning of the sixteenth century, the tax collectors caused some inconvenience to the non-Muslim leaders during the collection of these levies in Ottoman Rumelia, which resulted in complaints to the central government. In response to this, therefore, an imperial decree, dated 1501, was sent both to the sancak beyi of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat ordering them that it was the kethüda's (steward, agent) duty to assist the collectors. Collectors involved in certain types of levies i.e. avâriz, nüzul and cizye should work in association with the kethüda. According to this particular imperial order he, not the religious leaders, was the person to deal with any inquiry regarding the collection of these levies in the areas concerned. "A decree to be written to sub-province Governor of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat, It is heard that in these days those who came for avariz or the poll-tax collectors (haracci), or some other services, asking the priests to help them with tax collecting and treating them badly. In fact, it was kethüdas’ (“steward, agent”) responsibility to assist the tax collectors not the priests’. In that case, I have ordered that I give no approval to any transgression or cruelty to them, and so long as they pay their share of poll-tax, I urge you not let anything be demanded contrary to the regulation (kanun). You should know this. Written in the first ten days of June 1501 (see Şahin- Emecen 1994, p. 63). From this it appears that, from the earliest period of the Ottoman taxation system, the government sought to have someone in each village, or mahalle (city quarter), responsible for assisting the tax collector when required. In the seventeenth century, it is quite possible that one person from each avârizhâne unit in the area was kept responsible for the collection of avâriz by the kethüda. Having said that, however, the entries regarding complaints and corruption in the system in Kayseri court records suggest that the villagers acted as a group in relation to the number of avârizhânes assessed for the entire village, and that therefore there may also have been some community responsibility involved in raising and handing over the avâriz money. One example states: "We demand avâriz taxes which he refuses to pay [...]". The complainants here are asking the kadı to help them get someone to pay their share, who had refused to do so. It is not clear from the documents used so far who was included in such a grouping of people locally responsible for pre-collection of avâriz taxes. It may have consisted of the elders in a mahalle or karye (village), the kethüda, the kadı or his deputy (naib), as the actual collector etc. Collection would not necessarily have been from the head of a gerçekhâne (real household), or from those grouped in a simple avârizhâne, but would most likely to have been undertaken by a person or persons acting as representative(s) of the group of avârizhânes in that particular mahalle or village. Information in an imperial order of 1640 regarding an avârizhâne survey in Menteşe and Suğla livasi in western Anatolia, sheds more light on the precedure for carying out a new avâriz survey, suggesting that the surveyor was instructed to work closely with local people to gain the most accurate information possible.1 This paper has focussed on the procedure for actual collection of certain levies during the seventeenth century as seen in the most relevant archival documents. The probable involvement of local assessors and prior collection systems is of particular interest in the study of Ottoman administrative practices and may contribute to knowledge of social relations in provincial localities (more on this see Demirci 2009). References Akdağ, M., (1950) "Osmanlı Đmparatorluğunun Kuruluşu ve Đnkişafi Devrinde Türkiyenin Đktisâdi Vaziyeti", Belleten 14. Darling, L., (1996) Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire 1560-1660, New York. Demirci, S., (2009). The Functioning of Ottoman avâriz taxation: an aspect of the relationships between centre and periphery, The Isıspress, Đstanbul. 1 KK2576 Maliye Ahkam Defteri (1043-49/1633-40), pp. 47-49. 448 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Demirci, S.,(2006). “Demography And History: The Value of The Avârizhâne Registers For Demographic Research: A Case Study of The Ottoman Sub-Provinces of Konya, Kayseri And Niğde, C.1620s-1700”, Turcica 38, 181-211. Demirci, S., (2006). “Avâriz and Nüzul Levies in the Ottoman Empire: A Case Study of the Province of Karaman, 1620s-1700” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 70/258 , 563-590. Demirci, S., (2005). "Collectors of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire. A case study of the province of Karaman, 1621-1700", ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/255, 539-565. Demirci, S., (2005). “Collection of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire, 1620- 1700”, ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/256, 897-912. Emecen, F., (1982). “Kayacik Kazasi Avariz Defteri”, Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi, , 12, Đstanbul, Güçer, L., (1964) Osmanli Đmparatorluğunda Hububat Meselesi ve Hububattan Alınan Vegiler, Đstanbul Universitesi Đktisat Fakültesi Yayını, Đstanbul. Gündüz, A., (1995). 27/3 Numaralı Kayseri Şer'iyye Sicili 1035/36-1625/26, Unpublished MA Thesis, Erciyes University, Kayseri. Đlhan Şahin- Emecen Feridun (1994), Osmanlılarda Divân-Bürokrasi-Ahkâm: II. Bâyezid Dönemine Ait 906/1501 Tarihli Ahkâm Defteri, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, Đstanbul. Table 1: The number of nefers in one tax-unit/avârizhâne in different locations within the Ottoman Empire, c. 1640s The place Number of nefers in one avârizhâne/ tax-unit Konya kazası 11 Eskiil ve Akcaşehir kazası 12 11 Insuyu kazası Kureyş mea Berendi 12 Belviran kazası 11 14.5 Gaferyad kazası Larende kazası 14 Aladağ kazası 12.5 Pirluganda kazası 10.5 Beyşehir kazası 12 Seydişehir kazası 12 Kaşaklu kazası 10.5 Bozkır kazası 11.5 Kucu-i kebir 11 Kırili kazası 11.5 Akşehir kazası 13 Ishaklu kazası 9 Ilgun kazası 12 Aksaray kazası 11 Eyübili kazası 8 Niğde kazası 10 Ürgüb kazası 10 Anduğu kazası 14 Develü kazası 9 Çamardı kazası 10 449 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 290 Title A name given to the resource Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700 Author Author DEMiRCi, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34bd4f0a3384cfab917c4e5da896f8dd.pdf 77ff6210e8ebd0e2d93b255f92a9b9b3 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Taxation Role in Sustainable Development Hayriye IŞIK Pamukkale University, Turkey Abstract: The concept of sustainable development is about ensuring that the costs of onegeneration’s activities do not compromise the opportunities of future generations. It stresses the long term compatibility of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of human well-being. There are tax aspects of various significances in these four dimensions, some of which are under the primary responsibility of developing countries. These are; (a) Providing a fiscal environment that is favourable to Foreign Direct Investment and international trade in developing countries, (b) At the international level, cooperation between developed and developing countries to ensure that developing countries get a fair allocation of tax base in relation to the Foreign Direct Investment they attract, (c) Helping developing countries to develop efficient and fair tax policies and tax collection mechanisms that allow their governments to effectively fund sustainable policy measures in the economic, social and environmental fields, and (d) At the international level and in particular in investors’ home countries, involving civil society by encouraging taxpayers and in particular MNEs(Multinational Enterprises) to behave in a responsible way when managing their taxes. The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: transparency in administrative decisions; stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. This paper aims to investigate tax and tax system role on the sustainable development. Finally gives some detailed example for developing and developed countries. Keywords: taxation, sustainable, foreign direct investment 1.Tax System and Sustainable Development The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: - transparency in administrative decisions; - stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and - availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. A partial re-orientation of taxes from taxation of income to taxation the use of natural resources and pollution of nature. The broader goal of the tax reform concept is to improve the competitiveness in lot of country, support the economic development and reduce unemployment. Another basic principle is that the overall tax burden has to remain the same – this means that the rise of environmental taxes and fees has to be balanced with decreasing of income tax Tax System Role; a) Collection From Business: Collecting taxes from businesses, rather than individuals, makes use of the economies of dealing with a smaller number of larger units, many of which have sophisticated accounting systems.It is morecostly, as a fraction of revenue raised, to collect taxes from compared to larger busiensses. b) Trade off - Raising taxes from entails high collection costs per revenue. 195 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo - Collection costs include both administrative and compliance costs, but the former should beweighted more heavily. - But taxing SMEspreferentially creates inefficient incentives for resources to flow to them (where they are difficult to tax). - Thus, economizing on the costs of collection may exacerbate the distortion costs of taxation. c) Distortion types - a size-related exemption discourages businesses from getting big, a production inefficiency. -It also favors goods and services whose production technology involves small businesses, a consumption inefficiency. d) Cost-benefit framework The potential collection costs savings and the distortion costs depend on to which tax the preferences apply, and on the nature of the preferences. -Special treatment can take many forms, including exemption, a lower rate schedule, a simplified base, and relatively lax enforcement. -Key question: what about a tax system delivers lower collection costs? e) Tax system problems - Administration - Competitiviness - Impact to wealth distribution - Measurement (indicators) - Political fluctuations f) Poverty Considerations Assessing equity issues requires careful consideration of the ultimate incidence of tax policies. -Both tax liability and compliance costs can be shifted away from the apparent beneficiaries via market adjustments. -For example, not necessarily owned by people with small incomes. 2. Tax System Role Special tax regimes for may be appropriate policy instruments for minimizing the cost of collection.The objective should be to achieve collection cost savings while minimizing the revenue loss, disruption to the economy, and the inequity and capriciousness of the tax burden. 3. Conclusions The role of taxation in sustainable development covers many aspects. The most commonly discussed ones are the use of taxes or tax incentives designed to encourage or discourage specific behaviour that affect economic, environmental or social sustainability. However, there is a more fundamental, although less often advocated, dimension to thisissue. Taxation is essential to sustainable development in that it provides governmentswith the necessary finance to effectively implement development policies. Objectives interms of improving infrastructures, education, health, or environmental protection, cannotbe achieved at no cost. There is a joint responsibility for developing economies, wealthycountries, investors and international organisations to promote fair and efficient taxsystems, administrations and attitudes that will ensure each country derives the fruits ofits own economic growth. This contributes to the wider objective of policy coherence. 196 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Anonim Agenda 21 Rio Deklarasyonu Caroline Silberztein “sustainable development a shared responsibility for developing and developed countries,Institutional Approaches to Policy Coherence for Development OECD Policy Workshop Dommen, Edward, Editör, Fair Principles for Sustainable Development. Edward Elgar, 1993. Minibaş, Türkel ; “Çok Taraflı Yatırım Anlaşması (MAI) ve Dünya Ticaret Örgütü (WTO), Đktisadın Dama Taşları, Đ.Ü. Đktisat Fakültesi Mezunlar Cemiyeti, 2001-1 OECD (2001:a), Strategies for Sustainable Development-Practical Guidance for Development Cooperation Pearce, David, "New Environmental Policies: The Recent Experience of OECD Countries and its Relevance to the Developing World." Environmental Management in Developing Countries. Editor Denizhan Öcal. OECD 1991 içinde. Pearce, David, "New Environmental Policies, Environment and Economics: A Survey of OECD Work" Environmental Management in Developing Countries. Editor Denizhan Öcal. OECD 1991 içinde. World Bank, National Environmental Strategies: Learning from the Experience, Mart 1995. Tanzi, Vito&Davodi, Hamid R.; Corruption, Growth, and Public Finances, IMF Working Paper WP/00/182 197 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 176 Title A name given to the resource Taxation Role in Sustainable Development Author Author IŞIK, Hayriye Abstract A summary of the resource. The concept of sustainable development is about ensuring that the costs of onegeneration’s activities do not compromise the opportunities of future generations. It stresses the long term compatibility of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of human well-being. There are tax aspects of various significances in these four dimensions, some of which are under the primary responsibility of developing countries. These are; (a) Providing a fiscal environment that is favourable to Foreign Direct Investment and international trade in developing countries, (b) At the international level, cooperation between developed and developing countries to ensure that developing countries get a fair allocation of tax base in relation to the Foreign Direct Investment they attract, (c) Helping developing countries to develop efficient and fair tax policies and tax collection mechanisms that allow their governments to effectively fund sustainable policy measures in the economic, social and environmental fields, and (d) At the international level and in particular in investors’ home countries, involving civil society by encouraging taxpayers and in particular MNEs(Multinational Enterprises) to behave in a responsible way when managing their taxes. The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: transparency in administrative decisions; stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. This paper aims to investigate tax and tax system role on the sustainable development. Finally gives some detailed example for developing and developed countries Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cec09e9f6a84916e578c4d7cb0f8c5fe.pdf 7325dc01933d7f839af230da3fda9167 PDF Text Text Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes Şaban ÇEPIK Fatih University/ Turkey Abstract: The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we, teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously. Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively; however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability classes. Key words: mixed ability students, motivation, reaction, pedagogical problems Introduction I find needless to ask whether teachers have different leveled students in the classes, I am sure you have or will have such problems. We all very often encounter mixed ability (lower or higher leveled) students in our classrooms. And as teachers, we must learn to find out these kinds of problems and deal with them effectively. We generally ask these questions concerning the issue; what kind of problems do you have with them? How do you adjust them to the class atmosphere? And how do you treat them to concentrate on the lecture? Teachers need to perceive and recognize the nature of the problems students have in the classrooms. Our reactions towards these students are mostly different from each other, we sometimes approach the matter positively and deal with the problem very seriously but sometimes we ignore it. The unsolved matter of an individual may cause some serious problems like discipline, psychology and class management. Anxiety and disappointment encountered by some students regarding these matters may result in unexpected and extreme reactions. When such problems appear, as teachers we should confront these problems. Our approach and reaction shouldn’t be negative. Always there are some students who are below average and this is quite normal. Different problems may also stem from the pedagogical, psychological or social causes, but we mainly focus on their weakness and difference of level. General Problems with Different Leveled Students Discipline problems Teachers often lose control of their classes when they spend too much time with each student. While they are working with one student, others goof off. In his research, Jones found commonly experienced discipline problems when they finished a lecture and began helping students individually at their seats. Students usually began immediately to ask their teachers for help. Teachers usually responded with a "universal helping interaction." They tried to: 1. Find out where a student was having difficulty. 2. Re-explain the portion of the lesson the student did not understand. 3. Supply the student with additional explanations and examples. Jones contends that this process ordinarily takes at least 5 minutes for each student. If the practice period lasts 30 minutes, no more than six students can receive help. While the teacher is helping these students, the rest of the class, particularly those who are unsuccessfully seeking help from the teacher, will talk and goof around. According to Jones, this result helps explain why talking to neighbors in ways that a constitutes 80% of the discipline problems in a typical classroom. Not only does discipline break down, but the students who do receive help are unable to use 1 �long, drawn-out explanations to successfully complete their work. The universal helping interaction is too slow and inefficient. Teachers tie themselves up for too long period with too few students and leave too many students unattended and for too much of the work period (Jones, 1987a. cited in Jones H.F. cited in Edwards H.C.2000.p.204). As long as the students are involved and interested, and if the topics are challenging they will love the lecture and appreciate the teacher. Demotivation As the essence of learning is motivation, learning may not result in success if we can not motivate the mixed leveled students. Due to conflict of such students, concentration and attention of both the teacher and the learners will be distracted. Low-leveled students may lose self-confidence which is essential for language learning, and the upper leveled students most probably will be bored because their needs are not met satisfactorily. “So what teachers should do is to get the students attention Students lack motivation to learn for various reasons. In some cases they may have limited ability and experience difficulty keeping up and consequently develop chronologically low expectations while desensitizing themselves to failure. Others develop learned helplessness from attributing their performance to low ability. A third group of students who have a lot of difficulties are those who are obsessed with the need to protect their self-worth and who thus focus on performance goals rather than learning goals.” (Edwards H.C.2000. p.306). Apart from this, demotivation may also cause some psychological problems here is the main one; sense of helplessness will cause the law leveled student to have the absence of self-esteem, and this may evoke an inner-conflict which is revealed in a negative way. Problems of Class Management Since different leveled students do not keep up with the lesson the learning atmosphere will be spoilt, their peers will be affected badly and use of class time will be wasted. Professionally a teacher must keep the students active at any moment. In order to do that, he/she should create many actions and attractions to take their attention. Doyle (1986) contends that classrooms are difficult to manage because they are multidimensional, simultaneous, and unpredictable. So this matter is urgent and teachers should perform in full view of every student. Because of the many type of characters in the same classroom, any occasion can have multiple consequences that may require different reactions from the teacher. (Edwards H.C.2000) Teachers`Reactions to Such Problems Generally we are not very patient towards the low leveled students, after warning them twice or three times we get angry with them, or even we behave very harshly because they spoil the class atmosphere. With high leveled ones we do not have many problems with them but hardworking students create problems or at least they rightfully show dissatisfaction. Suggestions and Solutions A) Things That Should Be Done 1-Attention In order to take attention of the weak students we should ask simplified questions, or decrease our speech rate for them and also using eye –contact, gestures and mimics we can draw the students` attention back to the lecture. 2- Negotiation We can work at making language comprehensible to students by negotiating meaning. The teacher can open up lines communication by using questions that aim at classification and confirmation. These same types of questions are useful to negotiate meaning for the students who have less enthusiasm and lower levels. 3- Easier tasks may encourage weak students, and enhance their self-confident. E.g. In high level class students are discussing about the wars in history, we may ask weak students only the place and the date and the heroes of the war may be country. If we adjust the questioning to the language 2 �level of the students they can manage uttering only a few words and by time, they may improve and gain selfconfidence. 4- Cooperative Work (Team Model) If you are suffering a lot from the weak or different leveled students, the way of grouping the students with better ones may help you. Because one of the ways of learning is to be with friends, they learn from each other. One educational strategy Glasser advocates to promote more meaningful learning and reduce discipline problems is cooperative learning, also known as the learning team model. He believes that this kind of learning provides students a better way to satisfy their basic needs. Glasser recommends that students work on long-term projects with other students to go deeper into a subject and become more involved in the experience of learning. For this purpose, he suggests that teachers organize teams of from two to five students who have reached different levels of achievement. He lists several benefits to be gained from cooperative team learning. (Glasser, 1986a cited in Edwards, 2000): • Working in teams provides students a sense of belonging, which helps motivate them to work harder and achieve more. • The more advanced students find it fulfilling to help less able team members because they want the power and friendship that go with a high-performing team. • Less able students also have their needs fulfilled. In the group, they are able to accomplish something, whereas they did very little before. Their contribution to the team is appreciated more than their previous individual efforts were. • By working in teams, students gain a greater sense of independence from the teacher and discover themselves able to make valuable contributions to the class. • Learning teams serve as a structure within which students can obtain a deeper understanding of school subjects. Unless students understand the subjects they study more deeply, they will be unable to make the vital connection between knowledge and power that must underlie any attempt to improve today's schools. • Teams provide a framework within which students can better evaluate themselves. More than just grades may be considered as evidence that students are learning. • Promote positive beliefs about ability. Help them see that their intelligence is not a given amount, but that they can increase it with effort and learning. • Help students make a connection between their efforts and achievements. Help them set realistic goals and develop confidence in reaching them. • Help students learn to take pride in personal accomplishments and their developing expertise, and to minimize the attention given to competition and social comparisons. • Help them achieve a feeling of self-worth through their achievement. (Covington, 1992) • And also, depending on the experience in their research, Hallam & Ireson (2001) claim that a more cooperative environment is encouraged, where students work in groups and support each other. By doing this A more permissive classroom atmosphere will be possible. But on the other hand they mention that they include the comments from a school teacher: ‘I have a few reservations about mixed ability teaching because the higher ability pupils are not stretched to their full potential. However, we do very well with the lower ability in the classroom.’ 5- Using the Praise-Prompt-Leave Sequence Teachers can escape the predicament of mixed ability students by avoiding universal helping interactions and instead using the praise-prompt-leave sequence of instruction. (Jones H.F. cited in Edwards H.C.2000.p.204) Praise- In giving praise, the teacher reviews what the student has done right, which not only provides a positive experience for the student but also defines the starting point for new instruction. For teachers to become good at giving praise, they need to avoid the common habit of looking for errors in students' work. This tendency causes teachers to communicate dissatisfaction as well as frustration and exasperation. Teachers should build on adequately completed work, not defects. They need to develop an aptitude for seeing the positive and making it a reflex action. Once the strength of a student's work is identified, appropriate words can be used to describe it. This language must be a specific description of exactly what is well done- Avoid statements such as "Nice job" and "You're off to a good start," Instead, say "You have organized this paragraph well. There are transitions between all the sentences." Prompt- To prompt is to tell students exactly what to do next. Prompting should be clear and simple. Ordinarily, mastery of concepts involves many steps. Students, however, can perform these steps only one at a time. Teachers therefore should provide a prompt that requires a one-step performance. Asking students to perform many steps tends to produce cognitive overload. Teachers tend to bog students down with excessive, complex verbiage. 3 �They talk too much and explain more than students can keep straight at one time. Instead, teachers should prompt students about the next action to take and then encourage them to act on the prompt. Prompts can either direct a student to do something or not to do something. An initiating request asks a student either to begin something or to do it more. A terminating request asks a student to stop something or to do it less. Leave- Once a clear and simple prompt is given; teachers should leave and turn their attention immediately to other students, take time to observe how students act on prompts. Leaving will cause discomfort, given their inclination to stay at students' desks long enough to see how they respond to instructions. Even so, teachers must avoid the tern longer. Not only does leaving convey confidence in students' ability instruction given, but it also gives teachers more time to circulate in the system, teachers can see more students and see the same student more than once in one class period. At the same time, the teacher gains greater control by being able to move around the entire classroom more quickly. (Jones 1987 cited in Edwards, 2000). 6-Types of learners Hallam, S& Ireson, J.(2001) classify the learners type as; gifted, high-end, academically talented and advanced learners, and we can add lower leveled ones to this group. All these miscellaneous type of learners bother us but if we identify them very well we can find solutions to the problems. Of course gifted students need special interest, low leveled students (if not little school kids) can be motivated in the cooperative learning groups with the assistance of advanced learners. And Like the others they should be encouraged and satisfied as well, and their abilities need to be developed. These learners may fail to achieve their potential without teachers that coach for applying useful, high level and challenging curriculum. B) Things That Should Not Be Done. We sometimes unconsciously demotivate the weak students by motivating them a bit, and later discourage them badly by mentioning their unforgivable mistakes or so on. In the Jones’ Model Fredric H. Jones suggests that teachers should be aware of how most universal helping interactions between students and teachers are initiated and avoid getting caught up in them. The following are actions that might be avoided: Asking students where they are having difficulty is the most common and straightforward means of initiating a helping interaction. Teachers often ask, "Where are you having difficulty?" or "What is it you don't understand?" 1. Teachers are often aware of the difficulties students experience and identify these difficulties as they offer to help. For example, they may say, "I see you are having trouble carrying the correct digit. Let me show you how it is done." 2. Focusing on the students' strengths before calling attention to the problems is a common tactic among teachers who are aware of the necessity of giving students support during feedback. They believe that giving good news first will diminish the negative effects of the bad news that follows. A teacher might say, "You did the first few problems correctly, but when you got to the ones requiring long division, you did them all wrong." 3. Some teachers express their exasperation with students in the way they use body language, such as shaking the head from side to side, as if to say, "I have never seen anything like this. How could you have worked these problems this way?" 4. Sometimes, before they help students, teachers give voice to comments that are simply derogatory (for example, "How can you he so stupid?"). Jones calls these comments "zaps and zingers." Considerable harm can be done to students to whom these comments are directed. (Edwards, ,2000. p.241) 5. Should not be ignored and be insulted 6. High performance should not be expected from the weak ones. 7. Should not be reprimanded, dismissed from the class 8. Teachers should never try corporal punishment. Conclusion Having different or mixed leveled students is unavoidable for the teachers of languages, so what we’ve got to do are to accept the situation. And without ignoring they try to find satisfactory and productive solutions. These solutions are mainly to put them into a cooperative work, motivate them by giving extra help and home task, ask high leveled students to help the lower leveled. Especially if these kinds of students lose their self confidence for 4 �learning they may start thinking that they can not do anything. So teachers should carefully approach in order to help them in time, and prevent them from spoiling the class atmosphere. Children with learned helplessness also benefit from attribution retraining. This consists of providing a planned series of experiences, couched within an achievement context in which modeling, socialization, practice, and feedback are used to teach them (1) to concentrate on what they try to learn without worrying about failing, (2) to deal with mistakes by retracing their steps to find where they slipped up and by analyzing the problem to find a more reasonable approach, and (3) to attribute their failures to insufficient effort, lack of information, or use of ineffective strategies rather than lack of ability (Craske, 1985). These efforts are necessary because success alone is not enough. (Edwards, 2000 p.307). Cooperative learning provides hope for altering this unhappy situation. It provides a way for students to assert themselves without the discomfort of always being compared with their peers and found lacking. Properly organized cooperative learning can help all children experience success and feel more accepted in school. Classrooms thus become more exciting places to learn because students have greater control over what they learn and because the atmosphere in which learning takes place is more fun. In cooperative learning programs, teachers can capitalize on the motivation students already have for learning by involving them in decisions about what they learn and then allowing them to pursue their own interests in their own style. (Edwards, P.313, 2000). Examining the mixed ability teaching environment and students at different ages, and reading the comments of some teachers in the book written by Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001) we assume that mixed ability learners at early ages may be more problematic than the mixed ability adult learners. So Cooperative learning can solve our problem at least to an extent. References Covington, M. (1992) Making the Grade: A Self –Worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform. Cambridge. UK. Cambridge University Press. Edwards, Cliff .H. (2000). Classroom Discipline and Management. New York. US. John Wiley&Sons. Inc. Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001).Ability grouping in Education.UK. Sage. Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (2001).How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (1999).The Differentiated Classroom, Responding to the Needs of All Learners. Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Williams M. and Burden L.R (2000). Psychology for Language Teachers, Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press. 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 311 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes Author Author ÇEPIK, Şaban Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we, teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously. Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively; however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability classes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/68b339b41b80d2b77504816cc99ad279.pdf 5ad3afe110459159875ea1aa99ac16dd PDF Text Text Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Selami AYDIN Balıkesir University, Turkey saydin@balikesir.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU Atatürk University, Erzurum/Turkey karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Turkey genckafkasuni@hotmail.com Abstract: Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Key Words: English as a Foreign Language, Teacher, Test Anxiety, Young Learners Introduction Individual differences such as beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivation levels, and affective states have significant effects on the foreign language learning process (Aydin & Zengin, 2008). Among affective states, test anxiety, an apprehension towards academic evaluation, a fear of failing in tests and an unpleasant experience held either consciously or unconsciously by learners in various situations (Horwitz and Young, 1991), also has considerable effects on learning process whereas language teacher is one of the significant factors in English as a foreign (EFL) teaching and learning. Thus, this paper focuses on the relationship between the levels of test anxiety and the attitudes of young EFL learners. The results of previous studies indicate that tests and teachers are two strong sources of language anxiety (Bailey, 1983; Ellis & Rathbone, 1987; Young, 1991; Aydin, 2008). However, a major problem that forms a background for this study is that studies have mostly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities are fairly limited when young learners are considered as MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) states that foreign language anxiety is more relevant to language learning among adults. In other words, there are a few studies focusing mainly on language anxiety but not specifically on test anxiety among primary school students and teacher – test anxiety relationship (Chan & Wu, 2000; Chan & Wu, 2004). On the other hand, the duration of compulsory primary education was increased to eight years in Turkey by a law put into effect in 1997. Furthermore, foreign language education was made compulsory for students in the fourth and fifth grades in addition to sixth, seventh and eighth-grade students. Another step taken to improve EFL learning in Turkey was the reorganization of the content of sixth-, seventh- and eighth-grade English courses for the leveling exam (SBS), an official and central examination for the selection and placement of primary school students in high schools administered separately for each grade at the end of the academic year. Despite all these developments, dramatically enough, there is still a serious lack of research on test anxiety among young learners. So far, only three studies have been conducted on test anxiety in a broader sense, while test anxiety among young EFL learners and the relationship between teacher and the level of test anxiety have not been properly investigated 141 �(Koçkar, Kılıç & Şener, 2002; Duman, 2008; Erözkan, 2009). Therefore, there is a growing need for investigating the issues relating to test anxiety among young EFL learners. In conclusion, this paper aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners for two reasons: Firstly, it is obvious that test anxiety and teacher effect seem to be significant factors and correlate with each other in EFL learning and teaching. Secondly, studies in Turkey and around the world have mainly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities on young EFL learners seem too limited. Thus, the paper has one research question: Do teachers affect the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners? Method The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners taking English classes at five primary schools in Balıkesir, Turkey. The mean age of the subjects was 11.8 in the range of 9 and 14. As for their genders, 51.3% were female students, while 48.7% were male. Of all the participants, 100 were fourthgrade, 95 fifth-grade, 89 sixth-grade, 92 seventh-grade, and 101 eighth-grade students. The subjects were randomly selected from five primary schools. Data collection instruments consisted of a questionnaire, which interrogated the participants about subject variables such as gender, age, school, grade, mean examination scores, parents’ monthly income, and their attitudes towards their teachers and English classes, and the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) developed by Sarason (1978). The TAS consisted of 27 multiple-choice items that aimed to measure the students’ levels of test anxiety. Each of the items was assessed on a scale ranging from one to five (never=1, rarely=2, sometimes=3, usually=4, always=5). The procedure of the study included the translation and correction of the TAS, administration of the instruments, and statistical analysis. First of all, the researcher translated the scale into Turkish and a group of five pre-service teachers of English examined each item to correct possible mistranslations. Subsequently, the scale was administered to a group of ten students in order to correct the misconceptions and to obtain the moderation of the items in the scale. Next, after obtaining a written permission from national education authorities, the background questionnaire and the TAS were administered to the participants in the last week of fall semester in 2009. Subsequently, the collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. In the analysis, the reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha Model. The reliability coefficient of the scale, which was calculated to be 0.901, indicated a high level of reliability. As for the statistical analysis of the research question, the data were examined for two purposes: First, mean scores and standard deviations of the statements in the TAS were given briefly to see the level of test anxiety. Secondly, t-test and ANOVA were carried out to detect the correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Results In this section, a correlational presentation of the collected data has been provided in order to determine the relationship between the level of test anxiety and attitudes towards teachers. However, before presenting the correlational data, it would be necessary to present the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners. The mean scores on the TAS items indicate that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. As the findings suggest, having good scores increases the learners’ self-confidence for subsequent exams. Moreover, learners usually feel confident and relaxed when they are informed beforehand that they will take a test; they are aware of the fact that the school authorities and teachers should be careful at effects of tense situations on their performance, and they do not suffer anxiety when they have studied sufficiently. Finally, examinations may sometimes cause negative physical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia, and also create some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear. Students may also sometimes believe that other students are brighter during exams, suffer from time pressure and prefer writing papers instead of taking examinations. The research question investigated the correlation between the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners and their attitudes towards their teachers, the findings about which are presented in Table 1. The values presented indicate that the attitudes of learners towards their teachers significantly correlated with seven of 37 items in the TAS. That is, the students who had positive attitudes towards their English teachers felt more confident and relaxed and less nervous even if they forgot what they knew. Moreover, the participants who had positive attitudes towards their teachers were less embarrassed during examinations, felt less uneasy before getting their exam papers, and believed more strongly that it was not possible to learn more without examinations. Finally, positive attitudes towards their language teachers reduced diversions during exams. Conclusively, when the abovementioned items are concerned, the findings demonstrate that positive attitudes 142 �towards EFL teacher decrease the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners, while teacher is not a significant factor when the remaining 30 statements in the TAS scales are considered. Table 1. The relationship between attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Statements in the TAS If I knew I would take an English test beforehand, I would feel confident and relaxed. During examinations, I find myself thinking of irrelevant things. During an examination, I get so nervous that I forget about the things I know well. I seem to defeat myself while working on tests. I wish examinations did not irritate me so much. If examinations could be done away with, I think I would actually learn more. I start feeling very uneasy just before handing a test paper back. 143 I like my English teacher. N Mean Never 3 1.67 Rarely 4 2.00 Sometimes 12 3.67 Usually 27 3.44 Always 425 3.92 Never 3 3.33 Rarely 4 4.50 Sometimes 13 3.62 Usually 27 2.56 Always 424 2.27 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 4 3.25 Sometimes 13 3.00 Usually 28 2.07 Always 431 2.01 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 4 3.50 Sometimes 13 2.54 Usually 27 2.07 Always 430 1.55 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 3 2.67 Sometimes 13 3.08 Usually 28 2.57 Always 430 1.98 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 3 4.67 Sometimes 13 3.15 Usually 28 2.21 Always 427 1.80 Never 3 4.33 Rarely 3 3.67 Sometimes 13 3.54 Usually 28 2.75 Always 428 2.49 F Sig. 4.95 .00 6.08 .00 3.33 .01 10.67 .00 6.80 .00 7.54 .00 2.98 .02 �Conclusions and Discussion Three main results were obtained from the study, the first of which is that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. In other words, learners have self-confidence when they have good scores, feel confident and relaxed, are aware of the effects of the role of school authorities and their teachers, and do not suffer from test anxiety when they studied sufficiently. On the other hand, examinations have some moderate negative psychical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia. Secondly, teacher is a significant factor that affects only seven of the 37 items in the TAS. Given the significant correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety, as revealed by the seven items in the TAS, it could be underlined that teachers have facilitating effects that decrease the level of test anxiety. That is to say, the results show that most of the students have positive attitudes towards their EFL teachers, and that the students with positive attitudes towards their teachers feel less uneasy, nervous and bothered, and more confident and relaxed. In conclusion, teacher is not a strong source of test anxiety among young EFL learners but a significant factor that decreases the level of test anxiety among their students. The discussion of results in relation with the findings of previous research can be summarized in two headings. Firstly, tests and teachers are not strong sources of anxiety in contrary to the results previously found by Bailey (1983), Ellis & Rathbone (1987), Young (1991) and Aydin (2008). Controversially, the teacher factor has facilitating effects that reduce the level of test anxiety among young ELF learners. Secondly, it should be noted that language proficiency and language background have considerable effects on test anxiety. That is, as the sample group of this study consisted of young learners with a low level of language proficiency, it is obvious that the conclusions of this study differ from those of previous studies in which adult EFL learners were examined. In this sense, test anxiety is not at a high level among young EFL learners while Rasor & Rasor (1998) and Horwitz (2001) suggest that learners have higher levels of test anxiety due to insufficient language learning. Given that examinations sometimes cause some negative physical effects in students such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia as well as some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear, some recommendations can be noted for practical purposes. Teachers should be aware of the physical and affective effects of exams on children. In this sense, EFL teachers need to use some effective strategies before, after and during examinations. For instance, they can inform students that anxiety is quite normal (Campbell and Ortiz, 1991; cited in Aydin, 2008) before exams, and promote a low-stress testing environment during examinations. Additionally, they can use some effective communication techniques such as talking and leading discussions with them about their feelings and present practical solutions through group activities or one-to-one dialogues by cooperating with school counselors. As a final note on the limitations of the research, the subjects of the study were limited to 477 young EFL learners at five primary schools in Balikesir, Turkey. Furthermore, the scope of the study was confined to the data collected using a background questionnaire and the Test Anxiety Scale developed by Sarason (1978). Further studies should focus on the relationships between the levels of test anxiety and some other factors such as age, gender, economic background, and attitudes towards language course. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities of the Research Projects Unit at Balikesir University for their support for the study through the project entitled Test Anxiety among Primary School EFL Learners (2008 / 43). The authors would also like to thank the authorities and English teachers of Karesi, Burhan Erdayı, 23 Nisan, Namık Kemal and Plevne Primary Schools. Finally, the authors thank Saadet Selvi, Zeliha Ciciş, Ökkeş Gedemenli, Gökhan Yoldaş and Rüveyda Er for their valuable assistance in the data collection process and Nagihan Kontaş, Çağla Akgöz and Sevcan Yılmaz for their kind assistance to data processing. 144 �References Aydın, S. & Zengin, B. (2008). Anxiety in foreign language learning: A review of literature: The Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4 (1), 81 – 94. Aydin, S. (2008). An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL Learners. Asian EFL Journal, Teaching Articles, 421—444. Bailey, K. (1983). Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in language acquisition, (67 – 102), New York: Newbury House. Campbell C. M., & Ortiz, J. (1991). Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. In E. K. Horwitz and D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory to research to classroom implications (pp. 153-168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2000). A study of foreign language anxiety of elementary school EFL learners in Taiwan. Paper presented at the 2000 Educational Academic Conference, 85 – 100. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2004). A Study of Foreign Language Anxiety of EFL Elementary School Students in Taipei County, Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17 (2), 287 – 320. Duman, G. K. (2008) A research into the test anxiety level of the senior students (8th grades) of state and private primary schools in Kadiköy district of İstanbul Anatolian side caused by the OKS (secondary school student selection and placement exam). Unpublished MA Thesis. Yeditepe University. Ellis, R. & Rathbone, M. (1987). The acquisition of German in a classroom context. Mimeograph. London: Ealing College of Higher Education. Erözkan, A. (2009). The Predictors of Depression in Eighth Grade Primary School Students, Elementary Education Online, 8(2), 334 – 345. Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D.J. (1991). Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112 – 126. Koçkar, İ. A. Kılıç, B. G. & Şener, Ş. (2002). Test anxiety among primary school students and academic achievement. Çocuk ve Ergen Sağlığı Dergisi. 9 (2), 100 – 105. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning, 41 (4), 513 – 34. Rasor, L. T. & Rasor, R. A. (1998). Test anxiety and study behavior of community college students in relation to ethnicity, gender, and age. Retrieved in September 2008 from ERIC Database (ED415942). Sarason, I.G. (1978). The Test Anxiety Scale: Concept and research. In C.D. Spielberger & I.G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 5). Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426-437. 145 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7a86b2e8e8cdad4aec196b7e49bc2598.doc 915e8496952e12fef4e9e31e4cfdd287 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 665 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Author Author AYDIN, Selami Karakuzu, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Abstract A summary of the resource. Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a7341123ec029c5d24b446681332e545.pdf be49f34a0885e1744d6871b0634e1440 PDF Text Text Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Selami AYDIN Balıkesir University, Turkey saydin@balikesir.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU International Burch University, Bosnia Herzegovina mkarakuzu@hotmail.com Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Turkey genckafkasuni@hotmail.com Abstract: Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Key Words: English as a Foreign Language, Teacher, Test Anxiety, Young Learners Introduction Individual differences such as beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivation levels, and affective states have significant effects on the foreign language learning process (Aydin & Zengin, 2008). Among affective states, test anxiety, an apprehension towards academic evaluation, a fear of failing in tests and an unpleasant experience held either consciously or unconsciously by learners in various situations (Horwitz and Young, 1991), also has considerable effects on learning process whereas language teacher is one of the significant factors in English as a foreign (EFL) teaching and learning. Thus, this paper focuses on the relationship between the levels of test anxiety and the attitudes of young EFL learners. The results of previous studies indicate that tests and teachers are two strong sources of language anxiety (Bailey, 1983; Ellis & Rathbone, 1987; Young, 1991; Aydin, 2008). However, a major problem that forms a background for this study is that studies have mostly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities are fairly limited when young learners are considered as MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) states that foreign language anxiety is more relevant to language learning among adults. In other words, there are a few studies focusing mainly on language anxiety but not specifically on test anxiety among primary school students and teacher – test anxiety relationship (Chan & Wu, 2000; Chan & Wu, 2004). On the other hand, the duration of compulsory primary education was increased to eight years in Turkey by a law put into effect in 1997. Furthermore, foreign language education was made compulsory for students in the fourth and fifth grades in addition to sixth, seventh and eighth-grade students. Another step taken to improve EFL learning in Turkey was the reorganization of the content of sixth-, seventh- and eighth-grade English courses for the leveling exam (SBS), an official and central examination for the selection and placement of primary school students in high schools administered separately for each grade at the end of the academic year. Despite all these developments, dramatically enough, there is still a serious lack of 190 �research on test anxiety among young learners. So far, only three studies have been conducted on test anxiety in a broader sense, while test anxiety among young EFL learners and the relationship between teacher and the level of test anxiety have not been properly investigated (Koçkar, Kılıç & Şener, 2002; Duman, 2008; Erözkan, 2009). Therefore, there is a growing need for investigating the issues relating to test anxiety among young EFL learners. In conclusion, this paper aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners for two reasons: Firstly, it is obvious that test anxiety and teacher effect seem to be significant factors and correlate with each other in EFL learning and teaching. Secondly, studies in Turkey and around the world have mainly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities on young EFL learners seem too limited. Thus, the paper has one research question: Do teachers affect the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners? Method The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners taking English classes at five primary schools in Balıkesir, Turkey. The mean age of the subjects was 11.8 in the range of 9 and 14. As for their genders, 51.3% were female students, while 48.7% were male. Of all the participants, 100 were fourth-grade, 95 fifth-grade, 89 sixth-grade, 92 seventh-grade, and 101 eighth-grade students. The subjects were randomly selected from five primary schools. Data collection instruments consisted of a questionnaire, which interrogated the participants about subject variables such as gender, age, school, grade, mean examination scores, parents’ monthly income, and their attitudes towards their teachers and English classes, and the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) developed by Sarason (1978). The TAS consisted of 27 multiple-choice items that aimed to measure the students’ levels of test anxiety. Each of the items was assessed on a scale ranging from one to five (never=1, rarely=2, sometimes=3, usually=4, always=5). The procedure of the study included the translation and correction of the TAS, administration of the instruments, and statistical analysis. First of all, the researcher translated the scale into Turkish and a group of five pre-service teachers of English examined each item to correct possible mistranslations. Subsequently, the scale was administered to a group of ten students in order to correct the misconceptions and to obtain the moderation of the items in the scale. Next, after obtaining a written permission from national education authorities, the background questionnaire and the TAS were administered to the participants in the last week of fall semester in 2009. Subsequently, the collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. In the analysis, the reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha Model. The reliability coefficient of the scale, which was calculated to be 0.901, indicated a high level of reliability. As for the statistical analysis of the research question, the data were examined for two purposes: First, mean scores and standard deviations of the statements in the TAS were given briefly to see the level of test anxiety. Secondly, t-test and ANOVA were carried out to detect the correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Results In this section, a correlational presentation of the collected data has been provided in order to determine the relationship between the level of test anxiety and attitudes towards teachers. However, before presenting the correlational data, it would be necessary to present the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners. The mean scores on the TAS items indicate that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. As the findings suggest, having good scores increases the learners’ self-confidence for subsequent exams. Moreover, learners usually feel confident and relaxed when they are informed beforehand that they will take a test; they are aware of the fact that the school authorities and teachers should be careful at effects of tense situations on their performance, and they do not suffer anxiety when they have studied sufficiently. Finally, examinations may sometimes cause negative physical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia, and also create some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear. Students may also sometimes believe that other students are brighter during exams, suffer from time pressure and prefer writing papers instead of taking examinations. The research question investigated the correlation between the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners and their attitudes towards their teachers, the findings about which are presented in Table 1. The values presented indicate that the attitudes of learners towards their teachers significantly correlated with seven of 37 items in the TAS. That is, the students who had positive attitudes towards their English teachers felt more confident and 191 �relaxed and less nervous even if they forgot what they knew. Moreover, the participants who had positive attitudes towards their teachers were less embarrassed during examinations, felt less uneasy before getting their exam papers, and believed more strongly that it was not possible to learn more without examinations. Finally, positive attitudes towards their language teachers reduced diversions during exams. Conclusively, when the abovementioned items are concerned, the findings demonstrate that positive attitudes towards EFL teacher decrease the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners, while teacher is not a significant factor when the remaining 30 statements in the TAS scales are considered. Statements in the TAS If I knew I would take an English test beforehand, I would feel confident and relaxed. During examinations, I find myself thinking of irrelevant things. During an examination, I get so nervous that I forget about the things I know well. I seem to defeat myself while working on tests. I wish examinations did not irritate me so much. If examinations could be done away with, I think I would actually learn more. I start feeling very uneasy just before handing a test paper back. I like my English teacher. N Mean Never 3 1.67 Rarely 4 2.00 Sometimes 12 3.67 Usually 27 3.44 Always 425 3.92 Never 3 3.33 Rarely 4 4.50 Sometimes 13 3.62 Usually 27 2.56 Always 424 2.27 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 4 3.25 Sometimes 13 3.00 Usually 28 2.07 Always 431 2.01 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 4 3.50 Sometimes 13 2.54 Usually 27 2.07 Always 430 1.55 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 3 2.67 Sometimes 13 3.08 Usually 28 2.57 Always 430 1.98 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 3 4.67 Sometimes 13 3.15 Usually 28 2.21 Always 427 1.80 Never 3 4.33 Rarely 3 3.67 Sometimes 13 3.54 Usually 28 2.75 Always 428 2.49 F Sig. 4.95 .00 6.08 .00 3.33 .01 10.67 .00 6.80 .00 7.54 .00 2.98 .02 Table 1. The relationship between attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. 192 �Conclusions and Discussion Three main results were obtained from the study, the first of which is that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. In other words, learners have self-confidence when they have good scores, feel confident and relaxed, are aware of the effects of the role of school authorities and their teachers, and do not suffer from test anxiety when they studied sufficiently. On the other hand, examinations have some moderate negative psychical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia. Secondly, teacher is a significant factor that affects only seven of the 37 items in the TAS. Given the significant correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety, as revealed by the seven items in the TAS, it could be underlined that teachers have facilitating effects that decrease the level of test anxiety. That is to say, the results show that most of the students have positive attitudes towards their EFL teachers, and that the students with positive attitudes towards their teachers feel less uneasy, nervous and bothered, and more confident and relaxed. In conclusion, teacher is not a strong source of test anxiety among young EFL learners but a significant factor that decreases the level of test anxiety among their students. The discussion of results in relation with the findings of previous research can be summarized in two headings. Firstly, tests and teachers are not strong sources of anxiety in contrary to the results previously found by Bailey (1983), Ellis & Rathbone (1987), Young (1991) and Aydin (2008). Controversially, the teacher factor has facilitating effects that reduce the level of test anxiety among young ELF learners. Secondly, it should be noted that language proficiency and language background have considerable effects on test anxiety. That is, as the sample group of this study consisted of young learners with a low level of language proficiency, it is obvious that the conclusions of this study differ from those of previous studies in which adult EFL learners were examined. In this sense, test anxiety is not at a high level among young EFL learners while Rasor & Rasor (1998) and Horwitz (2001) suggest that learners have higher levels of test anxiety due to insufficient language learning. Given that examinations sometimes cause some negative physical effects in students such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia as well as some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear, some recommendations can be noted for practical purposes. Teachers should be aware of the physical and affective effects of exams on children. In this sense, EFL teachers need to use some effective strategies before, after and during examinations. For instance, they can inform students that anxiety is quite normal (Campbell and Ortiz, 1991; cited in Aydin, 2008) before exams, and promote a low-stress testing environment during examinations. Additionally, they can use some effective communication techniques such as talking and leading discussions with them about their feelings and present practical solutions through group activities or one-to-one dialogues by cooperating with school counselors. As a final note on the limitations of the research, the subjects of the study were limited to 477 young EFL learners at five primary schools in Balikesir, Turkey. Furthermore, the scope of the study was confined to the data collected using a background questionnaire and the Test Anxiety Scale developed by Sarason (1978). Further studies should focus on the relationships between the levels of test anxiety and some other factors such as age, gender, economic background, and attitudes towards language course. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities of the Research Projects Unit at Balikesir University for their support for the study through the project entitled Test Anxiety among Primary School EFL Learners (2008 / 43). The authors would also like to thank the authorities and English teachers of Karesi, Burhan Erdayı, 23 Nisan, Namık Kemal and Plevne Primary Schools. Finally, the authors thank Saadet Selvi, Zeliha Ciciş, Ökkeş Gedemenli, Gökhan Yoldaş and Rüveyda Er for their valuable assistance in the data collection process and Nagihan Kontaş, Çağla Akgöz and Sevcan Yılmaz for their kind assistance to data processing. References Aydın, S. & Zengin, B. (2008). Anxiety in foreign language learning: A review of literature: The Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4 (1), 81 – 94. Aydin, S. (2008). An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL Learners. Asian EFL Journal, Teaching Articles, 421—444. 193 �Bailey, K. (1983). Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in language acquisition, (67 – 102), New York: Newbury House. Campbell C. M., & Ortiz, J. (1991). Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. In E. K. Horwitz and D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory to research to classroom implications (pp. 153-168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2000). A study of foreign language anxiety of elementary school EFL learners in Taiwan. Paper presented at the 2000 Educational Academic Conference, 85 – 100. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2004). A Study of Foreign Language Anxiety of EFL Elementary School Students in Taipei County, Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17 (2), 287 – 320. Duman, G. K. (2008) A research into the test anxiety level of the senior students (8th grades) of state and private primary schools in Kadiköy district of İstanbul Anatolian side caused by the OKS (secondary school student selection and placement exam). Unpublished MA Thesis. Yeditepe University. Ellis, R. & Rathbone, M. (1987). The acquisition of German in a classroom context. Mimeograph. London: Ealing College of Higher Education. Erözkan, A. (2009). The Predictors of Depression in Eighth Grade Primary School Students, Elementary Education Online, 8(2), 334 – 345. Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D.J. (1991). Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112 – 126. Koçkar, İ. A. Kılıç, B. G. & Şener, Ş. (2002). Test anxiety among primary school students and academic achievement. Çocuk ve Ergen Sağlığı Dergisi. 9 (2), 100 – 105. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning, 41 (4), 513 – 34. Rasor, L. T. & Rasor, R. A. (1998). Test anxiety and study behavior of community college students in relation to ethnicity, gender, and age. Retrieved in September 2008 from ERIC Database (ED415942). Sarason, I.G. (1978). The Test Anxiety Scale: Concept and research. In C.D. Spielberger & I.G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 5). Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426-437. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 393 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Author Author AYDIN, Selami Karakuzu, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Abstract A summary of the resource. Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c62d8421c6b8cf0f14ab596ca4eb88fb.pdf aaefaa96bae2fbcc7a25c0e965bf189a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Mehmet Baştürk Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Necatibey Education Faculty, English Language Teaching Department, Balıkesir, Turkey basturk@balikesir.edu.tr Ömer Koçer Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, French Language Teaching Department, Erzincan,Turkey okocer@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Key words: Effective Language Teacher, Teacher Inefficiencies, Foreign Language Education, Teacher Duties. Résumé : On voit que le facteur d’enseignant est dans le premier ordre si l’on recherche attentivement les problèmes existants dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Lorsqu’on regarde la formation des enseignants qui travaillent dans les écoles publiques et privées dans le cadre de Ministère de l'Éducation en Turquie, les facultés diplômées par ces enseignants sont très différentes de l’un et l’autre. De plus, on fait le processus d’enseignement plus désespéré par les enseignants parascolaires qui s’efforcent de faire les cours aux élèves. En outre, ces enseignants apprenant la profession dans la classe par la méthode d’essais et erreurs non seulement affectent négativement l’acquisition de langue des élèves mais aussi diminuent leur intérêt à une nouvelle langue. Ces faits sont les références significatives aux plusieurs questions à répondre dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Récemment, les problèmes dans ce domaine et ne pas assez enseigner aux élèves les quatre compétences de langue font les experts incliner sur la recherche des nouvelles méthodes éducatives. Les recherches que l’on fait récemment en Turquie dans le processus d’apprentissage de langue étrangère mettant l’accent sur le rôle des enseignants tirent l’attention aux méthodes obsolètes et aux carences des enseignants sous l’angle de linguistique et pédagogique. En mouvement des publications liées à cette étude, on donne les conseils concernés aux devoirs des enseignants des langues. 45 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Les mots clés: Efficaces Enseignant de Langue, Inefficacités des Enseignants, Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère, Devoirs d’Enseignant. Introduction It has long been one of the scientific issues by researchers why not to teach a foreign language completely in the educational institutions in Turkey. Therefore, it needs to investigate the sources of the problems in foreign language education. According to Yiğiter (1988), there have been three factor affecting foreign language education; “teacher”, “student” and “method”. These problems in foreign language education result mostly from these three factors. According to Demirel (1990), the subheadings stated by researchers in foreign language education are like below; traditional education is based on teaching grammar rules, not to renewal of teaching programs, differences in practice, method problems in practice. So far, what has been the contribution of the current methodologies in practice to the foreign language teaching in our country? It is obvious to everyone that the application of these methods could not have an efficient outcome. Though the methods applied by teachers have a great importance, the founders of these methods could not introduce them according to our criterion and circumstance. Then, methods must be questioned in this context. Throughout the learning life of a student, that is only foreign language skill that might just work rather than the all subjects in curricula. Education in our schools including mathematic is based on theory. In this way, the only skill is of foreign language. But unfortunately so many years of education is too far to bring in this skill to the students. Any student takes foreign language courses 8 years in Elementary School, 3 years in High School, and 4 years in University totally 15 years of foreign language courses. Why he/she could not succeed in foreign language completely? The students take foreign language courses between 80-100 hours in Anatolian High Schools and in private colleges. But, the majority of them could not be successful in practice. In that case, looking at the teacher side in the educational process between teacher and student is needed. Foreign Language Education From Past to Present in Turkey When evaluated the current situation of foreign language education in Turkey since the declaration of Republican era, the first and most important step in the Republican period is the occurrence of the Unification of Education (Teaching of the Consolidation) Act, No. 430 dated March 3, 1924. Taught for a long time as foreign languages in the educational institutions of the Ottoman Empire Arabic and Persian in this period were revoked and instead of them western languages; German, French and English were taken in schools’ curricula. After the declaration of Republic our country has given more importance to the foreign language education for not to stay away from the rapid advances in technology over the world. And it can be said that in this issue Turkey has reached a more willing level. Hence, western languages (German, French and English) have been taught compulsory in the schools. But the deficiencies of methods and backgrounds practiced in public schools make inefficient foreign language education. It does not seem possible to teach a foreign language in such an environment and so it could not be trained qualified foreign language teachers. This deficiency is resulted in one another and the chain is going on so. Moreover, the state could not attract the qualified language teachers with its inefficient opportunities (Göktürk, 1983). In later years, new schools under the name of Anatolian high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula were opened. According to 1974-75 school years, the high number of high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula has increased twelve and this figure has reached in 103 Anatolian high schools totally to 40.715 students and 2845 teachers in 1986-87 school years (MEGSB 1986). 46 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Current Situation of Foreign Language Teaching in Turkey, Teachers and Problems Foreign language education in Turkey is basically dealt with elementary schools, yet in public high schools foreign language lessons are only given in the first grade. For this reason, the problematic situation in elementary schools is the point at issue in this study. And we handled with this problem as a main concern. Before the application of stepped rate system in general education put into practice in 1988-89, foreign language had being taught in secondary schools and high schools totally six years, that is to say, at least three hours per week. But it was not possible for the graduated students to speak three to five words. Then, stepped rate system was in practice and foreign language was not compulsory from then on in those schools. However, the stepped rate system was removed after one year and then English has been a compulsory lesson in the school curricula. But this lesson was removed from the curricula of second and third grade of high schools. Today, foreign language lesson starts firstly in the fourth grade of primary schools. But it is not possible for the students to speak effectively foreign language. One of the serious problems experienced in foreign language education is the lack of qualified teachers. Language teacher should consider the educational aspect of foreign language (knowing the culture of the country whose language is learnt, interacting with the people whose language is learnt, orienting the students to the main aim). Teachers have two tasks in foreign language education process. Thus, they should be a linguist and must integrate this skill with pedagogic skills. In our schools “grammar” that is to say, “about language” is given to students. And the students think that the main purpose is so. However, it is considered that one person has learned the foreign language if he/she succeed in understanding and using the sentences that he/she heart (Songün, 1983). One of the most important functions of education is to discover and to cultivate the existing capacity of the student (Hoşgörür & Taştan, 2009). The teachers in traditional education process do not include the students actively to the process and they apply the teacher-centered methods in their application. So, they do not need to update themselves. Today, it has been tried to apply the constructivist approach in all field of education including language education but it is too difficult to apply new methods and techniques with the teachers having no language skills and being inefficient in terms of pedagogy (Kömür, 2007). In Turkey’s conditions one or more primary school teachers in some schools in small towns or villages have been forced to practice all the lessons. The out-of branch teachers have been practicing the foreign language lessons and most of them are primary school teachers (Ünal, 2007). It is required to the out-of branch teacher to develop themselves in this field and to participate in in-service training programs. Foreign language lessons are generally practiced by out-of branch teachers (Primary school teachers) in Primary schools. In Europe, these lessons are practiced by these types of teachers too. Only in seven countries (Czech Republic, Greece, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania) these lessons are practiced only by branch teachers. In Germany, the semi-specialists are relinquishing by and by their position to the primary school teachers (Eurydice, 2005). In Turkey, foreign language lessons were being practiced by the out-of branch teachers in Primary schools. The system based on practicing all the lessons by the primary school teachers in the first five years of primary schools was removed in 2006. Ministry of Education has agreed with the branch teachers’ practicing, instead of Primary school teachers, the branch lessons in fourth and fifth grade in Primary schools (MEB Notification of Ministry Magazine, 2005). Until today, graduated schools of teachers have been very different from each other. The sources of foreign language teachers pointed before 1982 are like below (Demircan, 1988); • Those studying a type of X, Y, Z language courses after graduated from different departments, • Those graduated from institutions of education as open-university, • Those graduated from institutions of education as Higher Education Summer School in common, • Those graduated from accelerated institutions of education (1 or 2 months instead of 1 year, 1978-80), • Those succeeded in the exam of assistant teacher organized sometimes by Ministry of Education. Like seen above, it does not seem possible to consider the schools, which these types of teachers have graduated, are the institutions which educate people in terms of foreign language. These types of teachers 47 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo graduated from any kind of schools out-of faculty of education practice the language courses with the method of “we have learnt like that”. Especially, the teachers having no professional knowledge and working in many schools have been trying to learn their job with the method of trial and error. Though Ministry of Education has been trying to carry on this situation thanks to in-service education courses for teachers, the products cultivated by the teachers are evident. The students not understanding what is said, having no words for speaking, not expressing his/her feelings and thoughts. The findings of Enginarlar (2003) related to the language teachers in Turkey working in many different schools has a great importance. According to him, many language teachers throughout their primary and secondary schools’ lives; • • • • • • Have never taken any foreign language courses by native teachers Have never gone to the target country whose language has been learnt Have not used foreign language out of classes because of no opportunity and communication needs. Have never watched any foreign movies without subtitle. Have never used to read permanently any magazine or newspaper in foreign language Have generally used their mother tongue(Turkish) as a teaching tool When examined the teaching process, classroom practices and the measurement and evaluation of the teachers, it is seen the main reason of the problem. Either the teachers do not know modern language teaching methods and techniques or they do not use them in classroom even if they know them. For this reason, it results in coming into being the faulty students. Demirel (1990) explains ten tasks for the language teachers; 1. Developing four language skills 2. Planning teaching activities in advance 3. Teaching from the simple to the complex and from concrete to abstract 4. Using Audio-visual tools 5. Using mother tongue if it is needed 6. Presenting only one sentence pattern at a time 7. Trying transferring the data to daily life 8. Trying integrating the students actively to the lesson 9. Paying attention to the individual differences 10. Motivating and encourage the students These principles should be adapted to the age and readiness level of the students and the students should be faced with orally and writing of target language. However, on browsed the classroom activities, homework and the exams, it is seen that all activities are full of grammar. The teacher generally focusing on grammar in all activities gives this message unconsciously to the students: “The student who knows the grammar learns language.” This thought creates this equation in minds of teachers and students; learning foreign language means learning grammar rules. This is very inaccurate and incomplete information because language is learnt with its all skills. Besides, speaking fluently a foreign language does not mean knowing its grammar rules. Especially, it has not any great importance knowing all grammatical rules for a child in language learning process (Ellis, 1990). These rules only take advantage to the adults in language learning process. By a Hungarian researcher Nikolov (2001), in her study based to the unsuccessful students, it is stated that the teachers’ classroom activities has been the failure reason of the students. In another study related to Israeli students Arabic learning success, the quality of teaching program is the most affecting factor to the success of students (Donitsa, 2004). Like in all field of life, the reasons resulted in being unsuccessful of students in language learning process; ones arising from the student, ones arising from the environment and ones arising from the teacher. Primarily, high motivation of the person will increase the chance of success (Dörnyei, 2005). The attitudes and behaviors of foreign language teacher being willing to teach in the classroom has a great importance affecting the motivation of students. It is unavoidable for a teacher coming to the class with a down faced, tired and reluctant to find the teaching environment as if it were his/her self reflection. This situation results in communicate fear in the students. According to a study related to the communicate fear of student, approximately 35% of students said that they could not dare to speak in the classroom because of 48 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo teachers’ down faced and temper (Ergin, 2005). Foreign language education should considerably be based on communication and the students should learn foreign language in an environment having no communication fear. Here, the primary task is up to the foreign language teachers. How to be an Effective Teacher? It is not an easy concept to describe the term of “effective teacher” because the term “effective” can be interpreted differently by different people. Depending on the criterion used to judge effectiveness, an “effective teacher” can mean a teacher who always produces a class of high-achievers, or a teacher who generally receives positive evaluations from supervisors and administrators (Stronge, 2002). However, if the focus is on the teaching process and not on the end result, then it is possible to define an effective teacher as a person who “provides information to students in a way that is clear, understandable, and motivating” (Benson et. al., 2001). In another study, Young and Shaw (1999) found that teacher effectiveness is linked with qualities such as “effective communication, a comfortable learning atmosphere, concern for student learning, student motivation, and course organization.” Whereby; the quality which distinguishes ineffective teachers from the effective ones is the latter’s ability to make the most boring course interesting and important to the students. According to Clark & Walsh (2002), some of the common features which described the qualities of effective teachers like these; Strong discipline content knowledge, Pedagogical skills appropriate to the environment and discipline, Personal knowledge which included: the ability to forge strong relationship with the students, a concern for individual students and a firm moral code, Intimate knowledge of the context in which they were teaching. Research on teacher effectiveness in Turkey has shown that there are a number of qualities attached to an effective foreign language teacher (Demirel, 1990; Saraç-Süzer, 2007) among which having personal strategies to teach, creating a positive classroom atmosphere, to be able to a model teacher, being knowledgeable on target cultures, possessing positive personal characteristics, having correct pronunciation of the English sounds, teaching with effective classroom materials and using technology are the most common. Taşkafa (1989) found that giving positive reinforcement and being friendly were the most desirable qualities that were expected from a teacher. Similarly, Telli, den Brok, and Çakıroğlu (2008) found that students gave much importance to the quality of positive teacher-student interaction although other characteristics (such as subject-matter knowledge) were mentioned at lesser degrees. According to Alkan (1984), a teacher should be in accordance with specifications as follows: “A teacher should determine in what extent successful his/her each student, should help each student to understand how he/she has reached this success, should know what kind of support he/she will provide for each student for reaching to the top, should encourage each student to learn more and should help them to take much more responsibility for their wellness”. According to a research practiced by Prodromou in 1991 over 40 students by the aim of determining how a teacher students desire, these results revealed; A desired language teacher is a person who is proud of his/her students, behaves friendly, explains everything, makes students take notes, knows how to behave the students sitting on the desk, behaves as if he/she were a student, asks their opinions, has lots of experiences, speaks of individual problems, has a moderate personality, pays attentions to unsuccessful students, knows about physiology, believes and trust in students, communicate with students (Prodromou, 1991). Conclusion and Suggestions The teachers should be a qualified instructor using new educational approaches, being update to the era and being aware of their tasks for to make more effective the foreign language education in Turkey. It will be possible for them to have these skills and to function in a good way only if the problems faced by them in the process are removed. The first step is to determine the problems in detail. The reasons of not attaining to the desired level in foreign language education are the lack of teacher posts, out-of branch teachers and the other professional groups practicing language courses in the schools and the language teachers themselves using out-of date language teaching methods and techniques. Instead of out- of branch teachers taking only 2 hours of language courses in university or high school, it is possible for the students studying in the foreign language departments to teach foreign language only by taking the second foreign language as an auxiliary field and by taking methodology courses. Thus, it can be reached to the measure of professional formation in some extent. 49 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The teachers should practice their profession by adopting positive and negative aspects of their profession not because of its obligation. A teacher should have knowledge, skills and attitudes required in his/her profession. The teachers should update and renewal themselves and integrate technological developments to the class. An effective teacher in the same time should be aware of his profession without compromising from his national and moral values. And he/she could not forget that next generation has been commended to them. Finally, with words of Mevlana, “A teacher must be a person whose one foot is on his national root, the other one is that is turning like a compasses across the world, that is to say, a person who modernizes without alienating, a person who reaches to the era without breaking off from his root”. 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London: Basil Blackwell. Enginarlar, H. (2003). Đlköğretim çağında yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk eğitim sisteminde yabancı dil eğitimi ve kalite arayışları. Đstanbul: Özel okullar Derneği. Ergin, A., & Cem, B. (2005). Eğitimde iletişim. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Eurydice, (2005). Directorate-general education and culture,. Key data on teaching language sat school in Europe. 2.11.2005, from the World Wide Web: www.eurydice.org Göktürk, A. (1983). Yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk Dili, Dil Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 379-380, s.102, Ankara 1983. Hoşgörür, V., & Nuray, T. (2009). Eğitimin işlevleri. eğitim bilimine giriş (Editörler:Özcan DEMĐREL ve Zeki Kaya).Ankara : Pegem Yayınları. Kömür, Ş. (2007) Đçerde neler oluyor? 8.Sınıf Đngilizce dersine bir bakış XVI Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. Tokat MEB Resmi Web Sayfası. (2005). Đkinci yabancı dil programı, Retrieved on April 8, 2010 at URL: http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/indir/ttkb/programlar/ikinciyabancidil/ortogrt2yabdilfransızca.pdf Milli Eğitim Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı, (1986). M.E.G.S.B’nın 1987 Yılı Bütçe Konuşması, Đstanbul M.E.Basımevi. Nikolov, M. (2001).Why do you learn English? Because the teacher is short. A study of Hungarian children’s foreign language learning motivation. Language teaching Research, 3, 33-56. Prodromou, L. (1991). The Good language teacher. English Teaching Forum, XXIX (2), s.2-7. Songün, R. (1983). Doğu Anadoludaki orta dereceli okul Đngilizce öğretmen ve öğrencilerinin öğretim, öğrenim ve ilişkileri, Türk dili, Dil Öğrenim Özel Sayısı, 379-80, Ankara. 50 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Saraç-Süzer, S. H. (2007). Examining methodological issues through pedagogical and practical knowledge of experienced teachers: A case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,. Hacettepe University: Ankara. Stronge, J.H. (2002). Qualities of effective teachers. Washington DC: ASCD. Taşkafa, G. (1989). As teachers we are evaluating our students constantly: Have you ever thought how our students evaluate us? Çağdaş Eğitim, 14, 27-30. Telli, S., den Brok, P., & Çakıroğlu, J. (2008). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the ideal teacher. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(149), 118-125. Ünal, M. (2007). Đlköğretim yabancı dil programının sınıf öğretmenliği adaylarının görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. XVI. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur.Tokat Yiğiter, K.(1988), Günümüzde yabancı dil. Ondokuz Mayıs Ün. Eğt. Fak. Derg., Sayı: 3, s. 11-13. Young, S., & Shaw, D. (1999). Profiles of effective college and university teachers. Journal of Higher Education, 70(6), 670686. 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 375 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Author Author Bastürk, Mehmet Koçer, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 920 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Talk Matters in Writing: A Pedagogical Perspective Author Author Mohammad , Aghajanzadeh Abstract A summary of the resource. Teacher talk is an indispensible part of language teaching in an EFL context which is importance and usefulness mainly consists in its management with respect to the context in which it is employed. The current study explores language teacher discourse from a pedagogical or functional perspective in writing classes. The descriptive framework for analyzing the writing teacher talk in this study rested on a generalizable corpus of three different sets of writing sessions held by two expert writing teachers, totaling roughly 18.5 hours of 15 sessions or 15500 words. The investigation undertaken based on Analysis of Speech units revealed three distinct pedagogical episodes, namely Focal, Remedial and Notional talk. By these three modes writing teachers can orally fulfill their pedagogical purposes of teaching, recovering, and evaluating the linguistic and conceptual structures by either text-directed or non-text directed speech. It was also found out that the text-shared teaching or text-directed teacher talk can bring about more student talk and participation, which are significant to identify then support their learning needs. Finally, the most common episode switches observed in the study were related to Notional –to Focal, Remedial-to Focal, and Remedial-to- Notional transitions respectively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e567382af27c499e7240f8b4a9d3cb3f.pdf cef0633bb886c7618e503ccdec1921de PDF Text Text TEACHERS AS PATIENCE STONES: A METAPHOR ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF EFL TEACHERS IN TURKEY Melike Baş & Betül Bal-Gezegin Amasya University, Turkey Article History: Submitted: 02.06.2015 Accepted: 18.06.2015 Abstract With the application of cognitive linguistics to language teaching and learning, metaphor analysis has gained interest among researchers in recent years. This study, which is conducted in an EFL language environment in Turkey, aims to investigate students’ metaphors that underlie their conceptualizations on English language teachers. Participants are students of English (n=83) studying at a university in Turkey during 2014-2015 academic year. Students were first instructed on the concept of metaphor, then they were asked to complete the metaphor elicitation sheet including the prompt “An English teacher is like ... because ...” Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Conceptual Metaphor Theory defined and developed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), who consider metaphors as mental constructs that shape human thinking about the world and reality, is used as the theoretical background for this study. The linguistic metaphors provided by the participants were first categorized thematically and then examined in parallel with previous studies (Oxford et al., 1998; Saban et al., 2006). Results revealed a variety of underlying conceptualizations that reflect different individual mappings across conceptual domains. The findings yielded new categories, which imply that culture as well as students’ personal experiences might shape their perceptions on language teachers. The study is significant in the sense that it highlights the use of metaphor as an effective cognitive tool to better understand students’ beliefs of their language teachers and their language learning process. In addition, it provides an opportunity for the teachers to have a self-reflection on their roles as language teachers. Key words: conceptual metaphor, learner perception, English language teacher, EFL, Turkish 1 �1. Introduction With the rise of cognitive approach to language learning in recent years, the number of studies focusing on learners’ beliefs has increased dramatically. The study of perception and beliefs in language learning is important since it provides the evidence to figure out how language learners view the learning context. There are several ways which enable researchers to elicit the beliefs and conceptualizations of learners and practitioners. One increasingly popular method is metaphor analysis, whereby participants generate metaphors for relevant activities and concepts and then actively work on them. Metaphors, in the sense of Lakoff & Johnson (1980a), are fundamental mental operations by which we understand the world through mapping from known domains to unknown domains, and that some conceptualizations are metaphorically organized in our minds. Cognitive theory sees metaphor as a process and a product of mapping across concept domains. For instance, in the conceptual metaphor TIME IS MONEY, time (a more abstract entity) is viewed as money (a more concrete entity) as in the examples “You’re wasting my time”,“You’re runningout of time”, etc. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980b, p.454). Conceptual metaphors are usually expressed in an A IS B format, using capital letters. It is believed that metaphors of language learners may help teachers to develop professionally by revealing students’ experiences of language learning activities and situations (see for example, Cameron, 2003; Cortazzi& Jin, 1999; de Guerrero &Villamil, 2002). Students’ beliefs and perceptions of their teachers can be an indicator of their attitudes to language learning and even their overall success of the target language. It is important for the language teachers to find out these hidden perceptions which might help them to obtain more insights on their students’ overall perceptions of language teachers. This, in turn, helps the teachers to foster language learning and focus on the reasons of negative attitudes and eliminate them as possible. There are a number of studies that investigate how teachers of English are metaphorically conceptualized by both students and teachers themselves. These studies can be grouped into three in terms of the providers of metaphors on language teachers, namely, (prospective) teachers themselves, students, and both teachers and students. It should be noted that the majority of studies on metaphor analysis in EFL contexts (see e.g. Ellis, 2001, 2003; Zapata & Lacorte, 2007; Erkmen, 2010) have centered on metaphors from teachers, not the language learners themselves except for a few studies (e.g. Ahkemoğlu, 2011). The studies that explore metaphors from teachers’ perspectives generally aim to help the teachers to 2 �express and “construct representations of themselves and their experience” (Kramsch, 2003, p.125) and “to promote awareness of professional practice” (Cortazzi& Jin, 1999, p.155). Within this framework, this study aims to explore students’ beliefs about their English language teachers through an analysis of metaphors they produced within an EFL context with the guidance of the research question “What metaphorical images do Turkish EFL students use to describe the English language teachers?” 2. Methodology In this study, we follow the general approach to metaphor collection and analysis by Cameron & Low (1999), which involves "collecting examples of linguistic metaphors...,generalizing from them to the conceptual metaphors they exemplify, and using the result to suggest understandings or thought patterns which construct or constrain people's beliefs and actions” (p.88). 2.1. Participants & Setting The study took place in the Department of Foreign Language Studies at Amasya University in Turkey. The participants were 83 preparatory class students studying English at 2014-15 academic years. The participants’ age ranged between 18 and 20. They had been studying English since their secondary school, and their English level could be considered A1 (CEFR). 2.2. Instrument and Data Collection Data were collected through a self-designed metaphor elicitation sheet adopted from previous studies (Oxford et al, 2006; Saban et al., 2006). The students were first presented with a general definition and description of the concept of metaphor followed by examples and excerpts obtained from previous studies (e.g. a child is like a notebook because whatever falls on it makes a trace). As the next step, the metaphor elicitation sheets written in students’ first language were distributed. The sheet aimed to elicit their metaphors of English teachers via the prompt “An English teacher is (like) ... because … .” This prompt requires the participants to express their ideas about what they believe of the language teachers. This personal metaphorical reasoning was later used to classify the metaphors in the data analysis phase and understand the rationale for choosing these specific metaphors. 2.3. Data Analysis 3 �The metaphor analysis methodology employed by Saban, Koçbeker & Saban (2006) and Oxford et al. (1998) was adopted in the study. The steps followed for data analysis are: i) listing the collected examples of linguistic metaphors (e.g. Student-13 “meyve” [fruit]), ii) identifying main categories of metaphors in accordance with the students’ rationale behind choosing specific metaphors (e.g. teacher as a basic need-fruit), iii) constructing conceptual themes based on the main categories identified (e.g. SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE, GUIDE, etc.), iv) grouping the metaphors under main themes, and v) establishing inter-rater reliability. In order to ensure inter-rater reliability, we asked three outside researchers to independently review eight categories obtained from the data. Discrepancies were discussed and a consensus was reached on for disagreements. 3. Findings and Discussion The analysis of data yielded 67 properly-structured metaphors. These metaphors are grouped under 15 conceptual categories. Table-1 presents these categories, with their definitions, frequencies and linguistic metaphors in each category. Table-1 Teacher metaphors by students and their descriptions Categories 1. Definition n Examples teacher as a Teacher provides guidance 12 guide in a desert, guide and directs students, helps director, family, guide, them achieve goals, supports map, pilot, star, the sun, the students, corrects them supporter, mother, when necessary worker who guides the mine workers in a coal mine 2. teacher as the Teacher is the source and/or 11 book, transporter, source of conduit of language: primary school teacher, knowledge dispenses language computer, daily knowledge to students newspaper, library, parents, treasure, a collection of all the 4 �books in the world 3. teacher as basic Teacher is a vital element to 8 fruit, pencil lead, rain, need survive. She meets the basic fountain, water, water needs of the students learning and oxygen a language 4. teacher as a Teacher is someone who has patient person to be very patient in the 7 mother, Darwin, patience stone process of teaching 5. teacher as an Teacher provides the students 5 transporter on a river, instrument with the necessary tools and piano, brain, key, opportunities to learn the window language 6. 7. teacher as a care Teacher takes care of the giver/repairer students especially when they care unit nurse, are in need of correction maintenance teacher as a Teacher takes care of the cultivator growth and improvement of 4 nurse, doctor, intensive 4 gardener, farmer 3 brain, God, boss the students. Teacher's job is to construct the optimal environment in which the inner nature of the mind could grow and nourish 8. teacher as an Teacher is the superior power, authority authoritative figure, and the decision maker. She controls the students 9. teacher as an Teacher is funny, friendly, entertainer energetic, entertaining the 3 soap opera, smurfs, toys students in the language learning process. Such a teacher does not bore her students 10 teacher as a Teacher never stops learning 2 sunflower headed to the 5 �. chaser of new things sun knowledge 11 teacher as a . molder/crafts- Teacher shapes the students’ 2 interior designer, cook 2 mirror, a Turkish minds person 12 teacher as a . reflector Teacher reflects her own experience, background and citizen who went to knowledge, as well as the Germany in 1960s culture of the target language 13 teacher as an . effective agent Teacher plays a significant 2 ink, revolution 2 cactus, hammer 1 construction worker role in students’ lives, i.e.she affects the students andyields change in their lives by leaving a trace on those she teaches 14 teacher as a . harmful agent Teacher punishes students when they are not good enough 15 teacher as a . builder Teacher helps students to be successful The qualitative analysis of the metaphors generated by the participants shows that almost all of the students participated in the study have a positive attitude towards language teachers. There are only four images out of 67 contained a negative description of the teachers, namely, cactus, hammer, boss and God. In the cactus metaphor, the teacher is depicted as an unsuccessful person who spends long time to teach but cannot improve students’ language skills. Similarly, the student who uses the metaphor of “cactus” indicates that the teacher punishes the learners especially if they do not understand English. In both of these metaphors students attribute the notion of punishment with teachers. In the other two negative metaphors, boss and God; teachers are perceived as people who have the sole power and authority. There is diversity in the metaphors found. As can be seen in Table-1, there are 15 categories and the metaphors include images of plants, various jobs, entities, and instruments. The analysis shows that language teachers are seen as enjoyable (soap opera, smurfs, toys); 6 �effective (ink, revolution); productive (interior designer, cook); self-reflective (mirror); necessary (fruit, pencil lead, rain, fountain, water, water and oxygen); growth providing (gardener, farmer) agents. In this study, teacher as a guide (n=12)is the most recurrent metaphor, and quite similar in number, the next category was teacher as source of knowledge (n=11). It is obvious that students consider their language teacher both as the one who teaches them the target language but also guides them in their learning procedure. These metaphors reflect the image of a teacher type who has all the knowledge and skills that students may need. TEACHER AS GUIDE metaphor entails that the language learning is seen a goal-oriented and teacherfacilitated process. TEACHER AS THE SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE metaphor, on the other hand, implies that teachers are the ultimate providers of knowledge whereas learners are the receivers of the information. Another point to be discussed based on the metaphors found is that, as it is known, within the communicative language teaching; the focus has changed from teacher to student. This indicates that teachers should not be regarded as the sole source of knowledge but the guide to help the students find their ways in learning and exploring the target language. As can be seen above in Table-1, there is a large amount of metaphors indicating that students see their teachers both as a guide and source of knowledge. This might mean that there is a shift from what is called classical teacher role of “knowledge provider” to the role of “guide”. Thus, it is satisfying to see that metaphors, which show that students see their language teacher as an authority in class, are very limited (brain, God, boss). Although this study shares some of the metaphors formed by teachers and learners in previous studies about language teachers such as gardener (Oxford et al, 1998), parent, map, etc. (Saban et al, 2006), mother, water, book, cook, doctor (Nikitina & Furuoka, 2008), director, the sun (Guerrero & Villamil, 2002), it also reveals some metaphors unique to the present study (e.g. Darwin, stone of patience, google, sunflower headed to the sun, etc). It seems likely that these differences are due to cultural and contextual factors of this particular teaching atmosphere. The metaphor “stone of patience”, for example, is a common expression used in the Turkish culture. It is mostly used for people and it indicates that the person who is the stone of patience shows an unusual patience towards a difficult situation or task. There are five students who form this metaphor. With this metaphor, they indicate that their language teachers are very patient people who put a lot of effort in the procedure and have to wait for a long time to see improvement of their students. The students underscore 7 �that the language learning is a gradual and difficult procedure, and the teachers are doing their best to wait for the success of their students patiently. 4. Conclusion In the present study, we investigated and classified students’ metaphors about the concept of English language teacher. The analysis of the metaphors has yielded some fruitful and insightful understandings of the roles of these teachers in this particular teaching context. To begin with, the study shows that the diversity and richness of the metaphors provided is an indicator of how varied metaphorical images students have on the same concept. The study also highlights the value and significance of metaphor analysis as a tool to assist students in examining their values, beliefs, and conceptualizations of their teachers. In addition, it is a useful pedagogical tool for teachers to review and revise their teaching practices, their roles as language teachers and their attitudes if necessary. Another important finding is that students continue to identify their teacher with a series of traditional teaching roles, such as leader, provider of knowledge, agent of change, and nurturer; however, these students also have a more “facilitating” role of their teachers which is relatively a more recent teacher role appeared with communicative teaching methodology. With the rise of this theory in language classrooms, the roles of teachers have shifted from being the only source of knowledge to the one who guides to seek and find knowledge. As this study shows, the two most commonly used metaphors come from both of these roles of teachers, namely, teacher as the knowledge provider and teacher as the guide. It is inferred that with a few exceptions (boss and God), students, in fact have come to the realization that the classroom is not teacher-centered anymore. Students should also actively participate in the learning process and teachers are there to foster their learning. It should be within the objectives of the teacher development programs to uncover students’ perceptions of their teachers through use of metaphors by which students’ conceptual frameworks are analyzed. Becoming more aware of their beliefs and strategies by means of metaphors, language teachers can develop better insights into their existing roles according to students and thus they can adapt their teaching styles and strategies accordingly if necessary. References Cameron, L. (2003). Metaphor in educational discourse. London: Continuum. 8 �Cortazzi, M.,& Low, J. (1999). Bridges to learning: Metaphors of teaching, learning, and language. In L. Cameron, & G. Low (Eds.)Researching and applying metaphor (pp.149-176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (2001). The metaphorical constructions of second language learners. In M. P. Breen (Ed.)Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research (pp.6568). Harlow: Longman. Ellis, R. (2003). A metaphorical analysis of learner beliefs.In P. Burmeister, T. Piske& A. Rohde (Eds.)An integrated view of language development: Papers in honor of Henning Wode. Trier, Germany: WissenschaftlicherVerlag. Erkmen, B. (2014). Non-native novice EFL teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning.HacettepeÜniversitesiEğitimFakültesiDergisi (H. U. Journal of Education) 29(1), 99-1 Guerrero, M. C., &Villamil, O. S. (2002).Metaphorical conceptualizations of ESL teaching and learning.Language Teaching Research, 6(2), 95-120. Kramsch, C. (2003). Metaphor and the subjective construction of belief. In P. Kalaja& A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.)Beliefs about SLA: New research approaches (pp. 109-128). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1980a). Metaphors we live by. London: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1980b). Conceptual metaphor in everyday language.The Journal of Philosophy, 77(8), 453-486. Nikitina, L., &Furuoka, F. (2008). “A language teacher is like...”: Examining Malaysian students’ perceptions of language teachers through metaphor analysis. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 5(2), 192–205. Oxford, R. L, Tomlinson, S., Barcelos, A., Harrington, C., Lavine, R. Z., Saleh, A., Longhini, A. (1998). Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers: Toward a systematic typology for the language teaching field. System 26(1), 3-50. Saban, A., KoçbekerB. N., &Saban, A. (2006).An investigation of the concept of teacher among prospective teachers through metaphor analysis.Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice 6(2), 509-522. Zapata, G.,&Lacorte, M. (2007).Pre-service and in-service instructors’ metaphorical constructions of second language teachers.Foreign Language Annals, 40(3), 521–534. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2895 Title A name given to the resource TEACHERS AS PATIENCE STONES: A METAPHOR ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF EFL TEACHERS IN TURKEY Author Author Baş, Melike Bal-Gezegin, Betül Abstract A summary of the resource. With the application of cognitive linguistics to language teaching and learning, metaphor analysis has gained interest among researchers in recent years. This study, which is conducted in an EFL language environment in Turkey, aims to investigate students’ metaphors that underlie their conceptualizations on English language teachers. Participants are students of English (n=83) studying at a university in Turkey during 2014-2015 academic year. Students were first instructed on the concept of metaphor, then they were asked to complete the metaphor elicitation sheet including the prompt “An English teacher is like ... because ...” Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Conceptual Metaphor Theory defined and developed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), who consider metaphors as mental constructs that shape human thinking about the world and reality, is used as the theoretical background for this study. The linguistic metaphors provided by the participants were first categorized thematically and then examined in parallel with previous studies (Oxford et al., 1998; Saban et al., 2006). Results revealed a variety of underlying conceptualizations that reflect different individual mappings across conceptual domains. The findings yielded new categories, which imply that culture as well as students’ personal experiences might shape their perceptions on language teachers. The study is significant in the sense that it highlights the use of metaphor as an effective cognitive tool to better understand students’ beliefs of their language teachers and their language learning process. In addition, it provides an opportunity for the teachers to have a self-reflection on their roles as language teachers. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics