25 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bef59450528ddea5431fc3faed9f5273.pdf 04a04cef19a87d039daa95d539487772 PDF Text Text Effect of Gibberellic Acid Application Times on Earliness and Production of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar in Antalya Ecologic Conditions Meliha Temirkaynak, Sadettin Küçük Recep Çoşkun West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: Artichoke is one of the important vegetable crops in Mediterranean countries including Turkey. In our country, while artichoke production was undertaken in İzmir, Bursa and Yalova until 10 years ago, its area of production has broadened to include southern cities such as Antalya and Muğla. As early artichoke production, especially in Antalya region, is profitable for farmers, demand for growing this crop has increased. The present study investigated the effect of gibberellic acid application times (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) on earliness and production of A-106 artichoke cultivar. The plants were grown in West Mediterrrenean Agricultural Research Institute in 2007-2008. The results show that GA3 applications are very effective to promote earliness in A-106 cultivar. Keywords: GA3 application, time, artichoke, A-106 and earliness. Introduction Artichoke is a vegetable whose forebear is thistle and is included in Cynara cenus in botanical classifying, which belongs to the Asteraceae family, and it is perannual, in rozetta shape. It is declared in literature that the home of this vegetable, which can be seen in Mediterranean basin, is middle and west Mediterranean and has firstly been consumed by the Romans in 1979 B.C. (Anonymous a 2008; Graifeirberg ve ark. 1995; Lanteri ve ark. 2001; Stamigna 2001; Hill 2001). In our country artichoke is grown by vegetative propagation and especially in Aegean and Mediterranean regions with our standard types for a long time. However, taking more and early products from unit area has been the main objective, as the other branches of agriculture where the production cost increases day by day. In this context, our region, especially Antalya and neighbours, has many advantages in earliness as in many other kinds of fruit and vegetables. Until a few years ago, it wasn’t possible to see other plantations that were established by other types than Sakız and Bayrampaşa. In the last years, the number of plantations that are established with hybrid artichoke cultivars that are produced by seed have increased. Production by seed has an important disadvantage, lateness, besides many important advantages like productivity, resistance to diseases(especially Verticillium spp. ve Fusarium spp.) and profitability (Macua ve ark. 2000; Gil ve ark. 2003; Calabrese ve ark. 2004; Bianco 2000). The elimination of lateness has an importance in production by seed if artichoke is going to be grown in Mediterranean region of our country, especially in Antalya where earliness is of importance. Artichoke needs vernelization 250 hours under 7 C to form a head (although changing from cultivar to cultivar). Foury ve Pecaut 1988; Welbaum 1994; Basnizki ve Goldschmidt 1994; Hill 2001). The effects of GA3 applications in artichoke on earliness and productivity has been known and applicated for a long time. It has been declared in many scientific works that GA3 applications has taken the place of colding need for head forming in many cultivars (Gerakis ve ark.,1969; Snyder ve ark.1971; Kocer ve Eser 1999; Miguel ve ark.,1997; Miguel ve ark.,2004; Ercan ve ark.2004). The effects of hormone applications on seed propagated artichoke cultivars depend on date of plantation, time of application, number of application, dosage of application, and cultivar. (Welbaum 1994; Schrader, 1992; Elia ve ark., 1994; Mauromicale ve Ierna 1995; Miguel ve ark., 1997; Calabrese ve Bianco 2000; Mauromicale ve Ierna 2000; Goreta ve ark.,2004; Eldin ve ark., 2007). Mauromicale ve Ierna (2000) has decided that the head characteristics of Orlando and Sicilia artichoke cultivars change by hormon applications. Calabrese (2000) examined the early productivity of 8 hybrid artichoke types which are produced by seed in Southern Italy. It has been decided that the period between seeding and harvest is 97-120 days. It is declared in the studies of these investigators that productivity changes according to cultivars between 1.75/2.20 ton/ha. These results show that artichoke types that are produced by seed can be grown in October-May like other types which are grown in early classical ways. 34 �Material In this study A-106 artichoke cultivar, which is included in Cynara cenus which belongs to Asteraceae family, has been used as plant material. A-106 artichoke cultivar is a type which is early, has a low vernelization need, with much productivity, which form qualified heads, and has many puple brakte leaves. This study was conducted between the years 2007-2008 in a artichoke plantation situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute in Antalya-Turkey (360 56 N', 300 51' E). Method In this research it is aimed to determine the most suitable GA3 application time for A-106 artichoke for earliness. In this research 4th, 6th and 8th weeks after transferring to soil was selected as the first application time for vegetable development regulatory. 25 ppm GA3 applications were made to the plants by spraying. Only water was sprayed to the plants that have been selected as the control group. In this study following criteria have been examined: 1. Number of days from transfer to soil until harvest (earliness) Number of days from transferring the vegetables to soil until harvest is an important criteria in determining the effectiveness of the applications on earliness. 2. Head weight (g) Differences among the applications are determined by weighing the heads at time of harvest. 3. Head length (mm) Differences among the applications are determined by measuring the length of heads at time of harvest. 4. Head diameter (mm) Differences among the application are determined by measuring the diameter of heads at time of harvest. 5. Productivity (kg/da) Productivity in da is calcuted in kg by the productivity per vegetable. All application groups were laid out with four replications and 10 plants in each replicants in the randomised block experimental design. Data were subject to analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences) test at 0.05 significance levels. Results and Discussion In this research, where the affects of GA3 application times on A-106 artichoke cultivar on earliness, yield and head quality is examined, it was determined that hormone applications have important affects on all criteria that have been examined, compared to the control vegetables with no applications. Although depending on the application time of hormone, average 1,5 months of earliness was provided at the vegetables with applications. The earliest harvest at the GA3 application made at the 4th week happened at the 98. day after transferring to soil. The latest harvest happened at 140. day at the control group with the plants with no hormone application. At other application times these periods were very close, between 100-110 days. The effects of hormon application times on productivity was shown at Figure 1. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the effects of the applications were found statistically significant. The effects of application times on yield changed between 1.12-1.88 t/da; the highest yield was determined at the GA3 application on the 4. week as 1.88 t/da, and it was followed by the application at 6. week and the control apllication at the 8. week. The effects of applications on yield was found to be more succesful in all applications than control. Our trial results are in accordance with many other investigators. In many studies where the effects of hormone application times on artichoke was examined, it is reported that hormone application times increase productivity significantly. (Esteva ve Ayala, 2004; Ercan ve ark. 2004;Gil ve ark. 1998; Goreta ve ark. 2004) Besides, the effects of hormone application times on head quality (head weight, head width and length) are examined and the results are presented in Figure 2. The effects of the applications on the head quality were 35 �different. As a result of the statistical evaluations it is determined that the all hormone apllication times have important effects on all quality criteria that are examined, compared to the control group. Furthermore, the effects of hormone application times on head quality (head weight, head width and length) were examined in this study and the results are presented at Figure 2. The effects of the applications made on head quality were different. For example, the highest head weight was found to be 423 g at the 4th week, the lowest head weight was 410 g at the heads at the control group. Head weight values determined at other hormone application times took place in the same group statistically with the 4th week applications. The highest value of head width was found in the heads with hormone applications on 4th week. The highest head height was found at the vegetables with hormon applications on 8th week. The effect of GA3 applications on head length can be explained by the fostering of the GA’s to the cells for growing. In this study, where the effects of GA3 application times on earliness, yield and head quality of A-106 artichoke cultivar were examined, considering all the criteria investigated it can be said that the optimum GA3 application time is the 4th week after transferring the vegetables to soil. Table 1. Effect of GA3 Application Times on Yield (tonnes/da) of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar Application Time Yield(tonnes/da) Control 1.12 C 4.th 1.88 A 6. th 1.64 B 8. th 1.58 B LSD%5 0.18 Table 2. Effect of GA3 Application Times on Head Quality of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar Application Time Head Weight (g) Head Diameter (mm) Head Lenght mm) Control 382 B 98.98 C 89.48 C 4.th 423 A 130.28 A 98.74 B 6. th 418 A 122.48 B 112.46 B 8. th 420 A 120.22 B 118.34 A LSD%5 22 8.42 6.32 36 �References: ANONYMOUS, 2008. Artichoke-Spring Season. http://www.mmdtkw.org BASNIZKI Y. and E.E. GOLDSCHMIDT, 1994. Further Examination of Gibberelline A3 Effects on Flowering of Globe Artichokes (Cynara scolymus L.) Under Controlled Environment and Field Conditions. Isr. J. Plant Sci. (42):159166. BIANCO V.V., 2000. Present situation and future potentials at artichoke in the Mediterranean basin. http://www. area.ba.cnr.it CALABRESE N. And V.V. BIANCA, 2000. Effect of Gibberellic Acid on Yeld and Quality of Seed Grown Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. Scolymus (L.) Fiori). Acta Hort. 514:25-32. CALABRESE N., E. DE PALMA and V.V. BIANCA, 2000. Gibberellic acid and earliness of new seed propagated artichoke cultivars grown for four years (Abstract). IV. International Congress on Artichoke, October 17-21. Valenzanı-Bari, Italy. CALABRESE N., E. DE PALMA and V.V. BIANCA, 2004. Yields and quality of new commercial seed grown artichoke hybrids (Abstract). V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain. ELDİN A.S., W.H. SCHNİTZLER, G. NİTZ, A.M. RAZİN and I.I. El-OKSH, 2007. The Effect of Gibberellic Acid (GA3) on Some Phenolic Substances in Globe Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus (L.) Fiori). Scientia Horticulturae Volume 111, Issue 4, 16 February 2007, Pages 326-329. ELIA A., N. CALABRESE and V.V. BIANCO, 1994. Sowing Time, Gibberellic Acid Treatments and Cultivars of “Seed” Propagated Artichoke. Acta.Hort. 371:347-354. ERCAN N., A.N. ONUS, F. AYAR, M. TEMİRKAYNAK, A.S. ŞENSOY and E. POLAT, 2004. Determination of optimum GA3 concentrations and awakining irrigation time for globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L. Cv. Sakız) grown in mediterranean region of Turkey. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.197-203. FOURY C., 2003. Common vegetables for seed and fruit. Chapter: Artichoke or globe artichoke and cardoon. http://gears.tucson.ars.ag.gov. (03.05.2008) GERAKIS P.A., D. MARKAIN and S. HONMA, 1969. Vernalization of Globe Artichoke, Cynara scolymus. J. Amer. Hort. Sci. 94:254-258. GIL O.R., J.J. MACUA and P. ARCE, 1993. Differentes ciclos de produccion en variedades de alcacchofa de multiplicacion por semilla. Agricola Vergel 139 :379-380. GORETA S., L. BUCAN and G. DUMİNİC, 2004. Effect of Environment and Gibberellic Acid (GA3) on Earliness and Yield of Globe Artichoke. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.155-159. GRAIFEIRBERG A., L. GIUSTINIANI, O. TEMPERINI and M. LIPUCCI DI PAOLA, 1995. Allocation of Na, Cl, K and Ca within plant tissues in globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.)under saline-sodic conditions. Scientia Horticulturae 63 (1995) 1-10. HILL, D.E, 2001. Globe artichoke trials 1998, 2000 Management of yield using ınduced or natural vernalization. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven Bulletin 975, may 2001. 7 pages. KOÇER, G. ve B. ESER, 1999. Köklü Dip Sürgünü Özellikleri ve GA3 Uygulamalarının Enginarda Verim Dağılımına Etkileri. Turkish Journal of Agriculture&Forestry. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi. 23(2): 325-332. LANTERI S., I. D. LEO, L. LEDDA, M.G. MAMELI and E. PORTIS, 2001. RAPD variation within and among populations of globe artichoke cultivar ‘Spinosa Sardo’. Plant Breeding 120, 243-246. MACUA J. I, L. LAHOZ, A. MALUMBRES, J. GARNİCA, I. URMENETA and A. ARRONDO, 2000. Agricultural Behavior of Two Cardoon Varieties at Different Planting Dates in Navarra. V International Congress on Artichoke (abst.) MAUROMİCALE G. and A. IERNA, 1995. Effects of Gibberellic acid and Sowing Date on Harvest Time and Yields of Seed-Grown Globe Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.). Agronomie. 15:527-538. MAUROMİCALE G. and A. IERNA, 2000. Characteristics of Head of Seed-Grown Globe Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus (L.) Fiori) as effected by Harvest Period, Sowing Date and Gibberellic Acid MIGUEL A., J.V. MAROTO, B. IRANZO and S. LOPEZ, 1997. Acido Giberelico en alcachofa. Horticultura, 120:111113.Agronomie 20: 197-204. MIGUEL A., C. BAIXAULI, J.M. AGUILAR, A. GINER, J.V. MAROTO, S. LOPEZ, A SAN BAUTİSTA and B. PASCUAL, 2004. Gibberellic Acid Concentrations in Seed Propagated Artichoke. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.167-172. SCHRADER W.L., 1992. Growth Regulator Effects on Earliness and Yield in Artichokes Grown as Annuals from Seed.HortScience. 27:643. SNYDER M.J, N.C. WELCH and V.E. RUBATZKY, 1971. Influence of Gibberellin on Time of Bud Development in Globe Artichoke. HortScience, 6 (5):484-485. STAMIGNA C., G. PANDOZY, P. CRINO and F. SACCARDO, 2001. Male-sterility in Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) (Abstract). Proceedings of the XLV Italian society of Agricultural Genetics SIGA Annual Congress. Salsomaggione Terme, Italy-26/29 September 2001. WELBAUM, G.E., 1994. Annual Culture of Globe Artichoke from Seed in Virginia. HortTechnology. 4 (2(:147-150. 37 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 646 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Gibberellic Acid Application Times on Earliness and Production of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar in Antalya Ecologic Conditions Author Author Temirkaynak, Meliha Küçük, Sadettin Çoskun, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. Artichoke is one of the important vegetable crops in Mediterranean countries including Turkey. In our country, while artichoke production was undertaken in İzmir, Bursa and Yalova until 10 years ago, its area of production has broadened to include southern cities such as Antalya and Muğla. As early artichoke production, especially in Antalya region, is profitable for farmers, demand for growing this crop has increased. The present study investigated the effect of gibberellic acid application times (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) on earliness and production of A-106 artichoke cultivar. The plants were grown in West Mediterrrenean Agricultural Research Institute in 2007-2008. The results show that GA3 applications are very effective to promote earliness in A-106 cultivar. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/615db92d4d6c464bbbf435c428b95d1e.pdf 5b60ac81d267ea372b73b64c54010a78 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Effect of Gibberellic Acid Application Times on Earliness and Production of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar in Antalya Ecologic Conditions Meliha Temirkaynak Sadettin Küçük Recep Çoşkun West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: Artichoke is one of the important vegetable crops in Mediterranean countries including Turkey. In our country, while artichoke production was undertaken in Đzmir, Bursa and Yalova until 10 years ago, its area of production has broadened to include southern cities such as Antalya and Muğla. As early artichoke production, especially in Antalya region, is profitable for farmers, demand for growing this crop has increased. The present study investigated the effect of gibberellic acid application times (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) on earliness and production of A-106 artichoke cultivar. The plants were grown in West Mediterrrenean Agricultural Research Institute in 2007-2008. The results show that GA3 applications are very effective to promote earliness in A-106 cultivar. it Keywords: GA3 application, time, artichoke, A-106 and earliness. Introduction Artichoke is a vegetable whose forebear is thistle and is included in Cynara cenus in botanical classifying, which belongs to the Asteraceae family, and it is perannual, in rozetta shape. It is declared in literature that the home of this vegetable, which can be seen in Mediterranean basin, is middle and west Mediterranean and has firstly been consumed by the Romansin 1979 B.C. (Anonymous a 2008; Graifeirberg ve ark. 1995; Lanteri ve ark. 2001; Stamigna 2001; Hill 2001). In our country artichoke is grown by vegetative propagation and especially in Aegean and Mediterranean regions with our standard types for a long time. However,taking more and early products from unit area has been the main objective, as the other branches of agriculture where the production costincreases day by day. In this context, our region, especially Antalya and neighbours, has many advantages in earliness as in many other kinds of fruit and vegetables. Until a few years ago, it wasn’t possible to see other plantations that were established by other types than Sakız and Bayrampaşa. In the last years, the number of plantations that are established with hybrid artichoke cultivarsthat are produced by seed have increased. Production by seed has an important disadvantage, lateness, besides many important advantages like productivity, resistance to diseases(especially Verticillium spp. ve Fusarium spp.) and profitability (Macua ve ark. 2000; Gil ve ark. 2003; Calabrese ve ark. 2004; Bianco 2000). The elimination oflateness has an importance in production by seed if artichoke is going to be grown in Mediterranean region of our country, especially in Antalya where earliness is ofimportance. Artichoke needs vernelization 250 hours under 7 C to form a head (although changing from cultivar to cultivar). Foury ve Pecaut 1988; Welbaum 1994; Basnizki ve Goldschmidt 1994; Hill 2001). The effects of GA3 applications in artichoke on earliness and productivity has been known and applicated for a long time. It has been declared in many scientific works that GA3 applications has taken the place of colding need for head forming in many cultivars (Gerakis ve ark.,1969; Snyder ve ark.1971; Kocer ve Eser 1999; Miguel ve ark.,1997; Miguel ve ark.,2004; Ercan ve ark.2004). The effects of hormone applications on seed propagated artichoke cultivars depend on date of plantation, time of application, number of application, dosage of application, and cultivar. (Welbaum 1994; Schrader, 1992; Elia ve ark., 1994; Mauromicale ve Ierna 1995; Miguel ve ark., 1997; Calabrese ve Bianco 2000; Mauromicale ve Ierna 2000; Goreta ve ark.,2004; Eldin ve ark., 2007). Mauromicale ve Ierna (2000) has decided thatthe head characteristics of Orlando and Sicilia artichoke cultivars change by hormon applications. 74 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Calabrese (2000) examined the early productivity of 8 hybrid artichoke types which are produced by seed in Southern Italy. It has been decided that the period between seeding and harvest is 97-120 days. It is declared in the studies of these investigators that productivity changes according to cultivars between 1.75/2.20 ton/ha. These results show that artichoke types that are produced by seed can be grown in October-May like othertypes which are grown in early classical ways. Material In this study A-106 artichoke cultivar, which is included in Cynara cenus which belongs to Asteraceae family, has been used as plant material. A-106 artichoke cultivaris atype which is early,has a low vernelization need, with much productivity,which form qualified heads, and has many puple brakte leaves. This study was conducted between the years 2007-2008 in a artichoke plantation situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institutein Antalya-Turkey (360 56 N', 300 51' E). Metod In thisresearch itis aimed to determine the most suitable GA3 application time for A-106 artichoke for earliness.Inthisresearch 4th,6th and 8th weeks aftertransferring to soilisselected asthe firstapplication time for vegetable development regulatory. 25 ppm GA3 applications were made to the plants by spraying. Only water is sprayed to the plants that have been selected as the control group. In this study following criteria have been examined: 1. Number of days from transferto soil until harvest(earliness) Number of days from transferring the vegetables to soil until harvest is an important criteria in determining the effectiveness of the applications on earliness. 2. Head weight (g) Differences among the applications are determined by weighing the heads attime of harvest. 3. Head length (mm) Differences among the applications are determined by measuring the length of heads attime of harvest. 4. Head diameter (mm) Differences among the application are determined by measuring the diameter of heads attime of harvest. 5. Productivity (kg/da) Productivity in da is calcuted in kg by the productivity per vegetable. All application groups were laid out with four replications and 10 plantsin each replicantsinthe randomised block experimental design. Data were subjectto analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences)test at 0.05 significance levels. Results and Discussion In this research, where the affects of GA3 application times on A-106 artichoke cultivar on earliness, productivity and head quality is examined,itis determined that hormone applications have important affects on all criteriathat have been examined, compared to the control vegetables with no applications. Although depending on the application time of hormone, average 1,5 months of earliness is provided at the vegetables with applications. The earliest harvest atthe GA3 application made atthe 4th week happened at the 98. day aftertransferring to soil. The latest harvest happened at 140. day atthe control group with the plants with no hormone application.At other application times these periods were very close, between 100-110 days. The effects of hormon application times on productivity is shown at Figure 1. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the effects of the applications are found statistically significant. The effects of application times on productivity changed between 1.12-1.88 t/da;the highest productivity was determined atthe GA3 application on the 4. week as 1.88 t/da, and it is followed by the application at 6. week and the control apllication at the 8. week. The effects of applications on productivity is found to be more succesfulin all applications than control. Our trialresults are in accordance with many other investigators.In many studies where the effects of hormone application times on artichoke are examined,itis reported that hormone application times increase productivity significantly.(Esteva ve Ayala, 2004; Ercan ve ark. 2004;Gil ve ark. 1998; Goreta ve ark.2004) Besides,the effects of hormone application times on head quality (head weight, head width and length) are examined and the results are presented in Figure 2. The effects of the applications on the head quality are 75 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo different. As a result of the statistical evaluations it is determined that the all hormone apllication times have important effects on all quality criteria that are examined, compared to the control group. Furthermore, the effects of hormone application times on head quality (head weight, head width and length) are examined in this study and the results are presented at Figure 2. The effects ofthe applications made on head quality are different. For example,the highest head weightisfound to be 423 g atthe 4th week,thelowest head weightis 410 g atthe heads atthe control group. Head weight values determined at other hormone application times took place in the same group statistically with the 4th week applications. The highest value of head width was found in the heads with hormone applications on 4th week. The highest head height is found at the vegetables with hormon applications on 8th week. The effect of GA3 applications on head length can be explained by the fostering of the G A’s to the cellsfor growing. In this study, where the effects of GA3 application times on earliness, productivity and head quality of A-106 artichoke cultivar is examined, considering all the criteria investigated it can be said that the optimum G A3 application time isthe 4th week aftertransferring the vegetablesto soil. Application Time Control 4.th 6.th 8.th LSD% 5 Table 1. Effect of GA3 Application Times on Yield(tonnes/da) 1.12 C 1.88 A 1.64 B 1.58 B 0.18 Yield (tonnes/da) of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar Application Time Head Weight (g) Head Diameter (m m) Head Lenght m m) Control 382 B 98.98 C 89.48 C 4.th 423 A 130.28 A 98.74 B 6.th 418 A 122.48 B 112.46 B 8.th 420 A 120.22 B 118.34 A LSD% 5 22 8.42 6.32 Table 2. Effect of GA3 Application Times on Head Quality of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar References Anonymous, 2008. Artichoke-Spring Season. http://www.mmdtkw.org Basnızkı Y. and E.E. Goldschmıdt, 1994. Further Examination of Gibberelline A3 Effects on Flowering of Globe Artichokes (Cynara scolymus L.) Under Controlled Environment and Field Conditions. Isr. J. Plant Sci. (42):159-166. Bianco V.V., 2000. Present situation and future potentials at artichoke in the Mediterranean basin. http://www. area.ba.cnr.it Calabrese N. And V.V. Bianca, 2000. Effect of Gibberellic Acid on Yeld and Quality of Seed Grown Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. Scolymus (L.) Fiori). Acta Hort. 514:25-32. Calabrese N., E. De Palma and V.V. Bianca, 2000. Gibberellic acid and earliness of new seed propagated artichoke cultivars grown for four years (Abstract). IV. International Congress on Artichoke, October 17-21. Valenzanı-Bari, Italy. Calabrese N., E. DE Palma and V.V. Bianca, 2004. Yields and quality of new commercial seed grown artichoke hybrids (Abstract). V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain. Eldin A.S., W.H. Schnitzler, G. Nitz, A.M. Razin and I.I. El-Oksh, 2007. The Effect of Gibberellic Acid (GA3) on Some Phenolic Substances in Globe Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus (L.) Fiori). Scientia Horticulturae Volume 111, Issue 4, 16 February 2007, Pages 326-329. Elia A., N. Calabrese and V.V. Bianco, 1994. Sowing Time, Gibberellic Acid Treatments and Cultivars of “Seed” Propagated Artichoke. Acta.Hort. 371:347-354. Ercan N., A.N. Onus, F. Ayar, M. Temirkaynak, A.S. Şensoy and E. Polat, 2004. Determination of optimum GA3 concentrations and awakining irrigation time for globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L. Cv. Sakız) grown in mediterranean region of Turkey. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.197-203. 76 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Foury C., 2003. Common vegetables for http://gears.tucson.ars.ag.gov. (03.05.2008) seed and fruit. Chapter: Artichoke or globe artichoke and cardoon. Gerakis P.A., D. Markain and S. Honma, 1969. Vernalization of Globe Artichoke, Cynara scolymus. J. Amer. Hort. Sci. 94:254-258. Gil O.R., J.J. Macua and P. Arce, 1993. Differentes ciclos de produccion en variedades de alcacchofa de multiplicacion por semilla. Agricola Vergel 139 :379-380. Goreta S., L. Bucan and G. Duminic, 2004. Effect of Environment and Gibberellic Acid (GA3) on Earliness and Yield of Globe Artichoke. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.155-159. Graifeirberg A., L. Giustiniani, O. Temperini and M. Lipucci Di Paola, 1995. Allocation of Na, Cl, K and Ca within plant tissues in globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.)under saline-sodic conditions. Scientia Horticulturae 63 (1995) 1-10. Hill, D.E, 2001. Globe artichoke trials 1998, 2000 Management of yield using ınduced or natural vernalization. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven Bulletin 975, may 2001. 7 pages. Koçer, G. ve B. Eser, 1999. Köklü Dip Sürgünü Özellikleri ve GA3 Uygulamalarının Enginarda Verim Dağılımına Etkileri. Turkish Journal of Agriculture&Forestry. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi. 23(2): 325-332. Lanteri S., I. D. Leo, L. Ledda, M.G. Mameli and E. PORTIS, 2001. Rapd variation within and among populations of globe artichoke cultivar ‘Spinosa Sardo’. Plant Breeding 120, 243-246. Macua J. I, L. Lahoz, A. Malumbres, J. Garnica, I. Urmeneta and A. Arrondo, 2000. Agricultural Behavior of Two Cardoon Varieties at Different Planting Dates in Navarra. V International Congress on Artichoke (abst.) Mauromicale G. and A. Ierna, 1995. Effects of Gibberellic acid and Sowing Date on Harvest Time and Yields of SeedGrown Globe Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.). Agronomie. 15:527-538. Mauromicale G. and A. Ierna, 2000. Characteristics of Head of Seed-Grown Globe Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus (L.) Fiori) as effected by Harvest Period, Sowing Date and Gibberellic Acid Miguel A., J.V. Maroto, B. Iranzo and S. Lopez, 1997. Acido Giberelico en alcachofa. Horticultura, 120:111-113.Agronomie 20: 197-204. Miguel A., C. Baixauli, J.M. Aguilar, A. Giner, J.V. Maroto, S. Lopez, A San Bautista and B. PASCUAL, 2004. Gibberellic Acid Concentrations in Seed Propagated Artichoke. V. International Congress on Artichoke 5-8 may, 2003. Tudela-Navarra, Spain.167-172. Schrader W.L., 1992. Growth Regulator Effects on Earliness and Yield in Artichokes Grown as Annuals from Seed.HortScience. 27:643. Snyder M.J, N.C. Welch and V.E. Rubatzky, 1971. Influence of Gibberellin on Time of Bud Development in Globe Artichoke. HortScience, 6 (5):484-485. Stamigna C., G. Pandozy, P. Crino and F. Saccardo, 2001. Male-sterility in Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) (Abstract). Proceedings of the XLV Italian society of Agricultural Genetics SIGA Annual Congress. Salsomaggione Terme, Italy-26/29 September 2001. Welbaum, G.E., 1994. Annual Culture of Globe Artichoke from Seed in Virginia. HortTechnology. 4 (2(:147-150. 77 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 476 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Gibberellic Acid Application Times on Earliness and Production of A-106 Artichoke Cultivar in Antalya Ecologic Conditions Author Author Temirkaynak, Meliha Küçük, Sadettin Çoskun, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. Artichoke is one of the important vegetable crops in Mediterranean countries including Turkey. In our country, while artichoke production was undertaken in Đzmir, Bursa and Yalova until 10 years ago, its area of production has broadened to include southern cities such as Antalya and Muğla. As early artichoke production, especially in Antalya region, is profitable for farmers, demand for growing this crop has increased. The present study investigated the effect of gibberellic acid application times (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) on earliness and production of A-106 artichoke cultivar. The plants were grown in West Mediterrrenean Agricultural Research Institute in 2007-2008. The results show that GA3 applications are very effective to promote earliness in A-106 cultivar. it Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/929a5882b1f4f372726ce749270450b5.pdf 1e99ad1fece8e89b856c3192504c196f PDF Text Text Türk Dilindeki Yabancı Kelimelerin Türkçe Öğretimine Etkileri Tarkan Tekten Uluslararası Tolerans Eğitim Vakfı, Rusya Devlet Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi Türkçe Öğretmeni, Akademisyen dunyadili@gmail.com Özet : Bugün dünya üzerinde konuşulan dillerin hepsi az ya da çok başka bir dil ya da dillerle ilişki içindedir. Hele Türkçe gibi, zaman bakımından çok eskilere dayanan, zemin bakımından da çok geniş bir coğrafyaya dağılmış olan bir dilin, başka dillerden etkilenmesi ve başka dilleri etkilemesi kaçınılmazdır. Türkçe farklı zamanlarda farklı dillerden yabancı kelimeleri bünyesine katmış ve neredeyse bunlar Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Bunların bazıları yüzyıllar süren bir yolculuktan sonra dile yerleşmiş ve Türk dili ile özdeşleşmiştir (Sarı, 2008). Bu kelimelerin bazıları dil bilgisi yapısına uyarken bazıları da bu yapıya uymamış ve beraberinde istisnaları da dile sokmuştur. Bu da Türkçenin yabancılara öğretilmesi hususunda açıklanması güç bazı kurallar şeklinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Türkçe yapı itibariyle dünya dilleri arasında en az istisnaya sahip “matematiksel” dillerden birisidir. Anlatılması, açıklanması, öğretilmesi, kelime türetilmesi ve yeni kelimeler oluşturmaya müsait olması sebebiyle örnek gösterilen bir dildir. Ancak karşımıza çıkan yabancı kökenli kelimeler dilin anlatılması konusunda sıkıntıları da beraberinde getirmektedir. Aslında Türk dilinde çok fazla yabancı kelime olmasına rağmen bir o kadar da kelimenin karşılığı Türkçede yer almaktadır. Çözüm yabancı dillerin dil bilgisi yapısını öğrenip istisnai kuralları yabancı dildeki yapıyla açıklama yerine Türkçedeki karşılıklarını kullanarak bu sıkıntıyı bir ölçüde azaltma yoluna gidilmelidir. Anahtar sözcükler, Türk dili, Turkish Language Bugün dünya üzerinde konuşulan dillerin hepsi az ya da çok başka bir dil ya da dillerle ilişki içindedir. Hele Türkçe gibi, zaman bakımından çok eskilere dayanan, zemin bakımından da çok geniş bir coğrafyaya dağılmış olan bir dilin, başka dillerden etkilenmesi ve başka dilleri etkilemesi kaçınılmazdır (Sarı, 2008).. Türkçe farklı zamanlarda farklı dillerden yabancı kelimeleri bünyesine katmış ve neredeyse bunlar Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Bunların bazıları yüzyıllar süren bir yolculuktan sonra dile yerleşmiş ve Türk dili ile özdeşleşmiştir (Sarı, 2008). Bu kelimelerin bazıları dil bilgisi yapısına uyarken bazıları da bu yapıya uymamış ve beraberinde istisnaları da dile sokmuştur. Bu da Türkçenin yabancılara öğretilmesi hususunda açıklanması güç bazı kurallar şeklinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Türkçe yapı itibariyle dünya dilleri arasında en az istisnaya sahip “matematiksel” dillerden birisidir. Anlatılması, açıklanması, öğretilmesi, kelime türetilmesi ve yeni kelimeler oluşturmaya müsait olması sebebiyle örnek gösterilen bir dildir. Ancak karşımıza çıkan yabancı kökenli kelimeler dilin anlatılması konusunda sıkıntıları da beraberinde getirmektedir. Yabancı dillerin Türkçeyi etkilemesi yalnızca sözcük ve terim girişiyle sınırlı kalmamış, diğer dillerden alıntıların Türkçenin ses yapısına uydurulmasında da yabancı dillerin ses bilgisi özellikleri baskın olmuştur. Buna en iyi örnek Türkçeye İngilizceden giren innovation “yenileşim” sözünün inovasyon biçiminde kullanılmasıdır (Yabancı Sözlere Karşılıklar Kılavuzu, 2008). Son yıllarda yabancı dilden alıntıların Türkçede özgün yazım ve söyleniş özellikleriyle kullanılması çok büyük olumsuzluklara yol açmaktadır. Eklemeli bir dil olan Türkçede yabancı kökenli sözlere ekler Türkçe söylenişe göre getirildiğinde mortgag’a, on-line’ım, hacker’lara gibi tuhaf ve gülünç yazım biçimleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu da dilimizin kuralsız ve istisnalarla dolu bir dil olduğu görüntüsünü vermektedir (Yabancı Sözlere Karşılıklar Kılavuzu, 2008). Bu türden sözlerin yer aldığı cümleleri okuyup anlayabilmek için Türkçe bilmek yeterli olmamakta, o yabancı dilleri bilmek gerekmektedir. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde kelimenin Türkçe karşılığı kullanılmadığında çeşitli sorunlar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bunları genel hatlarıyla şu şekilde sıralayabiliriz. 119 �1-Türkçe veya yabancı kökenli kelimelere yabancı eklerin getirilmesi. Bunların kök, gövde veya ek olarak açıklanabilmesi mümkün değildir. Kraliyet Hürriyet Serbestiyet Dostane Acizane İlmi İktisadi Taraftar Kafadar Liberalizm Turizm Turist Realist 2-Yabancı kelimelerin Türkçedeki ünlü uyumuna göre ek almaması. Kontrolü Folklore Refakatçi Kabulü Hâller Kalbim 3-Yazılış ve okunuşlarının farklı olması. Türk dilinde kelimeler yazıldığı gibi okunur. Bu da dil öğretimini kolaylaştıran önemli bir unsurdur. Show-Şov Şarj-Şarz Blander-Blendır Cafe-Kafe Blue Jean- Blucin Video-Vidyo Chat- Çet Check up-Çekap Solarium-Solaryum Digiturk-Dijitürk W.C.-Ve ce USB-Yu es bi AİDS-Eydis 4-Yabancı dillerdeki ortak kelimelerin yazılması ve söylenmesindeki hatalar. Aynı kelimenin bir benzeri öğrencinin kendi dilinde varsa ve okunuşu Türkçeye yakınsa bu kelimeyi kendi dilindeki şekliyle kabul etmekte ve daha sonra bu hatayı düzeltmesi zor olmaktadır. Biftek-Bifşteks Üniversite-Üniversitet Koridor- Karidor Enstitü-İnstitüt Profesör-Profesır Fakülte-Fakültet Diploma-Diplom Sertifika-Sertifikat Banka-Bank Radyo-Radio Televizyon-Televizion Doktor-Doctor 120 �5-Kalınlık-incelik uyumu. Yabancı kelimeler Türkçe büyük ünlü uyumuna uymazlar. Sermaye Emanet Adalet Tatil Kalem Kitap Kontör Beyaz 6-Tamlamalar. Türkçede olmayan ve Türkçe açıklaması mümkün olmayan tamlamalar vardır. Bu tamlamaların aldıkları ekler ve eki alış biçimleri dil bilgisine uyum göstermemektedir. Sahra-yı Cedit Kuva-yı Millî Selman-ı Pak Caddesi Divan-ı Lugati’t-Türk Ab-ı hayat Ruh-ı mücerred 7-Dişilik-erkeklik. Türkçede yapı itibariyle kelimelerde dişilik ve erkeklik yoktur. Aktör-Aktris Host-Hostes Müdür-Müdire Masör-Masöz Muallim-Muallime Memur-Memure Prens-Prenses Kral-Kraliçe Çar-Çariçe Patron-Patroniçe Bakir-Bakire Rahip-Rahibe 8-Ön ekler. Türk dilinde pekiştirme sıfatları dışında ön ek görülmez (Ergin,1997). Ancak Türkçenin ek ve kök sırasına uygun olmayan bazı ön ekler Türkçeye girmiştir. Bihaber Biçare Nahoş Namalum Namağlup Namert Otokontrol Antitez Antidepresyon Alaturka Ametal Asosyal 121 �9- Hece bölmede kuralı zorlayan kelimeler vardır. Poliklinik Belgrad Elektrik Elektron Telgraf Kontrgerilla Eksper Ekstra 10- Türkçede iki ünlü yanyana gelmez. Fuar Saat Düet Aile Kuaför İnşaat Düello Şefaat İddia Faaliyet 11-Türkçede kelimeler iki sessiz harfle başlamaz. Kral Tren Skandal Standart Flaş Protokol Stüdyo Stil Tribün Grup Plan Statü Slogan 12-Çoğul kelimeler. Anlam itibariyle çokluk ifade eden kelimeler tekrar çoğul eki alabilmektedir. Evliya-evliyalar- ermişler Evlat –evlatlar- çocuklar Tamirat –tamiratlar- onarımlar Meşrubat –meşrubatlar- içecekler Beyanat -beyanatlar -açıklamalar Gidişat – gidişatlar- durumlar Yukarıdaki örneklerde de görüldüğü gibi Türkçenin yazımını ve söyleyişini temelinden sarsan bu olumsuzlukların önüne geçmek için yabancı dillerin dil bilgisi yapısını öğrenip istisnai kuralları yabancı dildeki yapılarıyla açıklama yerine Türkçedeki karşılıkları kullanılanarak bu sıkıntı bir ölçüde azaltılmalıdır. Hürriyet kelimesi yerine özgürlük Dostane kelimesi yerine arkadaşça Realizm kelimesi yerine gerçekçilik Haller kelimesi yerine durumlar Kalbim kelimesi yerine yüreğim Kontrolü kelimesi yerine denetlemeyi 122 �Show kelimesi yerine gösteri Şarj kelimesi yerine dolum Blander kelimesi yerine karıştırıcı kullanılabilir. Aslında Türk dilinde çok fazla yabancı kelime olmasına rağmen bu kelimelerin birçoğunun Türkçe karşılığı vardır. Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiş ve henüz Türkçede karşılığı olmayan bazı kelimeler için ise şimdilik yapacak bir şey yoktur. Dilin kurallarına uygun yeni kelimeler oluşturulup halk tarafından kabul edilinceye kadar eksi ve artılarıyla bu kelimeler dilimizde misafir olarak kalacaklardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçeleşmiş bazı yabancı kelimelerin dilimizden çıkarılıp atılması mümkün değildir. Çünkü Türk dili ve edebiyatı tarihi boyunca söz konusu bu kelimeler -Türkçe karşılıklarıyla- beraber asırlarca seyahat etmişlerdir. Kaynaklar: Ergin, Muharrem (1997) Üniversiteler İçin Türk Dili,Bayrak Yayınları İstanbul s. 159 Sarı, Mustafa (2008) Türkçenin Batı Dilleriyle İlişkisi, TDK yayınları Ankara s. 3, 13, 14 Yabancı Sözlere Karşılıklar Kılavuzu (2008) TDK yayınları Ankara 2008 s. 6, 7, 9 123 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 661 Title A name given to the resource Türk Dilindeki Yabancı Kelimelerin Türkçe Öğretimine Etkileri Author Author Tekten, Tarkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Bugün dünya üzerinde konuşulan dillerin hepsi az ya da çok başka bir dil ya da dillerle ilişki içindedir. Hele Türkçe gibi, zaman bakımından çok eskilere dayanan, zemin bakımından da çok geniş bir coğrafyaya dağılmış olan bir dilin, başka dillerden etkilenmesi ve başka dilleri etkilemesi kaçınılmazdır. Türkçe farklı zamanlarda farklı dillerden yabancı kelimeleri bünyesine katmış ve neredeyse bunlar Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Bunların bazıları yüzyıllar süren bir yolculuktan sonra dile yerleşmiş ve Türk dili ile özdeşleşmiştir (Sarı, 2008). Bu kelimelerin bazıları dil bilgisi yapısına uyarken bazıları da bu yapıya uymamış ve beraberinde istisnaları da dile sokmuştur. Bu da Türkçenin yabancılara öğretilmesi hususunda açıklanması güç bazı kurallar şeklinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Türkçe yapı itibariyle dünya dilleri arasında en az istisnaya sahip “matematiksel” dillerden birisidir. Anlatılması, açıklanması, öğretilmesi, kelime türetilmesi ve yeni kelimeler oluşturmaya müsait olması sebebiyle örnek gösterilen bir dildir. Ancak karşımıza çıkan yabancı kökenli kelimeler dilin anlatılması konusunda sıkıntıları da beraberinde getirmektedir. Aslında Türk dilinde çok fazla yabancı kelime olmasına rağmen bir o kadar da kelimenin karşılığı Türkçede yer almaktadır. Çözüm yabancı dillerin dil bilgisi yapısını öğrenip istisnai kuralları yabancı dildeki yapıyla açıklama yerine Türkçedeki karşılıklarını kullanarak bu sıkıntıyı bir ölçüde azaltma yoluna gidilmelidir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f1c79fb8dd7114be56baeebed230a59.pdf 0645a0c00f4a46417b52513640671451 PDF Text Text The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer Lemi Tufan Taşpolat Bilecik University VocationalHigh School, Department of Building Technology, Bilecik Hasan Yamik Bilecik University Engineering Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilecik Mesut Kaplan Bilecik University VocationalHigh School, Department of Food Technology, Bilecik Abstract:The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15% to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills. Introduction In recent years,as a result of condensation ofthe world's population in cities and increasing consumption, the waste management (collection, transport, processing, waste treatment, recycling or disposal of waste materials)is becoming a serious problem. The increasing of production and consumption resultsin the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing is initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed for the recycling of wastes, many of then cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies, however, a final amount of trashes must be stored for the lastremoval procedure. In the regular landfill areas, highly polluted garbage water leaks and reaches to the bottom layer. This leakage water can diffuseto ground and surface water. For avoiding this diffusion, clay layers are supposed to be constructed as a bottom liner. The waste materials should be covered to isolate from surrounding environment and humans and to prevent leakage of rain water to landfill. Some properties are required for this impermeable clay barriers; ie; resistance to environmental effects, lower permeability, higher ductility to prevent crack formation, chemical stability, prevention capability of contaminants by diffusion of similar mechanism (Taşpolat, 2006). In the landfilllayers, utilization of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to block the heavy metal diffusion in garbage water. By this way,the waste materials,such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. Severalresearchers have studied the usage potential of fly ash in the clay layer as a hydraulic barrier.In these studies,itis seen thatthe fly ash can be used for leakages having alkalin character (Edil and Berthouex, 1990; Palmer et al, 2000; Prashanth et al, 2001; Kalkan and Akbulut, 2004). Zeolite-Bentonite mixture was also used as an altenative material.In these mixtures,the proportion of bentoniteto zeolite between 0,05 to 0,20 was obtained as a suitable mixtures. The cation exchange capacity and lower permeability values of the zeolite and bentonite have shown that itcould be used in clay layers (Kayabalı et al, 1997; Tuncan et al, 2003; Kaya and Durukan, 2003). Besides natural materials, the petroleum based geomembranes can also be used widely as a hydraulic barrier. The using of impermeable geomenbranes have been allowing to build thinner clay layer. In this case, the thin layer should be carefully applied in orderto preventthe tearing and puncturing. In this study, usability of asphaltite dustin the impermeable layer was investigated. For thisreason,three mixture of soilto asphaltite dust(the proportions were 5,10,15% dustto dry soil by weight) have been prepared. The following tests are carried out on the samples taken from the mixtures: Index properties of the specimens 416 �were determined by liquid limit test, plastic limit test, shrinkage test, sieve test, hydrometer test and buoyancy analysis tests. Mechanical properties of the specimens were determined by standard proctor test, permeability test, unconfined compression test and UU triaxialtest. Finally, physicochemical properties such as pH, EC, CEC were determined by chemicaltests. Materials And Method M aterials Na Bentonite Clay Bentoniteis a colloidal aluminium hydrosilicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water. It has a swelling characteristic till 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The vertical permeability of bentonite clay is 4,09x10-10 cm/s and the lateral swelling pressure of bentonite clay is 4,48 kg/cm2 (Mining SpecialExpert commission 2001). The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite.It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara (Tuerkey). Some physicochemical and geotechnic parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 2.1, the amount of total metal is shown in table 2.2, the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2.3 (Koyuncu 1998). Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness of layers are 7.2 Å, the length of layers are between1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is(SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure; first excavation from clay ores,then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µ m At the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The 80 % ofthis clay consist of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of the kaolinite clay are shown in table 2.1, the amounts oftotal metal are shown in table 2.2 the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown intable 2.3(Koyuncu 1998). Asphaltite Asphaltite, one of the primary energy sources, was assumed that it is a fossil fuel. While amount of oxygen is 3-44% in turba, lignite and coal,itis thought that asphaltite materials have formed as a result of oil transformation, duo to its amount of oxygen (2%). During transformation, asphaltite comes out after natural asphaltits coloris bright black or matt black.Its hardness varies between 2 and 3, specific gravity varies 1.03 and 1.20 and itsthermal value varies between 10 and 23 Mj/kg.Itcontains 10 to 55% constant carbon, 0 to 2% oxygen and from a dribletto 5% mineral material. It melts between 120-135o C and solubility of asphaltitein carbon sulphide is between 45% and 100% (Nakoman 1997). Other physicochemical and geotechnical parameters, the amount of total metal, the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are given in tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 respectively (Koyuncu 1998). At the beginning;the asphaltites were used in production of dye and some chemical materials. After 1920, they has been also used for production of asphalt. Lately,itis used in production of synthetic petroleum. In addition, it is used in production of ammonia after gasifying. Asphaltite materials are also important because of valuable minerals (nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium and uranium) in its contents. Asphaltites can also be used in production of energy by direct burning (Atlaş et al, 1994a).In figure 2.1, asphaltite coal and waste of asphaltite dust used in energy sector are shown. Additions pH CEC EC SM NSA GSW UVW Grain Size Distribution (%) 417 �Silt clay Cu Cc Na-Bentonite 9.50 90.22 2.69 12.7 6.82 2.76 0.94 2 46 Kaolinite 4.86 25.93 0.15 0.1 7.36 2.64 0.59 11 26 Asphaltite 8.37 4.73 0.14 0.54 1.61 2.66 0.34 ------CEC:Cation Exchange Capacity, EC:Electrical Contuctivity,WC:Water Content, OSA:Organic Substance Amount, GSG:Grain Specific gravity,UVW:Unit Volume Weight (meq/100g) (mS/cm) (%) (%) (gr/l) Sand 52 63 ---- 40 170 ---- 0.8 1.7 ---- Table 2.1: Some physicochemical properties of materials used in the study. Additions Al As Cu Na-Bentonite 90262 <5 81 Kaolinite 123750 <5 280 Asphaltite 671 <5 66 Zn Fe Cd Ca 71 10724 <0.5 12134 52 7550 <0.5 770 35 1650 <0.5 27761 Co 21 22 22 Pb Cr Mg Mn Mo 91 9 6815 2419 92 136 405 1230 870 10 63 6 6034 258 73 Ni Na K 7 16920 2558 280 3000 6000 88 5022 579 Table.2.2: Total metal amounts of materials (mg/kg). Additions Na-Bentonite Kaolinite Asphaltite SiO2 59.49 51.52 58.05 Al2O3 18.06 32.00 0.60 Fe2O3 4.14 1.75 0.33 CaO MgO P2O3 3.72 2.42 0.11 0.20 0.20 0.70 34.79 0.00 K2O Na2O SO3 Cl Mn2O3 0.91 2.50 0.10 0.003 ---0.50 0.09 0.004 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.000 ---- HL 8.02 9.60 5.32 CO2 1.31 1.03 4.84 DW ---------- HL:Heating loss,DW:Dependent Water Table 2.3: Chemical compound determined by X-Ray elemantal analysis of materials used in the study Figure 2.1:. Asphaltite coal and waste asphaltite dust used in energy production Experimental Study Impermeable clay layer was prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the asphaltite dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. The sharpened brass pipe whose diameter is 38mm and heightis 203m m was used for taking specimens from the compaction mold. From the pipe,the specimens with 37 mm diameter and 74 mm height were obtained. Several experiments are carried out on these samples to determine the geotechnical, physical, physicochemical properties and, environmentalimpacts. Geotechnical Properties The AST M D854-2000 test was used forthe determination of specific gravity. For consistency limits, BS 1377 Part 2: 1990: 4.3 and 5.4 were applied for the liquid limittest and plastic limittests respectively. For the liquid limit test,the cone penetrometer method was utilized. The shrinkage limit test was applied according to the AST M D427 1998 standard. The grain size distribution was also determined according to the AST M standards. Generally,the soil classification study is carried out as a last geotechnical examination. For this purpose, 418 �there are two standards, namely; USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) and A ASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Office).In this study the both method are utilized for determination of soil class. The soil classification, specific gravity and consistency limits are given in table 2.4. The curves of grain size distribution were also given in figure 2.2. PARA METERS USCS A ASHTO Specific Gravity Consistency Limits (%) Liquid Plastic Shrinkage Plasticity limit limit limit index Control(90K10B) CH A-7-5(9) 2,64 50,97 32,38 1,75% 18,59 90K10B +5% Asp. CH A-7-5(12) 2,63 50,44 32,40 1,42% 23,66 90K10B +10% Asp. CH-CL A-7-5(10) 2,59 50,26 32,62 1,25% 26,11 90K10B +15% Asp. CL A-7-5(9) 2,55 49,01 32,80 1,35% 30,45 Table 2.4: Soil classifications ofthe mixtures,specific gravity and consistency limit values. Figure 2.2: Grain size distrubution curves Mechanical Properties In this study the standard proctor test was applied to the mixtures by using AST M D 698-78 and the relation between water contents and dry unit volume weight was observed. The other mechanical test in this study is permeability. “Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Saturated Leachate Conductivity, and Intrinsic Permeability”,indicated in USEPA Method 9100 (1986) was used in thistest. The results of tests are shown in table 2.5 The triaxial UU test was done under 100 kPa and 200 kPa surrounding pressure in accordance with method suggested in Turkish Standard No1900. The unconfined compression test was also used in triaxial UU test method but the only difference is the absence of cell pressure. The results of triaxial UU test and the unconfined compression test are shown in figure 2.3 and 2.4 respectively. PARA METERS Control(90K10B) 90K10B +5% Asf. 90K10B +10% Asf. 90K10B +15% Asf. The result of compaction opt. water content% 22,72 22,61 22,46 22,35 Permeability m/s 1.2 x 10-9 1.4 x 10-9 1.5 x 10-9 1.8 x 10-9 Table 2.5: Optimum water contents and permeability results 419 �400 0% Pressure (kPa) 380 5% 10% 360 15% 340 320 300 280 260 240 0 10 20 30 Cure time (Day) Figure 2.3: Strenght vs cure time in triaxial UU test. 180 Pressure (kPa) 160 0 5% 10% 15% 140 120 100 80 60 0 10 20 Cure tim e (Day) 30 Figure 2.4: Strenght vs cure time in unconfined compression test. Physicochemical Properties Physicochemical properties of materials are also extremely important for permeability. Therefore, pH, cation exchange capacity(CEC), electricalconductivity(EC) and the amount of organic materialare also studied forthe conclusion at usability of the studied material. U.S. EPA Method 9045 (1986) was used for of pH test. For comparison, pH values of the same mixtures were remeasured one day later. This measurement is similarto the technique suggested by Jackson(1958). The sodium saturation method was used for CEC. EC of specimens were determined by sinking electrode into the mixture (Wilcox1946; Karakouzian et al. 1996). The amount of organic materialin the mixture was determined by dry-burn method (Standard Methods 1993, Horneck et al.1989). The results are shown in table 2.6. Leachatetestis done for the physicochemicalresults and itisshown in table 2.7. 420 �Materialas pH Control(90K10B) 90K10B +5% Asp. 90K10B +10% Asp. 90K10B +15% Asp. 8,9 8,2 8,2 7,9 EC (mS/cm) 1171 1420 1674 1765 CEC (meq/100g) 13,44 16,33 17,90 17,18 O.E.M (%) 0,1 7,9 9,9 10 Table 2.6: Physicochemical properties ofthe mixtures. Cu Zn Ni Pb (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Control(90K10B) 22,25 20,50 20,00 21,25 90K10B +5% Asp. 0.25 0,25 0,00 0,00 90K10B +10% Asp. 0,25 0,25 0,00 0,00 90K10B +15% Asp. 0,25 0,25 0,00 0,00 Table 2.7: Results ofthe leachate experiment ofthe mixtures. Materials The properties belong to environmental conditions The effect of environmental conditions is another factor on the permeability of mixtures In order to determine thesebehavoir; freezing and thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezingand-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in AST M D560-82 (1985) and results are given in table 2.8. Initial water contents The number of cycle Grain loss (%) (%) Control(90K10B) 25 12 17,6 90K10B +5% Asf. 25 12 19,9 90K10B +10% Asf. 25 12 23,8 90K10B +15% Asf. 25 12 25,2 Table 2.8: Freezing-Thawing experiment results of asphaltite powder mixtures. Materials Discussion Plasticity index values of all specimens used in this study are between 16 and 19. These values are appropriateto Ip < 50 criterion determined forlandfilllayers studied by Daniel and Wu,1993. Itis observed that the materials are CH and CL class according to USCS. However a variation was observed from higher (CH) plasticity clay to lower plasticity clay (CL) asthe amount of asphaltiteinthe mixtures has increased. This shows that CH, CL and MH type of soil can be used in landfilllayers. It was declared that the acceptable maximum volume shrinkage ratio was 4% for landfilllayers (Daniel and Wu, 1993, Kleppe and Olson, 1984). Volume shrinkage ratios is measured between 1,25%-1,75% in this study. On the other hand, the specific gravity measured for samples is 2,55 at minimum and 2.63 at maximum. These values are between 2,5-2,7 ranges observed in previous studies (Yong-Weidth, 1985, Benson 1994). The optimum water content values ofthe samples are around 22%. The solid waste regulationsis declared that the optimum water contents must be between 20 and 40%. When the amount of dissolved saltin water in soilincreases, EC also increases. The maximum EC obtained is 1765 mS/cm. In previous studies,itis declared that EC<4000 mS/cm is a reasonable value (Tuncan et al,1996). When the saltinthe soilis dissolved in water,it causes an increase in the permeability. The permeability values of samples are between 1,2x10-9 and 1,8x10-9 m/s. The highest permeability value indicated by USEPA is 10-8 m/s. On the other hand, the amount of organic materialinthe mixture has increased as the amount of asphaltitefrom 0,1% to 7,9% increased. Organic material increase makes increasing influence on permeability.It was confirmed by testresults. On examining CEC behavior of samples,it was seen thatithasincreased from 13,44% to 17,90%. Higher CEC value willreduce heavy metal pollution in leakage water. Furthermore, higher CEC means higher potential 421 �of expansion which is another criterion of permeability. The results of Leachate test were shown that the asphaltite dust added mixtures was absorbed Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni excellently. As can be seen from table 2.7,these values are reduced from 22,25 ppm to 0,25 and 0. The unconfined compression test and triaxialtestresults ofthe samples were shown that asphaltite has no positiveinfluence on strength values. Depending on curetime and amount of additives,some decline was seen in strength values. Finally, afterfreezing and thawing test consisting oftotally 12 cycles,it was seen that grain loss has increased with asphaltite increase. It has increased from 17.6% to 25,2% at the end of 12 cycles. It can be declared thatthe grain losses can make negative influence to the strength values oflayers. Conclusions It was determined that the usage of asphaltite dust has reasonable criteria as additive materials in the kaolinite-bentonite mixture landfilllayers asthe results are comparable with criteriain the literature and Turkish solid waste municipial regulations. The usage of asphaltite will also influence the environment by means of recycle of waste material. In future, studies with asphaltite dust,itis suggested thatincreasing addition ratio, considering solutions in orderto see heat effects,repetition experiments atlow and high temperature,researching mixtures which will be composed with only kaolinite or only natural clays. References ASTM D 427, 1998, Standart Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Mercury Method. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts ASTM D 854, 2000, Standart Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts. ASTM D 4318, 2000, Standart Test Method for Liquit Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of soils. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts. Atlaş, M., Fikret, H., Çelebi, E., 1994a, Development of Energy Sector of Turkey and supply-demand projections, Turkey 6.Energy Congress, pp197-201,17-22 October, Đzmir, (in Turkish). Benson, C. H. ve Othman, M. A.,1993, Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted and Thawed In Situ, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,119, 2, pp276-294. Daniel, D. E., 1987, Earth Liners for Waste Disposal Facilities, Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal 87, R.D. Woods, ed., ASCE, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp 21-39. Daniel, D. E. And WU, Y. K., 1993, Compacted Clay Liners and Covers for Arid Sites, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Volume 119, pp 223-237. Das, B. M., 1998, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Fourth Edition, International Thomson Publishing, Boston. Edıl, T.B ve Berthouex, P.M, 1990, Earthen Barriers Technology For Waste Containment, Waste Management, 10, 2, pp 147-153.. Kalkan, E. Ve Akbulut, S., 2004, The Positive Effects of Slica Fume on The Permeability, Swelling Pressure and Compressive Strength of Natural Clay Liners, Engineering Geology, 73, pp145-156. Kayabalı, K, 1997, Engineering Aspects Of A Novel Landfill Liner Material: Bentonite-Amended Natural Zeolite, Engineering Geology, 46, 2, pp 105-114. Luczak-Wılamowska, B.,2002, Neogene clays from Poland as mineral sealing barriers for landfills: experimental study, Applied Clay Science, 21, 1-2, April, pp 33-43. Roehl, K.E, ve Czurda, K., 1998, Diffusion And Solid Speciation Of Cd And Pb Đn Clay Liners, Applied Clay Science, 12, pp 387-402 . Mining Special Expert Commission, 1995, Kaolin, p 1-4, (in Turkish). 422 �Mining Special Expert Commission, 2001, Bentonit, p 2-26, (in Turkish). Nozhernikova, A.N., Nekrasova, V.K., Lebeder, V.S., and Lifshits, A.B., (1993), Microbio-logical Process in Landfills, WST, Vol.27, No.2, pp 242-252. Koyuncu, H.,1998, Physicochemical, Microstructure and Geotecnical Properties of Petroleum Boring Wastes improved with Stabilization/Solidification Method, PhD Thesis, Osmangazi University,(in Turkish). Nakomon, E.,1997, Southeastern Anatolia Asphaltical Material Appearances, Mining Journal, November, pp 41-51, (in Turkish). Palmer, B.G., Edil, T.B. ve Benson, C.H., 2000, Liners For Waste Containment Constructed With Class F And C Fly Ashes, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 76, 15 September, pp 193-216. Prashanth, J.p., Sıvapullaıah, P.V., ve Srıdharan, A., 2001, Pozzolanic Fly Ash As A Hydraulic Barrier in Landfills, Engineering Geology, 60, 1-4, June, pp 245-252. Taşpolat, L.T., 2006, Utilization of Afyon Waste Marble Dust and Şırnak Asphaltite in the Landfill Liners, MSc Thesis, Afyon Kocatepe University, (in Turkish). TS 1900, 1997, Soil Laboratory Testing In Civil Engineering, Ankara, Türkiye, (in Turkish). U.S. EPA METHOD 9100, 1986, Physical/chemical methods, saturated hydraulic conductivity, saturated leachate conductivity, and instinsic permeability, triaxial-cell method with back pressure, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid DC. 20460, Environmental Protection Agency, 9100-20-24, September. U.S. EPA METHOD 9045, Physical/chemical methods, Soil pH, test methods for evaluating solid waste, (SW-846), IA, IB, IC and II., Third Edition, Doc. Control No: 955-001-000001, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Wılcox, J. C., 1946, Determination Of Electrical Conductivity Of Soil Solution, Science Agronomy. 32, pp107-117. Karakouzian, M., Pıtchford, A., Leonard M. And Johnson, B., 1996, Measurement of Soluble Salt Contend of Soils From Arid And Semi-Arid Regions, Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 19,4, December, pp364-372. Horneck, D.A., Hart, J.M., Topper, K., and Koepsell, B., 1989, Methods of Soil Analysis Used in The Soil Testing Laboratory At Oregon State University. SM 89:4-16. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, U.S.A. Tuncan, A., Tuncan, M., Koyuncu, H., 1996, Applied Research of Physical and Chemical Effects of Pollution Produced by Petroleum Boring Wastes in Soil, TUBITAK Project, KTÇAG-136, p194.(in Turkish). 423 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 521 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer Author Author Taspolat, Lemi Tufan Yamik, Hasan Kaplan, Mesut Abstract A summary of the resource. The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15% to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/febe1083c1b6cea2a9e518fda4ec4a0f.pdf 4c8d33a8a06e5cb0e7bc0c646e32c8cf PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Local Forage Ecotypes and Their Importance in Turkey M ustafa Tan Atatürk University Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Field Crops, Erzurum-TURKEY mustan@atauni.edu.tr Zeynep Dumlu Atatürk University Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Field Crops, Erzurum-TURKEY Abstract: Although not convenient for the modern agriculture, local ecotypes are of importance for being breeding materials since their genetic variations are diverse. Turkey is a rich country in the number of forage ecotypes. Cultivation history of especially alfalfa, common vetch, sainfoin, forage pea, chickling vetch and bitter vetch dates back to very ancient times. However, these genotypes are facing to extinct today and their importance has begun to be realized in the respect of sustainable and organic crop yielding as well as due to the increased global warming and water shortage threats. This paper was prepared to summarize some information about local forage ecotypes in Turkey and to mention about their importance. Introduction Forms which have been grown forlong periodsin a certain area and gained characteristics unique to them are termed to be local ecotypes. These forms can also be called local populations or ecotypes and have adapted to the ecology of the area where they are grown. Their yielding may be low because of undeveloped genetic capacity; however,their resistance to disease and harmful insects and adaptation ability are considerably high. Local ecotypes are plant forms which are prevalentin the areas where they are grown; their culture can go back to very ancienttimes and they can be formed by the mixtures of differenttypes (Açıkgöz 2001). Local ecotypes representthe genetic diversity of a country together with wild species. However, with the development of high yielding bred cultivars local species have losttheir significance and have faced extinction threat in many regions all over the world. This threat is so big that today local ecotypes of several vitally important plants,such as wheat,are beginning to disappear. With the green revolution,they were largely eroded being replaced with the newly developed cultural species in the countries e.g. India, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq. Local species are not convenient for modern agriculture. They can not pass maturity stage timely and their yielding capacity islow. (Tosun et al. 1978) found in their study, where they carried out experiments over local alfalfa ecotypestaken from Erzurum, Ağrı and Kayseriand the cultivars with foreign origin thatforeign cultivars had 30 % more yielding rate than the ecotypes. Today, developed plant breeding techniques have shown their effects on local species adversely and caused these genotypes to extinct. However, these forms whose significance will certainly be realized in the future should absolutely be conserved. Perhaps,there may be a time inthe future when plant breeder will back to native species and local populations will be needed to regain genes carrying some plant characteristics which have been lost. There are already a number of bred cultural species forms from local ones.In bred species, genetic variation istoo uniform to develop new varieties. Conservation of local plantsis beginning to gain importance today. However,there is a great controversy on how this effort can be achieved. Regional genetic materials in many countries have been taken under conservation through gene banks. Although this method is costly and time consuming,itguarantees the success. Under the control of gene banks, local species can be conserved and they are sometimes planted in order to maintain their vitality. In addition to conservational aims, these registered genotypes can easily be sent to differentregions in orderto perform various aims (Şengül 2009). Another way to conserve local genotypes is to take these species under protection where they are grown and to encourage their cultivation. Such efforts are carried out for both plant and animal materials in the countries where they are cultured. 1 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Livestock breeding is an important occupancy in many parts of Turkey. Cultivation of forage species has gained importance in the areas where livestock breeding is extensive. However, the number of forage species under cultivation is not much. The most cultivated forage species in Turkey is alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), which is followed by common vetch (Vicia sativa L.), sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa L.) and silage maize (Zea mays L.). In addition to these species, cultivation of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia L. Willd.), chickling vetch (Lathyrus sp.), fodder beet (Beta vulgaris var. rapa), Hungarian vetch (Vicia pannonica Crantz.), sorghum (Sorghum sp.) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) species are performed to a lesser degree. Majority of these forage species are bred species and in especially the western part of the country, where developed agricultural and livestock techniques are applied, almost all ofthese species are bred forms. Local species are more prevalent in mountainous areas of Black Sea, Middle Anatolia and Southeast Anatolia regions, where mechanised cultivation techniques areless developed.In the following parts ofthe paper summarized information tried to be given aboutthese local ecotypes. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Local alfalfa ecotypes in Turkey are divided into four categories; Eastern Anatolia (including Erzurum, Ağrı and Van), Kayseri, Karaağaç and Bayındır. Local alfalfa speciesin Turkey arethe forms whose rosettes are horizontal in autumn (Gençkan 1983). Eastern Anatolia ecotype can develop semi-horizontally and is considerably resistant to both cold and arid conditions. Stems are thin and branched abundantly. Its leaves are narrow and like a long spear. Its flower colour is dark purplish (Elçi 2005). Eastern Anatolia alfalfa begins growing in spring late and endsits growth earlyin entering winter.Itcan be cuttwice orthricein one season and it gives the highest yielding rate atthe first cutting.It has a very large longevity and can yield crop for 20 to 30 years. A new alfalfa variety, Savaş, which is more suitable to be grown in the region, has been derived from these local ecotypes through selection.(Şengül 2003) reported in his study on the genotypes of Eastern Anatolia alfalfathatits plant characteristics have greatly changed. Local alfalfa ecotypes of Kayseri and Karaağaç are the forms which can develop vertically and conveniently to the conditions of Middle Anatolia. Flower colour of Kayseri population is brighter than that of Eastern Anatolia alfalfa.Its development stages can require long vegetation period. Kayseri ecotype is sensitive to leave disease and its regeneration is slower and they are not uniform. This ecotype is more prevalent in Middle Anatolia and its passage regions. Kayseri and Karaağaç alfalfa ecotypes have long life-span,though not longer than that of Eastern Anatolia ecotypes (Soya et al. 1997). Local alfalfa ecotype of Turkey, which is convenient to country’s coastal regions, is Bayındır. It is prevalent in the west of Anatolia and Aegean Region. It has a long development period and can be cut many times.Itslongevity is shorterthan that of other ecotypes. Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa L.) Sainfoin is an important forage species which can widely grow in the arid regions of Turkey. It is cultivated in the Middle and especially the Eastern parts of Anatolia and their local populations are given the names ofthe cities, wherethey are grown. The cities of Erzincan, Kars, Ağrı, Van, Erzurum and Ardahan are the places where sainfoin is grown much. Com mon name for allofthese speciesis Erzincan ecotype. The reason for local sainfoin ecotypes to grow more widely in Eastern regions of Turkey is that Eastern Anatolia region is included in the genetic source areas of Onobrychis species. This species is considerably resistant to aridity and cold conditions. It can be cut once or twice depending on the seasonal rainfall. Life-span of this vertically growing ecotype is 4 to 6 years. Its growth is slower in the sowing year and in this period it develops only rosettes and can sometimes form flowers. Flower corollas are pink. Common Vetch (Vicia sativa L.) Com mon vetch is among the species grown for both its hay and seeds in Turkey since ancient times. Therefore, Anatolia has local common vetch forms almostin allregions. However,these local plants have been eroded from their cultivated areas, in especially the western parts, where modern cultivation techniques are employed. Local common vetch populations are more prevalentin the Eastern part ofthe country. As is known, origin of common vetch is Southwest Asia and Mediterranean Region, which is why itslocal ecotypes have been very wide in the country since very early times. 2 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Plant and seed characteristics of local common vetch species can show great diversity. Plant forms are generally climbing;it has smallleaves with tendril. Flower colour is pink, violent or yellowish-green or brown. Its seeds are round-like and flat like a lentil; colours of seeds can be grey, yellowish, brown or black. Many of the cultured species have been bred form these local species through selection. According to (Gençkan 1983), common vetches cultivated in Turkey have been derived from the subspecies of Vicia sativa subsp. obovata. It was also reported that forms of these subspecies are grown in both Anatolia and Thrace (Uluocak 1984). (Açıkgöz 2001) stated that com mon vetches have been grown in Anatolian soils since very ancient times and seeds ofthis species were encountered in the excavations belonging to 5000 to 7000 B.C. (Avcı 1994) found in his study, where he used four bred com mon vetch species,two lines and six local ecotypes taken from eastern parts of Turkey, that weight of 1000 seed was lower in local ecotypes than that of bred genotypes and length of maturity stages was largerinthe formerthan latter while some local ecotypes could give equal hay and seed yielding with bred forms. Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia Willd.) Cultivation of this plantin Turkey goes back to 5000 to 6000 B.C. Itis a short(20 to 40 cm length) and vertically developing species and very resistant to arid conditions. Its flowers are whitish yellow and seeds are brown. They are grown to produce grain feed. Bitter vetch is cultivated in Aegean, Mediterranean, Middle and Southeast Anatolia Regions of Turkey. Itis very difficultto harvest this species mechanically since it is short and it has lower pod very close to the ground. Therefore, seeds have to be picked up manually. This difficulty causes the cultivation this speciesto reduce consistently. Forinstance, during 1970s this species was sown in an area of 70.000 ha, however,thisrate was reduced to 2.000 ha in 2000s. In orderto prevent bitter vetch cultivation form disappearance, Ankara University Agriculture Faculty has begun to conduct studies. Local bitter vetch samples collected from allregions of Turkey were characterised and taken under protection. Form these collected populations, lines and varieties that are more yielding and convenientto machinery cultivation were developed (Ekiz & Özkaynak 1984). Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus L.) It is a species which began to be grown in Turkey in early ages. Stems are clearly flanked (angled). Leaves have 1 or 2 leaflets and long tendrils; and are spear-like in shape. Flowers are whitish-blue. This species is grown locallyinthe mountainous areasin Southeast Anatoliaregion of Turkey to produce grains or hay. Seeds of local species are greyish. It is known with the local name cılban where it is cultivated in Turkey. It is L. sativus species that is cultivated the most,though hairy vetch (L. hirsitus L.) is grown relatively low (Uluocak 1984). Local species of this plant have been collected and studies began to be carried out to develop culture species from these collected forms (Karadağ 1999). Total sowing area of this species is 600 ha in statistics in Turkey (Anonymous 2005). Forage Pea (Pisum arvense L.) This speciesis a forage plant grown mostly forits seeds.Itis an annual; 40 to 80 cm height and climbing stems; broad leaved; and with dark flowers and seeds. Local ecotypes of forage pea are known with the local name of külür in the Northeast of Turkey. These populations are extensively grown in the eastern Anatolian cities of Bayburt, Kars and especially Ardahan. Since it prefers humid and cool climatic conditions, it is cultivated more in the mentioned region. Cultivation oflocalforage pea ecotypes decreases consistently.It has a sowing area of nearly 3.800 ha (Anonymous 2005). The largest difference oflocal ecotypes from cultured forms isthatlocal ones have dark flowers and seeds.Itsflowers and seeds are violetin colour.In orderto protectlocal ecotypes ofthis plantin Turkey,(Tan et al. 2009) began to conduct studies.In the scope of these studies,totally 61 genotypes collected from north-eastern Anatolia were taken under conservation and theircharacteristics were defined and registered. In addition it was found as the consequence of these studies that hay and seed yielding rates of local forage pea ecotypes were 270 to 854 kg/da and 51 to 254 kg/da respectively. Since its genetic variation is very high, lengths of plant and its development period and lodge degree of the materials are very different. 3 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Açıkgöz, E. (2001). Forage Plants. Uludağ Univ. Güçlendirme Vakfı Publication No: 182. Bursa, Turkey. Anonymous (2005). Statistics of Agriculture-2005. T.C. Prime Ministry Statistic Institution, Ankara, Turkey. Avcı, M. (1994). A study on the yield and adaptation of species, lines, and populations of some common vetch. Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Natural and Applied Sciences Institution, Department of Field Crops, Ms. Thesis, Erzurum, Turkey. Ekiz, H. & Özkaynak, I. (1984). A study on the important morphologic, biologic and cultural characteristics of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.) grown in Turkey. Ankara Univ. Natural and Applied Sciences Institution Publication No: TB. 5, Ankara, Turkey. Elçi, Ş. (2005). Legume and Grass Forages. T.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ankara, Turkey, 486 p. Gençkan, S. (1983). Cultivation of Forages. Aegean Univ. Publication. Bornova, Đzmir, Turkey. Karadağ, Y. (1999). A study on the sitologic, morphologic, biologic and cultural characteristics of some chickling vetch (Lathyrus sp) lines. GOPU, Natural and Applied Sciences Institution. Ph.D. Thesis, Tokat, Turkey. Şengül,S., Tahtacıoğlu, L. & Mermer, A. (2003). Determination of the species and lines of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L) convenient to the conditions in Eastern Anatolia Region. Journal of Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., 34 (4), 321-325, Erzurum, Turkey. Şengül, S. (2009). A study on the determination of some morphologic characteristics of alfalfa ecotypes collected from different parts of Turkey. Journal of Alınteri, Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac. Erzurum, Turkey (in press). Soya, H., Avcıoğlu, R. & Geren H. (1997). Forages. Hasad Publication, Istanbul, 223 p. Tan, M., Koç, A., Çomaklı, B. & Elkoca, E. (2009). Development of hay and seed type lines from field pea populations grown in some cities of East Anatolia. Third Development Report of TUBITAK Research Project No: TOVAG-107O134. Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Erzurum, Turkey. Tosun, F., Manga I., Altın M. & Serin Y. (1978). Adaptation and micro yielding experiments of legumes and forages (unpublished), Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Erzurum, Turkey. Uluocak, N. (1984). Important Natural Rangeland Plants in Turkey for Soil Protection and Forage Quality. II. Legumes. I.U. Forest Fac., Istanbul, Turkey, 159 p. 4 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 460 Title A name given to the resource Local Forage Ecotypes and Their Importance in Turkey Author Author Tan, Mustafa Dumlu, Zeynep Abstract A summary of the resource. Although not convenient for the modern agriculture, local ecotypes are of importance for being breeding materials since their genetic variations are diverse. Turkey is a rich country in the number of forage ecotypes. Cultivation history of especially alfalfa, common vetch, sainfoin, forage pea, chickling vetch and bitter vetch dates back to very ancient times. However, these genotypes are facing to extinct today and their importance has begun to be realized in the respect of sustainable and organic crop yielding as well as due to the increased global warming and water shortage threats. This paper was prepared to summarize some information about local forage ecotypes in Turkey and to mention about their importance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c0c0e02a13082395b44f606a971ea9d0.pdf f25e90f42bece44f598dbdc50b12b2d8 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Perceptions of Individual Internet Users about E-Finance Applications Yusuf TOPAL Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University-TURKEY ytopal75@hotmail.com Cantürk KAYAHAN Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University-TURKEY ckayahan@aku.edu.tr Abstract: The Global Integration process, new regulations and the developments in the technology of internet have changed the nature and the structure of the financial services on a large scale. The fact that financial services have been carried out by using electronic communication and calculation has originated new field called e-finance. As a result of this, financial service suppliers have entered into a more active competition process in order to gain new customers. Technology, globalization, regulations, entrepreneurship, capital and competition have become the main components of the e-finance revolution. E-finance has focused on three main access fields. These are the access of electronic payments, the activities of the financial service activities and financial market activities. These services are used intensely by two sectors as individual and institutional. Institutional users are the companies and the other public and private sector firms. The individual users have also started to be important as at least the institutional users due to the increase of the competition. Therefore, the determination of the expectations, preferences, and advantageous components, which are the factors that incline internet users to e-finance, is very important for the financial institutions In conclusion, for the purpose of determining individuals’ perceptions about e-finance transactions, a face to face public survey has been conducted with the internet users and the results of this public survey have been tested in SPSS 11.5 programme in this study. Keywords: Perception, e-finance, internet Introduction The world is changing and developing very fast .Especially, the rapid developments in the information and the communication technologies have caused important structural changes in the financial system of many countries. The concept of change caused transforming by differentiating people and societies with the effects it has created . Technological change is continuously renewed in itself, but it has taken the entire world under its effect thanks to the internet technology. Internet has a process that was established for military purposes at the beginning and then that has taken the entire world under its effect. The developments in the technology of the internet have also changed the dimension and the operational format of the financial transactions. Thus, the prefix “e” which is very important in the e-world and which comes in front of each concept, has originated a new fact which is called e-finance with the beginning of the financial transactions on the internet. In this study, it has been aimed to find out the views and perceptions of individual internet users about the e-finance applications In this context, internet, e-finance concepts and development processes have been evaluated in the first part of the study; numerical determinations belonging to the e-finance outlook the World and Turkey have been carried out in the second part of the study. In the last part of the study, a face to face survey has been conducted with the people from different branches of business working in public sector in Turkey and One-way analysis of variance (Anova) has been tested in the SPSS 11.5 statistical programme to find out whether there is any difference in the perception of the e-finance transaction according to the individuals and their occupations. In addition, individuals’ perception levels about e-finance applications have been shown with the concentration maps. 1. Internet and e-Finance The worldwide and ever-growing global computer network is defined as internet (Akar and Kayahan, 2007:5). In this network, the communication among the computers is provided through high capacity telephone wires by means of a common language called internet protocol (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and there is no central authority that directs, manages and controls the communication in the internet 291 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo environment. In addition to this, the importance of the internet today has arised from the common and easy access advantages stated below (Kınık, 2002: 2). • Providing common and immediate communication , • Providing low-cost communication, • Enabling interactive communication, • Allowing electronic links to other information • Not being able to control the communication from a certain central • Providing a flexible communication environment The history of the internet dates back to the access of the telegraph the patent of which was taken out by Cooke and Wheatstone in 1836.Another important development is the origination of the “Transatlantic Cable” which was laid from one side of the Atlantic Ocean to its other side between the years 1858-1866. The 1 origin of the internet has started with the activation of the ARPANET by DoD (U.S. Department of Defense).People started to communicate throughout a network in 1971. In this period, there were fifteen nodes 2 3 (15 node (23 host ) )in ARPANET.In 1973 the first international connection has occurred between University College of London and Royal Radar Establishment. In 1990s the number of hosts have become 300.000. In 1993 the revolution of www started and the access of internet started financially and also among the banks.1999s are the years in which the online banking transactions developed rapidly. Today, internet is the indispensable or the meaning of the life, shortly it is everything of the life. E-finance has not actually originated with the invention of the internet. In fact the first e-finance application dates back to the money transfer carried out to the far places by Western Union Corporation. Western Union applied the first consumer spending card in 1914.By the year 2006, this company achieved 147 million money transfer from consumer to consumer and 249 million money transfer from consumer to enterprise (Shahrokhi, 2008: 367). E-finance is defined as the provision of financial services by using electronic communication and computations (Allen, McAndrews ve Strahan, 2001: 5).In another definition e-finance can be defined as scatter of financial services by means of internet or online. E-finance operations mainly covers online intermediation ,insurance trade, banking and other financial activities (Shahrokhi, 2008: 366).In fact, e-finance applications are subheading of electronic trade applications. E-trade is the access of digital data processing technology and electronic communications to create ,to transform and to redefine relations in trade transactions in order to create value between two or more enterprises and between the individuals and enterprises(Andam, 2003: 32).As it can be seen in its definition, the concept and the applications of e-trade also covers the applications of e-finance. The main factors that formed the e-finance revolution have been stated to be technology, globalization, regulations, entrepreneurship, capital and competition by Shahrokhi (2008: 367). These factors are affected intensively by the fund providers, users, regulators, investors and the other components in the markets. The sector is divided into five categories in the e-finance model. These are: 1-Business to business (B2B), 2-Business to Consumer (B2C) 3-Consumer to consumer (C2C), 4-Technical infrastructure support for the e-Finance platform 5-Institutional and regulatory environment factor that facilitate growth of e-commerce and e-finance According to the categories and the contents given above ,it is seen that B2B includes reduction of application costs, unmediated or electronic intermediation, electronic transactions, integrated customer solutions and electronic fund system.B2C includes financial intermediation or online applications by means of portals ,ebanking or online banking, personal finance or wealth management and insurance fields.C2C includes online transactions and transactions cycle .In terms of technical infrastructure for the support of the e-finance platform, the relation between the financial services provided by financial technology partners and technology and service solutions has been shown in Table 1. As seen in the table, the developments in the –e-finance field have increased the competition while decreasing the financial service costs (Claessens, Glaessner ve Klingebiel, 2001: 7). As a result of this, there has been a more intensive competition, transaction speed and quality increase among the financial service suppliers. 1 Đnternet’in çıkış noktası, ABD Savunma Bakanlığı bünyesindeki “Đleri Araştırma Projeleri Ajansı” (ARPA – Advanced Research Projects Agency) nın 1969 yılında kurduğu ARPANET ağıdır. 1 The starting point of the internet is the network ARPANET established in 1969 by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) within the structure of USA Ministry of Defence 2 a connection point or a device that is connected as a component a computer network 3 The word meaning of “host” is to provide housing for. In fact its meaning in the world of internet is just this. In other words , it means a company which hosts websites on the Internet . 292 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. The Realtoin Network fo Financial Technology Partners Resource: Shahrokhi, 2008: 378. Finally, all governments even most of the market managers need to regulate and control the financial sector for the reasons of competition, anti-trust relations, consumer protection, safety and accuracymaintainability. They need to analyze the last changes in the financial services and whether the existent applications are sufficient and they also need to analyze whether the traditional reasons are valid for regulation and control and in which fields the importance of competition policy and consumer protection has increased (Yörük, 2002. 11). Thus e-finance applications can be provided in more secure and more quality manner. 2. The Outlook of E-finance in the World and in Turkey Internet technology is certainly one of the primary components that are effective on the financial system change. Therefore, when we look at the scatter of the world internet access in Figure 1,before looking at the e-finance access rates, it is seen that Asia Region comes first with 41,2 %.Europe follows this region with 24,6 % and North America region comes after with 15,7 %. Figure 1. World Internet Users by World Regions Resource: www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm (09.05.2009). It is seen that Turkey ranks number thirteen in terms of the internet users’ number with 26.500.000 people by the year 2008 when we look at the world internet statistics given in the Table 2. Turkey comes after Germany, England, France and Italy among the European countries. However, as this table has been prepared according to the population, some of the European countries have not been included. While Turkey is in the front ranks among the countries of which the number of users increasing between the period of 2000-2008, the leading countries in terms of users’ number according to the population are Canada, Australia, Japan, America, South Korea, Germany and Spain respectively. In addition, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, India, Indonesia and China are the most noticeable countries in terms of the number of users between the period of 2000-2008. Among the countries and regions that are not seen in this table because of their population but that display the best performance, Iceland ranks first with its population of 299 thousand and the access rate of 86.3 % . Sweden which has 9.1 million population and 7 million active internet users is in the front ranks with the rate of 75,6 % and New Zealand which has 4.2 million population and 3.2 million internet users is also in the front ranks with the rate 74.9 %. In addition, it should be stated that the internet access rates of the countries like Portugal, Holland, Denmark, Hong Kong and Luxembourg are also much above most of the other countries. 293 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2. 20 Countries Using the Internet Most in the World Country or Region 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 China United States Japan India Germany Brazil United Kingdom France Korea, South Italy Russia Canada Turkey Spain Indonesia Mexico Iran Vietnam Pakistan Australia Internet Users 253,000,000 220,141,969 94,000,000 60,000,000 52,533,914 50,000,000 41,817,847 36,153,327 34,820,000 34,708,144 32,700,000 28,000,000 26,500,000 25,623,329 25,000,000 23,700,000 23,000,000 20,159,615 17,500,000 16,355,388 Penetration (Population) 19.0 % 72.5 % 73.8 % 5.2 % 63.8 % 26.1 % 68.6 % 58.1 % 70.7 % 59.7 % 23.2 % 84.3 % 36.9 % 63.3 % 10.5 % 21.6 % 34.9 % 23.4 % 10.4 % 79.4 % % of World Users 17.3 % 15.0 % 6.4 % 4.1 % 3.6 % 3.4 % 2.9 % 2.5 % 2.4 % 2.4 % 2.2 % 1.9 % 1.8 % 1.8 % 1.7 % 1.6 % 1.6 % 1.4 % 1.2 % 1.1 % Population 1,330,044,605 303,824,646 127,288,419 1,147,995,898 82,369,548 191,908,598 60,943,912 62,177,676 49,232,844 58,145,321 140,702,094 33,212,696 71,892,807 40,491,051 237,512,355 109,955,400 65,875,223 86,116,559 167,762,040 20,600,856 User Growth (2000-2008) 1,024.4 % 130.9 % 99.7 % 1,100.0 % 118.9 % 900.0 % 171.5 % 325.3 % 82.9 % 162.9 % 954.8 % 120.5 % 1,225.0 % 375.6 % 1,150.0 % 773.8 % 9,100.0 % 9,979.8 % 12,969.5 % 147.8 % Resource: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm (09.05.2009) When an evaluation has been carried out according to the statistic of Banks Association of Turkey about the access of internet for the field of e-finance, it is seen that the number of retail customers registered for internet banking and “ logged in” at least once is 11.222.126 by December 2008. The total number of customers “logged in” at least once in one-year period is 5.946.652.The number of customers using internet banking has been given in the Table 3.As it is seen from the table, from 2006 to 2008 although it is a very short time like two years, increases that reached the double in the number of users were seen .Therefore, it is expected that the rates will increase in the following years. The statistics of internet banking belonging to the data of March 2009 published by the Banks Association of Turkey support this expectation Table 3. Number of Customers Using Internet Banking According to the Years Number of retail customers Active (A) (that logged in at least once in the last three-month period) Registered (B) (that logged in at least once) Registered (C)(that logged in at least once in one-year period) Active(A) / Registered(B) Customer rate(percent) Number of Instuitional Customer Active (A) (that logged in at least once in the last three-month period) Registered (B) (that logged in at least once) Registered (C)(that logged in at least once in one-year period) Active(A) / Registered(B) Customer rate(percent) Number of Total Customer Active (A) (that logged in at least once in the last three-month period) Registered (B) (that logged in at least once) Registered (C)(that logged in at least once in one-year period) Active(A) / Registered(B) Customer rate(percent) December 2006 December 2007 December 2008 March 2009 2.605.673 3.795.627 4.613.670 4.838.000 15.510.826 17 8.908.956 4.920.907 43 11.222.126 11.793.000 5.946.652 6.344.000 41 41 380.390 478.737 555.459 581.000 812.314 1.131.302 588.211 1.358.545 687.737 1.459.000 710.000 47 42 41 40 2.986.063 4.274.364 5.169.129 5.419.000 16.323.140 10.040.258 5.509.118 43 12.580.671 13.252.000 6.634.389 7.054.000 41 41 18 Resource: BAT (TBB). According to the data of Banks Association of Turkey, the total number of financial transactions excluding the investment transactions carried out by using the internet banking is 57.942 thousand and the amount is 136.680 million TRY in the period of October-December 2008. The money transfer transactions covering EFT(electronic 294 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo fond transfer),money order and foreign exchange transfer comprise 84 % of the financial transaction volume excluding the investment transactions. Items Table 4 . The Outlook of Turkey’s Financial Transactions in Internet Banking December 2007 September 2008 December 2008 Number of Volume of Number of Volume of Number of Volume of transactions transactions transactions transactions transactions transactions (Thousand) (Million TRY) (Thousand) (Million TRY) (Thousand) (Million TRY) Money transfers Payments Credit card transactions Other financial transactions Total Resource: BAT 29.335 15.393 5.352 1.131 112.693 3.400 3.486 7.851 31.114 18.828 6.143 1.619 127.408 4.720 4.421 14.406 29.718 20.578 6.050 1.596 115.218 4.626 4.165 12.671 51.211 127.431 57.705 150.954 57.942 136.680 The total number of financial transactions performed by using the internet banking excluding the investment transactions increased by 6.731 compared to the same period of the year before and increased by 237 compared to the previous three-month period. While the total volume of transactions was increasing by 9.249 million TRY, it decreased by 14.274 million TRY compared to the previous three-month period. 3. The Perceptions of Individual Internet Users About E-Finance Application 3.1. The Aim and Content Of The Research In this study, it has been aimed to to determine the choices, expectations and perceptions of individual internet users’ who work in different duties and positions in public. The questionnaire was performed face to face on the public employees within the content of the study in Afyonkarahisar City. The first part of the questionnaire consists of the questions about the individual information of employees. Additionally, there are also some questions about work position and e-finance applications in public. In the last part, it is required from the employees to evaluate the e-finance applications with five point likert type questions.. In the evaluation of the results, aggregation and one-way variance analysis were performed by using SPSS 11.5 statistical programme. 3.2. The Findings and The Comments Of The Research It has been determined that Cronbach alpha reliability study supplies 0.8261 data reliability before mentioning the evaluations on research data. The results obtained from the formed frequency tables are summarized as follow: According to data, it has been determined that 57.7 % of those who filled the questionnaire is female and 42.3 % of them is male. It is seen that great majority of subjects are in the young and middle age group. According to data 38 % of them is in 25-35 age group, 32 % of them is in 35-45 age group and 15 % is in 45 and over 45 age group. The summarized results about the occupational and the educational states of those who filled the questionnaire are given in Table 5. It is understood that those who filled the questionnaire are predominantly civil servant and they have bachelor degree. These results show that this study aims at more conscious and educated audiences as it is proper for the aim of the study. On the other hand, it predominantly is determined that those who choose the other part in occupational choice are the academics. 295 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5. Occupation and Education Status of the Participants Occupation Frequency Percent ( % ) worker 18 8,0 Civil servant 127 56,4 Director 37 16,4 Top Director 3 1,3 Retired 3 1,3 Other 37 16,4 Total 225 100,0 Education Status Frequency Percent ( % ) Primary school 2 ,9 Secondary School 30 13,3 Associate Degree 36 16,0 Licence 99 44,0 Master Degree 58 25,8 Total 225 100,0 Findings about personal internet access and its aims have been shown in Table 6. Accordingly, 99 % of the participants have stated that they connect to the internet. Furthermore, it has been found out that a large proportion as 70% of them connect to the internet everyday and above 90 % of them connect to the internet once a week. In terms of the internet access aim, it is concluded that large majority of them as 51,6 % use internet for the purpose of receiving news. The access of internet for the purpose of receiving news was also in the first rank with a large proportion as 76 % in the internet access study carried out by Turkish Statistical Institute(TSI) throughout Turkey. Therefore, it is understood that the result of this study is in harmony with the results throughout Turkey. The access of internet for the purpose of research has become in the second rank. The fact that there have been academician based participants in the study can be concluded to be one of the reasons of this choice to be effective. When we look at the other aims of the access, it is concluded that financial purposes like banking transactions bill payments comes after respectively. This result is an important indicator of that efinance access frequency is supported by public based individual users. Table 6. The Frequency and Purposes of Internet . Access of Internet Frequency Yes 223 No 2 Total 225 Frequency ıf Internet Access Frequency Everyday 159 Every three days 28 Once a week 20 Forthnightly 8 Once a month 9 Total 224 The Purpose of the Internet Frequency Access News 116 Game 4 Bill Payment 4 Bankacılık işlemleri 17 Messenger 7 Research 59 Exchange and fund pursuit 1 Others 17 Total 225 Percent ( % ) 99,1 ,9 100,0 Percent ( % ) 70,7 12,4 8,9 3,6 3,6 99,1 Percent ( % ) 51,6 1,8 4,8 10,6 3,1 20,2 ,4 7,6 100,0 The questions in the 5 point likert scale have been prepared to determine the assessments of the participants in the survey study about e-finance applications clearly, and they have been ranged from “1 most 296 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo important” to “5 have no importance” and between minimum 1 and maximum 5 values. The meaning of these values are: “2” important , “3” no difference “4” less important. The values on which that participants concentrated and the average and standard deviation values are shown in Table 7.According to this, it is concluded that the concreation among the participants is in the zones numbered 2 and 1 in terms of the necessity of internet for its contribution to financial transactions, payments, banking transactions and shopping while the concentration is in the zones numbered 1 and 2 respectively in terms of the use of time. Consequently, it has been determined that the necessity of internet in terms of financial transactions is perceived to be important by individual users on the concentration map prepared for perception level of e-finance transactions. Table 7. The Concentration Map for the Perception Level of E-finance Transaction Propositions The necessity of internet for financial transactions today The necessity of internet for payments The necessity and contribution of internet for banking transactions The necessity and contribution of internet for shopping The necessity and contribution of internet for the use of time N Average S.Deviation 1 2 3 4 5 225 1,7911 0,86907 74 115 19 11 6 225 2,1467 1,09821 60 116 22 10 17 225 2,0933 1,09185 70 105 22 15 13 225 2,2756 1,14353 54 109 24 22 16 225 1,7644 0,93187 105 87 20 7 6 One-way variance analysis has been carried out in Table 8 for the purpose of determining whether there is a meaningful difference among the individual internet users according to different occupations. Accordingly, it has been found out that there is 0,05 difference in the significance level among the individual internet users in terms of the first and third questions , but there is no significant difference in terms of the other three questions. Table 8. The Results of One-Way Analysis of Variance (Differences in Perceptions of E-finance according to Individual Participants’ Occupations ) Sum of Squares df Mean Square F ANOVA The necessity of the internet for financial transactions 2 The necessity of the internet for payments 3. The necessity of the internet for banking transactions 4. The necessity of the internet in terms of its contribution to shopping 5. The necessity of the internet in terms of the access of time Between Groups 7,119 5 1,424 Within Groups 162,063 219 ,740 Total 169,182 224 Between Groups 8,387 5 1,677 Within Groups 261,773 219 1,195 Total 270,160 224 Between Groups 19,354 5 3,871 Within Groups 247,686 219 1,131 Total 267,040 224 Between Groups 12,134 5 2,427 Within Groups 280,781 219 1,282 Total Between Groups 292,916 224 4,665 5 ,933 ,867 Within Groups 189,850 219 Total 194,516 224 Sig. 2,124 ,011 1,403 ,224 3,422 ,005 1,893 ,097 1,076 ,374 General Evaluation and the Result The study carried out forms an important substructure in terms of perceptions and awareness of the individuals in different occupations about e-finance applications. In addition, the differences among the perceptions of e-finance in terms of occupations can also be determined. Accordingly, the effectiveness of better banking, insurance or other online financial transactions and the closeness of them to consumers can show disparity. Today the more effective working of banking transactions depends on electronic substructure to be formed. In contemporary banking, e-finance applications and its transformation will multiply the efficiency; will lead to decrease in the general management expenses; will increase the financial security; will make the financial management activities more efficient; will become a bridge between rural and urban areas by facilitating the 297 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo communication; will form new and different job opportunities; will raise the ability of money access by increasing savings and therefore will provide the increase of general economic performance. Electronic operations and internet access in Turkey and in the world have been evaluated in the study. Especially in recent years crucial discrepancies have been seen in Turkey in the access of internet. This state has also affected the efinance operation in the same way. It is seen that e-finance operations are largely perceived by the individuals and there have been individual awareness in terms of e-finance applications on the concentration map which is formed for the purpose of determining perception levels in the study. Therefore, it is expected that these applications will continue by increasing in progressive times. In addition, financial institutions, which perform efinance transactions, will be able to decide how they can approach to their costumers and how they can fulfill their costumers’ choices and expectations by looking at this studies. In the study, one-way variance analysis is carried out in order to determine whether there is difference between the individual occupations and the perception of e-finance applications. In this analysis, it has been determined that there are differences at the significance level of 00.5, between the necessity of internet in terms of financial operations and the necessity of internet in terms of banking operations. It is thought that this difference results from individual internet users’ occupational variety. In conclusion, performing the financial transactions by means of internet technology, which is accepted as e-finance revolution, will be one of the most important market developments in the future as it is today. Besides these developments, providing consumers’ allegiance depends on the formation of financial info and technological substructure in the direction of consumers’ needs and expectations. The success is very close for the financial institutions that can achieve this process. References Akar E. & Kayahan C., (2007), Elektronik Ticaret ve Elektronik Đş: uygulamalar, Modeller ve Stratejiler, Nobel Yayınevi, Ankara. Allen, F., McAndrews, J. & Stratran, P. (2002), ‘‘E-finance: an introduction’’, Journal of Financial Services Research, Vol. 22 Nos. 1-2, pp. 5-27. Andam Zorayda Ruth, (2003), E-Commerce and E-Business, May, e-ASEAN Task Force UNDP-APDIP, www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer-ecom.pdf (06.03.2007) Claessens S., Glaessner T. & Klingebiel D., (2001), E-Finance in Emerging markets: Is Leapfrogging Possible ?, Financial sector Discussion paper, No: 7, The World Bank. Kınık T., (2002), Elektronik Finansın Gelişimi Karşısında Aracı Kuruluşlar, SPK Yeterlilik Etüdü, Ankara. Shahrokhi M., (2008), E-finance: status, innovations, resources and future challenges, www.emeraldinsight.com/03074358.htm(09.05.20099. Yörük N., (2002), E-Finans: Finansal Görünümün Yeniden Biçimlenmesi, http://www.bilgiyonetimi.org/cm/pages/mkl_gos.php?nt=230(08.06.2005). http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm (09.05.2009) http://www.tbb.org.tr/(09.05.2009). http://www.pcnedir.com/tag/arpanet/(09.05.2009) 298 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 228 Title A name given to the resource The Perceptions of Individual Internet Users about E-Finance Applications Author Author TOPAL, Yusuf KAYAHAN, Cantürk Abstract A summary of the resource. The Global Integration process, new regulations and the developments in the technology of internet have changed the nature and the structure of the financial services on a large scale. The fact that financial services have been carried out by using electronic communication and calculation has originated new field called e-finance. As a result of this, financial service suppliers have entered into a more active competition process in order to gain new customers. Technology, globalization, regulations, entrepreneurship, capital and competition have become the main components of the e-finance revolution. E-finance has focused on three main access fields. These are the access of electronic payments, the activities of the financial service activities and financial market activities. These services are used intensely by two sectors as individual and institutional. Institutional users are the companies and the other public and private sector firms. The individual users have also started to be important as at least the institutional users due to the increase of the competition. Therefore, the determination of the expectations, preferences, and advantageous components, which are the factors that incline internet users to e-finance, is very important for the financial institutions In conclusion, for the purpose of determining individuals’ perceptions about e-finance transactions, a face to face public survey has been conducted with the internet users and the results of this public survey have been tested in SPSS 11.5 programme in this study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/752c8f814db27b34f1861c7890b3aedf.pdf 3306ce1e3d72374c638706fa27097e78 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Relation between Real Effective Exchange Rate And IMKB -100 Index (Istanbul Stock Exchange) Yusuf TOPAL Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University, Türkiye ytopal75@hotmail.com Ali AKGÜN Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences Selçuk University, Türkiye akgunali@hotmail.com Abstract: Stock exchange is a market where long-term investment instruments are purchased and sold such as share certificates, bonds etc. Stock exchange market is divided into two; developed and emerging stock markets. Developed stock markets are financial markets with a great depth which display activity in industrialized countries and constitute international financial market. Emerging stock markets are the stock exchange markets with a shallow depth which display activity in developing countries. Istanbul Stock Exchange has a rather important place among these stock exchange markets. Emergence of the new capital markets, increase in financial liberalization and expansion of flexible exchange rate regimes caused an increase in the examination of exchange rate and stock exchange market. Developing economies that gradually abolished control on exchange rate, paved the way for international investments and portfolio diversification. Today, it’s seen that savers basically directs the funds in their hands to three instruments for the purpose of investment. They are interest, foreign exchange and stock exchange market. Investors who are the savers attempts to increase their returns in the maximum rate with the portfolios they constituted from among these three instruments. When the literature is examined, it’s seen that there are many studies which examined relation between interest and stock exchange market from among these financial instruments. Result from these studies is that there is a negative, that is, an inverse relation between stock exchange market indices and interest rates. And purpose of this study is to see whether or not there is any long-term relation between real efefctive exchange rate and IMKB-100 index (Istanbul Stock Exchange), if any, to determine the direction of this relation. In this study, three-month data of real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index for 1990-2005 periods have been used. Starting point of study is the year 1990. Its reason is to test presence of long term relation between real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index by using long-term data that we could reach. Data sets used in study are the values of indices and were received from Central Bank Electronic Data Distribution, Republic of Turkey (EVDS). Long-term relation was examined and empirical findings were proved by using Johansen-Juselius co-integration test (JJ). As a result of examination above, it was ensued that ther was a long-term positive relation between real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index (Istanbul Stock Exchange). Keywords: Exchange rate, ISE Introduction Stock Exchange is a market where long term investments like stocks, bonds are bought and sold. Thanks to stock exchange the people’s savings are attracted to firms as capitals. In this way, capital is expanded to the base of the society. The firms which have a achieved a certain level of size and which are registered to stock exchange meet their long term fund needs by exporting shares and bonds which have better conditions than bank loans. The diffusion of shares to the base in particular realized through stock exchange. As for debt capital, bonds more alluring than long term bank loans both in terms of interest rates and of payment and of due date. In this way, by means of stock exchange both the volume of capital markets enlarges and the long term fund request from banks relieves. In addition, stock exchange has the following important functions like providing liquidity, being an economic indicator, diffusing the property to the base, and creating source for funds. Stock exchanges are divided into two as developed and emerging stock markets. Developed stock exchanges are financial markets of great depth which are active in developed countries and which create international financial market. Emerging stock exchanges are shallow markets which display activity in developing countries. One of the most important characteristic features of these stock markets is that they are 299 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo easily affected from many parameters and thus having unstable yields for investors. Sometimes, these stocks can perform very well, and sometimes they can cause investors loose a fortune. Istanbul Stock Exchange holds an important place among these kind of stock exchanges. Stock exchanges function as the barometer of economic, social and politic life in all the countries of the world. Changes, developments and problems in economic, social and political life are immediately reflected in stock exchange. The changes in national economic lives and indicators and international economic data have important direct effects on stock exchange and even causes great fluctuations. International economic data affect and direct emerging stock exchanges at least as much as changes in national economies. Real effective foreign exchange currency became common in 1970s with the introduction of floating exchange rate. As floating exchange rates became more common, the multisided changes in rate of exchange have become more important in terms of trade competitiveness. The change in the value of a currency with regard to other certain currencies is the indicator of both the change in foreign currency market and in competitive power of trade. This is the nominal effective rate. However, as the inflation rate of the countries experience is different, the nominal effective rate is inadequate in indicating trade competition power. If the value currency of the country loose is so that it can compensate for the difference between the inflation rate in a given country and the inflation rate, it means that real currency remains the same. In other words, there is no change in trade competition power, which stems from currency change. The real increase or decrease in effective currencies is used as indicators of change in foreign exchange market and competitive power. To obtain real value from nominal value, the foreign exchange rate is regulated in accordance with the difference between the inflation rate of a given country and the world. In the first part of this study, the literature review on the studies examining the relation between foreign exchange rates and foreign exchange is provided. The second part of the study includes three main headings; methodology, purpose, method and findings. Finally, the conclusion is given. Literature Review With the emergence of new capital markets, and with the increase in financial liberation and flexible currency regime, the number studies into the nature of the relation between foreign exchange rate and stock exchange increased. The developing economies that are gradually lifting the control over foreign exchange have opened the way to international investments and portfolio diversity. Also, the countries that adopted a more flexible currency regime have increased the floating in foreign exchange markets. Classical theory of economy suggests that there is a relation between stock and foreign exchange. For example; according to free currency, it is a well known fact that international competition and trade balances are affected from money movements. Besides, this situation has an important effect on the countries real outputs which determine the current and future cash flow of the firms and share prices (Dornbush and Fisher, 1980). Movements in share prices can also affect foreign exchange rate. According to monetarist model, equity capital can affect money demand and foreign exchange rate movements (Gavin,1989). In the previous studies which mostly examined the foreign exchange and shares markets in the US have found various results. For example, Aggarwal found out that the revaluation in US dollar affected share prices positively. On the contrary, Soenen and Hennigar found a negative relation during the years 1980-1986 they took into consideration. Roll who used daily data between 1988 and 1991 found a positive relation between the two markets. On the other hand, Chow et al. who made use of monthly data in the period between 1977 and 1989 didn’t find any relation between the two markets. Apart from these studies, Bahmani-Oskooee and Sohrabian were the first to use the congregation test in their examination of the relation between the two markets. They made use of the monthly data between 1973 and 1988 and found out that there was a dual relation between the two effective foreign exchange rate and S&P 500 index in the short term. Ajayi and Mougoue who used the data of eight industrialized countries of the period between 1985 and 1991 found significant relations. To make it clear, they found that there was a negative relation in short term and a positive relation in long term and that shocks in foreign exchange rates have a negative effect on share markets. Abdalla and Murinde who studied the relation between foreign exchange rate and share market by making use of data between 1985 and 1994 four Asian countries found that there wasn’t any relation in Pakistan and Korea and that there was a relation between these two markets in India and Philippines but these relations were not in the same direction. Muhammed and Rasheed who studied four southern Asian countries by using monthly data between 1994 and 2000 found no relation in Pakistan and India, whether in short or in long terms. In a study, Phylaktis and Ravazzolo (2000) who examined the performances between foreign exchange rate and share prices between 1980 and 1998 in Pacific region countries found a positive relation between the two markets. Amare and Mohsin (2000) studied the relation between foreign exchange rate and share markets in nine Asian countries. In their study, they studied the monthly data between January, 1980 and June, 1998 by making use of co-integration technique. As result of their study, they found a long term relation only in Singapore and Philippines. Murinde and Poshakwale found a relation between share prices and exchange rates 300 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo before Euro and after Euro period in Hungary, Czech Republic and Poland. The result of this study indicated that before Euro there was a one sided relation only in Hungary and that there was s strong dual relation in Czech Republic and Poland. Gupta, Chevaliler and Sayekt who studied the relation between foreign exchange rate, share market and interest rates in Jakarta economy found a weak one sided relation between foreign exchange rate and share prices. Kim K. found a negative relation between S&P 500 index and real foreign exchange rate. Stavarek studied the relation between foreign exchange rate and stock exchange rate in four older European Union members and in four new members and in the US. According to the data obtained in this study, there was a stronger relation between foreign exchange rate and share prices in older EU members and in the US -whose capital markets are developed- compared to the new members of EU. Besides, this study proved that mostly there is a direct and one-sided relation between these two markets. Finally, in similar studies, it was concluded that real effective foreign exchange rate is more suitable than nominal effective foreign exchange rate. Methodology Aim Today, saving accounts owners direct the funds they have to three main instruments for investments purposes. These are interest, foreign exchange and stock exchange. The investors try to increase their income to maximum by means of portfolio they compose of these three main instruments of investment. Funds can spare more space to one of these three instruments in accordance with circumstances in global and national economy. When the literature was reviewed, it is seen that there are many studies examining the relation between interest and stock exchange. The common result of these studies is that there is a negative- that is a reverse- relation between stock exchange rate and foreign exchange rate. The main aim of this study is to determine whether there is a long term relation between real effective foreign exchange rate and IMKB-100 index and if there exists what is the direction of this relation. Data In this study, three months data of real effective foreign exchange rate (REFER) and IMKB-100 index between 1990-2005. The study started in 1990. The reason to start this study so early is to test the existence of a long term relation between REFER and IMKB 100 index by making use of the oldest data available. The data set was the index values taken from the Electronic Data Distribution System of Turkish Central Bank. The econometric analysis of the study was performed by using EViews 4.1 software. Method After the article published by Engel and Granger, especially in the 1990, there happened important developments in time literature serial. Accordingly, many macroeconomic time serials have a trend and this situation can lead to fake regression results (artificially increased and invalid test statistics) (Charemza ve Deadman, 1997). There were many methods suggested as a solution for this. It was suggested that stochastic trend can be eliminated by taking the difference of the variables but this method can lead to the loss of valuable long term information. The solution came with the co-integration analysis suggested by Engel and Granger. According to this, even if the variables include trends, the error term which expresses the deviations in long term is fixed-that is to say its variance and mean doesn’t change in time, there is a real economic causality relation between variables. In this case, the variables in the regression are called co-integrated. Co-integration analysis has become an affective method which is used in the testing of theory of economy and in the prevention of dummy regression results in the regression and modeling of the economic variables. Thanks to co-integration analysis which was introduced to the literature in 1980s time serial econometric and in the testing of economy theory. The benefits of co-integration concept to the literature and the areas of application can be examined under the following items; a) The removing of dummy regression results in regression analysis,1 b) It is used as a new and effective modeling which provides the testing of long and short term economic variables together and econometric assessment c) It is regarded as a pre-test before econometric assessment phase and d) Its making long terms economic relations that is the testing of economy theory 1 The existence of the koentegre relationship between variables at the same time also guarantees the existence of causality relationships(Engel and Granger, 1987). Researches indicate that the majority of the time series of macroeconomic contains trends (see Nelson and Plosser, 1982). Therefore, researchers who have applied researches should take this into consideration. 301 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In this study, firstly the stable levels of the variables are to be determined (Dickey ve Fuller, 1979). If the mean and the variance of a time serial doesn’t change as time goes by and the common variance between two terms is dependent on the distance between two terms but not on the terms it was calculated then it is called stable (Gujarati 1999: 713). If a Y1 time serial whose mean, variance and common variance are the same as the ones in Equality 1 is stable, these three values will be the same whenever they are measured in a given time period. E (Y1 ) = µ var(Y1 ) = E (Y1 − µ ) 2 = σ 2 (1) y1 = E [(Y1 − µ )(Yl +k − µ )] Putting the serials into equalities without meeting stability conditions, makes some relations which are not existent in reality seem to exist (Granger and Newbold, 1979: 111-120). Accordingly, the stability tests of the serials used in this study were performed by making use of “Enlarged Dickey-Fuller” test. To implement this test, the estimations were made according to regression number (2) for each serial used in the study. k ∆Y 1= a + yTrend + pYt −l + ∑ δ 1 ∆Yt −i + ε 1 (2) t −l ∆Y = (Y − Y ) t t t − l . The fixed term α shows Trend time or In equalities, ∆ shows circular difference and ε general tendency variable and shows the leftover of the model. EDF test’s achievement of robust results depends on estimated regression equality’s being freed from auto regression problem. The removing of auto regression problem in this equality makes the first circle difference of the dependent variable “k” necessary to be included into the model as an explanatory variable for lag in term. The lag length which is expressed as “k” in the equality was determined by Akaike by using AIC (Akaike Information Criterion) method. EDF tests whether p=0 or not in the regression estimated above. If H0 hypothesis (p=0) is rejected, it is determined that Y variable is stable at its original level, but if it is accepted it means that Y variable is not stable. Till one can find the stability of a time serial which is not stable at its original level, these procedures are repeated for the first, second and if necessary for the third term difference. By comparing the EDF-t statistics of the equalities whose lag length are determined with McKinnon (1990) critical values, it is determined whether the variable is stable at the level it was tested. In this study, to determine the long term effect of real effective foreign exchange index on IMKB 100 index, the co-integration test developed by Johansen-Juselius (1992) was used. Johansen-Juselius (JJ) cointegration technique is composed of the unstable serial differences and the assessment of VAR (Vector Auto Regression) which includes their levels. Suppose that there are two series which are not stable at their levels ( X and Y). In this case, on the condition that there is a vector including Z, X, Y series, the VAR model created for JJ assessment will be like the following equality (3); ∆Zt = Γi∆Zt-1 + …+ Γk-1∆Zt-k+1 + Π∆Zt-k + εt (3) Here, Γi (i = l, 2, k-1) Zt expresses the parameter matrix of the variables which express the lag of the vector’s first difference; and II expresses the parameter matrix of the levels of the variables, and ε expresses the leftover values of VAR model. As ΠZ matrix include direct combinations pertaining to the levels of the variables in Z vector, it possible to get information about the long term features of the model by examining this matrix. In the determination of the lag term number in the VAR model “Akaike Information Criterion” was used. The Cointegration relations between the variables which are examined to have long term relations were assessed with the help of two test statistics. One of them was “Trace”, the other was "Maximum Eigenvalue Test" statistics. The Trace test examines the rank of the Π matrix (the coefficient matrix of vector which include the level values of the variables) and tests the hypothesis H0 whether the rank of the matrix is equal or smaller than r. The maximum eigenvlaue test statistics test the H0 hypothesis which expresses that co-integrate vector is r against its alternative hypothesis which states that the vector is r+1. The critical values of both these tests are given by Johansen and Juselius. If II the rank of II matrix is zero, it is concluded that the variables composing Z matrix are not co-integrated to each other, that is, they do not cooperate in the long run. If the rank of the same matrix is at least “one”, it is concluded that the two variables in Z matrix cooperate in the long run. The long term relation between two variables which have one co-integration relation will be like in the following equality (4). The X and Y in the equality shows dependent and expressive variables, β shows the parameters of the variables and ε shows the faulty term. 302 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo β1 X 1 + β 2Y1 + ε 1 = 0 (4) Findings As Co-integration equalities require the using of unstable series and the stable variables of error correction equalities, each data series is firstly examined for the possible level of difference stability. The unit root test results are given in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1 and Table 2 give us the EDF results of IMKB 100 and REFEC (real effective foreign exchange currency). When the critical importance of providing stagnancy is considered, a variable can only be decided to be stagnant if it passes EDF test (Darrat, 2002). As it can be seen in Table 1 and Table 2, EDF test statistics absolute values being greater that absolute values of significance level 1%, 5% and 10% shows that the series are stagnant at 1st level. In technical terms, both IMKB 10 index and REFEC are (1). As the twp series are stagnant at 1st level, to investigate the long term relation Johansen –Julieus co-integration test can be implemented. Table 1: EDF unit root test (ĐMKB) t-values -5,106309 EDF Test Values %1 -2,602794 Critical Values %5 -1,946161 %10 -1,613398 Table 2: EDF unit root tests (REDK) t-values -8,253956 EDF Test Values %1 -2,602794 Critical Values %5 -1,946161 %10 -1,613398 Prob. 0,0000 Prob. 0,0000 As the variables are stagnant at the same level, we can do co-integration test by using Johansen-Juselius methodology. As JJ co-integration test is very sensitive to the choosing of lag length, the first phase in this test is to find an appropriate lag structure. In order to find appropriate lag structure, a VAR model would be useful. If the lag time is very short the model will be deficient and if the lag time is too long then the slackness level will be decreased. For both Schwartz and Akaike information criterion the lag time for the examined VAR model is ( VAR=1). Lag 0 1 2 3 4 5 Table 3: VAR Analysis AIC 28.54575 25.11201* 25.14519 25.15760 25.19282 25.20785 6 25.16170 *: The Lag number according to the characters chosen Lag: Lag number AIC: Akaike Information Criterion SC 28.61680 25.32516* 25.50043 25.65495 25.83227 25.98940 26.08535 SC: Schwarz Information Criteria As it can be seen in Table3, Schwarz and Akaike information criteria 1 lag was suggested. For the last time, Table 4 and Table 5 indicate that there is at least one long term relation between Trace Test and Max Eigenvalue, and real effective foreign Exchange value and IMKB 100 index. At this point, Trace Test value and Max Eigenvalue test being higher than critical value of 5% significance level reveal that there is a long term relation between REFEC and IMKB 100 index. 303 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo None* At most 1 Table 4: Trace Test Trace Critical Test value (0,05) 21,54963 15,49471 3,687484 3,841466 None* At most 1 Table 5: Maximum Eigenvalue Test Max. Critical Eigenvalue Test value (0,05) 17,86215 14,26460 3,687484 3,841466 Prob. 0,0054 0,0548 Prob. 0,0129 0,0548 Table 6: Normal Co-integration Coefficients REFEC IMKB 1,000000 -0,001686 Standard Deviation (0,00029) From the values in Table 6, it can be concluded that there is a positive long term relation between REFEC and IMKB-100 index. Conclusion In this study we have examined whether there is long term relation between real effective foreign exchange currency and IMKB-100 index and its way. While examining the existence of long term relation between a real effective foreign exchange and IMKB-100 index, co-integration method was used. In the creation of our data set, the electronic data distribution system of Turkish Central Bank was used. Our data set covers the period between 1990: 01 and 2005: 04. The analysis was carried out by using three-month length data sets. “Johansen-Juselius Test” was used as Cointegration method. The stagnancy of the variables was first tested by using EDF unit root tests and it was decided that the series are stagnant and that it was decided that “Johansen-Juselius Co-integration Test” (JJ) could be performed. As the Johansen-Juesluis Co-integration Test is sensitive to lag length, VAR analysis was used to find appropriate length and it was seen that the lag length is (1) according to both Akaike and Schwartz. Finally, the trace test and Maximum Eigenvalue tests were performed, and it was concluded that there is a long term relation between the two variables just as in other studies in the literature. It was seen that this is a positive relation, in other words, the increases in real effective foreign exchange currency or any decrease in real effective foreign exchange currency lead to a decrease in IMKB-100 index. References Abdalla, I. S. A., Murinde, V. (1997) “Exchange Rate and Stock Price Interactions in Emerging Financial Markets: Evidence on India, Korea, Pakistan, and Philippines”, Applied Financial Economics, 7, 25-35. Aggarwal, R. 1981, "Exchange Rates and Stock Prices: A Study of the US Capital Markets under Floating Exchange Rates", Akron Business and Economic Review,s. 7-12. Ajayi, R.A., Mougoue, M. (1996) “On the Dynamic Relation between Stock Prices and Exchange Rates”, Journal of Financial Research, 19, 193-207. Akaike, H. (1969). “Fitting Auto Regressions for Predictions”. Annals of the Institute Statistical Mathematics (21): 243-247. Amare, T., and MOHSĐN M., (2000) “Stock Prices and Exchange Rates in leading Asian Economies: Short Run Versus Long Run Dynamics.” Singapore Economic Review 45: 2, 165-181. Bahmani-Oskooee, M., Sohrabian, A. (1992) “Stock Prices and the Effective Exchange Rate of the Dollar”, Applied Economics, 24, 459-64. Charemza, W.W. ve D. Deadman (1997) New Directions in Econometric Practice, 2. Baskı, Edward Elgar Yayınevi, Đngiltere. Chow, E.H., W.Y. Lee and M.S. Solt, 1997, "The Exchange Rate Risk Exposure of Asset Returns", Journal of Business, 70, 105-123. 304 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Darrat, A.F. (2002), Budget Balance Through Spending Cuts or Tax Adjustments? Contemporary Economic Policy, V.20, N.3, 221-233. Dickey, D. A. and W. A. Fuller (1979). “Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root”. Journal of the American Statistical Association (74): 427-431. Dickey, D. A. and W. A. Fuller (1981). “Likelihood Ratio Statistics and Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root”. Econometrica (49): 1057-1072. Dornbush, R. and S. Fisher, 1980, “Exchange Rates and the Current Account”, American Economic Review, 70, 960-971. Engle, R.F. ve C.W.J. Granger (1987) “Cointegration and error correction: representation, estimation and testing”, Econometrica, 55, 251-76. Gavin, M., 1989, "The Stock Market and exchange Rate Dynamics", Journal of International Money and Finance, 8, 181-200. Granger, C. W. J. and P. Newbold (1979). “Spurious in Econometrics”, Journal of Economics (2): 111-120. Gujarati, D. N. (1999). Temel Ekonometri (Çeviri: Ü Şenesen, G. G. Şenesen), Đstanbul: Literatür. Gupta, Jyoti P., Chevalier, A. and Sa yekt, F., "The Causality Between Interest Rate, Exchange Rate and Stock Price in Emerging Markets: The Case of the Jakarta Stock Exchange" (undated). EFMA 2000 Athens. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=251253 Johansen, S. and K. Juselius, 1990, "Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Inference on Cointegration with Applications to the Demand for Money", Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 52, 169-210. Kim, K. (2003), Dollar exchange rate and stock price: evidence from multivariate cointegration and error correction model, Review of Financial Economics, Volume 12, Number 3, 2003 , pp. 301-313(13) Mckinnon, J. G. (1990). “Critical Values for Co-integration Tests”. UC San Diego Discussion Paper, 90-4. Muhammad, N., Rasheed, A. (2003) “Stock Prices and Exchange Rates: Are they Related? Evidence from South Asian Countries”, Paper presented at the 18th Annual General Meeting and Conference of the Pakistan Society of Development Economists on January 2003. Access fromhttp://www.pide.org.pk/PSDE/Stock%20Prices%20and%20Exchange%20Rates.pdf Murinde, V., Poshakwale, S., "Exchange Rate and Stock Price Interactions in European Emerging Financial Markets Before and After the Euro" (January 2004). EFMA 2004 Basel Meetings Paper. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=493543 Phylaktis K. and Ravazzolo F. (2000), “Stock Prices and Exchange Rate Dynamics”, Paper presented at the EFMA 2000 Meeting in Athens, www.cass.city.ac.uk/emg/workingpapers/stock prices and exchange.pdf erişim tarihi:23/06/2007 ROLL, R., 1992, "Industrial Structure and the Comparative Behaviour of International Stock Market Indices", Journal of Finance, 47, 3-41. Soenen, L.A. and E.S. Hennigar, 1988, "An Analysis of Exchange Rates and Stock Prices - The US Experience between 1980 and 1986", Akron Business and Economic Review, (Winter), 7-16. Stavarek, D, (2004), “Comparison of financial markets development in the Czech Republic and in the European Union”, The paper was prepared due to support of the Grant Agency of the Czech Republi,. Project No. GAČR 402/02/1408 http://129.3.20.41/eps/fin/papers/0406/0406006.pdf erişim tarihi:23/06/2007 305 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 229 Title A name given to the resource Relation between Real Effective Exchange Rate And IMKB -100 Index (Istanbul Stock Exchange) Author Author TOPAL, Yusuf AKGÜN, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Stock exchange is a market where long-term investment instruments are purchased and sold such as share certificates, bonds etc. Stock exchange market is divided into two; developed and emerging stock markets. Developed stock markets are financial markets with a great depth which display activity in industrialized countries and constitute international financial market. Emerging stock markets are the stock exchange markets with a shallow depth which display activity in developing countries. Istanbul Stock Exchange has a rather important place among these stock exchange markets. Emergence of the new capital markets, increase in financial liberalization and expansion of flexible exchange rate regimes caused an increase in the examination of exchange rate and stock exchange market. Developing economies that gradually abolished control on exchange rate, paved the way for international investments and portfolio diversification. Today, it’s seen that savers basically directs the funds in their hands to three instruments for the purpose of investment. They are interest, foreign exchange and stock exchange market. Investors who are the savers attempts to increase their returns in the maximum rate with the portfolios they constituted from among these three instruments. When the literature is examined, it’s seen that there are many studies which examined relation between interest and stock exchange market from among these financial instruments. Result from these studies is that there is a negative, that is, an inverse relation between stock exchange market indices and interest rates. And purpose of this study is to see whether or not there is any long-term relation between real efefctive exchange rate and IMKB-100 index (Istanbul Stock Exchange), if any, to determine the direction of this relation. In this study, three-month data of real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index for 1990-2005 periods have been used. Starting point of study is the year 1990. Its reason is to test presence of long term relation between real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index by using long-term data that we could reach. Data sets used in study are the values of indices and were received from Central Bank Electronic Data Distribution, Republic of Turkey (EVDS). Long-term relation was examined and empirical findings were proved by using Johansen-Juselius co-integration test (JJ). As a result of examination above, it was ensued that ther was a long-term positive relation between real effective exchange rate (REDK) and IMKB-100 index (Istanbul Stock Exchange). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/adc08177e1d0ded8239273645e2170f0.pdf 1595dd6bfc4ebddba1c692a8fb7583f5 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Research Survey on People who has not Fire Insurance Kamil TAŞKIN Researcher, The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University, Turkey, ktaskin@sakarya.edu.tr Recep YILMAZ Lecturer, Karasu Vacationaly School, Sakarya University, Turkey, rcyilmaz@sakarya.edu.tr Fatih Burak GÜMÜŞ Researcher, The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University, Turkey, fbgumus@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Fire Insurance Usage in Turkey is very small stage now. Turkish people often use the other insurance types like car, earthquake, and asset. The reasons why this situation has not been researched up to now. In our study, we prepared a survey which measuring the reasons of less usage levels of fire insurance. We applied to the survey nearly to 170 people which not use fire insurance policy. After the survey, we entered the data into spss program. We applied some tests and we got some results about fire insurance less usage level in Turkey. Keywords: Insurance, fire, survey, tests Introduction: Real estate investments are a very cost-effective investments for businesses and legal entities. These costs make up 3 basis. Property of the land value, property value and environment value. In case of sudden disaster, (fire, earthquake, flood, etc..) land value does not lose its value, but houses will lose their value for the owner. Housing and office prices are high today, the people who have suffered from damage will force the resources to bringing back. The insurance sector developed insurance policies to minimize the risk like fire, accident, earthquake. Today, housing and dwelling fire insurance have been developed in case of the tangible damage for the property to protect the owners of builts. Although fire insurance based on historical areas, this type of insurance has not been developed at Turkey. This study focus on the reason why the fire insurance branch has not been expanded all over the country. Insurance Sector In World: In economic terms, insurance refers to the pooling mechanism used to reduce the downside of risk (Masci and Tejerina; 2006;1). The insurance industry forms an integral part of the global financial market, with insurance companies being significant institutional investors. In recent decades, the insurance sector, like other financial services, has grown in economic importance (Hussels, Ward, Zurbzuegg; 2005, 258-259) Twenty years ago, banks and insurance companies maximized the size of their balance sheets: banks accumulated assets in search of a larger market share, and the insurance industry was mostly liability driven. Recent years, risk has increasingly transferred from banks to nonbank institutions such as insurers, mutual funds, pension funds and hedge funds ( Hausler; 2004,1). Insurance sector has been increasing its huge economic and strategical power. In many countries insurance sector has more improved structure and economic power than banking sector (Ünal,1994,46). At table 1 shows the Premium production of developed countries and turkey. As table 1,developed countries has a huge percentage in total Premium production. Only USA produced excess to 1 trillion dollars. This means the giant size amount of funds which could be effected to economies. 321 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table1 : Premium Production In World In 2003. Billion Dolar Countries % USA 1.117.944 35,41 Japan 472.820 20,62 United Kingdom 254.363 8,63 Germany 170.137 5,77 France 161.483 5,48 Sweden 39,876 1,35 Turkey 3,316 0,11 (www.swissre.com) Insurance firm has more affect on economic structure. The biggest insurance firm is the Citigroup and it has 1.4 trillion asset structures. The first 100 firm have asset changing between 1.100 and 243 billion dollar (Oskay, 2005; 64). Insurance Sector in Turkey In Turkey insurance sector has not been developed in comparison with developed country. For example, European Union Countries produced 1.1 trillion US dollar insurance premium in 2004. The same year, England become the country which the most piled insurance premium with 294 billion US Dollars (www.tsrb.org.tr). In 2003, USA produced 1.117,944 billion US dollar. 322 124 201 369 671 1.427 2.602 5.272 11.099 20.471 40.807 82.689 182.635 354.669 623.522 1.144.889 1.600.478 2.355.308 3.300.858 4.271.629 5.042.403 6.236.143 Fire insurance premiums to the total rate (%) Amount of fire insurance premiums collected Years 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Quantity of collected insurance premiums Table 2: All And Fire Insurance Premium Production 33 54 93 167 283 408 781 1.792 3.785 7.043 13.870 27.469 49.104 100.971 165.252 284.233 419.531 529.173 655.711 733.046 1.192.800 27,01 26,70 25,33 24,92 19,81 15,68 14,82 16,14 18,49 17,26 16,77 15,04 13,85 16,19 14,43 17,76 17,81 16,53 15,35 14,54 19,13 7.052.563 1.105.287 www.hazine.gov.tr 15,67 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2 shows that total and fire insurance Premium production in accordant to years. Sector is incline to improve but this inclination is a bit slow. Foreign investors and professional management shortage is the biggest problems in Turkey’s Sector. Survey Research Our survey research have been put into practise in Marmara region and along april and may in this year. Survey have been filled by 170 participants nearly. Aim of this study is to measure of the reason why less level fire insurance and knowlodge level of the participants about fire insurance and fire measurments. There is no academic research to measure to inclination of not being made fire insurance. This is the first and ongoing academic research on this topic. In Turkey, although insurance sector is incline to develop but either insurance capacity or fire insurance production is very low level. In Table 1 and Table 2, this situation are being appeared clearly below. 194% 176% 184% 140% 147% 136% 133% 118% 124% 113% Percentage Of Increase level Of Fire Insurance Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Percentage Of Increase level Of Total Premium Table 3: Amount Of Total And Fire Insurance Premium In Turkey As Graphic 250% 200% 150% 100% 179% 206% 164% 172% 148% 126% 124% 112% 163% 93% 50% 0% 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Percentage Of Increase level Of Total Premium 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Percentage Of Increase level Of Fire Insurance In accordant to these table, Turkey produced 7,05 billion US Dolar and the percent 15,67 of this produced premium is fire insurance. Total premium level and fire insurance level are increasing inclination but this inclination is very slow and inadequate. Table 2 shows that percentage of increase level of total premium and percentage of increase level of fire insurance. Comparation with England, Turkey’s total premium level is very small, nearly 1,5 percentage of England’s premium production. Educational degree Mountly income Gen der Table 4: Participant’s Gender, Mounthly Income And Educational Degree Frequency Percent Man 114 70,80 Woman 47 29,20 333 - 666 $ 36 22,36 667 - 999 $ 52 32,30 1000 - 1333 $ 36 22,36 1334 - 2000 $ 24 14,91 2001 - 2666 $ 7 4,35 2667 and over $ 6 3,73 Primary School 19 11,80 Secondary School 24 14,91 High School 53 32,92 Associate Degree 7 4,35 B.A. 49 30,43 Master and over Degree 6 3,73 323 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Upper table shows the participants pecularities. Striking point of this table that is the participants’ income level. % 55 of participants has income below 1.000 US dollar. This is the most important reason about less level of fire insurance demand. The more income level increase, people are incline to spend their funds to insure their goods. This is the reason why is the insurance sector more strong and effective on economy at developed countries at the same time. At these countries, people have more income in accordance to undeveveloped countries’ people and spend their income to getting valuable goods and insure them. In our country, people reasonable wages and they are incline to spend this income to essential poverty. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Table 5: Why Do You Not Use The Fire Insurance ? Frequency Why Do You Not Use The Fire Insurance? Nobody offered me to fire insurance 62 A low probability of fire out 54 I have no information about this type of insurance 53 I'm getting my own measures 50 I have no enough income to spent to premium of fire insurance. 49 Premium amounts, too much 48 Fire insurance to do was continually postponed 26 I have no confidence in the insurance sector 24 I've done before, never satisfied 8 Percent 38,5% 33,5% 32,9% 31,1% 30,4% 29,8% 16,1% 14,9% 5,0% If we take a look at table 4, it is obvious that the most striking result is weakness of marketing. Agencies and insurance firms think about this topic. If marketing operation is accelerated, it is probable that fire insurance branch may be extended. 62 participants and 53 participants declared that we had not enough information about fire insurance and its benefits. A huge percent of participants declared that fire out probability is very small. In accordance to other risk (desiases accident...), fire out probability may be seen as very small probability but expand speed and damage of fire could be very effective and mortal. The other result of this table is existence of high premium prices and having income level weakness. Table 6: During your life, have you ever eyewitnesses very close to any fire around your house? Frequency Percent 52 32,30 Yes 108 67,08 No The reason why the people who has not fire insurance policy could be that they have never seen a fire around their houses. % 67 of participants have not been eyewitnesses to fire. This is a psychological result. The people are incline to focusing on things effected them. As a result, It is clear that marketing and enlightment studies must be increased by the firm. In point of result of fire, fire always has a big risk. Table 7: Are you owner of house which you sit in? Frequency Percent Yes No 110 49 69,32 30,43 110 participants have own houses. The others have not own houses and tenant of their house. Whereas % 69 of participants have own houses, they are not interested in make fire insurance. 324 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 8: How many people do you know who have fire insurance around you? Frequency Percent No have 1 person 2-3 person 4-5 person 6-7 person 8 and over 91 22 39 6 1 1 56,52 13,66 24,22 3,73 0,62 0,62 Small percentage of fire insurance is appeared at this table again. % 56 of participants has no identified to people has fire insurance. Table 9: Do you know the risks are covered by fire insurance policy in detail? Frequency Percent Yes No 10 149 6,21 92,55 Participants have neither knowledge fire insurance nor coverage of fire insurance policy. Whereas fire insurance has different some coverage like thunder and exploit. Table 10: Do you have the measures which of the followings related to the fire in your home available? Frequency Percent Fire extinguisher 71 1 41 % 30 2 Fire escape 18 % 16 3 Fire alarm 9% 4 4 Sand bucket 2% Fire Cabinet 8 5 5,0 % 0 6 Fire Ball 0% No one 41 7 25 % Most preferred equipment is fire extinguisher in the case of fire in accordance to answers. Fire alarm, cabinet and escape are not affected to extinguish to fire. These measurements are helpful to after fire occurred. % 25 of participant has no any measurements about fire. This is the most important result shows that disregarders of fire risks of this table. Table 11 : Have you enough information about fire protection? Frequency Percent 59 36,65 Yes 100 62,11 No % 62 of participants have no enough information about protection of fire. Although communication possibilities are very widen, this high percentage shows that communication possibilities are not used usefully. Booklets, tv and radio programs must be used for enlighment to people to protect from fire and precautions before the fire occurred. 325 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 12: Cross table of "income" and "Why do you not use the fire insurance?" Cross table used for comparing with income level and the reasons not to do fire insurance. In accordance to the Table 11, the participants who have not reasonable income are getting their own measures and they find to Premium price are very high. Medium level incomed participants have less confidence to insurance sector. The more income is higher, measurements against to fire decreaser and the reason of high premium price decreaser. Conclusions: As Turkish Insurance sector has lots of problem, fire insurance branch has some obstacles and problems. Although fire risk and its results’ fatality is big, lots of participants ignore to fire insurance. As survey fire insurance branches 3 main problems; 1. The biggest problem is weak income level. Turkish per capita income is incline to increase but it is not enough for improvng to insurance sector. The people has huge income incline to spend their funds to precious goods. As a result precious goods need to be insured. 2. Marketing deficiency is the other big problem. Most of participants declared that they had no knowledge about sector and had not get any fire insurance proposal from agencies. 3. Not to understand of fire risk and its result. It is a bit connected with educational level. References Hussels Stephanie; Ward Damian; Zurbruegg Ralf ; “Stimulating The Demand For Insurance” Risk Management and Insurance Review, 2005, Volume. 8, No. 2, 257-278 Targan, Ünal ; “ Türk Sigortacılık Sektörünün Ekonomik Đşleyişi ve Fon Oluşturma Kapasitesi; ĐTO Publishing, Đstanbul 1994 “Avrupa Birliğinde Sigorta Sektörünün Vergilendirilmesi” http:/www.tsrsb.org.tr Oskay; Suna; “Küresel Sigorta Piyasalarında Türk Sigorta Piyasasının Rekabet Gücü” 2005 http://www.soksay.com/econet/downloads/K%C3%BCreSig.pdf Hausler, Gerd ; “Risk Transfer and the Insurance Industry”; Contributions from the 31st General Assembly of the Geneva Association, June 2004 Masci Pietro; Tejerina Louis . ; “Insurance Market Development in Latin America and the Caribbean” http://199.79.166.188/sds/doc/FINALIN SURANCEPAPER _Masci_Tejerina.pdf www.swissre.com 326 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 236 Title A name given to the resource A Research Survey on People who has not Fire Insurance Author Author TASKIN, Kamil YILMAZ, Recep GÜMÜS, Fatih Burak Abstract A summary of the resource. Fire Insurance Usage in Turkey is very small stage now. Turkish people often use the other insurance types like car, earthquake, and asset. The reasons why this situation has not been researched up to now. In our study, we prepared a survey which measuring the reasons of less usage levels of fire insurance. We applied to the survey nearly to 170 people which not use fire insurance policy. After the survey, we entered the data into spss program. We applied some tests and we got some results about fire insurance less usage level in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/91186382ddc39da61233fdedfb7b8f5e.pdf 2ef4ec349ec07acb7a37c10240cf3980 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Assesment of Cultural Aspects of Hofstede with Socio-Economical Factors in new Product Acceptance Ercan TAŞKIN Assist. Prof. Dr., Institute of Social Sciences, Dumlupinar University, Turkey Hasaan ÖZYAŞAR Economic Science Expert H. Yelda ŞENER Ph. D. candidate, Dumlupinar University, Turkey Abstract: Enterprises should be able to know and appreciate different cultural environments in order to be successful in international marketing. Companies in international marketing should form their marketing activities by taking different cultural characteristics of different countries into account. They should also perform the necessary adaptations to different cultures in such activities as product, pricing, decision of distribution channel and promotion. On the other hand, in adapting marketing activities to different cultures, Hofstede’s study about cultural dimensions including avoiding uncertainties, individualism, power distance and masculinity has guided many related researches. In this study, assessing Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in terms of such products as internet, PCs and cell phones, and such socio economical factors including GDP, urbanisation and literacy, the effect of these factors on the acceptance of new products were analysed. The data were then interpreted with regression analysis. Key Words: New product, international marketing, culture Aim & Importance of the Research The aim of the research is to explain the factors affecting the acceptance rates of new products introduced to international markets, to determine the environmental factors from these and to reveal from these environmental factors how and to what extent cultural dimensions affect the acceptance rates. As competition increases in internal market, many of the companies go for external markets. Many companies like Daimler-Chrysler and Unilever try to overcome the shrinkage in internal markets by going for markets overseas. However, even the companies which are very successful in their own internal markets might fail in international markets. In the 1990s, many big firms like Kellogs, Mercedes Benz and Whirlpool made many high-cost mistakes while introducing their products to new markets.(Tellefsen, 1999) Avoiding these kinds of mistakes is possible by analysing the cultural and socio-economical structure of the target countries seriously and introducing such products that are appropriate for this structure or making the required adaptation on the products to adapt it to this structure. Most of the scientific studies in Turkey are unfortunately by no means at the level of being practicable or directive. In this study, it was tried to provide a guide of analysis for enterprises, which introduce new products to international markets, to enable them to make the required adaptations about cultural factors especially by showing them the effect of uncontrollable external environment on the acceptance rate of new products. At this point, with our regression equation, companies which will introduce new products to international markets or which will make important changes on the current product will be able to predict the amount of demand in each of the 80 countries. Development of Hypotheses Literature scanning was conducted about the subject and depending on the studies hypotheses were developed about the environmental factors thought to affect the acceptance rate of new product. Table 1 summarizes the findings about how which factors affect the acceptance rate of new product in the studies carried out on different products and different countries at different times. Depending on this and other studies in the literature, the following hypotheses and the model shown in Figure 1 were developed about the factors thought to affect the acceptance rate of new product. 404 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. Factors Affecting Acceptance of New Products Study carried out by Power Avoiding Individualism Masculinity GNP Urbanization Literacy Distance Uncertainity Sean Dwyer, hani (-) (-) (-) (+) mesak, maxwell hsu Luis E. Boone (+) (+) (+) Yvonne Van (-) (-) (+) (-) Everdingen, Eric Waarts Dipak Jain, Suvit (-) (+) Maesincee Sangeeta Singh (-) (-) (+) (+) Debabrata Talukdar, (+) (+) (+) Sudhir Kale, Andrew Ainsslie Kallol Bagchi, P. (-) (-) (+) (-) Hart, M. Peterson Lawrance Rhyne, M., (-) (-) (+) (+) Teagarden, W. Panhuyzen Chol Lee (+) (+) (+) Jan Steenkamp, F. (-) (+) (+) Hofstede, M. Wedel Gerard Tellis, S. (-) (+) (+) (+) Stremersch, E. Yin Michael Lynn, Betsy (-) (+) (+) Gelb Janell Tovnsend, Ş. (-) (-) (+) (+) Yenyurt Hypotheses about Cultural Dimensions The cultural structure of a social system affects the acceptance rate of innovations by either facilitating or complicating the dissemination of innovations. Countries open to innovations have different cultural characteristics than those close to innovations. (Lee,1990) Researches have shown that culture of a country has a significant effect on its people’s acceptance rate of new products.(Tellis,2003) The most common culture classification in international marketing was developed by Hofstede. Cultural dimensions of Hofstede and the scores he developed for these dimensions have been used to provide a theoretical base for inter-cultural studies and to support the hypotheses. (Soares,2007) In measuring international consumer innovation and acceptance and dissemination of innovations, cultural dimensions of Hofstede have been used in many studies. (Waarts, Everdingen, 2005) Avoiding Uncertainity According to Hosfstede, avoiding uncertainity denotes the timidity level of people of a culture when encountering unknown or uncertain situations. In societies where avoiding uncertainity is common, people face uncertain and complex situations with anxiety. Members of such societies lower their stress level by laying down some rules that will help them see ahead. In societies where avoiding uncertainity is uncommon, people consequences of uncertainity is already accepted. Members of such societies perpetually want changes in their lives.( Dwyer S., Mesak H., Hsu M,2005) As a result, there is a negative relation between avoiding uncertainity and acceptance of new product. In countries where avoiding uncertainity is common, the acceptance rate of new product will be low, while in others where avoiding uncertainity is uncommon, the acceptance rate of new product will be high. In the light of these opinions; H1: There is a significant and negative relation between the dimension of avoiding uncertainity and acceptance rate of new product. Individualism 405 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Individualism-socialism is the basic cultural variable dimension of inter-cultural studies.(Aaker, Maheswaran,1997) The dimension of individualism is about the dominance level of the wishes of the group on the wishes of the individual. In individualist cultures, ties between individuals are weak and people are primarily interested in themselves and their close folks. In socialist cultures, on the other hand, there are strong group ties of loyalty and trust. Whereas there is a conscious of “we” in socialist cultures, in individualist cultures it is replaced by conscious of “I”. (Hofstede,1983) in countries where individualism is common, people are eager to try the new product earlier than the other members. (Lynn, Gelb, 1996)After all, we can say that in cultures where individualism is common, the acceptance rate of new product will be high and vice versa. In the light of these opinions; H2: There is a significant and positive relation between the dimension of individualism and acceptance rate of new product. Power Distance The meaning of power distance is whether power is distributed equally among the members of a society or not. In some national and local cultures, inequalities might appear in power distance. In societies where power distance is high, power is in the hands of a small group. Those without power are dependent on those with power. According to Hofstede, the hierarchical pyramid in the organizations is high in societies where power distance is high; centralism and formalism stand out and upward communication is low. (Çerik,1998) In a research on centralism and formalism, it was determined that in organizations where centralism and formalism is at a high level, the acceptance level of innovations is low.( Zmud,1982)Hofstede stated that in practice, there is a negative relation between power distance and individualism dimension. In countries where power distance is high, individualism is low; however, in countries where power distance is low, individualism is high.( Jain D, Maesincee,2005) Depending on our previous hypothesis on individualism dimension, we can say that in cultures where power distance is high, the acceptance rate of new products will be low and vice versa. In the light of these opinions; H3: There is a significant and negative relation between the dimension of power distance and acceptance rate of new product. Masculinity This dimension of culture is based on the relations between genders. In societies where masculine values are dominant, the roles are separated with bold lines between genders. Such masculine values as success and efficient use of power form the outstanding elements of culture. In societies where feminine values are dominant, the differences in roles between genders are few. ( Aydemir M., Demirci,2006) The common values in societies showing masuculinity character are success, competition, and struggle, winning and being powerful. On the other hand, the common values in societies showing feminine characterare cooperation, service, life quality and warm relations between individuals. (Çerik,1998) Hofstede believed that while the individuals in masculine societies believe in the philosophy of “living to work”, those in feminine societies belive in the philosophy of “working to live”. (Hofstede,1997) Focusing on ambition, competition, tangible values and performance is a characteristic of masculine culture. In organizations of masculine cultures, it is important to appreciate and favour performance, to educate and improve individuals. These characteristics are, at the same time, the characteristics of innovative organizations. Rogers, who have done extensive researches on the diseemination of new products, state that there is a positive relation between success motivation and innovation.(Waarts, Everdingen, 2005) Depending on these ideas we can say that in cultures where masculinity is high, the acceptance rate of new products will be high too and vice versa. In the light of these opinions; H4: There is a significant and positive relation between the dimension of masculinity and acceptance rate of new product. Hypotheses about Socio-economical Dimensions Acceptance and dissemination of new proıducts and ideas are affected by socio-economical factors, social interaction moulds and cultural interaction.(Ganesh,1998) There is a close relation between socioeconomical structure and innovation. Social characteristics of those who accept innovations earlier show that they are more educated, have higher statues, are better off and have wider influence.(Everest ,1995) 406 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo GNP The researches have shown that wealth has an important effect on the acceptance rate of new product in a country. For wealthy people, the cost of the new product forms only a little of their income. Therefore, they can take the risk to accept a new product. After all, risk is an important concept in the process of accepting innovations. ( Dickerson,Gentry ,1983) In the light of these opinions; H5: There is a significant and positive relation between the dimension of GNP and acceptance rate of new product. Urbanization Urbanization causes a decrease in traditional values and appearance of modern life styles by bringing the consumers of different cultures together. Modern production techniques, mass communication tools and consumption-oriented life style cause appearance of new consumption moulds and thus acceptance of new products rapidly. ( Hill, Stıll,1984) When people live and work, information and experience disseminate among individuals more rapidly. Cities where a large number of people live together involve convenient conditions for the application and development of new ideas and products. (Lambooy,2002) In the light of these opinions; H6: There is a significant and positive relation between the dimension of urbanization and acceptance rate of new product. Literacy Education open people’s minds and thus facilitates disseamination of new ideas. At the same time, it makes people sensitive about the importance of technology in personal development.(Tellis G., Stremersch,2003) Everest Rogers, who developed the theory of dissemination of innovations, determined that a positive relation between innovation and attitudes towards education was found in %73 of the researches having been carried out on the characteristics that determine the acceptance rates of innovations. Those who accept innovations earlier have a higher literacy rate than those who accept innovation later. (Rogers,1995) In the light of these opinions; H7: There is a significant and positive relation between the dimension of literacy and acceptance rate of new product. Research Model Figure 1 shows the model developed for the research. On this model, not only the direction of relations is shown but also dependent and independent variables are presented. In the research, the independent variables are power distance, individualism, masculinity and avoiding uncertainty, all of which constitute cultural dimensions, and GNP per capita, urbainzation rates and literacy for individuals above 15 years of age are control variables, all of which constitute socio-economical dimensions. Scope & Limitations of the Research In the research the aim was to analyse the effect of cultural dimensions which are among the factors affecting the acceptance rate of new product, and therefore, product-focsed factors and other environmental factors were not included into the scope of the research. Only the such socio-economical factors as GNP per capita, urbanization and literacy- which Hofstede suggested using as control variables while doing research about cultural dimensions- were used as control variables. As in all national cultural studies, this study also considers cultural borders as national borders. However, cultural homogeneity does not appear with political borders. Every country might include different cultural groups who socially stand out or lag behind. At this point, our study didn’t take sub-cultures into consideration. 407 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Independent Variables (Cultural Dimensions) - Avoiding Uncertainity Dependent Variables (Acceptance rates of New Products) - Internet H1 - PCs - Individuality H2 - Cell Phones - Power Distance H3 -Masculinity H4 Control Vriables (Socio-economical Dimensions) H5 - per capita GNP H6 H7 - Urbanization - Literacy Figure 1. Research Model Method The differences in the acceptance rates of new products among 80 countries were tried to be explained through cultural dimensions and such socio-economical factors as GNP per capita, urbanization and literacy were included into the model as control variables. While trying to explain a case with cultural variables, this type of socio-economical variables should be checked and included into the scope of research. (Tomasz, Kendall,1999) Hofstede also said that if, in a study, certain factors like economical and biological variables can explain a case, using cultural dimensions is not necessary and when they are used as a variables, such factors as GNP per capita should be used as an additional control variable. (Bagchi, Hart, Peterson,2004) Sampling The sampling is composed of 80 countries for which Hofstede developed scores about cultural dimensions. Data Collection The research was completely done by using secondary data. While determining the cultural dimensions of the countries, dimensions and scores calculated for these countries about these dimensions which the Dutch scientist Hofstede had developed by conducting 120.000 surveys in 80 countries were used. Hofstede’s study about cultural dimensions forms a theoretical base in researching the effect of cultural differences on the dissemination and acceptance of innovations.(Straub,1997) In order to measure the acceptance of new products, the study used the usage rates of cell phones, PCs and Internet as new products in the population of 80 countries. In 2004 “International Telecommunication Union” provided the numbers (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/icteye/Indicators/WTI_Technotes.pdf., 14/01/2007) of Internet connection determined electronically by “Internet Software Concortium” according to the country code, of cell phones determined through subscriber number and of PCs determined through rgular surveys and different resources. The control variable- GNP per capita in 2004, urbanization and literacy of individuals above the age of 15- was provided by World Bank. 408 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Statistical Methods Regression analysis is used to analyse whether there is relation between two or more variables, if any, its direction and strength, and what kind of a change other variables change when one of the variables have a certain unit of change.(http://www.toraks.org.tr/mse-ppt-pdf/Kenan_KOSE3.pdf., 20/02/2007) Because we aimed to determine whether there is relation between cultural dimensions and the acceptance rate of new products and the direction of this relation, we also used regression analysis. Firstly, we analysed how cultural dimensions affect the acceptance rate of new products with multipl-regression method. Then, after including the control variables into the model as done in similar studies in the literature, we analysed how cultural dimensions affect the acceptance rate of new products with hierarchical regression method. Findings In order to form a more descriptive model and to make more accurate predictions, after checking socioeconomical dimensions, in order to determine what kind of an effect cultural dimensions have, as done in similar studies in the literature, ‘Hierarchical Regression Model’ was applied. In this way, socio-economical factors were kept under control; in other words, in order to determine what kind of an effect cultural dimensions have when socio-economical factors have the same level in all the observation units, socio-economical control variables were added to hierarchical regression model in the first step and then cultural dimensions were added. Table 2 shows the findings about hierarchical regression model. Table 2. Findings about Hierarchical Regression Model Model Internet PCs Cell Phones Ayarlanmış F Significance Modulated F Significance Modulated F Significance R2 Level R2 Level R2 Level 1.Step %43,5 18,964 0,000 %50,9 24,141 0,000 %55,3 29,864 0,000 2.Step %70,7 25,178 0,000 %79,6 38,247 0,000 %64,3 19,013 0,000 Table 2 shows the results about the appropriateness and importance of hierarchical regression model. Analysing F values, it can be seen that the model is important in explaining the relation between independent variables and the acceptance rate of new products. (Internet; F=25,178, p<0,001, PCs; F=38,247, p<0,001, Cell Phones; F=19,013, p<0,001). Analysing the values of R2 coefficient, which denotes how much of the change in dependent variable is explained by independent variables and which is a measure of consistency of the model, it can be seen that the model has a high coefficient in explaining the change in the dependent variable. (Internet; R2= %70,7, PCs; R2=%79,6, Cell Phone; R2= %64,3). This shows that the model explains %70,6 of the change in acceptance rate of internet dependent variable in international markets. The remaining %29,3 can be explained by other factors not included into the model and thought to be product-centred. For PCs, the model explains %79,6 of the total change and the remaining %20,4 can be explained by other factors thought to be about the characteristics of the computer itself. Similarly, for cell phones, the model explains %64,3 of the total change and the remaining %35,7 are explained by other factors. Findings about Culturel Dimensions In the hierarchical regression analysis, in the first step, socio-economical variables were put into the model while in the second step cultural dimensions were included and what kind of change cultural dimensions experienced after socio-economical factors were checked was analysed. As seen in Table 2, values of R2 caused a change of %27,7 for internet, of %28,6 for PCs and of %10,7 for cell phones in the second stage when cultural model was included into the model. In other words, after checking the socio-economical factors, the cultural dimensions explain %27,7 of the change in the acceptance rate of internet in the international market, %28,6 of PCs and %10,7 of cell phones. (p<0,001). This shows that cultural dimensions have a strong effect on the acceptance rate of new products. Table 3 presents the analyses results that show the effects of each independent variable in the model. Tablo 3 also shows β coefficients and p values of each independent variable as a result of hierarchical regression analysis. β Coefficient is defined as a curve and it shows the change in the dependent variable when the independent variable increases one unit. (http://analiz.ibsyazilim.com/egitim/kk.html.,04/03/2007) Some of the β coefficients in the Table are positive while some are negative, which show the direction of the relation.( Çatı, Yılmaz,2002) P values give information 409 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo about whether there is a statistically significant relation between the dependent and independent variables. In social sciences, it is accepted that there is a statistically significant relation when the p value is smaller than 0,05. Table 3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Model Internet 1. Step 2. Step β Coefficient 0,278 0,320 0,304 0,103 0,244 0,242 -0,256 GNP Urbanization Literacy GNP Urbanization Literacy Avoiding Uncertainity Individualism 0,380 Power -0,125 Distance Masculinity -0,139 PCs 0,004 0,005 0,009 0,151 0,006 0,006 0,001 β Coefficient 0,458 0,347 0,161 0,272 0,288 0,099 -0,233 0,000 0,155 0,047 P Value Cell Phones 0,000 0,001 0,140 0,000 0,000 0,177 0,000 β Coefficient 0,330 0,281 0,395 0,222 0,190 0,309 -0,005 0,000 0,006 0,000 0,006 0,050 0,002 0,953 0,295 -0,249 0,001 0,002 0,304 -0,121 0,005 0,215 -0,093 0,124 -0,001 0,994 P Value P Value Findings about Avoiding Uncertainity As a result of the analyses, when the p values (Internet p=0,001, PCs p=0,000, cell phone p=0,953) are analysed, it can be seen that there is a statistically significant relation between the acceptance rates of Internet and PCs in international markets and the dimension of avoiding uncertainity, but no significant relation for cell phones. When the β values (Internet β= -0,256, PCs β= -0,233, cell phone β= -0,005) are analysed, it can be seen that the relation between avoiding uncertainity and dependent variables is negative. These results support our H1 hypothesis except for cell phones. The fact that there isn’t a significant relationship for cell phones might be because relative advantages of cell phones- which are among product-centred characteristics- are very much. In the periods when cell phones first entered the Turkish market the sales rose rapidly. Analysing this consumption tendency, it can be argued that the idea that possessing a cell phone gives a status made the product a symbol of status, which caused such a rapid acceptance rate of this product.(Gegez,2003) This rapid acceptance rate decreased the uncertainity rate we analysed in 2004. Findings about Individualism The dimension of individualism was determined to be the factor with the biggest effect on the acceptance rate of the new product. Analysing the p values (Internet p=0,000, PCs p=0,001, cell phones p=0,005), it can be seen that there is a statistically significant relation between the acceptance rates of Internet and PCs in international markets and the dimension of individualism. When the β values (Internet β= 0,380, PCs β=0,295 cell phones β=0,304) are analysed, it can be seen that the relation between individualism and dependent variables is positive. These results support our H2 hypothesis strongly. Findings about Power Distance As a result of hierarchical regression, when the p values for the dimension of power distance (Internet p=0,155 PCs p=0,002, cell phones p=0,215) are analysed, it can be seen that there is a statistically significant and strong relation between the acceptance rate of PCs in international markets and the dimension of power distance, but no important relation for Internet and cell phones at all. When the β values (Internet β= -0,125, PCs β= -0,249, cell phones β= -0,121) it can be seen that the relation between the dimension of power distance and dependent variables is negative. These results partly support our H3 hypothesis through PCs. The reason why there isn’t a strong relation for Internet and cell phone as foreseen might be due to product-centred factors. While forming our hypothesis about power distance, depending on the literature, we said that in societies in which power distance is high centralization and formalization will be high, that in organizations in which centralization is high, top management won’t be aware of operational problems and the top management won’t be able to put the innovations into use to solve these problems. However, Internet and cel phones have a characteristic to ease communication between senior and junior management. Due to these characteristics, they are such products that decrease power distance. 410 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Findings about Masculinity When p values about masculinity dimension (Internet p=0,047 PCs p=0,124, cell phones p=0,994) are analysed, it can be seen that there isn’t a statistically significant relation between the acceptance rates of PCs and cell phones and masculinity dimension, but there is just a little relation for Internet. Contrary to what we foresaw, the β values (Internet β= -0,139, PCs β= -0,093, cell phone β= -0,001) have negative values for all dependent variables. These results do not support our H4 hypothesis for the three dependent variables. According to Hofstede, in societies whose masculinity level is low, what is small and slow is nice; however, in societies whose masculinity level is high, the opposite is true. The products in our research are generally both small and fast. Due to such complexity about the products, it can be argued that there is no relation between masculinity dimension and acceptance rate. Findings about Socio-economical Dimensions As seen in Table 1, when the F values of the first step in which socio-economical factors were included into the model as independent factors are analysed, it is seen that the first model is an important model in explaining the relation between socio-economical variables and acceptance rates of new products. (Internet; F=18.964, p=0,000, PCs; F=21.141, p=0,000, Cell Phones; F=29.864, p=0,000). When R2 values, which denote how much of the change in dependent variable is explained by independent variables and which is a measure of consistency of the model, are analysed, the following is found: for Internet R2= %43,5, for PCs R2=%50,9, and for Cell Phones R2= %55,3; that is, such socio-economical factors as GNP, urbanization and literacy explain %43,5 of Internet’s, %50,9 of PCs’ and %55,3 of cell phone’s acceptance rate in international markets. Findings about GNP When we analyse the p values to measure the relation between GNP and the new product, it can be seen that in the first step, during which only socio-economical factors were put into the model, p values for Internet is p=0,000, for computer is p=0,000, and for cell phones it is p=0,000. That is to say that, for the three products, there is a strong relation between GNP and acceptance rates of the products. In the second step, during which cultural dimensions were put into the model, p values for Internet is p=0,151, for PCs is p=0,000, and for cell phones it is p=0,006, which means that when cultural dimensions were included into the model, the explainability of the change in GNP did not exist for Internet and decreased for the other two products. When the β values are analysed, it is seen that the relation is positive. These results support our H5 hypothesis. Findings about Urbanization When we analyse the p values to measure the relation between urbanization rates and acceptance rates of new products, in the first step in which only socio-economical factors were put into the model, the following are seen: p=0,005 for Internet, p=0,001 for PCs and p=0,006 for cell phones. That is, for the three products there is a strong relation between GNP and acceptance rates of these products. In the second step in which cultural dimensions were included into the model, the following p values were found: p=0,006 for Internet, p=0,000 for PCs, p=0,050 for cell phones. That is, when cultural dimensions were included into the model, the explainability of the independent variable urbanization decreased a little but did not disappear. When the β values are analysed, it can be seen the the relation is positive. These results support our H6 hypothesis strongly. Findings about Literacy When we analysed the p values to measure the relation between GNP per capita and the new product, in the first step in which only socio-economical factors were put into the model, the following are seen: p=0,009 for Internet, p=0,140 for PCs and p=0,000 for cell phones. That is, there is strong relation between the acceptance rates of these products and Internet and cell phones but there is no significant relation between PCs. In the second step in which cultural dimensions were included into the model, the following p values were found: p=0,006 for Internet, p=0,177 for PCs and p=0,002 for cell phones. That is, when cultural dimensions were included into the model, there wasn’t an important change in the explainability of the rate of urbanization. When the β values are analysed, it can be seen the the relation is positive. These results support our H7 hypothesis except for PCs. 411 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Result & Suggestions In our research on 3 products in 80 countries, it was shown that socio-economical factors and cultural dimensions have significant effects on the acceptance rates of new products in international markets. In general, in countries where GNP, urbanization and literacy rates and individualism scores are high and in those where avoiding uncertainity and power distance scores are low, the acceptance rates of new products are higher. In the analysis, during which the effects of socio-economical control variables were checked, it was found that the strongest effect on the acceptance rate of new products was caused by individualism dimension and urbanization rates. This was followed by literacy rates, avoiding uncertainity and power distance dimensions respectively; however, no relation was found between masculinity dimension and the acceptance rate of new products. Another important result of the research is about the notion of globalisation. In the literature, contrary to the thesis that globalisation eliminates cultural dimensions and drags the world into a one-cultured structure, it was determined that cultural factors were still important determiners in 2004. Presentation of new products is one of the most complicated decisions international marketing managers come up against. Cultural differences in international markets are another important factor that increases this complexity and affects all its dimensions. Understanding the factors that affect the acceptance of new products enables international marketing managers to predict the demand level they will get in the target market and to make the required adaptations on the product according to the characteristics of ther market. The results can help the companies that will introduce new products to international markets in presentation tactics. It will be a successful presentation tactic to introduce the new products to such markets that will accept them easily due to high rates of individualism and urbanization because the extensive acceptance rates in these markets will decrease uncertainity about the product for the customers in other markets and thus enabling them to be accepted more easily in other markets. The research is a sort of guide for international marketing managers in marketing tactics for new products. Especially in efforts for sustainability of the market it will yield effective results if adaptations are done in accordance with these results. For example, in countries where individualism level is low and level of power distance is high, international marketing managers can delegate their efforts for sustainability of the market to opinion leaders because the effect of opinion leaders on group members is more in such societies. The products and ideas opinion leaders accept are adopted by other members. In societies where avoiding uncertainity and power distance levels are low and individualism level is high, according to our findings, the acceptance rates of new products are high. Therefore, in such markets, emphasizing the innovation and difference of the product will attract the customers’ attention. On the other hand, in societies where avoiding uncertainity is high, since people give importance to factors decreasing risks applications like warranties, aftersales service, product samples must be emphasized as a part of such a tactic that increases acceptance in such societies. References Aaker, J. L., Maheswaran, D. (1997). “The Effect Of Cultural Orientation On Persuasion”, Journal Of Consumer Research, V:24, p. 315. Aydemir M., Demirci M. K. (2006). Đşletmelerin Küreselleşme Stratejileri ve Kobi Örnekleminde Bir Uygulama, Ankara, Gazi Kitabevi, p. 33. Bagchi K., Hart, P., Peterson, M. F. (2004). National Culture And Information Technology Product Adoption” Journal Of Global Information Technology Management, V:7 I:4, p. 29. Çatı, K., Yılmaz, A. (2002). “Hastaların Hastane Hizmetlerinin Kalitesini Algılama Düzeylerinin Araştırma”, Pazarlama Dünyası Dergisi, Sayı: 2002-4, Temmuz-Ağustos 2002, p. 49. Ölçümüne Yönelik Bir Çerik, S. (1998). 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(1999). “A Framework For Culture Assessment”, Journal Of International Business Studies, v:30, ı:4, p. 784. Waarts, E., Van Everdingen, Y. (2005). “The Effect Of National Culture On The Adoption Status Of Innovations: An Empirical Study Of Firms Across Europe”, European Management Journal, V: 23 I:6, p. 603. Zmud, R. (1982). “Diffusion Of Modern Software Practices: Influence Of Centralization And Formalization”, Management Science, v:28, ı:12, p. 1429. http://analiz.ibsyazilim.com/egitim/kk.html., (04/03/2007) http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/icteye/Indicators/WTI_Technotes.pdf., (14/01/2007) http://www.toraks.org.tr/mse-ppt-pdf/Kenan_KOSE3.pdf., (20/02/2007) 413 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 283 Title A name given to the resource Assesment of Cultural Aspects of Hofstede with Socio-Economical Factors in new Product Acceptance Author Author TASKIN, Ercan ÖZYASAR, Hasan SENER, H. Yelda Abstract A summary of the resource. Enterprises should be able to know and appreciate different cultural environments in order to be successful in international marketing. Companies in international marketing should form their marketing activities by taking different cultural characteristics of different countries into account. They should also perform the necessary adaptations to different cultures in such activities as product, pricing, decision of distribution channel and promotion. On the other hand, in adapting marketing activities to different cultures, Hofstede’s study about cultural dimensions including avoiding uncertainties, individualism, power distance and masculinity has guided many related researches. In this study, assessing Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in terms of such products as internet, PCs and cell phones, and such socio economical factors including GDP, urbanisation and literacy, the effect of these factors on the acceptance of new products were analysed. The data were then interpreted with regression analysis. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5c2c50941c589517ed371d2bbf279e2b.pdf 06342da3ee622e88b57dc1acc0e3331b PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Market Dominance and Competitiveness in Banking Sector and an Analysis of Turkish Banking Sector with Comparison to EU Banking Sector Basak TANINMIŞ YÜCEMEMĐŞ Assist.Prof.Dr., The School of Banking and Insurance, Banking Department, Marmara University, Turkey, basakyuce@marmara.edu.tr Erişah ARICAN Prof.Dr., The School of Banking and Insurance, Banking Department, Marmara University, Turkey, erisaharican@marmara.edu.tr Abstract: It is of vital importance for the finance sector and its pioneering child, the banking sector, to boost and maintain competitiveness and market domination in a globalizing world. In the Turkish banking sector, a significant progress has been made with respect to making legal and institutional arrangements for regulatory and supervision authorities and implementing and auditing decisions taken within the context of harmonization with the EU. Due to increasing competition and rapid technological developments in the banking sector, financial products and services have been diversified and new strategies and policies have been implemented and rate of inflow of foreign capital has gathered momentum. It is noteworthy that the Turkish banking sector has an oligopolistic structure and it has ratios similar to the banking ratios of the developing countries that are EU members. Moreover, it is obvious that the Turkish banking system is more robust than transition economies. Keywords: Banking, EU, competitiveness Introduction Competition is the focal point of free market economy while competitiveness is an essential mechanism for boosting efficiency, effectiveness and social welfare. In addition, securing market dominance plays an important role in ensuring lucrativeness of businesses. The study focuses on the factors affecting competitiveness and market dominance of the banking sector that has entered international markets upon financial liberation and runs a structural comparative analysis between the Turkish banking sector and the banking sectors of the selected EU members countries grouped according to their economic development. 1. Theoretical Framework for Competitiveness and Market Dominance 1.1. Concepts of Competitiveness and Market Dominance and Factors Affecting Them In economic terms, competition can be defined as the ideal environment in which economic activities pursued by any person or firm are not restricted by other persons or firms and can been conducted in an effective manner. Competition is an endeavor for survival and maintaining and improving one's existence and it entails adopting a strategic mindset and adopting certain strategic analyses and conscious application rules. The ability of firms to influence the market and market prices is reliant on the level of competition in that market (Lipsey, Steiner&Purvis 1987). The higher is competition in a particular market, the less is the likelihood of individual firms to have any affect on that market and the prices that originate in that market. While price competition is the evident form of competition, non-price competition has come to be used more effectively today. In price competition, firms compete with each other by making discounts in the price of their products through several methods --monetary wages, profit, efficiency, changes in exchange rates, etc. In nonprice competition or product competition, firms try to distinguish their products from competing products on the basis of quality of the product or other services for consumption of the product(Kılınç 2008&Erkan 1987). For creating a good environment for competition, the following criteria must be fulfilled: • Entries to, and exits from, the market should be free. 64 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • Firms should be free in conducting their trade and making deals. There should be an effective monetary system in place. Markets should be transparent. Buyers and sellers should have thorough knowledge of the market. Restrictions on trade should be abolished. Buyers and seller should act rationally to maximize their profits(Lachman 1999). Competition naturally gives rise to the concept of competitiveness. Competitiveness is a comparative measure and it specifies the position of sectors and countries with respect to each other. Competitiveness can be defined from two perspectives: at micro (firms and sectors) and macro (country) levels. In the former case, competitiveness signifies the ability of a firm to produce its products at lower costs and for lower prices compared to its rivals in the national or global markets; it also implies that this firm is capable of producing better quality and more attractive products and it can produce new products at lower costs and perform better in international trade. In the latter case, competitiveness refers to the ability of a county to compete with other countries with respect to quality and prices of its products, maintain a good balance of foreign trade, increase production, income and efficiency and improve living standards and employment in the country(Aktan&Vural 2004). There are two basic factors that affect competitiveness of firms: efficiency and cost advantage. In a sense, efficiency means obtaining higher output with lower input. In this regard, competitiveness can be defined as the ability to increase efficiency. Cost advantage is the ability to minimize the costs related to a product or service without degrading --or even by improving-- its quality. For Porter (1990), countries obtain competitiveness by using their resources optimally(Ucal & Gürsoy 2008). When the process of competitiveness is taken into consideration in transition from traditional economy to new economy, one can discern that competitiveness relies first on large production and low cost and then on product and market expansion, on quality and speed, and finally on value creation(Özkara1997 &Aktan and Vural 2004). 1.2. Competitiveness and Market Dominance in Banking Sector The finance sector and the banking sector need to boost and maintain competitiveness on a global scale in order to increase welfare. Market shares of banks (sector's rate of concentration) and barriers to market entry show the level of market power. The banks having monopolistic power in the banking sector will create loans in fewer numbers but with higher interest rates and with an immense volume while offering lower interest rates to deposits. This will in turn disrupt flow of capital to efficient areas, undermining capital accumulation and adversely affecting economic growth. Moreover, high volume loans will decrease portfolio diversification with added risk of crippling the financial structure of the bank. On the other hand, in a banking sector characterized by intense competition, interest rates will be lower for loans and higher for deposits, lowering capital costs and boosting economic growth. In oligopolistic markets, banks take into consideration possible reactions from other banks in deciding their interest rates, commission and other fees. Due to lack of communication in oligopolistic markets, prices are set more according to attitudes of rivals than those of customers(Tunay, Uzuner &Yiğit 1998). Increased competition leads to decrease in the number of reliable borrowers per bank, which in turn urges banks to conduct more thorough examination into loan applications. Banks tend to finance long maturity loans with short maturity deposits, thereby experiencing liquidity problems. Banks can avoid high credit risks only by maintaining more equity capital, applying capital adequacy requirements, using credit derivatives, decreasing interest risks, implementing low loan portfolios and using other risk minimizing measures. In the end, social welfare may deteriorate. Barriers to entry to the banking sector, cartel agreements and recently increased number of mergers and takeovers restrict competition. Measures that aim to create fair competition conditions in the banking sector are listed as follows: • Auditing authorities must be independent. • Entries to and exits from the sector must be free in order ensure that the number of the banks operating in the banking sector are optimal(Scoot & Dunkelberg 2008). • Objective criteria must be set view to preventing unfair competition by restricting entries to the sector -or mergers or acquisitions-- that might lead to creation of big bank groups. • Comprehensive legal arrangements -which encompass the entire financial sector, not only a banking law- must be implemented to ensure harmonization with the globalizing world(Scoot & Dunkelberg 2008). Neven's study (1999) showed that liberalizations that have been going on since 1980s have made a considerably salient impact on competition (Neven & Roller 1999). Recently, banks have started to operate under intense competition from non-sector financial organizations and financial markets due to the increased liberalization and integration of the world's financial markets. Increased competition has urged banks to engage 65 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo in insurance, private banking and asset management and other non-interest bearing operations (Hainz 2003). Banks are trying to adapt to the rapidly changing competitive environment through internal growth or merger and acquisition strategies with a view to benefiting from economies of scale. Many banks are seeking ways to diversify their income sources(Goddard, Molyneux, Wilson &Tavakoli 2007). However, when done between medium and big sized banks, mergers generally do not serve to increase efficiency because these banks are already making savings with their scales. In order to secure increase from scale savings, small banks should merge. Bikker and Haaf assumed that small scale banks operate on at local level while big banks are more competitive than other banks at the international level and medium sized banks can maintain a medium level of competition(Bikker & Haaf 2002). Moreover, the number of banks is treated as an indicator of competition level. Increase in competition at the banking sector leads to decreased cooperation(Hainz 2003). The banks having big market shares obtain noncompetitive income(De Jonghe & Vennet 2008). For Dick, in particular, big banks secure market dominance by seizing demand surplus through quality intensive services(Dick 2007). Any increase in market share results in a fall in brokering costs(Maudos & De Guevara 2007).Stability was found to be higher in the banking systems with higher concentration rates and fewer restrictive regulations. Thus, reasonable competition is preferred(Berger, Klapper & Aris 2008). When the European banking system having a strong structure is examined, it can be observed that recent technological developments, financial liberalization, ongoing economic and regulatory integration and impact of Euro transition have increased competition and effectiveness. On the other hand, since bank mergers and acquisitions decrease the number of rivals, this may have negative effects with respect to market domination(De Jonghe & Vennet 2008). 2. Structural and Comparative Analysis of Banking Sectors of Selected EU Countries vis-à-vis Turkey 2.1. Developments, Competitiveness and Market Domination in the Turkish Banking Sector in the Post2001 Crisis Era Post-2001 crisis recovery in the Turkish economy, increased economic stability, and the implemented anti-inflation program have positively affected the banking sector. Moreover, restructuring of the banking system has ensured that major structural problems which in the past created crises in the sector can be overcome. With consolidation and positive economic developments that occurred thanks to restructuring, the banking system has started to grow and reshaped its balance sheet structure. With increased demand for loans, the share of loans within assets has increased, and the share of securities portfolio with lower liquidity, and financial structure has been reinforced, and profitability performance has improved. As the Turkish banking sector has a big potential for growth and Turkey's EU membership process has accelerated, foreign capital has started to show increased interest in the sector and the direct investments by foreign investors in the Turkish banks and other financial organizations have increased. The banking law (dated 2006) that regulates and directly affects banking activities has been harmonized with the EU legislation to a great extent. New arrangements have been made with respect to determination of institutional management rules for banks and measurement of liquidity adequacy(TBB 2007). The year 2007 was a busy year for political and economic developments both in the country and in the international markets. With adverse developments around the world, no remarkable progress was seen in Turkey's EU membership process. 2.1.1. Market Structure in the Turkish Banking Sector In the banking sector where a rapid process of consolidation was seen with acquired and closed down banks after 2000, the number of banks dropped down to 49 in December 2008. The number of branches continued to increase. The branch and employee numbers have decreased in the period 2000-2003 due to the structuring schemes, but started to increase afterwards. Table 1. Bank and Branch Numbers 2001 2002 2003 2004 Bank Branch Bank Branch Bank Branch Bank Branch 61 6,908 54 6,106 50 5,966 48 6,106 Total 2005 2006 2007 Sep. 2008 Bank Branch Bank Branch Bank Branch Bank Branch 47 6,247 46 6,849 50 8,040 49 9,036 Total Source: Derived from the Turkish Banks Association (TBB), (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. 66 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2. Overall Structure and Efficiency Indicators of the Banking Sector Deposits/Employee Employee Employee Total Assets Total Loans Total Deposits Numbers (thousand Numbers/Bank Years Numbers (thousand TL) (thousand TL) (thousand TL) TL) Numbers 137,495 216,507,617 57,341,438 147,520,532 1,073 2254 2001 118,329 212,675,488 56,370,271 142,387,988 1,203 2958 2002 123,249 249,749,773 69,990,148 160,812,250 1,305 2465 2003 127,163 306,451,565 103,241,145 197,393,862 1,552 2649 2004 132,258 381,639,902 148,641,794 244,633,655 1,850 2814 2005 150,793 484,857,262 218,063,925 312,832,244 2,075 3278 2006 167,760 561,171,879 280,453,091 356,983,744 2,128 3355 2007 170,425 655,434,000 356,096,000 418,839,000 2,458 3478 Sep2008 Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. The total assets in the balance sheet of the banking sector increased to TL 655 billion ($565 billion) in September 2008 with a 16.8 percent increase. Increase in corporate and consumer loans supported growth in total assets(TBB 2008). Total credits in the banking sector reached TL 356 billion by the end of 2008, with the share of loans within total assets being 54.3 percent. The credit volume which was low to scale in the banking sector was a factor that reduced risk in the crisis period (Bilgin 2009). 26.4 percent of the total assets in the banking sector consist of securities. Since they are risk-free and liquid assets, the sector mainly prefer domestic government bonds (BDDK 2008). Table 3. Balance Sheet Structure of Banking System (%) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep2008 na Assets in TL/Total Assets 53.6 60.7 63.2 67.7 66.2 71.2 71.9 na 49.6 56.7 59.9 64.3 62.4 66.7 66.8 Liabilities in TL/Total Liabilities na 42.1 50.7 55.2 63.2 61.6 65.1 66.0 Deposits in TL/Total Deposits na 42.4 53.7 63.5 70.5 72.7 74.9 74.0 Credits in TL/Total Credits 68.9 67.0 64.4 64.4 63.9 64.5 63.6 63.9 Total Deposits/Total Assets 10.5 8.4 8.2 9.0 11.0 11.7 10.5 10.9 Credits Received/Total Assets Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. The share of credits within total assets increased, due to falling interest rates after 2005, to 54.3 percent and the public sector borrowing requirement decreased, which caused the rate of conversion of deposits to credits to increase (85 percent), thereby boosting the contribution of the banking sector to the non-financial sector. Not only interest rates, but also creation of suitable maturity conditions were influential in this. Nonaccruing (delinquent) loans decreased in the post-2001 crisis restructuring process, but they started to increase slowly --particularly with respect to consumer and commercial credits-- due to economic uncertainties in 2008. Table 4. Asset Quality of Banks (%) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep2008 35.0 40.5 42.8 40.4 36.0 34.7 31.3 28.7 Financial Assets (Net)/Total Assets 21.9 26.5 28.0 33.7 38.6 45.0 50.0 54.3 Total Credits/Total Assets 31.8 39.6 43.5 52.3 60.4 69.7 78.6 85.0 Total Credits/Total Deposits 19.9 6.6 1.4 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 Delinquent Credits (Net)/Total Credits 13.3 23.5 27.2 29.8 31.2 33.3 32.6 Consumer Credits/Total Credits Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. When the liquidity structure of the sector is examined, it can be seen that the share of liquid assets within total assets decreased over the years to 29.4 percent. This implies that the banks still choose to direct short term liabilities they assume not to liquid assets, but to the assets with lower liquidity. Table 5. Liquidities of Banks (%) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep.2008 32.0 34.3 38.8 37.4 39.9 39.6 37.1 29.4 Liquid Assets/Total Assets na 75.1 80.5 84.3 74.8 65.3 62.4 47.6 Liquid Assets/Short Term Liabilities na 12.9 19.0 17.6 22.7 21.3 23.1 17.9 Liquid Assets in TL/Total Assets Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. 67 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Despite the rapid growth of equity, the capital adequacy ratio (Equity/Value at Credit + Market + Operational Risk) deteriorated. This was attributable to the inclusion of operational risk to the capital adequacy calculation as well as the growth in trade volume. The capital adequacy standard ratio decreased from 30.9 percent in 2003 to 17.7 percent in 2008. The net balance sheet position/equity ratio was -15.9 percent in 2008 (TBB 2008). Table 6. Capital Adequacy of Banks (%) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep.2008 na 24.2 30.9 28.8 24.2 22.0 19.1 17.7 Equity/(value at credit + market + operational risk) 9.0 12.1 14.2 15.0 13.5 12.0 13.1 12.2 Equity/Total Assets na -6.3 -2.5 -4.5 -5.1 -13.5 -14.0 -15.9 Net Balance Sheet Position/Equity Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. 2.1.2. Concentration and Market Domination in the Turkish Banking Sector Due to the financial crises of November 2000 and February 2001, the ensuing restructuring of the banking sector and the unfavorable market conditions, many banks had to leave the sector, which created a hard-to-bear burden for the state because of the unlimited guarantees provided for deposits. As a result, the banking sector saw many changes, particularly stemming from consolidation efforts through mergers, and the share of the banks which are considered as large scale because of the deposits they command increased. As an explanation for this change, customer tendency toward opting for depositing money to big sized banks during a financial crisis as well as changes in the market shares of banks are suggested. In short, market dominance by big players increased. Consequently, there has been a rapid increase in concentration with respect to assets, credits and deposits since 2000 (Yayla 2007). When concentration and market dominance in the Turkish banking sector where the seven largest banks are the leaders and which has an oligopolistic structure are examined, one can see that the share in sector assets of the seven banks which are largest according to total assets was 62 percent in 2008 while the sector share of the ten largest banks was 85 percent. The share of the five banks which are largest according to deposits was 64 percent while the share of the ten largest banks was 83 percent. There was a drop in concentration for the ten largest banks. There was no change in concentration for the five largest banks in terms of credits while the concentration for the ten largest banks rose to 89 percent (TBB Sep 2008 & TBB May 2008). Table 7. Concentration in the Turkish Banking Sector (%) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Five Largest Banks 56 58 60 60 63 63 62 62 Total Assets 55 61 62 64 66 64 64 64 Total Deposits 49 55 54 48 56 58 57 57 Total Credits Ten Largest Banks 80 81 82 84 85 86 85 85 Total Assets 81 86 86 88 89 90 89 83 Total Deposits 80 74 75 77 80 93 83 89 Total Credits Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. The following Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was used to study the market structure of the Turkish banking sector on performance and explain the concentration in the sector. Herfindahl-Hirschman Index Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) is used to measure the market concentration as part of a market structure analysis. It is defined as the sum of the squares of the market shares of all firms (banks) (Bikker 2004). If the total of market shares is expressed as 100, the HHI ranges between 0 and 10,000. Thus, - 0 - 199 (full competition market, 51 or more banks having equal market shares) - 200 - 999 (weak oligopolistic, 11 - 50 banks having equal market shares) - 1,000 - 1,799 (strong oligopolistic, 6 - 10 banks having equal market shares) - 1,800 - 10,000 (monopolistic, 1 - 5 banks having equal market shares) (Yetim & Gülhan 2005). 68 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 8. HHI Values (All Sector) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep.2008 809.1 865.4 928.6 937.4 966.6 959.5 938.5 937.26 Total Assets 762.2 740.8 737.2 744.5 798.4 858.5 849.3 854.64 Total Credits 817.7 960.2 1041 1117.5 1093.2 1072.2 1063.9 1052.22 Total Deposits Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. According to the calculations, the asset and credit concentration in the Turkish banking sector were considerably close to each other while there was a greater concentration in deposits. The highest HHI value was 1,117.5 observed in the deposits market in 2004. With respect to assets and credits, the sector's HHI value was found to be below 1,000 in the period 2001-2008 examined, which implies concentration toward a strong oligopolistic structure. It was unconcentrated in terms of deposits until 2002, after which moderate concentration was observed. In this regard, the Turkish banking sector shifted toward a strong oligopolistic structure in terms of assets and credits through mergers and acquisitions. Table 9. HHI Values for Asset Sizes (Five Largest and Ten Largest Banks) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sep.2008 668.5 733.7 793.7 771.7 820.7 809.3 785.4 781.4 Five Largest Banks Total Assets 790.1 846.6 911.7 920.2 952.7 941.7 920.5 920 Ten Largest Banks 583.1 627.1 593.7 579.3 646,4 683.2 659.7 662.5 Five Largest Banks Total Credits Ten Largest Banks 646 685.8 677.8 701.4 768,3 828.2 821.8 828.5 683.4 827.9 882.1 914.2 919 894.9 883.7 857.9 Five Largest Banks Total Deposits Ten Largest Banks 805.6 948.7 1028.9 1106 1082.4 1039.9 1048.2 1038.7 Source: Derived from TBB, (May 2008), Bankalarımız 2007-2006-2005-2004-2003-2002-2001, and the TBB, (September 2008), 3 Aylık Banka Bilgileri Raporu. When the sector was examined with respect to five and ten largest banks, the situation was similar to the overall situation. Customers tend to opt for bigger banks in which they have confidence while smaller banks act more aggressive in the credit market to boost their market share. It can be said that smaller banks offer higher interest rates and take higher credit risks in order to secure higher amounts of deposits. This can be regarded as a behavior with some ethical risks. On the other hand, the reason why bigger banks have lower shares in the credit market is that the big banks operating in Turkey tend to keep domestic government bonds with zero risk in their portfolios. 2.1.3. Proposals for Increasing Effectiveness and Competitiveness in the Turkish Banking Sector The following table contains a SWOT analysis that may serve for better understanding the Turkish banking sector and its competitiveness, and the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats involved in the sector were depicted. Table 10. SWOT Analysis for the Turkish Banking Sector Threats Weaknesses - Restricted guarantee for deposits - Lack of qualified personnel - Increased transparency toward clients - Technological inadequacy - Lower interest rates and margins - Lack of funds for R&D - Non-banking competition - High costs - New technical standards - Low effectiveness and efficiency - Problems in adapting to changes in legislation - Inadequacy of competitiveness - Economic and financial uncertainty - Insufficient product and service diversification - Crisis periods and decreased effectiveness in the sector - Lack of independent audit - Increased interest from foreign banks - Insufficient transparency - Concentration Opportunities Strengths - Less restrictive controls on prices and products - Multiple technology products - Developing alternative resource creation - Increased risk, credit and liquidity management - Easer access to market - Larger local market - Increased client base knowledge - Easier cross-border entry - Confidence and prestige increase - Improved capability for attracting deposits - Young and dynamic population 69 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo - More non-price competition - Products and services with high value added - Cooperation and partnerships - Multiple technology products - High quality - Improvement of the sector - Restructuring of the public, private and Savings Deposit Insurance Fund (TMSF) controlled banks - Decreased restrictions to market entry and transition from oligopolistic competition to competitive environment thanks to legal arrangements, technological and information technology developments - Inflow of foreign capital - Rising rates of conversion of deposits to credits - Increased quality in product and service provision - Banks' finding new sources of income and adopting cost minimizing strategies and introducing organizational changes for expanding their customers' base and credit portfolios - Improved credit volume and more efficient use of resources Source: The SWOT analysis was made based on the assessments done within the context of the study. 2.2. Overall Structure of the EU Banking Sector, and its Competitiveness and Market Domination Globalization and financial liberalization in the world have triggered a fundamental change in the financial system in the EU. The integration of the financial system within the EU started, making markets homogeneous, fostering mergers among financial intermediaries, and resulting in new products and techniques. The Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) (January 1, 1999) accelerated the integration process in the financial system. Boundaries between national financial markets have largely lost importance (Yücememiş 2005). Due to the structural harmonization with the EMU interest rates, the profit margins and net interest margins of the banks in the EU have gradually decreased as was the case in Turkey. Thus, income structures of banks shifted away from interest incomes toward non-interest incomes. Today, big finance groups in Europe essential fail to secure a very rapid growth and high rates of profitability housing finance, consumer credits, credit cards and other areas in their respective countries because of the competitive pressures, market saturation, difficulties in increasing assets and decreasing incomes in domestic markets. This urges them to seek alternative markets and the countries whose finance groups that enter international markets become strong with respect to capital and earn experience at the international level. The next step for the European countries is to attain economies of scale with their operations, diversify their products, disperse risk, minimize costs and improve quality of their services. Increased competition in the EU finance sector has made it compulsory for firms to boost their effectiveness and efficiency. To maintain financial stability, effective supervision has emerged as an essential requirement. In addition, the sector should be able to satisfy customer demands, provide information and consultation services to customers, adapt to technological changes, and develop marketing strategies in order to attain stability (Yücememiş 2005). 2.2.1. EU Member Countries with Developed Economies Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, France and the UK were picked for analysis from the EU member countries with developed countries. When the following tables are examined, one can see that concentration rates increased in these countries with developed economies through mergers and acquisitions, which led to serious structural changes with respect to new strategic moves. When the banks from the EU member countries acquire or merge with the banks in other countries, this leads to an increase in the overall assets within the union. Although there is not a big difference between the number of banks and branches in Italy and those in France, its asset size was almost half of France's. Table 11. Total Assets of the Banking System of Selected Developed EU Member Countries (€ million) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 6,268,700 6,370,194 6,393,503 6,584,388 6,826,534 7,120,805 7,562,431 Germany 554,528 586,459 635,348 721,159 789,770 890,747 573,384 Austria 776,173 774,330 828,557 914,391 1,055,270 1,121,905 1,297,788 Belgium 1,265,906 1,356,397 1,473,939 1,677,583 1,695,325 1,873,129 2,195,020 Netherlands 1,851,990 2,024,156 2,125,366 2,275,628 2,509,436 2,793,436 3,331,830 Italy 3,768,943 3,831,610 3,998,554 4,419,045 5,073,388 5,728,127 6,682,335 France 5,829,766 5,853,959 6,288,193 7,085,205 8,526,509 9,868,683 10,093,134 UK TURKEY (million TL) 216,507 212,675 249,749 306,451 381,639 484,857 561,171 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. 70 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 12. Concentration Index (HHI) of the Banking System of Selected Developed EU Member Countries (By Asset Size) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 158 163 173 178 174 178 183 Germany 561 618 557 552 560 534 527 Austria 1,587 1,905 2,063 2,102 2,112 2,041 2,079 Belgium 1,762 1,788 1,744 1,726 1,796 1,822 1,928 Netherlands 270 240 230 230 220 330 260 Italy 551 597 623 758 726 679 606 France 282 307 347 376 399 394 449 UK TURKEY 809.1 865.4 928.6 937.4 966.6 959.5 938.5 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. A comparison between developed countries and Turkey reveals that Turkey lags considerably behind these countries in terms of bank and branch numbers as well as total asset size. Moreover, it can be asserted that according to the concentration index, Turkish banking sector has moved toward the strong oligopolistic position and that it has lower rates of conversion of total deposits to credits compared to these countries. 2.2.2. Developing EU Member Countries Spain, Greece, Portugal and Finland were picked from among the developing EU member countries. It was found that in these countries, the number of banks decreased while the number of branches increased. This can be explained by the fact that with membership to the EU, mergers and acquisitions with the banks from other countries increased, thereby boosting concentration. This is also obvious from the increase in the total asset size. Table 13. Total Assets of the Banking System of Selected Developing EU Member Countries (€ million) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1,247,998 1,342,492 1,502,861 1,717,364 2,149,456 2,515,527 2,945,262 Spain 202,736 201,608 213,171 230,454 281,066 315,081 383,293 Greece 298,428 310,370 348,691 345,378 360,190 397,123 440,144 Portugal 163,416 165,661 185,846 212,427 234,520 255,055 287,716 Finland TURKEY (million TL) 216,507 212,675 249,749 306,451 381,639 484,857 561,171 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. Table 14. Concentration Index (HHI) of the Banking System of Selected Developing EU Member Countries (By Asset Size) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 532 513 506 482 487 442 459 Spain 1,113 1,164 1,130 1,070 1,096 1,101 1,096 Greece 991 963 1,043 1,093 1,154 1,134 1,097 Portugal 2,240 2,050 2,420 2,680 2,730 2,560 2,540 Finland TURKEY 809.1 865.4 928.6 937.4 966.6 959.5 938.5 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. When these figures are compared with the figures related to the Turkish banking sector, it can be seen that the number of banks is lower than those in these countries while the number of branches is higher thanks to mergers with foreign banks. With respect to total assets, total deposits and total credits in the banking sector, there is no significant difference between these countries and Turkey. For this reason, it can be suggested that Turkey, being a candidate country, has economic structure similar to this group of countries and the harmonization of its banking sector can be considered as sufficient. 2.2.3. EU Member Countries with Transition Economy The Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland and Estonia were selected from the EU member countries with transition economy. While these countries have different development levels and economic volumes, their banking sectors showed growth after they joined the union, as seen in the tables. Particularly in the Czech Republic and Hungary, economic development level was higher and banking sector 71 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo had investments in international markets before the 2008 crisis, and this boosted mergers and acquisitions with the banks in other countries and the number of banks decreased while the number of branches increased. In other countries, particularly in Estonia, the number of banks and branches quickly increased, which can be regarded as an economic advantage of being a member of the union. Table 15. Total Assets of the Banking System of Selected EU Member Countries with Transition Economy (€ million) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 78,188 79,232 78,004 87,104 100,902 114,878 140,004 Czech Republic 38,433 43,564 54,769 64,970 78,289 93,679 108,504 Hungary na na 15,000 23,200 35,400 51,911 72,095 Romania 13,224 17,447 22,302 31,238 na na 9,254 Bulgaria 116,044 112,174 141,571 163,421 189,739 236,008 133,476 Poland 4,372 5,221 6,314 8,586 11,876 15,326 20,603 Estonia TURKEY (million TL) 216,507 212,675 249,749 306,451 381,639 484,857 561,171 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. Table 16. Concentration Index (HHI) of the Banking System of Selected EU Member Countries with Transition Economy (By Asset Size) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1,263 1,199 1,187 1,103 1,155 1,104 1,100 Czech Republic 856 783 798 795 823 839 892 Hungary na na 1,251 1,111 1,115 1,165 1,041 Romania na na na 721 698 707 833 Bulgaria 821 792 754 692 650 599 640 Poland 4,067 4,028 3,943 3,887 4,039 3,593 3,410 Estonia TURKEY 809.1 865.4 928.6 937.4 966.6 959.5 938.5 Source: Compiled from European Central Bank, October 2006, EU Banking Structures and European Central Bank, October 2008, EU Banking Structures. Comparison of these figures with the figures related to the Turkish banking sector indicates that there is no significant difference with respect the number of banks, but the number of branches is higher in Turkey thanks to mergers with foreign banks. In terms of total asset size, total deposits and total credits, Turkey is out in the lead ahead of the EU member countries with transition economies, and in this respect, it can regarded as ready for membership to the EU. As for the HHI, it can be seen that the Turkish banking sector is shifting toward the strong oligopolistic structure as regards the economic and sector size in Turkey. Conclusion Today, non-price competition has increased. Competitiveness can only be ensured via rise in efficiency, and income obtained from this increase may boost welfare in the country. Securing a competitive edge and/or increasing competitiveness will depend on effective and rational competition strategies developed. Increased market dominance results in increased concentration, which in turn decreases level of competition in the markets. Competition among banks undermines market power of banks, causing a decline in their profit margins. Under the increased competitive pressures from the non-sector financial organizations and markets, banks are urged to engage in insurance, private banking and asset management and other non-interest bearing operations. They try to adapt to the rapidly changing competitive environment through internal growth or merger and acquisition strategies. Despite the fluctuations and increased risk in international markets, the Turkish banking sector has managed to boost corporate and consumer loans. The public sector borrowing requirement has decreased, creating proper maturity and interest conditions and causing the rate of conversion of deposits to credits to increase, thereby boosting the contribution of the banking sector to the non-financial sector. Moreover, the Turkish banking sector has acted cautiously, preserving its profitability and increasing its non-interest income. Competition in the sector has led to a drop in cost and made resource distribution more effective and boosted efficiency and effectiveness. According to the Herfindahl-Hirschman (HHI), the concentration in the Turkish banking sector implies a strong oligopolistic structure where big banks are dominant in the market. However, in parallel to efforts for restructuring and integration with international markets, large scale institutional changes as well as changes to the products and services provided have been introduced. In this regard, the Turkish banking sector can be regarded as one of the most well-prepared sectors for harmonization with the EU, particularly with respect to openness to competition and legal arrangement. Nevertheless, on a global scale, the 72 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkish banking sector is still small in terms of volume of assets, deposits and credits. The competitive environment in the sector fosters innovation and quality. Due to change in its assets and liabilities structure, the sector will continue to be vulnerable to liquidity, exchange and interest rate related risk. However, the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BDDK) regularly issued guiding notices and explanations for the sector in 2008, and the sector seems to be capable of cautiously acting by the lesson it learned in the 2001 crisis. Yet, the Turkish banking sector may feel the heat from the high level of debts by non-financial economy and limited borrowing opportunities. If public authorities may implement policies for increasing production by bringing relief to non-financial sector and for warding off the pressure on the financial sector, this may result in a slight increase in economic performance and growth rate in 2009. References Aktan, C.A. and Vural, Đ.Y.(2004) Rekabet Gücü ve Rekabet Stratejileri, Publication no 254, Ankara: TĐSK Yayını. 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Avrupa Birliği Tam Üyelik Sürecinde Türk Bankacılık Sektörü, Ankara: Xerox Doküman Merkezi. Yücememiş, B.T. (2005). Parasal Birlik, Avrupa Merkez Bankası ve Türkiye’ye Yansımaları, 1. b, Istanbul: Derin Yayınları. 73 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 142 Title A name given to the resource Market Dominance and Competitiveness in Banking Sector and an Analysis of Turkish Banking Sector with Comparison to EU Banking Sector Author Author TANINMIS YÜCEMEMiS, Basak ARICAN, Erisah Abstract A summary of the resource. It is of vital importance for the finance sector and its pioneering child, the banking sector, to boost and maintain competitiveness and market domination in a globalizing world. In the Turkish banking sector, a significant progress has been made with respect to making legal and institutional arrangements for regulatory and supervision authorities and implementing and auditing decisions taken within the context of harmonization with the EU. Due to increasing competition and rapid technological developments in the banking sector, financial products and services have been diversified and new strategies and policies have been implemented and rate of inflow of foreign capital has gathered momentum. It is noteworthy that the Turkish banking sector has an oligopolistic structure and it has ratios similar to the banking ratios of the developing countries that are EU members. Moreover, it is obvious that the Turkish banking system is more robust than transition economies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory