25 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4cd650fda53e2ebf21cbb133112a27ba.pdf 81a0ffca63908a94c5c7abb27f2da714 PDF Text Text THE ASPECTS OF PERRY-LORD FOR POPULAR BALLADS, CONCERNING THREEANGLO-SAXON BALLADS (SIR PATRICK SPENS, LORD RANDAL, THE WIFE OF USHER’S WELL) Fatmire Isaki State University of Tetovo, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 02.08.2015 Abstract: The purpose of this paper is through properly selected examples to prove that Millman Parry and Albert Lord’s aspects of the theory of the popular ballad can be applied in the English ballads too. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous popular ballads of the Balkans and traditions, could be transmitted through many generations by oral route and why have appeared formulaic principles in the way they are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show the same principles on an analysis of three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. This theory suggests that the more phrases the singer knows, the higher is the chance to improvise and structure strings of verses. Ballads Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well will be analyzed starting from their metric system, rhyme, and as well as locating stylistic figures used in these ballads. The paper will have a comparative approach to find similarities and differences between ballads of Balkans posed by Perry and Lord, and three Anglo-Saxon ballads. Also, this paper will analyze the themes treated in these ballads. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper will try to come to the conclusion that no matter that they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, themes encountered in them if not identical, then many are very similar. Key words: ballad theory, structure, oral-formulaic, metric system �INTRODUCTION Ballads have great value in literature, in this case in English literature. It is impossible not to notice so many valuable ballads in English literature, which motivate the reader and make more curious in searching different ballads. Every good reader knows the importance of ballads especially of the old English ballads, which use very clear language attracting the reader to read more and more. A ballad is “a folk song or orally transmitted poem telling in a direct and dramatic manner some popular story usually derived from a tragic incident in local history or legend. The story is told simply, impersonally, and often with vivid dialogue.”(The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, 2008:32). What Goethe says about ballads is that the value of these songs of the simple people is in the fact to be found that their motifs are drawn completely from nature. He added that in the art of saying things capably, uneducated men have greater skill than those who are educated. Ballads deal with historical events, local traditions, with personal adventures or achievements. We can say that they are totally objective. However, today’s poetry is completely subjective which deals with the study of the subjective conditions rather than objective realities. Accordingly, old ballads are of great value because of the spontaneity. They present subject mattered lyrics where in general they show the unconsciousness or also called naïveté. In some cases, the naïveté is presented with soft and acceptable humor, which attracts the spirit of the man (reader) with its real, sincere and beautiful description of different human experience. The old ballads are related to the popular epic, which deal with historical or real events. The old ballads are told by ordinary people and written by authors, but they are valued by their simplicity because they are presented just as the people told them. The popular ballads are so different from the contemporary ones that all the people of each culture must appreciate the unwritten literature such as, popular ballads, or stories and proverbs because they deal with originality. Even though nowadays literature is seen as if it is understood only by professional people and that only few people can write poetry or other forms of literature, in fact it is not like that at all. There are many people of each nation who can produce real impressive songs or poems which may seem original, clear and objective. Time has shown that every nation with its own language and tradition can produce really impressive songs that speak clearly and objectively for their uniqueness, but also for the cultural communication with other nations. Simplicity is the element to which is always given importance in this type of work, in which people have pointed out the necessity of communication as an essential means by which this works are successfully transmitted from generation to generation, from era to era and have survived through the millenniums. Oral literature should be further investigated in order to discover its stylistic and structural elements that provide its existence and still make it current, i.e. “alive” literature. Such is the case, of course with the English and Scottish ballads, but firstly let us see how much are ballads investigated in these regions. �The interest in folklore in Balkans began in the 19th century as part of the Enlightenment and Renaissance activities of intellectuals from the region, not only for cultural interest, but also for nationalist interests. Despite numerous research projects in recent years, we can say that relatively little has been explored in our region at the time when the research interest in folklore in the UK and the USA during the first half of the 20th century was on upswing. The American folklorists Millman Parry and Albert Lord are they who did a research on ballads of Balkans. Albert Lord discusses the oral tradition through his theory of literary composition and applied on Homeric epic and medieval epic. The theory set by Millman Parry and later elaborated and expanded by Albert Lord, concentrates on the oral- formulaic composition of these epics and ballads that were transmitted orally through the centuries before finally being enrolled. The analysis is made of the ways by which the performers recite these ballads and transform those ballads from oral form into written form. The development of their theory suggests that folk singers use formulaic statements to recall long passages that make up these ballads. The theory of oral-formulaic composition is based on the key idea that poets have available various "formulas" in the process of composition and with their use and connectivity they can quickly compose a number of verses. But what is meant by the term "formula"? Millman Perry offers the following definition: "a group of words that are regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea."(Lord, 2003:30). The theory of oral-formulaic structure elaborated by Millman Parry and Albert Lord can be traced, recorded and applied not only on the ballads of Balkans but also the Anglo-Saxon ballads. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous folk ballads in the Balkans and traditions could be transmitted through many generations orally and why such formulaic principles have appeared in the way these ballads are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show these principles on an analysis of the three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. Millman and Perry treated this theory in the ballads of Balkans, so for us it is of great interest to examine whether the same theory can be treated in the ballads originating from the Anglo-Saxon regions and traditions. Of course, until ballads are not written in paper, the ballad cannot have a unified text. This allows many singers of folk ballads and songs to improvise in their own words, i.e. with their formulaic strategies and thus produce varieties and invariant of the same ballad. Perry and Lord in the beginning give us a general introduction on the history of oral formulaic composition. Furthermore, they continue to research the training of the singers of these folk songs and the process of their performance. Much effort has been given to reveal who are these people who have so much control over the performance of folk ballads, traveling from one place to another in order to perform folk songs. The authors conclude that singers, who sing long passages of ballads, do not tell the same story for the second time with the same words. Lord and Perry indicate three stages in the preparation. In the first phase the man who is trained to be a performer of folk songs is passive and his job is to listen to the songs in order to get acquainted �with the themes and the general structure of the ballad. In the second stage he tries to put in context the story that he knows, according to certain metrics of poetic verses. In the third phase, he tries to recite a ballad for the first time and compose his first full song. In the chapter titled "The Formula", Lord expresses his belief that there is a classical oral formula and thus provides the definition of Perry, who thinks that the formulas are mathematical in nature and defined as "a group of words that are regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea." (Lord, 2003:30 ) His analysis focuses more on the metric system and the repetition rather than content. In the chapter titled "Theme", Lord and Perry concentrates on the content of the ballad. Perry says that the same subject can be expressed with the help of many different formulas and give a few examples of such ballads from the Balkans. "Songs and the Songs" is the chapter where precisely is given the difference between a traditional singer of folk songs and modern or contemporary scientist and his views on oral formulaic composition in a song as a text which is subject of change from one to another singing. Lord tells us that traditional singers of folk songs think of them as "flexible plan of themes."(Lord, 2003:99) As a result, a folk song or ballad goes through changes because over time the memories begin to change and show new ways. Furthermore, Albert Lord speaks of oral tradition and writing in a culture, exploring the transition from oral to written tradition. While writing in a culture can affect its oral tradition and while writing replaces the oral tradition, as a result we get the disappearance of the oral tradition. Further, Lord applies the theory of oral formulaic composition on Homer's works Iliad, the Odyssey and the medieval epic, and thus tells us that the modern reader treats Homer as oralformulaic composer. To prove that the above theory of Parry and Lord may be applied on the English ballads, we will argue and apply their views on appropriate examples. As a first example, we can enumerate the analysis of one of the Anglo-Saxon ballads titled Sir Patrick Spens. The ballad Sir Patrick Spens is a historical ballad written in 11 stanzas. The ballad has a typical ballad stanza with four lines - a structure that helps singers as easy as possible to remember it. In ballad describes the tragic event of the thirteenth century. The ballad tells the story of the knight-sailor Sir Patrick Spence who goes in the sea on a mission for the King. Sir Patrick should bring the King’s daughter and he needs to sail with her to Scotland. Sir Patrick has to fulfill this mission in the winter, but he has the feeling that an accident is forthcoming that actually occurs. The narrator tells the story "in medias res" ("in the middle of things"), without any comment on the events. It remains to the readers to discover the reasons of sailing and to decide whether this trip was a wise decision or not. But in the end of the ballad we understand that Sir Patrick and his crew die in this journey. The rhyme of each stanza of this ballad is A B C B. For example: Up and spake an eldern knicht, A Sat at the King's richt kne: B �"Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor C That sailed upon the se." (Witham, 1903&1904:38)B Almost all ballads have stanzas that consist of four or six lines, and use one of the two main meters 4-3-4-3 or 4-4-4-4. The ballad Sir Patrick Spens uses 4-3-4-3 metric. There are no other variants of Sir Patrick Spens and all lines have the same rhythm and rhyme scheme. The first and third verse of each stanza, have four accents, while the second and fourth verse have three accents. Their accents form a rhythm that is iambic and ballads have musicality when reading, indicating that they were sung during the performance. An example of the first four verses of Sir Patrick Spens: The king sits in Dumfermline toune. / / / / Drinking the blude-red wine: / / / 'O whar will I get gnid skipper, / / / / To sail this schip of mine?' (Sargent, 1904:103) / / / We can also say that in this ballad is used much alliteration, i.e. repeating the same consonant at the beginning of some consecutive words: For I brought as much white money As will gane my men and me. (Sargent, 1904:105) In the ninth and tenth stanza is used repetition, repeating the same word: 9. They hadna been a week, a week, In Noroway but twae, 10. "Ye lie, ye lie, ye liars loud! Sae loud’s I hear ye lie. (Bates, 2012:535) In Sir Patrick Spens are included several topics. The ballad treats more topics such as suffering, lost, loyalty, conflict between conviction and obedience to authority, dangers at sea and death. The Anglo-Saxon folk ballad Lord Randall which comes from the folk tradition is written in 10 stanzas of four lines and is based on the tragedy of a young man who was poisoned by his �beloved. Contrary to popular song Sir Patrick Spens where 4-3-4-3 metric system is used, in this folk song the metric system which is used is 4-4-4-4. For example: Oh where ha you been, Lord Randall, my son? / / / / And where ha you been, my handsome young man? / / / / I ha been at the greenwood: mother, mak my bed soon, / / / / For I'm wearied wi hunting and I fain wad lie down. (Sargent, 1904:22) / / / / The rhyme in Lord Randall may be unusual for us. We note that all stanzas have the same last four words: 'son', 'man', 'soon', and 'down'. We can say that this song is written in rhyming couplets. The words of his mother always end with 'son' and 'man'. Even though the words 'son' and 'man' are not identical while reading, they are heard similar but not identical and therefore the rhyme is not perfect ("imperfect rhyme" or "week rhyme"). The same can be said about these two verses in which the accented word 'down' is read as 'doon'. So the rhyme in the ballad Lord Randall is AABB. Lord Randall 10 “What d’ ye leave to your true-love, Lord Randal, my son? What d’ ye leave to your true-love, my handsome young man?” “I leave her hell and fire; mother, mak my bed soon, For I’m sick at the heart, and I fain wad lie down.” (Sargent, 1904:23) As one of the most used stylistic figure in Lord Randall is repetition. In any line, in the second part of each statement the same words are repeated. Whenever Randall answers the questions posed by his mother, he ended his answer with the same words. Throughout these questions and answers, we gradually learn more about the story and in the end, we learn what happened to Lord Randall. This dialogical method built into the narrative is common in ballads and it achieves greater dramatic tension in the singing of the ballad. 2 “An wha met ye there, Lord Randal, my son? An wha met you there, my handsome young man?” “O I met wi my true-love; mother, mak my bed soon, For I’m wearied wi huntin, and fain wad lie down.” (Sargent, 1904:22) The main theme treated in this folk sing is Randall’s sincere love and betrayal or cheating of the beloved one. Poisoning in this song is used metaphorically, meaning the dearly loved �didn’t poison him with poison, but the love he felt for her was actually the poison. This means that love is a symbol of death and the bed is a symbol of the tomb. Also, as a subtopic treated in the suffering of the mother for her son. Our third and final folk ballad for analysis is The Wife of Usher's Well which dates from the 17th century. The ballad has a tragic story: the death of three sons and sufferings of their mother. This song is written in 12 stanzas of four verses with rhyme ABCB. This ballad begins "in medias res", i.e. no previous introduction to the events that led to the tragedy of three sons. The Wife of Usher's Well THERE lived a wife at Usher's well, And a wealthy wife was she; She had three stout and stalwart sons, And sent them o'er the sea. They hadna been a week from her, A week but barely ane, When word came to the carline wife 5 That her three sons were gane. (Sargent, 1904:168) The Wife of Usher's Well is written in the typical form of folk ballad, in 12 stanzas of four lines with alternating 4-3-4-3 metric system. For example: They hadna been a week from her, / / / / A week but barely ane, / / / Whan word came to the carline wife, / / / / That her three sons were gane. (Sargent, 1904:168) / / / The ballad has a refrain that is repeated to separate segments of the story. Many ballads also have partial repetition in which a phrase is repeated with slight differences such as the story progresses. �"Fare ye weel, my mother dear! Fareweel to barn and byre! And fare ye weel, the bonny lass That kindles my mother's fire!" (Sargent, 1904:168) Alliteration is significantly present in this ballad with an aim to achieve an impressive sound effect. In the second line, for example, And a wealthy wife was she or third She had three stout and stalwart sons. Another stylistic figure used in this song is synecdoche (part of something that is whole or vice versa). For example: It fell about Martinmass, When nights are lang and mirk, The carlin wife’s three sons came hame And their hats were of birk. (Sargent, 1904:168) In line their hats were o the birk, "birk" is the name of birch that grows in front of the gates of paradise. Also "birk" is used metaphorically as a symbol of death. One of the themes treated in this ballad is supernatural. Mother uses magic to return her sons, but they can return only as spirits and have to disappear early in the morning. Other themes are: tragic death, medieval religion / superstition and magic of culture, the relationship between the mother and her sons and suffering. CONCLUSION From the above discussion of the three Anglo-Saxon ballads we can conclude that, like many Balkan ballads analyzed by Parry and Lord, Anglo-Saxon ballads also can be transferred to generations orally because most of them follow the same characteristics as ballads of these regions. This means that these characteristics have universal scope and application. The people who sang these songs and folk ballads were illiterate people with simple, dramatic and powerful language. These simple people managed to play a major role in their dissemination and transfer from one generation to another and from one culture to another. Preferred structural model of the ballad is stanza because almost by definition ballads were composed in stanzas with four rhymed verses ABCB with 8 + 6 + 8 + 6 syllables, as in ballads Sir Patrick Spens and The Wife of Usher's Well. However, there are other models such as the rhyming couplets with parallel AABB rhyme, as we saw in the case of folk ballad Lord Randall. The rhyme in the ballads is simple, but often irregular or "poor", often depends on the phonological features of the respective dialects in which the ballad occurred. They use the same "formulaic" words, phrases or expressions because they give musicality to the song. On a narrative level, in these songs are used repetition, symbol, alliteration, metaphor etc. The themes of the Anglo-Saxon ballads and ballads of the region are numerous and very similar. They treat themes of sincere love, the supernatural, often transferred �to dialogic form (mother and son, brother, sister, etc.), betrayal, suffering, sacrifice and the like. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper comes to the conclusion that no matter what they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, the structure, the style and the themes that can be found in them if not identical, then in large part very similar. References      Baldick, Chris (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. Bates, Katharine L. (December 31, 2012). Ballad Book. retrieved 10.06.2015, from www.gutenberg.org Web Site: www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7935/pg7935.html Lord, Albert B. (1960). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS. Lord, Albert B. (2003). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England: HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS R. Adelaide, Witham (1903&1904). The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin & Company. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2949 Title A name given to the resource THE ASPECTS OF PERRY-LORD FOR POPULAR BALLADS, CONCERNING THREEANGLO-SAXON BALLADS (SIR PATRICK SPENS, LORD RANDAL, THE WIFE OF USHER’S WELL) Author Author Isaki, Fatmire Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is through properly selected examples to prove that Millman Parry and Albert Lord’s aspects of the theory of the popular ballad can be applied in the English ballads too. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous popular ballads of the Balkans and traditions, could be transmitted through many generations by oral route and why have appeared formulaic principles in the way they are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show the same principles on an analysis of three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. This theory suggests that the more phrases the singer knows, the higher is the chance to improvise and structure strings of verses. Ballads Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well will be analyzed starting from their metric system, rhyme, and as well as locating stylistic figures used in these ballads. The paper will have a comparative approach to find similarities and differences between ballads of Balkans posed by Perry and Lord, and three Anglo-Saxon ballads. Also, this paper will analyze the themes treated in these ballads. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper will try to come to the conclusion that no matter that they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, themes encountered in them if not identical, then many are very similar. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c41a51f25e3e091c9dc9896d6f247c73.pdf ee4003994c37f67336d9acd105894099 PDF Text Text INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Margarita Kulagina Language Studio “4U” Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Keywords: globalization, intercultural education, modern educational courses. �Nowadays we live in the world of fast and easy communication, dealing with people of various cultures and backgrounds. Economic, political and historical changes have created new forms of intercultural interaction in the process of globalization. Stanley Fischer (2001) in his speech The Challenge of Globalization in Africa pointed out that globalization is a multi-faceted concept, containing many important social, political, environmental, cultural and religious dimensions, which affect every human being in this or that way. As Henry Teune (2002) explains globalization has changed the world enough to demand serious rethinking about comparative social research in our era of globalization. As a result of globalization world society is becoming more multicultural. It makes us recognize, respect and value diversity. The terms cultural diversity and multiculturalism have already become a part of our life. In this regard, the interest of researchers from all over the world towards successful interaction between the representatives of various groups is constantly growing. Communication that lacks appropriate cultural content can become the source of misunderstanding and communication failure that can lead to negative effect. Therefore, one of the most important skills of nowadays is the ability to develop communicative competence in order to take part in the life of multicultural communities and changing society. The interaction of representatives of different nationalities has been made more commonplace by the fluidity of the political and economic conditions in many countries (Kasatkina, 2010). This process continues to occur as individuals keep on feeling compelled to take extraordinary attempts to uproot themselves from their familiar cultural and linguistic groups and immigrate to different cultural and linguistic communities. This can be achieved thanks to intercultural education. First of all, it is necessary to define the term of intercultural education itself. As Harry H. Giles, Victor E. Pitkin and Thelma Ingram (1946) notice this expression didn’t appear in the Education Index until after 1941 and it only came out in Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature in 1943. They give the following definition: Intercultural education is education to improve understandings and practices of good human relations between individuals of the many culture groups. It is also interesting to look at the work of historian Nicholas Montalto, who made a research A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941, where he shows the routes of intercultural education in the USA. It appeared as a response to the changes that took place in the society which were caused by the new coming immigrants from southern and northern Europe. During the first two decades of the 20th century there was a foreign language movement in American libraries, providing the new members of society with the literature in their native languages. It was an attempt to fulfill successful communication between the representatives of different nations and to create positive intercultural dialogue. Active discussion about the necessity of intercultural education was connected with the growth of immigrants coming to Western Europe, especially to France, Benelux, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Different approaches were introduced and the most widely-spread were immigrant education, intercultural education, multicultural education and anti-racist education. The main accent was made on successful assimilation with the main focus on language learning mainly. The followers of immigrant education organized special classes for newcomers where they studied together with other migrants outside of the majority group. It was absolutely evident that this approach didn’t work well �and educators had to look for new methods. Later in 1980-1990 researchers in many European countries started active developing of multicultural education with the main concentration on integration rather than assimilation. The focus was on tolerance and different cultures. In many schools there were organized special cultural events on different theme days. However, this approach led to even bigger separation underlining the division into “ours-others” concept. Educators came to a conclusion that intercultural education should become an integral part of learning process without subdivision of students into minority and majority groups. Nowadays, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) (2005) define intercultural education as an …education which respects, celebrates and recognises the normality of diversity in all areas of human life. It sensitises the learner to the idea that humans have naturally developed a range of different ways of life, customs and worldviews, and that this breadth of human life enriches us all. It is education, which promotes equality and human rights, challenges unfair discrimination, and promotes the values upon which equality is built. According to the INTO (2002) it is also about “…respecting cultural difference and promoting anti-racism, it is not simply the knowledge of a variety of cultures. It aims to counter misconceptions and negative stereotyping of different cultures, religions and nationalities and seeks to develop an appreciation of other cultures in the context of a critical appreciation of local/Irish cultures. Intercultural education celebrates the positive aspects to cultural diversity as well as drawing attention to the power differences between groups and societies”. The UNESCO Guidelines on intercultural education published in 2007 identifies the key issues and challenges related to education and multiculturalism such as culture, culture and education, culture and language, culture and religion, but also cultural diversity and majority or minority cultures, multiculturalism and interculturalism. It also defines the role and objectives of intercultural education as learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. The guideline presents the legal framework to which intercultural education can make reference: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, international treaties and conventions, covenants, declarations and recommendations. Also the outcomes of the main international conferences are given and allow the educators to use them in forming the programme and developing new educational concepts. Finally three main principles that frame these guidelines are presented and followed by indications on how to achieve them. The general issues are the following: Principle I: Intercultural Education respects the cultural identity of the learner through the provision of culturally appropriate and responsive quality education for all. Principle II: Intercultural Education provides every learner with the cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to achieve active and full participation in society. Principle III: Intercultural Education provides all learners with cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills that enable them to contribute to respect, understanding and solidarity among individuals, ethnic, social, cultural and religious groups and nations. Intercultural education has been actively discussed by world leading politicians, researchers, educators and scientists for about four decades. The European Commission has �created a strong legal basis on which action for intercultural dialogue and against discrimination can also be developed in the education sector. These are the related documents that can be used while working over the curriculum:  Racial equality directive (2000/43/EC);  Employment framework directive (2000/78/EC);  Directive COM(2008) 426;  Renewed social agenda;  Intercultural dialogue support through EU programmes. Educators have come to a conclusion that modern learning process should be oriented at getting new skills, especially communicative ones, rather than gathering information and remembering facts. Teachers’ aim is to prepare students for real life in diverse society, saving learners’ own identity and respecting the others. The number of immigrants is constantly growing and newcomers are actively taking part in the life of communities they are coming to. Learners’ backgrounds differ in terms of religion, socio-economic status, parents’ education, values, attitudes, lifestyles and abilities. All these factors accentuate social and cultural pluralism. In Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools (2002), the Department of Education and Science explains the main points of intercultural education for children that can successfully be referred to any modern learning process, aiming to foster conditions conducive to pluralism in society. Intercultural education raises awareness of learners’ own culture and attunes them to the fact that there are other ways of behaving and value systems. It helps to develop respect for lifestyles different from their own so that learners can understand and appreciate each other. In view of the intense spread of English in the world, its teaching becomes global. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the Englishspeaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. One of the tasks today is often to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistics reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, wrong understanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. According to professor Claire Kramsch (1993), culture is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them. Wilga Rivers (1981) points out that we must focus on both appropriate content and activities that enable students to assimilate that content. Activities should encourage them to go beyond fact, so that they begin to perceive and experience vicariously the deeper levels of the culture of the speakers of the language. Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe has presented the detailed guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education useful for both educators and those who are responsible for curriculum planning. The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of Europe designed a programme of learning through languages aiming at developing plurilingual and intercultural pedagogic approaches. Educators understand the importance of intercultural education and developing cognitive skills and abilities in their students in order to make them successful in changing �multinational and multicultural world. At the same time intercultural education is aimed at recognizing socio-cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as respecting and understanding different groups in the same society. Undoubtedly, modern technologies for the creation of educational next-generation products will improve the efficiency of formation of linguistic and intercultural competence of the learner and help to lead a successful dialogue between the representatives of various cultures. References Fisher, S. The Challenge of Globalization in Africa. Yaoundé, Cameroon, 2001. Giles, H. Review of Educational Research Vol.16, No.1, Social Foundations of Education (Feb.1946), pp.39-45. Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools. Dublin, 2002. Kasatkina, N. Analyzing Language Choice among Russian-Speaking Immigrants to the United States. The University of Arizona, 2010. Kramsch, C. Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Montalto, N. A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941. New York: Garland, 1982. Rivers, W. Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Teune, H. Is Globalization An American Ideology? XV World Congress, International Sociology Association, Brisbane, Australia, 2002. INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/GuideEPI201 0_EN.pdf http://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/mtp4/broschure-mtp4-EN-web.pdf https://www.education.ie/en/Schools-Colleges/Information/Intercultural-EducationStrategy/mig_intercultural_education_strategy.pdf http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/intercultural.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2957 Title A name given to the resource INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Author Author Kulagina, Margarita Abstract A summary of the resource. The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/777ca86e7720a4b794bd1ddf720e549c.pdf 570aa45eb6c503aeeac0e421336a2983 PDF Text Text ASSESSING PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE OF L2 LEARNERS Marija Kusevska & Tatjana Ulanska & Biljana Ivanovska & Nina Daskalovska & Liljana Mitkovska University Goce Delchev-Stip & FON University Article History: Submitted: 08.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the components of pragmatic competence for L2 learners. Developing pragmatic competence in a second/foreign language has been addressed in many articles and publications on cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics (BardoviHarlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. Their stance is that communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 123). Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based test of pragmatic competence: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Research on interlanguage pragmatics often focuses on speech acts, politeness, use of formulaic expressions, mitigation, etc. In determining L2 learner’s pragmatic competence we face two major problems: 1. what components of learner’s interlanguage to measure; and 2. how to measure them. In this paper, we first define interlanguage pragmatics. Then we refer to issues referring to pragmatic competence and components that are relevant for its development. Finally, we discuss instruments and methods of testing interlanguage pragmatic competence. Keywords: interlanguage, speech acts, pragmatic competence, L2 learners �INTRODUCTION The main focus of this paper is on the components of pragmatic competence of L2 learners and their assessment. It resulted from a research related to the project “The role of explicit instruction in developing pragmatic competence in learning English and German as a foreign language.” The participants in the project are students of English and German at the Faculty of Philology at Goce Delcev University in Stip, Republic of Macedonia. The project was motivated by the importance of pragmatic knowledge, which allows learners to adequately communicate in the target language. The main goals of teaching foreign languages have long been preparing learners to communicate effectively in the language they are learning. Followers of the Communicative Method for decades have been highlighting the fact that knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical structures is not enough for successful communication in the target language. Learners need to be trained to choose the right linguistic means with reference to their interlocutors and their relationship with them. Having in mind this goal of language instruction, we may expect pragmatics to have the leading role in language learning and teaching. Unfortunately, it remains on the margins of foreign language teaching. In language learning textbooks it is represented only as much as it is necessary so that authors are not blamed for not following the modern approaches to language learning and still holding firmly to the traditional way in which grammar is most important, vocabulary is second, and there is a miscellaneous mixture of other areas, including pragmatics. LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING INTERLANGUGE PRAGMATICS There is a long tradition of research into cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics in which researchers address the issue of developing pragmatic competence in a foreign/second language (Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). Interlanguage pragmatics has been perceived and defined in various ways by researchers. The learner’s pragmatic ability according to Kasper and Blum-Kulka (1993, p.3) is seen as ‘a non-native speaker’s use and acquisition of linguistic action patterns in a second language’. Kasper and Schmidt (1996) claim that it has been modeled on cross-cultural pragmatics. There is a long list of researchers that have done cross-sectional or longitudinal studies on interlanguage pragmatics attempting to explain and define it but it was Kathleen Bardovi-Harling (1999) who showed her doubts that explaining and defining it makes it an acquisitional endeavor. Following this issue Barron (2003) in her book ‘Acquisition in Interlanguage Pragmatics’ presented valuable information for the process of acquisition of pragmatic competence as well as the �development of pragmatic competence, which is an area of research neglected in interlanguage pragmatics. Crystal (1985, p. 240) provides us with a broad definition that “pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication.” According to Crystal’s definition it is not only speech acts that are crucial for the successful communication but also the social context of discourse such as power and politeness, use of metaphor and irony, etc. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. In the CEFR the communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. The CEFR identifies the following matters as sociolinguistic competences: linguistic markers of social relations, politeness conventions, expressions of folk-wisdom, register differences, and dialect and accent. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p.123). INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS ISSUES The significance of pragmatic competence has been addressed by many researchers in the field of second/foreign language acquisition, but it is evident that the awareness level of the practitioners in language teaching is still on a critical low level. Studies have shown (Thomas, 1983, p. 97) that native speakers consider grammatical and lexical mistakes normal and expected but they tend to assume that learners possess the same pragmatic norms and respond in the same way as they would. The main pragmatic issues that often occur are misunderstandings between the speakers, participating in a conversation as a listener (backchannelling), understanding metalanguage and metapragmatics, understanding the unsaid and assessing the unsaid, avoiding a speech act to accommodate a target culture norm, nonverbal behavior. COMPONENTS FOR TESTING INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS In order to collect data and test the pragmatic competence a methodological method is required to be set. A probably most accurate and ideal method to test the pragmatic competence of L2 learners is to compare their comprehension and production to the one of native speakers. Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based language pragmatics test: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Numerous cross-cultural pragmatic studies have been conducted for empirical research purposes to study speech acts such as requests, apologies, refusals, complaints and suggestions, among many others (Beebe et al., 1990; Blum-Kulka, 1982; Cohen et al., 1986; �Gass & Neu, 1996; House & Kasper, 1987; Ikoma, 1993; Kasper, 1989; Olshtain & Weinbach, 1987; Takahashi & Beebe, 1987, 1993; Trosborg, 1995). Test development for interlanguage pragmatic assessment Pragmatic competence is understood as “the knowledge of the linguistic resources available in a given language for realizing particular illocutions, knowledge of the sequential aspects of speech acts, and finally, knowledge of the appropriate contextual use of the particular language’s linguistic resources” (Barron, 2003 p.10). Thus defined, pragmatic competence includes the ability to perform language functions and the knowledge of socially appropriate language use. Although it may seem that conversation, in which speech acts are embedded, is unsystematic, it is rule-governed by social and cultural rules. Social and cultural rules dictate the strategies and the linguistic means used in the given context. Yet, there are a number of tests that focus on one or the other (Hudson et al., 1995; Roever, 2005, 2006b; Bouton, 1988, 1994, 1999). As McNamara (2006) put it, we have to “keep it social, but practical.” Given that pragmatics is a fairly broad area, it is difficult to design a single test that assesses the entirety of a learner’s pragmatic competence. Again, in analogy to testing in general, it is possible to attain broader content coverage and test an appreciable chunk of pragmatic competence by using a test battery, but testing pragmatic competence as a whole is just as complex, time-consuming, and impractical as it would be to test language competence as a whole. Depending on the purpose of the test, different aspects of pragmatic competence can be tested. (McNamara, 2006, p. 65) However, because pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics are closely related, it is difficult to design a test that tests exclusively pragmalinguistics or sociopragmatics. Our view is that assessment of pragmatic competence must include both. In the process of preparing the testing of the speech acts there are several points that have normally become essential in the process of preparation of testing the pragmatic competence. The power of the speaker and the listener, the social distance between the speaker and the listener with respect to familiarity and solidarity, and the degree of imposition caused by the speech act situation are the three sociocultural variables of concern. INSTRUMENTS FOR ASSESSING INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATIC ABILITY There are several instrument widely accepted and used by researchers for testing pragmatic competence, such as Discourse Completion Task (DCT), roleplays, interviews, multiple choice questionnaires, corpus data. In this section of our paper we discuss the instruments and methods that we used for assessing the pragmatic competence of English and German language learners. Since assessment of L2 pragmatics has tended to focus on speech acts, for the purpose of our research project, we also limit ourselves to speech acts. We will refer to 1. some instruments used to measure pragmatic competence, 2. context parameters, i.e. the �setting in which the speech act takes place, 3. the importance of authenticity and 4. the importance of retrospection. The studies that we have looked at have most often used DCTs, oral or written, and role plays, for assessing learners’ pragmatic competence. Native-speaker performance is the benchmark against which we are judging nonnative speech act performance. The very fact that the field of language pragmatics continues to develop means that paradigms continue to shift and consequently language assessment measures must be constructed consistent with the newly emerging patterns. So, the question remains as to whether it is possible to construct a language assessment measure that accurately determines success at performance of speech acts. And in a truly sociolinguistic fashion, we would have to respond, “It depends” (Boxer & Cohen, 2004, p.323). The responses will be rated for: (1) ability to use the correct speech act; (2) typicality of expressions; (3) appropriateness of amount of speech and information given; (4) level of formality; (5) directness; and (6) politeness Discourse Completion Task (DCT) DCTs are the most criticized, but the most frequently used type of instrument for measuring pragmatic competence. DCTs are attractive because they “elicit something akin to real-world speech act performance and because they are still somewhat practical despite the need for rating at least they can be administered to large numbers of test takers at the same time.” (McNamara, 2006, p.65) Although there are many claims that DCTs do not replicate reality, and people do not use DCT responses in the same way that they use language in real-life communication, there are certain aspects that can be assessed with this instrument. McNamara (2006, p.67) points out that “although DCTs (and most multiple choice measures) measure knowledge and do not allow direct predictions of real-world performance, they can be thought of as measuring potential for performance, as knowledge is arguably a necessary precondition for performance.” The DCT that we used for assessing our language learners’ pragmatic competence consists of three parts referring to the three distinct speech acts: requests, apologies and complaints. In constructing the section on requests, we referred to the studies of Blum-Kulka, & Olshtain (1984), Economidou-Kogetsidis & Woodfield (2012), and Olshtain & Cohen (1990); for apologies we referred to Blum-Kulka, & Olshtain (1984), Ogiermann (2009), and Trosborg (1995); while for complaints we referred to Trosborg (1995). In order to eliminate any weaknesses the DCT was piloted with 20 students. After doing the DCT, the students were asked to provide Yes/No responses to the following statements: 1. The information provided in the situation is sufficient (enough). 2. The situation and the roles of the participants in the conversation are clear. 3. The situations reflect possible everyday situations. 4. The context of the situation is appropriate for Macedonian students. �5. The following situations should be removed from the list: apologies - /requests - /complaints 6. The following situations need improvement: apologies - /requests - /complaints On the basis of the students’ remarks we concluded that: - some of the situations needed further clarification about the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, e.g. if they are friends, how close they are; if they are acquaintances how well they know each other; - the instructions required students to say something in each of the situations. However, they felt that in some of the situations which were supposed to trigger complaints or apologies they would just opt out; - there were a few problems with vocabulary, e.g. dent in the fender; - there were two situations that many of the students did not understand and had to be rephrased. Role plays In comparison with DCTs, role plays are more similar to real life speech situations. As in real conversation “there is a distributed responsibility among interlocutors for the creation of sequential coherence, identities, meaning, and events.” (McNamara, 2006, p. 46). The context that they provide is more detailed, there are two interlocutors and their roles are described more precisely. There is also a moment of surprise. Although a great deal of the talk is predicted, the hearer cannot be sure what strategies, formulaic expressions and other linguistic means the speaker will use. The hearer may also be surprised by the attitude projected by the speaker and may need to adapt and modify its own responses in compliance with it. Interlocutors have to apply conversational strategies such as language planning, asking for clarification, conversation management, etc. All these characteristics make conversations look more like conversations in real life. Still, it cannot establish context as in real world. There is nothing at stake, the face of the speaker and the hearer is not really threatened, speakers may be bolder and risk more than in real life. There are, however, a few drawbacks in the realization of the role plays. It is more difficult to organize and manage the process of data collection. It is difficult to keep track of a large number of students and ensure that students doing a role play are of the same level of proficiency. It is also time consuming and difficult to transcribe the conversations. Most of the students found the role plays interesting. Yet, there were some who found it stressful. In our research, we used nine role plays, three for each of the speech acts. It would be interesting to compare the results from the DCT with the results from the role plays. In the following stages of our project it is intended to do so. Retrospective verbal report Kasper & Dahl (1991) called attention to the usefulness of retrospective verbal report for better determining the nature of possible transfer from L1 norms of speech behavior in nonnative �L2 speech act performance. The aim of such interview is to check if the students are aware of the norms of interaction in a given context: power, social distance and severity of offence/degree of imposition. Additionally we can check if the students are aware of the norms of interaction in the English and Macedonian culture (positive politeness/negative politeness; directness/indirectness) as well as how the actual environment influences their behavior (classroom, not natural environment). We made the following list of questions for this retrospective interview which immediately followed the role plays: 1. Are you happy with how you formulated your speech act? What were you influenced by? (setting, description of the situation, perceived relationship, perceived power/social distance/ degree of imposition/offence, classroom environment, pressure of being taped, your interlocutor’s behavior, what you thought you were expected to say, etc.) 2. Do you think you might want to alter what you have said? Why? 3. Would you say the same if your interlocutor’s role was different (professor/friend/neighbor/ mother/brother/sister)? What would you say in that case? Why? 4. Do you think if you were speaking to a native speaker of English you would say something different? Why? 5. Do you think a native speaker would formulate their request/apology/complaint in the same way? How would it be different? Why would s/he formulate it that way? 6. What would you say if you were speaking to a Macedonian speaker? How different is it from what you said to an English speaker? What is the difference a result of? 7. Which speech act do you find the easiest/most difficult to produce? Why? This kind of data can be instrumental in better understanding the products of such elicitation techniques. We may learn how the respondents actually perceived each situation (e.g. how they perceived the role status of the interlocutors, the imposition, seriousness of the offence, etc.), and how their perceptions influenced their responses, what they wanted to say vs. what they actually said, how they planned out their responses, and what they thought of going through the tasks altogether. CONCLUSION In this paper we discussed pragmatic competence, components relevant for its development, and some instruments for pragmatic competence assessment. In particular, we focused on speech acts. We described the battery of tasks that we developed for our project as well as their advantages and drawbacks. In the next stage of the project, we will proceed to comparing learners’ to native speakers’ performance and compiling a syllabus for speech act acquisition. The project referred to in this paper was motivated by the lack of valid data on communicative competences of Macedonian learners of English and German as well as by the need of tracing effective methods for reinforcing communication skills. The research will include contrastive analysis of speech acts, design of instruments for pragmatic competence assessment �and design of learning modules for developing pragmatic competence. The project anticipates placement of the learning modules on the Internet, thus making them available for the learners. The analysis of learners’ pragmatic competence after studying the modules will show to what extent explicit instruction can reinforce their communication ability. We believe that with this the project will make great contribution to the development of language learners’ communication skills. REFERENCES Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1999). Exploring the interlanguage of interlanguage pragmatics: A research agenda for acquisitional pragmatics. Language Learning 49, 677-713. Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics 11 (2), 131-146. Blum-Kulka, S. (1992). The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society. In R. J. Watts, S. Ide, & K. Ehlich, Politeness in language: Studies in its history, theory and practice (pp. 255-280). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: requests and apologies. Norwood: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Boxer, D., & Cohen, A. D. (2004). Studying speaking to inform second language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Cohen, A. D. (2004). Assessing speech acts in a second language. In D. Boxer, & A. D. Cohen, Studying speaking to inform second language learning (pp. 302-327). Clevedon/Buffalo/Toronto: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD. Cohen, A. D., & Ishihara, N. (2005). A web-based approach to strategic learning of speech acts. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota. Cohen, A. D., & Ishihara, N. (2005). Strategies for learning and performing L2 speech acts. Intercultural Pragmatics 2 (3), 275-301. Coulmas, F. (1981). Poison to your soul: Thanks and apologies contrastively viewed. In Conversational Routine (pp. 69-91). The Hague: Mouton. �Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 2nd edition. New York: Basil Blackwell. Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman. Fraser, B. (2010). Pragmatic competence: The case of hedging. In G. Kaltenböck, W. Mihatsch, & S. Schneider, New Approaches to Hedging (pp. 15-34). Bingley: Emerald. Hinkel, E. (2011). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. New York, NY: Routledge. Holmes, J. (1990). Apologies in New Zeland English. Language in Society, Vol. 19, No. 2, 155199. Ishihara, N., & Cohen, A. (2010). Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet. London: Longman. Kusevska, M. (1997). Speech acts: The act of complaining in English and Macedonian. MATESL thesis. Tempe, AZ, USA: Arizona State University. Liu, J. (2004). Measuring interlanguage pragmatic knowledge of Chinese EFL learners. PhD dissertation. City University of Hong Kong. McConachy, T., & Hata, K. (2013). Addressing textbook representations of pragmatics and culture. ELT Journal 67 (3), 294-301. McNamara, T. F., & Roever, C. (2006). Language testing: The social dimension. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. O'Keeffe, A., Clancy, B., & Adolphs, S. (2011). Introducing pragmatics in use. London/New York: Routledge. Olshtain, E., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1985). Cross-cultural pragmatics and the testing of communicative competence. Language Testing 2 (1), 16-30. Roever, C. (2005). "That's not fair!" Fairness, bias, and differential item functioning in language testing. University of Hawaii. Ross, S., & Kasper, G. (2013). Assessing second language pragmatics. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics 4 (2), 91-112. Trosborg, A. (2010). Pragmatics across languages and cultures. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. Wigglesworth, G., & Yates, L. (2007). Mitigating difficult requests in the workplace: What learners and teachers need to know. TESOL Quarterly 41, 791-803. �Yamashita, S. (2008). Investigating interlanguage pragmatic ability: What are we testing? In E. Soler, & A. Martinez-Flor, Investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 201-223). Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2959 Title A name given to the resource ASSESSING PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE OF L2 LEARNERS Author Author Kusevska, Marija Ulanska, Tatjana Ivanovska, Biljana Daskalovska, Nina Mitkovska, Ljiljana Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to explore the components of pragmatic competence for L2 learners. Developing pragmatic competence in a second/foreign language has been addressed in many articles and publications on cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics (Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. Their stance is that communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 123). Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based test of pragmatic competence: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Research on interlanguage pragmatics often focuses on speech acts, politeness, use of formulaic expressions, mitigation, etc. In determining L2 learner’s pragmatic competence we face two major problems: 1. what components of learner’s interlanguage to measure; and 2. how to measure them. In this paper, we first define interlanguage pragmatics. Then we refer to issues referring to pragmatic competence and components that are relevant for its development. Finally, we discuss instruments and methods of testing interlanguage pragmatic competence. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/671e6b0b652a9a3ad5f175d260fee5b7.pdf 3fe4fcfea473349bc74d4db95c6629b9 PDF Text Text ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY – SPANISH MEETS CROATIAN Maša Musulin University of Zagreb Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The phoneme is conceived as a mental image that is stored in our mind and then represented by sounds in speech and graphemes in writing for phonologically based alphabets. The acquisition of L2 phonology includes two very important skills – reading and writing. The information stored in the mind of a speaker interferes with new information produced by the L2 (Robinson, Ellis 2008; Nathan, 2008). What is similar or equal in the target language to one's native language is, while unknown, incorporated one way or another into an existing model, based on prototypicality (Pompeian, 2004, Moreno Fernández, 2010). The process of teaching the sounds, letters and alphabet to foreign students is much shorter than for native speakers because to a foreign student must be given a tool for writing as soon as possible as they have to write what they are learning and memorize new language units (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). This paper discusses one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face when they are introduced to phonology through letters which represent Croatian sounds in order to display the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts. The subjects are ten students from Spain and Latin America. Their task was to read a group of words containing sounds that were predictably hard for them, minimal pairs and a short text. Keywords: phoneme, grapheme, letter, phonological awareness, foreign language �1. INTRODUCTION As literacy has a big impact on phonological awareness in languages with phonological writing, the graphemes that represent the phonemes, including letters, make an integral part of their mental image. This relation is rather complex because language skills also play an important role in the process of L2 phonology acquisition. Foreign students do not perceive only different L2 phonemes as strange, but also those who are equal in speech to their mother tongue but different in writing (Jelaska, Gulešić Machata 2006). Although the alphabet is very useful for looking for words in the dictionary at the beginning of learning, it has a strong impact on phonological awareness, and the mental image of the phoneme (Jelaska 2004, Jelaska, Gulešić Machata 2014). As reading and writing are incorporated in the class at the beginning of every language course, foreign language students often had not had the opportunity to encounter the sound representations of the phonological system of Croatian or any other target language. Therefore, teaching the letters of the alphabet to foreigners in their introductory L2 classes is not advisable without presenting them the sound system of the target language first (Jelaska, Musulin 2014). Some research has been conducted on the influence of the L1 phonological system in reading and writing of Croatian as L2: recognizing the pronunciation of American speakers (NovakMilić 2005), evaluating the pronunciation of various foreign Croatian learners (Šafarić, Ćalušić, Mildner 2006), or assessing orthographic competence (B1 level) which includes the writing of Croatian sounds (Udier, Grgić 2012). This paper will focus on one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face at the very beginning of the course: reading words and texts written with a different spelling system. Those are the results of the complicated relation between the phonemes and graphemes of the L2 language being studied, the mother tongue of the students, and their mutual influences (v. Jelaska, Musulin 2011, Musulin 2011).When students are introduced to phonology through letters that represent Croatian sounds, the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts can be observed. As the letters that represent particular sounds are the result of phonological analysis, the same sound may appear different in the mental image of the speakers, not based on the sounds themselves but on the basis of writing (which causes variety of written words forms with the same or very similar phonological units in different languages). In contact with L2, writing and reading the rules of L1 are transferred to it, causing positive or negative transfer. In early foreign language classes, or the main pages of the manual for beginners, sounds and letters are the first grammatical concepts. Although something similar happens with native speakers, the process of teaching sounds, letters and alphabet for foreign students takes much less time because foreign students must be given a tool to write down, as soon as possible, what they have learned and to memorize the new language units. This approach has traditionally been present for centuries (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). However, little attention has been given to the writing and reading in the initial teaching of foreign language, unlike the teaching of writing in the mother tongue. 2. COMPARATIVE APPROACH The comparisons of phonological systems of two languages reveal that it is necessary to compare several levels: the sounds that are different in listening and in writing, the �graphemes that are differently presented in writing and reading, but also the letters that occur in writing (Musulin 2014). Namely, some phonemes coincide in both languages in speaking, but on the graphemic level they do not have to correspond, which is just one of the problems. This paper will focus on Spanish language for two reasons. One is that in the Spanish speaking countries of South America there is a large Croatian community which consists of 200 000 to 500 000 Croats (Antić, 2002), mostly emigrants coming at the beginning of 20 th century and after the Second World War. They are now 4th or 5th generation and their mother tongue is Spanish. Every year some of them come to Croatia to learn Croatian. Some of them are heritage speakers (Valdes 2000), i.e. students raised in a home where Croatian is spoken in their household and able to speak or at least understand, which means they are bilingual, at least up to a certain point. Talking about the motivation to learn the heritage language, according to one’s origin and identity, Z. Jelaska (Jelaska 2005; Jelaska, Hržica, 2005) advises to differentiate between the two terms, in Croatian and English: nasljedni govornici 'heritage speakers' and predački govornici 'ancestral speakers'. According to her, in accordance with Valdes, a heritage speaker is a person who has at least one communication language skill, understanding, but typically speaking as well. The ancestral speakers by her definition are classroom learners linguistically similar to other foreign language students, and the only difference may be familiarity with their ancestors' culture and affective attitude. The Anglo-Saxon tradition continues to use the term 'heritage speaker(s)' for both categories - the term was discussed in detail by Beaudrie and Fairclough (2012). 2.1. SPANISH AND CROATIAN PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM As the phoneme is realized by a letter and a sound, it is indispensable to look at both in a phonological comparison. The Spanish alphabet has 27 letters and Croatian has 30. The Spanish alphabet is shown in (a) and the Croatian one in (b), with different letters in bold. (a) (b) abcdefghijklmnñopqrstuvwxyz a b c č ć d đ dž e f g h i j k l lj m n nj o p r s š t u v z ž As can be seen in (c), there are 22 identical letters, 4 special letters in Spanish, 8 Croatian letters that do not exist in Spanish, but among the same letters 6 are read differently, i.e. represent different sounds. Those 6 and 8 letters that do not exist in Spanish could make difficulties for Spanish learners of Croatian as L2. (c) i. ii. iii. iv. identical letters abcdefghijklmnoprstuvz letters that exist only in Spanish ñqwxy letters that exist only in Croatian č ć đ š ž lj nj identical letters representing different sounds cghjvz dž Croatian digraphs lj and nj represent sounds found in Spanish: [ʎ] and [ŋ], which means that lj is Croatian equivalent of Spanish ll and nj of Spanish ñ, as in (d.i) and (d.ii). Croatian letter č is an equivalent of Spanish digraph ch, letter ć represents a very similar sound, as in (d.iii). The distinction was not considered important in this paper because some Croatians, mostly from the capital city and north Croatia, as native speakers, do not make this distinction. The same could be said for letters and sounds dž and đ. �(d) i. sound [ʎ] ii. sound [ŋ] iii. sound [tʃ ] / [ʨ] Croatian lj Spanish Croatian nj Spanish ñ Croatian č / ć Spanish ch ll Sounds represented by Croatian letters š, ž and đ, as well as digraph dž, listed in (e), do not have Spanish equivalents. (e) letter š sound [ʃ] ž [ʒ] đ [ʥ] dž [ʤ] Croatian letters c g h j v z represent Croatian sounds found in (f), while in Spanish they represent sounds listed in (g). (f) letter c sound [ts] g [g] h [x] j [ɩ] v [ʋ] z [z] (g) letter c sound [θ] g [g] h [-] j [x] v [b] z [θ] It should be noted that some of these letters are conditioned by the surrounding letters or their distribution in the syllable. For example sounds [ʎ] and [ŋ], pronounced the same in both languages, are conditioned in Spanish by their place in the syllable. They could never stand at the end of the word in Spanish, while in Croatian they could. 3. DATA ANALYSIS Ten students of Croaticum1 at the University of Zagreb were tested. They were between 21 and 37 years old, male and female, 5 were coming from Spanish speaking countries in America (2 from Argentina, 2 from Chile and 1 from Mexico) and 5 from Spain. All of those students had never before participated in formal learning of Croatian. The students from South America were ancestral learners; the students from Spain were foreign language learners. Their reading skill of Croatian words was tested before they had started their formal classes. Students were not instructed about Croatian alphabet or phonological system. All readings were recorded. The students were given three types of texts; one with words in which (by author’s prediction) the difficult sounds and letters occur, one with minimal pairs of words and one text with the letters that differentiate in both languages. In Table 1, for easier overview, the students are presented by countries from where they originate and are coded with numbers. The age and gender did not show any prevalence on the result so they are excluded from the Table 1. Only those Croatian letters that were different in both languages, either as forms of letters or by reading are presented in the table 1. The letters that are correctly read, i.e. pronounced in Croatian, are marked with (+). Although some sounds, for example [s] and [c], have a somewhat different pronunciation, phonological intelligibility was the distinguishing factor. Therefore, if a sound produced in reading was 1 Center for teaching Croatian as foreign language at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb. �phonologically recognizable, it was considered well read. Subsequently, the letters that were not pronounced correctly (as recognizable Croatian sounds) are marked with (-). For example, word konj 'horse' was always pronounced like [koni] instead of [koŋ] (presumably because Spanish does not tolerate palatals at the end of word). Croatian letters that were sometimes pronounced correctly and sometimes not, mostly depending on letter distribution in the word, are marked with (+/-). Table 1: Croatian letters and Spanish learners’ success in reading them by country. Lettres č/ć s c š ž d/ v z h g lj dž Participants Argentina1 - +/ + + + +/+ + Argentina2 - +/ + + + +/+ + Chile +/+/+/ + + + + Chile +/+/ + + + + + + Mexico - +/ +/- +/ + + + +/Spain1 - - +/ + + + + Spain2 - - + + + +/- +/ Spain3 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Spain4 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Spain5 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Correct 10 Distribution dependent 0 (correct / incorrect) Incorrect 0 Total 10 nj j +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ - +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ - 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4 6 10 10 8 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 9 10 10 5 1 0 5 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 2 10 3.1. Successful reading Two (three) letters all informants pronounced correctly: letter s and letters č/ć. Letter s exists in Spanish, although it is more apical in Peninsular Spanish, and it was pronounced intelligibly in reading – this is an example of positive transfer. The distinction č/ć (prepalatal / palatal affricate) was not considered important because many Croatians, mostly from the capital city and north Croatia, also do not make this distinction. The success in reading could be explained by cultural knowledge of Spanish learners who �must have met letter ć as typical and frequent letter in Croatian surnames (for example Kovačić). 3.2. Unsuccessful reading Letters c, š and ž were not read (pronounced) as Croatian letters should be even once. Letter c was never pronounced correctly, but as [k] or [s], depending on distribution. Letter c is read (pronounced) differently in Spanish; hence this is an instance of negative transfer. Letters š and ž do not have Spanish equivalents and Croatian L2 learners simply could not read them. The letter š was pronounced as [tʃ], and ž as [ʃ]. It was hard for learners to make a distinction between these letters because they have no equivalent in Spanish (in later investigation where their listening skill was tested, they also had difficulties hearing those sounds). Letters đ and dž were pronounced correctly only by one student. 3.3. Partially successful reading Some letters were read more or less successfully because they represent sounds that exist in both languages but are written differently or vice versa. Letters lj and nj were pronounced correctly in the cases where the letter distribution corresponds in both languages by all participants. This is due to the fact that, although not as graphemes, those phonemes exist as sounds. Therefore they were pronounced correctly except at the end of the word (unacceptable in Spanish letter distribution). Letter g was pronounced as Croatian [g] when it was preceding back and low vowels (o, u, a), which is a case of positive transfer. Negative transfer caused pronunciation [x] before e and i, as in Spanish. Letter h and j were pronounced correctly in cases where the letter distribution corresponds in both languages. Letter h is not pronounced in Spanish but it is always pronounced as [x] in Croatian. Letter j is pronounced as [x] in Spanish and as [j] in Croatian. Letters v and z were pronounced correctly by Hispano-American students only. These could be attributed to the fact that in South and Central America, due to greater exposure to the different languages (immigrants), v is sometimes pronounced as [v] and z [z], while in Spain v is always [b] and z is always [θ]. These are the only two letters where a difference on the diatopic level was shown. However, Hispano-American students pronounced v correctly all the time, while they pronounced z correctly depending on distribution. 4. CONCLUSION The findings mostly confirm previous research that the same letters which are similarly pronounced in L1 and L2 were easy for the students to read, enabling positive transfer. Letters that do not exist in Spanish and those that exist in Spanish but are read differently in Croatian may or may not cause problems in the initial reading of L2, as different factors may play a role: distribution in L1, grapheme representation, possible transfer from other L2 letter-sound relationships, or cultural knowledge. Therefore, some special Croatian letters, as �well as the same letters representing different sounds were simply mispronounced, but some were pronounced as Croatian phonemes. It shows that the initial reading of L2 letters and words is a more complex language skill as is often perceived when a L2 alphabet is being presented at the introduction of a beginners class. As this short study deals with the initial knowledge of phonological systems in reading, future studies should, on one hand, deal with Spanish learners of the Croatian pronunciation of allophones, and on the other hand on pronunciation of sounds on the basis of hearing. The findings could be useful for letter and reading teaching of other languages as well. References: 1. Antić, LJ. (2002) Hrvati i Amerika [Croats and America], Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada - Hrvatska matica iseljenika, Zagreb, 2002 2. Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D. M.; Goodwin, J. M. (1996) Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Jelaska, Z. (2005) Materinski, drugi, strani i ostali jezici u Jelaska et all. Hrvatski kao drugi i strani jezik, Zagreb, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, (págs. 24-37). 4. Jelaska, Z.; Gulešić-Machata, M. (2005) Prototypicality and the Concept of Phonem, Glossos 6 (págs. 1-13) 5. Jelaska, Z.; Hržica, G. (2005) In search for a missing part: identification and generational motivation in learning the L2, EUROSLA, Dubrovnik, 13-17 september (poster) 6. Jelaska, Z., Musulin, M. (2012) Slovo i slovopis španjolskoga i hrvatskoga jezika, Lahor, 2, 12 (págs. 211-239) 7. Jelaska, Z., Musulin, M. (2014) La enseñanza inicial de la composición fonológica en la segunda o lengua extranjera: los fonemas y el alfabeto, SRAZ, Zagreb (in print) 8. Valdés, G. (2000) Teaching Heritage Languages: An Introduction for SlavicLanguage-Teaching Professionals in Olga Kagan and Benjamin Rifkin, eds. Learning and Teaching of Slavic Languages and Cultures: Toward the 21st Century. Bloomington, Indiana, Slavica Publishers. Curriculum vitae Born on 1976 in Zagreb. In 2002 she got a degree in Croatian language and literature and Spanish language and literature at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy. In 2000/01 she spent six months in Rosario, Argentina, where she taught Croatian in the Croatian cultural center, and in 2002/03 she worked as a foreign instructor at the University of Alcalá, Spain. Since 1998, she has been working as an associate of University School of Croatian Language and Literature, and since 2013 she has been working as an instructor of ecourses of Croatian language HIT and HEJ. Since 2011 she has been working on the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Spanish language where she teaches Spanish linguistics. She is an author or co-author of scientific and professional papers, one Croatian-Spanish and Spanish-Croatian dictionary, one book chapter and she presented her work at many international scientific conferences in Croatia and Europe. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2960 Title A name given to the resource ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY – SPANISH MEETS CROATIAN Author Author Musulin, Maša Abstract A summary of the resource. The phoneme is conceived as a mental image that is stored in our mind and then represented by sounds in speech and graphemes in writing for phonologically based alphabets. The acquisition of L2 phonology includes two very important skills – reading and writing. The information stored in the mind of a speaker interferes with new information produced by the L2 (Robinson, Ellis 2008; Nathan, 2008). What is similar or equal in the target language to one's native language is, while unknown, incorporated one way or another into an existing model, based on prototypicality (Pompeian, 2004, Moreno Fernández, 2010). The process of teaching the sounds, letters and alphabet to foreign students is much shorter than for native speakers because to a foreign student must be given a tool for writing as soon as possible as they have to write what they are learning and memorize new language units (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). This paper discusses one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face when they are introduced to phonology through letters which represent Croatian sounds in order to display the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts. The subjects are ten students from Spain and Latin America. Their task was to read a group of words containing sounds that were predictably hard for them, minimal pairs and a short text. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PC Romance languages,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2cbd989b477f128aade5d9f8ee1a4b12.pdf de4dae67da572b6b717cd5ff53c07cee PDF Text Text STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES ABOUT THE ‘OTHER’ AS AN UNAVOIDABLE PART OF BRITISH LITERATURE AND CULTURE Olivera Petrović-Tomanić Teachers' Training Faculty, Bijeljina Article History: Submitted: 05.06.2015 Accepted: 10.07.2015 Abstract: The concept of the ‘other’ is an inherent part of understanding one’s identity, since people define their roles through their relations toward ‘others’. Generally speaking, the ‘other’ is everyone who is detached and different from one’s self or one’s true nature. ‘Otherness’ became the subject of research in postmodern British literature in terms of its diversity and variety, divergence and disagreement with standard, conventional and established. To demonstrate how prejudices are widespread and what their role in literature is, the selection of British novels of the 20th century has been made with the emphasis on the second part of the century and postmodern British novel. The analysis has proved that stereotypes are indeed unavoidable part of British culture and literature and exposed their particular role in works of literature. The second half of the twentieth century brings seismic shift of literary and national identity: The English novel was replaced by novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. This is the main reason for selection of the British novels of the late 20th century that are representative both for their artistic quality and influence. The analysis of selected works from modern and postmodern periods with the regard to stereotypes and prejudices about 'other' undoubtedly pointed out that mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. Key words: ‘other’, stereotypes, prejudices, postmodern British novel, identity, diversity. �1. INTRODUCTION: THE CONCEPT OF ‘OTHER’ The concept of the 'other' is one of the most important in the postcolonial theory. The authors of ‘Post-Colonial Studies, The Key Concepts’ state that, in general terms, the ‘other’ is anyone who is separate from one’s self. The existence of others is crucial in defining what is ‘normal’ and in locating one’s own place in the world. The colonized subject is characterized as ‘other’ through discourses such as primitivism and cannibalism, as a means of establishing the binary separation of the colonizer and colonized and asserting the naturalness and primacy of the colonizing culture and world view. (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 2000) The term 'other' is largely used in existential philosophy and in defining the relationship between ourselves and others in the creation of self-awareness and the idea of identity. In the Introduction of her most famous work The Second Sex (1949) French writer and the representative of the French philosophy of the twentieth century Simone de Beauvoir writes about women and the concept of ‘other’ and, in a special way, she reflects on the concept of the other. The category of the Other is as primordial as consciousness itself. In the most primitive societies, in the most ancient mythologies, one finds the expression of a duality – that of the Self and the Other. This duality was not originally attached to the division of the sexes; it was not dependent upon any empirical facts. The feminine element was at first no more involved in such pairs as Uranus-Zeus, Sun-Moon, and Day-Night than it was in the contrast between Good and Evil, lucky and unlucky auspices, right and left, God and Lucifer. Otherness is a fundamental category of human thought. (Beauvoir, 1949, transl. and ed. H.M. Parshley, 1953) In general, awareness of one's identity is always built on the basis of awareness of what we are not, or, in other words, on the basis of awareness of others. In this paper, 'other' will be viewed in terms of its diversity and variety, differences and disagreements with the norm, normal and accepted. The term 'other' is taken from philosophy to mark a change in the Western understanding of the relationship between consciousness and the world that surrounds us. However, this term has changed the focus of the analysis and walked away from this philosophical understanding of the 'other'. The concept of 'other' is now being used in the political, cultural, linguistic and religious context. Whether viewed from the standpoint of ideology, psychoanalysis or discourse it is impossible to create the subject without observing its 'other'. The possibility of dialogue between the various racial and cultural groups also became one of the important uses and meanings of this term. 2. STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE ABOUT ‘OTHER’ Although it is quite common in everyday use and in the scientific circles, the word 'stereotype' has an interesting origin. This word is used to denote a typographic element that was used during the printing instead of the original. The American journalist Walter Lippmann merged the metaphor and called the stereotype the image in our hands. Both 'cliché' and 'stereotype' originate from the world of press. So 'cliché' is the French word for the printing �surface of the stereotype. In the English language the word 'stereotype' first appears in its modern sense in 1850. as a noun and it has the meaning of a picture or a notion eternized without a single change. (Brown, 1995) Thus, in the original meaning the stereotype is the imprint of a fixed style in the printing technique. By analogy, in the social sciences the term is used for schematic, simplistic and hardly changeable attitude towards someone or something. The term originated in the period of emerging and development of racial, ethnic, religious and social intolerance. In essence, stereotyping is wrong and unjustified broad generalization. Therefore, each group stereotype containing emotionally negative assessment of an ethnic, racial, religious or a social group is interpreted as a prejudice. Along with personal stereotypes, cultural norms and social stereotypes are precisely defined in the middle of the last century (Bender & Hastorf, 1950) as one of the most serious prejudice in the perception of a person. This prejudice means that those who make judgments have generalized expectations about how others are motivated, how they behave, think and so on, and applied these norms or stereotypes, without exception, in assessing the others. Various examples and studies have shown that social stereotypes as the embodiment of social norms are among the most powerful determinants in the perception of a person. Going back to the problem of setting the boundaries between personal and social stereotypes, it is easily noticeable that a false strong link between 'self' and 'other' can appear if these entities are assessed and placed into stereotypes based on cultural norms - that is, systematic variations in assessment of 'self' arising from the same source, or norms, as well as systematic variations in the assessment of 'other'. In this case it would be wrong to say that 'being' is projected onto the 'other', but, in fact, the same cultural stereotypes are projected on both the 'being' and the 'other'. In the recent decades, this concept begins to occupy a central place in the humanities, and one of the results is that the concept of 'other' is being on the right track to replace the older, somehow worn out, concept of stereotype. Its further use, without connecting to the 'other', does not bring more of the same critical success and the same modern touch. Newer and more modern concept is compatible with the stereotype and can be used to revive and expand its critical applications. Michael Pickering in the chapter on the concept of 'other' is trying to bring the two concepts in the analytical relationship, claiming that they complement each other and help each other as the conceptual terms in the critical vocabulary. ‘The stereotype and the Other is used to control the ambivalent and to create boundaries. Stereotypes are a way of dealing with the instabilities arising from the division between self and non-self by preserving an illusion of control and order. (Pickering, 2001) 3. POSTCOLONIAL CONCEPT OF ‘OTHER’ IN THE FIRST PART OF THE 20TH CENTURY One of the most important concepts in the entire postcolonial theory, the concept of the 'other', and its reflections in literature, are presented in three novels that represent England of the �first half of the twentieth century in the best way. Heart of Darkness (1902) by Joseph Conrad, A Passage to India (1924) by E.M. Forster and The Heart of the Matter (1948) by Graham Greene serve as a nearly inexhaustible source of examples to show imperialism, colonial relations, the dying empire, Britain's diversity and culture of the enslaved nations, creating inevitable the 'other' and the stereotypes and prejudices that simply thrive in such historical and social circumstances. Heart of Darkness is interpreted and explained from the standpoint of imperialism and racial prejudices, as well as from Conrad’s representation of Africa and Africans through the narrator Marlowe as a demonic 'other'. Complex social relations between Englishmen and Indians in A Passage to India have been discussed through the topic of friendship, innumerable differences of the two cultures and the creation of the 'other' which was dealt by a large number of post-colonial critics. Also, Green's Africa as ‘a place you've dreamed of’, ‘the blank unexplored continent the shape of the human heart’ will not remain untainted by stereotypes and prejudices of both the colonizers and the colonized. What connect these three selected pieces are not only postcolonial themes and 'otherness', but also the affection of their authors to the idea of adventure stories. None of the three authors may not be, strictly speaking, considered a writer of travelogue and adventure novels, but the political and social conditions of the time imposed the issues related to the rule of Empire and the 'size of the nation'. The size of the nation involved the occupied territories, and in the minds of the then politicians and citizens, the British colonies were equated with the British power and wealth. The Empire meant open opportunities, even for writers. They felt that all these distant lands invite the English to come with the promise that they would be rewarded for their English courage and strength. But what is, perhaps, the most important thing, the Empire offered the penmen broadening of horizons both at the moral and geographical level. The Empire meant more personal power, more heroism, greatness available in these remote areas more than at home, but, at the same time, it meant more cruelty, corruption and monstrosity, extraordinarily shown in Conrad's Heart of Darkness. The cults of adventure and implicit imperialism have long been an important part of English life and the centre of cultural habits. There was, for example, the cult of geography, geographical maps and images of distant places, the cult of travel and research, studies of primitive tribes, the cult of the ocean and the British Navy, British sailors, all forms of swimming and sailing, rock climbing, amateur geology and botany, and all those activities that are meant to be British, healthy and heroic, which are thought to contribute to the cult of adventure and reinforce the myth of the great British Empire. Joseph Conrad was, on the one hand, a hero and a favorite to the readers who were thrilled by adventure novels, and, on the other hand, he was a hero of the opposite side. In his early novels we can notice dreams of treasure, gold and diamonds, as well as the abundant use of the motif of adventure reverie. He admitted that his favorite novels of childhood were adventurous, then the biographies of the great explorers, as well as all kinds of geographical texts. This youthful enthusiasm turned into a big disappointment, especially caused by his journey to the Congo in 1890 where he was faced with the Belgian imperialism and this �experience compelled him to write Heart of Darkness. The sharp decline of Conrad interest in adventure ideas, from the boyish enthusiasm to the disappointment in mature age, Martin Green explains with the political history of the empire in decline and with Conrad’s temperament since he was inclined to such disappointments on the other grounds as well. Basically, he is often represented and identified with the European conscience of the time. (Green, 1984) While he created a true cult of the English adventurous heroism thanks to his willing choice of England as a country, he even became the English sailor, he could not hide the disappointment after the First World War. There was nothing that looked like an honorable and courageous view of the war, and that, along with the Allies’ condemnation of colonialism at its end, has created the need for the anti-imperialist literature. However, Conrad had never become anti-imperialist writer. Heart of Darkness has clear motifs of adventure stories and imperialist themes. It is necessary to emphasize that Conrad was far from attacking the English imperialism in this novel. It is quite confidently praised in the opening pages of the novel: 'The river Thames, we are told, had known and served all the men of whom the nation is proud – from Sir Francis Drake to Sir John Franklin, knights all, titled and untitled – the knights – errant of the sea. It had borne all the ships whose names are like jewels flashing in the night of time (..) Hunters for gold or pursuers of fame, they all had gone out on that stream, bearing the sword, and often the torch, messengers of the might within the land, bearers of a spark from the sacred fire. What greatness had not floated on the ebb of that river into the mystery of an unknown earth! The dreams of men, the seed of commonwealths, the germs of empire.' (Conrad, 1994) This is, doubtlessly, one of the most direct and overt glorification of the English history. When Conrad's hero Marlow says ‘this was also one of the dark places of the Earth’ meaning is clearly contrastive - even England used to be uncivilized - and undoubtedly he influences the reader to think of the size which England meanwhile reached. For the setting of his best novel A Passage to India (1924) E. M. Forster chose a country where he was not born, where he did not spend a lot of time, and he had already been a famous novelist who dealt with purely English issues before wrote anything about India. The general topic of the novel is the inability of the Empire to understand and defeat India. At a basic level, it is the story of the British Empire in which Forster ridicules the administrative class. He presents them as people who are totally unable to understand or cooperate with their Indian colleagues and subordinates. They are also, from Forster’s point of view, incapable to create any kind of normal life for themselves in India - except a pale copy of the petty-bourgeois life in England. Martin Green believes that Forster, on the next level, tries to include in the Empire the remnants and traces of the failed Muslim empire and Muslim culture in India. This doubling of the material even more highlights and reinforces the anti-imperialist thesis. (Green, 1984) �One of the Englishmen that Forster describes in his novel is Mr. Turton. During the party which aims to bring the Indians and the English together, he was really trying to make this mission successful. He made pleasant comments, made some occasional joke, but he knew something that would undermine the reputation of each guest and that is why he was very superficial. Miss Derek represents a much more inferior kind of Anglo-Indians since she viewed the whole peninsula as a comic opera. Turton is undoubtedly a more dignified and generous until the moment when an Indian is accused of the harassment an Englishwoman. Then behind the ostensible heroism we can see him becoming blind and deaf. ‘I have had twenty five years experience of this country’- he paused, and 'twenty five years' seemed to fill the waiting room with their staleness and ungenerosity - 'and during those twenty five years I have never known anything but disaster result when English people and Indians attempt to be socially intimate. Intercourse, yes. Courtesy, by all means. Intimacy - never, never.’ (Forster, 1979) It is obvious that Forster is pointing here to the weakness and starch which cast a shadow on the reliable qualities of Anglo-Indians. We come to the so-called Catholic novelist Graham Greene and his famous novel The Heart of the Matter (1948). A number of elements typical of the works of Kipling, Conrad’s motifs of adventure story, post-imperialist environment, as well as similarities with Agatha Christie and her typical characters may be found in this work. The frequent use of the imperialist criteria related to social status is quite surprising. Greene constantly ridicules Wilson and Harris for the lack of strength and bravery, the failure typical of the ruling class. This is rather uncommon since it is in direct opposition to the officially proclaimed 'Catholic' sensitivity. Apart from the obvious (anti) imperialist themes and elements of adventure stories, these three novels have another connecting feature – the same postcolonial feeling of insecurity in the main characters. Thus, for example, Greene’s hero Scobie gets into a lot of suspicious activities and decisions that lead him to a terrible dilemma, a moral crisis and the suicide at the end. Readers cannot get rid of the feeling that the environment in the colony certainly contributes to it - in the blend of the unspoiled natural beauty and the extreme lack of basic living conditions, where, in Greene's words, ‘human nature hasn’t had time to disguise itself‘ and where ‘you could love human beings nearly as God loved them, knowing the worst.’ (Greene, 1971) 4. POSTCOLONIAL WRITING: POSTMODERN BRITISH NOVEL The second half of the twentieth century brings a monumental change of both literary and national identity: English novel has been replaced by a novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. Brian Shaffer (2006) in his study of the novels in English written between 1950 and 2000 notes that what used to be situated on the margins of the canonical �literature is now clearly in its very heart: the novel in the English language is now truly international product with all Anglophone postcolonial writing, as well as with the works of immigrants from former colonies and from all over the world that are read and critically assessed as British. Equally important as English novelists of this period, non-English writers, with no doubt, dictate literary parameters and attract huge attention. In the post-colonial era the questions of identity and nationality have become complex and difficult to determine. This is so apparent in the post-war Britain which copes with the collapse of the Empire followed by the process of national redefinition, both in terms of the international status and in terms of the population structure. Novel, and literature in general, proved to be an excellent source for research of hybrid cultural forms that have emerged in England which is constantly changing and becoming a truly multicultural. However, this is not so simple story that celebrates Britain's diversity in cultural terms. The identities of immigrants described in the post-war novels are often vulnerable, and their experiences in the new society are painful. Dominic Head (2002) explains it by the transitional nature of the postcolonial expression in the twentieth century. Postcolonial identity should be properly understood as a process not as the arrival, while vulnerability may be explained by the hostile nature of the British and especially English society, which is usually described as insensitive and often ruthless to the goals of active multiculturalism. In such social and cultural circumstances, stereotypes and prejudices about the other nations and cultures have become inevitable, and the postcolonial concept of the 'other' has reflected itself in all known forms of the racial, class, political and sexual diversities. One of the first writers of the recent generation who openly called for a change of monocultural definitions of the British national identity was Hanif Kureishi. With partly Asian origin (Pakistani father, English mother), he could personally experience numerous prejudices against Asians in the British society. His, nowadays iconic, call for the inevitable introduction of 'a new way to be British', became the main subject of many of his works, and among others the main subject of his most famous novel, The Buddha of Suburbia (1990). It seems that no novel of social conditions in England created so realistic, vivid and poignant picture of the changes that took place on the island in the seventies and the eighties of the twentieth century. It clearly presented the changes of the term 'Englishness' in the multicultural British society. Two writers of East-Asian origin often associated with 'colored British' writing are Timothy Mo, born in Hong Kong (under the English rule from 1841 to 1997) of Chinese father and English mother and Kazuo Ishiguro, whose both parents are Japanese who emigrated to England. Mo is certainly best known for his humorous novel Sour-sweet (1982) which deals with the Chinese immigrants in London. The food is used as a metaphor for dislocation and rootlessness as the inseparable parts of the emigrant experience, as well as for a shortcut to cultural integration. Mo’s voice is one of the strongest among the writers who explore the impact of colonial rule on the formation of the cultural identity of immigrants in the imperial megalopolis. He shares the same interest with writers of his generation for the problems of migration, dislocation and biculturalism. Mo skillfully depicts the portraits of immigrants who �crossed the path from the colonial periphery to the center of the Empire, but also experienced all the trauma of exile, culture shock and distress that accompany the adaptation to the new environment. Through the story of adapting to a new culture in the novel Sour-sweet he shows what it looks like when England is the 'other' in the eyes of Chinese immigrants. He also presents the inevitable stereotypes and prejudices that undoubtedly color immigrants’ view of England and its inhabitants. Despite a strong commitment to traditionalism and insisting on cultural authenticity that Mo illustrated by numerous examples of the rejection of change and cultural novelties typical for Chinese immigrants in London, it is clear that assimilation is inevitable and that the only way of survival for an individual, for a family, and the entire nation, is the acceptance of changes and the adaptation. The name of Kazuo Ishiguro is often mentioned in the same context of the 'new internationalism' with Timothy Moo and writers of their generation. He is probably best known for his third novel, Remains of the Day (1989). This work was awarded the Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1989. However, his recent novel When we were orphans (2000) is closer to the international writing. The novel deals with the psychological trauma of the main characters who moved to England from the war-affected Shanghai. Ishiguro’s position of someone who was born in Japan but raised and educated in Britain, gives him the possibility of having 'intriguing impartial or double perspective.' (Head, 2002) Even in his early novels that have Japanese characters, he uses the material with the conventions of Japanese courtesy. This preoccupation is developed in the novel Remains of the Day through the style of his narrator - an aging butler Stevens, and there we can make a comparison between the two types of restraint and diffidence. It is not irrelevant to note that the action of the novel takes place in July 1956, during the Suez crisis, a catastrophic episode of British history that marked the end of its imperial power. Although there is no clear connection between these events and the story in the novel, the feeling of this important historical event hovers all the time. The British writer of South African origin Christopher Hope fits into this group of authors due to the subjects and to the freshness of the new landscapes brought to the contemporary British fiction. Thanks to his South African origin, and to the topics and the views he brought with him, Hope provides a new, different perspective and the critical and artistic judgment about the major religious, political and cultural issues. In the literary circles he is known as highly skilled creator of insightful satire and, therefore, often compared to Jonathan Swift. Using sarcastic humorous observations Hope gives readers a true but disturbing picture of the world that surrounds them. In the novel Darkest England (1996) Christopher Hope applies a typical postmodern technique when the readers’ expectations are completely betrayed because of the inversion and degradation of the usual colonial discourse. The achieved aim is the abolition of the myths of socalled grand narratives and complete reversal of the known concepts and relationships, usually with the help of parody. Using satire and irony, almost inevitable in his works, Hope completely undermines the famous colonial image by sending an African researcher in the 'noble' mission to �England. There is hardly any well-known stereotype of the 'other' that Hope does not use in this work and shows how astute he is in observing and recording all the peculiarities, eccentricities and the 'follies' of a nation. In this funny inversion of the colonial discourse Englishmen become 'others' and all the stereotypes about themselves and ‘others’ created by the representatives of the dominant discourse are reviewed. Bushman David Mungo Booi explores the often narcissistic nation which, although it lost the Empire, it has not lost the imperial arrogance and self-confidence. 5. CONCLUSION The analysis of the selected works from the era of modernism and postmodernism with the regard to the stereotypes and prejudices about the 'other' pointed out that the mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. In the wealth of literary material, especially in postmodern British novel since it occurs in a multicultural environment which provides an excellent basis for stereotypes, particularly negative ones, we can recognize and unveil stereotypes and prejudices about the 'other' that, even unconsciously and to a certain extent, every person in every culture carries within him/herself. The results of this research will be useful for more comprehensive overview of some of the most significant British novels of the twentieth century, especially with the cultural context of their inception and later influence, but also for perception and comprehension of the contemporary British society and culture as a whole. �References: Ashcroft, B., G.Griffiths and H. Tiffin (2000). Post-colonial Studies, The Key Concepts. Oxford: Routledge. Beauvoir, S. ‘Women and the Other’ in Walder, D. (ed.) Literature in the Modern World, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown, R. (1995). Prejudice, Its Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell. Conrad, J. (1994). Heart of Darkness. London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1902) Forster, E.M. (1979). A Passage to India, London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1924) Green, M. (1984). The English Novel in the Twentieth Century: The Doom of Empire. London: Routlegde. Greene, G. (1971). The Heart of the Matter. London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1948) Head, D. (2002). The Cambridge Introduction to Modern British Fiction, 1950-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pickering, M. (2001). Stereotyping.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Shaffer, B. (2006). Reading the Novel in English 1950-2000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2962 Title A name given to the resource STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES ABOUT THE ‘OTHER’ AS AN UNAVOIDABLE PART OF BRITISH LITERATURE AND CULTURE Author Author Petrović-Tomanić, Olivera Abstract A summary of the resource. The concept of the ‘other’ is an inherent part of understanding one’s identity, since people define their roles through their relations toward ‘others’. Generally speaking, the ‘other’ is everyone who is detached and different from one’s self or one’s true nature. ‘Otherness’ became the subject of research in postmodern British literature in terms of its diversity and variety, divergence and disagreement with standard, conventional and established. To demonstrate how prejudices are widespread and what their role in literature is, the selection of British novels of the 20th century has been made with the emphasis on the second part of the century and postmodern British novel. The analysis has proved that stereotypes are indeed unavoidable part of British culture and literature and exposed their particular role in works of literature. The second half of the twentieth century brings seismic shift of literary and national identity: The English novel was replaced by novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. This is the main reason for selection of the British novels of the late 20th century that are representative both for their artistic quality and influence. The analysis of selected works from modern and postmodern periods with the regard to stereotypes and prejudices about 'other' undoubtedly pointed out that mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d6558642186562fa9b086cafbfd77a4b.pdf 494abe295dc5d005104959b34fd304d9 PDF Text Text CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Maria Rugo & Antonia Ordulj Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt & University of Zagreb Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 10.08.2015 Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Abstract: The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 1. INTRODUCTION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Second language acquisition is a complex process because of many interrelated factors (age, cognition, input, educational background, motivation...) and codes of native language and target language. During this process the learner creates an interlanguage (IL) (Selinker, 1972), i.e. a dynamic linguistic system that contains variable elements and structures of both native and target language, which learners use and develop during different stages of second language acquisition. During the early stage of of this complex process, though the native language elements tend to prevail, the interlanguage system develops simultaneously with the learner’s linguistic improvement. However, incorrect target language structures often become a rooted habit and can easily fossilize in any developmental stage of language acquisition. All language elements, rules and subsystems are liable to fossilization irrespective of and the age or the length of instructions received by the learner had in the target language. The fossilized structures remain even when it seems that they have been completely removed (Selinker: 1972:215). 2. THEORETICAL ISSUES ON NEGATIVE TRANSFER Any interlanguage presents several characteristics: fluctuation, fragmentation, as well as simplicity in form and function (Vrhovac, 2001). Simplicity of IL refers to the use of less complex grammatical rules and limited vocabulary, which means that IL is the system with its own language rules (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Since an IL is a dynamic linguistic system, it is liable to changes caused by development of learner language knowledge. According to Selinker (1972) there are five different processes that are involved in developing of learners IL: language transfer, overgeneralization of TL linguistic elements, transfer of training, strategies of second language learning, and strategies of second language communication. According to Richards (1974), errors could be classified into two categories: interlingual errors, and intralingual and developmental errors. Interlingual errors are influenced by native languages, which interfere with the target language learning process. Intralingual and developmental errors are caused by the target language itself, and they occur during the learning process. Actually, the language transfer is the one that causes a large number of errors from the target language. According to Odlin (1993:27), transfer can be defined as “influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.” It refers to transfer from one language to another, and this transfer can be either positive or negative. If the elements common to both the learner’s mother and target languages are similar, then a positive transfer occurs. On the other hand, if there are differences between both languages, and some elements proper of the mother language obstruct the acquisition of the target language structures, then the transfer is negative (Medved Krajnović, 2010; Odlin, 1993). During the Fifties and Sixties, under the influence of contrastive analyses, most language errors among learners’ IL were thought to be triggered by the influence of the mother tongue. Although many researches belie this claim, it is a retained opinion that mother tongue indeed is a contributing factor in the acquisition of the foreign language (PrebegVilke, 1991). Odlin (1993) states that negative transfer is relatively easy to identify and that, Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �according to cross-linguistic similarities and differences, we can differentiate four consequences stemming from a given negative transfer: underproduction, overproduction, production errors (substitutions, calques, alternations of structures) and misinterpretations. If a learner is able to produce a small number of examples when using a target language, then underproduction occurs. This may be caused by either the inability to produce examples of target language, or by a mechanism of avoidance, i.e. when the structures in the target language appear to be significantly different from those in the target language. Practical analyses of Chinese learners’ essays have confirmed that simple sentences in written English are used because there are no complex sentence patterns in Chinese (Wang& Liu, 2013). On the other hand, if learners tend to excessively use the structures of a target language in a wrong way (e.g. they use many simple sentences instead of adopting more complex ones), this results in an overproduction. According to Wang and Liu (2013), Chinese learners of ESL often overproduce patterns when using paragraph introductory structures, e.g. firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally or with the development of. When observing the mechanisms of error production, Odlin (1993) differentiates substitutions, calques and alternations of structures. Substitutions refer to the choice of replacing one language element with another, usually a use of native language form in the target language (e.g. serioso → serious, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Calques represent given elements of syntactic structures that usually get literally translated from a native language (e.g. He tenido mi pelo cortado → I have had my hair cut, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Alternations of structures very often occur in case of a cross-linguistic influence, and may be observed in hypercorrections. According to Odlin (1993:38), hypercorrections are “overreactions to particular influence from the native language.” Particularly, Odlin (1993) refers to spelling errors that involve substitutions of the letter b for the letter p (e.g. blaying VS playing), made by Arabic learners of ESL. Finally, misinterpretations refer to any wrong interpretation of the messages expressed in the target language. In this study we will focus on the lexical errors of Croatian learners of Italian as foreign language. Since IL is a separate transitional linguistic system that involves linguistic elements of both native and target language, changes could be observed in the IL used by Croatian learners of Italian as a foreign language at all levels, i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics (Jelaska, 2005). According to previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013), the most frequent phonological errors encompass the pronunciation of vocals, the use of double consonants or the insertion of sounds in accordance with the phonology of Croatian words (e.g. Croatian learners will often pronounce Italian words such as meccanico or psicologo by uttering them according to the Croatian phonological system, i.e. mehaničar; psiholog). Errors at the morphological level usually occur with the highest frequency, e.g. omission of definite and indefinite articles before a noun, wrong choice of prepositions, wrong grammatical gender, word order, using of Italian verbs giocare, tornare, ridere as reflexive verbal forms due to the influence of Croatian verbs igrati se, vratiti se, smijati se etc. Both the choice of word order as well as the discrepancy in noun’s number and gender may be seen as among the most problematic errors at the syntactic level. Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear (White) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �3. AIM OF THE STUDY Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The aim of this study was to determine the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian, by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners. 4. METHODOLOGY Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.1 Subjects Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The study was conducted among a sample of 40 learners attending ABC, a foreign language school based in Zagreb, Croatia, which specifically deals with courses of Italian language and culture. All of the participants are native Croatian speakers and have studied Italian as a foreign language at intermediate levels (B1 and B2). Lessons take place in a stimulating working atmosphere, in which an emphasis is put on developing communicative competence. The average age of the participants is between 19 and 60 years old, and the majority of them has had a formal education in Italian language for 4 to 6 years, though some of them have learned the language for 1 to 3 years. For all of them, Italian is the second (or third) foreign language acquired in an educational context, with English always being the first foreign language studied. In this project, we focus on the negative transfer in lexical context and how it is reflected in practical examples. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.2 Data Collection The errors caused by negative transfer have been collected during regular classes of Italian as a foreign language. Teacher has created a record encompassing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (B1-B2) Croatianspeaking learners. Their oral production has been partly recorded, but mostly transcribed or written down by the students or by the teachers. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) According to collected examples, the authors have decided to divide the lexical errors in five categories: 1) Calques occurred under the influence of mother tongue (L1) Calques are errors that closely represent native language structure and they are usually the most frequent. According to Vinay (1995), calques are defined as “special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form or another, but then translates literally each of its elements”. A given L2 word is the result of a literal translation from the L1. We refer here to what has been observed by Ringbom (2001), according to whom the calque is a type of lexical transfer of meaning occurring when there is awareness of the existing target language form, but not of Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �the semantic/collocational restrictions. It is very important to remove calques at an early stage, because later on they tend to fossilize. It is, for instance, quite hard to eliminate calques from a student’s language usage if he or she have learned Italian in Italy without attending any relevant language course. In this case, his or her oral performances present many calques consisting in literal translations from Croatian language. Their fossilization makes the errors’ removal very slow and sometimes almost impossible. Furthermore, when using Italian words and phrases such as ‘commenti’, ‘fare una domanda’, ‘stravagante’, and ‘non vedo l’ora’, Croatian learners tend to rather adopt the literal translation from their native language, as summarised in the following table: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian commenti fare una domanda stravagante non vedo l'ora Wrong production in Italian commentari chiedere una domanda estravagante non posso aspettare Form in Croatian komentari pitati pitanje ekstravagantan ne mogu čekati / jedva čekam Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 2) Calques occurred under the influence of English language Though our main aim here is to focus on the mistakes that Croatian learners of Italian as L2 tend to make under the influence of their native language, it must be pointed out that this issue is also often influenced by a series of errors produced under the influence of English language. As already mentioned, for all participants English is the first foreign language, thus it is reasonable to expect that previously acquired foreign language may cause a number of interferences between languages. Lexical errors under the influence of English language are usually deceptive cognates, as illustrated by the following examples: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian istruito stampare capire sostenere qualcuno ti porto a casa siamo molto legati Wrong production in Italian educato printare realizzare supportare qualcuno ti prendo a casa siamo molto collegati Form in English educated to print to realize to support someone I'll take you home we are very connected Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 3) Wrong usage of target structures Some target structures are differently used in both Croatian and Italian languages; for example, among students there is a tendency to confuse the adjective bravo, which is used when someone is good at doing something, with the adjective buono, which in Italian identifies something that is good to eat (good), or of good quality (e.g. a good movie). In Italian, the sentence sono bravi a correre cannot be transformed as sono buoni a correre. Furthermore, the adverb bene/male can only be used with a verb, but not with the verb to be in this kind of sentence: it is not correct to say il suo comportamento è male, but il suo Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �comportamento non va bene. Also some words can have different usages, e.g. there is a difference between the Italian verbs rubare and derubare, since rubare means to rob something, while derubare means to rob someone of something. In Croatian both actions are rendered as rubare, thus resulting in a misusage of the Italian correct semantics attached to each verb. Another common error occurs with the verb viaggiare (to travel): when in Italian this verb refers to the action of starting a journey, it should be translated as partire; e.g. siamo partiti alle 3 di mattina, and not abbiamo viaggiato alle 3 di mattina. 4) Underproduction Analyses of oral production have also revealed that Croatian learners tent to avoid the target language not using structures that are not familiar with in the L1. For example, in Italian the passive form is normally used also in oral speech, however learners tend to avoid using it because it is not a common structure in their mother tongue. Moreover, the structure fare+infinito doesn't exist in Croatian language, so for example, they simplify their syntax by using some other form, or by literally translating from Croatian (e.g. Mi ha arrabbiato instead of Mi ha fatto arrabbiare; Do che riparano il computer instead of Faccio riparare il computer). Another underproduction occurs with the simplified use of gerund by Croatian learners, who prefer to use the explicit form rather than a gerund because they find it hard to express orally: e.g. instead of saying aggiungendo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente, they use the explicit Se aggiungessimo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente). 5) Overproduction Croatian learners of Italian as L2 often overproduce the demonstrative pronoun questo instead of the direct pronoun lo and this can lead to redundancy (e.g. avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e ho ordinato questo. The correct Italian sentence would rather be: Avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e l’ho ordinata. The excessive use of demonstrative pronoun questo is usually caused by learners’ fear, as well as by the tendency to simplify unfamiliar structures in the target language. 6. CONCLUSION The present study has confirmed the influence of negative transfer of Croatian L2 learners. Croatian learners of Italian as L2 refer constantly to their mother tongue in oral production which is also confirmed in previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013; Letica& Mardešić, 2007). According to collected examples, the errors were divided in five groups: calques from Croatian and English language, overproduction, underproduction and wrong usage of target language structures. The most common type of errors are calques from Croatian (L1), which are mainly caused by the students’ choice of avoiding the use of target language whenever they do not feel sure or don't know the words or the correct structure of a sentence. Calques are not helping the development of target language, because mother tongue concepts, words and Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... �structures often works in a different way than those in the target language, so learner should be aware of and familiarize themselves with the relevant differences between languages. In addition, our analysis has revealed that Croatian learners of Italian often use calques from English, this being a previously acquired language that learners master since a very young age. Not only have our examples confirmed that these types of interferences very frequently occur at a lexical level, but they also have demonstrated that learners avoid and simplify those structures that appear to be not so common or significantly different between Croatian and Italian languages; this can result in a mechanism of underproduction of given target language structures, as well as in the opposite process of overproduction, which appears to be often a consequence of underproduction (Wang& Liu, 2013). In order to overcome errors in the target language, the teacher should prepare a set of different activities, such as contrastive demonstrations of the errors in both languages, cloze tests, and presentations of the texts that are being studied during the lesson. Indeed, teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures that have already been acquired by the students. Teachers should further encourage Croatian learners to use those elements and structures of Italian language that are not so common in oral production of Croatian (e.g. passive sentences). It is important to make learners aware of the recurrent errors, by adopting authentic texts that feature given problematic structures and elements, as well as by recurring to role plays in which learners are pushed to pay attention to specific elements of the target language. Finally, learners should also develop their own strategies for learning new and problematic elements and structures of target language. In this framework, a teacher’s key action consists in making the students aware of the differences between linguistic structures, as well as always pointing out at the words used in both languages. If learners are able to notice those differences from the very beginning of their educational process, it may then be easier for them to adopt the correct structures of the target language. Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... References Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 1. Alujević Jukić, M. i Brešan,T. (2010). Prijenosne pogreške kod talijanskih izvornih govornika tijekom pisane produkcije na hrvatskom kao stranom jeziku. XXIII. Međunarodni znanstveni skup „Prostor i vrijeme u jeziku: jezik i vrijeme u prostoru. Osijek, 1-14. 2. Calvo Cortés, N. (2005). Negative language transfer when learning Spanish as a foreign language. Interlingüística, 16 (1), 237-248. 3. Cattana Nesci (2004). Analizzare e correggere gli errori, Guerra edizioni, Perugia. 4. Guglielmi L. (2008). Studenti serbofoni e croatofoni: lingue ‘gemelle’ e diversi fenomeni di tranfer nell’apprendimento dell’italiano LS. http://www.itals.it/studenti-serbofoni-e-croatofoni-lingue-gemelle-e-diversi-fenomenidi-transfer-nellapprendimento (last consultation 09.06.2015) 5. Jelaska, Z. i sur., (2005). Hrvatski kao drugi i strani jezik. Zagreb: Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted: Font color: Auto, English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �6. Letica, S. & Mardešić, S. (2007). Cross-Linguistic Transfer in L2 and L3 Production. In J. Horvath & M. Nikolov (Eds.), UPRT 2007: Empirical Studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 307-318). Pecs: Lingua Franca Csoport. 7. Medved Krajnović, M. (2010). Od jednojezičnosti do višejezičnosti. Uvod u istraživanja procesa ovladavanja inim jezikom. Zagreb: Leykam international. 8. Odlin, T. (1993). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge, CUP. 9. Prebeg Vilke, M. (1991).Vaše dijete i jezik. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 10. Richards, J.C. (1974). Error Analyses. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Longman. 11. Ringbom, H. (2001). Lexical Transfer in L3 Production. In Cenoz, J. et al., (eds) Crosslinguistic influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 12. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231. 13. Sironić Bonefačić, N. (1990). Anali degli errori nell’espressione orale dell’italiano come lingua straniera. SRAZ XXXV. 173-181. 14. Vinay , J.P. (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English A methodology for translation, John Benjamins Publishing Co. 15. Vrhovac, Y. (2001). Govorna komunikacija i interakcija na satu stranog jezika. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. 16. Wang, S. & Liu, C. (2013). Negative language transfer reflected in ESL learners’ English writing. ICT for Language learning. 17. Županović Filipin, N. & Mardešić, S. (2013). Analisi dell’interlingua nell’apprendimento dell’italiano a livello universitario. SRAZ LVII, 201-219. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Not Italic, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2958 Title A name given to the resource CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Author Author Rugo, Maria Ordulj, Antonia Abstract A summary of the resource. The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PQ Romance literatures https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d52a584972d7ebbf2593d514457d22f4.pdf ed73018857bb8e0d9d846375235eec72 PDF Text Text ŽIVOTINJSKA SIMBOLIKA U IZABRANIM DJELIMA GÜNTERA GRASSA Anemarija Ručević Sveučilište u Zadru Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 10.07.2015 Apstrakt: Promatrajući Grassove naslove, primjećujemo čestu upotrebu životinja: Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur, Štakorica, Korakom raka, itd.. Cilj ovoga rada je analizirati zašto se Grass odlučuje za određenu životinju u izboru svojih naslova, prikazati simboliku odabranih životinja i otkriti postoji li veza između životinje i djela. Analiza se temelji na tri njegova djela: Mačka I miš (1961.), Pasje godine (1963.) I Lumbur (1977.). Ključne riječi: Günter Grass, životinjska simbolika, Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur 1 �1. Günter Grass se kod izbora naslova svojih djela često odlučio za životinje koje na prvi pogled ne možemo povezati s književnim predlošcima. Jesu li životinje simbolične, alegorične ili uopće nemaju značenje? Koja je njihova uloga i funkcija? Novela Mačka i miš ima simboličan naslov koji upućuje na dječju igru koja ima strogu podjelu uloga lovca i ulovljenog, pobjede jačeg nad slabijim. Čitajući novelu brzo uočavamo da se uistinu radi o borbi, borbi između svijeta i pojedinca autsajdera. „Miš“ u noveli je Joachim Mahlke, autsajder u društvu kojega love „mačka“ Pilenz i cjelokupno društvo sve dok na kraju ne kapitulira i dok se ne preda. Na početku novele uočavamo često ponavljanje riječi „mačka“ kada je „Mahlkes Adamsapfel der Katze zur Maus wurde“.1 Mačka postaje Mahlkeovom suprotnošću, tj. suprotnost njegove Adamove jabučice. S ponavljanjem tih riječi, one postaju lajtmotivom cijele novele. Pripovjedač na početku novele „Ich aber, der ich Deine Maus einer und allen Katzen in den Blick brachte, muss nun schreiben.“2 Opisano je mačkino (mačka=životinja) približavanje žrtvi koja zajedno s pripovjedačem tvori trokut. Tijekom cijele novele Mahlkeovi pokušaji sakrivanja prevelike Adamove jabučice tvore središnju temu. Mačka i miš postaju progoniteljima i progonjenima, lovcima i ulovljenima, počiniteljima i žrtvama. Mahlkeova Adamova jabuka postaje „mišem“ koja tijekom radnje postaje simbolom žrtve i progonom. Mahlke se trudi kompenzirati svoj deficit pokušavajući se prilagoditi konvencijama i normama društva; pokušaji koji počinju na početku, kada Pilenz tjera mačku: „Die Katze kam übend näher. Mahlkes Adamsapfel fiel auf, weil er groß war, immer in Bewegung und einen Schatten warf. (...) So jung war die Katze, so beweglich Mahlkes Artikel- jedenfalls sprang sie Mahlke an die Gurgel; (...) oder ich, mit wie ohne Zahnschmerz, packte die Katze, zeigte ihr Mahlkes Maus: und Joachim Mahlke schrie, (...)“3 Mačka postaje simbolom progonitelja, počinitelja koji Mahlkea tijekom cijele novele diskriminira, ali potiče i na maksimalne uspjehe kao npr. ronjenje u olupini broda. Mačka predstavlja društvo, možda čak i nacistički režim, koje Mahlkeu (ali i svakom drugom autsajderu) prijeti, koji očajava i koji se želi prilagoditi vladajućim zakonima. Ta „mačka“, tj. društvo prilično je okrutno i bez milosti, ali i blago i mirno pa se često može u njima prevariti. Nacistički režim ima jasne predodžbe o ljudskom izgledu, a oni koji nisu odgovarali toj slici, nemilo su poučeni boljem ili su ubijeni. Mahlke se ne osjeća kao dio grupe i ne pronalazi pripadnost. „Mačka“ predstavlja opasnost za one koji ne odgovaraju predodžbi. Nacistički režim na neljudski način utjelovljuje strah, mučenje i prijetnju. Možemo zaključiti da se Grass bavi temom ljudskog osamljenja unutar totalitarnog društva u kojemu pojedinac svoje mišljenje i želje mora poreći da bi dobio priznanje svoje okoline pri čemu se sve više od nje izolira i udaljava. Stoga se Mahlke nalazi u zamršenoj Günter: „Katz und Maus“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.6 S.6 3Ebd. S. 6 1Grass, 2Ebd. �situaciji: s jedne strane želi oslonac koje pronalazi u svom štovanju Blažene Djevice Marije, a s druge traži identifikaciju i pripadnost grupe, prijatelja. U noveli se javlja jedna osoba koja se oslobađa prijetnje, pritiska i straha od neuspjeha, osoba koja se ne mijenja i koja se ne boji posljedica, a to je Tulla (Ursula) Pokriefke. Moramo spomenuti i pripovjedača Heini Pilenza koji zauzima poziciju izdajice jer opisuje priču oko Joachima Mahlkea sa sarkastičnim podzvukom kako ne bi privukao pozornost vlastite krivnje; i on je autsajder pa stvara odnos mržnje i ljubavi prema Mahlkeu zbog čije je smrti suodgovoran: kada na kraju novele Mahlkeu uskrati i baci otvarač za limenke, oduzima Mahlkeu životno potrebnu stvar: „Denn was mit Katze und Maus begann, quält mich heute als Haubentaucher auf schilfumstandenen Tümpeln.“4 Mačka i miš simboliziraju lovca i ulovljenog, koje kasnije zamjenjuje ćubasti gnjurac koji stoji za ujednačenje obojice. Pripovjedač Heini Pilenz napokon želi pronaći mir i nada se Mahlkeovom oprostu „der nicht auftauchen wollte“.5 2. I naslov 1963. Objavljenog romana „Pasje godine“ upućuje na određenu simboliku. Pojam „pasje godine“ višeznačan je: možemo shvatiti kao životne godine psa koje se pretvore u ljudske godine (1:7), ali i (od 19.stoljeća) korišten pojam opisivanja loših godina, analogno jadnom ili hladnom. Radi se o vremenu u kojemu su samo psi mogli preživjeti ili u kojima čovjek postaje životinjom prema izreci „samo najjačio pstaju“.6 Naslov romana daje naslutiti da će glavnu ulogu igrati psi, naročito početak treće knjige: „Der Hund steht zentral.(...) Oder halte dich an den Hund, dann stehst du zentral. (...) Jeder Hund steht zentral.“7 Roman ne govori samo o prijateljstvu između Amsela i Materna, nego i o povijesti pseće obitelji, priči koja opisuje propast jedne pseće obitelji: „Es war einmal ein Hund, der verließ seinen Herrn,(...) durchschwamm (...) die Elbe und suchte sich westlich des Flusses einen neuen Herrn“.8 Psi su u pravilu slovili kao vjerni pratitelji, stoga je blisko povući paralelu s tadašnjem vremenu: psi su svojim gazdama vjerni kao što je njemački narod bio vjeran svom „gazdi“ Hitleru. Kao dobar primjer za odnos između psa i čovjeka djeluje Tulla, odnosno njezin odnos prema psu Harrasu kojega nekoliko puta bez razloga nahuškava na svoju „prijateljicu“ Jenny Brunies i učitelja klavira Felsner- Imbs: 4Ebd. S.178 S. 178 6Königs Erläuterungen: Günter Grass- Hundejahre, Bange Verlag, 2006, S.78 7Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.469 8 Ebd., S.466 5Ebd. �„kaum hatte Felsner- Imbs (...); knapp hatte er die Hälfte des Weges zur Hoftür zurückgelegt- (...) da ließ meine Cousine Tulla unseren Hofhund Harras von der Kette. (...) der schoßdiagonal über den Hof, (...) umsprang mutwillig den zur Säule erstarten Pianisten; (...) und erst als Felsner- Imbs sein Heil im Davonlaufen suchte (...) war Harras dem Pianisten hinterdrein und faßte ihn beim wehenden Bratenrock (...).“9 Harras s vremenom postaje agresivniji, a upravo njegova rastuća agresivnost paralelna je s rastućim nacističkim režimom i ideologijom, mržnjom Nijemaca protiv Židova, zapravo protiv svih koji nisu odgovarali arijevskoj vrsti; stoga se ponavljaju rodoslovna stabla pasa: „Am dunklen Anfang gab es, soll es, hat es (...) eine Wölfin gegeben, deren Enkel, der schwarze Hund Perkun, zeugte die Hündin Senta; und Pluto deckte Senta; und Senta warf sechs Welpen, darunter den Rüden Harras; und Harras zeugte Prinz; und Prinz wird in Büchern (...) Geschichte machen.“10 Stabla koja se ponavljaju simbol su za tzv. Arijevce koji su vrijedni i dostojni, ali i za odnos između nacista i Hitlera o kojemu znamo da je imao samo čistokrvne njemačke ovčare. Pas postaje Grassovo sredstvo s kojim čitatelja suočava s Hitlerovim rasnim ludilom. Ne samo rodoslovno stablo, nego i pseća imena nose određenu simboliku u sebi: npr. Prinzsimbol carstva, moći i neograničene vlasti (čime je Hitlerova vlast slična onoj prinčevoj, kraljevoj), Pluto (Pluton)- rimski bog podzemlja; u grčkoj mitologiji mu je jednak Had.11Pas Pluto kasnije postaje simbolom krivnje jer završetkom nacizma počinju veliki ljudski, ali i pseći bijegovi: „..überlaufender Hund, Hauab-Hund, Ohne-mich-Hund, Hundegeworfenheit (...) fahnenflüchtiger Hund, der den Wind im Rücken hat; denn der Wind will auch nach Westen, wie alle (...) Vergessen wollen alle die Knochenberge und Massengräber, die Fahnenhalter und Parteibücher, die Schulden und die Schuld.“12 Pseće su godine, kao što smo spomenuli, loše godine koje Grass opisuje u svom romanu, počevši od završetka prvog svjetskog rata (1917.-1927.), sljedećeg razdoblja nesigurnosti i gospodarske krize 1929. s pripadajućom deflacijom i velikom nezaposlenošću. Nakon toga slijedi početak i širenje nacizma koji svoj vrhunac dostiže s najvećim zločinom u njemačkoj povijesti, holokaustom, i naposljetku slijedi opis poslijeratnog vremena (nakon 1945.) sve do sadašnjosti. U romanu ne igraju samo psi važnu ulogu: središnja je tema prijateljstvo između Amsela (kasnije Brauxela) i Materna. Radi se o njemačko- židovskom prijateljstvu tijekom trećeg rajha i poslije toga, između umjetničko orijentirano intelektualca Amsela i njegovog prijatelja, nagonskog i snažnog Materna. 9 Ebd. S.232-233 Ebd, S.76 11 Pluton znači bogat, a dolazi od grčke riječi ploutos – bogatstvo. Grci su Hada također zvali Pluton, a Rimljani su poslije preuzeli to ime za svog boga. http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton_%28mitologija%29 (9.3.2015.) 12 Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.465 10 �Slično kao u noveli Mačka i miši u ovom romanu nalazimo uloge lovina i lovca, žrtve i počinitelja, ali s političkim karakterom. Umjesto ulovljenog miša i žrtve Mahlkeastoje umjetnik Amsel i Jenny Brunies, a umjesto mačke Pilenza imamo počinitelje Materna i Tullu. Kada Hitlerov njemački ovčar Prinz (kasnije Pluto) u Zapadnoj Njemačkoj dotrči do Materna dokaz je da se posljedice trećeg rajha ne mogu zaboraviti, slično kao u djelu „Korakom raka“ (2002.): „Das hört nicht auf. Das hört nie auf.“13 Matern i njegov napad na slabašnog Amsela (pas ostaje kod njega jer ga ne može predati kolodvorskoj misijskoj pomoći) simbol su za njemačko svladavanje prošlosti nakon trećeg rajha koje se zapravo ne događa. Simbolično je i da se cjelokupno rodoslovno stablo sastoji od čistokrvnih, crnih njemačkih ovčara- crna boja simbol je za nešto loše i negativno, za krivnju pa možemo povući paralelu i vidjeti krivnju kod njemačkog naroda kroz nekoliko generacija. Osim pseće simbolike u djelu vidljiva je i ona ptičja. Umjetnik i intelektualac se zove Amsel (kos) koji u svojoj mladosti gradi strašila koja slikovito prikazuju ljudsku i njemačku povijest. Kasnije se zove Haseloff (Hase= zec, simbol bijega od nacizma, ali i simbol za plodnost, plodno u smislu svog rada14). Za razliku od novele Mačka i miš, u ovom romanu pobjeđuju slabiji- Mahlke se povukao na olupinu broda da bi se spasio dok Matern pronalazi Amsela (kasnije Brauxel) te mu se podređuje pa Amsel izlazi kao pobjednik. Miš se sakrio od mačke, dok su ptice uspjele pobjeći, tj. odletjeti pohlepnim psima. Postavlja se pitanje bi li Mahlke uopće mogao preživjeti, bi li imao izgleda protiv mačke, jer je njegov deficit bio svima vidljiv (prevelika Adamova jabučica) za razliku od Amselovog židovskog podrijetla koje nije bilo vidljivo na prvi pogled pa je Amsel imao priliku preživjeti pseće godine i na kraju izaći kao pobjednik iz borbe. 3. Lumbur je priča čovječanstva od kamenog doba do sadašnjosti u vremenskom periodu od devet mjeseci. Polazna točka i središnja tema radnje bajka je o ribaru i njegovoj ženi.15U bajci je žena zla, nezasitna i zahtjevna. Kod Grassa je lumbur pokretač koji motivira muškarce da pišu svoju povijest i da se oslobode žena. Stoga ne iznenađuje da lumbur na kraju dolazi pred feministički tribunal, tzv. feminal koje se sastoji od devet i više žena koje su sve povezane s Gdanjskom. Grass poduzima preokret uloga u kojemu su muškarci megalomani koji zahtijevaju sve više jer žele vladati svijetom i pobijediti prirodu. Lumbur, koji je stoljećima pomagao Grass, Günter: „Im Krebsgang“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, Göttingen, 2002, S. 216 (22.6.2012) 15Prema braći Grimm radi se o ribaru koji sa svojom ženom živi u skromnoj kućici i jednog dana ulovi lumbura koji moli za život- ribar ga vrati u more. Ribareva žena Ilsebill pita zar nije pritom imao želju. Na ženin nagovor ribar se mora vratiti do mora, dozvati lumbura koji će ipuniti njezine želje. Što joj želje postaju neumjerenije, to vrijeme postaje sve lošije. Lumbur joj ispuni svaku želju, ali kada naposljetku zaželi da postane Bog, lumbur ju vrati u skromnu kućicu kao na početku bajke. Usp.: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vom_Fischer_und_seiner_Frau(22.6.2012) 13 14http://www.druidenwelt.de/hase_j.html �muškarcima zaključuje da je muškarac pri kraju. U kamenom dobu Edek uhvati lumbura koji otada slovi kao savjetnik muškarcima sve dok ga krajem dvadesetog stoljeća (1974.) ne ulove tri žene koje nakon toga osnuju feminal kako bi mu sudile da je tijekom desetljeća i tisućljeća upropastio ženstvenost. Lumbur se ispostavlja kao izvrstan retoričar i želi promicati žensku stvar time što mijenja strane: „Die Männersache gebe nichts mehr her. Demnächst werde eine Krise weltweit das Ende maskuliner Herrschaft signalisieren. Die Herren seien bankrott. (...) Er, der Butt, wolle sich fortan nur noch dem weiblichen Geschlecht zuwenden.(...) Heute gilt es, die Zeitwende zu datieren. Auf dem Machtwechsel der Geschlechter beruht mein Prinzip. Die Frauen sind aufgerufen.“16 U središtu romana nalazi se i odnos uloga, veze između muškarca i žene. Pripovjedač se od kamenog doba do sadašnjosti provlači kroz sve muške uloge: „Ich, das bin ich jederzeit.“17 kao što Ilsebill preuzima sve ženske uloge: „Und auch Ilsebill war von anfang an da.“18 Na početku lumbur zastupa protuženski princip jer muškarca potiče da postane gospodarom povijesti: „Ich rate euch: Weg von der Brust. Ihr müßt euch entwöhnen. (...) Wir, jedenfalls, brauchten noch ein sattes Jahrtausend, um männlich im Sinne des Butt zu werden.“19 Budući da su muškarci napisali gotovo cjelokupnu povijest ne začuđuje ako kažemo da je lumbur negativni princip muškarca, tj. utjelovljenje rastuće vladavine. Lumbur potiče razvoj muškaraca pri čemu se muškarac javlja kao neemancipirani spol. Tek otpadanjem treće dojke muškarac gubi svoju povezanost sa ženskim svijetom koja se sastoji od rađanja i hranjenja. U pjesmi u prvom mjesecu pripovjedač objašnjava o čemu će govoriti: o pripremanju hrane i svakodnevice, ljubavi, želje i razmnožavanju; govori i o gladi, nasilju i ratu koji vodi do razaranja. Pritom su u pozadini uvijek žene bile odgovorne da ima dovoljno hrane te su stoljećima i tisućljećima osigurale život čovječanstva. Problem je što pisac Grass žene svodi na njihovu biološku uloga jer povezuje ulogu žene s hranom (pripremanju hrane) i sposobnosti rađanja i dojenja. To opet vodi do žestoke reakcije od strane feministkinja predvođene Alice Schwarzer, koja pisca Güntera Grassa u svom časopisu “Emma” 20 naziva “Pašom mjeseca”: „Propagiert die Legende, die Frauen seien von Natur aus die besseren Menschen. Ausersehen, nun die böse Welt und vor allem die armen, bösen Männer zu retten. Und jetzt will er auch noch unser Maskottchen werden. (...) Armer Gege. Hättest du abgelassen Grass, Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.52 Ebd., S.9 18Ebd., S.9 19Ebd., S.44 20http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/emma.htm(19.1.2012) 16 17 �von den Frauen, du wärst (vielleicht) ein Dichter geblieben. So aber reichts nur zum modischen Softy mit Schnauzbart.“21 Za feministički tribunal lumbur je utjelovljenje muške vladavine stoga se svi muškarci zajedno s lumburom nalaze na optuženičkoj klupi22: „(...)bleiben die Frauen- selbst wenn sie studiert, sich emanzipiert haben und den Computer verbessern, (...) hübsch frisierte Natur. Sie haben den Ausfluß monatlich. (...) Ja, aus Prinzip sind sie Mütter, auch wenn sie es nicht, noch nicht sind oder (...) nie sein werden (...). Frauen müssen nicht fürs Nachleben sorgen, weil sie Leben verkörpern; Männer hingegen können nur außer sich Nachleben beweisen, indem sie das Haus bauen, den Baum pflanzen, (...) im Krieg fallen, doch vorher Kinderchen zeugen. Wer nicht gebären kann, ist allenfalls mutmaßlich Vater und vor der Natur aus arm dran.“23 Pred kraj postaje vidljivo da je muškarac uistinu pri kraju stoga se lumbur dao dobrovoljno uloviti da bi na kraju postao njihov savjetnik- postavlja se pitanje radi li se ovdje o promjeni uloga odnosno nastavku vladajućeg principa. Roman možemo shvatiti kao knjigu koja govori o poteškoćama između muškarca i žene, koja govori o muškom problemu snalaženja u novonastaloj situaciji ženske emancipacije, ali i o pokušaju obostrane emancipacije koja se mora odvijati u malom koracima. „Emanzipation heißt für Grass nie, Kopie der Männer durch die Frauen, Angleichung der Frauen an den Mann. (...) Emanzipation kann nur für beide gleichzeitig verwirklicht werden und bedeutet die radikale Abkehr beider Geschlechter von den bisherigen Rollen und Gewohnheiten, nicht dem Rollentausch.“24 21Ebd. Sabine Moser: Günter Grass, Romane und Erzählungen, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2000, S.114 Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuchverlag, München, 1993, S. 504-505 24Neuhaus, Volker: Günter Grass, 3. Auflage, J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 2010, S. 167 22 23Grass, �Popis literature:        Reclams Romanlexikon, Band 5, 20.Jahrhundert III, Philipp Reclam jun. Stuttgart Königs Erläuterungen: Günter Grass- Hundejahre, Bange Verlag, 2006. Grass, Günter: „Katz und Maus“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Grass, Günter: „Im Krebsgang“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, Göttingen, 2002. Grass, Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Moser, Sabine: Günter Grass, Romane und Erzählungen, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin, 2000.  Neuhaus, Volker: Günter Grass, 3. Auflage, J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 2010.  Schwarzer, Alice: „Pascha des Monats“ u: Magazin „Emma“, Juli 1977. Izvori s interneta:  http://www.druidenwelt.de/hase_j.html (22.6.2012.)  http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vom_Fischer_und_seiner_Frau (22.6.2012.)  http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/emma.htm (19.1.2012.) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2948 Title A name given to the resource ŽIVOTINJSKA SIMBOLIKA U IZABRANIM DJELIMA GÜNTERA GRASSA Author Author Ručević, Anemarija Abstract A summary of the resource. Promatrajući Grassove naslove, primjećujemo čestu upotrebu životinja: Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur, Štakorica, Korakom raka, itd.. Cilj ovoga rada je analizirati zašto se Grass odlučuje za određenu životinju u izboru svojih naslova, prikazati simboliku odabranih životinja i otkriti postoji li veza između životinje i djela. Analiza se temelji na tri njegova djela: Mačka I miš (1961.), Pasje godine (1963.) I Lumbur (1977.). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da27ca81876f76823cc906d410a9d019.pdf 9bfa56fcdacee00f48eb3f4e75851ae5 PDF Text Text THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTRASTIVE TEXT STUDIES IN TRANSLATOLOGY Lindita Sejdiu-Rugova & Bardh Rugova University of Prishtina Article History: Submitted: 04.06.2015 Accepted: 05.07.2015 Abstract: The paper aims at bringing up a type of text linguistic analysis, different from traditional one, with the emphasis on the contrastive studies in general and on the EnglishAlbanian cross-linguistic phenomena in particular. It will concentrate in explaining some of the most intriguing and most diverse text analysis elements having in mind the following text categories: Point of view, Composition, Text Idioms. A grammatical structure (Relative Constructions) has been examined thoroughly within the translation method analysis, out of and within the co-text analysis. It resulted in two different outcomes: traditional direct method analysis on one side and text linguistic co-text analysis on the other. Text linguistics as a special field of studies has been greatly developed due to the increased number of translations from one language into another. Text analysis, which relies on the deep description of micro and macro text elements of the text, is crucial for determining the level of translation accuracy of a particular text. Having in mind the relevance of recent discourse and pragmatic analyses impact in the development of interdisciplinary studies, the explanation of constituent elements of the written text is of great importance for the contrastive text studies or translation studies respectively. Keywords: text, discourse, paragraph, composition, point of view 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to emphasise the importance of text grammar as a special discipline within Text Linguistic studies and to prove its reliability by comparing the linguistic analysis of one of the segments of grammar in English and Albanian (in our case relative constructions) using the usual contrastive methods of sentence grammars and by taking into consideration some of the aspects of text grammar analysis. Analysing grammatical structures and functions without having taken into account their cotext and context features could be compared to flavourless dishes! Since the flavour you add gives a more inclusive description of text grammar categories, sentences are not analysed isolated and several semantic and pragmatic concepts, very important for the understanding of the text as a piece of coherent writing or a stretch of coherent speech, are viewed differently. 2. TRANSLATION AS A PROCESS AND AS A PRODUCT The theory of translation regards translation as a transformation of one text into another when being translated from a source language into a target one. A great part of this theory has been oriented towards the context studies, by emphasising that the translation process involves translation of one culture into another. Such an attitude and such a viewpoint are very much related to a sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, ethnolinguistic and anthropological text analysis, thus leading it towards a linguistic concept which treats the text as a process, as a discourse. However, another point of view, treating a linguistic unit as a product, is related to text grammar and the concepts of the linguist Theun Van Dijk (1972). It represents the main methodological basis of this paper, too. 3. CO-TEXT VS. CONTEXT The text grammar analysis treats a linguistic unit within a co-text (Werlich, 1983), not context. There is always some text and some co-text that accompanies it. Context, on the other hand, includes more extralinguistic factors in order to give a prompt interpretation of a text (Rugova & Sejdiu-Rugova, 2015; Van Dijk (1972, 1977), De Beaugrande, Dressler 1981, Werlich, 1983). Text Categorization, Point of view, Composition and Text Variety are considered to be the most important categories in analysing the original text and their translations into a target language. Having in mind the fact that transformation from one text into another requires the text analysis of both languages, the above-mentioned text categories will be considered when contrasting the translation of grammatical structures from English into Albanian and vice-versa. 4. TRANSLATION OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS FROM ENGLISH INTO ALBANIAN AND VICE-VERSA – A CASE STUDY The so-called Relative clauses in both English and Albanian belong to the group of subordinate clauses with a very specific function: that of a modifier of a noun phrase. However, the most recent CUP comprehensive grammar of the English Language, published in 2002, by Huddleston and Pullum classifies them within the Relative Constructions group, not clauses, due 2 �to the fact that they contain an anaphoric element whose interpretation is determined by an antecedent and together with their antecedent they create a phrase and can be replaced very easily by a phrase. The special anaphoric tie or relation they create with their antecedent classifies their relation with the larger structure containing them into an integrated, supplementary, fused or a cleft relative. (Huddlestone & Pullum at al., 2002: 1033-1095). Huddlestone & Pullum (2002) suggest that the anaphoric element may be overt or covert, and according to them, in the overt case the relative clause is marked by the presence of one of the relative words who, whom, whose, which, etc., as or within the initial constituent and such clauses are called wh- relatives. In non-wh relatives the anaphoric element is covert, a gap; this class is then subdivided into that relatives and bare relatives depending on the presence or absence of that: 1. He’ll be glad to take the toys A which you don’t want. [ wh relative] B that you don’t want. [non-wh: that relative] C you don’t want. [non-wh: bare relative] (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002) In Albanian, Relative Clauses have been treated and classified as Modifying Clauses (Fjali përcaktore), e.g.: Hodhi sytë nga libri, fletët e të cilit ishin përthyer shumë. (italicised relative pronoun in genitive, being the second modifying element in a relative construction), and most of the existing traditional grammarians (Domi at al., 1995; Floqi S. at al., 1991, Prifti, 1971, Çeliku, 2012) have listed them as an independent functional of the hypotactic sentence classification (including other categories, such as: Subject Clauses (kryefjalore), Predicative Clauses (kallëzuesore), and Adjunct Clauses (rrethanore)).1 The relative pronouns in Albanian possess the category of number, case and gender; hence their contextualisation is more versatile and different from the one in English. In Albanian, a relative construction may appear before the word it refers to and this cataphoric reference is typical of the relative word in regard to a longer grammatical constituent it belongs to, in the situations when the relative constructions strongly approve an idea or a thought: Që ti nuk erdhe, kjo po që është e saktë. - Kjo (This) being a presupposed element of reference, used after the relative construction Qw ti nuk erdhe… (That you did not come). 5. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH More than 100 examples of Relative Constructions in English and their translation into Albanian have been analysed with the direct translation method analysis, common for traditional contrastive studies. The corpus has been extracted from the novel Martin Eden written by Jack London and contrasted with its Albanian translation of Shaban Demiraj. The relative constructions have been isolated from the phrases and sentences they were part of with the aim of interpreting their translation into Albanian by comparing it to the original English structural 1 This type of classification is a functional one and covers only partially co-text functions of relative clauses in Albanian. However, I would like to distinguish two very good recent monographies published in Tirana, one is on Anaphora and another one on Relative Phrases in Albanian, by Çepani (2015) and Koleci (2013), from the generativist perspective, which exemplify very well that there are cases when Albanian anaphoric elements are not c-governed (a Government and Binding theory) and that Albanian anaphoric reflexives (vetvetja) bare the feminine noun features, too (they are more independent than English reflexives). 3 �version. For the purpose of finding the more comprehensive equivalences and correspondences between Albanian and English relative constructions, a corpus of 50 sentences from Ismail Kadare’s novel “Ura me tri harqe” (The three-arched bridge), translated into English by John Hodgson,has been extracted, too. 6. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES Since English is quite analytical and Albanian belongs to a very flective language type, the following research hypothesis could be drawn: - The translation of relative constructions from English into Albanian is more dispersed; The relative constructions in Albanian have more possible structural forms; Analysing relative constructions in their co-text provides more reliable results to the translation method analysis. 7. RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITHOUT THEIR CO-TEXT (TRANSLATION METHOD ANALYSIS): RESEARCH OUTCOMES AND DATA ANALYSIS One of the most astonishing facts that were encountered during our interpretation of relative constructions and their translations from one language into another is that more than ¼ of the examples of translated sentences have been considered to be incorrectly translated. So, most of corpus is being translated from relative integrated and supplementary clauses into fused relative clauses (relativizer becomes a hidden element of the subordinate construction) or even Nominal clause: Se si mund të jetohej brenda një kafazi me një tigër, kjo merrej lehtë me mend. (Kadare, p.72); And it is well known what life is like with a tiger in its lair. (Kadare, p.107) However, there were cases when the translator tried to preserve the structures used in Albanian (Appositive Clauses were translated into Appositive Clauses): e.g.: Kam parandjenjën se do të ndërrojë së shpejti fati i Arbrit. (Kadare, p.8); I have a premonition that the destiny of Arberia will soon change, ... (Kadare, p.3). Some of main findings of the study we conducted have been listed below: 1. The majority of English relative constructions have been translated into Albanian as relative clauses, mainly non-restrictive and restrictive. Even in the cases of fused relatives in English, the translation shows integrated and supplementary type of relatives in Albanian. This implies that integrated, supplementary and cleft relatives in English resemble structurally their Albanian translation correspondences, whereas fused relatives do not correspond that much to their Albanian corresponding forms: 2. Another characteristic feature of English relative constructions is that they can take a preposition before and after the relativizer (with few exceptions) whereas in Albanian its typical position is before the relative word: me të cilin! 3. Non-finite clauses used with a relative meaning are typical for English, but in very cases for Albanian. E.g.: The girl walking in your direction is my sister. / Vajza qw po ecw drejt teje wshtw motra ime.(^duke ecur drejt teje)- subjunctive of standard Albanian (finite 4 �form); or Mendimi i tij pwr tw shkuar nw piknik ishte i drejtw.- infinitive of purpose, appositive function, relativised partially). There were even cases when the whole sentence was “sacrificed” for the sake of better adaptation from English into Albanian, such as: She scarcely noted the rhythm otherwise, except when it became pompous, at which moments she was disagreeably impressed with its amateurishness. (Martin Eden, 166), and the zero translation into Albanian. We suggest it could have been translated with a relative construction, too: Përkundrazi, asaj nuk i bënte përshtypje të madhe intonacioni i fjalisë, përveç rasteve kur amaterizmi i tij dukej sheshit. (authors’ translation) An Albanian speaker can feel that the supplementary relative clauses had an open illocutionary force (as supplementary relatives usually do) which was not transferred into Albanian, its specification could have been a true or false proposition. Consequently, the illocutionary force was not transmitted into Albanian in the same way as it was supposed to, sometimes it even got lost in translation. 8. RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITHIN INCLUSIVE TYPE OF ANALYSIS THE CO-TEXT – A MORE The direct translation method analysis, typical for most of the contrastive studies in FLT study programmes in the countries of the Balkan region, and as such, being excluded from the co-text, would be justified by any traditional grammarian as a very comprehensive method of grammatical analysis. However, it would not ‘satisfy’ the real translation analysis, or the Text Grammar Analysis. So, in terms of text grammar studies, relative constructions could be treated as anaphoric cohesive devices even in the situations when the antecedent is not used immediately before the relative word: e.g. a) I met a man another day [who says (that he knows you)]; … who and he refer to a man, but only who is a relative; or when the fused relative word has the anaphoric element in itself (what=the thing that), similar to reflexives, which are typical anaphoric words (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002: 1047): e.g. What you offered is not what we wanted! = (The thing that you offered) is not (the thing that we wanted)! In terms of Text Point of View and considering the last example, the relative word what could be treated as a non-personal entity. It merges and fuses in itself the third person neutral / objective NP the thing and the objective relative word that into one neutral word what – the later representing an example of an objective view subordinator, trying to relate the speaker’s point of view with its co-text: nobody knows what you offered if the subordinate clause what we wanted is not given as its co-text. If a subordinate clause what we wanted presents concretization of what you offered, it is still neutral in terms of expressing factors to which the speaker relates the phenomena. However, the personal pronouns you and we (second person you addressing the receiver (dialogical communication) and first person plural we which appears to relate to the phenomena by placing the speaker in the sender group), tend to bring the co-text of this sentence towards the subjective point of view, by excluding the receiver point of view (what we wanted is 5 �not fulfilled). In terms of its presentation, it can be regarded as a verbatim authentic text through a direct speech style. In terms of Focus, relative constructions could be classified into narrowing focus text producers since they usually explain the substance of their antecedent, the voice of the relative clause is active in this example, which shows that the action presented in the fused relative structure results from animate phenomena and not from the outside context (Werlich, 1983). Regarding the mode of the relative construction, the above-mentioned example has a negative mode: the speaker assigns non-factual existence to the process of offering. The text structuring of the relative constructions in the above-mentioned example is a co-textfree structure due to the agreement in number between the two fused relative constructions and due to the successive tense forms used in both of them (past)! However, they can be considered as co-text-bound constituents of a sentence having in mind the topical sequence forms of past simple in both constructions as a sign of a narrative text form. In terms of Text typical idioms (idioms referring here to the typical structural and constituent features of a text type), relative constructions are considered to be clause expansions of the descriptive text idiom: e.g. They were going out for a ride into the hills Sunday morning on their wheels, which did not interest Martin until he learned that Ruth, too, rode a wheel and was not going alone (Martin Eden, p.125); (Të dielën në mëngjes ata do të bënin një shëtitje me biçikleta nëpër kodrina. Kjo në fillim s’i bëri ndonjë përshtypje Martinit por puna ndryshoi, kur mori vesh se Ruthi e ngiste biçikletën dhe do të shkonte bashkë me të vëllezërit. (Martin Iden, p.107) Relative constructions may, however, appear when specifying additional modification of the antecedent by means of restrictive (integrated) Relative Constructions in the expository text idiom expansion, too: I can’t understand’he murmured,’ or maybe it’s the editors who can’t understand. (Martin Eden, p. 184); S’po kuptoj dot gjë, pëshpëriti me vete. Ose ndoshta janë redaktorët e fletoreve ata që nuk kuptojnë. (Martin Iden, p.172) 9. CONCLUSION It has been proved that Albanian translation of relative constructions is more versatile in form and has more possibilities of occurrence than in English due to the various functional categories relative pronouns belong to in the sentence. The more detailed text analysis of relative constructions in comparison to traditional contrastive analysis (without having considered the grammatical elements, such as point of view, composition and text variety) proved to be more supportive and more inclusive method of enhancing the quality of translation and text adaptation from one language into another, too. To sum up, a co-text analysis of relative clauses (text grammar analysis), very often incorporated in contextual analysis (extralinguistic analysis of situational factors and socio-historical circumstances shared by the communicants) give a more competence-based research. Text grammar and Text linguistics must be an integrated part of curriculum in foreign language 6 �teaching in general, and particularly in translation studies. Both of them represent linguistic communication acts and as such, they cannot be analysed isolated from their linguistic environment, whether it be a pure linguistic or an extralinguistic one. References: ASHRSH. 1997. Gramatika e gjuhës shqipe I dhe II. Tiranë: IGJL Çeliku M. 2012. Sintaksë e gjuhës shqipe (përbërësit sintaksorë). Tiranë: ILAR De Beaugrande R. Dressler H. 1981. Introduction to Text Linguistics, London: Longman Halliday M, Hasan R. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Huddleston R. Pullum G. et al. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP Quirk R, Greenbaum S, Leech G, Svartvik J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman Prifti S. 1971. Sintaksa e gjuhës shqipe. Prishtinë: Enti i tekstevedhe i mjeteve Rugova L. 2012c. Contrastive Analysis of Declarative Content Clauses in English and Albanian. In: Albanologjia bashkëkohore: arritje dhe perspektivë . Sankt Peterburg. ILI RAN (338-352) van Dijk T. 1977. Sentence topic and discourse topic. Papers in Slavic Philology 1, (49-61) van Dijk T. 1979. New developments and problems in textlinguistics. In: J.S. Petöfi, (red.) Text vs. Sentence. Basic questions of textlinguistics. Hamburg: Buske Verlag, 2 vols., (509-523) van Dijk T. 1988. News as Discourse. Hove, London: Lawrence Erblaum van Dijk. T. 2009. Society and Discourse. How Social Contexts influence Texts and Talk. New York: Cambrigde University Press. Werlich E. 1983. A Text Grammar of English. Stuttgart: Quelle&Meyer 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2954 Title A name given to the resource THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTRASTIVE TEXT STUDIES IN TRANSLATOLOGY Author Author Sejdiu-Rugova, Lindita Rugova, Bardh Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper aims at bringing up a type of text linguistic analysis, different from traditional one, with the emphasis on the contrastive studies in general and on the English-Albanian cross-linguistic phenomena in particular. It will concentrate in explaining some of the most intriguing and most diverse text analysis elements having in mind the following text categories: Point of view, Composition, Text Idioms. A grammatical structure (Relative Constructions) has been examined thoroughly within the translation method analysis, out of and within the co-text analysis. It resulted in two different outcomes: traditional direct method analysis on one side and text linguistic co-text analysis on the other. Text linguistics as a special field of studies has been greatly developed due to the increased number of translations from one language into another. Text analysis, which relies on the deep description of micro and macro text elements of the text, is crucial for determining the level of translation accuracy of a particular text. Having in mind the relevance of recent discourse and pragmatic analyses impact in the development of interdisciplinary studies, the explanation of constituent elements of the written text is of great importance for the contrastive text studies or translation studies respectively. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd1fdf650e82cf35bf8f47c7e63cd4c5.pdf 68db20a42aee3d9ddf9991c6079c3f9a PDF Text Text TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN Utkir Tolipov Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami Tashkent, Uzbekistan Abstract: Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process. This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies. Keywords: Education, student-teacher relation, pedagogical education, Uzbekistan model Introduction: The current stage of development of the world community is characterized by the rapid unfolding of innovative processes, with innovations increasingly acquiring the status of general indicator of cultural development. One of the conditions of a modern progress is represented by the readiness of the public as well as the counciousness of an individual in terms of changes, in all of the spheres of society. In the conditions of modern civilization reforms in the educational system have become a pressing issue in many countries. According to UNESCO, the main reason for this was the need for education of the person with the planetary thinking, with the ability to participate actively in social and cultural process, to change himself and the surrounding reality. It is education as a sphere, most closely associated with the development of the human personality, which is considered to be the most important factor in economic and social development. The key figure here was and will always remain a teacher - a competent person with a broad outlook in the various fields of knowledge, socially mature and with creative personality. Pedagogical education becomes the foundation of the education system as a whole. �In accordance with the position of the new socio-cultural paradigm a personality is seen as an active subject, capable of affecting the social development, creating a spiritual world of science, religion, culture, morality, and setting new directions for social development. In connection with this, education with his primary goal: the development of such qualities and abilities of a person that would allow him or not only to exist comfortably adapting to a rapidly changing social conditions, but also to overcome difficulties related to perception of innovations for creating a qualitatively new social space - begins to play foreground role in social progress. It follows that the development as an alternative to the concept of “teaching” becomes the key concept of the world's educational systems today. Almost all developed countries have already recognized the need to reform their education systems so that the student would truly become an active figure in the educational process and a cognitive activity of students i.e. the process of learning (not the sum of knowledge, as it was until now, and still taking its place now during traditional teaching) would be in the focus of the teachers The educational institution prepares a person to vigorous activities in various fields of economy, culture, and the political life of society. That is why the role of the school as a base level of education is extremely important. Its ability to respond flexibly to the needs of society, while preserving the accumulated positive experience has a great importance too. However, not all school (university) personnel quickly respond to socio-economic changes, scientific and technical progress. Some teachers are still following the conservative paradigm of teaching adopted in the XIX century: the teacher - textbook (read: system of teaching aids) - student. This system focuses on teaching, on the central role of teacher in the pedagogical process. The student acts as the object of this activity. The statements that the learner (student) should be the subject of the process are not implemented in practice adequately. Therefore, it is important to realize the philosophical paradigm of democratic society “person - society – state” in all areas of society and, above all, in the system of education. Modern society of information technology in comparison with the industrial one of mid-late XIX-XX centuries is in much greater degree interested in the fact that its citizens are able to act independently and actively to make decisions and adapt to the changing conditions of life. Respectively, all types of educational institutions must implement the task of preparing graduates, which are able to: • adapt flexibility to changing life situations, apply skillfully and independently acquired knowledge in practice to solve a variety of arising problems in order to have an opportunity to find their place in life; • think critically, being able to see problems arising in the real world; seek and find a rational way to solve them, using modern technology; have a clear awareness of where and how the acquired knowledge can be applied in the surrounding reality; generate new, creative ideas; �• work competently with the information (to be able to collect facts necessary to solve certain problems, analyze them, hypothesize solutions, make the necessary generalizations, comparing with the same or alternative solutions, set static patterns, make reasoned conclusions, apply them to identify and resolve new problems); • be sociable, contact in different social groups, be able to work together in various areas, situations, including conflict ones, preventing the latter or skillfully finding the exit from it; • working independently to develop their own morality, intelligence and cultural level. This is the imperative of our time. Teachers from different schools of Uzbekistan make similar conclusions, and this has already become a constructive solution in the refined requirements of the educational standards of the State, new curricula built on the principle of continuity, textbooks, manuals, and most importantly - in the style of lessons and activities. Note that the new fundamental social order to the education system from the state is really embodied in the Law "On Education" and the National program for personnel training. The most important thing at the moment is to work together in order to implement this public policy. National Program Implementation and Didactic Models: The implementation of the National Program involves the expansion of individual freedom, increasing the responsibility of each person for the determination of his or her own destiny, which in turn causes an increasing burden on the personality. Primarily this concerns teachers. Educational activity requires a constant creative readiness, continuous self-realization, self-development Today, a kind of "core" of the teacher’s personality refers to as his or her professional and notional potential, which defines humanistic orientation of world attitude and outlook, actions and behavior of the teacher, his or her high adaptability, capacity of creative self-realization and spiritual self-development. In this context, we reviewed the following possible didactic model: 1. Communicative model is aimed at the formation and development of important professional and semantic orientations (personal values, philosophy, the meaning of life) as well as the foundations of creativity and sense of competence of the future teachers in the course of live communication of the teacher and students, imbued with mutual understanding. 2. Active-search model of professional development of the individual sense of the teacher focuses on the development of the foundations of its competence by organizing search and semantic activity of students on practical and extracurricular classes in the course of independent educational and research work. �3. Reflective model aimed at creating a professional and meaningful self-student educator, the development of its abilities to professional self-determination and self-development. This model provides an opportunity for the teachers to reflect on themsleves in the face of the natural and social reality, to seek answers to the many vital and relevant professional issues. 4. Simulation model of professional development of the individual sense of the future teacher contributes to the establishment of its foundations focused on the meaning and sense of Retention competence and basic value-oriented and professionally mediated by personality traits. It can be used for these purposes, can be used depending on the situation and role structurally-role-playing games, activates the process of empathy, compassion, personal identification, the main human need growth, development, and self-improvement. All this prompts the student is already present as the subject of training and educational processes to independent, courageous, enterprising, creative and thorough solutions, albeit in the conditional-game, but liberating his developing personality, situation. 5. Activities and practical model has the same target orientation as the previous one, but is carried out by the organization of independent professional sense of activity of students in the teaching practice. 6. Model of professional sense of self-development is designed to provide first and foremost the establishment of the meaning of the creative competence of the future teacher. As-final, she adds, it consolidates the results of the use of all previous models and represents the transition from the development of professionally-semantic potential of students in pedagogical high school to professional-semantic self-development of the teacher in the course of independent professional activity. State educational standards include not only the training of qualified specialists in a particular area, but also the formation of well-educated creative people, which is impossible without extensive knowledge of the fundamentals of science. Fundament of teacher education contributes to the establishment and development of critical thinking and creativity, as well as providing effective integration of the humanities, natural sciences and professional knowledge. Humanization of teacher education should be focused on distribution coating abilities and meet the diverse educational needs of the priority of human values and harmony in the relationship between man and the environment. Means to achieve the formation of personality of teacher education ensures the formation of students' holistic view of the world, high spirituality, culture, and is saturated with the components of an ethical (moral), aesthetic, ecological, economic and legal education, regardless of the profile and specialization areas of teacher education. Continuity means that the output of the previous stage of pedagogical education must be on the �organizational and substantive level "dock" with the release of the next stage, thus ensuring the interconnection and interdependence of all levels of teacher education. The normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher education should be: • Integrated state educational standards, curriculum and programs, providing close inter-subject, interdisciplinary communication; • a systematic approach to determining the content of educational programs; • psycho-pedagogical and methodological coordination of the educational process in educational institutions of different levels of teachers’ education. The universality of education is perhaps the most complete set of disciplines that determine the unity of professional and general cultural aspects of basic training for future teachers. In the process of development and modernization of the content and structure of vocational teacher education are starting the following provisions: • continuity of professional-pedagogical preparation of personality-oriented nature; • priority theory object of professional activity; • unity of theory and practice; • continuity and integration in building theoretical knowledge and practical skills; • technology training solutions for standard and special (creative) professional problems; • training diagnosis studying the state of the pedagogical process and the use of these results in educational work. Conclusion: Through the application of the acquired theoretical knowledge in the future teachers is formed by a technique of translation of the theory in action, that is, the technology consists of professional work and lay the foundation of professional consciousness. The most important aspect of the content of teacher education is to enrich the creative potential of the teacher's personality on the basis of the revival of national spiritual culture, basic knowledge of folk pedagogy in relation to the history and culture of other peoples of our country and all mankind. The set of specific objectives will give a unified character of the process of teacher training through the use of the capabilities of each of the subject, as well as the complex psychological and pedagogical disciplines. Originating in the Republic of Uzbekistan reforming processes are formed, including the teacher, as a result of the consistent implementation of the National Program for the preparation of the sub-frames, which are made in conditions of Uzbekistan's transition to democracy, the rule of law, and the market economy. The essence of these processes boils down to a fundamental optimization of personnel potential of teacher education, raising the prestige of the profession educators, teachers and �researchers, creating a system of continuous pedagogical education in accordance with tendency world education in the context of sustainable development. References: 1. Problem of cognitive-constructive skills development of students in modern conditions: Monograph/reduction. R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent: Sharq. 2012. – 560 p. 2. Conceptual model of studying on the base of development of cognitive-constructive skills of students as the condition of preparation the younger generation to the invocation of the XXI century // Formation of harmoniously educated generation in modern conditions: collection of scientifically methodically articles (second edition). – Tashkent, 2011. – Pp 13-109. 3. Formation abilities of self-expression and self realization of students as the bases qualities of personality – order of time: scientifically-methodically book for teachers and lecturers / R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent, 2012. – 298 p. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2966 Title A name given to the resource TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN Author Author Tolipov, Utkir Abstract A summary of the resource. Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process. This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/376bc1d9ff65ca55c4585a5c512b2400.pdf 3334be503ee652a1f9cec9570b6d9c5c PDF Text Text TASK BASED LEARNING: A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS Sema Turan Middle East Technical University Article History: Submitted: 07.06.2015 Accepted: 15.07.2015 Abstract: TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind of activities for each of them. Keywords: task-based learning. �1. TASK-BASED LEARNING (TBL)+ TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching (Thornbury, 2006: 223). It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar, for example, because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001:173). TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves (Willis & Willis, 2007). In other words, as Thornbury (2006) suggests, according to TBL, ‘you learn a language by using it,’ not ‘in order to use it’ (p. 223). 1.1. What is a task? In fact, it is a bit problematic to define task as a term because as Zhao (2011) also states, there is not a complete agreement about what constitutes a task. Willis (1996) defines a task as an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome. In this definition, the outcome is important because although the activity involves the use of language, the focus is on outcome. Language in a communicative task is seen as a tool that brings about an outcome (Seedhouse, 1999). Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy (Ellis, 2003). As Larsen-Freeman (2000) points, tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. 1.2. Background In fact, TBL has originated from Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). It is just a strong version of CLT (Zhao, 2011: 46). Despite the CLT’s focus on communicative competence, there was still a tendency to see the study of language form as prior to language use due to the need in promoting accuracy as well as fluency. In the meantime, Prabhu headed a project in schools in South India, and this project was one of the first experiments with TBL. In this project, learners were presented with a series of problems and solved these through information and opinion gap activities under teacher guidance through the medium of English. Later he argued that a focus on language form inhibited language learning, and language development was the outcome of natural processes (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001). TBL gained official popularity when Jane Willis published A Framework for Task-based Learning in 1996. In the book, she stated that she had been into TBL since the early 1980s not only because she was unhappy and unsatisfied with the traditional PPP method, but also because she was influenced by Prabhu’s procedural syllabus experiment. �1.3. Principles of TBL According to Willis (1996) there are three essential conditions, which are exposure, use, and motivation; and one desirable condition, which is instruction for successful learning. Chowdury (2014) summarizes Willis’ ideas as follows: Exposure involves a comprehension of meaning and the conscious observation of other people’s use of the target language. It is when such features are noticed and processed in the learners’ minds. Through exposure learners get the necessary input. Use is basically concerned with speaking and writing unlike exposure that is mainly associated with reading and listening. Through the use of the target language, learners are pushed to make the expected output. The use of language through tasks prepares learners to make free and meaningful use of the target language. Motivation is needed to process the exposure. It enables learners to benefit from the exposure and use. The TBL framework can be used to motivate learners. For example, students get motivation through success. If they see that they can accomplish the tasks easily, they will be motivated and look for more tasks. Instruction should motivate learners to engage in language use rather than teacher control. Instructed language learning should primarily involve natural language use, based on activities concerned with meaning rather than language. 1.4. Procedure According to Willis (1996), the difference between PPP and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end (p. 52). As the communication task is the central point to the framework, such a procedure is more useful than the PPP cycle. A typical TBL lesson is structured as follows: Pre-Task: Language Focus: Introduction to topic Analysis and Practice and task instructions Exposure- ExposureFocus on Form- Task Cycle: Task > Planning > Report -Use- - -Exposure-Focus on Form- Feedback-Feedback- - �Pre-Task: Introduction to topic and task instructions: This stage provides exposure to teacher talk, but brainstorming useful topic words and phrases is a way of involving students. Task Cycle: At this stage, learners use language in varying circumstances and are exposed to others using it. In the Task Phase, learners can use language interactively and spontaneously in pairs, and mistakes don’t matter. The Planning Phase is when the teacher provides input and advice, so there is some focus on form and feedback. At this stage, learners plan what to say at the report stage by trying to use accurate language. The Report Phase encourages a combination of accuracy and fluency. Language Focus: Analysis and practice: At this stage, learners have a chance to focus on form and ask questions about language features as they get exposure to the language from the task cycle. For example, there can be consciousness-raising activities such as identifying, classifying, and focusing on specific language features. These help learners systematise what they already know while noticing new things about language and the way it is used (Willis, 1996). 1.5. Criticism Proponents of TBL favour the way it combines fluency and accuracy. However, some others criticize TBL due to some factors. One criticism is about the issue of feedback. Some criticize the fact that learners get no correction or feedback during the task phase and argue that the feedback that learners get while on task is more effective than post-task. To overcome this limitation, Thornbury (2006) suggests the use of recasts, which is the teacher’s reformulating learners’ statements in a more target-like way. Some others criticize the fact that there is no focus on form at the pre-task stage although it might be necessary to pre-teach grammar items that might be needed during the task. According to Willis (1996), this is one difference of TBL from PPP. Finally, TBL is criticized for being a influential more at the theoretical and research level than actual classroom practice because it requires a totally different course design and testing procedures. In addition, it presents a management challenge because it is difficult to set up and monitor tasks in large classes. Also, it might be difficult to deal with language problems that emerge spontaneously from the task performance (Thornbury, 2006: 224). 2. RELEVANCE OF TBL TO LEARNING CONTEXTS TBL is applicable in a variety of teaching and learning contexts. According to TBL, learners are free to use any language they can to achieve the outcome. Language forms are not prescribed in advance. Language learners, who are human beings, have an innate capacity to work out the ways of expressing meanings. In real life, people do not simply take note of the new linguistic input and copy or reproduce it. Instead, they put language to use to achieve �purposeful communication. Therefore, they adjust or adapt input to create new meanings (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001). TBL aims to achieve this through principles that are parallel to SLA principles. This way, learners can be encouraged to create a meaning system in TBL. Thus, the fact that its principles are realistic and naturalistic is the reason why TBL would suit a variety of learning circumstances. In order to overcome what was criticised about TBL as its limitations, teachers need to prioritize their purposes with regards to the facilities they have. That is, they need to determine whether they want to incorporate the communicative element in their classes along with the form and accuracy or they want to continue with the traditional PPP approach. If they prefer the former, then, it is possible to involve tasks to overcome these limitations. For instance, as Larsen-Freeman (2000) suggests, teachers can add information-gap, opinion-gap (reasoning-gap), or problem solving tasks in their courses and overcome limitations regarding the management or course design. The variety that these tasks offer can provide the base for a lot of teaching contexts and. Finally, according to TBL, working with upper-level learners whose needs can be clearly defined, it is possible to offer pedagogic tasks which relate directly to real-world tasks. Also, the idea that language emerges out of the relationship between exposure, use, focus on form and feedback makes a lot of sense. Therefore, TBL is applicable and a better alternative to PPP. �References           Chowdhury, M.Y.U.K. (2014). The Task-Based Learning Framework and Its Implications in Language Learning and Teaching. Journal of Education and Practice. 5(2): 111-117. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Lebeau, I., Rees, G. (2008). Language Leader Pre-Intermediate Course Book. Pearson. UK Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Longman. London, UK. Willis, J., Willis, D. Task-based Language Learning. in Carter, R., Nunan, D. (Ed.s) (2001). The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. CUP. Cambridge, UK. Willis, J., Willis, D. (2007) Doing Task-Based Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Seedhouse, P. (1999). Task-Based Interaction. ELT Journal. 53(3): 149-156. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts. Macmillan. Oxford, UK. Zhao, H. (2011). How Far Do the Theories of Task-Based Learning Succeed in Combining Communicative and from-Focused Approaches to L2 Research. Journal of Cambridge Studies.6(1): 41-56. �APPENDIX: A SAMPLE TBL LESSON Time Stages & Procedure Aims 5 Pre-Task min.s 20 Task min.s Planning 1. T. shows pictures to elicit the topic of the lesson (Festivals). Timing Interaction of the Activity T-Sts Sts-T St-St 5 min. s 2. Sts. talk in pairs about what activities are there at a festival (1 min.). Later, they tell their ideas to T. T. aims to elicit words such as theatre, cinema, poetry, fireworks, dance, comedy, etc. 1. In groups, sts. plan their night 5 min.s out at this festival by expressing their preferences and making a conversation. T. does not provide any help. Sts. do what they can 5 mins. do. Materials  Pictures  Board  Board marker T-Sts Sts-T T-St St-T St-St Sts-Sts 2. In groups, sts. plan what to say Reporting when they come on the stage to 10 report their night out at this min.s festival. Sts. are focused on accuracy. T. is ready to provide input and advice if sts. need. 3. 2-3 groups come on the stage and report what they have planned. They speak out the conversation they got ready. By the way, other sts. provide feedback about the content of their friend’s conversation. They answer questions such as Do you agree? Would you like to attend the same events? etc. 25 Post-Task 1. Sts. listen to a sample min.s conversation and complete the statements in the handout individually (Appendix A). Then, 10 min.s T-Sts Sts-T T-St St-T  Listening Handout s (Appendi �Analysis they compare with their peers. T. hands out the key. Practice 2. T. elicits statements to focus on the form. 3. Sts. do the practice handout in pairs. T. provides the key (Appendix B). 10 min.s 5 min.s St-St Sts-Sts x A)  Practice Handout s (Appendi x B)  Board  Board marker �LESSON APPENDICES Appendix A: Listening Handout A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box. than (x2) rather (x2) prefer keen love fancy I don’t ________________ that. I’d ________________ to go to the classical concert. I’d ________________ see the film. I’m not that ____________ on the concert. I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers ______________the one-man theatre show. 6. I’d ________________ to see the drummers. 7. I’d _______________ see that _______________ a play about Shakespeare. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. Which sentences in Exercise A: a. mean you like one thing more than another thing: b. mean you don’t like / prefer something: c. mean you like / prefer something: �KEY: A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box. than (x2) rather (x2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. prefer keen love fancy I don’t fancy that. I’d prefer to go to the classical concert. I’d rather see the film. I’m not that keen on the concert. I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers than the one-man theatre show. I’d love to see the drummers. I’d rather see that than a play about Shakespeare. B. Which sentences in Exercise A: a. mean you like one thing more than another thing: 5, 7 b. mean you don’t like / prefer something: 1, 4 c. mean you like / prefer something: 2, 3, 6 �Tape script: �Text: EDINBURGH FESTIVAL AFTER DINNER EVENTS (8 p.m. – 11 p.m.) CASTLE CLASSICS Great music, great orchestra, great location. Tonight: The world famous National Orchestra perform Beethoven’s Symphony No.3 in the main hall of the wonderful Edinburgh Castle. MOVIES IN THE PARK Enjoy movies from around the world in the festival’s outdoor cinema – the popcorn is free! Tonight: Hum Tum – an Indian film made in the true Bollywood style. This is a romantic comedy filled with great songs and dances LATE NIGHT EVENTS (11 p.m. –2 a.m.) MINI-THEATRE Powerful plays with the smallest of casts. Tonight: Shakespeare – A Writer’s Life. One actor performs the full story of Shakespeare’s life. He acts as Shakespeare, his mother and father, his wife and even his children. You’ll laugh out loud. WORLD BEATS Music and dance from all around the world. Tonight: Japanese Drumming. An incredible performance by 45 drummers that you’ll never forget. Powerful and unique. �Appendix B: Practice Handout � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2964 Title A name given to the resource TASK BASED LEARNING:A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS Author Author Turan, Sema Abstract A summary of the resource. TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind of activities for each of them. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General)