255 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/790acea8b5889fc8a21f4d5073f010a1.pdf 534a7caff2f5e3a66e428c5e1686c29b PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Facilitating Competitiveness and Change in the Global Environment Proceedings. Global Business and Technology Association, pp. 838–844. Available at: http://sari_r2.web.ibu.edu.tr/yayinlarim/Energy%20Soytas_Sari_Ozdemir.pdf. Soytas, U., Sari, R., 2009. Energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon emissions: challenges faced by an EU candidate member. Ecological Economics 68(6), 1667-1675. ''Sustainable Development Projects as Opportunity for Economic Development of Bosnia and Herzegovina'' Ajdin Perčo, Erkan Ilgun International Burch University, Faculty of Economics 71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. E-mails: ajdin_tesanj@hotmail.com Abstract The global climate changes as a worldwide phenomena are on the top of the agenda of most states and international organizations. The adverse effects we currently feel and even worst things to come are stressing the need for action and firm resolution of this problem. In this sense, the need for ‘’environment friendly’’ energy is becoming top priority and renewable energy sources are in high demand. Furthermore, many countries are noticing this as a development potential and are investing in this sector. One of these countries is Bosnia and Herzegovina with its unlimited natural resources including wind, water etc. This paper will analyze ongoing and planed projects in the area of renewable energy and economic benefits Bosnia and Herzegovina will experience from it. Furthermore, after the adoption of Kyoto Protocol and creation of state agency Bosnia and Herzegovina is now eligible to apply for CDM (Clean Development Projects). These projects are financed by developed countries and are to be implemented in developing countries. It goes without saying that this is enormous opportunity for Bosnian companies and agencies to apply for these projects and bring foreign investments that will boost domestic economy. Besides this, the journey of Bosnia and Herzegovina towards European Union is requiring various laws to be adopted and implemented. One of these laws are rules and regulations related to the various aspects of climate changes and ways on how to combat climate changes. Financial incentives that European Union is providing to ‘’green energy’’ companies and renewable energy sources are additional motivation for Bosnia and Herzegovina to develop this are furthermore. Thereby in this paper I will address the current issue of climate changes and the need for renewable energy sources. Special focus will be on Bosnia and Herzegovina and the opportunities for economic development available through investing and working on ‘’green energy’’ and renewable energy projects. I will analyze current projects and future planned projects and their impact on economic development of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The focus of the research will be on various documents, projects and analysis currently available for this purpose. The main finding is that Bosnia and Herzegovina is truly a country with great potential for investments in renewable energy projects and the research paper will provide abundance of arguments for this statement. 27 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Keywords: sustainable development, developing countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, renewable energy, ‘’green energy’’ projects, economic development, CDM (Clean Development Mechanisms) 1. INTRODUCTION Global climate changes are a long term changes in weather conditions including temperature, rain, wind, level of water etc. According to many scientists and organizations including United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) these changes are mainly caused by human actions that include increased level of greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, scientists are predicting temperature increase in the range of 1.1 to 6.4 ºC depending on the extent of the current greenhouse gas emission (The Carbon Neutral Company, 2012). Main sources of greenhouse gas emission are fossil fuel burn, industrial processes, waste disposal, and traffic. The emitted gas is contained within Earth’s atmosphere and that way the temperature is increasing and producing adverse effects. At the next stage, these adverse effects will result in the extreme weather conditions, destruction of biodiversity, expansion of desert area, rising sea level, spread of diseases, and possible disappearance of Gulf Stream. It is obvious that the dramatic events will occur unless humanity find new ways to combat climate change problems. One of the solutions offered is the concept of ‘’environment friendly’’ energy that will provide new sources of energy. In the following part, we will briefly examine the various sources of this type of energy. 2. Concept of ‘’Environment Friendly’’ Energy ‘’Environment friendly’’ energy or ‘’green energy’’ is usually considered to be made of the following technologies and processes: biomass, solar energy, hydropower etc. Biomass as a renewable energy source is biological material from living, or recently living organisms (Biomass Energy Centre, 2011). Biomass energy derived from organic substances has been used for thousands of years as from the moment when people started to use wood for cooking and heating. Even today the wood is most important source of biomass energy. However, many other materials including plants, wood industry waste and organic component of industrial scrap are usable for production of biomass energy. Next technology is solar energy has been used since the ancient times through the application of evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces (Solar Energy Perspectives: Executive Summary, 2011). Hydropower is mostly associated with the production of electricity through use of energy of falling water. Energy produced this way is called hydroelectricity and it is being produced with the use of dams. Bosnia and Herzegovina did not use its entire hydropower potential since it is using only 40% of available capacity which is low level compare to some other countries. In year 1991 there was 11 small dams which represented only 4,4% of available capacities. However in the last few years there is rapid expansion in building of small dams with hundreds of projects being constructed or waiting for approval. In year 2008, Bosnia and Herzegovina operated with 14 big dams and with several of small dams that generate total 28,3 MW of electricity (Energis, 2010). Finally, wind power is the process of conversion of wind energy into a practical form of energy. This can be done in several ways but mostly used are wind turbines for production of electricity, windmills for mechanical power, and wind pumps for drainage. 28 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3. Global Trends in Sustainable Development Projects Investments Sustainable development projects are attracting interests of investors and there has been a steady rise in the funding of these types of projects. The projects being financed include biomass, geothermal and wind generation projects, hydro projects, solar projects, marine energy projects, and biofuel projects. According to analysis conducted by Bloomberg, year 2010 was record setting in the amount of money of $211 billion being invested into sustainable development (Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2011). These funding were used into various areas including: technology research and development, manufacturing scale up, production etc. Furthermore, striking feature occurring in the couple of last years is the fact that developing countries overtook developed countries in terms of investments. This has been mostly due to China heavily investing into various projects amounting up to $48.9 billion (Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2011). As time goes on, the interest for sustainable development projects can only increase and attract more investors from both governmental and private sector. 4. THE OVERVIEW OF RENEWABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN BIH ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE 4.1. Hydropower Potential Small dams, along with biomass energy, are currently the most significant source of renewable energy in BiH, and their development should be a priority when defining strategy and policy for the sector of renewable energy. There are various evaluations about the potential of small dams but there are no major differences between them. In the past studies of JP EPBIH (conducted prior to year 1992) the hydro potential of BiH is evaluated around 99.256 HWh/year, technical potential of 23.395 GWh/year, and of which 2.599 GWh/year is related to small dams with installed power of 700 MW that could be achieved by building around 800 small dams with average capacity of 700 MW (Aleksandar Knezevic and Martin Tais ,2007). According to study of EPBiH, technical potential of rivers eligible for small dams construction is around 100 MW or 12.64% of total hydro potential of BiH. According to ADEG, the potential for small dams construction is estimated on 1,004.63 MW or 3.519,74 GWh. Out of this, Federacija of BiH posses 2.090 GWh, and Republika Srpska 1.430 GWh. Also, according to ADEG, a study has been conducted for around 160 locations for small dams, and estimated capacities of those facilities were around 122 MW, which is 552 GWh of electric power (Aleksandar Knezevic and Martin Tais ,2007). 4.2. Biomass energy potential The most significant source of biomass for the purpose of energy production is a wood and related waste produced in lumber industry. However, remaining of biomass from agriculture also represent a substantial energy potential especially in the regions of northern, central, and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Prior to year 1991, big companies from lumber industry used wooden waste to produce steam within their own facilities and using available technology. However, these facilities are now outdated and they run business creating huge losses, or are completely shut down. The most detailed analysis has been done through EU/FP6/INCO/ADEG project, and in the table below we can see the results (57% of the potential is related to Federacija BiH, while 43% to Republika Srpska). Besides this evaluation, it is worth of noting that assessment for the waste solely from lumber industry are around 4,45 mil.m3 (Aleksandar Knezevic and Martin Tais ,2007). However it must be noted 29 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo that none of the evaluations clearly defined what kind of potential is being described, whether it is theoretical, technical, economic, or ecological potential. 4.3. Solar energy potential Bosnia and Herzegovina on average has around 1840.9 solar hours, while on the south that value is even higher and is around 2352.5 h/y. Theoretical potential for solar energy in BiH is around 74.65 PWh which is 1.25 greater than the total of primary energy necessary for Federacija BiH. Bosnia and Herzegovina is country with favorable conditions when it comes to radiation of sun heating. According to available data, the sun is annually transmitting 1,250 kWh of energy in northern Bosnia, and 1,600 kWh energy in southern Bosnia. It is reasonable to claim, considering the declining costs, that number of installed solar panels in BiH by ear 2015 could reach the area of 50 000 m2. This capacity could annually produce around 33 GWh of solar energy. 5. CDM Projects in Bosnia and Herzegovina The view that human activities have resulted in global climate changes is supported by current scientific thinking (NRC, 2011). From the onset of industrial revolution till the present days of mass production, the damage to environment that industry caused has been immense. Since the level of climate change has reached dangerous level, it was of utmost importance to address issue on a global scale. At this point, The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has been produced in 1992, and Kyoto Protocol subsequently adopted in 1997. Beside national laws, Kyoto Protocol established market based mechanisms to combat the climate changes. Those measures include the following: Emission trading Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI) We will focus on Clean Development Mechanism which is allowing Annex I countries to meet their target by investing globally into emission reduction projects. Through this mechanism the Kyoto Protocol is offering industrialized countries cost-effective way of reducing their emission and it benefits developing countries with new investments, and thereby CDM is ‘’important instrument in fight against climate change’’(Schneider, 2007) CDM projects can earn credits, so called CER (Certified Emission Reduction), where each credit is equivalent to one tone of CO2. Credits can then be sold to contracted parties within Annex B of Kyoto Protocol. In order for project to earn CER, it must present verified analysis that will prove that the carbon emission reduction occurred, its proven and that the project is solely responsible for that reduction. Bosnia and Herzegovina ratified UNFCCC on May 17, 2000. The Kyoto Protocol was ratified on April 22, 2007, after lengthy procedure that included ratification of agreement by various state levels. But due to complicated procedures, BiH constituted Designated National Authority only in September, 2011. Because of this delay the country missed investments worth in millions of Euros that were part of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Head of UNDP Regional Office in Banja Luka stated that ‘’the establishment of the DNA enabled Bosnia and Herzegovina to start implementing the CDM projects of about EUR 400 million 30 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo worth investments’’ (UNDP, 2011). Since Bosnia is non-Annex I country it is thereby eligible to receive investments that are to reduce carbon emission, but has no any obligations to reduce level of emission. The economic benefits would be worthy as it would boost economy and create additional jobs. Furthermore, Bosnia has a great potential in renewable energy sources including wing and solar energy. The region of Hercegovina is especially favorable to renewable energy projects and by developing high quality CDM projects, Bosnian companies have chance of attracting foreign investments. 6. Activities of EU and other international organizations The biggest challenge of the modern era both globally and more profoundly in EU is the issue of climate change, growing dependence on energy import, and restriction on free access to energy resources. European Union prepared and is currently implementing ambitions energy policy – the one that includes full spectrum of energy sources ranging from fossil fuel, nuclear energy, and renewable energy (solar, wind power, biomass, geothermal energy, hydro power)aimed at starting new industrial revolution that will create economy with lower energy needs. Bosnia and Herzegovina is clearly oriented toward EU integration. Led mostly by its participation in The Energy Community Treaty for South Eastern Europe, BiH made some important steps in adjusting its energy system and market mechanisms to the international standards listed in international treaties, policies and best practices. Beside ECT SEE which also includes signing certain EU rules for energy sector, BiH signed Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) with EU, Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) and Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA), ratified Kyoto Protocol, as well as many other international treaties. Those other treaties and projects include cooperation with Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) funds, UNDP, World Bank, EBRD, KfW, bilateral projects of technical assistance etc. Another influential international organization that is playing its part in BiH when it comes to sustainable development and renewable energy projects is GEF (Global Environmental Facility). GEF has been founded in 1991 as a international financial mechanism for financial and technical help to the developing countries with the aim of helping them achieve international treaties they signed. Bosnia and Herzegovina is also participating in GEF, and the following projects are currently being implemented: ''National Capacity Self Assessment for Global Environmental Management’’, ‘’Promoting Energy Efficiency in Buildings’’, ‘’BiH Biomass Energy for Employment and Energy Security Project’’, and ‘’Preparation of the Initial National Communication the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC’’. 7. CONCLUSION As presented through this paper, the renewable energy projects and sustainable developments have truly a great potential for economic development of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Through the development of different kind of green energy, participation in CDM Projects, and partnership with EU, Bosnia and Herzegovina can truly develop its economy and create new jobs. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the country still did not use even the smallest available potential in this area and there is still a long way ahead. But the prospects for the future are good and look promising. In the coming period there will be a need for greater involvement of state in this sector. The modern laws harmonized with EU regulations will be 31 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo key in enabling Bosnia to attract foreign investments in this sector. Furthermore, NGOs and governmental agencies will need to educate themselves in order to be able to apply for various funds available in EU. Hundreds of millions of euros are available, but the projects proposal must be of high quality and skillful people are key in bidding for these funds. Overall, Bosnia and Herzegovina must continue the same way but should accelerate reforms and adjust its market to more easily accommodate foreign investments in green energy and sustainable development sector. REFERENCES 1. NRC (2001). Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 2. Aleksandar Knezevic and Martin Tais (2007) Energetska efikasnost i obnovljivi izvori energije, Prioriteti energetske strategije u BiH, Fondacija Heinrich Boll, p 91,92,93. URL http://www.boell.ba/downloads/energetska_efikasnost_i_obnovljivi_izvori_energije_final.pdf , retrieved on April 23, 2012 3. Schneider, L. (2007), An evaluation of the CDM and options for improvement, URL http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/climate_carbon_energy/energy_solutions/resourc es/?118000/An-evaluation-of-the-CDM-and-options-for-improvement , retrieved on February 12, 2012 4. Energis (2010) Hydropower, URL http://energis.ba/?lang=bh&n1=3&n2=17&n3=0&c=16 , retrieved on February 2, 2012 5. Biomass Energy Centre (2011) What is biomass?, URL http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_pageid=76,15049&_dad=portal&_sche ma=PORTAL retrieved on March 10, 2012 6. International Energy Agency (2011) Solar Energy Perspectives: Executive Summary, URL http://www.webcitation.org/63fIHKr1S , retrieved on January 15, 2012 7. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2011) Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment, 5, ISBN: 978-92-807-3183-5 8. UNDP (2011), Clean Development Mechanism Projects – Pathway to New Investments in BiH, URL http://www.undp.ba/index.aspx?PID=7&RID=723 , retrieved on January 18, 2012 9. The Carbon Neutral Company (2012) Climate change summary, URL http://www.carbonneutral.com/knowledge-centre/climate-change-summary/ , retrieved on February 25, 2012 The Relationship Between Tax Revenue And Economic Growth In Turkey: The Period Of 1975-2011 Yeşim Helhel,Yakup Demir Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculty, Antalya, TR Abstract In the study, the relationship between tax revenues and economic growth for the Turkish economy has been examined in the period of 1975-2011. Johansen Juselious cointegration test 32 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1310 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development Projects as Opportunity for Economic Development of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Ajdin , Perčo ERGÜN, Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. The global climate changes as a worldwide phenomena are on the top of the agenda of most states and international organizations. The adverse effects we currently feel and even worst things to come are stressing the need for action and firm resolution of this problem. In this sense, the need for ‘’environment friendly’’ energy is becoming top priority and renewable energy sources are in high demand. Furthermore, many countries are noticing this as a development potential and are investing in this sector. One of these countries is Bosnia and Herzegovina with its unlimited natural resources including wind, water etc. This paper will analyze ongoing and planed projects in the area of renewable energy and economic benefits Bosnia and Herzegovina will experience from it. Furthermore, after the adoption of Kyoto Protocol and creation of state agency Bosnia and Herzegovina is now eligible to apply for CDM (Clean Development Projects). These projects are financed by developed countries and are to be implemented in developing countries. It goes without saying that this is enormous opportunity for Bosnian companies and agencies to apply for these projects and bring foreign investments that will boost domestic economy. Besides this, the journey of Bosnia and Herzegovina towards European Union is requiring various laws to be adopted and implemented. One of these laws are rules and regulations related to the various aspects of climate changes and ways on how to combat climate changes. Financial incentives that European Union is providing to ‘’green energy’’ companies and renewable energy sources are additional motivation for Bosnia and Herzegovina to develop this are furthermore. Thereby in this paper I will address the current issue of climate changes and the need for renewable energy sources. Special focus will be on Bosnia and Herzegovina and the opportunities for economic development available through investing and working on ‘’green energy’’ and renewable energy projects. I will analyze current projects and future planned projects and their impact on economic development of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The focus of the research will be on various documents, projects and analysis currently available for this purpose. The main finding is that Bosnia and Herzegovina is truly a country with great potential for investments in renewable energy projects and the research paper will provide abundance of arguments for this statement. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5fec8cd774d679f4f530923928f0a772.pdf 13af9744cf15155436477155d4846c0e PDF Text Text localculturesandthatthepeopleshouldbenefitfromthistourismactivity‖. When eco-tourists make tourism activities, they can do agricultural activities. Such water resources, environmental pollution and global warming factors can provide with conservation ofwater quality. This also provides that effectivefertilizerin agricultural areas, efficient use ofpesticides and efficient useof water resources. 2.RESULT Therichgeographyandnaturalpotential of ourcountry is a bigchanceforthetypes of naturetourisms. However, if it is behavedunconsciously, theruin of environmentalvalueswillrapidly be inevitable.Sustainableagriculturemay be defined as consisting of environmentally-friendlymethodsof farmingthatallowtheproduction of cropsorlivestockwithoutdamagetohumanornaturalsystems.Recently, orientationtoecotourismstudyingshouldincreaseandthus, agriculturalenviromentalandglobalwarmingproblemsshould be solved.Theuse of agriculturalproducts ratherthan theuse of syntheticproductsshouldbe increase. Not onlyenvironmentalandtourismpurposesanndeclining waterresources, increase of population and in ordertomeet growing consumer needsshould be provided in thedevelopment of ecotourism. REFERENCES http://www.ekoturizmdernegi.org http://www.dsi.gov.tr Sustainable Development- Environmental Ethics Relationship Within Eu Environmental Policies Özcan Sezer, Şenay Işin 1.INTRODUCTION Environmental problems and approaches to environment have an important place within EU policies. There are major impacts of economic development on the inclusion of environmental issues to the Union‘s area of interest, which aims to integrate European Countries through economic, political and cultural areas and which foresees the free flow of capital, goods, services, labor. It is crucial to form environmental values and provide the member countries to internalize them in order to sustain development without giving harm to environment. In this context, environmental ethics reveals a conflict from the perspective of sustainable development. There emerges an area of conflict between attaining economic, social and cultural development on the one hand and taking into consideration of environmental values and environmental ethics during this process on the other hand. The desire to improve the living conditions at the member countries through providing economic, social and cultural development and to upgrade quality of life to a common level 336 �around the whole Europe are the reasons why the Union poses a common environmental policy. The increasing pressures on natural resources have put economic sustainability problem on the agenda and new problem areas such as climate change, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have revealed their reality in everyday life. Sustaining improvements in urban and rural residential areas; developing health precautions, eradicating regional inequalities can only be possible through sustaining a healthy and well balanced environment. One approach in environmental ethics bases on the responsibilities of current generation to future generations. In this context, environmental ethics is consistent with sustainable development concept but comprises a diverse dimension. This type of environmental ethics considers the human and human values while searching for solutions to environmental problems and emphasizes the understanding which saves that individuals and societies should have environmental values and environmental conscious in order to live a life in harmony with the nature. People are not seen as solely objects of development in this view of environmental ethics. The understanding as ―development regardless of its consequences‖ has threatened biological and genetic variety on earth. This type of understanding on development does not correspond to ethical understanding. In this study, conflicts between sustainable development and environmental ethics within environmental policies will be evaluated from the perspectives of anthropocentric, egocentric biocentric, ecocentric approaches of environmental ethics by considering approaches to environmental ethics within EU environmental policies. Sustainable development within EU environmental policies will be critically reviewed in terms of environmental ethics. 2.ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: SEARCHING SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES FOR SOLUTIONS TO Development as a goal has been evaluated with reference to its broad context emphasizing not only economic growth but also progress in social, political and cultural dimensions in society in an integrated way. Environment is focal to questioning development from the perspective of integrated evaluation of development. Hence, development without giving harm to environment sets the priority of questioning the relationship between environment and development. Environmental ethical approaches become critical when considering this priority. The critical understanding behind environmental ethics in its conceptual whole reveals as the moral responsibility of current generation for next generations. The ecologists take into consideration of human kind without making discriminations either between current and next generations or the ones who live and who are to be born (Heywood 2007: 337). Environmental ethics, as a new discipline that emerged in context of ethical philosophy in recent years, stresses the necessity of critically considering use of environmental resources and the pollution caused by people by paying attention to their impacts on other people in any activity concerning environment (Callicott 2005: 68). The concern of individuals for the future of their generations indicates the acceptance of responsibility of their own (Gower 1992: 11). What remain crucial are the extent of impact area of this responsibility and also realization of an international justice on the basis of sharing this responsibility equally by every country. Environmental ethics concept is closely related to ―environmental justice‖ contextually which partly looks into the equal distribution of resources among people (Woods 2006: 573). Environmental ethics approach becomes important within the context and implications of sustainable development due to its vision on intergenerational responsibility and justice. Thus, the inclusion of environmental ethics understanding into environmental policies at the 337 �national, regional and local levels becomes crucial. It is a fact that environmental problems would hardly ever be solved without considering their relations with administrative, political, economical structures; science and technology as a whole. It is a fact that understanding in context of environmental ethics reveals as a necessity in the way of evaluating environmental problems within an integrated perspective in today‘s world where the nature is being acceleratingly threatened and harmed by people. 3.Environmental Ethics Approaches Environmental ethics approaches, in its broader context, takes into consideration of relationships between human beings and nature as a whole. Governments, states and international organizations have started to propose solutions to environmental problems as they become perceived and evoke awareness from the 1970s onwards. The implementation of protective environmental policies have been begun to be implemented. These developments which inform the cognition of environmental problematic have been differentiated among themselves (Turgut 2009: 28). It is possible to determine these approaches as egocentric, anthropocentric, biocentric and ecocentric approaches. 1. Ego-centric Approach: This approach is an extreme antropocentric approach which presumes that human ego is the most important component in cognizing environmental porblematic (Turgut 2009: 29). Accordingly, no matter how nature is being harmed, the only entity that should be protected is always human being. In that respect, the only entity that deserves an ethical behaviour is proposed to be human being (Turgut 2009: 29). Ego-centric approach that sees nature as a resource to be used limitlessly by humans dates back to Renaissance and structures its eventual stage through the Industrial Revolution. Hence, it is admitted to put forward the perception categories of industrial societies (Ertan 1998: 135). 2. Anthropocentric Approach: Nature has been considered only indirectly in anthropocentric approach putting human beings at the focus (Ferry 2000: 24-25). In this approach, the aim of human activities is to compensate human necessities regardless of their costs (Turgut 2006: 29). Although it is accepted that biotic and abiotic entities other than human beings should be protected, this acceptance only exists to protect human interests. Hence, these entites are valueable only due to their provision of benefit for human beings. Likewise, the reason to value nature is to once again protect human interests. The understanding behind this approach is stated not to comprise any questioning on ethical and economical perspective particular to industrial society (Turgut 2006:29). 3. Biocentric Approach This approach is based on the acceptance of necessity to regard every biotic entity other than humans as subjects of law and the necessity these entities to be treated based on this understanding (Ferry 2000: 25). Accordingly, the mentioned biotic entities are described as all the entities that are able to feel pain and pleasure (Ferry 2000: 25). Biocentric approach emphasizes the importance of all the biotic entities, consisting of human beings, animals and plants in natural life, but it does not foresee an integrated approach to environment. The understanding behind the biocentric approach criticizes toxic chemical waste that threaten the health, beauty and security of urban and rural regions and ruin human environment; soil, air and water pollution; the development of built environment against natural resources at the coastal and urban areas; nuclear stations; the thinning of ozone layer and searches for alternatives for the human beings and other biotic entities to improve their lives (Ünder 1997: 83-84). 338 �4. Ecocentric Approach: Ecocentric approach regard biosphere and biotic organisms as important as human beings. Hence human beings are not taken into consideration as focal in ecocentric approach. Complementarily, the demand for right of nature on the whole including trees and all forms of vegetative and mineral structures lays the foundation of this approach. Ecocentric approach has not only become the dominant ideology of alternative environmental movements but also put forward the problem of questioning humanism once again and necessarily by using radical terms (Ferry 2000: 25). Ecocentric ethical approach comprises various movements such as deep ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology, eco-fascism. Aldo Leopold from the U.S, Hans Jonas from Germany and deep ecology approach have been effective in the emergence of ecocentric ethical approach. Deep ecology approach reflects the basic philosophy of ecocentric approach. Deep ecology founds on the criticism of the scientific understanding based on dominance of human beings on nature. The essence of the approach is that all entities including human beings are equal components of the living community on earth and hence human kind has no superiority than other entities (Turgut 2006: 29). Deep ecology claims that mechanical world view causes ecological problems and organic world view could solve them (Görmez 2003: 99). Deep ecology, as contrary to reformist (modern) environmentalism, puts nature to the focus, not human beings particular to the ecocentric perspective. Ecocentrism grounds the thought of protection of nature and variety within nature with the value embedded in nature itself, not the benefits of nature to be brought to human beings (Önder 2003: 96). 4.SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF The relationship between sustainable development and ethical approaches to environment is basically founded on the concept of sustainability which binds conceptual areas of values, morality and human rights. Cleary, what relates these conceptual areas in sustainability concept is the idea of sustaining natural environment for the next generations and the acceptance of responsibility for the next generations as a moral attempt. Sustainability is taken into consideration as a technical concept which is based on environmental carrying capacity. However, moral, social and economical issues also remain focal to the concept. The core assumption of sustainability which is based on the transformation of polluting factors into factors that sustain environment friendly ones at multi dimension is closely related to system of values embedded in human life in every dimension (Kılıç 2006: 84). The interrelation between the ethical approaches to environment and sustainable development lies at the heart of the social and economic dimensions of sustainable development. Although taken into consideration as a technical concept based on carrying capacity, the social dimension of sustainability has been built upon adaptation and balancing of individual expectations and social demands whose dynamics also comprise concepts such as human dignity, autonomy and justice (Kılıç 2006: 94). In fact, this statement clearly puts the emphasis on the relationship of social dimension in sustainability with human rights which are at the very core of moral and legal common context of compromise. ―Sustainable development‖ is defined as ―the environmentalist world view that aim economic development without sacrificing the principle of use of environmental values and natural resources through rational methods so as not to lead splurge them and by taking into account of the rights and benefits of current and next generations‖ (Keleş 1998: 112). Having its roots 339 �in Stockholm Conference, sustainable development has firstly been introduced as a concept in Brundtland Report in 1987 (Turgut 2009). According to the report, sustainable development is ―compensating today‘s necessities without sacrificing next generations‘ opportunity to meet their own necessities‖ (Keleş 1998: 112). Sustainable development with its assumption that nature and environmental resources are limited and thus growth is also limited reflects a protective understanding towards environment. Sustainable development from the perspective of environmental ethics does not have an ecocentric perspective. Although the basic emphasis in sustainable development is repercussive dependencies between economy and environment (Turgut 2009) there emerges conflicts between sustainability of economic development representing only one dimension of development on the whole and sustainability of ecosystems due to the lack of questioning and restructuring at the economical, social and political stages. Sustainable development is seen as a solution on the basis of human and nature relations which is supported by the dominant production system (Kılıç 2006: 83). Sustainable development has become the ultimate determinant of environmental policies since the 1980s which has had an impact area that also relates to economical and social development (Mengi ve Algan 2003: 2). Integrating economical and social development with environmental ethics is important in terms of environmental policies. Ethical values in context of environmental philosophy have been defined as the potentialities of realizing right action and way of living. Ethical area has been enlarged through human beings‘ accelerating capability of regulation and management for both nature and social institutions. In addition, all human problems consisting of natural nutrition, inadequate education, housing in bad condition, very high population, unhealthy living conditions, deteriorated natural environment have enlarged the area of ethics (Ertan 1998: 127). The existence of biotic and abiotic entities other than human beings and the preservation of the right of the universe to be in balance reveal why approaches based on ethics should be internalized (Ertan 1998: 129). One other dimension in discussion on environmental ethics and sustainable development is environmental right concept. Environmental right is a third generation human right reflecting solidarity and intergenerational responsibility. Thus, environmental right acts as a bridge between policy formulations considering sustainable development and environmental ethical view. Sustainable development perspective serves to protect ecocentric ethical values in overcoming ecological crisis. However, it puts forward a rather different approach when compared to radical environmental approaches (Ergün ve Çobanoğlu 2012: 99). Environmental policy tools of sustainable development have been evaluated to be to the benefit of producers rather than being effective on consumption behaviours due to the relatively high costs of environmental policies that are beneficial to consumers. Today, even though environmental policy tools are implemented by use of modern technologies in many developed and developing countries, it is hard to control consumption behaviours. For this reason, it is expected for the way of lives and also behaviours to adapt to the requisites of sustainable development (Evans vd. 2005: 25). This is especially evident when observing the deep gap between consumption preferences, consumption forms and ecological balance. 340 �To what extent understanding behind sustainable development accord with ecocentric environmental ethics with reference to integrating with nature is contentious, because, sustainable development embodies both restorative and preventive policies (Kılıçoğlu 2005: 5). Restorative environmental policies are based on taking necessary precautions after any harm is given to environment. This understanding clearly does not refer to ecocentric environmental ethical view. Especially, sustainable development for some developed countries is conceptualized as simply protecting environment through protecting current development stage and welfare as well as improving quality of life (Mengi ve Algan 2003: 45). Environmental ethics understanding requisites ecological responsibility and sensitivity. Protection of both natural and cultural environment through taking into consideration of environmental right as a human right is critical for sustainable development since livable natural and cultural environment is essential for human dignity (Mengi ve Algan 2003:11). The most suitable tool for sustainable development to bind with next generations is the ecological component. This is obvious due to the fact that not only the regeneration capability of nature is being destroyed by human activity but also this threatens next generations‘ right to live as their basic right apart from their sustainability of welfare. (Ergün ve Çobanoğlu, 2012: 103). This issue once again attracts attention to the requisite of eliminating all the human behavior that harm environment and of adapting the idea behind these behaviours to environment (Kılıç 2006: 84). As a concluding remark, development and environment as comprising indispensible components are integral and cannot be conceptualized separately. Thus, social and economic structure, customs, culture and political system are as complementary to environment as natural components such as flora or water resources (Bener ve Babaoğul 2008: 4). That is why an environmental ethical approach that internalizes integrated view of human and environment should be the basic theme in sustainable development. 5.EU ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT A search for a common environmental protection understanding as a standard at the level of European Union has been due to economic reasons such as protecting free competition to make the common market more effective, rather than due to a perception of environmental problematic (Egeli 1996). Additionally, improving quality of life at the member states has been included directly to the environment protection understanding. Paris Treaty (1951) and Rome Treaty (1957) have remained as the first important steps taken to form EU environmental policies even though these treaties did not directly include any provision concerning environmental policies (Egeli 1996). The 1970s are important in terms of acceptance of the necessity of formulating environmental protection policies for the EU within the frame of Rome Treaty and the following period has witnessed the preparation of EU Environmental Action Programs (Turgut 2009).The EU Environmental Action Programs are important in terms of directing environmental policy area and its implications at the EU level. Coming from the 1970s to the 2000s, the basic events shaping environmental policy area and environment law can be set as Stockholm Conference 341 �(1972), World Charter for Nature (1982), Brundlant Report (1987), Rio Conference (1992) and Johannesburg Conference (2002) (Turgut 2009). Briefly, the first four environment action programs have the main theme as ―prevention of pollution‖; the fifth environment action program has the main theme of ―sustainable development and responsibility share‖ and the sixth environment action program has reflected ―Environment 2010: Our Future, Our Choice‖ based on the implementation of sustainable development. The First Environmental Action Program (EAP) (1973), which emerged under the affected of the Stockholm Conference and Rome Treaty, comprised general aims, principles of EU environmental policies and relationships between environment and sectoral activities. After the Second EAP reflecting a context in parallel to the first one in 1977, the Third EAP (1983) revealed the view of previously prevention of environmental pollution and also an attempt to relate other policies with environmental policies (Egeli 1996). The fourth EAP belonging to the period between 1987 and 1992 reflected a process of important change in EU environmental policies owing to be the program prepared just after the Single European Act. The Single European Act is very important because it included special provisions on environmental protection. In other words, it reflected the inclusion of environmental policy to the Union‘s common policy context (Egeli 1996). The first text that brought an ethical and moral dimension to the concept of sustainability is the UN Environment and Development Report which is also known as Brundlant Report (1987) with its emphasis on the statement of responsibility of current generations for the next generations in terms of living in a healthy environment (Kılıç 2006: 85). The generation of Agenda 21 as a consequence of Rio Summit in 1992 was characterized by the enlarging acceptance and use of sustainability concept not only at local but also at international arena (Kılıç 2006: 85). Agenda 21 stressed the responsibility of states to put effort in realization of social justice especially in terms of redistribution of use of resources. The actors shaped a large frame of constituents that are citizens, local institutions, nongovernmental institutions, investors and other interest groups (Kılıç 2006: 86). The impact of 1992 Rio Conference to the environmental policy at the EU level was the emphasis on sustainable development understanding in EAP and the provision (113) made available in Union‘s Treaty (Turgut 2009). Environmental protection has firstly been included in EU goals by the validity of Maastricht Treaty and the necessity of taking into consideration of development together with environmental context (Çokgezen, 2007: 92). The fifth EAP (1993-2000) was based on sustainable development and considered intergenerational responsibility in evaluating development (Çokgezen, 2007: 95-96). The expression of necessity to evaluate the balance between environmental conditions and socioeconomic development was evident with respect to sustainable development. This program also comprised a self criticism on the failure of the union in implementing environmental policies due to the ongoing deterioration of environment (Ökmen, 2006: 344). The main references of the program can be set as the report prepared by the UN Environment and Development Comission, Our Common Future and sustainable development (Egeli, 1996). Johannesburg Summit which was finalized by the Implementation Plan and the Political Declaration is important in setting the common precautions to be taken in order to implement 342 �sustainable development and responsibilities on provision of a society on the basis of equality (Kılıç 2006: 87,88). A search for the tools of realization of sustainable development once again bring up the problem and requirement of questioning of the current social and economic structures which reflect unequal characteristics and measures in this respect. This issue parallels the differentiating priority setting in development when considered from the perspectives of developed, developing and less developed countries. The post-Johannesburg period has witnessed the sixth EAP (2001-2010) that had its priorities as climate change, natural and bio variety, quality of life and sustainable natural resources management. 6.THE SUSTAINABILITY OF EU ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES: A CRITICAL EVALUATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS European Union is shown as an important case to raise awareness to environmental problems and formation of environmental policies. Accepting many treaties on environment at the international level and at the first stage, EU, determined its main goals as integrating environmental policies with other policies, changing consumption types, provision of participation of citizens in decision making process concerning environment and implementation of land use plans (Görmez, 2003: 97). When evaluating the general characteristics of EU environmental policies, an approach based on the understanding of taking precautions earlier than the emergence of environmental problems and provision of compensation of the cost of pollution by the responsible one arise. The main criticism on sustainable development, especially for its implementation proces, is evident in its stress on economic development as not considering environment as a whole. Nevertheless, ecocentric ethical understanding, in particular, does not accord with sustainable development reflecting ethical understanding of modern industrial society. The mechanisms built up ro protect environment primarily necessitates to take legal precautions on the one hand, however ecocentric enviromental ethical approach claims that ecological problems cannot be solved by using solely legal regulations and punishments. Sustainable development in EU policies has been supported by bringing forth the economic component that mostly put forward consumption and production dimension. However, social and ecological components of sustainable development are closely related to ecocentric ethical approach. Social component refers to social justice comprising equal opportunity, to be able to live a life suitable to live in dignity and to develop oneself while ecological component presumes the necessity of nature to be protected via its own dynamics (ErgünÇobanoğlu, 2012:101-103,113). EU is an important supra state actor in intervening the formation of regional environmental policies and the international context of environmental policy area as well. Through the evolution of the EU environmental policy area, the main criticism can be put forward as the dominant anthropocentric ethical approach, the economy-environment duality although effort to relate, conceptualize and implement sustainable development through interdependencies 343 �and repercussive interactions. Obviously, ecological value cannot be managed to be given priority particular to ecocentric ethical approach in this context. The lack of questioning the current economic, social and political structures in development and in environmental policy formulation is the remaning criticism for sustainable development understanding embedded in EU environmental policy area. A sustainable development approach considering equal priorities on social and ecological components apart from economical component is concluded to get much closer to own an environmental ethical approach to be evolved from anthropocentric to ecocentric ethical approach. REFERENCES Bener, Ö. and Babaoğul M. (2008) Sürdürülebilir Tüketim Davranışı ve Çevre Bilinci Oluşturmada Bir Araç Olarak Tüketici Eğitimi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyolojik Araştırmalar E-Dergisi, 1-10. Callicott, J. B. (2005) Non-Anthropocentric Value Theory and Environmental Ethics, L.Kalof-T.Satterfield (eds.) Earthscan Reader in Environmental Values, Earthscan, London 67-80. Çokgezen, J. (2007) Avrupa Birliği Çevre Politikası ve Türkiye, Marmara Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 23 (2), 91-115. Egeli, G. (1996) Avrupa Birliği ve Türkiye‘de Çevre Politikaları, TÇV Yayını, Ankara Ergün, T. and N. Çobanoğlu (2012) Sürdürülebilir Gelişme ve Çevre Etiği, Ankrya: Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3 (1), 97-123. Ertan, K.A. (1998) Çevre Etiği, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 31 (1), Mart, 125-139. Evans, B., - Joas, M., -S. Sundback-K. Theobald (2005) Governing Sustainable Cities, Earthscan, London. Ferry, L.(2000) Yeni Ekolojik Düzen, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul Gower, B. S. (1992) What Do We Owe Future Generations? D. Cooper-J. Palmer (eds.) Environment in Question Ethics and Global Issues, Routledge, London, 1-12. Görmez, K. (2003) Çevre Sorunları ve Türkiye, 3. Baskı, Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara. Heywood, A. (2007) Siyasi İdeolojiler, Adres Yayınları, Ankara Keleş, R. (1998) Kentbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü, 2. Baskı, İmge Kitabevi, Ankara Kılıç, S. (2006) ―Yeni Toplumsal ve Ekonomik Arayışlar sürecinde Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma, Gazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 8 (2), 81-101. Kılıçoğlu, P. (2005) Türkiye‘nin Çevre Politikalarında Sürdürülebilir Gelişme, Turhan Kitabevi, Ankara Mengi A. and Algan N. (2003) Küreselleşme ve Yerelleşme ÇağındaBölgesel Sürdürülebilir Gelişme, Siyasal Kitabevi, Ankara 344 �Ökmen, M. (2006) Uyum Sürecinin Ekoloji-Politiği: AB ve Türkiye‘de Çevre Politikaları, AB Yolunda Türkiye: Müzakere Sürecinin Ekonomi Politiği, M. Dikkaya (eds), Alfa Aktüel, İstanbul. Önder, T. (2003) Derin Ekoloji Üzerine, Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, 8 (30-31), Turgut, N. Y. (2009) Çevre Politikası ve Hukuku, İmaj Yayınevi, Ankara. Ünder, H. (1997) Çevre Ahlakı: İnsanmerkezcilik ve Çevremerkezcilik, Adakentliyim, 3 (10). Woods, K. (2006) What Does the Language of Human Rights Bring to Campaigns for Environmental Justice?, Environmental Politics, 15 (4), August, 572-591 Yılmaz, A. Bozkurt Y. (2007) Avrupa Birliği‘ne Uyum Sürecinde Türk Çevre Politikalarının Dönüşümü, Küresel Esintiler ve Yerel Etkiler Sarmalında Türk Kamu Yönetimi, (eds.) A.Yılmaz and Y. Bozkurt, Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara. Importance of Tissue Culture Techniques in Sustainablity of Endangerd plant Species Ibrahim Baktir1*,Gülden Yilmaz1, Özgül Karaguzel2 and Deniz Hazar3 1Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Antalya 2Western Mediterranean Research Institute, Antalya 3Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School, Antalya E-mail: ibaktir@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract Tissue culture techniques have profound importance in mass propagation of various commercial crops in practice as in well known fruit tree rootstocks, a few vegetable and especially ornamental plants as well as some undomesticated plant species. Herbaceous species are somewhat easier to propagate compared to woody ones by tissue culture techniques. These techniques have not affectively applied to native plant species due to economical concerns although so many native plant species have been under threat and therefore they have been facing with extinction in all over the world. Human interferences is the main cause of the extinction of wild species especially in highly populated areas as it is the case in Marmara, Aegean and Coastal Mediterranean regions of Turkey because of new settlements, infrastructural works, overgrazing and uncontrolled collections. Thus, a big number of wild plant species are disappearing every year. Tissue culture techniques have merit value to propagate the endangered wild plant species to release the encountering pressure on these plants Keywords: Tissue culture, endangered species, sustainability 345 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1265 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development- Environmental Ethics Relationship Within Eu Environmental Policies Author Author Özcan , Sezer Abstract A summary of the resource. Environmental problems and approaches to environment have an important place within EU policies. There are major impacts of economic development on the inclusion of environmental issues to the Union‘s area of interest, which aims to integrate European Countries through economic, political and cultural areas and which foresees the free flow of capital, goods, services, labor. It is crucial to form environmental values and provide the member countries to internalize them in order to sustain development without giving harm to environment. In this context, environmental ethics reveals a conflict from the perspective of sustainable development. There emerges an area of conflict between attaining economic, social and cultural development on the one hand and taking into consideration of environmental values and environmental ethics during this process on the other hand. The desire to improve the living conditions at the member countries through providing economic, social and cultural development and to upgrade quality of life to a common level around the whole Europe are the reasons why the Union poses a common environmental policy. The increasing pressures on natural resources have put economic sustainability problem on the agenda and new problem areas such as climate change, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have revealed their reality in everyday life. Sustaining improvements in urban and rural residential areas; developing health precautions, eradicating regional inequalities can only be possible through sustaining a healthy and well balanced environment. One approach in environmental ethics bases on the responsibilities of current generation to future generations. In this context, environmental ethics is consistent with sustainable development concept but comprises a diverse dimension. This type of environmental ethics considers the human and human values while searching for solutions to environmental problems and emphasizes the understanding which saves that individuals and societies should have environmental values and environmental conscious in order to live a life in harmony with the nature. People are not seen as solely objects of development in this view of environmental ethics. The understanding as ―development regardless of its consequences‖ has threatened biological and genetic variety on earth. This type of understanding on development does not correspond to ethical understanding. In this study, conflicts between sustainable development and environmental ethics within environmental policies will be evaluated from the perspectives of anthropocentric, egocentric biocentric, ecocentric approaches of environmental ethics by considering approaches to environmental ethics within EU environmental policies. Sustainable development within EU environmental policies will be critically reviewed in terms of environmental ethics. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ff100d0c51aa092779701591cd193e7.pdf 6e4b7ff481225661345a165504fee101 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sustainable Developments and Energy Strategies in Turkey Murat ÖZTÜRK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey mozturk@sdu.edu.tr Nuri ÖZEK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey nozek@fef.sdu.edu.tr Ġskender AKKURT SDU, Faculty of Art and Sciences, Department of Physics 32260 Cunur, Isparta, Turkey iskender@fef.sdu.edu.tr, Mehmet UZUNKAVAK SDU, Faculty of Technical Education, Mechatronics Education 32260 Cunur, Isparta/ Turkey mehmetu@tef.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: Fossil fuels have been used as energy source which is used in a variety of fields such as running factories, transportation, electricity generation and also homes and buildings, since the Industrial Revolution. As the energy consumption is strongly related with the living standards and development of the countries, new energy sources should be created. This is also necessary because of the causing global warming, climate change, melting of ice caps, and increase in sea levels, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and pollution of fossils. Country such as Turkey is developing and thus energy consumption getting larger, needs to develop new strategies for energy in order to compensate this energy need. For the purpose of this study, Turkey is considered as representative of the various spectra of development in the continent and a review is presented on the energy policy of Turkey and how far these policies are meeting up to the challenges of sustainable developments. Keywords: Energy policy, sustainable development, Turkey. Introduction Sustainable development has been at the center of recent policies and development plans of Turkey. This is a pattern of development that delivers basic environmental, social and economic services without threatening the viability of natural, built and social systems upon which these services depend. In terms of development indices, energy consumption is a recognized indicator. With its geographical position, Turkey connects Europe to Asia. It has a surface area of 783 562.38 m2. The current population of the country is over 70 million and the annual population growth rate is about 1.73%, which is 5 times higher than that of the European Union (EU) average. Moreover, the country has a young population with an average age of 26. The country has a very dynamic economy. As a net effect of these factors, Turkey‘s energy demand is growing rapidly and is expected to continue grow in near future. Turkey has made strong efforts to integrate to the EU and compete more effectively in world politics both socially and economically. Up to now, Turkey has taken steps towards sustainable economic and social development and towards closer relations with the EU. But these aims cannot be achieved without a stable basis, which before all else requires the development of the infrastructure, one of the most significant input of which is the energy sector. Although Turkey has a wide range of energy resources, these resources are limited. Since, Turkey is an energy importing country, more than about 60% of energy consumption in the country is met by imports and the share of imports continues to grow each year. Therefore, it is critical to supply its energy demand by using domestic nonrenewable resources (such as lignite, hard coal, oil and natural gas) and renewable resources (Kaygusuz & Turker, 2002). The aim of this paper is to describe the various energy policies adopted in Turkey to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. The 263 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo roles of both, non-renewable and renewable sources of energy are discussed. Apart from that, this paper is described the various alternative energies and the implementation of energy efficiency program in Turkey. Sustainable Development and Energy System Energy constitutes one of the main inputs for sustainable economic and social development. Energy consumption is increasing simultaneously with increasing industrialization, population, urbanization, and technological improvement. In order to achieve a sustainable development, which supports economic and social development, energy supply and demand at minimum amount and cost with the minimum destructive effect on the environment should be set as the main objective. The sustainability of the mainstream development model of industrialization requires a transition to a sustainable energy system in which the production and use of energy at least compatible with long-term human well-being and environmental limits (Spalding et al., 2005). A sustainable energy system comprises two core components. The first is increased efficiency in the production, distribution and end-use of energy. The second is the introduction of energy conversion technologies that reduce or eliminate environmentally impacts (Dincer & Mark, 1999). In an effort to adapt the principles of sustainable development to the energy system, many questions are arising. Mostly, the concern is what the best policy should be, in order to take into account the present needs but also satisfy our sense of commitment to future generations. A global and local long term vision is crucial. Today, the maturity of the technology seems to provide improved energy efficiency and to take advantage of the renewable energy sources. By changing the structure of the current energy production system, a first step towards sustainability is made, keeping in mind of course that it is not only the production that should be changed but also the current patterns of energy consumption. The major components of a successful strategy for sustainable development include changing present energy production and consumption patterns, diversifying energy sources and the structure of power production and establishing an energy structure that is less or not at all harmful to the environment. Furthermore, the energy industry is fundamental to the national and global economy and is of critical importance to socioeconomic development and the improvement of human living standards (Afgan et al., 1998). The sustainability concept should, therefore, reflect not only concern about the shortage of natural resources and environmental protection but also should be closely correlated to the society needs and economical development. The successive petroleum crises and the need for protection of natural resources and protection of the environment as the vital habitat of man impose systematic promotion of large scale plants for the exploitation and operation of renewable energy sources (Maria & Tsoutsos, 2004). At the same time, other precautionary measures, such as energy saving or informing and awareness of the consumer, were promoted. Much of today‘s energy activities are unsustainable because they fail in terms of equity as well as environmental, economic, and geopolitical realities. This reality seems to be more critical in developing countries as Turkey. The continuously increasing energy demand is directly connected not only to the population increase and to the configuration of new conditions on a social level and economical status but also to the improvement of living standards. Continuously increasing energy needs in Turkey are completely covered by and will continue to be covered in the short term, to a large extent, by petroleum with the self evident consequence of an increase in CO2 emissions and sea pollution near the power station. Sustainable development demands a sustainable supply of energy resources. Supplies of energy resources such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium and thorium) are generally acknowledged to be finite; other energy sources such as solar, hydropower, biomass and wind are generally considered renewable and therefore sustainable over the relatively long term (Dincer & Rosen, 1998). Sustainable Energy Development Strategies typically involve three major technological changes: energy savings on the demand side (Blok, 2005), efficiency improvements in the energy production (Lior, 2002), and replacement of fossil fuels by various sources of renewable energy (Afgan & Carvalho, 2004). Consequently, large-scale renewable energy implementation plans must include strategies for integrating renewable sources in coherent energy systems influenced by energy savings and efficiency measures (Hvelplund, 2006). The Role of Energy in the Sustainable Developments in Turkey Energy constitutes one of the main inputs for economic and social development. Its consumption increases parallel to increase in population, urbanization, industrialization, spreading of technology, and living standards. A secure supply of energy resources is generally agreed to be a necessary but not sufficient requirement for development within a society. Furthermore, sustainable development demands a sustainable supply of energy resources. The implications of these statements are numerous, and depend on how sustainable is defined. One important implication of these statements is that sustainable development within a society requires a supply of energy resources that, in the long term, is readily and sustainable available at reasonable cost and can be utilized for all required tasks without causing negative societal impacts. Supplies of such energy 264 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo resources as fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are generally acknowledged to be finite; other energy sources such as solar, hydropower, biomass and wind are generally considered renewable and therefore sustainable over the relatively long term (Dincer & Rosen, 1998). A second implication of the initial statements in this section is that sustainable development requires that energy resources be used as efficiently as possible. In this way, society maximizes the benefits it derives from utilizing its energy resources, while minimizing the negative impacts (such as environmental damage) associated with their use. This implication acknowledges that all energy resources are to some degree finite, so that greater efficiency in utilization allows such resources to contribute to development over a longer period of time, i.e., to make development more sustainable (Ozturk, 2008). 100 90000 mtoe 90 80000 80 70000 % 70 60000 60 50000 Total fossil consumption (mtoe) Total renewable consumption (mtoe) 40000 30000 Percent of fossil energy consumption (%) Percent of renewable energy consumption (%) 20000 50 40 30 20 10000 10 0 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 1: Total fossil and renewable energy consumption and percent of total energy consumption in Turkey, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Even for energy sources that may eventually become inexpensive and widely avail-able, increases in energy efficiency will remain sought after to reduce the resource requirements (energy, material, etc.) to create and maintain systems and devices to harvest the energy, and to reduce the associated environmental impacts. Although renewable energy consumptions in Turkey is nearly stationary from 1984 to 2004 as seen in Figure 1, percent of renewable energy consumption in total energy consumption is increased from nearly 26 to 16, respectively in indicated years. Turkey has annual growth potential above 7% and a fast growing energy demand due to the rapid increase in population and development in industry. With Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) growth rates of 4% to over 5% per annum and Total Final Consumption (TFC) growth of around 4% over the last three decades, Turkey is among the fastest growing energy markets in the world (IEA, 2001). 44000 mteo 40000 36000 32000 Coal Lignite Oil Natural gas 28000 24000 20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 2: Fossil energy consumption in Turkey (mtoe), adapted from (WEC, 2008) 265 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The energy demand of Turkey will be doubled between the years 2000–2010 and will be fivefold between 2000 and 2025. This rapid increase in demand is due to the high economic development rate of Turkey. The estimated amount of investments for the production facilities by the year 2010 is around 45 billion dollars. Transmission and distribution facilities will require an additional 10 billion dollar investment in the same period. The government has undertaken measures to attract local and foreign private sector for new investments, and also to transfer operational rights of existing units to the private sector for their renewal and efficient operation (WECTNC, 1999). The major part of the energy demand has been met through oil and natural gas imports, as seen see in Figure 2, although the country has considerable potential of renewable energy sources. For example, in 2008, nearly 70% of the energy sources were imported and only about 30% of the primary energy demand was met by Turkey's own energy resources, see Figure 2 and 3. Major domestic energy resource in Turkey is coal, while natural gas and petroleum are considerably limited. Thus, Turkey has to import petroleum and natural gas, and its dependence on foreign resources is constantly increasing. 6000 mteo 5500 5000 Hydropower Geothermal Solar Wood Waste and dung Wind 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 3: Renewable energy consumption in Turkey (mtoe), adapted from (WEC, 2008) 100000 mteo 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 Energy consumption Energy production 40000 30000 20000 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 4: Energy consumption and production in Turkey, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Wide gap between energy consumption and production is observed for Turkey (see Figure 4). In 2008 primary energy production and consumption has reached 23,210 and 98,079 million tons of oil equivalents (mtoe), respectively. The main reason for this deficit is attributed to high increase in population and economic growth, despite limitations in the domestic energy resources of Turkey. The most significant developments in production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, solar energy and coal production. Turkey‘s use of hydropower, geothermal and solar thermal energy has increased since 1990. 266 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sustainable Energy Sources and Policy in Turkey Throughout the years, Turkey has formulated numerous energy-related policies in order to ensure the long-term reliability and security of energy supply for sustainable social-economic development in the country. Turkey‘s energy policy is based on the following items:  Meeting long term demand using 2P and F (public, private, and foreign) capital  Privatization activities, especially accelerating privatization activities, in the energy sector  Taking into consideration supply costs of energy imports, especially oil and natural gas  Ensuring optimum development of all the indigenous energy sources  Ensuring sustainable operation of the energy utilizations  Ensuring rational use of total energy sources  Ensuring environmentally sound sustainable energy development programs causing minimum damage to the environment  Meeting demand as much as possible through domestic resources  Diversifying energy supplies and avoiding dependence on a single source or a country  Adding renewable sources (geothermal heat, solar, wind, etc.) as soon as possible to the energy supply system  Ensuring sufficient, reliable and economic energy supplies on time  Ensuring energy security of supply  Implementing measures for energy efficiency  Planning energy research and development activities to meet requirements for increasing energy demands  Minimizing losses in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption in the country  Protecting the environment and public health in the production of energy Coal and Lignite Being the cheapest and most abundantly available fossil fuel, coal will always have a role in the energy mix of a particular country. The increasing energy import of Turkey is a sign of country‘s not being able to meet the demand through national energy resources. Taking into account the low quality and the negative impact on the environmental pollution, utilization of lignite as the most abundant primary natural resource is not the solution of a sustainable energy policy. Additionally, the total lignite reserves of Turkey are 8075 mtoe (WECTNC, 2003). 25.5% of these reserves are estimated to be consumed by the end of year 2010. Taking into account that about 63% of the reserves have very low calorific values, it is possible that they are completely depleted by year 2060. Due to the abundance and stable price of coal, it has been and will continue to be an essential component of long- term sustainable development, not only in Turkey but also the world. Turkey has both hard coal and lignite reserves. Turkey‘s total fossil fuel reserves are 2454 mtoe and 48% of this amount belongs to lignite, 15% is Elbistan lignite and 28% is hard coal, as shown in Figure 5. Bituminious shale 5% Elbistan lignite 15% Oil 2% Natural gas 1% Asphaltite 1% Lignite 48% Hard coal 28% Figure 5: The share of hard coal and lignite among Turkey's fossil fuel reserves Although coal is projected to play a far more important role in the energy mix, nevertheless, its utilization faces several major challenges. Among some of them are the emissions of green house gasses and air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX). The major part of Turkish lignite reserves has low calorific value and contains high amount of ash. 85% of the reserves have more than 20% ash value. 68% percent of Turkish lignite has low calorific value, which is under 2000 kcal/kg, and only 3.4% (264 mt) has a calorific value greater than 4,000 kcal/kg. Additionally, more than half of the reserves have 2- 3% sulphide content. An important part of Turkish lignite reserves are not at the standards of industrial usage. Thus, the environmental problems associated with coal must be closely studied to find new ways to overcome these problems. Fortunately, technological advances achieved in the recent years have made coal a much cleaner fuel 267 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo today. In particular, significant increases in thermal efficiency and reductions in sulfur and nitrogen oxides and particulate emissions have been achieved. With the right technology, the process of coal extraction, movement and more efficient combustion system will help to reduce the environmental concerns associated with the use of coal for producing electricity. In this context, Turkey will remain committed to the goals of sustainable development and thus measures will be continuously improved to ensure that the production and utilization of coal will meet environmental standards. Clean-coal technology, which includes electrostatic precipitators and flue gas desulphurization technology for air pollutants emission control, will be utilized in the new coal-fired power plants to ensure that environmental standards are met. However, the installments of gas cleaning technology will increase the capital costs of the power plant. For instance, the installation of a wet-type flue gas desulphurization that has an efficiency of removing more than 90% of the SO 2 produced will add an additional US$ 80–150/kW to the capital cost (Kataoka, 1992). Natural Gas Turkey‘s natural gas reserves are similarly limited. They were estimated to be 20.3 billion m 3 (Bcm), the 10.2 Bcm of which is available recently. The reserves are situated in the Thrace region, around Bayramsah, Danismen, Osmancik, Sogucak, Hayrabolu, Hamitabat, Karacaoglan, Kandamis, Karacali, Kumrular, Umurca, Silivri fields and in the Southeastern Anatolia around Camurlu, Katin, Derin Barbes, G. Dincer, and G. Hazro fields. The highest amount of natural gas suppliy is provided form the Hamitabat region, with 83% share. Natural gas imports increased parallel to increasing demands. In 2002, the domestic production could only supply the 2.3% of the overall demand that had reached 17.2 Bcm. In 1985, Turkey signed its first natural gas purchase contract with Russia, after which the imports of gas increased drastically. To date natural gas consumption has 11% share among other utilized energy resources. Oil One major non-renewable primary energy source, which is mainly imported by Turkey, is petroleum. Petroleum reserves of Turkey, which are mainly located in Hakkari Basin, are estimated to be 954 mt and 156 mt of the reserve is available for production. According to estimations, Turkey will consume the remaining 39 mt of the reserve completely by 2020; the 117 mt has already been consumed. The 90% of the country‘s demands are met through imports mainly from Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Libya, Egypt, Algeria, and Russia. The energy fulfilled by oil, constitutes about 40% of Turkey total energy demand. This number has been decreasing since utilization of natural gas started to accelerate. Renewable Policy and Energy Resources in Turkey Renewable energy sources are replenished naturally and their use has minimal environmental impacts. Renewable energy sources include wind power, solar energy (thermal and photovoltaic), hydropower, biomass and geothermal. Because of their nature, renewable energies are considered to be sustainable development technologies (Hart, 1997). The use of renewable energy technologies can lead, as stated before, to the birth and development of sustainable developments. Although the use of renewable energy resources has a lot of benefits, it faces numerous challenges. Firstly, the development of technology to convert the renewable energy resources into usable forms is still not that established. Although it was reported by several research and studies that there is a technical feasibility in the generation of energy from renewable resources, but the commercialization of research findings has not been fully undertaken on a large scale. Secondly, the high cost of renewable energy generation faces stiff competition from cheaper alternative energy such as from fossil fuels. For instance, the electricity costs from biomass, geothermal and solar sources are within the range of US$ 7–25 cents/ kWh, compared to the conventional (coal, natural gas, etc.) electricity costs of US$ 4–6 cents/kWh (Hitam, 1999). The development of renewable energy technology is now widely seen as important if the world is to move towards a sustainable approach to energy generation. However, there are a range of obstacles facing the rapid development of these technologies: they are trying to establish themselves in an outdated institutional, market and industrial context. The development of renewable energy in Turkey is still in the early stage. Turkey‘s geographic location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy sources. It is on the humid and warm climatic belt, which includes most of Europe, the near east and western Asia. A typical Mediterranean climate is predominant at most of its coastal areas, whereas the climate at the interior part between the mountains that are a part of the Alpine–Himalayan mountain belt is dry with typical steppe vegetation. This is mainly because Turkey is surrounded by seas on three sides: the Black sea to the north, the Marmara sea and Aegean sea to the west and the Mediterranean sea to the south (Kaygusuz, 2002). The average rainfall nationwide is about 650 mm, but this average masks large variations, from about 250 mm in the central and southeastern plateaus to as high as 2500 mm in the northeastern coastal plains and mountains. In the western 268 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and southern coastal zones, a subtropical Mediterranean climate predominates, with short, mild and wet winters and long, hot, and dry summers. Arid and semi-arid continental climates prevail in central regions where winter conditions are often extremely harsh, with frequent and heavy snowfall in the higher parts of the Anatolian Plain. On the Black Sea coast, winters are very wet and summers mild and humid. The average annual temperature varies between 18 to 20°C on the south coast, drops to 14 to 16°C on the west coast, and in central parts fluctuates between 4 to 18oC. Local micro-climates can vary widely from the regional averages because of the highly variable terrain and exposure to hot and cold winds. Hydroelectric generation, biomass combustion, solar energy for agricultural grain drying and hot water heating, and geothermal energy have been in use in the country for many years. Solar Energy In Turkey, the climatic conditions are favorable for the development of solar energy due to the abundant sunshine throughout the year. The preliminary studies made by EIE, based on the data measured by the State Meteorological Services indicate that, the country has an average sunshine duration of 2640 hy -1. Southeastern Anatolia has the longest sunshine duration of 2993 hy-1 while the Black Sea Region receives the least sunshine with 1970 hy-1. The solar energy potential of Turkey in different geographical regions is given in Table 1. Region South Eastern Anatolia Mediterranean Aegean Central Anatolia Total Solar Radiation (kWh/m2-year) 1,460 Annual Total Sunny Hours (hours/year) 2,993 1,390 1,304 1,314 2,956 2,738 2,628 Region Eastern Anatolia Marmara Black Sea Average Total Solar Radiation (kWh/m2-year) 1,365 Annual Total Sunny Hours (hours/year) 2,664 1,168 1,120 1,311 2,409 1,971 2,640 Table 1: Regional Distribution of Solar Energy Potential of Turkey (EIE, 2009) The yearly average of solar radiation intensity is 3.6 kWh/m 2day on horizontal plane with higher peaks at some locations and varies between 1.75 kWh/m2day and 5.9 kWh/m2day on monthly basis. In Turkey solar energy has a technical potential of 8.8 mtoe electricity generation and heating capacity of 26.4 mtoe [36]. Main solar energy utilization is the flat plate collectors in the domestic hot water systems which are mostly used in Aegean and Mediterranean Regions. Turkey has a total installed capacity of 13.86 million m² collector area with a total energy production of 580 ktoe, as of 2008. At the moment, the utilization of solar power or PV system in Turkey is only limited to solar water heating systems in hotels, small greenhouse and beverage industries and urban homes. According to Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) projections, solar energy usage for heating systems will be 745 ktoe in 2020 and 932 ktoe in 2025. It is possible to increase the energy production from solar collectors to 1.4 mtoe in 2010 and 5.5 mtoe in 2025. Utilization of photovoltaic systems is solely limited with some state organizations which use PV in order to meet remote electricity demand. Main application areas include the telecom stations, fire observation towers, lighthouses and highway emergency systems. Total installed peak power is estimated as 300 kWp [35]. Turkey, currently, does not have an organized photovoltaic (PV) program. Global energy strategies and policies are laid down in periodic five years development plans. On the other hand, it is encouraged to invest in the energy sector through some financial incentives. Plans for industrial-scale production of PV modules are concentrated in thin-film areas rather than crystalline materials. PV cells are produced in various research establishments in order to study the feasibility of local manufacturing. So far, none of these studies yielded a sufficiently positive result to justify a large production facility in Turkey. The potential of Turkey as a PV market is very large, since the country is very suitable in terms of insulation and large areas of available land for solar farms. There are more than 30000 small residential areas where solar powered electricity would currently likely be more economical than grid supply. Solar energy technologies development and use is very important and useful for the developing countries like Turkey provided that the factors of long-term sustainability and economic feasibility are not completed. Hydropower Hydropower dams can and have made important and significant contribution to human development. Firstly, hydropower dams can generate electricity and are clean and renewable. In the longer term, electricity from hydropower is relatively cheaper as compared to other sources (oil and natural gas) and the cost will not be affected by the changing fuel prices, which is currently determined by international market. Apart from that, many hydropower projects had also brought socio-economic development such as flood control, irrigation, 269 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo tourism, local employment and skills development, rural electrification and the expansion of physical and social infrastructure such as roads and schools or rather as a whole, the opening up of interior areas of the country to other economics (Mohamed & Lee, 2006). Table 2 shows technical and production potential of some countries. According to that the rate of utilized HEP to technical HEP is only 20.4 % in Turkey, whereas this ratio is 98.8% in Sweden. Turkey is the richest country after Norway in Europe for its economic hydroelectric potential which is 130 TWh/year. On the other hand, Turkey's technically useable potential is 216 TWh/year (see Table 2) and it is higher than Norway. But the hydroelectric power production is quite behind than Norway and even from Italy which has an economic potential less than half of Turkey. This is basically due to the high capital investment required to develop the hydropower and often involve socio-economic issues. The development of a hydropower dam is overwhelmingly complex because the issues are not confined to the design, construction and operation of dams themselves but embrace the issues of social, environmental and political issues (Ozturk, 2009). Country Turkey Norway Italy Sweden France Austria Spain Iceland Switzerland Romania Germany Portugal Rest of Europe Total Europe Technical Potential (TWh/y) 216 200 105 100 100 75 66 64 43 35 32 25 199 1,260 Percent of Europe Total (%) 17.14 15.87 8.33 7.94 7.94 5.95 5.24 5.08 3.41 2.78 2.54 1.99 15.79 100 Economic Potential (TWh/y) 130 187 65 85 70 56 32 40 41 25 20 20 139 910 Percent of Europe Total (%) 14.29 20.55 7.14 9.34 7.70 6.16 3.51 4.40 4.50 2.75 2.19 2.19 15.28 100 Production (TWh/y) 35 136.4 36 72.1 56.2 39 23.2 7 30.1 20.1 27.7 5.1 87.5 575.4 Percent of Europe Total (%) 6.08 23.70 6.26 12.53 9.77 6.78 4.03 1.22 5.23 3.49 4.81 0.89 15.21 100 P/T (%) 16.2 68.2 34.3 72.1 56.2 52 35.2 10.9 70 57.4 86.6 20.4 42.3 25.3 Table 2: Hydroelectric potential in Europe and actual production, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Wind Power As it provides a clean and renewable form of electricity, wind energy is one of the most widely used alternative sources of energy today. According to the figures released by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) in year 2005, the total installed capacity of wind energy worldwide reached 59,335 MW e by increasing 25% compared to year 2004. Approximately, 11,769 MW of new wind energy generating capacity were installed in year 2005 representing a 43.4% increase in annual additions to the global market up from 8,207 MW in the previous year. In Europe, as much as 25% of its current electricity demand could be met from wind energy sources (Boyle, 1998). Europe is still leading the market with over 40,500 MW of installed capacity at the end of 2005, representing 69% of the global total. In 2005, the European wind capacity grew by 18%, providing nearly 3% of the EU‘s electricity consumption in an average wind year. Technical wind potential of Turkey is given as 83,000 MWe and the economic potential is estimated as 10,000 MW e. Regions Marmara Southeastern Anatolia Aegean Mediterranean Annual average wind density (Wm-2 ) 51.9 Annual average wind speed (ms-1) 3.3 29.3 2.7 23.5 21.4 2.7 2.4 Regions Black Sea Central Anatolia East Anatolia Turkey average Annual average wind density (Wm-2 ) 21.3 Annual average wind speed (ms-1) 2.4 20.1 2.5 13.2 25.8 2.1 2.6 Table 3: Wind Energy Potential of Turkey Turkey has the highest share in technical wind energy potential in Europe. However, Turkey had only a share of 0.04% in Europe‘s installed capacity. Although the installed capacity of Turkey‘s wind energy has increased from 9 MWe in 1998 to26 MWe in 2005 it is still very small compared to its potential. Annual average 270 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo wind speed and annual average wind energy potential of various regions of Turkey are shown in Table 3. The annual average wind speeds range from a low of 2.1 ms-1 in the East Anatolia region to a high of 3.3 ms-1 in the Marmara region. The most attractive regions for wind energy applications are the Marmara, the southeastern Anatolian and the Aegean regions. These regions are highly suitable for wind power generation, since the wind speed exceeds 3 ms-1 in most of these areas (Ediger & Kentel, 1999). These have been classified into six wind regions, with a low of about 3.5 ms-1 and a high of 5 ms-1 at 10 m altitude. These correspond to a potential power production of between 1,000 and 3,000 kWhm-2yr-1). Biomass Among the renewable energy sources, biomass is important because its share of total energy consumption is still high. Since 1984, the contribution of the biomass resources in the total energy consumption of Turkey dropped from 21.53 to 5.51 % in 2008. Biomass in the forms of fuel-wood and animal wastes is the main fuel for heating and cooking in many urban areas [48,49]. The total recoverable bioenergy potential is estimated to be about 16.92 mtpe. The estimate is based on the recoverable energy potential from the main agricultural residues, livestock farming wastes, forestry and wood processing residues, and municipal wastes that are given in the literature (Kaygusuz, 1997). Biomass can be classified as classic and modern biomass according to the method used for biomass utilization for energy production. The former is the recently most commonly utilized one and consists of burning biomass such as wood, plant residues and animal dung directly. Modern biomass technologies are relatively new technologies, most of which are still on the developmental stages. These include conversion of biomass to solid, liquid and gas fuels by much complex biochemical and thermochemical processes. Projections of planned biomass production, classic and modern in Turkey are given in Table 4. It is estimated that Turkey has a theoretical gross biomass potential of 135-150 mtoeyr-1, and a theoretical net potential of 90 mtoeyr-1. But the economical potential is given as 25 mtoeyr-1. Year 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Classic biomass 5.754 4.790 4.000 3.345 3.310 Modern biomass 1.660 2.530 3.520 4.465 4.895 Total 7.414 7.320 7.520 7.810 8.205 Table 4: Classic and modern biomass energy production projections for Turkey (mtoe) Geothermal Major part of Turkey is situated on the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, a characteristic that gives the country a high geothermal potential. Turkey is the seventh highest geothermal potential in the world and this resource can be utilized both for electricity production and as direct heating use. Since 1960s, the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) has determined as many as 170 geothermal fields and over 1,000 hot and mineral water resources (spring discharge and reservoir), the temperatures of which ranged from 20 to 242ºC. Turkey‘s geothermal fields are more available to direct-use applications, since 95% of geothermal fields are low-medium enthalpy resources. Gross geothermal potential of Turkey is given as 31,500 MWt, corresponding to 5 million residence heating whereas the economic potential for heating purposes is estimated to be 2843 MW. 31 500 MWt equals to, 140 thousands m 2 greenhouse heating, 9,3 billion $/year FuelOil equivalent (30 mtoneyr-1) or 30 Bcmyr-1 natural gas equivalent. This capacity equals to decreasing the CO 2 emission of 30 million motor-vehicles as well. Turkey‘s gross geothermal electrical potential is estimated as 2,000 MWe and seven geothermal fields are identified to be appropriate both technically and economically for electricity generation. Some of the geothermal fields of Turkey are given in Table 5. Geothermal Field Denizli-Kizildere Aydın-Germencik Canakkale-Tuzla Kutahya-Simav Temperature (ºC) 242 232 174 171 Geothermal Field Aydin-Salavatli Ġzmir-Seferihisar Ġzmir-Balcova Ankara-Kizilcahamam Temperature (ºC) 162 153 126 106 Table 5: Some of Turkey‘s high enthalpy geothermal fields 271 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusions Since energy is required for industrialization, energy development is a basic component to ensure economic and social development. There is a need to find alternatives to the import of electricity and increase the domestic production of electricity in Turkey. Renewable energies are just starting to play a significant role in Turkey‘s energy matrix while the oil sector is still expected to be the biggest player during the next few decades. In order not to become more dependent on other countries, it is essential that Turkey utilizes its own renewable energy resource. This is an opportunity not to be missed for Turkey to achieve an economic, sustainable energysupply. This is done by using domestic renewable energy resources and using the knowledge that already exists in the country about producing energy technology and to co-operate with foreign companies and institutions to develop technologies adapted to the local conditions in Turkey. Apart from promoting the use of renewable energy and alternative energy to ensure the sustainability of energy supply and consequently of the country‘s sustainable economic development, the government of Malaysia has also been implementing the energy efficiency program. Energy efficiency covers the efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution of electricity and various end-uses of energy. The Turkey energy sector is still heavily dependent on non-renewable fuel such as fossil fuels and natural gas as a source of energy. These non-renewable fuels are finite and gradually depleting and also contribute to the emission of greenhouse gas. While it is recognized that the world, including Turkey is not ready to displace non-renewable energy with renewable fuels, the implementation of various policies and programs by the government of Turkey has increased the awareness of the importance of the role of renewable energy in a sustainable energy system. Renewable energy resources and their utilization in Turkey are intimately related to sustainable development. For the governments or societies to attain sustainable development, much effort has to be devoted to utilizing sustainable energy resources in terms of renewables. 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Ankara. www.dektmk.org.tr WECTNC (World Energy Council Turkish National Committee) (1999). Energy report of Turkey in 1998, Ankara, Turkey. WECTNC (World Energy Council Turkish National Committee) (2003). Enerji Istatistikleri. Türkiye 9. Enerji Kongresi, Istanbul. 273 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 178 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Developments and Energy Strategies in Turkey Author Author ÖZTÜRK, Murat ÖZEK, Nuri AKKURT, İskender UZUNKAVAK, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Fossil fuels have been used as energy source which is used in a variety of fields such as running factories, transportation, electricity generation and also homes and buildings, since the Industrial Revolution. As the energy consumption is strongly related with the living standards and development of the countries, new energy sources should be created. This is also necessary because of the causing global warming, climate change, melting of ice caps, and increase in sea levels, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and pollution of fossils. Country such as Turkey is developing and thus energy consumption getting larger, needs to develop new strategies for energy in order to compensate this energy need. For the purpose of this study, Turkey is considered as representative of the various spectra of development in the continent and a review is presented on the energy policy of Turkey and how far these policies are meeting up to the challenges of sustainable developments. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6753b80e840a8513b006a299aa681386.pdf a8d9b0a7ba51ee060a23c0f6f1f35cd6 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Ahmet BAYTOK Assist. Prof. Dr., School of Tourism and Hotel Management Afyon Kocatepe, University, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Veysel AĞCA Assist. Prof. Dr. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe,University, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Mustafa KURT Associate Prof. Dr.Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey mkurt@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Introduction Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in general and questions of how and why entrepreneurs emerge in an economy are considered as central issue of economic development (Szivas, 2001:164). It can be conceptualize as a process of doing something new or something different, to create wealth for oneself and to add value to society ( Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:7). Tourism industry, alongside its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism (Seasonality, sensibility of tourism to politic, economic and natural unexpected events-risky industry, labor intensive etc.) and tourism product (intangibility, perishability, variability,). A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Turkey is an important touristic destination with a significant natural, historical and cultural touristic supply attractiveness. According to data from T.C. Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Due to the economic crisis in the world, tourism revenues and tourist entries have decreased in many countries, while Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). The tourism industry in terms of creation of economic value, providing of new employment and creation of export revenues as the contribution of foreign trade deficit to be closed with, has played important role in Turkish economy for last three decades. Especially, in a major development of the last 30-year period of data about industry and the role of the industry played in the economy is the most important evidence. Undoubtedly, the private enterprises by entrepreneurs, make up the superstructure of the industry, is the most important reason for existing economic contribution. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development in the transformation of the tourism industry in Turkey from the period of 1980 to today. In this regard, the impact of the superstructure initiatives occurred by the private enterprises on the growth of the 430 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo economy, employment and foreign trade deficit will be examined. Secondary data will be used in this research. Statistical data in the last 29 year period will be examined and a descriptive analysis will be done. 1. The Concept of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is a fairly complex issue and not always easy to define (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The subject of entrepreneurship has been studied from a multitude of disciplinary perspective (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000:380). Historically the conceptualization emerging within classical economic theory was concerned with entrepreneurial activity as a key factor and dynamic element in economic performance (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000: 379). Some authors viewing it as a process or a way of behaving (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The root of the word “entrepreneur” comes from the French verb “entreprendre”, which means “to undertake”. Entrepreneurship is conceptualized from different points of view by researchers. According to Cantillion who first acknowledge this concept an entrepreneur bears uncertainty and bears risk. Say concentrate on managerial role of entrepreneur and claimed that an entrepreneur should carry out specific business tasks and also supply his own capital. Shumpeter saw entrepreneurship as a primary engine of economic development. According to him entrepreneur is innovator and innovation is a central element of entrepreneurship” (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 788). The term entrepreneur can be defined as “an innovator carrying out new combinations of economic development such as new goods, new methods of production, new markets, new sources of raw material or new organization form” (Weiermair, Siler and Mössenlechner, 2006: 27). According to the definition certain roles of entrepreneurs can be seen an arbitrageur, an innovator, a market filler, a risk bearer, a decision maker, a creator of an enterprise and a coordinator of the factor of productions (Koy and Hatten, 2002: 25). Entrepreneurs need some driving factors in order to operate; motivation, specific conditions for success, supportive environment, the entrepreneurial climate infrastructure and support and entrepreneurship policy (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 789-790) can be accepted as factors which encourage and form suitable background for the entrepreneurial environment. In recent years nurturing entrepreneurship has become a popular policy objective in communities. It is broadly supported recognizing a wide range of potential contributions to the development process. These include: (Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:10). • raising productivity, • creating employment, • restructuring and diversifying the economy, • reducing market inefficiencies, • improving the social welfare of the country, • commercializing innovative products and service • creating new markets. Entrepreneurship is the basic guiding force of countries economic development. While entrepreneurial activities which created by private entrepreneurs have important contributions to countries economic developments, in the same time it increase the level of living standards, social conditions and employment. Today entrepreneurships have some positive and negative impacts on natural, social and cultural factors, as part of social life, because of their unplanned development and they are the products of different cultural backgrounds. They are wanted and encouraged by all countries, as an economic development force even if they have some negative impacts. 2. Tourism Entrepreneurship Tourism is a dynamic and ever changing industry in modern economies. Its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. (Russell and Faulkner, 2004: 556). Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development (Russell and Faulkner 2004; Kokranikal and Morrison, 2002; Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2002). Because the richness of the touristic attractiveness is important in the destination to be visited for tourism purposes, but it is not adequate as a touristic product, in terms of attractiveness and forming economic value. Benefiting touristic attractiveness resources on formation of economic value depends on availability of accessibility and usability factors as well as attractiveness. While accessibility factor represents infrastructure, usability factor represents touristic superstructure. A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and 431 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. Therefore they are defined as the sculptors of tourismspace. Tourism entrepreneur can be described as a person to make profit through tourism enterprise by considering market opportunities (Koh ve Hatten, 2002:23-25). Thomas Cook’s innovativeness and his role in the development of mass tourism as an entrepreneur, Walt Disney’s Disneyland ideas and development of theme parks as an entrepreneur (Russell and Faulkner, 2004:562), in today’s world the reason for Las Vegas and Dubai’s famousness in the world are entrepreneurs entrepreneurships in this cities. Tourism entrepreneur differs from the general entrepreneurs in several ways and the nature of tourism and tourism product are the driving factors of this differences. These are: (Koh and Hatten, 2002: 32) • Tourism entrepreneur create tourism enterprise. • Intangibility of tourism offerings causes greater difficulty in testing their offerings and poses greater risk to tourism entrepreneur. • Tourism is a service oriented industry. This implies that tourism entrepreneurs need to acquire serviceoriented management and marketing practices. • Seasonality of tourism products cause sales fluctuation and this have to be done more attentively and effectively. • Immobility of tourism offers causes more uncertainty and less control over the products. • Significance proportion of tourism products are owned and operated by governmental agencies (national parks, thermal springs etc). Tourism entrepreneurial activities provide important contribution to the societies’ economic, social, cultural development and welfare. While development of tourism entrepreneurship in any country provide new jobs, real income and increase revenue, tax income and because of its multiplier effects also effects other industries in economic aspects (Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2000), from the social point of view it makes the destination place to be lived, worked, entertain and spend time in retirement (Kokkranikal and Morrison,2002;Koh and Hatten, 2000). The development of tourism entrepreneurship is postulated as a spontaneous process, which occurs as a result of growth in tourism development (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 237). Yet the birth of touristic enterprise is not an act of nature but an act of the tourism entrepreneur (Koh and Hatten, 2000:22). 3. Tourism Industry in Turkey Turkey is one of the most important tourism destinations in the world. According to data in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). and reach at the rank 7th in the world (www.turkiyeturizm.com). Turkey is very attractive in terms of tourism destination. This situation is an important reason behind the level of its tourism industry. With its strategic importance because of geographical position in the historical process, Turkey is a country where many of the provisions of civilization happened. Historical attractiveness of these civilizations makes Turkey a wondered and visited country. Three sides surrounded by the sea Turkey is also an important natural destination. Especially, as the basic tourism product in terms of sun and sand of the sea , the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts are important destinations (Antalya, Bodrum, Marmaris, Fethiye, Kuşadası). Every year millions of tourists visit Turkey for vacation tourism purposes. The cultural factors like Turkish hospitality and Turkish cuisine are the supporter factors of attractiveness of Turkey Its possible to distinguish the development of tourism industry into two fundamental periods in Turkey. First period, started between 1963 and 1980; at this period legal arrangements and superstructure developments directed to the tourism formed by Turkish Government. In this period main entrepreneur in Turkish tourism is the state itself. During this period the state enterprises are the basic superstructures in building TURBAN hotels in different cities and pioneering private sector at risky tourism ventures. The second period covered 1980 and today. In this period, tourism as an instrument to remedy the economic imbalances in foreign trade with exports has played important role. In this period, it started to make a tremendous contribution to the economy with its high competitive power. Also, during this period the state has begun to reveal incentives applications to private sector in the development of tourism superstructure to play basic entrepreneurial role. In this period, especially in 1982, 2634 of the "Tourism Incentive Law" (Resmi Gazete, 1982: Sayı.17635) has been the basic incentive tool for superstructure of supply in the development of tourism. In addition to Law No. 2634, the 4875 "Direct Foreign Investment Law" (Official Gazette, 2003: Sayı.25141) and No. 5084 "Investment and Promotion of Employment Act and some changes in the “Law Making" (Official Gazette, 2004: Sayı.25365) are other important incentives. In this period, statistical data belong to tourism industry, showed that entrepreneurs played important role in economic development of the tourism industry. Moreover, this situation is the best evidence that to have the rich resources in terms of attractiveness, to develop tourism industry in a country and to create economic value are not enough. 432 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Some important national and international events occurred between 1980 and 2008 shaped activities of tourism entrepreneurs in the tourism industry and the development of the Turkish tourism sector. These are: • 1991 First Gulf War • 1997 Economic Crisis in Asia • 1999 Earthquake in Gölcük • 2006 Avian Influenza, Cartoon Crisis The basic driving force of development in the Turkish tourism industry in the 1980-2008 period is the number of beds as supply of qualified tourism superstructure that increased from only 56,044 beds in 1980 to the level of 532,262 beds by the year 2007(Table 1). During these period, private entrepreneurs by increasing the supply of tourism superstructure became the basic catalyst to create economic value that tourism sector has already reached. 4. Study Findings The statistical fact sheets of tourism industry in Turkey indicate that development of tourism superstructure which is formed by private entrepreneurs is the main determinants of the sectoral size and increase in the share of tourism industry in economic development of Turkey. The tourism superstructure supply of Turkey has increased by 9.5 times between 1980 and 2008. While growth of the tourism superstructure was slower between 1980 and 1984 period, it indicated approximately 4,5 times increase between 1985 and 1997. Although increase in the bed capacity between 1997 and 2000 developed slowly, in 2001 and 2007 period it again indicated rapid development (Figur1). The process experienced in the development of Turkish tourism superstructure reflects the natural structural characteristics of tourism industry. In the first years because the tourism industry was at the beginning stage of its development and its risky character private entrepreneurs remained in distance to the industry and this caused decrease in development. The economic crisis, politic instability, terror, earthquake etc. caused decrease in tourism demand towards to turkey and slow development of tourism enterprises between 1997 and 2000. Although bird influenza through out the world, cartoon crisis between Christian and Muslim world narrowed the volume of tourism demand and caused decrease in tourism receipts, tourism superstructure supply continued its development because Turkish entrepreneurs are experienced in dealing with crisis and difficult conditions. 600 000 500 000 Number of beds 400 000 300 000 200 000 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 100 000 years Licenced Accomodation Bed Numbers Figure 1. Number of Tourism Licensed Accommodation Establishments in Turkey by Years (1980-2007) Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licensed Facilities 2007 September, 2008, p.23. Owing to tourism superstructure formed by tourism entrepreneurs in Turkey, While only 1 288 060 visitors visited Turkey in 1980, the number of visitors increased to 30 929 192 in 2008 which represent 24 times increase in visitor arrivals. In the same period while tourism receipts of Turkey was only 326,5 million dollars in 1980, it raised to 22 billion dollars in 2008 (Table 1). When tourism receipts are examined between 1980 and 2008, it is seen that tourism receipts of Turkey increased around by 67 times. The Fluctuations in tourism 433 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo receipts experienced in this period because of economic, social, politic and environmental factors was also the result of decreases in flexible tourism demand. The first Gulf War in 1991, economic crisis and the political conflict between Turkey and Germany and Đtaly, and Earthquake in Gölcük, the capture of head of terrorist organization between 1997-1998-1999. The bird influenza and cartoon crisis in 2006 caused the decrease in tourism demand and tourism receipts in Turkey (Figure 2) As a result of profitable activities of tourism entrepreneurs and their efforts in obtaining customer satisfaction through increasing service quality average expenditure of visitors during their holidays in Turkey increased by 3 times and reached to 700 dollars. Table 1. The Number of Visitors and Tourism Receipts of Turkey - Average Expenditure Per Capita by Years (1980-2008) Years 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Receipts (1.000 $) 326 654 381 268 370 320 411 088 840 000 1 482 000 1 215 000 1 721 117 2 355 295 2 556 529 3 225 000 2 654 000 3 639 000 3 959 000 4 321 000 4 957 000 5 962 100 8 088 549 7 808 940 5 203 000 7 636 000 10 066 500 Number of Visitors Departing 1 288 060 1 405 311 1 391 717 1 625 099 2 117 094 2 614 924 2 391 085 3 058 676 4 150 300 4 482 779 5 190 729 5 106 792 6 827 392 5 925 760 6 410 979 7 247 076 7 970 722 9 233 503 8 878 840 7 069 293 9 990 841 13 450 121 Average Expenditure Per Visitor ($) 253,6 271,3 266,1 253,0 396,8 566,7 508,1 562,7 567,5 570,3 621,3 519,7 533,0 668,1 674,0 684,0 748,0 876,0 879,5 736,0 764,3 748,0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 11 900 900 13 203 100 15 887 700 18 153 500 16 850 800 15 214 516 16 302 050 20 262 640 24 124 501 23 148 669 782,0 810,0 784,0 752,0 728,0 2007 18 487 008 27 214 988 679,0 2008(*) 21 910 964 30 929 192 708,0 NOT : (1980 - 1983) Central Bank (1984 - 1990) Foreign Visitor departure Questionnaire (1991 - 1995) Central Bank (1996 - 1998) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (1999 - 2000) Central Bank (2001-2002) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (2003-2007) KTB+TUĐK+ Central Bank (*)Data for 2008 is provisional Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 434 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 25000,00 20000,00 million $ 15000,00 10000,00 5000,00 20 08 20 05 20 06 20 07 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 95 19 94 19 93 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 80 0,00 years tourism receipts Figure 2. The Tourism Receipts of Turkey by Years (1980-2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH veGSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 One of the main characteristics of touristic product is the synchronization of production and consumption. In other words its consumed where its produced. These characteristics make tourism an export take place in the country that is an export within the country. That’s why called it invisible export with this feature the development of superstructure of tourism industry generates contribution to the continuous development of exports raises. Between 1980-2008 year periods, excluding crisis period, the share of tourism revenues in exports showed a steady growth. This contribution for some time in 1997, 2001 and 2002 increased at the level of 30 percent. (Figure 3). But it is seen the decreases in the share of tourism in total export after 2002. These decreases are due to the diversification of Turkey's export items and a rapid development of other export items. 80000,00 70000,00 Revenue , million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 0,00 years export receipts tourism receipts Figure 3. Rate of Tourism Receipts in the Export in Turkey by Years (1980 – 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Economically, one of the most important problems of Turkey is the Foreign Trade Deficit. Tourism by its export characteristics provides considerable contribution to the close of foreign trade deficit of Turkey. Even though some fluctuations shown in the period between 1980 and 2008 years, tourism has played an important role to be closed Turkey's foreign trade deficit since 1985. In some years (1988, 1994) the amount of tourism revenue reached more than 80% of the foreign trade deficit and has exceeded 100% in 2001. In recent years, 435 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo depending on the increase in imports of goods, foreign trade deficit is in a fast growth so the role of tourism in the foreign trade deficit may be reduced relative to the closure but it continues to provide important contributions (Figure 4) 80000,00 70000,00 receipts, million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 95 08 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 93 92 91 94 19 19 19 19 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 90 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 80 0,00 years deficit of foreign trade tourism receipts Figure 4. Rate of Tourism Receipts in The Deficit of Foreign Trade in Turkey by Years (1980 - 2008) (*) http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (dış ticaret, dış ticaret istatistikleri, yıllara göre dış ticaret) 16.05.2009 (**) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Data for 2008 is provisional. Increase in the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the contribution of tourism to a country's economy. Its multiplier effect of direct economic contribution as a final consumer sector and with high value added make positive contributions to GNP. The share of tourism in GDP increases as proportional with the development of tourism sector. Indeed, with only 0.6 percent it had a very low share on Turkey’s GDP in 1980. But the developments of superstructure ventures increased its share and reached its effects to 6,9 percent on GDP in 2001. In the period after 2001 decrease in the share of industry in GDP was not from reduced revenues of the sector. This decrease was related with the growth of other sectors in the economy (Figure 5). The increase of the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the importance of its effects within a country's economy. One of the most important benefits of the Tourism investment and development of the superstructure to Turkey is the contribution to the employment, due to its labor-intensive structure. Unemployment is a serious problem in Turkey. Tourism is an important employment area and provides significant contributions to reduce unemployment. Tourism is a sector that creates direct employment besides indirect employment due to a final consumer sector. The development of superstructure of tourism not only creates direct qualified employment but unqualified employment. Besides this the opening of new tourism enterprises and the development of other businesses also contribute to create new employment areas to meet new demands. As tourism industry combined different sectors under one roof, it is very difficult to calculate its share in total employment. Because there is not enough data on this issue, numerical data about direct and indirect employment in the sector is used to show the employment size of the sector just for 1993-2001(Figure 6). It is seen that total employment in the relevant years of data taking into account the proportional size of employment in Turkey is almost one of every five people employed directly and indirectly in the tourism sector. 436 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 800 000,0 700 000,0 Revenue, milyon $ 600 000,0 500 000,0 400 000,0 300 000,0 200 000,0 100 000,0 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 ,0 years GNP tourism receipts Figure 5. Share of Tourism Receipts in the Gross National Product (by Current Consumer Prices) (1980 - 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 25000000 Number of workers 20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 years total tourism employment total employment in Turkey Figure 6. Employment of Tourism Sectors in General Employment in Turkey by Years (1993-2001) Source: http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 5. Discussion and Summary When statistical data about Turkish Tourism sector over the last 29 years is evaluated, it is seen that tourism industry provides important contributions to Turkish economic development. In the contribution of tourism sector to general economic development, because of the development of superstructure supply of sector, private entrepreneurs play main roles. When data for the period of 1980-2008 which is accepted as the starting date of tourism sector development in Turkey is compared, it is seen that the development of superstructure supply in sector has direct positive impact on export, trade balance deficits, GDP growth, and employment which are accepted as the main indicators of economy. In the same period, superstructure supply has developed 9,5 times and because of this development, the number of tourists increased 24 times and the income of tourism grew 67 times. The development, economical value creation and fluctuations and declines in the contribution to general economy of superstructure supply of sector are the result of sectoral features of tourism sector and it only shows that why government should support tourism entrepreneurs. Turkey is a country which has permanently 437 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo trade balance deficit and high unemployment rate and also the development of its competitive goods in international area is limited. In these economic conditions, in order to maintain sustainable economic development, Turkey needs value added sectors which have high competitive capacity. In this context, tourism is important sector for the sustainable development of Turkish economy. Moreover, in order to eliminate the regional development differences, Turkey which has different touristic resources in its different regions should stimulate value added sectors in underdeveloped regions. In this point, practices to encourage private entrepreneurs for investments in these regions make a major contribution to both regional and general economic growth and development. Therefore, that government plans development regions and give some incentives to private sector is so important. As a result, tourism is a risky sector and has long payback period. Therefore, it is not a preferred investment area for private sector. Meanwhile, the determination of the development of sector, value creation, and sectoral size is private sector enterprises. A tourist comes to a place to satisfy his/her curiosity and meet his other needs and doesn’t pay for sunbath and swim. Tourist pays for accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment and other superstructure facilities and all these facilities are supplied by tourism entrepreneurs. References Ateljevic, I., & Doorne, S. (2000). Staying Within The Fence: Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8 (5), 378-392. Koh, K.Y., & Hatten, T.S. (2002). The Tourism Entrepreneur: The Overlooked Player in Tourism Development Studies. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3 (1), 21-48. Kokkranikal, J., & Morrison, A. (2002). Entrepreneurship and Sustainable Tourism: The houseboats of Kerala. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4 (1), 7-20. Lordkipanidze, M., Bretez, H., & Backman, M. (2005). The Entrepreneurship Factor in Sustainable Tourism Development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, 787-798. Ministry of Culture and Tourism; Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licenced Facilities 2007 September, 2008. Resmi Gazete, “2634 sayılı Turizmi Teşvik Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 16.03.1982, sayı:17635, 1982. Resmi Gazete, “4875 sayılı “Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımlar Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 17.06.2003, sayı:25141, 2003 Resmi Gazete, “5084 sayılı Yatırımların ve Đstihdamın Teşviki Đle Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun” Resmi Gazete, 06.02.2004, sayı:25365, 2004. Russell, R., & Faulkner, B. (2004). Entrepreneurship, Chaos and The Tourism Area Lifecycle. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (3), 556-579. Shaw G and Williams, M.A.(1998), Entrepreneurship, Small Business Culture and Tourism Development, In D. Ioannides and K.G. Debbage (eds) The Economic Geography of The Tourism Industry, London: Routledge, pp.235-255. Szivas, E. (2001). Entrance Into Tourism Entrepreneurship: A UK Case Study. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3 (2), 163172. Weiermair, K., Siller, H.J., & Mössenlechner, C. (2006). Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in Alpine Tourism: Past, Present and Future. Journal of Teaching in Travel &Tourism, 6 (2), 23-40. Zapalska, A.M., & Brozik, D. (2007). Managing Family Business in The Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Transitional Economy of Poland. Zb. Rad. Ekon. Fak. Rij, 25 (1), 141-165. http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 http://www.turizm.gov.tr (10.04.2009) http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (Dış Ticaret, Dış Ticaret Đstatistikleri, Yıllara Göre Dış Ticaret) 16.05.2009. http://www.turkiyeturizm.com/news_detail.php?id=18909 (16.05.2009 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 287 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Author Author BAYTOK, Ahmet AĞCA, Veysel KURT, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/623886844b802b5ad0f364d2abb15301.pdf 9e63cae35e31791cb78f2bd1284b856e PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Hüseyin KOÇAK Department of Sociology , Afyon Kocatepe University kocak@aku.edu.tr Hasan KORKUT Department of International Relations, International University Of Sarejevo hkorkut@ius.edu.ba Abstract: This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Environment, Historic Environment, Sustainability, Sustainable Development Introduction In a world faced with the dangers entailed by rapid growth and development, depleting resources, and impairment of the historic environment, preservation-related issues have become urgent. A global world is not a uniform world for societies. But, there are threats to the global environment. So, more attention has to be paid for a global identity around environmental issues. Urbanization as such is not a problem. On the contrary, it brings considerable social and economic benefits. The problem is that the development of infrastructure and services in the towns and cities is not keeping pace with the rapid population growth. As a result, living and environmental conditions are deteriorating. There is an urgent need to plan and manage the cities in order to sustain them. Thus, sustaining cities is an imperative. Preservation of Historic environment is crucial for sustainability. Historic environment and cultural heritage are more than old monuments. If the preservation and restoration of unique historic environments should be justified on its own merits, as a universal value in itself, it may actually also plays an important and integral part in promoting sustainable social and economic development. There is a link between signs and symbols; decoration and motifs; iconographic structures and shared cultural wisdom. This is a silent language, which bonds a people together through a meaning system. The tangible and intangible relationships between man and his environment, both natural and built, are historical phenomena in human civilization. They are evident in the historic urban settlements where the reciprocating relationship between man and nature is reflected in distinctive and responsive environments, and it is related to human needs. In relatively recent times, this historical symbiosis was disregarded in the process of city making, which has caused catastrophic environmental problems in varying degrees according to the country. This has led to a growing appreciation of historic urban forms resulting in intense conservation movements and strongly influenced new urban design approaches (Özaslan, 2002). 369 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Throughout this article, we have used the word “place” to describe any immovable part of historic environment that people perceive as having a distinct identity. It can be of any scale from a milestone to a building, an historic area, a town, or a region. Sustainable management of a place begins with understanding and articulating how, why and to what extent it has heritage values-its significance. Communicating that significance to everyone concerned with a place, and particularly to people whose actions may affect it, is then essential if they are to act in awareness of those heritage values. Our country is geographically located in a cradle of humanity, history and civilization. Turkey has many clear and priceless historical treasures. We should appreciate this fact and preserve them carefully. Our people today and new generations to come must be oriented toward interest, love and respect for history. Basic Concepts and Terms Related To Historic Environment and Sustainable Management The aim of this paper is to focus on the relation between historic environment and sustainable management. But before that, initially, it is essential to explain some definitions of words in a specific or technical sense. We can talk about some of them according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Object; Anything not (now) fixed to or incorporated within the structure of a place, but historically associated with it. Place; Any part of the historic environment, of any scale, that has a distinctive identity perceived by people. Preserve; To keep safe from harm. Conservation; The process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Historic environment; All aspects of the environment resulting from the interaction between people and places through time, including all surviving physical remains of past human activity, whether visible or buried, and deliberately planted or managed flora. Heritage; All inherited resources which people value for reasons beyond mere utility. Heritage, cultural inherited assets which people identify and value as a reflection and expression of their evolving knowledge, beliefs and traditions, and of their understanding of the beliefs and traditions of others. Heritage, natural inherited habitats, species, ecosystems, geology and landforms, including those in and under water, to which people attach value. Sustain; Maintain, nurture and affirm validity. Sustainable; Capable of meeting present needs without compromising ability to meet future needs (www.helm.org.uk, 2009). The term “sustainable management” and the associated notion of sustainability have risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. Sustainable management refers to a form of socioeconomic advancement which can continue indefinitely without exhausting the world’s resources or overburdening the ability of natural systems to cope with pollution (Yılmaz, 2005). Sustainability requires profound changes to occur on all levels of society. UN Preparatory Committee for Habitat II stated that: Cities can be part of the world economy and be the engines for sustained economic growth and sustainable development. If present urban problems are not solved, however, they will become obstacles to stability wellbeing and the attainment of sustainable development. Definition and Analysis of Historic Environment The historic cores and quarters represent the genuine culture of their societies as they were formed by the major historical determinants that are derived from local characteristics of place, social conditions and the environment itself. The architectural quality of the pre-industrial city is often hidden in its fabric, where architecture not only forms the city but is also formed by the city. This mutual relationship between the city and its architectural language and production demands that the design principles need to be derived from the preindustrial fabric; the architectural product of that place, time and society, with its own spatial and aesthetic values (Özaslan, 2002). The historic environment is a shared resource. Our environment contains a unique and dynamic record of human activity. It has been shaped by people responding to the surroundings they inherit, and embodies the aspirations, skills and investment of successive generations. People value this historic environment as part of their cultural and natural heritage. It reflects the knowledge, beliefs and traditions of diverse communities. It gives distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which we live, providing a sense of continuity and a source of identity. It is a social and economic asset and a resource for learning and enjoyment. Each generation should therefore shape and sustain the historic environment in ways that allow people to use, enjoy and benefit from it, without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. Significant places should be managed to sustain their values. Change in the historic environment is inevitable, caused by natural processes, the wear and tear of use, and people’s responses to social, economic and technological change. 370 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conservation is the process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Conservation is achieved by all concerned with a significant place sharing an understanding of its significance, and using that understanding to: judge how its heritage values are vulnerable to change. Action taken to counter harmful effects of natural change, or to minimize the risk of disaster, should be timely, proportionate to the severity and likelihood of identified consequences, and sustainable. The Importance of the Sustainability of Historic Environment Nothing can be defined by itself nor has a value of its own, but always in relation to the others and to the whole. A city can be defined as a complex system consisting of different structures and relationships built up through an incremental process. Every one of these structures represents a sub-system such as social, economic, political or cultural. If we understand the city as a system of relationships then we perceive continuity in the historic urban fabric as the consequence of an unbreakable succession of its qualities. Continuity can be seen as the memory of the city but also the generator for new formations. Everyone should be able to participate in sustaining the historic environment. Everyone should have the opportunity to contribute his or her knowledge of the value of places, and to participate in decisions about their future, by means that are accessible, inclusive and informed. Learning is central to sustaining the historic environment. It raises people’s awareness and understanding of their heritage, including the varied ways in which its values are perceived by different generations and communities. It encourages informed and active participation in caring for the historic environment (www.helm.org.uk). Experts should use their knowledge and skills to encourage and enable others to learn about, value and care for the historic environment. They play a crucial role in discerning, communicating and sustaining the established values of places, and in helping people to refine and articulate the values they attach to places. It is essential to develop, maintain and pass on the specialist knowledge and skills necessary to sustain the historic environment. Sustainable conservation policies of historic environments in Turkey In many excavations of old cities in Turkey, archeologists have encountered various settlements. This is very important and exciting. Our country has much material that will provide new and original information about past and shed light on the ancient ages. Some of our caves even bear traces of the Stone Age. Anatolian cities abound with tombs, mosques and countless other historical heritages. Moreover, many nations known to us such as the Hittites, Lydian, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Persians, and Ottomans and others set their rich and diverse civilization on this land. They left us many splendid traces and monuments. The conservation of historic environment is manifest now in virtually every part of the world. In the case of the “developing” world, with special reference to Muslim countries, the introduction of the Western philosophy of conservation was largely accepted with little questions a similar attitude towards accepting the introduction of modernization. Warren indicates that conservation ideas and legislation based on Western models have been introduced without critical analysis of their social, economic and cultural contexts (Warren, 1976). On the other hand, the current tendency of conservation in the Muslim countries is seen as a cultural decision and the preservation of the cultural heritage as an insurance of the continuity of their cultural identity (Kuban, 1983) Turkey is a land where rich civilizations have flourished for thousands of years in the past and a leader among the countries which bear great universal responsibilities for the protection of the cultural heritage of humanity. The importance of preserving this cultural heritage cannot be limited only to the aim of introducing our past values to future generations, also using the remains from the past as the most important resources to create the future is a critical necessity. It is becoming significant for nations to integrate their cultural identities with their new environment of life. Modern creations in architecture and urban planning which are both carried out with no consideration for national and historical values, hasten alienation. Preserving the cultural heritage of different cultures with equal care and respect will help the feelings of peace and brotherhood to find roots in a world under globalization, while at the same time providing a propelling force towards the development of a rich and multi-colored cultural mosaic with the interaction of different cultures (Erder, 1971). Kuban says "If my observations and judgments are accurate, urban preservation especially is impossible in Turkey through the methods indicated by the teaching of orthodox preservation. We should not fool ourselves by making examples of back alley, weak, random applications. The Antalya Harbor, the Sogukcesme Street or region that were conserved without preservation in Safranbolu could not erase the memories of destruction in Istanbul, Izmir, Kayseri, Urfa, Erzurum, Gaziantep, Konya, Antakya and innumerable cities and towns”(Kuban,1983). As Kuban remarks, it is not possible to state that the preservation policies for the historical and cultural environment in Turkey have achieved their aim to date. In particular, the immigration from rural to urban areas 371 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and the rapid urbanization following 1950, the residence and tourism aimed second wave of shore plundering following 1980, and immigration phenomena from the Eastern and South-Eastern Regions, for security and economical reasons, have reduced to tatters the balance of cities which were formed over hundreds of years ago. The illegal buildings wave, that first began at the fringes of cities (gecekondus/squatters), has, through building pardons, gradually extended the rest of the cities like a cancer, and has become one of the main urban problems today (Tunçer, 1996). In the preservation and improvement natural sites and historic environment, success can be achieved in application through the cooperation and synchronization of the Ministry of Environment and the Prime-Ministry Specially Protected Areas Department of Environmental Preservation, a long with the support and involvement of local administrations. Conclusion The idea of “preservation of environment and historic heritage” should have a more comprehensive meaning in Turkish culture than in western culture. Our culture aims to exalt its function. The idea of development and protection of intrinsic human values together with studies about the inter-relationship between man and nature can comprise the essence of the preservation approach which has appeared in recent times(Arslanoğlu,1986). Balanced and justifiable decisions about change in the historic environment depend upon understanding who values a place and why they do so, leading to a clear statement of its significance and, with it, the ability to understand the impact of the proposed change on that significance. The historic environment is constantly changing, but each significant part of it represents a finite resource. If it is not sustained, not only are its heritage values eroded or lost, but so is its potential to give distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which people live, and provide people with a sense of continuity and a source of identity. The historic environment is a social and economic asset and a cultural resource for learning and enjoyment. It can be said that the point arrived at after decades of disregard and looting in the matter of the preservation of historical and cultural values, is the point of losing, if not all, most of these values. The local and central administrations, which are supposed to prevent this, are observed to be unequal to this task. It is our belief that the duty required of every educated person is to participate actively in the efforts of preservation of the cultural and historical values. Finally, we have to talk about the importance and necessity of “the heritage cycle” in the sustainable management of historic environment. By understanding the historic environment people value it. By valuing it they will want to care for it. By caring for it they will help people enjoy it. Informing the people of the region about the historic environment and giving them an awareness of it, and thus assuring their positive aid and involvement in the matter of preservation is regarded as the most important means of preservation. References Arslanoğlu, A.,(1986), The Phenomena and Concept of Protectionism in The Light of Our Architectural Characteristics and Our Human Values, Đlim ve Sanat, Sept-Oct, 28-31. Erder, C.,(1971) Introduction To The History Of Concern On The Historical Environment, Ankara. HELM, Historic Environment Local Management, http://www.helm.org.uk/, 15.05.2009. Kuban, D.,(1983), Conservation of the Historic Environment for Cultural Survival. In Architecture and Community-Building in the Islamic World Today, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 32-37, New York. Özaslan, Nuray.,(2002), Understanding the Historic City, Anadolu University Press, Eskişehir/Turkey. Tunçer, M.,(1996) Writings On The Preservation Of Historical Environment, Lecture Notes, Ankara. Warren, J.,(1976), Conservation in Islam, The Architect, June, 20-24. Yılmaz, M.,,(2005), Sustainable Urban Environment, WSEAS Int. Conf. on Environment, Ecosystems and Development, Venice, Italy, November 2-4, (pp-96-102). 372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 262 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Author Author KOÇAK, Hüseyin KORKUT, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8037283d8e9df3199e6341d46fb4419f.pdf bb0d7d8e4c00600b0c68695773916c48 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills as Future Golf Courses Yasin Çağatay Seçkin Department of Landscape Architecture Istanbul Technical University, Turkey cseckin@itu.edu.tr Abstract: Redevelopment of sanitary landfills plays a major role in sustainable development, providing economical, social and environmental benefits. A combination of rising land values, a growing urban population, their needs for recreation activities and mitigation of ecological impacts have encouraged the conversion of completed sanitary landfills into functional golf courses. This study examines the reclamation problems of completed landfill to golf course developments and the possibility of designing a sanitary landfill based on its final use as a golf course. For this aim, a sustainable planning approach for landfill-to-golf course adaptive use projects are discussed, which combines sanitary landfill and golf course design processes and modifies them in a sustainable way. Introduction Landfill disposal of waste has been practiced for centuries, but the concept of sanitary land filling has been used for less than 100 years (Graves, 1998, Bagchi, 1994). Basically, sanitary land filling is a method of controlled disposal of refuse on land where wasteisisolated from the environment untilitissafe. First practices began in Great Britain in the 1910’s under the name controlled tipping. The refuse was being dumped between houses and the piles were being covered with street sweepings,ratherthan taking the refuse to a speciallocation and alternately layering the waste and dirt as in modern sanitary landfills. The Fresno Municipal Sanitary Landfill, opened in Fresno, California in 1937, is considered to have been the first modern sanitary landfill.In Fresno, layers of refuse were deposited in tidelands to produce additional land. Itis the firstlandfillto employ the trench method of disposaland firstto utilize compaction (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009, Melosi, 2000). There are two types of landfills: Conventional and Bioreactor landfills. Conventionally,they consist of a clay and/or synthetic flexible membrane liner at the base of the landfillto prevent liquid seeping into ground water. Pipes are laid above the bottom liner to capture contaminated water and leachate which is the liquid produced by decomposing organic waste. This liquid is then transported to a wastewater treatment plant for treatment. The gas generated by the breakdown of wasteiscollected and burned eitherin flares orin enginesthat recover useable energy. Bioreactor landfills also work in the same way as conventional landfills but with one major difference. Some of the leachate in bioreactorlandfillsisrecycled through the waste to acceleratethe rate of decomposition. This provides more rapid stabilization of waste, controllable and increased short-term gas yields and betterleachate controlthan conventionallandfills. However, bothtypes oflandfills pose environmentalrisksfrom gas emissions and leachate. Bacteria break down organic matter and methane releases. Leachate sinks into ground and pollutes water. These effects could only be reduced with more recycling, carefully design, betterlandfill management and awareness of com munity (WSN Environmental Solutions, 2006). Because of their environmental and visual negativities, the existing image of sanitary landfill by the com munity is predictably not very good and if simply closed afterthey filled, they continue to be environmental problems and eyesores, and this situation increases the anticipation of community growth (Thompson, 2008). On the other hand, communities will need to rely on sanitary landfills because they are still the most logical and economical choice for disposal needs. According to U.S. EPA, in the United States, municipal solid waste generation in 2007 was 765 kg per person per year. While 45 percent of this total discards was either recycled or sent for combustion with energy recovery, the remaining refuse continue to be sent to landfills. In other words, sanitary landfillshost 55 percent ofthe municipal solid waste (EPA, 2008). Actually no matter how much a community recycles or sends the waste for combustion, a sanitary landfill will always be needed for residue that cannot be handled in any other way. 286 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills W hen landfills reach their capacity and are closed,they offer remarkable open-space opportunities. With careful planning, completed landfills could be ultimately utilized for a variety of purposes. Converting closed landfillsinto park and recreation areas has been used during the past 50 years. Golf is one of these converted recreation areas and the research showed that first sanitary landfill used for golf courses was builtinthe early 60sin Carson, CA (Goldsberry, 1996). The importance and acceptance ofthis phenomenon is growing withthe continued expansion ofthe game and the need to clean up and rehabilitate contaminated sites (EPA, 2003). As the demand for golf continues to grow throughout the world, there is an increasing need to design and construct more golf courses. However,itis difficultto find suitable land for course construction and landfills, with their low value, may be one of the few properties large enough for golf development. So, a combination of rising land values, growing urban population, their need for recreation activities and mitigation of ecological impacts have encouraged people to convert completed sanitary landfills into functional golf courses. From environmental, economic and social standpoint,landfills and golf courses are a good match. Land improvement and adaptive reuse can be one of the most beneficial aspects of a golf course (Love, 2008). Environmental benefits of this match include many ecological enhancements like remediation of soil or treatment of ground water impacts from waste disposal. A landfill golf course can have positive economic and socialimpacts,too, by increasing land values in the vicinity and creating jobs.In addition to these benefits, golf courses are one ofthe few legalland uses forlandfillsites.(Kavazanjian, 2007, Gross, 1994). Although numerous benefits, they are not perfect and have several problems. Four main problems with landfill developments are toxic gases, uneven settling,leachate and drainage (Hazelrigg, 2005). These problems have both environmental and economical disadvantages. Another problem is directly related with designing and construction of golf course. The landfills are not suitable to cut and shape, because of their type of structure (Schmidt, 1991). According to all these problems, golf course development may not be economically feasible and construction costs may be higherthan the normal golf course. In this instance, brief descriptions of two different case studies can help for better understanding the issues associated with redevelopment of sanitary landfills as future golf courses. Harborside International Golf Center The site was originally used for disposal ofthe City of Chicago's municipal solid waste. Laterit was used to dispose of incinerator ash and wastewater sludge. In 1991, this 180 hectares solid waste landfill was closed. About 80 hectares ofthe site was a partially-closed sanitary landfilland a 100 hectares parcel was being used as a construction debris landfill. After its closure, itis decided to convert itinto a golf center. The site was near important motorways which carry approximately 300.000 cars per day. The planners anticipated that the combination of good access and a good facility would attract sufficient business to make the golf facility economically viable (EPA, 2003). Firstly, the old sanitary landfill was capped with a 50 cm-thick layer of impermeable clay - or about 400.000 m³ - dredged from the adjacent Lake Calumet. Capping the landfillto keep the ground from cracking and methane gas from migrating to the surface was an absolute necessity under currentregulations (EPA, 2003). Course architect Dick Nugent didn't want tree roots piercing the fill's clay sealant, so he designed an open, sweeping links-style facility with trees that have shallow roots, which are non destructive to the underlying clay cap (Klein, 1998). Drainage and irrigation systems were also carefully designed to protectthe integrity of the clay cap. The golf course architect and the engineer collaborated in the design of an elaborate drainage and collection system that collects all site drainage and stores it at seven dry retention locations within the site, untilit releases to a sewage treatment plant for processing (EPA, 2003). Protecting the existing wetland areas was important,too. A buffer was created at some points between the course and the shoreline, and some portions ofthe fairway were raised up to 3 metersto allow the incorporation of drainage basins to prevent storm water from flowing into the lake (EPA, 2003). Another problem was to grow turfgrass on site. Every year 200.000 m³ of sludge had been transported to the site, during the operation period oflandfills. Sludge was very organicin nature. However, because ofits high rates of fats and salts,it was not by itself, providing a good growing medium. It was drawing water out of plants and was not readily saturating. To solve this problem, a 15-20 cm layer of sand was placed over the fairway. Eventually, with the combination of materials on site and creative design,the grass flourished with virtually no additional fertilizer (EPA, 2003). At the end,the Golf Center consist a matched pair of 6.500 m, 18-hole championship golf courses and a 24 hectares practice facility,including a Golf Academy. Itwas built between 1992 and 1995 and the final cost of 287 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo golf course approached $30 million (EPA, 2003). Granite Links Golf Club This site was originally used for disposal of both Milton Town and Quincy City. Most of the land was for the famous granite quarrying industry dating back to the mid 1800’s. After abandoning quarries,it was used to dispose of municipal solid waste, construction debris and some industrial and hazardous debris (Hazelrigg, 2005). In 1989, Developers started to think about the reuse of old landfill and they decided to create a recreational complex which includes a championship golf course (Love, 2008). Total area of this complex was 220 hectares, which includes several former landfills and quarries. The golf course incorporated two largest landfills and covered 100 hectares oftotal(Hazelrigg, 2005). In the same time, another project was being prepared close to this area: Big Dig, an extensive tunnel projectforthe relocation of a major highway through the city of Boston. Developers proposed using the material excavated from the tunnel for the closure of the landfill and enhancement of degraded areas of the site (Love, 2008). Firstly, the landfill had to be closed by being capped with specific layers and depths of material. Fill material from the excavation of the highway tunnel was perhaps the most important item that made the project possible. Both Big Dig Projectand Granite Links Landfill Redevelopment Project assisted each otherin reaching their own targets. Big Dig saved $40 million by trucking excavate to landfill area rather than to sites farther away and Granite Links Projectsaved atleastthe same amount of money by closing the landfill with Big Dig fill (Hazelrigg, 2005). After the excavated fill was placed and graded to the contours designed for the golf course,it had to be sealed with 25 – 40 cm of clay, placed in 15 cm layers, de-stoned by hand and compacted to eliminate water infiltration into the landfill or allow leachate to escape. Next, a layer of 50 – 100 cm of clean fill material was placed on top ofthe clay and graded tothe design contours. Thislayer of material was designed to accommodate the sub-surface drainage system, the irrigation and gas recovery system. On top ofthe clean material,another 15 – 30 cm layer of sandy loam was placed to provide a planting medium forthe grasses (Love, 2008). The recovery system for methane gas from the landfillinvolved the installation of some 150 wells and a system of blowers and flares for control. Ultimately, this gas will be channeled to drive an engine to generate electricity and is expected to produce for some 20 to 25 years (Love, 2008). Settlement of the landfill was another concern and required close attention during design of the facilities. Most of the play areas were surcharged with huge stockpiles of excavated fill, whenever possible, as construction progressed (Love,2008). After thirteen years, 900,000 truckloads of fill material and a cost more than $110 million, the 27-hole Granite Links Golf Course, athletic fields, rock climbing sites, hiking trails and other amenities provide a successfulrecreationalfacilityforthe visitors(Hazelrigg, 2005).If considered the EPA’s assumption aboutfinal costs of landfill golf courses, which is between $25-30 million, this cost looks a little bit costly for these kind operations (Walsh, 2003). Butit must be considered thatthe final costincludesthe cost of filling and capping the landfill as part ofthe construction cost where others use previously filled landfills. A Sustainable Planning Approach for Landfill to Golf Course Development As is seen, problems encountered in landfill golf courses differfrom case to case and solutions depend on how creative the designer is.Just one common problem is about the planning approach. Like above mentioned examples,in most cases, golfcourses designed on landfillsare afterthought projects and they did not plan before the landfill was designed. However, the best strategy must be to plan for the final use before the landfill is designed (O’Leary, 1992). This will be extremely beneficialfrom both environmental and economical aspects. To plan for the final use from the beginning of landfill design and planning,typical sanitary landfill and golf course processes must be combined and both must be modified in a sustainable way. Inventory and Analysis First of all, a detailed inventory and analysis should be conducted, as in every project. The desirable design features forthe landfilland future golf course should be reflected in the program and siteinventory. The program and siteinventory provides a means of gathering information about client’s needs and site properties. A typicalinventory data could be formed with the facts below: - The wastesto be received 288 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo (Total volume, sources and types of wastes, daily quantity estimation, etc) - The landfill method and materialsto be used (Type of method,landfill operation time, degree of compaction, filling materials, etc) - The landfill design (Proposed landfill elements, cover thickness,slope, additive cover/waste ratio, etc) - The golf course design (Type of golf course, proposed golf course facilities, etc) - The specific siteinformation (Geology, soiltype,topography, existing vegetation, sensitive fields, etc) - The client’s needs and purposes - Social, political and economic considerations. After collecting program and site inventory data, they must be analyzed to determine site potential and restrictions for golf course conversion. The goal of this analysis is to integrate the golf course design elements with the landfillones, in unison withthe site. This analysisrequires ateam of consultants whoseinitial goalisto produce a restrictions map and a report of development challenges and opportunities (Hurdzan, 2006). Design Development Considering the landfill and golf course projects simultaneously makes the design development process complicated. In the proposed process, the landfill and golf course projects are separated, to create as many alternatives as possible. However,the alternatives should be based on the concepts and site specific conditions noted in the results of analysis report. Because of the special case of sanitary landfills, a design completed without care to the results of analysis report,the course can quickly become a disaster area (Graves, 1998). The next step isto overlay those alternative designs and to adjustthem to develop the best master plan for the landfill-to-golf course project. During design development process, the course architect must study in cooperation with the consulting engineer of the landfill. The process of coming to the final design solution required patience, much error, a bit more trial and severalfeedback processes. Evaluation Process First step for this process is feasibility study. Normally, feasibility studies are prepared by a team of consultants and this is usually undertaken in cooperation with the golf course architect and other members of analysis and design development processes. In this stage, client’s needs and purposes are the most important parameter (Hurdzan, 2006). Ideally, feasibility studies should include estimation and evaluation of net benefits with alternatives for achieving the defined public goals and, both quantitative and socialimpact analysis, which is hard to estimate, must be taken into account (Yang, 1993). After finishing the feasibility study, economic, environmental and social benefits of project will become definite. If the total benefit is less than the total cost, the proposed design will not acceptable and the whole design process should be repeated to change until the benefit is greater than the cost. Here, both the environmental and economic costs have an equal importance. For example, an ideal result in terms of profitability may not be ideal for environment. On the other hand, because of environmental issues and legal restrictions,the total cost of a landfill golf course can be more expensive than a comparable course created on a natural site. Sure, not all golf courses should be low-cost, but cost – benefit balance must be achieved. Otherwise, a loss-making golf course will never be sustainable in terms of both environmental and social responsibility. Except allthese, feasibility study validates the prospective timeline of golf course development. Before moving into construction phase, the data generated by the study could be used to help set milestones and deadlines for golf course development. Following the feasibility study process,alllegalrequirementsfor operating, closing, and then maintaining a landfill must be studied. These requirements are usually strict and they include location restrictions, facility design criteria, closure care requirements, cap zone design criteria, gas and groundwater monitoring requirements (Graves, 1998,Rogoff, 1992). Afterthe feasibility and alllegalrequirements are studied,all planning processis complete and itisready to be realized. 289 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion The approach inthis paperisbased on the beliefthatifthe community needs alandfill,landfilldesign and its future land use should be considered at the beginning of the development process. With this belief, a sustainable planning approach was developed to pave the way of sustainable redevelopment of sanitary landfills as future golf courses. This approach consists ofthree steps: - Inventory and analysis process - Design development process - Evaluation process After completing every process, a feedback process is also needed. In this way, the planning approach works like a flow chart with a series of accepted or not accepted answers. When all processes are completed with accepted answer, then, our sanitary landfill will be ready to contribute to sustainability by achieving beneficial and profitable future use ofthe site, as a golf course. References Bagchi, A. (1994). Design, Construction and Monitoring of Landfills. 2nd ed., New York, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. Encyclopædia Britannica (2009). Sanitary Landfill. Retrieved April 24, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. EPA Office of Solid Waste (2008). Municipal Solid Waste in The United States. Washington, DC: EPA. EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (2003). Reusing Cleaned Up Superfund Sites: Golf Facilities Where Waste is Left on Site. Washington, DC: EPA Goldsberry, C., (1996) Golf Links Old Landfills to New Uses, Waste & Recycling News. February 26, 1996. Graves, R.M. & Cornish, G.S. (1998). Golf Course Design. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Gross, P.J. (1994). What Can You Do If Your Golf Course Has Gas. USGA Green Section Record. July/August 1994, 1-4. Hazelrigg, G. (2005). Garbage In, Golf Out. Landscape Architecture Magazine. January 2005, 54-62. Hurdzan, M.J. (2006). Golf Course Architecture: Evoluations in Design, Construction and Restoration Technology. 2nd ed., Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kavazanjian, E. (2007). Sustainable Redevelopment of Former and Abandoned Landfills: Lessons From Practice. 11th International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy: CISA, Environmental Sanitary Engineering Center. Klein, B.S., (1998). Reclamation Projects: The Greening of A Landfill. The New York Times. May, 28, 1998. Love, B. (2008). An Environmental Approach to Golf Course Development. Brookfield,WI: American Society of Golf Course Architects. Melosi, M.V. (2000). Fresno Sanitary Landfill. National Historic Landmark Nomination (NPS Form 10-900), Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Interior, National Parks Service. O’Leary, P & Walsh, P. (1992). Landfill Closure and Long Term Care. West Age. March 1992, 87-94. Rogoff, M. (1992) New Landfill Regulations. American City & County, January 1992, 20-22. Schmidt, E.Jr. (1991). Garbage to Golf. Golf Journal. January/February 1991, 35-38. Thompson, W. & Sorvig, K. (2008). Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to Green Building Outdoors. 2nd ed., Washington, DC: Island Press. Walsh, J.J., DiPuccio, A.J. & Simon, R.A. (2003). Golf Courses to Greenhouses – And Beyond Redevelopment of Closed Landfills. Cincinnati, OH: SCS Engineers. 290 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo WSN Environmental Solutions (2006). Landfills What You Need to Know: Responsible Management of Our Landfills. Chatswood DC, New South Wales: WSN Environmental Solutions. Yang, C.C. (1993) A Study of Designing/Reclaiming A Sanitary Landfill As A Future Golf Course. Master Thesis, Baton Rouge, LA: LSU. 291 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 485 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills as Future Golf Courses Author Author Seçkin, Yasin Çağatay Abstract A summary of the resource. Redevelopment of sanitary landfills plays a major role in sustainable development, providing economical, social and environmental benefits. A combination of rising land values, a growing urban population, their needs for recreation activities and mitigation of ecological impacts have encouraged the conversion of completed sanitary landfills into functional golf courses. This study examines the reclamation problems of completed landfill to golf course developments and the possibility of designing a sanitary landfill based on its final use as a golf course. For this aim, a sustainable planning approach for landfill-to-golf course adaptive use projects are discussed, which combines sanitary landfill and golf course design processes and modifies them in a sustainable way. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3b5ae10b68c39cfc970375e8eadf71b2.pdf 04105e7129157eb5b54f273063d46657 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Rural Finance Intermediation for Sustainable Development of Rural Areas Amela PEDISA Investment Banking Department of FIMA Bank Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina apedisa@yahoo.com Abstract: Rural financial services are key to enhancing rural economic development in rural areas. Rural financial services in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of the war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. Key words: rural finance, micro finance, sustainable development, rural areas, and financial intermediation. Introduction Traditional approaches for agricultural development of rural areas are ineffective in accomplishing economic stability and efficiency, social equity and effective environmental protection of rural areas. Use and conservation of resources of rural communities with the aim of continuous, economical, ecological, and social way to meet human needs in the long term implies the need for multidimensional approach to development of rural areas. Rural financial services are key to enhancing economic development in rural areas. Financial services for rural households, farm and non-farm enterprises.are either inappropriate or non-existent. A lack of local financial services tailored to specific rural needs harms the economic viability and sustainability of rural areas. Population in rural areas should have acceptable access to a wide range of financial services and facilities. In order to support change toward sustainable rural development, this paper discusses the concept of developing rural financial intermediation based on the sustainability. Methodologies for Rural Micro Finance and Principles of Sustainable Rural and Micro Finance There are different methodologies for providing financial services to households and their micro enterprises in rural areas such as village banking, solidarity group, credit unions and transformation lending (Otero & Rhyne, 1994: 117). These methodologies are not appropriate in every context. It is important develop a range of financial intermediaries in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits or debentures/bonds. A community credit and saving association organized by the members of village, with decentralized institutional structure providing community based savings and credit is village bank. If clients join a group to receive access to financial services, primarily credit and collectively guarantee loan repayment we have solidarity group. A cooperative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members and provide credit and other financial services to its members is credit union. Transformation lending methodology turn micro enterprises into small businesses by providing working capital and fixed-asset loans combined with training. Basic principles common to the rural and micro finance institutions are: • Rural and micro finance services are demand-driven and meet the needs of households and their enterprises in rural areas. 482 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • � Customers need access to a variety of financial services such as saving credit, payment transfers, insurance, etc. in rural areas. Saving is equally important as credit. Services is simplified, customer-friendly and located close to client. Repayment are motivated by saving, group solidarity and joint liability. Saving is an effective tool for achieving self-sustainability and decreasing vulnerability of rural client. Credit is not always appropriate, private capital can be complemented by grant. The governments support an enabling environment. State Estimation Agriculture is still an important activity for the economic growth in rural areas of the Bosnia and Herzegovina. Rural sector is facing low population density, undeveloped public infrastructure (transportation, communication, electricity, health, education, etc,), low and irregular income flows from agricultural production. Rural financial services, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited as for rural households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. Because of small size of the transactions, high transaction costs, less affluent clients, lack of adequate security and information on borrowers' credit history, banks have little or no presence in many rural areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Finance providers such as micro credit organizations promote credit services as the most important financial services to rural clients. Micro credit organizations in the Bosnia and Herzegovina are not allowed to mobilize savings. Credit is not always appropriate. In order to decrease their vulnerability and accumulate lump sums for purposes specific to their needs, poor and low-income households and their micro enterprises in rural areas such as small farmers, small-scale traders, artisan producers want to save and save in various forms such as cash, gold, land, animals, etc. They want to entrust their savings to financial institutions but they do not have access to those institutions. If they have it, it is limited access with inappropriate products and delivery services. Many of them keep money at home or entrust their savings to relatives or friends. On the basis of researched sources that elaborate rural and micro financial intermediation and taking into account the state estimation, it is necessary to develop a range of financial intermediaries in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits, debentures and bonds. Research Results On the basis of researched sources that elaborate rural and micro financial intermediation and taking into account state estimation, it is necessary to develop a range of financial intermediaries, in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits or debentures/bonds. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of the Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence of rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. These institutions that are authorized to mobilize savings have either the legal form of savings and credit unions or of mini banks. Conclusion Because of elemental and partial approach to developing of rural finance access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. Rural population needs access to a broad range of financial services, appropriate products and delivery processes. Sustainable rural and micro finance intermediation that supports both agricultural and non-agricultural activities with appropriate financial services, such as savings, credit, payment transactions and insurance etc. can contribute to sustainable rural development and vulnerability reduction and use synergies with other rural development measures. Supervised financial institutions engaged in rural and micro finance can reach significant scale through mobilization of domestic savings. Other financial providers such as community-based savings and credit associations, self-help groups and NGO may support certain target groups that remain beyond the reach of 483 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo formal financial institutions. Savings mobilization is crucial for long-term sustainability of rural and micro financial institutions. It is very important to work on environment, and create favorable policies and regulatory and legal framework which will enable the development of rural and micro financial institutions, rural savings and credit unions, the development of a wider range of rural financial products, appropriate industry standards and supervision. References Otero, M., & Rhyne, E. (1994). The New World of Micro enterprise Finance: Building Healthy Financial Institutions for The Poor. West Hartford: Kumarian Press, Inc. Reimer, B. (1997). Informal Rural Networks: Their Contribution to Making a Living and Creating Rural Employment. In (Bollman, R., & Bryden, J.) Rural Employment: An International Perspective. Oxford: CAB International. Yaron, J. (1992). Successful Rural Finance Institutions. World Bank Discussion Paper, No.150, World Bank, Washington. Persson, L.O., & Ceccato, V. (2001). Dynamics of Rural Areas: National Report-Sweden. Siklos, P. (2001). Money, Banking and Financial Institutions. Canada in Global Environment. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, pp.35. 484 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Assessment of Development Trend of Natural Stone Industry for Turkey Tekin ERSEN Pazaryeri Vocational School, Bilecik University, Pazaryeri/Bilecik, Turkey tekin.ersen@bilecik.edu.tr Kamil ÖZDEMĐR Pazaryeri Vocational School, Bilecik University, Pazaryeri/Bilecik, Turkey kamil.ozdemir@bilecik.edu.tr Suheyla YEREL Bozuyuk Vocational School, Bilecik University, Bozuyuk/Bilecik, Turkey suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: Natural stone is the oldest building material used by man. From ancient times until today, natural stones including marble, granite and other building stones have played an important role in Turkish industry. The industry of natural stone, which has developed in an important trend since 1980, has become one of sectors supporting in country such as the potential of production, exportation and employment. For this reason, in this paper, the position of natural stone industry being in the last five years in Turkey has been considered, and exportation value has been analyzed with statistical technique. At the end of the study, results were interpreted for statistical approach. This study shows the necessity and usefulness of statistical assessment of large datasets in order to get better information about the development trend of natural stone industry. 1. Introduction With approximately 73 million of population and 16th largest economy in the world, being a young, growing and EU candidate country, Turkey’s economic policies have shown significant differences before and after 1980. Industrialization strategies based on an important substation policy had been left and the reforms were designed to transform the structure of the economy in the direction of an open, liberal and market-oriented since 1980’s. The main components of the economic reform of turkey are diminishing government intervention and liberalizing economic sectors, implementing a floating exchange rate policy, loosening import and export regulations, encouraging foreign investments, deregulating financial markets and privatizing public entities (Anac and Tamzok, 2007). Today, Turkey is far more integrated into the global economy and the Turkish economy has experienced a mean growth rate of almost 5 percent over the past 20 years (State Planning Organization, 2007). Natural stones are an integral part of the human history in terms of ornamental and construction use. Dimensional stones are produced in more than 42 countries of the world while 12 of these procedures are dominant in the international market i.e. 6 European countries and 3 each from Asian and African. Technological advances in the last seventy years had increased the world production and consumption of dimensional stones to 49.5 million tons. Due to increase in world consumption the natural stone international trade is grows. Italy is the major player in the international market and exported 38% of the dimensional stone’s exports, while its imports were 18% of the international imports. Other major exporters include Spain, Turkey and Portugal while major importers were USA; China, Germany and Hong Kong (Url-1). Turkey has very diverse and large amounts of natural stone reserves. The total base reserves are about 13 billion m3. The important Turkish marble reserves are found Afyon, Bilecik, Burdur, Denizli, Mugla, Elazig, Balikesir and Eskisehir. Turkey is also one of the world’s most important natural stone procedures. Turkey’s natural stone production has increased and Turkey has become one of the most important natural stone procedures in the world. Production and exports of natural stones have increased substantially in recent years, reaching value of $1 billion (Anac and Tamzok, 2007). In this paper, exportation price ($) of natural stone being in the last five years in Turkey has been assessment with statistical technique including Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. 485 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Mann-Whitney U Test for Two Samples The Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples is employed with ordinal data in a hypothesis testing situation involving a design with two samples. The Mann-Whitney U test is based on the following assumptions (Sheskin, 2000; Sprent and Smeeton, 2001): - The two samples or sample pairs are independent of one another; - The original observation values in the sample pairs are subsequently ranked; - The underlying distributions from which the samples are derived are identical in shape. Hypotheses for each of the sample pairs are derived from these assumptions. Null hypothesis ( H 0 ) claims that the sample 1 ( θ1 ) , and the sample 2 ( θ2 ) represent the same population. Alternative hypothesis ( H1 ) claims that the sample 1 ( θ1 ) and the sample 2 ( θ2 ) do not represent the same population (Canyurek and Asan, 2001). The following protocol is used for the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples: - All observation values within sample pairs are arranged in order of magnitude; - Each observation value is assigned a rank; - If two or more observations have the same value, the average of the ranks involved is assigned to all observation values tied for a given rank; - Once all of the observations have been assigned a rank, the sum of the ranks for each of the sample pairs is computed; - After determining the sum of the ranks for both sample pairs, the values U is computed employing equation 1.  × ( + 1)  U = (n1× n 2) +  n1 n1  − ∑ R1   2   (1) where n1 is the number of observations in sample 1, n2 is the number of observations in sample 2, ΣR 1 the sum of the ranks for sample 1. Interpretation of the test results; the smaller of two values is determined as the computed U statistic value. The value of U statistic is evaluated in accordance with the table of critical vales for the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples ( U α ; n1 ; n 2 ) . 3. Case Study As described by Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples protocol, year pairs of natural stone exportation price ($) in Turkey were formed for four separate probabilities for five years’ and the hypotheses were established. These data were obtained from Url-2. The hypotheses for the natural stone exportation price ($) of the 2004 and 2005, 2005 and 2006, 2006 and 2007 or 2007 and 2008 year pairs are presented below. H0 : Year pair is identical in terms of the years. H1 : Year pair is not identical in terms of the years. The total number of the exportation price ($) collected for five years is 95. The numbers of exportation price ($) for the years of the 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 were taken as n2004=19, n2005=19, n2006=19, n2007=19 and n2008=19, respectively. Then, U statistical value for each year pair was calculated by using equation 1 and U statistical value was determined as shown in Tab. 1. Table 1. Evaluation of U statistic for years Year pairs U(0.05;19;19) U-Statistic Remarks 2004 - 2005 124 164.00 H0 accepted 2005 - 2006 124 180.00 H0 accepted 2006 - 2007 124 168.00 H0 accepted 2007 - 2008 124 175.50 H0 accepted As presented in table, the evaluated U statistical value was compared with the critical value in MannWhitney U statistical table (U(0.05;19;19)). As all the U statistical values calculated were higher than the two-tailed 486 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo critical value, the hypothesis zero was accepted. H0 hypotheses were supported with 95% confidence interval as well. Therefore, the H1 were rejected. As a result, it was determined in statistical terms that those five years were identical in terms of exportation price ($) for natural stone. Among the exportation price, five years were found to be similarities of these years. Thus, the fig. 1 is supported the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples results. Figure 1. Exportation prices of natural stone in Turkey 4. Conclusion In this study, it was shown that the identicalness of the years (2004-2008) in natural stone exportation price ($) could be determined by using Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. After, these years were applied block diagram for investigated development trend. As a result of the block diagram of the years were supported by Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. In conclusion, it was determined that Mann-Whitney U test for two samples technique and block diagram could be used as an efficient analysis technique for determining the similarities or dissimilarities of the years. References Anac, S., & Tamzok, N. (2007). The mining industry in Turkey, Slobodan Vujic (ed). 2nd Balkan Mining Congress Book of Proceedings, VA. 37-43. Canyurek, E., & Asan, Z. (2001). Parametrik olmayan istatistiksel teknikler, T.C. Anadolu Universitesi Yayinlari No:1266, Turkey. Sheskin, D. J., (2000). Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures. second ed. Chapman&Hall/CRC, United States of America. Sprent, B., & Smeeton, N.C. (2001). Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods, third ed. Chapman & Hall/CRC, United States of America. State Planning Organization, 2007, Main Economical Indicators, Ankara. Url-1. www.smeda.org.ph Url-2. www.tuik.gov.tr 487 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 297 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Rural Finance Intermediation for Sustainable Development of Rural Areas Author Author PEDISA, Amela Abstract A summary of the resource. Rural financial services are key to enhancing rural economic development in rural areas. Rural financial services in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of the war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fa40907a135dc737b8b1e3c4ccda9652.pdf dd61e12bada1fbcabd8ed4b67e3beac4 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo TERZIOVSI, M., SOHAL, A., MOSS, S.,(1999) “Longitudinal Analysis Of Quality Management Practices in Australian Organizations”, Total Quality Management, Vol:10, NO:6, s.915-926. YANMAZ, Ö., (2005). ‘‘Hastane İşletmelerinde Kalite Fonksiyon Göçerimi’’, Ahmet Yesei Üniversitesi, İşletme Yüksek Lisans Tezi, YÜKSEL, F., SADAKLIOĞLU, H. (2007). “Sağlık Hizmetlerinde Kalite ve Yerel Yönetimler”,Uluslararası Sağlık ve Hastane Yönetimi Kongresi, 01-03 Haziran 2007 Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi Lefkoşa Kıbrıs ZERENLER, M., Öğüt, A., (2007). "Sağlık Sektöründe Algılanan Hizmet Kalitesi ve Hastane Tercih Nedenleri Araştırması: Konya Örneği", Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı:18, s.35-40. Sustainable Security: The Role of Promoting Democracy and Protecting Human Rights Selim Kanat1, Bahadır Eser2 1Vise Chairman of Dept. of International Relations. Suleyman Demirel University. I.I.B.F Oda no. 210 Isparta/Turkey 2Dept of Public Administration Suleyman Demirel University. I.I.B.F Oda no. 209 Isparta/Turkey Abstract Today’s security threats are more complex than traditional ones, such as HIV, climate change, human rights violations, anti-democratic laws and measures forced us to think about the definition and the context of security again. With the effect of these new threats, sustainable security concept emerged from a post- Cold War multi-disciplinary understanding of security. Sustainable security redefines how we think about national security in today's shifting, after Cold War era. Struggling with these new threats, especially struggling with 52 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo terrorism requires new approaches to security. The traditional understanding which predicts balancing human rights and security measures is not valid anymore. In today’s security understanding promoting democracy and protecting human rights are not causes of insecurity, contrarily terrorism, which considered as the greatest threat to world security after Sept 11, wants to create a “police state” to find support their own ideology. Further more terrorism aiming to demolish democracy and human rights in society; with this, life become insecure, state become more totalitarian and terrorist acts become more reasonable. For this characteristic, terrorism called the “disease of democracies”. For this reason promoting democracy and protecting human rights are the key elements of sustainable security especially in struggling terrorism Keywords: Sustainable Security, Human Security, Terrorism, Sept. 11, Human Rights, Democracy. 1.Traditional Approaches towards Security. From traditional view, national security effectively can maintain only with military means. Protecting boarder lines via strong and destructive armies is typical way of ensuring security. Traditional approaches to national or international security are dominated by political realism in practical level, but also traditional approaches to security find its philosophical basis in Hobbes’ minds. For Hobbes maintaining security is the basic reason of formation of the state (Hobbes, 1651, pp. 103-107). Because, state of nature is insecure and anarchical for individuals. Every men gives up his some basic freedoms, and rights which he has naturally in the state of nature, simultaneously and permanently to being secure under the rule of commonwealth (Kanat, 2011, p. 124-125). So in traditional approaches if a one want being in secure, he should give up some basic freedoms and rights which he already has. For this understanding security and freedoms are two controversial concepts which have to be balanced. This philosophical opinions, found its modern application basis after the The Peace of Westphalia. Under the logic of Westphalia system the security of the state is “being secure of border, territory and the sovereignty of the state and for this holding the military capacity and political power of the state in the possible highest level” (Bislev, 2004, p. 282). State has a central position about security issues in traditional understanding. (Bilgin, 2002, 102). Ensuring the security of the state is the primary goal of the government. For this, some rights of the individuals can be sacrificed. After the World War II traditional approaches toward security has adopted by political realism, and security studies began as an independent field of study, but was absorbed as a sub-field of international relations (Buzan & Hansen, 2009, p. 1). Similarly ensuring the security of the state should be the primary goal of a government. In international level, security can be maintained by military force and “balance of power” politics. Also in realist thought, balance of power is the key element of traditional approaches towards international 53 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo security during the Cold War era. Kenneth Waltz, a major contributor to neorealism underlines the importance of “balance of power” approach. He expressed in his book, "Theory of International Politics" that "if there is any distinctively political theory of international politics, balance-of-power theory is it."(Waltz, 1979, pp.13-16) According to Morgenthau, who is regularly identified as the father of modern realism, and the precursor of neoclassical realism, within a balance of power system, a state may choose to engage in either balancing or bandwagoning behavior. (Morgenthau,1948, pp. 125-134). In a time of war, also in an anarchical structure of the relations between states, the decision to balance or to bandwagon may well determine the survival and the security of the state. For traditional view every state should behave individually to maintain own security, because in an anarchical nature, everyone is an enemy for everyone and a state or a man can’t trust to another. This situation is a result of mercenary and selfish character of human nature. (Neacsu, 2009, pp. 54-56) Morgenthau points to the limitless character of humans’ lust for/will to power: while man’s vital needs ‘are capable of satisfaction’, the lust for power ‘would be satisfied only if the last man became an object of his domination, there being nobody above or beside him, that is, if he became like God’ (Morgenthau, 1948, p. 165). As Morgenthau maintains, ‘the selfishness of man has limits; his will to power has none’ (Morgenthau, 1948, p. 165) For the anarchical structure of international relations, threats towards security are usually generated by enemy states or enemy groups like terrorist organizations or criminals in domestic level, from traditional view. Every state must be powerful and ready to being in a possible war every time. Because everyone and every state has a “will to power” (Jütersonke, 2007, p. 101). We can see this understanding in maintaining security in Cold War era. States generally maintain their security via strong armies, establishing or joining alliances and conventional-nuclear weapons in international level. Traditional security relied on the anarchistic balance of power, a military build-up between the two superpowers, and on the absolute sovereignty of the nation state. (Owen, 2004, p. 16). Under the “balance of terror” and nuclear deterrence, states takes the security of the state as a prior issue and push some freedoms and rights like right to live in a clean environment which people have against state, in to the background. Because, during the Cold War, the issues about national security have seen as “high politics” (Waltz, 1970, p.212) and the politics which aims to improve welfare and wealth in cooperation have seen as “low politics” (Gürkaynak & Yalçıner, 2009, p. 78). But with the end of Cold War old type of security threats lose their importance in ensuring national security. World have faced new threats which endanger human life, like climate change, and this new threats can be solved in cooperation. So, states forced to expand the scope of security. Ensuring welfare and wealth, protecting human life and right became an element of national security, and also “high politics” 2.Emerge of Sustainable Security Concept. Sustainable security redefines how we think about national security in today's shifting, after Cold War era. Also this post-Cold War debate about security has been the issue of 54 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo broadening the concept from its Cold War norms. One harbinger of this, from within neorealist International Relations, was Barry Buzan’s People, States and Fear, written in the early 1980s (Booth, 1997, p. 86). Buzan emphasis that although the military-oriented approaches to the security, during the 1970’s economic and environmental concerns started to rising up (Buzan, 1991, p. 4). With the finish of the Cold War era, traditional security understanding has been started to be questioned. The opportunity for a new global order, based on protecting humans rather than states, presented new hope.( Bedeski, 2007, p. X). With the collapse of Soviet Union and Eastern Block, the old type of enemies has been collapsed simultaneously all over world. Rapid change of international system, the globalization process, the reduced threat of nuclear war between superpowers and the emerge of complex new threats such as HIV, climate change, human rights violations, antidemocratic laws and measures forced us to think about the definition and the context of security again (Mcrae, 2001, p.22.). With the effect of these new threats, we can say that sustainable security concept emerged from a post- Cold War multi-disciplinary understanding of security. Sustainable security focuses on the interconnected, long-term causes of insecurity around the world. We can say climate change, competition over resources, marginalization of the majority world, global militarization as threats for sustainable security. Sustainable security promotes a comprehensive, systemic approach to maintain the safety of the entire world people. It also places particular attention on how the current behaviour of international actors and western governments is contributing to, rather than reducing, insecurity. The politics of the states, which has described according to national interests, creates insecurity rather than security. Sustainable security goes beyond analysis of threats to the development of a framework for new security policies. From this perspective, sustainable security concept also refers to human security understanding as well. Because sustainability in security, can not be achieved with pushing people and their minds into the background. States can not be secure notwithstanding insecurity of its people. Also, if we think about origins of state, all we should agree that human security is the primary purpose of organizing a state in the beginning as Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau concluded (Owen, 2004, p. 16- 17). Human security offers much to this vibrant field of sustainable development. Most notably, human security—like human development—highlights the social dimension of sustainable development’s three pillars: environment, economy, society (Khagram &Clarck &Raad, 2003, p. 290) If we mention about sustainability in security we have follow the foresights of human security understanding. Human security derives from the traditional concept of security from military threats to the safety of people and communities.(Tadjbakhsh & Chenoy, 2007, p. 81, 228). Because the nature of the conflicts has been changed. During the Cold War, in conflict analyses, there was no room for people. But in recent decades, this trend has been changing. Take for example the armed conflicts of Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan, East Timor, Macedonia, Kosovo, Bosnia, and the international terror organizations that target the western world. (Gough, 2002, p. 145) 55 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo For “Human Development Report” of United Nations human security is an extension of mere existence (survival) to well-being and dignity of human beings. 1994 Human Development Report of United Nations Development Programme can be considered milestone publication about human security and also sustainable security. Report defines security as “freedom from fear” and “freedom from want”( Human Development Report 1994). As a result of this almost everything which endangers human life and standards can be consider a threat in this understanding. For this reason there is no single definition of human security, and also there is no single and constant definition of threats to security. Today global warming and climate change can be consider as a threat, but tomorrow the greatest threat would be lack of clean water sources. But we can say that the definition varies from a narrow term of prevention of violence to a broad comprehensive view that proposes development, human rights and traditional security together. Human security argues that the core target of national security should be individual rather than state. Human security is the life-safety of individuals. In other words human security put the human in the center of security debates (Thakur, 2003, p. 347). In this context it has a human-centered view of security, that necessary for national, regional and global stability and peace in today’s world. With a general discourse, human security offers a critique of and advocates an alternative to the traditional state-based conception of security. Essentially, it argues that the proper referent for security is the individual and that state practices should reflect this rather than primarily focusing on securing borders through unilateral military action. Because the threats to human well-being are undoubtedly greater in number and scope today than when the United Nations system came into being in 1945. The scale of security challenges has ‘‘blown out’’ as a consequence of rapid population growth and the increased sophistication of communications and weapons technologies, which in turn has quickened the pace at which security threats can be transmitted within and across national boundaries ( Battersby & Siracusa, 2009, p. 9) Furthermore some threats which endanger individual security can and also should be solved in cooperation. Because, sometimes the nature of the threat requires this. For instance climate change, environmental pollution are global security problems, and all states should struggle them in cooperation. For this reason, the human security approach is said to be that the traditional conception of security is no longer appropriate or effective in the highly interconnected and interdependent modern world in which global threats such as poverty, environmental degradation, and especially terrorism supersede the traditional security threats of interstate attack and warfare. 3.New Security Threats: Terrorism and Sustainable Security With the end of Cold War, old types of treats have lost their importance in maintenance national security. Because world was not divided any more and enemy states faced simultaneously new same treats. For example climate change began to be seen as the mother of all security problems (Brown & Hammill & McLemman, 2007, 1141). Like that; environmental pollution, failed states, international piracy become more important than 56 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo before. But as an international threat, terrorism has the biggest effect on security after the Cold War. Especially after Sept. 11 terrorism became the major threat to international security. But actually terrorism isn’t a new type of treat. This type of violence has been used for ages. We can see first samples of modern terrorism in first-century Palestine. The history of terrorism back almost 2000 years ago when the Jewish resistance group known as SicariiZealots (AD 66–72) “carried out terrorist campaigns to force insurrection against the Romans in Judea.(Garrison, 2003, p. 44) The Zealot sect was one of the very first groups to practice systematic terror of which we possess a written account (Chaliand & Blin, 2007, p.55). The Zealot sect, also known in Latin as Sicarii, use terrorism to create terror in their enemies’ minds. They murdered their enemies and even innocent victims to achieve their own political aims with creating terror and fear. Their acts were symbolic to give messages to public. Sicarii’s can be accepted first group which use terrorism toward authority. After Zealots, we can mention Assasins, which use violence as a weapon for their political aims too. The Assassins were an order of Nizari Ismailis, particularly those of Persia and Syria that formed around 1092. Posing a strong military threat to Sunni Saljuq authority within the Persian territories, the Nizari Ismailis captured and inhabited many mountain fortresses under the leadership of Hassan-i Sabbah (Combs & Slann, 2007, pp 47-48). We can increase the number of pre-examples but all these are in the same side of violence: towards to authority. However the first case study of “state terror” have seen after the French Revolution, with Robespierre administration. Robespierre use terror to maintain administrative stability after the revolution. He used terror to defeat probable opposite revolution. The historical study of terrorism largely focused on the French Revolution and the reaction to it. The “Reign of Terror” and the activities of the Committee of Public Safety provided the foundation for the study of modern terrorism with the emphasis on how states engaged in “terrorism from above,” “regime terrorism” and “state terrorism”(Sloan, 2008, pp.4-5). But at that time Robespierre sees terrorism as a rational and virtuous policy, and as necessity to protect revolution and state. He said that “virtue without which terror is fatal, terror without which virtue is impotent” (Herbst, 2003, p. 164). Before the next evolution of the concept, we mention World War II and Cold War period, world have testified Nazis’ and Fascists’ state terrorism. Mussolini and Hitler use terrorism to suppress opposition and strengthen their authority (Kanat, 2011, p.87). Historians estimated that five- six million Jews were tortured and killed during the Hitler’s administration, also named Third Reich (Laqueur & Baumel, 2001, p.xiv). After the World War II, states gathered around two super power and world dived as West and East. During the Cold War, with the effect of nuclear deterrence, super powers both fear from engaged to a possible hot war. Especially after the Cuban Missile and U2 Crisis super powers realize that a possible nuclear war could be the end of the humanity and world. During this period, terrorism becomes a tool in struggling with enemy states which were in the opposite block. Eastern states gave support to terrorist groups which were harmful for western states. We can say that during the 1960s, opposition to the Vietnam War produced a 57 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo wave of "New Left" terrorism, as radical groups in Europe, Latin America and the United States, undertook campaigns of political kidnappings, assassinations and bombings in furtherance of vague Marxist-Leninist-Maoist political agendas and woolly headed demands for "social justice" (Shughart, 2006, p. 21). Also Hoffman agreed that at the height of the cold war, the majority of terrorist groups were left-wing revolutionary Marxist Leninist ideological organizations. (Hoffman, 2006, p.85) At the same time Western states condoned anti-democratic measures of their own allies in struggling with terrorist groups. Worldwide, 74% of countries that used torture on an administrative basis were U.S. client states, receiving military and other support to retain power. They concluded that the global rise in state terror was a result of U.S. foreign policy (Sluka, 1999, p.8). With the end of Cold War, terrorism began to have seen the primary threat to international security. The last and most significant change in terrorism concept happened with the end of Cold War. This significant change creates a “new” terrorism. 1993 World Trade Center attack, Tokyo subway attacks, Oklahoma city bombing and so many incidents showed to us and also states, terrorism became a very important threat for security than ever (Weinberg& Eubank, 2006, p. 1-3).If we look the motivations behind the attacks we can easily say that ideological motivation in terrorism has mostly ended by the end of Cold War. As a result of this, terrorism became more independent and more imponderable. We can easily say that terrorism today is a worldwide phenomenon (Garrison, 2003, p. 39). The logic of terrorist attacks have changed in the new terrorism. Formerly terrorist not aimed to kill so many people in their attacks. The symbolic characteristic of the attacks in terrorism is primary. Terrorist organizations didn’t aim to kill so many innocents in their attacks. But in new terrorism, besides the symbolic characteristic, killing so many people is becoming an aim of the attacks. For example IRA (Irish Republican Army) have killed 2618 people in its attacks between the years 1969-1987, but only the Sept 11 attack there are 2823 people have died ( Eriş, p. 361-362). In the new terrorism the success of the attack began to describe with the number of people who died in the attack. Besides this fact, terrorism start to use high technology in explosives, weapons and communication, information technologies. This reality makes terrorism a global, unpredictable, very close and important threat. It’s important because, it has “double effect” on sustainability of security. First, terrorism aims to take people life to achieve its own political goals. Yes it’s true that the main aim of attacks is not killing people, the real aim is create terror in people’ mind. But it’s obvious and clear that terrorism endangers security in individual and public level both. This is the direct effect of terrorism on security. Second, terrorism has an indirect effect on security. When a terrorist campaign launched in one state, that state usually strengthened its security measures. For this states occasionally suspend and even scarify some basic rights and freedoms of citizens in struggling with terrorism. But this tendency of states generally doesn’t maintain the security in public. Ironically precautions which have taken to maintain the security become the one of the source of terrorism in time. Because while the state behaving to innocent civilians as a terrorist, no one feels himself secure. This situation endangers the security in life. Because of this, one can easily liken terrorism to a double edges sword (Friedland & Merari, 1985, p. 592-595). A life bereft of democracy and filled with human 58 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo right violations can not be secure. Sustainability in security requires promoting democracy and protecting human rights. 4.The Role of Promoting Democracy and Protecting Human Rights. After Sept. 11 attacks terrorism became the prior threat to world security. Almost every state and international organization start dealing with the question of how international terrorism can be stopped? For instance, United States adopt the PATRIOT Act (PATRIOT Act http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ56/pdf/PLAW-107publ56.pdf) immediately, so was Canada hastily enacted the Anti- Terrorism Act (ATA) and as an international organization NATO invoked Article 5 of the Washington Treaty for the first time in its history following the Sept.11 terrorist attacks against the United States (Brown, 2006, pp. 2732) and almost every state around the world started to review its own domestic anti-terrorist laws and measures. But in reviewing the general tendency is reducing human rights standards for ensuring security in struggling with terrorism. For instance the PATRIOT Act gives federal officials greater authority to track and intercept communications, both for law enforcement and foreign intelligence gathering purposes. It seeks to further close United States borders to foreign terrorists and to detain and remove those within our borders by behaving especially Middle Eastern or Muslim foreigners like potential terrorist. It creates new crimes, new penalties, and new procedural short-cuts for use against domestic and international terrorists (Doyle, 2002, p. 1) In the wake of numerous changes made in U.S. law and that of many other countries following the September 11 terrorist attack, civil libertarians, libertarians, and many others have raised concerns that the nations involved are sacrificing their liberty to enhance their safety. Likewise Canadian Anti- Terrorism Act (ATA), deeply impacts human rights and civil liberties. After the Sept. 11 Canada choose scarifying civil liberties in the name of protecting the nation from terrorism threat. With the changes to the Canadian Evidence Act; the establishment of INSET (Integrated National Security Enforcement Teams), cross-border anti terrorism police force; the draconian provisions within the ATA, and also changes to Security of Information Act, Canada has systematically and secretively undermined core democratic national values such as human rights, civil liberties and national sovereignty (Lott, 2006, p. 2). Examples can be increased, England, Spain even Australia and Thailand (Kocher, 2007, p. 25-42) , but the common matter is almost every state have a tendency that reducing human rights and democracy in struggling terrorism. In another words in the presence of political, ethnic, or religious strife, governments appear to be more likely to adopt broad counterterrorism policies and commit human rights abuses. (Omelicheva, 2007, p. 188) Especially Muslim communities around the world have been victims of violence and discriminately denied their rights: and governmenet have been able to justify the suppression of groups and organizations that oppose them (Kocher, p. 43). In addition to spurring a global proliferation of aggres.sive counter terrorism measures, the United States has at times 59 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo actively undermined judicial authority in nations whose court systems are just beginning to mature. In one such instance, Bosnian authorities transferred six Algerian men into U.S. custody at the request of U.S. officials, in violation of that nation’s domestic law. The Bosnian police bad arrested the men, five of whom also had Bosnian citizenship, in October 2001 on suspicion that they bad links with al Qaeda. In January 2002, the Bosnian Supreme Court ordered them released for lack of evidence. But instead of releasing them, Bosnian authorities banded them over to U.S. troops serving with NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization]-led peacekeepers. Despite an injunction from the Human Rights Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina expressly ordering that four of the men remain in the country for further proceedings, the men were shortly thereafter transported to the detention camp at Guantanamo. (Posner, 2005, p. 222) But it is obvious that this method of ensuring security is not sustainable. Actually this way is what terrorism wants. But one want sustainability in security, especially in struggling with terrorism, should behave in respect to human rights. We shouldn’t forget that in the post-Cold War 1990s, human rights values and institutions played greater role in establishing stability in the global order and ensuring more democratic forms of political and economic participation at the local level. We can easily say those years global security have maintained through human rights. (Wilson, 2005, p. 3-6). For sustainability in ensuring the security of individuals "fighting the symptoms" will not work, you must instead "cure the disease". Granting fundamental rights and promoting democratic principles makes society more secure. We should not forget that extremist movements always fed from corrupted democratic structures. Totalitarian and antidemocratic policies in democracies create extremist also terrorist structuring. This is why terrorism named as “the disease of the democracies”. In this way security and human rightsdemocratic principles are not two controversial concepts which have to be balanced. Contrarily they are complementary concepts. With respecting fundamental rights and freedoms one source of nutrition would be eradicated. Terrorist organizations couldn’t be found supporters to their ideas or actions any more, and with promoting democracy extremist ideas can be found a discharge area, and this aggressions be solved in peaceful manner. REFERENCES Battersby, P & Siracusa, J. M. (2009), Globalization and Human Security, Maryland, USA, Rowman& Littlefield Publishers. Bedeski, R. E. (2007), Human Security and the Chinese State, New York, NY, Routledge Bilgin, P. (2002) “Beyond Statism in Security Studies? Human Agency and Security in the Middle East”, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 2, Issue. 1. Bislev, S. (2004) “Globalization, State Transformation and Public Security”, International Political Science Review, Vol. 25, No. 3, s. 282. 60 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Booth, K. (1997) “Security and Self: Reflections of a Fallen Realist”, Critical Security Studies, (Ed. Keith Krausse, Michael C. 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(2000), IRA(İrlanda Cumhuriyet Ordusu), Terörizm İncelemeleri Teori, Örgütler, Olaylar, Ankara, Turkey, Avrasya Stratejik Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları. Friedland, N. & Merari, A.(1985), “The Psychological Impact of Terrorism: A Double-Edged Sword”, Political Psychology,Vol. 6, No. 4. Garrison, A. H. (2003), “Terrorism: The Nature of Its History”, Criminal Justice Studies, Vol. 16(1). Gough, M. (2002), “Human Security: The Individual in the Security Question - The Case of Bosnia”, Contemporary Security Policy,Vol. 23 No.3 Gürkaynak, M. & Yalçıner, S. (2009) “Uluslararası Politikada Karşılıklı Bağımlılık ve Küreselleşme Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Cilt 6, Sayı 23. Herbst. P., (2003), Talking Terrorism A Dictionary of the Loaded of Political Violence, London, Eng, Greenwood Press, Hobbes, T. (1651), Leviathan, London, Eng, Printed for Andrew Crooke. Hoffman, B. (2006), Inside Terrorism, New York, NY, Colombian University Press. Jütersonke, O. 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(2006) “An Analytical History of Terrorism, 1945-2000”, Public Choice, Vol. 128, No. ½,. Sloan. S.,(2008). The Evolution of Terrorism as a Global Test of Wills: A Personal Assessment and Perspective, Oklohoma City, USA, MIPT Publishing. Sluka,, J. A., editor (1999). Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror. University of Pennsylvania Press Tadjbakhsh, S. & Chenoy, A. M. (2007). Human Security-Concepts and Implications, New York, NY, Routledge. Thakur, R. (2003) “A Political World View”, Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 24, No. 1. United Nations Human Development Report <http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1994/chapters/> 29.04.2012 1994, Waltz, K. N. (1970). “The Myth of National Interdependence”, The International Corporation: A Symposium, Charles P. Kindelberger (Ed.), Cambridge, MIT Press, Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of International Politics. New York. NY, Random House. 62 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Weinberg, L. Eubank, W. L. (2006), The Roots of Terrorism, What is Terrorism, Reno, Nevada, Chelsea House Publishers. Wilson, R. A. (2005), “Human Rights in the ‘War on Terror’”, Human Rights in the ‘War on Terror’, New York, NY, Cambridge University Press Business Diplomacy Management As A Key Role In The Sustainable Development And Stakeholder Management In The Multinational Corporations: Daimlerchrysler Case Dinç, Mehmet,Kaygisiz, Ümmühan Suleyman Demirel University Vocational School of Isparta Isparta Turkey E-mails: mehmetdinc@sdu.edu.tr, ummuhankaygisiz@sdu.edu.tr Abstract In the last two decades a dramatic shifts within the business community have been occurred. Globalization has offered business opportunities to companies around the world and has led to the development of a multitude of standards that govern business behavior. It is no longer sufficient to know the business and legal conditions of a multinational companies’ headquarters country and some of the countries where it operates foreign subsidiaries. Multilateral and intergovernmental organizations are increasingly defining industry standards that become mandatory for multinational companies. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), operate at multiple levels ranging from national civil society issues like environmental protection to observation and investigation of possible human rights violations of multinational companies or foreign states. They often operate at national, regional and transnational levels focusing on economic, social and political issues. In addition, growing internationalization has became increasingly complex, civil society organizations have exerted increasing pressure on MNCs, especially the concept of sustainable development has expanded to include the simultaneous consideration of economic growth, environmental protection and social equity. Thus, in response to these kind of shifts, many have made a commitment to apply the principles of sustainable development to their activities. To meet and to handle these commitments, MNCs have required a multitude of policies and new business competencies. One important factor contributing to the sustained success of MNCs’ operations in foreign markets in the competent use of business diplomacy. Business Diplomacy Management (BDM) refers to the ability of MNCs to effectively interact with non-business stakeholders wherever the MNCs have business interests, be they in the form of local production, distribution channels or sales offices. 63 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1098 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Security: The Role of Promoting Democracy and Protecting Human Rights Author Author Selim, Kanat Abstract A summary of the resource. Today’s security threats are more complex than traditional ones, such as HIV, climate change, human rights violations, anti-democratic laws and measures forced us to think about the definition and the context of security again. With the effect of these new threats, sustainable security concept emerged from a post- Cold War multi-disciplinary understanding of security. Sustainable security redefines how we think about national security in today's shifting, after Cold War era. Struggling with these new threats, especially struggling with terrorism requires new approaches to security. The traditional understanding which predicts balancing human rights and security measures is not valid anymore. In today’s security understanding promoting democracy and protecting human rights are not causes of insecurity, contrarily terrorism, which considered as the greatest threat to world security after Sept 11, wants to create a “police state” to find support their own ideology. Further more terrorism aiming to demolish democracy and human rights in society; with this, life become insecure, state become more totalitarian and terrorist acts become more reasonable. For this characteristic, terrorism called the “disease of democracies”. For this reason promoting democracy and protecting human rights are the key elements of sustainable security especially in struggling terrorism Keywords: Sustainable Security, Human Security, Terrorism, Sept. 11, Human Rights, Democracy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6dfcea516adff4c3fcd2b02b3cb63e27.pdf 06fcd6c1874bd84564ed9457eb1e615c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Tourism Development an Opportunity for Bosnia and Herzegovina? Edin SMAJIĆ Teaching Assistant Faculty of Economics, Department of Management International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina esmajic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina is endowed with many resources such as geographical position, climate, nature and above all its people. Its diversity is a magnet for millions of potential travelers and visitors. Neither its government nor its people realize their huge potential and possible benefits that tourism can bring about helping them not only to prosper economically but also reconcile their differences. Tourism is playing more and more important role in national and local economies. There is no evidence that this will trend will decline. Bosnian climate, geographic position, cultural and historic monuments and before all the composition of its people are key attraction for visitors. Visitors will contribute significantly to the local and national economy and the economic multiplier effect of this spend, in turn, supports employment and secondary tourist facilities. Similarly, in the determination of future proposals that could impact on the setting, character and appearance of its potentials, special care is needed by planners and promoters to assess its potential, spread the awareness and unleash it to the Globe so that the benefits can be harvested. Bosnia can learn from its neighbors who are well known tourism leaders. There is a huge room for regional cooperation and collaboration. Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina has its competitive edge in its diversity that none of the neighbors can possibly acquire in the foreseeable future. Key to the sustainable approach of tourism and the cultural heritage is the preparation of appropriate master plan that takes into account the identified overall effects in order to guide the course of development in a manner that protects those very resources that attract visitors and that does not cause in the short, medium and long term any reduction in their character or appearance. If managed properly tourism can bring about positive change that its people await for long time. Keywords: Tourism; Central and Eastern Europe; management, development, sustainability, tourism, tourist, environmental impact; character and appearance; master plan; strategies; visitor, tourist; management plans 1. Introduction In the limited number of analyses undertaken on tourism development and post-socialist processes of restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), most attention has been paid to the more advanced societies of Central Europe. By contrast, Europe's less developed and relatively unstable south-eastern corner, where tourism development issues may take on a different complexion, has been relatively neglected. Within this context, tourism's role in post-socialist restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe is examined, reflecting on issues of mass tourism and niche segregation. Rural tourism is examined as a vehicle for sustainable development in South-eastern Europe, and some of the paradoxes facing issues of sustainability in tourism development are examined in relation to recent development processes. With a dynamic mix of mass and niche markets to target, the potential of rural tourism development in South-eastern Europe continues to be constrained by regional instability. 114 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Tourism – Its Economic Opportunities 2.1. Background Tourism is only part of the whole idea of sustainable development. Tourism, as it relates to sustainable development, is tourism which is developed so that the nature, scale, location, and manner of development is appropriate and sustainable over time, and where the environment's ability to support other activities and processes is not impaired, since tourism cannot be isolated from other resource use activities. Sustainable tourism involves a challenge to develop quality tourism products without adversely affecting the natural and cultural environment that maintains and nurtures them. At the heart of sustainable tourism is a set of implicit values related to striving to integrate economic, social and cultural goals (Wight, 1993). According to World Tourism Organization (WTO) tourism is said to be the largest and fastest growing industry in the world. Increased leisure time, improved access and infrastructure, increasing disposable incomes and significant reductions in the cost of air travel, despite the current oil price increases, all contribute to huge increases in international travel. On the other hand, changes such as the erosion of international borders and the accessibility of knowledge through increasing use of the internet all assist in the worldwide movement towards a “global village”. Interestingly, the World Tourism Organization predicts that Bosnia and Herzegovina is likely to see one of the greatest increases, worldwide, in tourism up to 2020. The well managed and regulated development of tourism can be a catalyst of positive change. An understanding of different lives, places and cultures erodes the falsely held barriers of misunderstanding about foreign places. The economic multiplier effect means that very significant economic benefits can flow into local and national economies and these benefits can spread way beyond the principle tourist attractions. This is why tourism is characterized as invisible export. However, unplanned and poorly regulated tourism developments can devalue or even destroy the very potential that otherwise compels people to visit new and special places. 2.2. The International & National Context An insight into the current international and national trends in tourism is useful for placing the development of BiH tourism in context. In 2007, in terms of visitor numbers, Trafalgar Square in London was Europe’s top tourist attraction with some 15 million visitors, followed by Notre Dame Cathedral in France with 12 million visitors. Significantly, in worldwide terms, out of the top 50 tourist attractions on the planet, 20 are based on a nation’s cultural heritage and only 9 on a commercial theme park such as Euro Disney. The World Tourist Organization estimated that in 2007 there were 898 billion tourist arrivals. This is expected to increase to 1.6 billion by 2020. Worldwide, tourism brings with it and spends of US$ 2 billion per day in receipts. Tourism accounts for 35 % of the world’s export of services. Significantly it is now estimated that there are 1.4 billion internet users in the world. So there can be little doubt of the worldwide profile of tourism and, most importantly, the pivotal role played by the built and cultural heritage in attracting visitors. 2.3. Estimating The Economic Impacts of Tourism If refer to the definition of tourism we will then see that it is a network of services offered to tourists, and the infrastructure needed to support it, the sector involves a wide range of players including private sector tourism businesses, governmental and intergovernmental organizations, development and conservation NGO networks, consumers, development intermediaries and host communities.1 This is simply implies that no single organization runs tourism. This activity takes more than one party, institution or organization. It involves many different sectors. Economists will often speak of the numbers of jobs that are related to tourism, the amount of “spend” in a local and national economy and, most importantly, the “multiplier effect” of tourist derived income. So as a consequence, tourism can often be held in high regard because it can be seen as a one-way income stream, causing national and local governments to be favorably disposed to promote and regulate tourist facilities at all costs. Estimating the economic costs and benefits of tourism is a complex mathematical exercise and demands answers to many questions. A full economic impact of the promotion of Bosnia and Herzegovina will need to be carried out by trained experts but a brief overview of the economic benefit process is helpful in understanding broader benefits that can ensue. 1 www.world-tour.org 115 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Any systematic study of the economic impact of the tourism induced by the development of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina needs firstly to set out the action(s) that are going to bring about tourism growth. Actions will include the development of visitor attractions, marketing, investment levels and the management of the GTA (Government Tourism Association). 3. The Environmental Impacts of Tourism Responsible tourism is the key to ensuring that the benefits that are so apparent from tourism growth are planned, managed, mitigated and developed in tune with the capacity of the environment to absorb the increased pressures that will inevitably arise. This section of my paper examines the key environmental impacts of tourism and the adverse consequences that could arise if the proper development and management of major tourism facilities is not correctly seen as a key overarching objective 3.1. The Nature of the Problem The quality of the built and natural environment is essential in order to provide for quality tourism. The direct impacts caused by the erosion and subsequent damage of the historic fabric, the marring of a historic landscape setting; the unwelcome visual impacts of litter, car parking and access; the need for fresh water, toilet facilities and waste water treatment; the building of poorly designed and planned commercial premises and the proliferation of outdoor advertising as local businesses wish to “cash in” on a new phenomena and the building of unrelated tourist facilities targeted at a new captive market can all, singularly and collectively, gradually destroy the very environmental and heritage resources on which they depend. There is little doubt that unplanned or poorly managed tourism can give rise to pollution, a fact particularly critical in an otherwise unspoilt rural environment. Air quality deterioration from vehicles, noise, littering, sewage, oil and chemical releases can all impact on the natural environment and the enjoyment of their own environment by a host community. More tangible will be new buildings where design qualities play a subordinate role to the wish for local business to construct cheaply and quickly. And we must not loose sight of the effects tourism has on wildlife and flora especially where protected or vulnerable species may experience disturbance or loss of habitat because of human traffic, emissions, sewage run-off or the insatiable need for more concrete and tarmac to cater for more visitors. An inevitable consequence of any successful tourism development is the attendant demands placed on local infrastructure. Visitors to a regionally, nationally or internationally recognized destination will need accommodation, they will need feeding and they will need transportation facilities to gain access. Hence, unplanned, land use conflicts would arise as development pressures for hotels, car parking and catering establishments, if not property regulated, could undermine many of the unique assets offered by a sensitive place, especially once that saturation point is reached. Equally it must be recognized that tourism can be a very seasonal phenomena and if a town or an area becomes too dependent on tourism, its employment structure can be weakened. Mindful that many jobs in the tourism sector tend to be lower paid, lower skilled, part time and seasonal anyway, there can often be an over reliance on transient migratory labor with no direct benefit to a local economy. This is a key consideration when planning for a tourism development. There is a balance to be struck between the environmental impact and the local economic benefits. 3.2. The Environmental Impact Assessment of A Tourism Development Before being able to develop a master plan for the sustainable establishment of a major tourism destination, it is important to understand the environmental impacts that such a project would have. Indeed within the European Union, the principles of environmental impact assessment (EIA) have been incorporated into national legislation since the implementation of the first European Directive 85/337/EEC. Directive 97/11/EC amended the earlier provisions by extending the extent of developments that were caught by the requirement for EIA and made changes to EIA procedures. Further changes took place by virtue of Article 3 of Directive 2003/35/EC which aligns EIA more closely with public participation provided by the Arhus Convention. In accordance with the European Union Directives on EIA, “tourism” falls within a schedule II category of development. That is to say, EIA is required if a tourism development exceeds a specified threshold. If so, it is concluded that the development is likely to have significant effects on the environment. Against this statutory background it is perhaps helpful to have regard to current thinking within the European Union on EIA in order to develop a strategy for the sustainable tourism development. 116 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Every development will trigger change which has an impact on the environment but it is the case with every human activity. Bosnia and Herzegovina is endowed with beautiful nature and the environmental aspect should be carefully studied. Tourism should be used to justify conservation by paying its contribution to the environment, which can be in form of: Creating an audience for historical and archeological attractions which can provide funds for its conservation. (This is why the lengthy explanation of the Roman and Ottoman period in the area). Protection of the forested areas which are now vast but endangered with the illegal logging. Transportation system should be redeveloped and reconsidered. Introduction of environmentally adjusted domestic products. (leather, rock, marble, wood and other materials are abundant in the area and not properly used) Proper zoning, planning and land use should be designed to accommodate the needs of tourists but also to preserve the nature and its landscape. Proper facility planning should follow the following guidelines: Respect the spirit of the places! The development should blend into the environment and local culture. Restore old buildings but respect their original use. Bosnia used to have hundreds of small hans (Inns) and coffee shops that should be restored now and preserved. 4. A Sustainability and Socio Cultural Effects 4.1. Sustainability Based on the general definition for sustainable development, sustainable tourism has been perceived as simultaneously encompassing the environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects in the long-term planning of the sector development. In order to achieve such balanced development integrating and respecting basic principles such as the precautionary principle, intra- and inter-generation equity, and the responsibility for the preservation of the environment and natural resources for future generations is necessary.1 Sustainable Tourism Products Dialogue between stakeholders in both private and public sector should lead to the development of sustainable tourism products across various sectors of the travel and tourism industry. This is why the proposal for the small hotels, inns, Hans and B&B joints instead of big hotels to start with. Similarly, domestic production should be encouraged in order to avoid transportation but also to contribute to the sustainability. This initiative should lead to introduction other types of tourism such as agro-tourism, village tourism, and farm tourism. At this juncture it is worth drawing together the numerous strands identified earlier in this paper. Indeed I have shown that tourism is a growing phenomenon and in particular Bosnia and Herzegovina is expected by the World Tourist Organization to be one of the world’s fastest growing tourist destinations up to 2020. Additionally there can be no doubt that tourism brings with it socio-economic benefits and these benefits have direct and indirect effects, illustrated by the economic multiplier effect. 4.2. The Underlying Principles of A Sustainable Approach to Tourism 4.2.1. Natural Heritage Considerations To address the natural heritage, development must be compatible with the landscape setting of the site; it must maintain its essential ecological processes and recognize the biological diversity and unique biological resources of the park. Visitor management is essential to deflect pressures from key sensitive locations while ensuring “honey pots” attract visitors to important but less fragile places. The design, planning, development and operation of facilities should incorporate the principles of sustainability including micro-renewable energy, heat insulation and the use of recycled materials wherever possible. Car parking areas should be designed to incorporate sustainable urban drainage facilities that will ensure water retention and dispersal to avoid run off in periods of heavy rain. Special consideration requires to be given to waste management from toilet facilities and litter disposal. Particular care is required in the consideration of development proposals not only within the designated area of the park but out with the park boundaries but nevertheless within its setting. Views that have been unchanged for centuries, and which contribute to the setting and character of the touristic landscape, would be destroyed by the unsympathetic sitting of buildings, roads, power lines, and telecommunications apparatus even if they have nothing to do with the tourism’s development. A special role 1 European Tourism Forum 2002: “Agenda 21 – Sustainability in the European Tourism Sector”, discussion document, Brussels 10 December 2002. 117 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo needs to be played by the local planning authority to channel development to sensitive locations that do not affect the tourism development. 4.2.2. Built Heritage Considerations State regulatory systems impose restrictions on development that could affect the setting, character and appearance of the cultural heritage. In Scotland, for example, the central government imposes very strict controls on work that affects the 5 600 or so scheduled ancient monuments out of the 70 000 or so recorded archaeological sites, under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Scheduled monument consent is needed for any works that have the effect of demolishing, destroying, damaging, removing, repairing, altering, adding to, flooding or covering up a monument. All newly discovered ancient objects in Scotland belong to the Crown. Legal protection does not always secure the future proper preservation of an ancient monument and it is thus essential to develop a management plan and to carry out regular maintenance to prevent progressive deterioration and decay. In Bosnia the Commission to Preserve National Monuments, as it is cold should not be seen as an impediment to any development. Its role should be revised and its responsibility should assume greater authority in order to expedite development of sites that will attract tourists. 4.2.3. Socio-Cultural Effects In developing Bosnia into successful tourism product and destination socio-cultural effects on the destination and on the way of life of its inhabitants should be considered. As tourism competes for space, resentment to tourists might be evident. Secondly, the impact visitors make on the people’s values and local way of life. The number of tourists from Turkey is increasing steadily every year and there ought to be some development. People usually resist development and change. The influence of the tourists on the arts, music, dance, painting, sculpture, architecture, handicrafts and other art should be assessed. The medieval city is considerably ruined and only during the festive days thousands of people visit it without any control. Some new elements are also introduced. The vendors selling goods on the streets often overshadow cultural performance with their own music boxes which play music that is not at all suitable for the occasion. Otherwise, the mentioned impacts should have positive effects: - The number of tourists boosts local economy, create wealth, generate income and propel new facilities and the improvements and preservation of the existing ones. - As far as the way of life is concerned, tourism provides for two way flows of information and cultural exchange since it provides contacts and encounters that result in exchange of goods, services and ideas. - Finally, tourism is stimulates local arts, handicrafts and souvenirs. 5. Main Issues One of the main issues is to convince the Bosnian authorities of the country that Bosnia has great tourism potential and as such it should be explored and exploited. Why tourism? There are many reasons why to develop Bosnia and Herzegovina into a leading tourist attraction in the region. Tourism is now one of the world’s largest industries and one of its fastest growing economic sectors. While tourism can build understanding, poorly managed tourism can ruin destinations. Yet if handled well, tourism provides an incentive to build and to preserve the best the destination has to offer: religious sites and buildings, unbeatable nature, historic districts, museums, great scenery and cultural identity reflected in its places and people. If we look at the definition of tourism we will then see that it is a network of services offered to tourists, and the infrastructure needed to support it, the sector involves a wide range of players including private sector tourism businesses, governmental and intergovernmental organizations, development and conservation NGO networks, consumers, development intermediaries and host communities.1 This is simply implies that no single organization runs tourism. This activity takes more than one party, institution or organization. It involves many different sectors. 1 www.wourld-tour.org 118 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 5.1. Lack of Superstructure The whole country struggles with only two five star hotels and most of it 4 and 3 stars usually run full house in the season. Official occupancy rate is ridiculous due to the gray economy. Visitors are longing for maps printed material and proper tourist information centers. 5.2. Lack of Infrastructure Bosnia and Herzegovina was once important junction since it has geostrategic location. Its international airport in Sarajevo carried only 900000 passengers in 2007. Many of the inbound flights are expensive. Its national carrier Air-Bosna is struggling with competition but also with their own management. Hopefully the situation will improve with their new partner Turkish Airlines. The country is not connected with highways and even the motorways are having the reputation of the worst in the Central Europe. The development in this direction is a must for tourism to flourish. Railways and waterways are even worse and we all know that tourism is all about moving people from a destination to a destination. 5.3. Lack of Design and Signage There is virtually no signage in any language that would lead a potential tourist or traveler to come and visit these small but beautiful lost treasuries in the heart of Europe. Tourists in Bosnia and Herzegovina have problems getting their directions. New proper design and signage should be carefully designed and applied. 5.4. Lack of Awareness of The Tourist Destination As already stated many take it as a sacred or holy place to visit but few think of it as tourist destination. In this sense, both the visitors but also the host people should be trained and education for their respective role and the interaction not only the interaction with one another but the interaction with the environment too. This should be incorporated in the overall awareness program. 6. Practical Steps Forward For any tourism to develop all three levels of stakeholders1 should be working together. The three levels are: 1. GOVERNMENT which should take place of policy and planning and give a general framework for cooperation. Governments at all levels, and there are many in Bosnia, should give a kick start for the religious tourism to take off. That is to say that they should consider it as national treasury on which the whole country should capitalize. 2. Second level includes the organizations concerned with tourism development and operations that are in the front line i.e. hotels, other accommodation facilities, catering services, cultural, historic and scenic attractions, and transportations services. 3. The third level includes the whole range of ANCILLARY SUPPORT SERVICES that are both public and private such as: police, post office, customs and immigration, the media, the retail trade, banks, churches, universities and colleges, trade unions… Various committees, councils, working groups, task forces representing public and private sector should play coordinating and consultative role. Government Government tourism administration (GTA2) chiefly depends on the administrative composition of the country. Unfortunately, Bosnia and Herzegovina has many levels of administration and many governments from local to cantonal to the entity and finally the on the level of the whole country herein referred as BiH level. Every municipality has its own tourist association. Similarly, every canton has tourist association. Both entities have their own tourist association and unfortunately it stops there. On the BiH there is no institution that handles tourism and plays coordinating role for the whole country. Ministry of Foreign Trade is responsible for tourism but plays extremely passive role due to several reasons. The major reason is that the tourism has been 1 2 Doswell, R., 1997, Tourism, How effective management makes the difference, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 7 Ibid. p. 86. 119 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo very much politicized and it is used in the political campaign aggressively. However, the said ministry does not have a person responsible for the sector let alone the profile of that person nor is there a law on tourism on the BiH level. Secondly, there was no strategy for the development of the country and thus there is no strategy for tourism. Thirdly, as a result of the two, tourism is given a passive support without any funds. Bih Level Government Having in mind this, the situation down the ladder is rather chaotic. Since there is no strategy on the highest level, no laws pertaining to tourism and no coordinating body all the governmental instances are left to themselves to create their own strategies. This resulted in many strategies and many overlapping projects where energy and funds are lost. Only lately governments at various levels started cooperating and this is a good sign but far from satisfactory outcomes. Both entities now have ministries for tourism but they respectively lack political independence, appropriate skills, and clarity of objectives, intergovernmental cooperation and coordination. In addition, their jobs are poorly defined and this leads to confusion and duplication. It is clear that it is a high time for Bosnia and Herzegovina to set up an administrative body that will be in charge of tourism on the BiH level. The long debated law on tourism should provide for this. This body can be either in form of full ministry, part of the ministry or even semi government body. Its function should be: - Planning and control o Product research and planning o human resource planning and training o licensing and supervision - Marketing o Representing the whole country as tourist destination o Market research o Production of tourism literature o Advertising - Financial o Advising business and potential investors o Directing and approving governmental aid programs for tourist projects - Coordinating o Linking with trade and professional bodies, government and regional or local tourist organizations o Undertaking coordinated marketing activities with private tourist enterprises The laws should provide for the overarching principles that will clearly define the duties and responsibilities of all the stakeholders in tourism. Only then the government authority will be able to provide for the common strategy and development plan where the religious tourism will be included and promoted. Local Government Local government should play important role in developing tourism. They should: - Assess the number and the distribution of tourists in the area - Estimate future changes and its implications - Identify growth opportunities - Assess the impact of tourism on employment and income in the area, - Identify the need for conservation They should also take care of the following: - Provision of leisure facilities for tourists (so far there is none) - Planning - Parking for coaches and cars - Production of statistics - Marketing of the whole area - Preservation of historic buildings - Public health In fact, the local government should be a catalyst from the region campaigning and fighting for before the BIH government to draw attention of its potentials. They should do the same campaign before the cantonal government and its tourist association. 7. Summary and Conclusions 120 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Enhanced understanding of a country through international tourism can have significant benefits at the macro-economic level. By complimenting economic development and “showcasing” a country, tourism is a tool that helps overcome ill-conceived international barriers to economic development. A good example may be Northern Ireland where conflicts in 70s and 80s deterred many visitors. The recent peace settlement in Northern Ireland has unleashed countless tourist visits north and south of the border. In turn barriers to trade caused by misunderstanding and an absence of true knowledge are erased, fuelling a boom based upon new found tourism opportunities. Twenty years ago who would ever have seen Belfast as a tourist destination? Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries and the largest service sector. It is bigger than cars, agriculture or electronics and 52 % of tourism expenditure takes place in Europe, compared with 21 % in the Americas. Tourism is growing fastest in emerging markets such as Bosnia-Herzegovina which is expected by the UN’s World Tourist Organization to be one of the fastest growing tourist sectors in the world by 2020. The vast majority of tourism jobs are found in small and medium sized firms; new income is generated; new jobs are formed; entrepreneurship is fostered and social conditions are enhanced. Local companies can be supported; improvements flow to local utilities and services; improved infrastructure is provided; local living standards are raised and urban and rural regeneration follows. The best indicator that Bosnia and Herzegovina can develop its tourism and sustain it is the fact that most of the visitors love the country and most of them would come back. If we listen to them carefully, respond to their needs and wishes considering our resources and capacities we can start harvesting the benefits. The reinvestment of those benefits can bring about the positive change but also secure sustainability o tourism on long run. References Aronson, L., 2000, The Development of Sustainable Tourism, London, Continuum. Boniface, P. and Fowler, PJ. 1993, Heritage and Tourism in Global Village, London, Routhledge. Doswell, R., 1997, Tourism, How effective management makes the difference, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann. Fsadni, C. and Selwyn, T. (eds), 1997, Sustainable Tourism in Mediterranean Islands and Small Cities, University of Malta, MED-CAMPUS. Holloway, J. Christopher, (6th ed.), The Business of Tourism, Harlow, Financial Times, Prentice Hall. Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. 1998 Tourism and Sustainability, London, Routhledge. Nash, D., 1996, Anthropology of Tourism, Oxford, Pergamon. Richards, G. (ed), 1996, Cultural Tourism in Europe, Wallingford, CAB International. United Nations World Tourism Organization: A practical guide to destination management, 2007 United Nations World Tourism Organization: Tourism enriches USAID: Cultural Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Preliminary Findings 2006 www.unwto.org Yale, P., 1995, The Business of Tour Operations, Harlow, Pearson Education Limited. 121 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 139 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Tourism Development an Opportunity for Bosnia and Herzegovina? Author Author SMAJIĆ, Edin Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina is endowed with many resources such as geographical position, climate, nature and above all its people. Its diversity is a magnet for millions of potential travelers and visitors. Neither its government nor its people realize their huge potential and possible benefits that tourism can bring about helping them not only to prosper economically but also reconcile their differences. Tourism is playing more and more important role in national and local economies. There is no evidence that this will trend will decline. Bosnian climate, geographic position, cultural and historic monuments and before all the composition of its people are key attraction for visitors. Visitors will contribute significantly to the local and national economy and the economic multiplier effect of this spend, in turn, supports employment and secondary tourist facilities. Similarly, in the determination of future proposals that could impact on the setting, character and appearance of its potentials, special care is needed by planners and promoters to assess its potential, spread the awareness and unleash it to the Globe so that the benefits can be harvested. Bosnia can learn from its neighbors who are well known tourism leaders. There is a huge room for regional cooperation and collaboration. Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina has its competitive edge in its diversity that none of the neighbors can possibly acquire in the foreseeable future. Key to the sustainable approach of tourism and the cultural heritage is the preparation of appropriate master plan that takes into account the identified overall effects in order to guide the course of development in a manner that protects those very resources that attract visitors and that does not cause in the short, medium and long term any reduction in their character or appearance. If managed properly tourism can bring about positive change that its people await for long time. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c3102a6d46ce5084b36702c00fc48a91.docx ae940ff94dd9f2c42bb4a5c42877a6a0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5bde75568f384214e1bb0c6f6ea42802.pdf de5431a6411d3fed833f43703fe869de PDF Text Text SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF SAGALASSOS Hasan Kebapçı Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey Mesut Kozan Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey Key Words: Environment, Sustainable Development, Sagalassos. ABSTRACT Sustainable development is the first step to take action by bearing future generations in mind as well. Uncovering historical and cultural assets are important not only for cultural tourism, but it is also important in terms of flourishing the region thanks to the tourists who come to see them, and this must be secured without exploiting the region’s historical texture and natural landscape. This paper investigates such issues as the ancient city of Sagalassos itself; the work done to uncover this city; the importance given to the environment and what has been done to flourish the region so far, as well as what should be done from now on. This study has a potential importance in that it shows that protecting the natural landscape and cultural texture will be realized both giving due importance to the environment and providing the development. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2119 Title A name given to the resource SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF SAGALASSOS Author Author KEBAPCI, Hasan KOZAN, Mesut Abstract A summary of the resource. Key Words: Environment, Sustainable Development, Sagalassos. ABSTRACT Sustainable development is the first step to take action by bearing future generations in mind as well. Uncovering historical and cultural assets are important not only for cultural tourism, but it is also important in terms of flourishing the region thanks to the tourists who come to see them, and this must be secured without exploiting the region’s historical texture and natural landscape. This paper investigates such issues as the ancient city of Sagalassos itself; the work done to uncover this city; the importance given to the environment and what has been done to flourish the region so far, as well as what should be done from now on. This study has a potential importance in that it shows that protecting the natural landscape and cultural texture will be realized both giving due importance to the environment and providing the development. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565