249 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08bbd058ced577a0b3b3c0a0c80c95bf.pdf 8c12034d842969d798377577513c7284 PDF Text Text Strategies to Reduce Cost & Improve Environmental Performance in Lean & Green Apparel Supply Chains V G Venkatesh Pearl Academy of Fashion Chennai campus,India venkatesh@chennai.pearlacademy.com Introduction Business Organizations are completely changing their strategies of how they manage their supply chains. Strict norms, Dominance in the supply chains have been turned outto be the alliance with the relationships with the upstream as well asthe downstream partners. As part of thelean supply chains,itis veryimperative to check the non-value added activities in the entire process as well as to increase the profitability. The other element which has been talked for few years in the industry is “Greening” of supply chains or Green Supply Chain Practices which are ruling across the various industries. Supply Chain managers of the industries are finding it very difficult to balance both the economic & environmental performance in the Fashion Industry. In recent years,the focus has gone into the environmental management principlesfor allthe membersinthe Supply Chain to orienttowards sustainability by combining principles across other elements such as productrecovery,reverse logistics and re-manufacturing. Business performers have adopted different strategies that focus on internal operations including the environmental management system as well as accounting systems. Research has been initiated on the various phases on the supply chains including, Purchasing, Manufacturing and Distribution with material handling at Stores to identify the possible ways of improvement on the Environmental performances. This paper will discuss the various strategies adopted by the industries to increase their lean & green performances with respectto apparel supply chains and the to propose some fundamental changes in the Supply chain especially material handling with the less environmentalimpact. The paper will discuss best practicesin material & product handling to have Green & Lean inthe apparel supply chains, which finally reduce the Carbon foot print ofthe materials. The present status of apparel supply chain is not aiming for Lean & Green. It is having the multiple contacts. Continuous improvements are aimed atthe different angle to reduce the wastes and more sustainable in giving lessimpact on the environmentalfront. 409 �Need of the Green & Lean Apparel Supply Chain practices: Green & lean Supply chains are modelled and designed to reduce both the costs and wastes. Each industry is working on the increase its productivity at the same time to use the resources effectively through Green & lean Supply Chain practices. By adopting the Green & lean practices,the companies can exhibittheir competitiveness by creating good practices with sustainable approaches. Many Companies just concentrate on the reduction of wastages atthe same time, they failto identify the increase in the cost concurrently due to the practices taken into the supply chains. In the other sense,they failto identify the environmental burdens in the supply chains. It results into the extended supply chains incorporating immediate and eventual environmental effects. GSC M – Green Supply Chain Management practicestogether with eco-design and Green Purchasing,is the need of the hour for all the Business organizations to show their environmental performance. Apparel Supply chain is one of the Supply chains where the complexity rises with respect to lean & Green. Due to the shift in the business, for apparel players itis challenging for them to keep their supply chain both as “lean & Green”. Mainly itfocuses on following strategies: • • To analyse & reduce the Carbon Foot Printin all phases ofApparel Supply To have a sustainable material handling in the supply chain to minimize the wastages The use of environmental management practices has a huge impact on Operations policy. The practices adopted can be on the following areas: • Production Planning & Purchasing : The introduction of careful environmental targets often requires high attention of product structure. (materials such a fabric manufacturing and trims etc., Components etc.,) • In the production, introduction of “cleaner” technologies ie the equipment and plant with a reduced impact on the state of naturalresources • In Logistics,the effective attention needs to be given on the green productinnovations with the re-cycling options. Very minimal effort and studies have gone into the analysis of environmental performance measurement with respectto Green Manufacturing Strategies. Factors for the Green Supply Chain strategy : The internal factors for Company’s strategic attitude heavily depend upon managerial environmental awareness. Every professionals should have • Ethical objective. • May consider the environment as a means of achieving competitive advantage. The introduction of green product development program or incorporation of green competencies in the day to day managerial performances. • Compliance with the current environmentalregulations. • May take efforttoimprove the environmental performance. External Variables : • • Green movements and regulators Company’s relationships with other supply chain value partners. Some of the Green Supply Chain Strategies: Pro-Active Green Strategy : It starts with the integration of relationships between a company and its vendors or suppliers. This has been integrated at the design phase itself and also to handle the returns management. This will be clearly established strategic relationship. MAS Holdings, a renowned apparel manufacturing organization in Sri Lanka has established the strategic partnership with its partners. It is considered to be the highly professional and advanced in thatindustry. Responsive Strategy: The Company is adjusting its internal set up according to the environmental consequences it is facing. It is highly predominant in the Indian conditions as companies, go for the readjustments according to internal working climate available. Reactive Strategy: Market –oriented only, it is determined according to the companies, external 410 �conditions. Unresponsive behaviour ; W here environmental conditions are not adopted into the operating strategies. Small firms with the financiallimitations are having the problem in pursuing the green supply chain initiatives. The environmental performance of Apparel supply Chain can be increased or analysed by the following areas : • • • • • Sourcing & Procurement Policies Product Planning Production/Manufacturing Technologies Logistics Human Resources Management Some of the Cost saving possibilities & avenues discussed for Apparel Chains are : Procurement - Itis highly advantageous to develop the Co-operative relationships with suppliers to design new environmentally friendly product. The companies change the purchasing parameters to make the recycling programs easier. This way it would easy for us to correctthe mistakes and be able to concentrate on the benefiton the both. The CPFR (Collaborative planning) model adopted by WalMart can be extended on the Product Planning : Some pro-active firms,they plan the samples with new green strategies that can be fully recycled. This is having the huge relationship between the product developers and other organizational units such as production to arrange forthe production. Production/manufacturing : companies in apparel supply chains are highly on the developmental path. They are adopting the strategy to minimize their manufacturing cost. Some of the videos will be discussed in the presentation.They have taken so much of effortto reduce their manufacturing cost and it would be a recycling based initiatives. For this they focussed on to minimize the toxic materials of environmental concern to be used in the production and allthe professionals who are involved in the production are highly aware of the environmental issues on that. Companies also took initiatives to reduce energy consumption by using the other sources of energy and reducing the operational wastes. This is were lean manufacturing strategies have been applied in the industry. Logistics : A change in the Operating procedures will help to boostthe Corporate image by adopting the environmental friendly transport systems. This would enrich the green image of the organization and also the Lean manufacturing and JIT principles are highly applied resulting from the transportation systems. Logistics are highly aimed now a days with the Green approach. Some of the strategiesin Green (Apparel) Manufacturing : • • • W aste Management, Clean Technology, Energy Use and Green Belts Good waste management has heightened the environmental consciousness of all associates. operations. This naturally extends to working with like-minded business partners to ensure continuity of our constantly monitored and improved clean technology agenda. All Manufacturers follow a strict policy of wastewatertreatmentthatreturns clean watertothe environment. Less Material Wastage: Forthe Green Manufacturing raw materialthat are preferred are generally eco-friendly. For E.g. organic cotton is eco friendly product, but lot of textile manufacturers do not produce fabric with the organic cotton. Hence manufacturers make garment with these kind of fabric and they make the best utilization of it. Less Chemical Usage & Managing Water Usage Suppose thatthe fabric printing process requires high use of water and resultsin high volumes of water discharge. wastewater treatment plants, should be complied with environmental regulatory authorities. Chemical pre-treatment of raw waste water controlsthe performance parameters of (Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and pH levels with samples analysed monthly by the regulatory authorities. These eco-efficient plants ensure that all their chemicals and dyes meet global standards and so, compatible with company environmental policy. In garment manufacturing unit chemicals are mostly used in washing and dyeing unit. Hence chemicals used here should be more organic and eco friendly. 411 �• For E.g. eco-friendly dyes, azo dyes, etc… A mong the series of measures to reduce water consumption are recycling, a rain water harvesting system thatthe factory can use each day, and the introduction of a tertiary filtration system and disinfection which allows water to be reused for toilet flushing and gardening Less Energy Usage & Energy Efficiency Initiative In garment manufacturing unit a lot of energy is spent on stem iron, boilers,thread sucking machine, etc… a lot of energy is consumed in converting the water into stem rather than electric boilers solar boilers could be used to save electricity. Some of the Energy saving strategies from the ApparelFactories are : The energy initiative was worked through the Central Energy Management and cascaded to different factories inside one organization. Measures implemented across the factories consisted of using more efficient lighting and air conditioning, better management of air compressors and pneumatic systems and monthly flue gas analysis. Sophisticated new air-conditioning systems should be introduced and the ducting redesigned for greater efficiency. Special prismatic material can be used for skylights in the roof allows only the passage of solar light without the accompanying heat Sophisticated new light emitting diodes (LEDs) should be used as task lights provide light to the sewing machines at needle point,supplementing the naturallight provided by the skylights. High bay lights are to be used only on cloudy or rainy days. The factory’s steam boilers and steam distribution systems have should be been redesigned for greater efficiency. Transportation within the premises is by electric vehiclesto eliminate use offossilfuelinsidethe plant. An advanced intelligent building management system controlsrelative humidity and carbon dioxide levelstoimprove comfortlevels for all Associatesinthe factory. • Hazardous Waste Disposal Environmental Protection License from the respective authorities, encourage the 3R strategy (Reuse, Recycle, Rework), while attempting to reduce the waste generated by its processes, monitors noise levels, ambient air quality, temperatures and treated waste water to ensure standards compliance and eliminate discharge oftoxic gases. The factory should achieve zero solid waste disposal by recycling or reusing 100 per cent of the solid waste it produces. Even canteen wastes can be composted and it contributesto biogas generation. The green areasinthe gardens willincrease substantially to provide all occupants with a better view of green area, and two indoor should be introduced to the plant with the largestfloor area. • Companies move from traditional end-of-pipe controlto new technologies. • End-Of-Life Management • Waste source reduction on the spot. • Recycling • Virgin Materials are recycled Integrated Clean Technology, Waste Management, Energy Management and Environmental Conservation are the operations on the basis of a strong belief that sustainable industrial development can drive its ultimate goal of being a completely green business concern. All this adds up to lower operating costs and a better planet for all. Lean is Clean. Clean is green, and green is “the new black” that willshow up on your P&L. Importance of costsin the Supply Chains: Material handling decisions will have impact on the company performance including operating costs, Investment options, Product quality and have the huge impact on the meeting the delivery schedules also. Itis normal tendency the material handling costs with respect to the environmental benefits are overlooked. This overlooked costs have a greater version of impact on the environmental burdens and also but it’s a obstacle to improve the financial performance. Apparel supply chain professionals do not attack the concerns of environments with an allaround analysis due tothe structure oftraditional cost-accounting systems. The Product Cost traditionally includes the raw material and labour costs, and the over heads include the Plant operations cost, wages and other Maintenance costs. The Position of environmental costsis always a paradox in the apparel supply chain. Traditional environmental cost accounting system allocatesthe cost along allthe products even the particular product has less problem on the ecological point of view. But in the Improved allocation, we would like to apportion the coststo the particular product which has the environmentalimpact. This would help us to design the apparel supply chain better as they help us to analyse the both upstream & downstream processes 412 �which can be fine tuned drastically. For eg : Considering the possibility of re-cycling of materials,the product design stage itself,it would be betterto startthe material handling. The cost hierarchy identified in the Supply chains are: 1. Conventional costs – which include materialand other expensesthat can be allocated tothe product or process 2. Potentially Hidden – These are intangible costs that are identified as the benefits obtained by the firms and wont be abletotraceitthe responsible products or processes.eg inthe Apparelindustries are : Producttraining course benefits 3. Contingent costs : Future event costs. The potential costs on the future benefits on the apparel supply chains. Such as making it as green factory by reducing the electricity consumption and also Compliance costs, which can attractthe buyer afterthe implementation. 4. Relationship Category : Costsrelated to subjective prepositions ofthe firm’s stake holders. The Managerial aspects of cost savings in the Apparel Supply Chain are : The Decision making frame work also is based on the best practices ofthe companiesthathave initiated and implemented environmental accounting systems. Cost Identification Determine Chances Calculate benefits Decide and Implement & Monitor Cost Identification: Review needs to happen atthe systematiclevelto determine the occurrence of environmental costs. This step will help the professionals who are participating in the supply chain can analyse each and every process and itsrelevant cost withthe environmentalimpact. Some ofthe areas ; • Materiallosses during production • Raw material • Shiftinthe change ofthe Suppliers • Internal recycling costs Determine the Chances/Opportunities: Identification ofthe several new areas and the potentialchanges are evaluated to determine which changes will likely yield significant cost savings and reduce environmental impacts. It is much helpful to identify the potential changes which can be evaluated during this phase. • Appropriatetechnology • Involvement ofthe workforce • Conduct an Activity based costing analysis • Information gathering – Production records for material usage rates, Operator training, Maintenance logs, Utility bills, Facility blue prints etc., • Interviews • Supplier analysis • Successes of exemplar Companies 413 �• Best practicesin the industry Calculate Benefits: Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of costs needs to be done with more depth. This would be supplemented with the present method analysis and with the proposed alternatives with their benefits. • How much isthe material used and forlandfilled ? • Hazardous materials used in the Processing? • Total costs Due to overtime,lowered efficiency and quality defects etc., • How much will employee satisfaction be improved by switching from a hazardous materials During the Review of EOQ model also,two environmental considerations being done. Materialloses and waste disposal has been included. Q = 2DS/HC In this, H- isthe holding costwhich will be revised to include the disposal costs also. Item cost(C) – cost ofinventory ($/unit) Annual Demand (D) Set up costs (S) Holding costs (H) Item cost(C) EOQ Conventional 80,000 Pcs $ 100 10 % $ 6/pc 5164 pcs Revised 80,000 Pcs $ 100 15 % ( +5 % for Disposal) $6+ $ 2 (Disposal cost) 4216 pcs With this approach the company also reduce the environmental burdens and decreasethe overallcosts associated with waste disposals. Decide, Implement and Monitor: • Team approach and Consultancy • Trade off analysis needs to be implemented • Establish the group forthe implementation • Provide appropriatetraining • Computerized environment Once the decisions are made, the final challenge is implementing the change. Cross functional analysis is the right step in the apparel supply chain. Many companies have practiced the same. Conclusion Apparel Supply chain professionals can improve both financial and environmental performance of their systems through the above strategic applications. This paper gives the broader paradigm on the different approaches given by the professionals that can be applied to the apparel field successfully. The trend of maintaining the good eco efficiency, Conservation of scarce resource, avoidance of toxic products in the Green and Lean manufacturing is highly appreciated. The no of factories have started implementing the strategies with an strong aim to reduce the pollution at the source and this process would have started at the earliest stage of product planning itself. The cost controlling strategies are the main elements in Environmental accounting methods which can be highly usefultoincrease the benefitsof the stakeholder. 414 �References Cooper (1994), “Product durability and Competitive advantage”, the Third Business Strategy and the environment conference, 15-16 September, Nottingham Freeman, Harry, (1995) “Industrial Pollution Prevention Handbook, , Mc Graw Hill, NY. Chapter 47, pp 777-789 Porter, M and Van der Line, C. (1995), “ Green and Competitive ending the stale mate” , Harvard Business Review, SeptOct, pp 120-34 Robert B Pojasek, (1998), “Activity Based Costing for EHS Improvement,” (1998) Pollution prevention Review, winter, pp 111-120 Srivastava (1995), “The role of corporations in achieving the Ecological sustainability”, Academy of Management Review, Vol.20 pp 930-60 415 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 520 Title A name given to the resource Strategies to Reduce Cost & Improve Environmental Performance in Lean & Green Apparel Supply Chains Author Author Venkatesh, V G Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f126d060bd2203ebb4352fa95ebabea.pdf 43bbcba0b95d1fe5f2ea0e7151fabeed PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies Used in Producing English Lexical Collocations by Saudi EFL Learners Hashim Noor & Arwa Adubaib Department of Languages and Translation Taibah University, Saudi Arabia hnoor@taibahu.edu.sa Abstract: Thirty, with two distinct proficiency level, EFL Saudi English majors at Taibah University participated in this study. Two written elicitation tasks were used: a fill-in-theblank test which was accompanied by a self-checklist, and a translation test. In addition, retrospective data was also collected from the participants to elicit their reflections on their written production. The qualitative analysis of the data resulted in the development of a taxonomy of the strategies used by the participants of the study. The taxonomy was divided into five major categories: retrieval, L1 based strategies, L2 based strategies, reduction strategies, and test-taking strategies. The participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing unacceptable collocations was higher in frequency than their use of the strategies in producing acceptable collocations. The results also revealed that the participants relied on L2 based strategies more often than other strategies in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The results also showed that the two groups seemed to have chosen the same strategies and have not differed much in their total number of use. The results revealed that HPS and LPS differed significantly in their use of strategies in producing acceptable collocations especially with regard to the retrieval strategy, L2 based strategies and L1 based strategies in favour of the HPS group. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups especially with reference to the use of the reduction strategies and L2 based strategies in favour of the LPS group. The implications of the research findings for teaching English collocations are discussed, along with pedagogical recommendations. Key Words: English lexical collocations, language learning strategies, EFL learners, Saudi English learners 1. Introduction Producing English lexical collocations has largely posed a serious problem for learners‘ of English, (Brown, 1974; Howarth, 1998; Hussain, 1998; Nesselhauf, 2003; Mahmoud, 2005). While producing certain L2 collocational strings of language, learners may employ some strategies to fill a lexical gap. Difficulties that students encounter could be partly attributable to different strategies that they use when producing English lexical collocations. By investigating the strategies that learners use while attempting to come up with L2 acceptable collocations, the present study seeks to shed some light on the underlying processes that students adopt to compensate for the inadequacy in their L2 linguistic system. It was hoped that a thorough analysis of such strategies might lead to suitable methods for dealing with them. An understanding of such underlying mental processes could help teachers adjust their teaching methods and materials in the area of collocations more effectively. This study focuses on learners‘ production of collocations in English, a phenomenon which is frequently used in spoken and written interactions. Hence mastering it represents one major step towards approaching naturalness, precision, and therefore fluency in the foreign language. Many studies have proved that English as a foreign (EFL) learners encounter difficulties in collocating English words together in an acceptable way (Bahnas and Eldo, 1993; Farghal and Obiedat, 1995; Diab, 1997; Nesselhauf, 2003; Mahmoud, 2005). When confronted with such difficulties, learners are likely to use some strategies in order to fill in any lexical gaps in their L2 speech or writing. Although there has been an increasing interest among researchers in finding how L2 learners overcome linguistic problems due to inadequate command of the target language, not much attention has been paid to lexical strategies applied by L2 learners at different proficiency levels. Furthermore, very few studies have investigated learners‘ use of strategies in producing collocations. On the 574 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo other hand, many studies have dealt with strategies that students use in spoken interactions, whereas the present study focuses on students‘ use of strategies in written tasks. 2. Objectives of the Study This study is an exploratory study that attempts to: 1. identify and describe strategies that students use when seeking to come up with acceptable English lexical collocations in given tasks. 2. investigate how frequent do two groups of learners of two different proficiency levels use these strategies to produce acceptable or unacceptable collocations. The study focuses on strategies of language use and specifically communication strategies as they are mainly meant to deal with lexical problems (Ellis, 1994). 3. Questions of the Study The study attempts to answer the following questions: 1. What are the strategies used by EFL learners in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations? 2. How frequent do high and low English proficiency levels groups use these strategies to produce acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations? 4. Methodology 4.1. Subjects of the Study The subjects of the study were 88 fourth-year Saudi English major students at Department of Languages and Translation, Taibah University, Saudi Arabia. All subjects were native speakers of Arabic. 4.2. Data collection The data was collected from the written performance of students in the given tests. Production data was chosen for the study, because it reflects the ―underlying competence‖, i.e. learner‘s production competence (Brown, 2000:216). 4.3. Instruments First a proficiency test was conducted to identify the subjects‘ proficiency levels. After that two tests were conducted to meet the primary goal of the study, i.e. revealing strategies that students adopt while producing English collocations. 4.3.1. The proficiency test To identify the participants‘ English proficiency level (high-low), a proficiency test had been carried out. The general proficiency level of English of fourth year English majors was measured by applying Taibah University‘s Standardized Proficiency Test 196 to 88 students. The test was administered by the researchers together with members of the English department. Students were asked to answer all the questions and not leave any item unanswered. All test papers were scored. Out of 100 marks the highest score was 85 marks, whereas the lowest score was 35 marks. According to normal curve, the mean, and standard deviation of the scores were computed (See Table 1). As a result, 20 students were found to be high with scores ranging between 85-70 marks out of 100, and 25 were regarded low with scores ranging between 35-58 out of a 100. Table 1: Measures of spread of study‘s participants. No. of Students SD Mean 88 9.54 68.6 SD: standard deviation 196 The test consisted of 100 multiple choice items which measured the writing, reading, vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and pronunciation of participants. 575 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4.3.2. Test one The first test was an objective test comprising a fill-in-the-blank test which elicited students‘ production of a set of specific English lexical collocations. Besides, it elicited students‘ use of strategies. The test was divided into two parts. Each part was devoted to one type of collocations. The first part dealt with 12 items with (verb + noun) collocations, and the second covered 10 items with (adjective + noun) collocations. The study investigated participants use of strategies in the production of these types of collocations because they are the most common types of collocations in English (Newmark, 1988; Lewis, 1997b). Participants were asked to fill in the blanks in part one with a verb, and in part two with an adjective. The test was accompanied by a self checklist197. The use of the checklist in the fill-in-the-blank task had actually positive advantages to the current study. First the checklist was an instrument used in this study to help learners choose which strategy they used in responding to each item, since open ended questions such as ‗Why did you choose this word?‘ turned out to be impractical and resulted in vague answers by the participants in the pilot study conducted. The checklist contained nine options of strategies that were expected to be used by participants. Besides, an open-ended option orderly the tenth option was added for other strategies which might not appear in the checklist, but, were nevertheless, used by the participants. Second, participants were asked to clarify in a written form as a sort of written verbal report how they employed the strategy they marked in the checklist when responding to each item in an attempt to collect immediate reflections from participants about the strategies they used in filling the blanks at the time of performing the task. The self checklist was presented to participants in their native language ‗Arabic‘ to ensure clarity and understanding (see Appendix 1 for an extract of an English version). The data elicited by the checklist as Dornyei, (2003) sees it, would also help as a retrospective data for the interview, where respondents were to be asked to comment on their responses (p. 130). After completing the first two steps, students were asked to translate the sentences into their native language ‗Arabic‘ (see Appendix 1). The rationale behind asking students to translate the sentences of the fill in the blank task into Arabic could be summarised in the following: 1. It was expected that this step could reflect the participant‘s intended meaning. Thus it would clarify if the student had understood the meaning of the target sentence fully or not. And so it would show if his response in the blank was actually due to a full understanding or misunderstanding of the target sentence. 2. The translation could also help to refresh students‘ memory in the retrospective interview. It might help in reminding them of what they had comprehended of the sentence at the time of performing the test. 3. Because the researchers belong to the same native language as the participants, the translation of the target sentences could help the researchers spot occurrences of native language positive/negative transfer. Besides the written instructions given to students, an example was provided in the instruction page for the students to follow in order to carry out the task (see Appendix 1). 4.3.3. Test two The second test was a translation test. It aimed at eliciting students‘ strategies in translating sentences including collocations from Arabic into English. The translation test consisted of 18 short sentences with collocations. In this task, nine items contained (verb + noun) collocations, and nine items included (adjective + noun) collocations. It was expected that at least, one member of the collocations‘ sequence was known to the participants, so their challenge was to supply the other acceptable collocate. When translating these sentences, the participant either retrieved the correct collocation from their memory, or resorted to any possible means to convey the intended meaning. The test was expected to reveal some strategies that learners might use in order to communicate the meaning of the collocations presented in the give sentences (see Appendix 2). The use of the translation test in search of strategies used by participants had many advantages. Zimmermann and Schneider (1987) pointed out that despite the well-known fact that translating is in many ways an artificial form of L2 communication, at least as compared to everyday conversation, it seems to be the safest source of information about processes of lexical search, more so than reproductive exercises: the original intended meaning is mostly given for the analyst (except for misinterpretations of the source text) therefore (some aspects of ) learners‘ strategies can be pinned down with higher certainty (p.178). 197 ―A self-checklist is a list of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects of the study. The individuals are asked to study the list and then to produce a mark opposite the characteristics they possess or the activities in which they have engaged for a particular length of time. Self-checklists are often used when researchers want students to diagnose or to appraise their own performance.‖ (Fraenkel & Norman 2003:130-131). 576 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Furthermore, in the translation test, the avoidance strategy could be easily identified. Blum & Levenston (1978) maintained that ―comparison of interlanguage usage, for instance, with expected nativespeaker usage in the same context- or of target language with source language in the case of translation- will show what is avoided‖ (p.401). On the other hand, when learners perform translation tasks, the influence of their mother tongue could largely be observed (Bahns,1993; Bahns &Eldaw, 1993; Farghal& Obiedat, 1995). The rationale behind selecting two types of collocations (verb + noun) and (adjective + noun) to be the target lexical collocations of this study was two-fold. First, these types of collocations were regarded as the most common types of collocations in English (Newmark, 1988; Lewis, 1997b). Second, the current study hopes that applying two common types of collocations could broaden the scope of our understanding of learners‘ use of strategies in the production of English lexical collocations, in an attempt to take one step forward to other studies which had focused on (verb + noun) collocations, Bahns & Eldaw (1993), Howarth, (1998), Al-Zahrani (1998), Bonk (2000), Nesselhauf (2003) and, Zughoul & Abdel Fattah (2003) to measure learners knowledge of English lexical collocations. Because the one aim of this study was to identify and describe strategies used by the participants of this study in producing English lexical collocations, the results of both tasks and both types of collocations were collapsed under the major category of English lexical collocations. Thus, the taxonomy developed, and the results obtained represented all strategies identified from all the tasks of both types of collocations used in this study. 4.3.4. Interviews The aim of conducting interviews with the participants of the study was to collect qualitative data about participants‘ use of strategies in the production of English lexical collocations. Retrospective interviews were the type of interview selected for this study because ―it is used primarily in an attempt to explore learners‘ thought processes and strategies by asking learners to reflect on their thoughts after they have carried out a predetermined activity‖ (Gass & Mackey, 2000:37-38). Poulisse, Bongaerts and Kellerman (1987), maintain that retrospection plays a very important role in the identification of compensation strategies (CpS), (the term the researchers used to specify a type of communication strategy by excluding reduction strategies). To them, in addition to providing independent support for the identification of communication strategies, students‘ retrospective comments helped them to identify CpS which would otherwise have remained unnoticed. Furthermore, they revealed CpS which were incorrectly identified as CpS. 4.3.5. Procedures As for the fill-in-the-blank test, written instructions, and an example of how to carry out the test were provided in the first page. In addition, instructions were read aloud to the participants. Oral explanations were also given both in English and Arabic concerning the strategies checklist to ensure full understanding on the part of participants. Participants were asked to follow the steps given in the instruction sheet and were encouraged to supply their written verbal report in the checklist. Participants were not allowed to use any dictionary as they were taking the tests. With regard to the translation test, students were asked to translate the given sentences from Arabic into English. After the tests were completed, one of the researchers started conducting the retrospective interviews. Because participants in the interviews were asked to clarify what strategy they had used in the given tasks, all the interviews were conducted in Arabic, the native language of the participants. Strategies were identified by investigating all items of both tests whether the participant produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations. 4.4. Method of analysis Before scoring participants‘ responses in the production of collocations in the given tasks, a criterion needed to be established upon which the judgment of the acceptability of collocations produced by participants was made. In judging the acceptability of collocations produced, three types of sources were used to determine whether each combination produced by the participants was acceptable or unacceptable. They were specialised dictionaries of English collocations, native speakers responses, and the Cobuild Concordance Sampler. To this 577 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo end, all collocations produced by participants in the production tasks were rated for acceptability according to the following criterion: 1. Dictionaries‘ consultation: In an attempt to ensure the accuracy of the judgments of all the responses produced by the participants in producing English lexical collocations, four specialized dictionaries of collocations were consulted to determine whether the collocations produced were acceptable or unacceptable. They included; - The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations (Benson, et al., 1997) - Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2002). - LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997). - DAR El-ILM‘S Dictionary of Collocations (2007) 2. Native speakers‘ responses: To achieve this aim, in the fill-in-the-blank-task, three native speakers of English, (see Table 2) were invited to provide all the possible responses that are acceptable for native speakers to use in their variety of English. One of them was a bilingual native speaker of English (American) who had learned Arabic, and so he was also invited to provide his responses for the translation task. Native speakers responses were used by the researchers as a data base to validate the judgment of the acceptability of students‘ collocations in both tasks if the collocations produced by participants did not appear in the four dictionaries above. No. 1. 2. 3. Table 2: Native speakers participated in the study Nationality Qualification Major British M.A. Applied Linguistics American M.A. TESOL American M.A. TESOL 3. Corpus Concordance Sampler Another source for validating the acceptability of collocations produced by students in the case if the response did not appear in all the sources above was by consulting Corpus Concordance Sampler. The Corpus Concordance Sampler belongs to the Collins Word-bank Online English corpus198. In judging the acceptability of collocations used, there were a number of important considerations that had to be taken into account. The combinations of (verb + noun) and (adjective + noun) were considered acceptable if they occurred in the participant‘s production as identical as those combinations that appeared in the sources of the acceptability‘s judgment. A combination was regarded identical if it occurred in the same form (verb + noun, OR adjective + noun), in the same sense (i.e., the intended meaning of the sentence given in the production task) as that which appeared in sources of validity in the acceptability‘s criteria mentioned above. Because the acceptability criteria, in this study, focused on syntagmatic, lexical, and semantic features of the produced combinations, deviation in tense aspect, and spelling mistakes were disregarded. For example, in the case of tense aspect, if the participant used the collocation ‗did a favour‘ instead of what the sentence required ‗do a favour‘ the collocation was regarded acceptable on the lexical and semantic level. Here the participant‘s deviation is grammatical rather than lexical or semantic deviation. After classifying responses to acceptable or unacceptable collocations for each item produced by participants, they were scored as follows: - Correct responses (acceptable collocations) were given (1) mark, whereas - incorrect responses (unacceptable collocations) were given (0) marks. After scoring students‘ responses in the tests given, whether they produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations, a qualitative analysis of the data was processed to identify strategies used by each participant in each item. The researcher observed the following data sources in both tasks to decide what strategy the participant used in each item whether the lexical item or combination of lexical items produced formed acceptable or unacceptable collocations: Fill-in-the-blank Task 198 The corpus is composed of 56 million words of contemporary written and spoken text. It covers corpora from British books, radio, newspapers, and magazines, American books, and radio, and British transcribed speech. To search for collocations in the Corpus Concordance Sampler, the facility provides up to 100 of the statistically most significant collocates for the consulted word. It also provides 40 lines of concordance for the focused word in authentic utterances derived from sources mentioned earlier. (http://www.collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx) 578 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Participants‘ responses in the blanks. Participants‘ selection of strategies from the checklist. Participants‘ immediate written verbal reports on each item. Participants‘ translation of the collocations in the given sentence. Participants‘ reflections on their responses in the interview. Researchers' review of related literature taxonomies of strategies. Translation Task: 1. The participants‘ responses. 2. Participants‘ contextual information of the written translation sentences. 3. Participants‘ reflections on their responses in the interview. 4. Researchers' review of related literature taxonomies of strategies. After investigating data qualitatively, strategies were identified. These strategies were numbered to facilitate data analysis. The strategies identified were then categorised under five major categories in a taxonomy. Finally, quantitative analysis was then carried out to provide the frequency and percentage of each strategy used in the data whether participants produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations. 5. Discussion of the Results 5.1. Participants‘ production of collocations in the elicitation tasks In the quantitative analysis of participants‘ responses, the number of acceptable collocations and the number of unacceptable collocations for each item responded by the participants was counted. As for the participants‘ overall performance in the elicitation tasks, Table 3 shows that out of a total of 1200 items responded by the participants of the study, only 369 (30.75%) responses resulted in acceptable collocations, and 831 (69.25%) produced unacceptable collocations. Table 3 Participants‘ overall production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations Students‘ production of collocations Students‘ Acceptable Unacceptable Total proficiency level collocations collocations No. % No. % No. % Low 110 9.17 490 40.83 High 259 21.58 341 28.42 Grand Total 369 30.75 831 69.25 1200 100 Figure 1: Participants‘ overall production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations To gain a clearer picture of each group‘s performance, Tables 4 and 5 display the results obtained from the elicitation tasks of this study. Considering that each group produced 600 responses with a total of 1200 responses for both groups, results revealed that both high and low proficiency students encountered difficulties in the production of acceptable English lexical collocations. However, as shown in Table 4, high proficiency students (HPS) produced more acceptable collocations compared to low proficiency students (LPS). Table 4: High proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations High proficiency students Task Acceptable Unacceptable Total collocations collocations 579 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo No. % No. % No. % 95 52.8 85 47.2 180 100 78 52 72 48 150 100 51 37,8 84 62.2 135 100 35 25.9 100 74.1 135 100 259 43.2 341 56.8 600 100 Fill-in-the-blanks verb + noun Fill-in-the-blanks Adjective + noun Translation verb + noun Translation Adjective + noun Grand Total Table 5 Low proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations Low proficiency students Acceptable Unacceptable Task Total collocations collocations No. % No. % No. % Fill-in-the-blanks 50 27.8 130 72.2 180 100 verb + noun Fill-in-the-blanks 29 19.3 121 80.7 150 100 Adjective + noun Translation 11 8.1 124 91.9 135 100 verb + noun Translation 20 14.8 115 85.2 135 100 Adjective + noun Grand Total 110 18.3 490 81.7 600 100 With regard to the elicitation tasks used in this study, Tables 4 and 5 also show that participants had more difficulties in producing English collocations in the translation task than in the fill-in-the-blank task. A possible explanation of this result is that in the translation task participants were required to produce the whole verb + noun, and adjective + noun English collocations, whereas in the fill-in-the-blank task they were required to supply only a single lexical item whether a verb or an adjective which collocates with the already existing noun in the given sentence. Therefore, while they were required to supply only 50% of the collocation in the fillin-the-blank task, they were asked to provide 100% of the collocation in the translation task. That is probably why their performance in the fill-in-the-blank task outdid that in a more demanding task such as the translation task. In general, Figure 2 shows that HPS produced 259 (43.17%) acceptable collocations, whereas LPS produced only 110 (18.33%) responses containing acceptable collocations. These results are also in line with earlier studies such as Al-Zahrani (1998); Lui (2000) which suggest that learners‘ knowledge of collocations may increase as their proficiency level advances. 580 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 2: High and Low proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations 5.2. Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing English lexical collocations Participants‘ overall use of strategies in the production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations for each subcategory as well as the major categories was computed by carrying out a frequency and percentage count. The data under investigation yielded a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies used by the participants of the study. It must be noted that the total number of strategies used was higher than the total number of items produced by the participants of this study because some participants used two and sometimes three strategies in their attempt to produce one response. In this respect, Paribakht (1985) maintains that ―very often a subject‘s statement contained several CS[communication strategies]. That is, they occurred within the framework of another CS. Each of these embedded strategies has been regarded a separate entry ‖ (p. 134-135). Following Paribakht (Ibid.), in this study, if an item elicited two or three strategies, each occurrence was counted within its separate subcategory. Frequency of occurrences and percentages of strategies were calculated along the five major categories of strategies of the developed taxonomy of this study. These major categories included the ‗retrieval strategy‘, ‗L1 based strategies‘, ‗L2 based strategies‘, ‗reduction strategies‘, and ‗test-taking strategies‘. Results of each major category are presented next. 5.2.1. Retrieval strategy The first major category is the ‗retrieval strategy‘. This strategy was used in 179 (12.55%) occurrences to produce acceptable English lexical collocations, and not occurring at all in producing unacceptable collocations (see Table 6). Table 6 Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of the‘ retrieval strategy‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations Retrieval Strategy Retrieval Total Grand Total Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations f % 179 12.55 179 / 12.55 % Collocations F % 0 0 1426 / 100% Frequency/Percentage 5.2.2. L1 based strategies The second major category in the taxonomy is ‗L1 based strategies‘. This category comprises 10 L1 based strategies (see Table 7). Strategies under this category occurred 425 times ( 29.80%) out of a total of 1426 occurrences, of which they occurred 99 times (6.94%) in producing acceptable collocations, and 326 times (22.86%) in producing unacceptable collocations. In the production of acceptable collocations in this major category, four subcategories were employed by the participants of the current study. The most used strategy was ‗positive transfer‘ which occurred 77 times (5.40%) indicating its popularity, followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 16 times (1.12%) , and 581 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo finally the least used strategies both ‗use of L1 non standard lexical items‘ and ‗L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred three times (0.21%) each. Table 7: Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations L1 based Strategies Negative transfer Positive transfer L1 synonyms L1 figurative expressions L1 Non-standard use Language switch Overextension of L1 lexical items Use of L1 related concepts L1 & L2 Phonemic similarities L1 paraphrase Subtotal Total Frequency/percentage Grand total frequency/ percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations f % 0 0 77 5.40 16 1.12 0 0 3 0.21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0.21 99 6.94 425 / 29.80 % 1426 / 100% Collocations F % 140 9.82 24 1.68 62 4.35 3 0.21 16 1.12 2 0.14 11 0.77 5 0.35 5 0.35 58 4.07 326 22.86 As for the production of unacceptable collocations, participants used all subcategories in this major category. The most frequent subcategory was ‗negative transfer‘ which occurred 140 times (9.82%), followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 62 times (4.35%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ with 58 (4.07%) occurrences. The least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations were ‗language switch‘ which was used only twice (0.14%), ‗use of L1 figurative language‘ which occurred three times (0.21%), and ‗use of L1 related concepts‘ and, ‗L1 and L2 phonemic similarities‘ which both occurred five times (0.35%) each. Other strategies were in mid-position as displayed in Table 7. 5.2.3. L2 based strategies The third major category in the taxonomy is ‗L2 based strategies‘. This category comprises the largest number of subcategories, which includes 15 subcategories. In this category, 578 (40.53%) occurrences of L2 based strategies were employed by participants, of which 141 (9.89%) of the occurrences resulted in the production of acceptable collocations. On the contrary, and occurring with a high frequency, 437 (30.65%) of the occurrences produced unacceptable collocations. Table 8 below illustrates participants‘ use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable collocations. In this category, 11 strategies were used by participants in the production of acceptable collocations. Among all the subcategories listed in Table 8, the strategy of ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ occurred with the highest frequency. Out of a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies, 71 (4.98%) occurrences of this strategy produced acceptable collocations. Strategies that ranked second in this category were ‗use of L2 synonyms‘, and ‗approximation‘ which both occurred 21 times (1.47%). The strategies that were used least in producing acceptable collocations in this category were ‗ use of L2 idioms‘, ‗ use of physical description‘ which each occurred once (0.07%) in the data, followed by ‗relying on grammatical clues‘ which occurred twice(0.14%). Next in frequency in this category were ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred three times each (0.21%). Strategies that did not occur at all in the production of acceptable collocations were ‗word coinage‘, ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗overextension of L2 lexical items‘, and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘. The remaining strategies‘ in this category occurred with relatively low frequencies (see Table 8). 582 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 8:Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations L2 based Strategies Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations Collocations f L2 synonyms L2 paraphrase L2 common & de-lexicalized words Word coinage L2 Negation L2 Antonyms L2 figurative expressions L2 Derivation Approximation L2 physical description L2 grammatical clues Overextension of L2 lexical items Use of an L2 different word class L2 learning & personal experience L2 Idioms Subtotal Total Frequency/percentage Grand total frequency/ percentage % 21 1.47 3 0.21 71 4.98 0 0 5 0.35 7 0.49 0 0 3 0.21 21 1.47 1 0.07 2 0.14 0 0 0 0 6 0.42 1 0.07 141 9.89 578 / 40.53% 1426 / 100% F 36 88 150 7 10 4 3 0 65 8 7 5 45 9 0 437 % 2.52 6.17 10.52 0.49 0.70 0.28 0.21 0 4.56 0.56 0.49 0.35 3.16 0.63 0 30.65 In producing unacceptable collocations, however, participants used 13 strategies in this major category. The strategy which occurred with the highest frequency was again ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, which occurred 150 times (10.52%), followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 88 times (6.17%), and ‗approximation‘ which occurred 65 times(4.56%), followed by ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ occurring 45 times(3.16%). The least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations were ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘ with three occurrences (0.21%), ‗use of L2 antonyms‘ with four occurrences (0.28%) and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘ with five occurrences (0.35%). Two strategies were not used in this major category in the production of unacceptable collocations, ‗ use of L2 derivation‘ and ‗use of L2 idioms‘ Other strategies did not occur with a very high frequency either (see Table 8). 5.2.4. Reduction strategies The fourth major category in the taxonomy is ‗reduction strategies‘. It comprises three subcategories ‗total avoidance‘, ‗use of irrelevant lexical item‘, and ‗message abandonment‘. All three subcategories occurred 205 times (14.38%) in the production of unacceptable collocations only. None had occurred in the production of acceptable collocations. Two of the subcategories in this category occurred with a relatively high frequency, they were ‗total avoidance‘ which occurred 85 times (5.96%), and ‗use of irrelevant lexical item‘ with 99 times (6.94%) of occurrence. On the other hand, ‗message abandonment‘ occurred 21 times (1.47%) with a relatively low occurrence compared to the other two strategies. Table 9 shows frequencies and percentages of strategies used under this category in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations. 583 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 9:Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗reduction strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocation Reduction Strategies Total Avoidance Use of an irrelevant lexical items Message Abandonment Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand total: frequency/percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations No. % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 205 / 14.38 % 1426 / 100% Collocations No. 85 99 21 205 % 5.96 6.94 1.47 14.38 5.2.5. Test-taking strategies The fifth major category in the taxonomy deals with ‗test-taking strategies‘. It includes two subcategories ‗use of words that appeared earlier in the task‘, and ‗use of contextual information‘. Strategies under this category were used 39 times (2.73%). The strategy of ‗use of words that appeared earlier in the task‘ had not occurred in the production of acceptable collocations, but was employed four times (0.28%) in producing unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, use of contextual information occurred 16 times ( 1.12%), in the production of acceptable collocations, and 19 times (1.33%) in the production of unacceptable collocations (see Table 10). Table 10 Frequency and percentage of of participants‘ overall use of ‗ test-taking strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations Test - taking Strategies Use of words that appeared earlier in the task Use of contextual information Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand total: frequency/percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations No. % 0 0 16 1.12 16 1.12 39 / 2.73 % 1426 / 100% Collocations No. % 4 0.28 19 1.33 23 1.61 5.2.6. Participants‘ overall use of the major categories of strategies in producing English lexical collocations To summarize the results displayed earlier in this section, Table 11 shows all five major categories‘ frequency of occurrences and their percentages. Out of a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies, ‗retrieval‘ occurred 179 times (12.55%) in producing acceptable collocations only, none had occurred in the production of unacceptable collocations. ‗L1 based strategies‘ occurred with a frequency of 99 times (6.94%) in producing acceptable collocations, and 326 times (22.86%) in producing unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, ‗L2 based strategies‘ occurred with a high percentage in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. It occurred with a frequency of 141 times (9.89%) in the production of acceptable collocations, and 437 times (30.65%) in the production of unacceptable collocations. On the contrary, ‗reduction strategies‘ occurred only in the production of unacceptable collocations with a frequency of 205 times (14.38%). ‗Test- taking strategies‘ were the least used strategies in both the production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations. They occurred 16 times (1.12%) in the production of acceptable collocations, and 23 times (1.61%) in the production of unacceptable collocations. Table 11 An overall frequency and percentage‘s count of the major categories of strategies used by the participants in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations 584 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies Retrieval L1 based strategies L2 based strategies Reduction strategies Test-taking strategies Subtotal Total Participants strategy use Acceptable Collocations Unacceptable Collocations No. % No. % 179 12.55 0 0 99 6.94 326 22.86 141 9.89 437 30.65 0 0 205 14.38 16 1.12 23 1.61 435 30.50 991 69.50 1426 / 100 % Figure 3. A comparison between frequencies resulted from participants‘ use of the major categories of strategies in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations. Figure 3 shows that more strategies were employed in producing unacceptable collocations compared to those which produced acceptable collocations. In producing acceptable collocations, the ‗retrieval strategy‘ ranked first, ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ ranked third, ‗test-taking strategies‘ ranked fourth, and the ‗reduction strategies‘ did not occur at all in the production of acceptable collocations. In producing unacceptable collocations, however, ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked first, followed by ‗L1 based strategies‘, ‗reduction strategies‘ ranked third, ‗test- taking strategies‘ ranked fourth, whereas ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. 5.2.7. Frequency and percentage of participants‘ use of strategies with reference to their proficiency level in producing English lexical collocations The results of this study showed variations in the performance of the participants. The subcategories within each major category varied in their frequency of occurrence in two dimensions. First, they varied with regard to the frequency of occurrence among subcategories used by the same group. Second, they differed with regard to the difference between both groups in employing strategies categorized in each major category. To give an overview of data, high proficiency level students (HPS) employed a total of 715 strategies, whereas low proficiency students (LPS) used a total of 711 strategies in producing English lexical collocations. A detailed description of each group‘s performance is presented in the next section. 5.2.7.1. Retrieval strategy The first major category in the taxonomy was the ‗retrieval strategy. As stated earlier, this strategy was only used in the production of acceptable collocations, and was not used at all by both groups in the production of unacceptable collocations (see Table 12). As for the two groups of participants use of this category, HPS used this strategy 145 times (20.28%), whereas LPS used it 34 times (4.78%) in the production of acceptable collocation. This indicates that LPS with apparently a smaller inventory of L2 vocabulary used ‗retrieval‘ with a low frequency compared to the HPS who probably possess a larger size of L2 vocabulary. 585 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 12. A comparison of the Frequency and percentage of the retrieval strategy used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations HPS Retrieval Strategy Acceptable Collocations Retrieval Total Grand Total F % f 145 20.28 0 145 / 20.28 % 715 / 100% LPS Unacceptable Collocations Acceptable Collocations % Unacceptable Collocations f % 34 4.78 34 / 4.78 % 711 / 100% 0 f % 0 0 5.2.7.2. L1 based strategies The results showed that both groups used ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the production of collocations (see Table 13). Out of a total of 715 occurrences of strategies used by HPS, 221 (30.91%) ‗L1 based strategies‘ were employed by HPS, of which 62 occurrences (8.67%) produced acceptable collocations, and 159 occurrences (22.24%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, LPS used ‗L1 based strategies‘ 204 times (28.69 %) of which 37 occurrences (5.20%) produced acceptable collocations, and 167 occurrences (23.49%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. A closer look at each group‘s use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the production of collocations is presented in the following section. Table 13 A comparison of the frequency and percentage of the ‗L1 based strategies‘ used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations Acceptable HPS Unacceptable Acceptable LPS Unacceptable L1 based Strategies Negative transfer Collocations f % 0 0 Collocations f % 68 9.51 Positive transfer 47 6.57 11 1. 54 L 1 synonyms 11 1.54 35 4.90 L1 figurative expressions L1 Non standard use of lexical items Language switch Overextension of L1 lexical items Use of L1 related concepts L1 & L2 phonemic similarities L1 paraphrase 0 0 1 0.14 1 0.14 4 0.56 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand Total Collocations f % 72 10.13 0 Collocations f % 0 0 4.2 30 2 0.7 5 0 0 0 0.2 2 8 0 0 10 1.40 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 0.42 62 8.67 13 1.83 27 3.80 2 0.28 12 1.69 2 0.28 0 1 0.14 0 0 5 0.70 0.56 0 0 1 0.14 26 3.64 0 32 4.50 159 22.24 37 0 5.2 0 167 23.49 221 /30.91 % 204 / 28.69 % 715 / 100 % 711 / 100 % As shown in Table 13, out of the 10 subcategories of strategies in this major category, HPS used only four strategies in producing acceptable collocations. They were ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which occurred 47 times (6.57%), ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ occurred 11 times (1.54%), ‗use of L1 nonstandard lexical items‘ which occurred only once (0.14%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase occurred three times 586 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (0.42%). This indicates that ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy by HPS in the production of acceptable collocations, whereas, ‗use of ‗L1 non-standard lexical items‘ was the least used by HPS in the production of acceptable collocations. In contrast, in the production of unacceptable collocations, HPS used 8 out of 10 of the strategies in this category. The two remaining unused strategies were ‗language switch‘, and ‗use of L1 related concepts‘. As for the eight used strategies, the most used strategy in the production of unacceptable collocations was ‗negative transfer of an L1 single lexical item‘ which occurred 68 times (9.51%), followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ with an occurrence of 35 times (4.90%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred 26 times (3.64%). Among the least used strategies in producing unacceptable collocations, were ‗use of L1 figurative expressions‘ which occurred once (0.14%), ‗use of L1 non-standard lexical items‘, and ‗use of L1 & L2 phonemic similarities‘ which both occurred four times (0.56%). The overall use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ by HPS indicates these strategies‘ high occurrence in their production of unacceptable collocations. The performance of LPS in the production of lexical collocations with regard to use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ major category to produce acceptable collocations did not vary greatly than that of HPS. A closer look at Table 23 shows that LPS used only three strategies in the production of acceptable collocations. They were ‗ use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which occurred 30 times (4.22 %), ‗ use of L 1 synonyms‘ occurred 5 times (0.70%), ‗ use of L1 non-standard lexical items‘ twice (0.28%). Other strategies were not used at all by LPS in the production of acceptable collocations. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, LPS used all strategies in this category. Strategies in this category varied in their frequency of occurrence as shown in Table 14. For example, the strategy of ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy with a frequency of 72 occurrences (10.13%), followed by ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred 32 times (4.50%), next in frequency was ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 27 times (3.80%). The least used strategies, however, were ‗ use of L1 & L2 phonemic similarities‘, ‗over-extension of L1 lexical items‘, which occurred once each(0.14%), followed by ‗ language switch‘ and ‗ use of L1 figurative expressions‘ which occurred twice each(0.28%). The remaining strategies were in mid-position between the highlighted subcategories. Table 13 also shows that HPS and LPS did not vary greatly in their use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ with regard to the total number of strategies used by each group in this category. Nevertheless, results suggest that HPS were relatively more successful users of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the productions of acceptable collocations with 62 occurrences (8.67%) compared to the LPS who used them 37 times (5.20 %). The most successful strategy in the production of acceptable collocations in this category was ‗positive transfer of an L1 single lexical item‘ which was used by the HPS 47 times (6.57%), and 30 times (4.22%) by the LPS. With regard to the production of unacceptable collocations, however, both groups had employed strategies in this major category with a relatively high frequency. For example, HPS used ‗L1 based strategies‘ 159 times (22.24%), and LPS employed them 167 times(23.49%). The strategy used most by both groups in the production of unacceptable collocations was ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which was used by HPS with a frequency of 68 occurrences (9.51%), and by the LPS 72 times (10.13%) indicating its common use among both groups. 5.2.7.3. L2 base strategies In employing strategies in this major category, both groups used most of the strategies listed in Table 14. Out of a total of 715 occurrences of strategies used by HPS, 293 occurrences (40.98%) of ‗L2 based strategies‘ were employed of which 92 occurrences (12.87%) produced acceptable collocations, and 201 occurrences (28.11%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, out of a total of 711 occurrences of strategies used by LPS in this study, ‗L2 based strategies‘ were used 285 times (40.08 %) of which 49 occurrences (6.89%) produced acceptable collocations, and 236 occurrences (33.19%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. In the production of acceptable collocations, the HPS used 11 subcategories in this major category. The strategies that were used most in the production of acceptable collocations by HPS were ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 39 times (5.45%), followed in frequency by ‗approximation‘ which occurred 15 times (2.10%), next in frequency was the‗ use of L2 synonyms‘ which occurred 14 times (1.96%). The least used strategies, however, were ‗use of L2 idioms‘ and ‗use of physical description‘ which both occurred once (0.14%) followed by, ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ both of which occurred 3 times (0.42%). The remaining strategies, as shown in Table 14, did not occur with high frequency of occurrence either. Some strategies were not used at all, such as ‗word coinage‘, ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗relying on L2 grammatical clues‘, ‗use of an L2 different word class‘, and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘. 587 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HPS used ‗L2 based strategies‘ also in the production of unacceptable collocations but with a higher ratio. All strategies in this category were used except ‗use of L2 idioms‘ which did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. With regard to the most used strategies in this section, ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, ranked first with a frequency of 64 times of occurrences (8.95%), followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 32 times (4.48%), ‗use of L2 synonyms‘ occurred 22 times (3.08%), and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ which occurred 21 times (2.94%). Among the least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations, HPS used ‗relying on L2 grammatical clues‘ only once (0.14%), ‗use of L2 negation‘, ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, and ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘ 3 times (0.42%) each. Other strategies frequencies of occurrence and percentage appear in Table 14. In producing acceptable collocations, LPS used 6 out of 15 strategies in this category, other strategies were not used at all (see Table 14). Out of a total of 711 occurrences of strategies employed by LPS, the strategy that was used most in the production of acceptable collocations by LPS was ‗use of common words and delexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 32 times (4.50%). The least used strategies were ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, and ‗recalling from an L2 learning and personal experience‘ which occurred only once (0.14%) each, and ‗relying on grammatical clues‘ which occurred twice (0.28%). Other strategies occurred with low frequency in this category, such as ‗use of L2 synonyms‘ which occurred 7 times (0.98%), and ‗approximation‘ which occurred 6 times (0.7%). In producing acceptable collocations, LPS used ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a relatively low frequency with a total number of 49 occurrences (6.89%) of strategies used in this category. Table 14 A comparison of the frequency and percentage of the ‗L2 based strategies‘ used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations Acceptable HPS Unacceptable Acceptable LPS Unacceptable L2 based Strategies L2 synonyms L2 paraphrase L2 common and delexicalized words Word coinage L2 Negation L2 Antonyms L2 figurative expressions L2 derivation Approximation L2 physical description L2 grammatical clues Overextension of L2 lexical items Use of an L2 different word class L2 learning & personal experience L2 idioms Subtotal Total: Frequency / percentage Grand Total Collocations f % 14 1.96 3 0.42 Collocations f % 22 3.08 32 4.48 Collocations f % 7 0.98 0 0 Collocations f % 14 1.97 56 7.88 39 5.45 64 8.95 32 4.50 86 12.10 0 5 6 0 3 15 1 0 0 0.70 0.84 0 0.42 2.10 0.14 0 4 3 3 3 0 30 7 1 0.56 0.42 0.42 0.42 0 4.20 0.98 0.14 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0.14 0 0 0.84 0 0.28 3 7 1 0 0 35 1 6 0.42 0.98 0.14 0 0 4.92 0.14 0.84 0 0 4 0.56 0 0 1 0.14 0 0 21 2.94 0 0 24 3.38 5 0.70 7 0.98 1 0.14 2 0.28 1 92 0.14 12.87 0 201 0 28.11 0 49 0 6.89 0 236 0 33.19 293 / 40.98 % 285 / 40.08 % 715 / 100% 711 / 100% In producing unacceptable collocations by LPS, results revealed that strategies used in ‗L2 based strategies‘ category varied in their frequency of occurrence as shown in Table 14. They also indicate that most strategies in this category were used by LPS except the strategies of ‗use of L2 idioms‘, ‗L2 derivation‘, ‗L2 figurative expressions‘ which did not occur at all. Out of 711 strategies used by LPS, the most used strategy in 588 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo this category was ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 86 times (12.10%). Next in frequency of occurrence was ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 56 times (7.88%), followed by ‗approximation‘ with an occurrence of 35 times (4.92%), and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ which occurred 24 times (3.38%). In contrast, the least used strategies were ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, ‗use of L2 physical description‘, and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘ all of which occurred once (0.14%), followed by ‗recalling from an L2 learning and personal experience‘ which occurred twice (0.28%), and word coinage which occurred 3 times (0.42%). The remaining strategies occurred in mid position as shown in Table 14. Results in Table 14, also indicate that both groups did not differ greatly in their use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in general as they were employed by HPS 293 times (40.98%), and by LPS 285 times (40.08%). However, they did differ in their frequency of use on subcategory‘s level and on the bases of the acceptability of the collocations used. In general, in producing acceptable collocations, HPS were more successful users of ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a frequency of 92 occurrences (12.87%), compared to LPS which used them 49 times (6.89%). HPS also used more of the subcategories in this major category than the LPS. In producing unacceptable collocations, however, both groups used ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a relatively high frequency, as they were used by the HPS 201 times (28.11%), and by the LPS 236 times (33.19%). Results also suggest that the most used strategy by both groups in producing acceptable and unacceptable collocations was ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘. Some strategies were used by one group only, such as ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 idioms‘ which were used by the HPS only. Table 14 shows how the frequency of occurrences within subcategories in this major category varied between the two groups. 6. Conclusion The results of this study reveal that in the production of unacceptable collocations HPS, use of the major categories followed this order: first, ‗L2 based strategies‘, second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ third, ‗reduction strategies‘, and last, ‗test-taking strategies‘ whereas the ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all. On the other hand, the use of LPS of strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations had the following order: ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked first, ‗reduction strategies‘ ranked second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ which ranked third, and ‗test-taking strategies‘ in final position, whereas the ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. Though some studies admitted that most of learners‘ collocational errors could be attributable to negative transfer from their L1 which is the only resource from which learners can rely upon (Bahns & Eldo, 1993; Bahns, 1993; Farghal & Obiedat, 1995; Huang, 2001, Zughoul & Abdul-Fattah, 2001, 2003; Nesselhauf, 2003), the results obtained in this study revealed that there are other intralingual factors that resulted in learners‘ collocational errors. This was manifested in participants‘ use of more ‗L2 based strategies‘ than ‗L1 based strategies‘ in producing unacceptable collocations. In this regard the results of this study supported the findings reached by Wang & Shaw (2008) which suggested that not only L1 transfer was responsible of learners‘ collocational problems but also there are other intralingual factors. Furthermore, the results of this study showed that both groups relied on ‗L2 based strategies‘ more often than ‗L1 based strategies‘, in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. It must be noted that in these major categories of strategies there were one or more subcategories that were used with a higher ratio than the other existing subcategories. Some strategies were more dominant than others in each category. For example, in employing ‗L2 based strategies‘, the most common strategy used by both groups was ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘, and ‗approximation‘ respectively. In the major category of ‗L1 based strategies‘, on the other hand, the strategy of ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy by both groups in the production of acceptable collocations. In the production of unacceptable collocations, however, the strategy of ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the strategy that was used most by both groups. Such strategy choices made by learners could be a reflection of their teachers‘ teaching practices of simplifying the new vocabulary introduced through probably using strategies such as ‗L1 transfer‘ ‗used of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ ‗approximation‘, and ‗paraphrase‘. It is well known that collocational strategies (CSs) are used with the primary goal to compensate for inadequacies resulting from a limited L2 linguistic system to promote communication especially in L2 oral language production. For this reason, researchers investigating learners‘ language oral production called for teaching them in order to encourage learners‘ communication in L2. In this regard, the results of this study 589 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo revealed that both high and low proficiency students drew on almost similar strategies in producing acceptable or unacceptable collocations in terms of the type of strategy chosen. This suggests that learners from both groups of different proficiency levels share certain ability that is referred to as ‗strategic competence‘. HPS though did not differ greatly on their choice of strategies than LPS, they differed with regard to the frequencies of occurrences of most of the strategies used particularly in the production of acceptable collocations. This finding suggests that higher proficiency level could promote learners‘ production of acceptable collocations. Based on this finding, it can be inferred that in the area of collocational production, CSs teaching may not enhance learners‘ production of acceptable collocations, whereas explicit teaching of English lexical collocations could hopefully improve learners‘ production of acceptable collocations. In this sense, this study strongly supports Bialystok‘s (1990) view that: The more language the learner knows, the more possibilities exist for the system to be flexible and adjust itself to meet the demands of the learner. What one must teach students of a language is not strategy, but language. (p. 147) 7. Pedagogical Implications and Recommendations for Teaching English Lexical Collocations for EFL learners In this study, a taxonomy of CSs employed by the participants of this study was developed. This taxonomy could serve as a useful tool to teachers in understanding their students‘ performance when seeking to produce English lexical collocations. Such a taxonomy, as well as, the quantitative results of this study may assist teachers to emphasise areas of strength that may help students‘ produce acceptable collocations. It may also direct teachers to discourage those ineffective strategies such as ‗reduction strategies‘ that lead to the production of unacceptable collocations. Since the retrieval strategy turned out to be effective in the production of acceptable collocations, it is advisable to find ways to enhance learners‘ ability to retrieve acceptable English collocations. To this end, early exposure to collocations is recommended from the earliest stages of L2 learning (Lewis, 1993; Hill, 2000). To achieve this, collocations should be introduced through intensive reading and listening programmes at the earliest stages of L2 learning to provide an L2 collocational input which may later lead to an output on the part of learners. In this respect, Hill (2000) maintains that ―what the language learners are exposed to from the earliest stages is crucial. Good quality input should lead to good quality retrieval‖ (p. 54). Therefore, when L2 vocabulary items are first introduced to learners they must be presented with their frequent partners in their L2 typical use. Such partnership between lexical items should be stressed as early as possible. Hence, learners would hopefully recognise such partnerships whenever they encounter them, thus they may learn and later retrieve them as whole chunks. The results of this study also revealed that participants overused employing a specific subcategory of ‗L2 based strategies‘, i.e., ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ with high frequency compared to other ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. Based on Lewis, Morgan (2000), and Hill (2000 ) view about using the language that learners already have to extend their collocational competence, it is recommended that learners are introduced to already known common verbs and adjectives together with their frequent noun collocates (Lewis, 1993). For example, it is advisable to introduce de-lexicalised verbs such as make, do, have, get, take, give ,and put, or common adjectives such as, great, full, complete, quick, little, big, large, strong, good, and bad with a wide range of their noun collocates. Hence, students will be encouraged to explore the collocational ranges of such common verbs or adjectives and then practise them in their typical use. In this sense, students‘ attention must be drawn to consider that ―learning more vocabulary is not just learning new words, it is often learning familiar words in new combinations‖ (Woolard, 2000, p. 31). Students‘ attention should also be drawn to L2 collocational restrictions between lexical cooccurrences. Such collocational restrictions impose limitations on their substitution by other lexical items. Students must be directed that semantically compatible lexical items are not necessarily collocationally interchangeable. Although synonyms are words with mostly similar meanings, they may not be substituted one for another in some contexts. Hence, students need to have adequate knowledge of the L2 lexicon particularly with sense relations. Recognition of paradigmatic as well as syntagmatic relations of the target language promotes their use of such ‗L2 based strategies‘ in the production of acceptable collocations. By the same token, students may substitute de-lexicalised words which relatively carry little meanings in themselves unaware that each word may have a different collocational range. Therefore, it is recommended that such L2 collocational 590 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo restrictions be explicitly taught. Furthermore, special emphasis should be given to restricted collocations, for they may pass unnoticed by learners during traditional vocabulary teaching classes. Students ought to be directed towards noticing and recording such combinations to observe their collocational ranges in different L2 contexts. Hence, this would encourage learners‘ independence for exploring this important area of L2 lexicon. Results also revealed that participants of this study relied heavily on their ‗L1 based strategies‘ to provide responses to the given tasks in the production of both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The predominant strategy that produced acceptable collocations was that of ‗use of positive transfer of a single lexical item‘, whereas ‗use of negative transfer of a single lexical item‘ was the prevailing strategy that resulted in unacceptable collocations. Interestingly enough, the same strategy of ‗use of positive transfer of a single lexical item‘ had also resulted in unacceptable collocations. This suggests that positive transfer of single lexical items does not always produce acceptable collocations. A possible explanation for that is that participants used to transfer word for word without probably being aware of the collocational restrictions of the produced combinations. In this sense, it is advisable as Lewis (1997) suggests that learners should aim at transferring chunk for chunk rather than word for word. Raising students‘ awareness of the phenomenon of collocation is crucial for effective L2 learning. Explicit teaching of collocations is advisable in order to raise learners‘ awareness of the nature of this phenomenon and its importance for their L2 production. To this end, vocabulary should be introduced as whole chunks rather than isolated lexical items. Words are not normally used alone but with other words which habitually co-occur with them in a language. This reflects the need for learning L2 lexical items in their frequent typical pattern of actual use. Explicit teaching of collocations should be put into practice with the help of improved language course books, trained teachers, effective teaching practices, and motivated independent learners. Learners could immensely benefit from getting access to important resources for noticing collocational patterns by consulting specialised dictionaries of English collocations. Therefore, it is recommended that learners make use of such specialised dictionaries in exploring how words collocate together in English, and how other unexpected combinations do co-occur to form an acceptable collocation. Dictionaries also help learners to frequently revisit already learned material. In addition, they offer other new alternatives of lexical items that can collocate with the target lexical item in question in specific contexts. They may also provide learners with a variety of collocations that can help them produce precise and natural L2 writing. Encouraging learners to use English collocations‘ dictionaries could help them experience different collocational forms of English. Hence, dictionaries of collocations can serve as resources that enrich learners L2 mental lexicon with new combinations. 591 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (1995). An Arabic-English collocational dictionary: Issues in theory and methodology. Babel,41 (1),12-23. Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (2005). Dictionary of semantic extensions similes and conceptual metaphors ( EnglishArabic). Beirut: Dar El-Elm Lil- Malayin. Allerton, D. (1984). Three (or four) levels of word cooccurrences restriction. Lingua, 63, 17-40. Al-Zahrani, M. (1998). Knowledge of English lexical collocations among male Saudi college students majoring in English at a Saudi University. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania. Ba-Dwais, M. O. (1994). A collocational study of the language of the Glorious Qur'an. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Girls' College of Education, Jeddah. Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: A contrastive view. ELT Journal,47 (1), 56-63. Bahns, J. & Eldaw, M. (1993). Should we teach EFL students collocations? System, 21 (1), 101-114. Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routeldge. Benson, M., Benson, E., & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI dictionary of Englishword combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bialystok, E. (1983). Some factors in the selection and implementation of communication strategies: in C.Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp.110-118). London: Longman. Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological analysis of second language use. Oxford: Blackwell. Blum-Kulka, S. & Levenston, E.A. (1983). Universal of lexical simplification, in C. Faerch & G Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp.119-139). London: Longman. Bolinger, D. (1976). Meaning and memory, Forum Linguisticum, 1.1, 1-14. Bolinger, D. & Sears, D. (1981). Aspects of Language. Fort Worth: HPJCollege Publishers. Bongaerts, T. & Poulisse, N. (1989). Communication strategies in L1 and L2: Same or different?. Applied Linguistics 19 (3), 253-268. Bonk, W. J. (2000). Testing ESL learners' knowledge of collocations. Report-Research. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. 442309). Brown, D. F. (1974). Advanced vocabulary teaching: The problem of collocation. RELC Journal,(2). 1-11. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Longman. Carter, R. (1998). Vocabulary: Applied Linguistics Perspectives. London: Routledge. Chen, L. (2005). Lexical strategies of Chinese learners of English in L1-L2 Translation. Dissertation Universitat Marburg. Chen, S. Q. (1990). A Study of communicative strategies in Interlanguage production by Chinese EFL learners. Language Learning 40 (2), 155-187. Coady, J. & Huckin, T. (1997). Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, A. D. (1996). Second language and use strategies: Clarifying the issues. Revised version of a paper originally presented at the symposium on Strategies of language learning and use , Seville, Spain.(1994). Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using A Second Language. London: Longman. 592 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corder, S. P. (1974). The significance of learners errors. In J. Richards (Ed.), Error Analysis (pp. 36-47). London: Longman Corder, S. P.(1983). Strategies of communication, in C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp.16-19). London: Longman Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cruse, D. A. (2000). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics .Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, D. (1997). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Diab, N. (1997). The transfer of Arabic in the English writings of Lebanese students. The ESPecialist (sic). 18, (1) 71-83 Dornei, Z. & Thrrell, S. (1991). Strategic competence and how to teach it. ELT Journal.V45 (1) 16-23. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University press. Emery, P. (1988). Collocation: A problem in Arabic/English translation. Quinquereme, 11 (1), 178-184 Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1983). Strategies in Interlanguage Communication, London: Longman. Farghal, M. & Obiedat, H. (1995). Collocations: A neglected variable in EFL. IRIAL, 33(4), 315-331. Firth, J. R. (1957). Papers in Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press. Firth, J. R. (1968). A synopsis of linguistic theory, 1930-55. In F.R. Palmer (Ed.), Selected papers of J.R. Firth 1952-1959 Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Fisiak, J. (Ed.). (1981). Contrastive linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press Flyman, A. (1997). Communication strategies in French as a foreign Language. Working Papers 46 ,56-73. Gass, S. & Mackey, A. (2000). Stimulated Recall Methodology in Second Language Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Gazala, H. (1995). Translation as Problems and Solutions. Aleppo-Syria: Dar AL KALAM AL-ARABI. Gazala, H. (2004). Essays in Translation and Stylistics. Beirut: Dar El-Elm Lil-Malayin. Gramley, S. (2001). The Vocabulary of World English. London: Arnold. Greenbaum, S. (1974). Some verb-intensifier collocations in American and British English. American Speech, 49, 79-89. Hafiz, A. (2002). "Throw a party" with collocations: The need for an Arabic combinatory dictionary. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies (IJAES), 3 (1-2), 1-15 Hafiz, A. (2004). Al-Hafiz Arabic Collocations Dictionary. Beirut: Librairie du Liban. Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 19 (1) 22-44 Hussein, R. F. (1998). Collocations revisited. Journal of King Saud University,Vol,10, languages and Translation. 39-47. Jakson, H. (2002). Lexicography: An Introduction. London: Routeldge. James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman. Kasper, G. & Kellerman, E. (1997). Communication Strategies: Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspectives. London: Longman. Lengo, N. (1995). What is an error. Forum.33(3), 20. 593 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lewis, M. (Ed.). (2000). Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Littlemore, J. (2001). An empirical study of the relationship between cognitive style and the use of communication strategy. Applied linguistics. V. 22 (2), 241-265. Lue, C. (2000). A study of strategy use in producing lexical collocations. (Eric doc reproduction service No: ED 482936) Mahmoud, A. (2005). Collocation errors made by Arab learners of English. Asian EFL Journal. V. Teachers Article (2) Retrieved August 19, 2005 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com Malmkjaer, K. (1998). Translation and language teaching: Language Teaching and Translation. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. McCarthy, M. & O'Dell, F. (2005). English Collocations in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McIntosh, A. (1961). Patterns and ranges. Language, 31, (3) 325-337. Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of Collocations by advanced learners of English and some implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics, 24 (2), 223-242. Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a Learner Corpus. Amesterdam: John Benjamins Newmark, P. (1982). Approaches to Translation. New York: PHONENIX. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. London: Prentice Hall. Noor, H. (2007a). Competency in first language: Does it affect the quality of second language writing? Drasat published by Center of Scientific Researches, Jordan University, Amman, Jordan. Noor, H. (2007b). The influence of L2 on the syntactic processing of L1. SJI, Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics, Vol. 1, Issue 1, http://www.scientificjournals.org/journals2007/j_of_language_and_literature.htm Noor, H. (2009). Positive effects of second language learning on the use of first language: A case study of Arab students‘ learning English. Society & Change Vol. III, No. 3: 7-22., July-September 2009. Noor, H. & M. Fallatah (2010). An investigation of some difficulties in idioms encountered by Saudi learners of English. IJEAS (International Journal of Arabic-English Studies), Vol. 11, pp. 147-174, Libairie du Liban Publishres. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford Collocations dictionary for students of English. (2002). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Paribakht, T. (1985). Strategic competence and language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 6, 123-46. Poulisse, N. (1993). A theoretical account of lexical communication strategies. In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens. (Eds.). The Bilingual Lexicon ( pp. 157-189). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Poulisse, N. (1997). Compensatory strategies and the principles of clarity and economy. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.). Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 4964). London: Longman. Poulisse, N., Bongaerts, T. & Kellerman, E. (1990). The Use of Compensatory Strategies by Duch Learners of English. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. 594 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Rababah, G. (2002). Second language communication strategies: Definitions, Taxonomies, Data Elicitation Methodology and Teachability. ( Eric doc reproduction ED 472698) Schreuder, R. & Weltens, B. (Eds.) (1993). The Bilingual Lexicon. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Selinker, L. (1974). Interlanguage., in J. Richards (Ed.), Error Analysis: Perspective on second language acquisition (pp 31-54). London: Longman. Sinclair, J. M. (1966). Beginning the study of lexis. In Charles E. Bazell et al. (Eds), In memory of J.R. Firth. (pp. 410-430.) Sinclair, J. M. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, M. Jones, S. & Daley, R. (2004). English Collocation Studies: The OSTI report. London: Continuum. Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the Second Language Mental Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talk, and repair in interlanguage. Language Learning: Vol., 30 (2) 417-431. Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of ―communication strategy‖. In Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Eds.) Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 61-74) London: Longman. Varadi, T. (1980). Strategies of target language learner communication: Message adjustment. IRAL,18, 59-71. Republished in Faerch & Kasper (Eds.). (1983), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication.( pp.79-99). London: Longman. Wei, Y. (1999). Teaching collocations for productive vocabulary development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the teachers of English to speakers of other languages, New York (Eric Document Reproduction Service No.457690). Wright, W. (1967). A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zughoul, M. & Abdel Fattah, H. (2001). Collocational competence of Arabic speaking learners of English: A study in lexical semantics. Journal of the College of Arts ( Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan),1(1), 1-19. Zughoul, M. & Abdel Fattah, H. (2003). Translational collocational strategies of Arab learners of English. Babel, 49 (1), 59-81 595 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 87 Title A name given to the resource Strategies Used in Producing English Lexical Collocations by Saudi EFL Learners Author Author Noor, Hashim Adubaib, Arwa Abstract A summary of the resource. Thirty, with two distinct proficiency level, EFL Saudi English majors at Taibah University participated in this study. Two written elicitation tasks were used: a fill-in-theblank test which was accompanied by a self-checklist, and a translation test. In addition, retrospective data was also collected from the participants to elicit their reflections on their written production. The qualitative analysis of the data resulted in the development of a taxonomy of the strategies used by the participants of the study. The taxonomy was divided into five major categories: retrieval, L1 based strategies, L2 based strategies, reduction strategies, and test-taking strategies. The participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing unacceptable collocations was higher in frequency than their use of the strategies in producing acceptable collocations. The results also revealed that the participants relied on L2 based strategies more often than other strategies in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The results also showed that the two groups seemed to have chosen the same strategies and have not differed much in their total number of use. The results revealed that HPS and LPS differed significantly in their use of strategies in producing acceptable collocations especially with regard to the retrieval strategy, L2 based strategies and L1 based strategies in favour of the HPS group. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups especially with reference to the use of the reduction strategies and L2 based strategies in favour of the LPS group. The implications of the research findings for teaching English collocations are discussed, along with pedagogical recommendations. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b449e14b848ff2a3f14bf650380f03d.pdf 1157e5213b936467a3adfce0d90c62e3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Blair Kuntz Near and Middle Eastern Studies Librarian Robarts Library, University of Toronto, Canada blair.kuntz@utoronto.ca Abstract: The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Keywords: Arabic as a foreign language, colloquial Arabic Introduction As an international language, Arabic is certainly one of the most important and influential. With a total population of almost three hundred million native speakers (Prochazka, 2006) who speak Arabic as a first language, Arabic can claim to be the fourth most widely spoken language in the world. The Arabic script, which is written from right to left, is the second most widely used written script in the world and has been adopted and modified by other languages such as Urdu, Farsi, and Pashto. Arabic has also given many loan words to other languages such as Turkish, Urdu, Farsi, Spanish and Portuguese. Arabic has always had its share of foreign language students. Perhaps the most important of these until the present day are those who learn classical Arabic in order to study the Quran, Islam‘s holy book. Other foreign-language students embark on an academic study of the language in order to study the history, literature, or politics of the Middle East, while others study the language in order to live, work, or travel in the region. Students of Arabic as a foreign language at some point, however, must learn two languages because Arabic is a ―diglossic‖ language in which literate speakers use one form of Arabic as the written language but another for use in daily life. Thus, a student studying classical Arabic in order to read the Quran will discover that Saudi Arabians do not communicate using this language. Similarly, a student who has studied the modern variant of classical Arabic known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), also known as literary or standard Arabic, will find that upon landing in an Arab country his or her attempts to speak MSA will be met with quizzical looks—or worse, laughter. Most major universities teaching Arabic as a foreign language concentrate on teaching MSA as it is this form of Arabic which unites Arabs over a wide geographic area ranging from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West. Enormous resources have been poured into learning how to read, speak, write and listen to the standard form of Arabic used in radio and television broadcasts, newspapers, political speeches, and today in Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs and Twitter. Much less attention has been paid to teaching the many colloquial Arabic dialects which, if offered at all in universities, were only taught as an addendum to the main standard Arabic course. Although some universities have now instituted colloquial Arabic language courses into the curriculum (mostly teaching Egyptian colloquial), the teaching of colloquial Arabic language courses is still 249 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sometimes left to non-credit university continuing education programs or to private institutes both inside and outside the Arabic-speaking world. The preference for teaching MSA is understandable. As the form of Arabic which unites Arabs, learning MSA is absolutely essential for students wishing to study the history, politics, and literature of the Middle East. Teaching colloquial languages, on the other hand, involves choosing one or more colloquial languages which, unlike MSA, have not been standardized and, for the most part, are not written and therefore must be learned through listening and speaking. Nonetheless, the teacher of colloquial Arabic languages need not despair for many text-books on various colloquial languages have been published and continue to be published. Furthermore, the rise of the World Wide Web has been a boon for teachers of colloquial Arabic for, in addition to online courses in colloquial Arabic, the web offers an enormous number of resources for learning and teaching colloquial Arabic including music, television, and film videos. Meanwhile technologies such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer unprecedented possibilities for teaching listening and speaking in colloquial Arabic. Furthermore, the enterprising teacher of colloquial Arabic will find that many Arabic writers have employed colloquial Arabic in their written dialogues. Still other written sources of colloquial Arabic include cartoons, proverbs, and social networking sites. Methods and Aims of the Study This paper is a critical survey of the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic languages as a foreign-language. It first details the difficulties in learning ―diglossic‖ languages such as Arabic and then surveys various text-books (including online), grammars, and dictionaries available for studying a number of colloquial Arabic and evaluates their strengths and weaknesses. After commenting on the curricula of colloquial Arabic courses offered in North American universities and at private institutes throughout the world, it then surveys the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic as a foreign language on the Internet, especially Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube videos, social networking sites, and interactive messaging services such as Skype and MSN Messenger. It then examines colloquial Arabic resources found in Arabic proverbs and in the works of Arabic-language writers and cartoonists. Throughout the paper, the author suggests effective strategies for teaching colloquial Arabic. It is hoped that the discussion of the strategies and resources available for teaching and studying colloquial Arabic will lead to innovative methods for teaching this important component of the Arabic language which has often been neglected. Findings and Discussion Arabic as a ―Diglossic‖ Language In a now classic paper written in 1959 on the subject of ―diglossia‖ in languages, Professor Charles A Ferguson of Harvard University defined this linguistic phenomena as a state in which two varieties of language exist side by side in a language community. As Ferguson defines diglossia, it is: a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language which may include a standard or regional standards, there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body or written literature…which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959: 336). In his paper, Ferguson identified four languages existing in a state of ―diglossia‖: Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole (he also briefly discusses Chinese). In the Arabic language, the two varieties of Arabic which exist side by side are the standard written Arabic language known as classical Arabic or ―al-fusha‖ (‫ )الفصحى‬which is the language of the Quran, preIslamic poetry, and medieval writings. Classical Arabic has morphed into what is termed as Modern Standard Arabic (or MSA) which includes more contemporary vocabulary, usages, and styles of expression. MSA today is used in the mass media in written form in newspapers and magazines, is spoken on television news broadcasts and documentaries and is used for speeches and formal occasions. Furthermore, classical Arabic has a long history of grammatical rules and vocabulary laid down by classical grammarians. However, existing side by side the standard language is colloquial Arabic which consists of any number of dialects constituting the everyday spoken language. In contrast to standard Arabic, colloquial languages are 250 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mostly unwritten and have not been subject to study by grammarians. Besides being spoken in daily life, the colloquial variety of Arabic is used in informal media such as television drama, soap operas and talk shows, and is also used in cinema. Although these languages are mostly spoken, some Arabic-language writers have written colloquial poems, drama, and dialogue in Arabic script although it is important to note that colloquial script has never been standardized. The difficulties of teaching MSA to native speakers of colloquial Arabic has been the subject of much research including those concerning the level of functional illiteracy in the Arab world which some attribute to the divergence between spoken Arabic and literary Arabic (Ayari, 1996: 243). Another study, researching illiterate adult Egyptian women learning modern literary Arabic also concludes that the mismatch between colloquial Arabic and standard Arabic is indeed an obstacle to literacy in standard Arabic with many adult learners wishing to write in the colloquial form (Khahchan, 2009: 656). Indeed, in order to minimize the gap between colloquial and standard Arabic, in 1954 the Egyptian Ministry of Education strove to develop teaching materials in colloquial Arabic for use in the first three years of primary schooling. No doubt this was a response to the fact that at the time between a quarter and a half of the total time in elementary school was spent on obtaining a bare mastery of standard Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 112). Indeed, it should be pointed out that the correct pronunciation of Arabic letters (which sometimes changes in the colloquial) is not always mastered even by educated Arabs (Greis, 2000: 6). The gap today is further exacerbated by the prominence given to French and English in many Arabicspeaking countries. A recent BBC report, for example, documents students in Lebanon who can no longer even speak colloquial Arabic well, much less be proficient in standard Arabic because their parents send them to English- or French-language schools. The BBC reports that the problem is evident in many parts of the Arab world where foreign schools are common including the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Egypt, and North African states (Shawish, 2010). Nonetheless, despite the variance between MSA and colloquial, Arabic has not developed along the lines envisaged by Ferguson in which he saw the development of several standardized languages each based on a colloquial variety with a heavy admixture of MSA vocabulary. Instead, with the rise of Arab satellite TV and other modern technological advances such as the Internet, MSA still appears to be on a firm footing. Difficulties for Students of Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Students of Arabic as a foreign language, meanwhile, are likely to approach the divergence between colloquial and MSA from a difficult angle as most foreign students are likely to become acquainted with standard Arabic first and only then will learn a colloquial dialect. According to a rather dated 1972 study, this chain of events might be rather unfortunate because it was the author‘s experience that students who learned colloquial Arabic first had an easier time mastering the acquisition of standard Arabic (Qafisheh, 1972: 6). Qafisheh discovered a far higher dropout rate for students studying standard Arabic with no knowledge of colloquial compared to students who had an acquaintance with a colloquial dialect. Moreover, he found those acquainted with colloquial to be more highly motivated and better in listening and speaking ability. Other researchers, however, think that learning standard Arabic first makes it easier to learn colloquial dialects (Rowland, 198?). Students recently graduated from the study of MSA, itself a difficult language, might indeed be awed to discover they must learn yet another one, although the colloquial languages are derived from classical Arabic and share a good deal of vocabulary with it. It is also true that an educated Arab will incorporate standard Arabic to some degree in his or her speech. Nonetheless, students travelling to different parts of the Arab world must be prepared to be familiar with different vocabulary items (many of them loan words depending on what part of the Arab world they are travelling in—for example, Levantine Arabic contains many Turkish loan words while Iraqi Arabic contains many Persian loan words), different grammatical structures, and widely different pronunciations and intonations (Rowland, 198?). In some cases, vocabulary items used in one dialect area are completely different from another region. Fortunately, however, colloquial Arabic is much less complicated than MSA (for instance, there is no dual and the system of nominal inflection for cases and verbal inflection for modes is completely abandoned in colloquial Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 97-98)) so in some ways it is like learning a simplified version of MSA. 251 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nonetheless, it is safe to say that some of the Arabic colloquial dialects differ so completely that it would be better to classify them as separate languages rather than a dialect. While speakers of Egyptian, Levantine, and Gulf Arabic might find their dialects mutually intelligible, the same cannot be said of the Maghrebi Arabic of North Africa and the Mesopotamian Arabic of Iraq. Most North American universities have now realized the importance of studying one form of colloquial Arabic. Some offer credit courses (mostly in colloquial Egyptian which is the most widely-used and influential) while others offer certificate courses in continuing studies departments. The prestigious Middlebury College in Vermont, for example, offers five daily contact hours of Modern Standard Arabic and optional sessions in Moroccan, Syrian, or Egyptian colloquial, while Georgetown University, a training ground for diplomats, offers summer sessions in Levantine Arabic. Meanwhile, Arabic-language institutes in the Arab world offer colloquial language programs of the language in which the institutes are situated. For instance, the American University of Cairo offers summer courses in Egyptian colloquial while Arabic Language Institute in Fes, Morocco offers courses in Moroccan colloquial. Certainly, it would appear that colloquial Arabic is no longer overlooked. Text-Books, Grammars, and Dictionaries in Colloquial Arabic Early on, many researchers attempted to gain a grasp of the many colloquial Arabic languages that could not be learned by simply learning standard Arabic. Beginning in 1900, many European researchers, whose countries were engaged in a colonial occupation of the region, began to publish grammars dealing with colloquial Arabic in the region. For example, the book Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco: with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice by Joseph Lerchundi (translated and adapted to English from the second Spanish edition) was published in Tangier, Morocco in 1900. Looking at this book, which is at once a grammar and vocabulary list is interesting in that it uses both Roman and Arabic script to spell out pronunciations of the colloquial (later European works tend to use only Roman script to render the colloquial). Other books in various colloquial languages from this time through to the 1950s include works on Egyptian, Lebanese, Syrian, Omani, Libyan, Sudanese and Saudi Arabian Arabic. Taken together, these works form a valuable historical record of attempts to record, render and impart Arabic colloquial languages. Moreover, many of the books published before 1923 are no longer subject to copyright law and are now available as full-text open access retrieval in academic library catalogues. Because it represented a systematic attempt to study regional Arabic colloquial languages, a great advance in English-language text-books dealing with Arabic colloquial languages occurred in 1960 when the Arabic Research program was established as a contract between Georgetown University and the United States Office of Education. The series proceeded under the auspices of Richard Harrell, who died tragically in a car accident while conducting research for an Egyptian reference grammar. Unfortunately, considering that Egyptian colloquial is the most widely-taught colloquial Arabic, this work has still not been completed. Still, Dr. Harrell, who was chair of Georgetown‘s Arabic department, and his assistants managed to produce a series of grammars, dictionaries, and basic text-books that really have not been matched in stature even until the present day. In the end, the series included those dealing with Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian and Iraqi colloquial. Dr. Harrell‘s death saw the loss of several other projects in the projected series including a Syrian-English dictionary and a basic course in Syrian Arabic. An Egyptian-English dictionary began by Dr. Harrell and his team of assistants was completed and published by the American University of Cairo in 1986 (Nydell, 2003: xvii). Dr. Harrell‘s text-books consisted of a text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary (Harrell, 2003). Importantly, the text-books included a series of audiotapes (now replicated as CDs) which repeated in oral form the written texts in the book. As the texts were meant for beginning students, they did not use Arabic script but instead used a Roman transliteration scheme. The Department of Arabic Language, Literature and Linguistics at Georgetown University has attempted to continue production of colloquial Arabic materials and has branched out to producing audiovisual materials such as Margaret Nydell‘s Syrian Language Course. Georgetown University‘s colloquial Arabic text-books and reference grammars were left with some obvious gaps, most notably that of Gulf Arabic. This gap has been filled by the Colloquial Series (which produces text-books and grammars for a number of languages throughout the world) with Clive Holes‘ Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia published in 1984. It essentially replicates Harrell‘s pattern of text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary and it also has an accompanying audio compact disc. A wealth of materials published on various forms of colloquial Arabic has been published since the Georgetown series including the colloquial of many other forms of Arabic. In addition, online Arabic colloquial courses available through the Internet offer even more opportunities for the enterprising teacher or student. 252 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Web 2.0 and Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Listening and Speaking Skills While the plethora of text-books available for studying colloquial Arabic is indeed a major resource, the text-book has its limitations. Although many students have a positive attitude to text-books, these books have certain limitations such as becoming dated. Furthermore, they can lock both the student and teacher into using the text-book content as the only material to be taken into the classroom (Harmer, 1998: 117). Most importantly, they can limit student autonomy in which students do not control their own learning and choices for study. The recent technological revolution of the Internet and Web 2.0 innovations has important implications for the study of Arabic as a colloquial language. Since colloquial Arabic is, for the most part, not written but rather learned through listening and speaking, the number of colloquial Arabic listening opportunities available on applications such as YouTube, the video-sharing website on which users can upload, share and view videos, and podcasting offer many opportunities for ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Meanwhile, applications such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer many opportunities for both ―reciprocal‖ and ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Listening provided by text-books can be problematic because, as one researcher notes, ―listening activities…as much as possible [should be] controlled by the students rather than the teacher, since this increase in student autonomy is…one of the keys to successful learning (White 2008: 215).‖ In contrast, these new technologies make it easier for students to decide how and when they learn, how they manage their learning and even what and where they learn (Cotterall 1008: 111). One of the most useful materials for teaching colloquial Arabic is the many music videos sung in colloquial Arabic that exist on YouTube. In general, songs are useful in introducing the rhythm of a language, which in turn benefits memorization. Learning a language through songs is said to aid in vocabulary and grammar acquisition and develops all four productive language skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Medina 2002). Many Arabic singers, including the famous Lebanese singer Fayrouz, sing in colloquial Arabic, and their songs are readily available on YouTube. Other singers whose ―story songs‖ (rather than simple popular love songs) could be used to further classroom activities include Egyptian singer Mohammed Mounir and the various Algerian ―rai‖ (opinion) singers who often switch to French when speaking of subjects that might be controversial in Arabic (Betahila, 2002: 192). Various activities that could be generated listening to colloquial songs include completing a true or false quiz or a gap fill exercise of missing words. Other important video sources of colloquial Arabic listening materials readily found on the Internet and YouTube are television news clips; television soap operas; sitcoms and serious drama; Arabic cinema; television and radio advertisements; prank shows; candid camera; and animated cartoons. Class room activities using these sources can easily be used in focused listening activities and can provide a springboard for interaction in pair and group work for more ―interactive‖ listening activities (McKay, 2008:4). For instance, a television news item about a political demonstration might have beginning students asked to make out the chants while more advanced students could listen to the protestors‘ demands. This, in turn, could lead to students pretending they were protestors who must present their demands in colloquial Arabic. Another Web 2.0 tool that provides a useful tool for learning ―reciprocal‖ or interactive listening and speaking are video chat tools such as Skype, MSN Messenger, Yahoo Messenger and also the lesser-known Paltalk, CUWorld, and ICQ. All of these applications, which allow users to make free audio and visual calls over the Internet, can be used for language learners engaging with authentic communication with native speakers (Eroz-Tuga, 2009: 787). For example, Skype and other video chat applications allow foreign language learners to learn correct pronunciation and cadence (especially important for colloquial Arabic languages where variations are wide) and become acquainted with colloquial slang and idioms. Skype, through its language exchange program, allows foreign language learners to connect with other Skype users all around the world. If someone wants to learn Arabic, they can go into Skype and search the forums for someone who is a native (or at least fluent) Arabic speaker. Meanwhile, teachers can create a group for their class and can invite colloquial native speakers to join the group and create a community of language learners. Because of the mismatch between standard and colloquial Arabic, it is likely easier to find language exchange students willing to speak their colloquial language as many of them might find speaking standard Arabic artificial. Once again, it is also easy to see how these video chat technologies allow students to take charge of their own learning by making chat friends and contacting them during their free time. 253 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Reading and Writing Skills Because writing in colloquial Arabic languages has never been standardized, it is difficult to teach and learn colloquial Arabic through reading and writing. Nonetheless, many Arabic writers have transcribed colloquial Arabic into Arabic script, while Western writers have transcribed it into Roman script. Today, for example, there exists a wide body of literature in Egyptian colloquial that includes drama, poetry, stories, songs, and newspaper or magazine cartoons. Moreover, the separation between standard and colloquial Arabic in written Arabic in newspapers and literary writing is not always so clear as modern literary Arabic is interspersed with colloquial and foreign terms. For instance, in his book Midaq Alley (ً‫ )خاى الخلٍل‬Nobel prize-winning author Naguib Mahfouz vacillates between the literary and colloquial in his dialogues. Other Egyptian dramatists have written plays in the colloquial, for example, Rashad Rashdi‘s The Butterfly (‫( )الفزاضة‬Greis, 2000: 13-14). Other noted writers who have written in the colloquial include Sudanese novelist Tayeb Salih, whose dialogues in Wedding of Zein are written in Sudanese colloquial, and Iraqi poet Saadi Yousuf who has written poetry in the Iraqi dialect. Yet another rich source of writing in various colloquial Arabic languages is the many books of proverbs not written in standard Arabic. Proverbs can reveal a good deal about a colloquial language; for example, Egyptian proverbs combine ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Islamic and foreign elements (Greis, 2000: 31)— all rich fodder for the foreign language classroom. Modern Web 2.0 technologies also offer opportunities for practicing reading and writing skills. While most blogs and Twitter feeds, for example, are written in standard Arabic, native speakers commenting on online news stories or posting updates and status reports on social networking sites such as Facebook tend to write in colloquial Arabic. In addition, most native speakers chatting using the keyboard on chat applications such as MSN Messenger as well as other technologies such as instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging, will do so in colloquial Arabic, either in modified Arabic script or in a modified Roman script which has come to be known as the ―Arabic Chat Alphabet.‖ In Arabic chat (developed at a time when it was only possible to communicate using Roman script), the letter ‫ ع‬is represented as a 3, the ‫ د‬by a d and its emphatic counterpart ‫ض‬as a D. Yet another technology known as ―IM Arabic‖ allows users to communicate using chat technologies by transliterating Latin script. Thus, in the classroom it is possible for students to write group posts for the teacher to review and comment upon either using Arabic script or perhaps ―Chat Arabic‖. Conclusions and Recommendations Most students studying Arabic as a foreign-language study standardized Arabic, either in the form of classical or Modern Standard Arabic. However, in order to know Arabic, they soon find that their knowledge of the standard language is not sufficient for understanding the language spoken in daily life. Instead, they discover that native speakers themselves learn standard Arabic almost as if it were another dialect. While hardly as well advanced as the resources devoted to standard Arabic, there is a wide network of resources devoted to colloquial Arabic ranging from early grammars and dictionaries published by European colonial era scholars to the impressive text-books, dictionaries and reference grammars produced by Georgetown University. Other published resources for colloquial Arabic include Arabic literature and proverbs from which both colloquial Arabic language teachers and students can strategize and design lessons. The more recent advances in the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have also greatly expanded the resources available for students and teachers, not the least of which is the vast number of videos using various forms of colloquial Arabic as well as technologies such as video chat which allow students to listen, speak, and even read and write in colloquial Arabic languages. Moreover, these technologies allow teachers to be more creative in designing their lessons and students to control their own learning, a key ingredient for successful language learning. As this paper is for the most part a critical survey, it opens the door for further research such as whether studying colloquial Arabic makes it easier to study standard Arabic or whether the opposite is true. (Or, does it matter?) The paper might also serve as a springboard for studies in other ―diglossic‖ languages such as Swiss German, Haitian Creole, Modern Greek and Chinese. It could also spur further research on teaching and studying other languages with much colloquial variation, for example, Brazilian Portuguese and the Portuguese of Portugal. Certainly, the relatively recent advances in foreign language learning involving the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have engendered and will continue to engender research regarding their efficacy. For example, we might ask: how do they affect or improve foreign language acquisition? How do they enhance foreign language student autonomy? 254 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo What this paper has attempted to make clear, however, is that there is no longer any reason for foreign language study of colloquial Arabic to stand in the shadow of Modern Standard Arabic. Instead, one can indeed enhance and complement the other. References Ayari, Salah (1996). Diglossia and Illiteracy in the Arab World, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 9 (3), pp. 243-253. Bateson, Mary Catherine (1967). Arabic Language Handbook. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Betahila, Abdelali and Eirlys E. Davies (2002). Language Mixing in Rai Music: Localisation or Globalisation,‖ Language & Communication, 22 (2), pp. 187-207. Cotterall, Sara (2008). Autonomy and good language learners, in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. Eroz-Tuga, Betil and Randall Sadler (2009). Comparing Six Video Chat Tools: A Critical Evaluation by Language Teachers. Computers & Education, 53 (3), pp. 787-798. Ferguson, Charles A. (1959) Diglossia. Word, 14, pp. 47-56. Greis, Naguib (2000). Aspects of Modern Arabic: Its Structure, Humor, Proverbs, Metaphors, Euphemisms and Common Expressions. Washington, D.C.: Educational Resources Center. Harmer, Jeremy (1998). How to Teach English. Essex, England: Addison Wesley Longman. Holes, Clive (1984). Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia. London: Routledge. Khachan, Victor A. (2009). Diglossic Needs of Illiterate Adult Women in Egypt: A Needs Assessment, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28 (5), pp. 649-660. Lerchundi, Joseph (1900). Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco : with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice. Tangier: Spanish Catholic Mission Press. McKay, Sharon and Kirsten Schaetzel (2008). Facilitating Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and Speaking Skills. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Medina, Suzanne L. (2002). Using Music to Enhance Second Language Acquisition: from Theory to Practice,‖ [online], http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/06htm Nydell, Margaret (2003). Forward to the Georgetown Classics Edition, in Harrell, Richard S. (2003). A Basic Course in Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Prochazka, S. (2006). Arabic, Encyclopedia of Language and Lingusitics (2nd ed.) Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1972). From Gulf Arabic into Modern Standard Arabic: a Pilot Study. ERIC Report ED109881. Rowland, Howard D. (198?) ―Colloquial Arabic: What is it and How Does One Learn It? Part One and Two, Newsletter XVII and Newsletter XVIII (US Defense Language Institute), [online] http://how-to-learn –anylanguage.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=15493&PN=39 Shawish, Hesham (2010). ―Campaign to Save the Arabic Language in Lebanon‖, BBC News Middle East, 24 June 2010. White, Goodith (2008). Listening and Good Language Learners,‖ in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 38 Title A name given to the resource Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Author Author Kuntz, Blair Abstract A summary of the resource. The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3384c283fda1361e07cdae9bbe1da064.pdf 1d95fb5381e51af46f898f1598ba99ff PDF Text Text ��      �   ��        ��������� https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4bd5fe71a3ef44963142d9b046a5aa9c.docx 7997e97b1951136871632dc4f52dbdc9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3100 Title A name given to the resource Strategija Evropa 2020: Perspektive, izazovi i posebne preporuke za Bosnu i Hercegovinu Author Author ČOLIĆ, Amela Abstract A summary of the resource. Evropska unija postavila je ambiciozne i zahtjevne ciljeve: unaprijediti uslove života ljudi, ponuditi održiv i uključiv rast, veću zaposlenost i osiguranje javnih finansija, pružanje podrške i provođenje istog na nacionalnim nivoima država članica. Lisabonska strategija u svoje vrijeme pokazala se kao najznačajniji strateški i razvojni program EU, ali i pored toga javila se potreba za novim reformama u okviru Strategije Evropa 2020. Stoga je od 2011. godine Lisabonsku strategiju zamijenila Evropa 2020 kao novi višegodišnji strateški okvir za provođenje ekonomskih reformi na nivou EU. Ukratko prezentirati ćemo uspjehe i nedostatke u provođenju Lisabonske strategije i prikazati najavljene perspektive i izazove Evrope 2020. Iako BiH nema obavezu provođenja Strategije Evropa 2020, Evropska komisija je u cilju praćenja provođenja SSP-a i Privremenog sporazuma pozvala BiH da u svojim reformskim procesima prati ovu Strategiju. U tom smislu istaknute su perspektive, izazovi i posebne preporuke za BiH. Ovakvim i sličnim temama utiče se na svijest efikasnog provođenja reformi u BiH kao preduslov uspješnog funkcionisanja države i dobijanja statusa kandidata za članstvo u EU. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5656f4a15f46856ce50f9ef8d1c2bbc7.pdf 6dac25b660f03eca326d332889cca3ea PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Mehmet Akif DEMĐRCĐOĞLU Indiana University-Bloomington, School of Public and Environmental Affairs. Bloomington, Indiana, USA mdemirci@indiana.edu Abstract: Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Key Words: organizational change, strategy and structure, the department of homeland security, public organizations The nature of change is not unidirectional or unalterable. An organization may resist or facilitate change in a way consistent with its nature. Organizational change is not isolated to singular effects within an organization; rather, it is likely to affect the other variables under consideration. It is clear that public organizations pursue multiple goals. Charles Wise believes that organizing—or perhaps more accurately, reorganizing—for homeland security will implicate numerous issues of organizational functioning. While not always explicitly identifying the causal mechanisms of change, extant proposals seek to remedy multiple perceived dysfunctional attributes of the current organizational system (Wise, 2002a, 132). This paper will examine organizational change, particularly strategy and structural change, and its implementation within the Department of Homeland Security in the Unites States of America. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration and organization theory (Fernandez & Pitts, 2005, 1). Many journal articles address topics relating to organizational change, such as the adaption and implementation of “reinventing government” and New Public Management Reforms1 (e.g., Berman and Wang 2000; Brudney and Wright 2002; Fernandez and Rainey, 2006; Grizzle and Pettijohn 2002; Hood and Peters 2004; Julnes and Holzer 2001; Thompson and Fulla 2001). A growing number of scholars have focused their research on the implementation of planned change (Fernandez and Rainey 2006, 6). Change, according to Van de Ven and Poole (1995), is one type of event process, or progression, of an organizational entity's existence over time. It is classified as an empirical observation of difference in structure, quality, or status over time in an organizational element, such as an individual's job, a work group, an organizational strategy, a program, a product, or the whole organization. Organizational change is sometimes accompanied by the word, ‘development’, which is a process involving change. Process theory is an explanation of how and why and organizational elements change and develop. Theoretical explanations are useful for identifying the generative mechanisms that cause events to happen and the context in which they occur. It is important to mention here is that as Lois Wise puts, studies of change in organizations may take different approaches (Lois Wise, 2002, 556) According to Robbins, change involves four categories: structure, technology, physical setting, and people. Changing structure involves making an alteration in authority relations, coordination mechanisms, job design, or similar structural variables. Changing technology encompasses modifications in the way work is processed and in the methods and equipment used. Changing the physical setting covers altering the space and layout arrangements in the workplace. Changing people refers to change in employee attitudes, skills, expectations, perceptions, and/or behavior (Robbins, 2000, 543). 1 According to Rago, it is the premise of an increasing number of reform movements in both private and public sectors all over the world that the hearts and minds of staff need to be won over to a new attitude and style in order to secure new managerial techniques and for innovations to ‘‘take root’’ (Rago 1996). 228 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Four Types of Changes Daft’s strategic types of changes are similar to Robbins’ classification. Four strategic types characterize organizational change: products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Each of the areas are interdependent, a change in one may affect another. Organizations should focus on their unique configuration of these strategies for maximum impact upon their chosen markets (Daft, 2001). Technology changes are related to an organization’s production process, including its knowledge, skills, and experience base, which provide distinctive capability. It is expected that these changes are designed to make production more efficient or to produce more output. Using Internal Revenue Service e-files1 can be considered as one type of technology change. Product and service changes refer to the product or service outputs of an organization. New products include either small adaptations of same products or new product. For instance, Turkish Statistical Institute established a new statistical law,2 which has been prepared in compliance with the EU standards. With this law, personnel benefits and salary have been improved. Thus, this change provides better conditions for the employees, which can be considered as product and service changes. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the DHS is an example of this change. Daft explains that structure and system changes are usually top-down, that is, mandated by top management. On the other hand, product and technology changes may often come from the bottom up (Daft, 2001, 357). Management of culture is one of the most frequently discussed organizational concepts of the last two or three decades (Driscoll and Morris 2001). Culture changes are related to values, attitudes, expectations, beliefs and behavior of employees. Therefore, this change is related to mindset. Ates argues that the successful implementation of new programs and policies often requires not only changes in systems and procedures but also a change in the culture of the organization, the underlying values of an organization, and the way in which management reinforces those values. Culture colors the look, feel, and focus of management and service delivery (Ates, 2004, 34). For instance, entrepreneurship in the public sector is related to cultural change, “Entrepreneurship can be defined as ‘‘the process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity’’ (Stevenson and Gumbert 1985, 85). Underlying entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors are three key dimensions: innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness (Covin and Slevin 1989). Hence, these three variables—innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness can be considered as the cultural change. A government’s sending students to abroad can be expected to changes the organizational culture in the long term. From Theory to Practice: Organizing for Homeland Security The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government with the primary responsibilities of protecting the territory of the U.S. from terrorist attacks and responding to natural disasters. While the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. According to Raphael (2004), the creation of DHS constituted the biggest government reorganization in American history and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies under itself (Raphael, 2004, 176-177). Figure one shows these 22 government agencies. A DHS reorganization plan of November 25, 2002, sets out a blueprint for the new organization. Included are five directorates: (1) Border and Transportation Security; (2) Emergency Preparedness and Response; (3) Science and Technology; (4) Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection; and (5) Management. 1 http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 Turkish Statistical Law has been published in the Official Gazette numbered 25997 on 18th of November 2005 and entered into force on the same day. The new law has been adopted in accordance with our commitments on account of statistical system applied in EU countries. The new law has changed the name of our institute as Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?method=tarihce). 2 229 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security" efforts. In January 2003, the office was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security (http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf). Original Agency (Department) The U.S. Customs Service (Treasury) Current Agency/Office U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection, border and ports of entry responsibilities U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement customs law enforcement responsibilities The Immigration and Naturalization Service (Justice) U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection functions and the U.S. Border Patrol U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement immigration law enforcement: detention and removal, intelligence, and investigations U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services adjudications and benefits programs The Federal Protective Service U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement The Transportation Security Administration Transportation Security Administration (Transportation) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (Treasury) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Customs and Border Protection - agricultural (part)(Agriculture) imports and entry inspections Office for Domestic Preparedness (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA The Federal Emergency Management Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Returned to Health and Human Services, July, 2004 Medical System (HHS) Nuclear Incident Response Team (Energy) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA National Domestic Preparedness Office (FBI) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA CBRN Countermeasures Programs (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate Environmental Measurements Laboratory (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate National BW Defense Analysis Center (Defense) Science & Technology Directorate Plum Island Animal Disease Center (Agriculture) Science & Technology Directorate Federal Computer Incident Response Center (GSA) US-CERT, Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Communications System (Defense) Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Infrastructure Protection Center (FBI) Dispersed throughout the department, including Office of Operations Coordination and Office of Infrastructure Protection Energy Security and Assurance Program (Energy) Integrated into the Office of Infrastructure Protection U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Secret Service U.S. Secret Service Figure 1: Government Agencies which became under the DHS. 230 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Administrative Change in the DHS An organization’s structure is defined by how tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. Change agents can alter one or more of the key elements in an organization’s design. For instance, departmental responsibilities can be combined, vertical layers removed, and spans of control widened to make the organization flatter and less bureaucratic. More rules and procedures can be implemented to increase standardization (Robbins, 2000, 543). For instance, when establishing a government agency or department (such as the DHS), the principal decides whether the organization is either a hierarchical or a network style; both of them are related to the organizational change. Theoretically the network style is considered for the DHS, practically the former is implemented. That means that the government is organized in terms of superior-subordinate relations, a chain of command that extends from the chief executive to the lowest level civil servants in the government. Similarly, oversight bodies such as Office of Management and Budget and the General Accountability Office in the U.S. federal government and the legislature exercise oversight through chains of command that are structured vertically through departments (Fountain, 8). Administrative change typically comes from a leader and/or the senior management. Most organizations in both the public and private sector are organized on a hierarchical basis, even if there is now a growing preference for relatively flat hierarchies (that is, few layers of management). Key policy decisions about the direction of the organization and its structure are made at the top of the hierarchy. That is where the power to change resides. Accordingly, it is commonplace, yet essential, to acknowledge that organizational reform requires strong and committed leadership and direction from the top. Although legitimacy, credibility, and trust are necessary factors for public organization, it is expected that public organizations administrative performance are also high. Perry believes that administrative performance involves the attainments of public organizations and institutions against goals established implicitly or explicitly by political, social, or organizational sources. Public administration has always been centrally concerned with one or more facets of administrative performance. The field's historical concerns about administrative performance can be summarized by four concepts each beginning with the letter "e", economy, efficiency, effectiveness, and equity (Perry, 1991, 12). Hence, it can be said that in public sector, not only equity, but also economy, efficiency, and effectiveness should be considered. However, it is widely accepted that these four “e”s did not considered when the DHS was established due to emergency situation. Implementation and Process of Change of the DHS 1) Incremental versus Radical Change The changes used to adapt to the environment can be evaluated according to scope – that is, the extent to which changes are incremental or radical for the organization. Exhibit 1 shows the differences between these two changes. Incremental change represents a series of continual progressions that maintain the organization’s general equilibrium and often affect only one organization part (Daft, 2001, 353). Generally, incremental change occurs through the established structure and management processes, although it may include technology and product change; it does not include cultural change. Radical change, on the other hand, breaks the frame of reference for the organization, often transforming the entire organization. Radical change involves the creation of a new structure and new management processes. The technology is likely to be breakthrough, and new products thereby created will establish new markets (Daft, 2001, 354). It is also expected that radical change is related to structural change in the short term and cultural change in the long term. When we look at establishing the DHS, it is very clear that this change was radical, which transform the entire organization, and tried to establish the new culture. For instance, during the creating of the DHS, new structure and management has been created, the paradigm was extra-ordinary, and the entire organization has been transformed. 2) Dual-core approach. When organizational change occurs, it may happen within the administrative or technical core functions. Each core has its set of employees, tasks, and environmental domain. Innovation and change can begin in either one. Administrative changes relate to the design and structure of the organization itself, including restructuring, downsizing, teams, information systems, and departmental groupings. Technology-based changes happen more frequently than administrative changes and fall under the hierarchical oversight of the administration (Daft, 2001). The dual-core approach to organizational change identifies the unique process associated with administrative changes (Daft, 1978). The administrative core responsibility encompasses control and coordination of the organization itself. The technical core transforms raw materials into organizational products and services. Daft summarizes findings 231 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from research that indicate a mechanistic organization structure is best fitted for frequent administrative changes. Successful administrative changes usually occur in organizations that have a large administrative ratio, are larger in size, and are centralized and formalized (i.e., bureaucratic). The reason is the top-down flow of control in response to changes in the external environment. It can be said that the creation of DHS is an example of an administrative structure. By contrast, an organization with an organic structure, in which lower-level employees have more freedom and autonomy, may resist top down directives. An organic structure is much more conducive to technical changes. These are summarized in Exhibit 2. Incremental vs. Radical Change Incremental Change Radical Change Continuous progression Paradigm-breaking burst Affect organizational part Transform entire organization Through normal structure and management processes Create new structure and management Technology improvements Breakthrough technology Product improvement New products, new markets . Exhibit 1 Sources: Based on Alan D. Meyer, James B. Goes, and Geoffrey R. Brooks, “Organizations in Disequilibrium: Environmental Jolts and Industry Revolutions,” in George Huber and William H. Glick, eds., Organizational Change and Redesign (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 66-111; and Harry S. Dent, Jr., “Growth through New Product Development,” Small Business Reports (November 1990): 30-40; Daft, 2001, 354) Dual-Core Approach to Organization Change Type of Innovation Desired Administrative Structure Administrative Core Technical Core Direction of Change: Top-Down Examples of Change: Strategy Downsizing Structure Best Organizational Design for Change: Mechanistic Exhibit 2: Type of Innovation Desired. Daft, 2001. 232 Technology Bottom-Up Production techniques Workflow Organic �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A change in administration such as downsizing usually has the most far-reaching impact on an organization. In drastic situations, where the change results in elimination or creation of a management level, a consequence is the creation of a new organization chart with new lines of reporting and possibly new responsibilities for individuals and their departments as seen in the creation of the DHS. Induced organizational chart changes may occur for strategic purposes, such as seeking new markets, changes in the environment, or changes in client or customer. 3) Administrative Structure and Core After the September 11, 2001 attaches, establishing the DHS was not surprising because environmental influences play significant roles in institutionalizing new organizations. As Hall suggests, organizations do not always try to maximize effectiveness. Environmental and technological variations affect the internal characteristics of organizations (Hall, 1972, 65). When looking at the homeland security system, efficiency is not a priority; the priority is to prevent attacks. In public sector, since there is no clear market as the private sector, the market can be considered as an international environment and/or all public. In other words, public organizations have very different purpose than their private counterparts. As Fountain believes, governmental organizations are not simply technical structures formed to produce outputs; they are institutions that confer legitimacy, credibility, and trust within society. They do not and cannot “go out of business” if they fail to perform well. They are not market-based entities (Fountain, 8). Thus, during the creating of the DHS, after the September 11, the conditions (legitimacy, credibility, trust) are well for to creating this department. As DiMaggio and Powell and then Wise clearly stated, leaders will seek to overcome the liability of newness by imitating established practices within the field. This is particularly true for new organizations, which could serve as sources of innovation and variation (DiMaggio and Powell 1983). In the federal government, this often means some hierarchical design (Wise, 2002a, 132). Conclusion Public organizations always need to make changes in their strategies and structures; otherwise they cannot be sustainable and effective. Meaningful change in public organizations requires that managers exert a concerted effort to implement it successfully (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006, 6). Similarly, change in response to environmental shifts is necessary in order to maintain strategic fit and remain competitive (Andrews, 1971). As seen the new public management and administrative reforms, for instance the DHS, public organizations need to make radical changes in technology, services, culture and strategies in order to adapt to new competitive demands. It has been widely accepted that networks and horizontal structures are more important than vertical and hierarchical structures. Still, many organizations, especially military organizations are highly hierarchical. Thus, the DHS tends to be more hierarchical due to its structure. The environment for U.S. homeland security could hardly be characterized as stable. As the president— George W. Bush—said, just considering international terrorist organizations, dozens of such organizations exist and are capable of doing harm to the United States. In addition, some of these organizations—such as the preeminent foe at the moment, al Qaeda—are very complex and highly differentiated. In fact, reports suggest that al Qaeda does not operate as an organization, but rather as an organizational network. Rather than a single, hierarchically integrated organization, al Qaeda is a loosely coupled collection of terrorist organizations that communicate and cooperate for actions against mutually identified targets of opportunity. This makes it—or rather, those—much more difficult to identify and track, much less counteract. In addition, these organizations do not act according to standard operating procedures, nor do they attack a standard set of targets or follow any set timetable. Also, this is but one terrorist network. It should be expected that other terrorist organizations will be represented by other organizational configurations. Thus, homeland security confronts an organizational field of terrorist organizations of considerable variation and complexity (Wise, 2002a, 132). One imperative of organizing for homeland security may be developing the capacity for organizations to engage in learning in complex, unstable environments. Nonetheless, another imperative is for new or reorganized organizations to fit into the federal governmental structure. That is, the Constitution and laws constitute organizational imperatives that the organization of homeland security will have to confront (Wise, 2002a, 134). As Vasu suggests, organizational change actions start with diagnosis, but managing change is a snowballing process (Vasu et al, 1998, 280). References Andrews, K. R. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. New York: Dow Jones-Irwin. 233 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ates, Hamza. (2004). Management as an Agent of Cultural Change in the Turkish Public Sector. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14 (1), 33–58. Berman, Evan, and Xiao Hu Wang. (2000). Performance Measurement in U.S. Counties: Capacity for Reform. Public Administration Review 60: 409-20. Brudney, Jeffrey L., and Deil S. Wright. (2002). Revisiting Administrative Reform in the American States: The Status of Reinventing Government During the 1990s. Public Administration Review 62: 353-61. Covin, J., and D. Slevin. (1989). Strategic management of small firms in hostile and benign environments. Strategic Management Journal 10: 75–87. Daft, Richard. L. (1978). A Dual Core-Core Model of Organizational Innovation. Academy of Management Journal 21: 193210. Daft, Richard L. (2001). Organization Theory and Design. Seventh Edition. South-Western. Dent Harry S. Jr. (1990). Growth through New Product Development. Small Business Reports, November: 30-40 Driscoll, Amanda, and Jonathan Morris. (2001). Stepping out: Rhetorical devices and cultural change in the UK civil service. Public Administration, 79 (4), 803–824. Fernandez, Sergio, and Pitts, David .W. (2007). Under What Conditions Do Public Managers Favor and Pursue Organizational Change? The American Review of Public Administration: 37 (3): 324-341 Jane E. Fountain, Jane E. (No date). Challenges to Organizational Change: Facilitating and Inhibiting Information-Based Redesign of Public Organizations. This paper is one of a series of works in progress sponsored by the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs (BCSIA), its Governance Initiative in the Middle East, and the Dubai School of Government. Grizzle, Gloria A., and Carol D. Pettijohn. (2002). Implementing Performance-Based Program Budgeting: A SystemDynamics Perspective. Public Administration Review, 62: 51-62. Hall, Richard H. (1972). Organizations: Structure and Process. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall. Hood, Christopher, and Guy Peters. (2004). The Middle Aging of New Public Management: Into the Age of Paradox? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14: 267-82. Julnes, Patria de Lancer., and Marc Holzer. (2001). Promoting the Utilization of Performance Measures in Public organizations: An Empirical Study of Factors Affecting Adoption and Implementation. Public Administration Review, 61: 693-708. Kettl, Donald F. (1993). Learning Organizations and Managing the Unknown. Paper presented at the Conference on Rethinking Public Personnel Systems, April 16–17, Washington, DC. Meyer Alan D., Goes James B., and Brooks Geoffrey R. (1992). Organizations in Disequilibrium: Environmental Jolts and Industry Revolutions, in George Huber and William H. Glick, eds., Organizational Change and Redesign. New York: Oxford University Press: 66-111. Perl, Raphael. (2004). The Department of Homeland Security: Background and Challenges, Terrorism—reducing Vulnerabilities and Improving Responses, Committee on Counterterrorism Challenges for Russia and the United States, Office for Central Europe and Eurasia Development, Security, and Cooperation Policy and Global Affairs, in Cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences, page 176. National Academies Press. Perry, James L. (1991). Strategies for Building Public Administration. Research in Public Administration, 1 (1), 1-18 Rago, William V. (1996). Struggles in transformation: A study in TQM, leadership, and organizational culture in a government agency. Public Administration Review 56 (3): 227–34. Robbins, Stephen P. (2000). Organizational Behavior, 9th edition, Prentice-Hall, inc, New Jersey. Stevenson, H. H., and D. E. Gumpert. (1985). The heart of entrepreneurship. Harvard Business Review, March–April: 85–94. Thompson, James R., and Shelley L. Fulla. (2001). Effecting Change in a Reform Context: The National Performance Review and the Contingencies of 'Microlevel' Reform Implementation. Public Performance and Management Review, 25: 155-75. Van de Ven, A. H, & Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 510-540. Vasu, Michael L., Stewart Debra W., and Garson David G. (1998). Organizational Behavior and Public Management. Edition: 3. CRC Press. Wise, Charles R. (1990). Public Service Configurations and Public Organizations: Public Organization Design in the PostPrivatization Era. Public Administration Review, 50(2): 141–55. Wise, Charles R. (2002). Organizing for Homeland Security. Public Administration Review, 62 (2): 131-144. 234 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Wise, Lois R. (2002). Public Management Reform: Competing Drivers of Change. Public Administration Review, 62 (5): 555-567. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10968&page=179 http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/dhs-org-chart-2003.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0133.shtm http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=tarihce http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch?mode=quicksearch&products=journal&WISsearch2=15406210&WISindexid2=issn&contentTitle=Public+Administration+Review&contextLink=blah&contentOID=118484994&WIS search1=charles+r.+wise&WISindexid1=WISauthor&articleGo.x=13&articleGo.y=7 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118944767/PDFSTART 235 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 206 Title A name given to the resource Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Author Author DEMiRCiOĞLU, Mehmet Akif Abstract A summary of the resource. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9c6b42527dc50d998cfecd67f36cca58.pdf 228986219e9195d7376d6bd5ac4593b7 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Strategy Focused Sports Clubs: An Implementation of the Balanced Scorecard for Soccer Teams Ali Coşkun Fatih University, İstanbul, Turkey alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr Selman Tetik Fatih University, İstanbul, Turkey stetik@fatih.edu.tr The main goal of the sports clubs is to produce benefit and create the social values for the society. Furthermore, it has also commercial dimension that was transformed from the show business aspect of sports clubs. Therefore, they undertake the role in the world as economic organizations. One of the most popular sports all around the world is the soccer (football). By taking into consideration the activities of professional soccer clubs on and off the field of play, it’s getting more important to manage them as a business organization. Since the soccer clubs are business organizations they have the similar managerial functions such as organizing, marketing and financing. Professional soccer clubs also have some strategic objectives concerning with the efficiency, effectiveness, competitiveness, and improving the market share. In order to survive and have the efficient and effective clubs they should measure and manage the performance of the clubs in different perspectives both on and off the field of play. A comprehensive approach is convenient to measure the performance of the clubs. The soccer clubs are liable to fulfill the expectations of a wide variety of stakeholder groups like fans, players, employees and staff, sponsors, suppliers, shareholders, broadcasters, sport media, local environment, soccer association, government, and legal authorities. In order to satisfy the needs and expectations of the stakeholders, soccer clubs should set up a multidimensional performance management system which concerns all perspectives. By bringing a comprehensive system to performance measurement and management, the balanced scorecard provides an integrated framework that can help the clubs to evaluate the financial and non-financial activities. This study reviews the management structures, business functions and the operations of the soccer clubs and the performance measurement systems used by them. In the study we develop a Balanced Scorecard model for soccer clubs. A classical balanced scorecard has four perspectives: 31 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo financial, costumer, internal process and learning and growth. In the Soccer Balanced Scorecard we will use the following four perspectives: financial sustainability perspective, fans perspective, internal process perspective, and infrastructure perspective. We analyze the performance management systems of the soccer clubs by classifying them base on their strategic priorities since the strategic objectives of the giants and the middle level teams are different. In the study after developing the perspectives of the soccer balanced scorecard we defined strategic objectives, performance measures relating to these objectives, performance targets for each measure and initiatives. In the study, it is suggested that if soccer clubs use the balanced scorecard as a strategic performance management tool it may help them to be strategy focused and may better serve their missions. Keywords: Soccer Clubs, Performance Measurement and Management, Balanced Scorecard 32 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1487 Title A name given to the resource Strategy Focused Sports Clubs: An Implementation of the Balanced Scorecard for Soccer Teams Author Author COSKUN, Ali TETIK, Selman Abstract A summary of the resource. The main goal of the sports clubs is to produce benefit and create the social values for the society. Furthermore, it has also commercial dimension that was transformed from the show business aspect of sports clubs. Therefore, they undertake the role in the world as economic organizations. One of the most popular sports all around the world is the soccer (football). By taking into consideration the activities of professional soccer clubs on and off the field of play, it’s getting more important to manage them as a business organization. Since the soccer clubs are business organizations they have the similar managerial functions such as organizing, marketing and financing. Professional soccer clubs also have some strategic objectives concerning with the efficiency, effectiveness, competitiveness, and improving the market share. In order to survive and have the efficient and effective clubs they should measure and manage the performance of the clubs in different perspectives both on and off the field of play. A comprehensive approach is convenient to measure the performance of the clubs. The soccer clubs are liable to fulfill the expectations of a wide variety of stakeholder groups like fans, players, employees and staff, sponsors, suppliers, shareholders, broadcasters, sport media, local environment, soccer association, government, and legal authorities. In order to satisfy the needs and expectations of the stakeholders, soccer clubs should set up a multidimensional performance management system which concerns all perspectives. By bringing a comprehensive system to performance measurement and management, the balanced scorecard provides an integrated framework that can help the clubs to evaluate the financial and non-financial activities. This study reviews the management structures, business functions and the operations of the soccer clubs and the performance measurement systems used by them. In the study we develop a Balanced Scorecard model for soccer clubs. A classical balanced scorecard has four perspectives:financial, costumer, internal process and learning and growth. In the Soccer Balanced Scorecard we will use the following four perspectives: financial sustainability perspective, fans perspective, internal process perspective, and infrastructure perspective. We analyze the performance management systems of the soccer clubs by classifying them base on their strategic priorities since the strategic objectives of the giants and the middle level teams are different. In the study after developing the perspectives of the soccer balanced scorecard we defined strategic objectives, performance measures relating to these objectives, performance targets for each measure and initiatives. In the study, it is suggested that if soccer clubs use the balanced scorecard as a strategic performance management tool it may help them to be strategy focused and may better serve their missions. Keywords: Soccer Clubs, Performance Measurement and Management, Balanced Scorecard Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/80087d6b3a58da1af3a375103f3c3463.pdf eec67b123fab942a10667d3b8b6f6a62 PDF Text Text Evangelista, A. D., Fortes, N. R. & Santiago, C. B., 2005.Comparison of Some Live Organisms and Artificial Diet as Feed for Asian Catfish ‗Clariasmacrocephalus‘ (Günther) Larvae. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 21 (2005), 437–443. Fernando, A. A., Phang,V. P. G. & Chan, S. Y., 1991. Diets and Feeding Regimes of Poeciliid Fishes in Singapore.Asian Fish. Sci. 4, 99–107. Giri, S.S., Sahoo, S.K., Sahu, B.B., Sahu, A.K., Mohanty, S.N., Mukhopadhyay, P.K. &Ayyappan, S., 2002. Larval Survival and Growth in ‗Wallagoattu‘ (Bloch and Schneider): Effects of Light, Photoperiod and Feeding Regims. Aquaculture, 213:151-161. Guppy Culture in Israel Using Closed System. Last Accessed on 3 1, 2012, from http://aquafind.com/articles/guppy1.php The Use of Clove Oil as a Fish Anaesthetic. Last Accessed on 3 5, 2012, from http://www.akuademi.net/USG/USG2007/Y/y08.pdf Kumar, D., Marimuthu, K., Haniffa, M. A. &Sethuramalingam, T. A., 2008.Effect of Different Live Feed on Growth and Survival of Striped Murrel‗Channastriatus‘ larvae. E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 2008, Cilt/Volume 25, Sayı/Issue (2): 105–110. Lim, L. C., Dhert, P. &Sorgeloos, P., 2003.Recent Developments in the Application of Live Feeds in the Freshwater Ornamental Fish Culture. Aquaculture 227 (2003) 319–331. Sales, J. &Janssens, G. P. J., 2003.Nutrient Requirements of Ornamental fish.Aquatic. Living Resources, 16 (2003) 533–540. Sorgeloos, P., Dhert, P. &Candreva, P., 2001.Use of the Brine Shrimp, Artemia spp.In Marine Fish Larviculture. Aquaculture, 200, 147-159. Sales, J. &Janssens G. P. J., 1993, Nutrition of Ornamental Fish. Aquatic Living Resources 16 (2003) 533–540. Uslu, M., 2003, Determination of Suitable Feed Source Necessity of Blackmolly (Poecilialatipinna)‘ on Larval and Juvenile Term.ÇukurovaÜniv., Su Ürün. A.B.D., M.Sc. Thesis, Adana, 41pp. Structural Characterization Of Iron Aluminide Coatings On Aisi 4140 Steel By Trd Ugur Sen*, Eren Yılmaz, Saduman Sen Sakarya University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Metallurgy and Materials, Esentepe Campus, 54187, Sakarya- Turkey. E-mail: ugursen@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract In the present study, structural characterization of iron aluminide coated AISI 4140 steel by thermo-reactive deposition technique (TRD) in the powder mixture consisting of pure 310 �aluminum, ammonium chloride and alumina at the temperatures of 700°C, 800°C and 900ºC for 1-5 h were investigated. The coated samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope and micro-hardness tests. Iron aluminide layer formed on the AISI 4140 steel was smooth, compact and homogeneous. The phases formed in the coating layer deposited on the surface of the steel substrates are Fe2Al5, FeAl2, AlN and Al2O3. The depth of the iron aluminide layer ranged from 37.56±3.46 μm to 280.38±21.58 μm, depending on treatment temperature and time. The higher the treatment temperature and time the thicker the coating layer observed. The hardness of the iron aluminide layer was ranged from 952.4 to 1003.2 HV0.005. Keywords: Coating, aluminizing, iron aluminide, thermo reactive deposition 1. INTRODUCTION Protective coatings by pack aluminizing are frequently applied to metals to protect them from high temperature oxidation and hot corrosion attack. Pack aluminizing consists of heating the parts to be coated in a closed or vented pack to a high temperature for a period of time, during which a diffusion coating of desired composition and thickness is produced on the metal (Zhan 2006, Zhan 2007 and Smith 2005). Aluminide coatings were formed at a relatively lower temperature and in a shorter treatment time by combining the pack aluminizing with the ball impact process, compared with the conventional pack aluminizing. The pack processes for simultaneous depositions of Al and Cr, A1 and Si on either steels or super alloys have been studied using a mixture of alloy powder as the pack component. (Lee 2005). Conventional processes for fabricating aluminide coatings, such as pack cementation or chemical vapor deposition (CVD), are typically carried out at elevated temperatures (7001150°C) (Zhang 2007). Iron aluminide coatings are applied on steels to improve their corrosion resistance in oxidizing, sulphidizing and carburizing environments encountered in coal gasification plants, crude oil refineries and petrochemical industries. In addition, Aluminide-containing surface layers of steel provides high resistance to erosion or low-stress abrasive wear at elevated temperatures, corrosion, and corrosive wear. Iron aluminide-based coatings have demonstrated excellent oxidation resistance in exhaust/steam environments by forming a protective alumina scale. With the push towards ultra-supercritical steam coal-fired power plants, alumina-forming coatings become particularly attractive because at higher operating temperatures the slow growth of alumina and its stability in the presence of water vapor are superior to coatings that form chromium or silica-rich scales. (Jhon 2004, Ahmedi 2003, Pereza 2000 and Zhang 2007). The main objective of this study was to investigate some structural, morphological and mechanical properties of iron aluminide layers formed on the AISI 4140 steel produced by thermo reactive deposition technique. 311 �2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The work-piece material used in this study was AISI 4140 steel containing 0.40wt.% C, 0.25wt.% Si, 0.18wt.% Mo, 0.62wt.% Mn and 1.0wt.% Cr. The substrate samples were in the form of cylindrical coupons that have dimensions of 22 mm in diameter and 5 mm in thickness and polished progressively with 1200 grit emery papers. Then, these samples were cleaned ultrasonically in acetone and dried. Aluminizing was performed on the steel samples by thermo-reactive deposition (TRD) process. The TRD process was performed utilizing a pack box containing pure aluminum, ammonium chloride and alumina powders, in a high temperature tube furnace. Pure aluminum, ammonium chloride and alumina were used as metal supplier (Al), activator and filler materials, respectively. Iron aluminide coated samples were sectioned from one side and prepared metallographically up to 1200 grid emery paper and then polished using 1µm alumina paste. Polished samples were etched by 3% Nital before tests. The thickness of coatings and their morphology were examined using NICKON ECLIPSE L150 optical microscopy and JEOL 6060 LV scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on the cross-sections of the iron aluminide coated samples. The chemical analysis of the coating layers were determined by x-ray diffraction analysis using by RIGAKU XRD D/MAX/2200/PC x-ray diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation. The hardness of the coated steel materials was also measured using a FUTURE TECH FM 700 micro-hardness tester fitted with a Vickers indenter under the loads of 5 gf. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 1(a-c) show optical, SEM micrographs and EDS analysis of the iron aluminide coated AISI 4140 steel at 800ºC for 1h and 800ºC for 3h, respectively. Coating layers formed on the AISI 4140 steel were compact homogenous, with significant regularities in their thickness and presenting a smooth interface with the substrate (Figure 1a,b). EDS analysis showed that, the coating layer includes higher aluminum in the coating layer as seen in Figure 1(c). Aluminum concentration of in the outer of the coating layer is much higher than that of inner parts of the coating layer and iron concentration of the inner parts of the coating layer is much higher than that of the in the outer of the coating layer was observed as seen in Figure 1c . XRD pattern (Figure 2) of the iron aluminide coated sample at 800 ºC for 3 h showed that, the phases formed on the coated steel sample are Fe2Al5, FeAl2, AlN and Al2O3. This result agrees with earlier studies of Zhan et al. (Zhan 2007). The thickness of iron aluminide layer ranged from 37.56±3.46 μm to 280.38±21.58 μm, depending on treatment temperature and time. The higher the treatment temperature and time, the thicker the iron aluminide layer became. Figure 3 shows the iron aluminide layer thickness depending on process temperature and time. For thermo chemical coating processes, the longer the process time and the higher the treatment temperature, the thicker the coating layer becomes. Bath composition, substrate, treatment time and temperature affect the coating layer thickness in the TRD processes (Arai 1989). The hardness of the iron aluminide layer formed on the AISI 4140 steel was ranged from 952.4 to 1003.2 HV0.005 (Figure 4) whereas the hardness of uncoated steel is 390 312 �HV0.005. These results are in good agreement with Zhan et al. (Zhan 2007). These are due to the presence of hard aluminides (Fe2Al5 and FeAl2) in the coating layer as verified by XRD analysis (Figure 2). (a) (c) 313 (b) �Figure 1. (a) Optical, (b) SEM micrographs and EDS analysis of the iron aluminide coated AISI 4140 steel at 800ºC for 1h and 800ºC for 3h, respectively. Figure 2. XRD pattern of the iron aluminide coated AISI 4140 steel at 800 ºC for 3 h (a) (b) Figure 3. (a) The thickness of iron aluminide layer formed on AISI 4140 steel and (b) contour diagrams of coating layer thickness depending on process parameters 314 �Figure 4. The variation of hardness of iron aluminide layer formed on AISI 4140 steel from surface to interior, depending on process parameters. 4. CONCLUSIONS AISI 4140 steel was the substrate used for the deposition of iron aluminide coating by thermoreactive deposition technique and the treatment was proved to be efficient in the production of iron aluminide base coatings.The results obtained from present study can be summarized as follows: • Coating layers formed on the AISI 4140 steel were compact homogenous, with significant regularities in their thickness and presenting a smooth interface with the substrate. • EDS analysis show that aluminum concentration of in the outer of the coating layer is much higher than that of inner parts of the coating layer and iron concentration of the inner parts of the coating layer is much higher than that of the in the outer of the coating layer was observed. • XRD analysis showed that the coating layer includes Fe2Al5, FeAl2, AlN and Al2O3 phases. • The thickness of iron aluminide layer ranged from 37 μm to 280 μm, depending on treatment temperature and time. • The hardness of the iron aluminide layer formed on the steel samples was changingbetween 952.4 to 1003.2 HV0.005 which was much harder than steel (390 HV0.005). 315 �REFERENCES Zan Z. He Y. Wang D. Gao W. (2006) Preparation of aluminide coatings at relatively low temperatures, Trans. Nonferrous Met. SOC. China, 16, 647-653. Zan Z. He Y. Wang D. Gao W. (2007) Aluminide Coatings Formed on Fe–13Cr Steel at Low Temperature and its Oxidation Resistance, Oxid Met, 68, 243–251. Lee J.W. Kuo Y.C. (2005) Cyclic oxidation behavior of a cobalt aluminide coating on Cobase super alloy AMS 5608, Surface and Coatings Technology, 200, 5-6, 1225-1230. Smith A. B. and Kempster A. (2005) Utilization of Aluminide Diffusion Coatings to Improve High Temperature Performance, NACE Int.Conference, Corrosion, 14. Y. Zhang, Y. Q. Wang, and B. A. Pint (2007) Evaluation of Iron Aluminide Coatings for Oxidation Protection in Water Vapor Environment, NACE Int.Conference, Corrosion, 12. John J.T. Kale G.B. Bharadwaj S.R. Srinivasa R.S. De P.K (2004) A kinetic model for iron aluminide coating by low pressure chemical vapor deposition: Part II. Model formulation, Thin Solid Films, 466, 1-2, 331-338. Ahmadi H. Li D.Y. (2003) Beneficial effects of yttrium on mechanical properties and hightemperature wear behavior of surface aluminized 1045 steel, Wear, 255, 933-942. Pereza F.J. Pedrazaa F. Hierroa M.P. Houb P.Y. (2000) Adhesion properties of aluminide coatings deposited via CVD in fluidized bed reactors (CVD-FBR) on AISI 304 stainless steel, Surface and Coatings Technology, 133-134, 338-343. Arai T. (1989) Development of Carbide and nitride coatings by thermo-reactive deposition and diffusion. In: Sudarshan TS, Bhat DG, Hinderman H, Editors. Proceedings of third international surface modification technologies, 587. 316 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1261 Title A name given to the resource Structural Characterization Of Iron Aluminide Coatings On Aisi 4140 Steel By Trd Author Author Ugur , Sen Abstract A summary of the resource. In the present study, structural characterization of iron aluminide coated AISI 4140 steel by thermo-reactive deposition technique (TRD) in the powder mixture consisting of pure aluminum, ammonium chloride and alumina at the temperatures of 700°C, 800°C and 900ºC for 1-5 h were investigated. The coated samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope and micro-hardness tests. Iron aluminide layer formed on the AISI 4140 steel was smooth, compact and homogeneous. The phases formed in the coating layer deposited on the surface of the steel substrates are Fe2Al5, FeAl2, AlN and Al2O3. The depth of the iron aluminide layer ranged from 37.56±3.46 μm to 280.38±21.58 μm, depending on treatment temperature and time. The higher the treatment temperature and time the thicker the coating layer observed. The hardness of the iron aluminide layer was ranged from 952.4 to 1003.2 HV0.005. Keywords: Coating, aluminizing, iron aluminide, thermo reactive deposition Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/41ee66983f5f7f59a45bee6afe90e705.pdf de17892933bb4c47a125ffc865c741a8 PDF Text Text Structural Engineering Applications of Artificial Neural Networks Hakan Başaran, Muhiddin Bağcı Celal Bayar University, 45140, Manisa, Turkey E-mails: hakan.basaran@bayar.edu.tr,muhiddin.bagci@bayar.edu.tr Abstract In this study, infilled planar frames and confined reinforced concrete section have been analysed using Artificial Neural Network (ANN). ANN architecture was chosen in which multi layer, feed forward, and back propagation algorithm was used. The training data of infill frame used were provided by a finite element model in which non-linearity of materials and the structural interface were taken into account under increasing lateral load. Using the proposed analytical model (layered model) were generated the training data for confined reinforced concrete section. Analytical technique uses realistic material models for confined and unconfined concrete. After completing the training phase, verification of the performance of the network was carried out using old (included in training phase) and new (not included in training phase) patterns. The controls conducted in the test phase. The findings of this exercise show that the ANN algorithm can be successfully and easily used within reasonable accuracy in order to decrease computational time in finding infill frame and the momentcurvature relationships of reinforced concrete sections. Keywords:. Artificial Neural Network, Finite Elements Method, Infilled Frame, Confined Reinforced Concrete Section, Moment-Curvature 1. INTRODUCTION The mathematical models have been widely applied for the analysis of infilled frame. Holmes M (1961) modelled the infill effect occurring in an infilled frame without considering the effects on the interface between frame and infill. In studies conducted by Smith BS (1962), the approach of diagonal compression strut was dealt with in a more detailed way. Using a finite element model, Mallick DV and Severn RT (1967) attained the results without considering the shear effect on the infill frame interface. With a program they prepared. Infilled planar frames have been analysed using artificial neural network by Bağcı and Altintaş (2006). The layered model for confined reinforced sections was first used by Pavriz et al (1991). Moment-curvature relationships of confined concrete sections were investigated by Ersoy U and Özcebe G (1997). For some other examples of ANN applications, the reader 433 �is referred to (Jadid MN and Fairbairn DR (1996), Lee et al (1992), Avdelas et al (1995), Karlık et al (1998). In this study, the stiffness, moment and shear force values on frame for five different height of infill wall are calculated using finite elements method (FEM). The behavior values of confined reinforced concrete sections subjected to flexure and axial load are obtained by using analytical solution (layered model). The calculated key values are used in training a multi-layer, feed forward, back propagation artificial neural network (ANN). The outcomes of training phase were then tested using the data set reserved for this the network purpose. The findings of this exercise have shown that the ANN algorithm can be successfully and easily used within reasonable accuracy in order to decrease computational time in infilled frame and confined section problems. 2. PARAMETRIC STUDIES Dimensions of infilled frame given by Fiorato AC and Sözen M (1973) in Fig. 1 are shown, and the materials properties are listed in Tab. 1. The lateral load (P) was applied at the top left hand corner of the frame in Fig. 1a in 20 increments of 10 kN each. Figure 1a. Frame-infill wall 1b. Mesh model of with full infill wall 434 �Table 1. Properties of material Modulus of elasticity Compression Strength 2 Tension Strength Poisson (kN/m2) Ratio 2 (kN/m ) (kN/m ) Frame 2.85x107 3.1x104 3x103 0.2 Infill 1.7x107 3.1x104 2.8x103 0.2 The wall was modelled mesh of quadrilateral-shaped isoparametric plane stress elements as shown in Figure 1b. The results of a numerical study are given in Tab. 2, with respect to whether the infill fills the space among the frame. Infill height is h with  being ranging from 0 and 1 (=1, =0.8, =0.6, =0.4, =0.2 and bare). Table 2. Results of FEM Infill Loadheight P Stiffness (infill / no infill) (kN) Left column shear force Left column moment Infill Loadheight P Stiffness (infill / no infill) (kN) Left column Left column Moment shear force /lateral load (Infill / no infill) (Infill / no infill) / lateral load h 435 10 5,65700 0,19000 0,19000 20 5,65700 0,19000 30 5,65700 40 0,4h 10 1,3140 0,51400 0,87900 0,19000 20 1,2570 0,54200 0,91900 0,19000 0,19000 30 1,2170 0,55000 0,93800 5,65700 0,19000 0,19000 40 1,2050 0,55200 0,94700 50 5,57100 0,19000 0,19000 50 1,2000 0,56000 0,94700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . �It has been seen that the effect of infill gets clear only when it reaches at 0.4 for the value at the initial step of loading, though the stiffness of, infilled frame reaches at 5.7 fold, a rather high number, local failures occurring in the infill as a result of increasing dimensionless load, leads to a decrease in the overall stiffness of the system. Shear strength of the column increases with the height of infill. When the height of infill reached at the value of 0.8h, it was seen that the shear force of the column was 50 % higher than the shear force it carries when it was a bare frame. In this case, “short column” verifies its effect. When the height of infill was organised at the height of storey, it was seen that it was useful in term of shear strength of column. Input parameters are lateral load (P) and height of infill (h) values. Output parameters are stiffness (infill /no infill), shear force / lateral load and moment (infill / no infill) at the loaded column. As it is known, in neural network applications, the input values and output values can be reduced to the values between 0-1. That is the normalization process, which is done in this work dividing P’s by 220 and dividing h’s by 1.1h. The output values were also divided by 5.7 stiffness ratio, 0.7 shear force ratio and 1.1 moment ratio, which were the highest values that we used in our application. Training was performed for the heights of wall h, 0.8h, 0.6h, 0.4h, 0.2h and bare and for loads of frame 10, 40, 70, 110, 150,190. As known, the general aim in the training process is to teach the relations between input and output values to the program and to obtain good answers to different input values with the possible lowest error rates. Values obtained from the numerical procedure (FEM) are used in the network training. A special code was used for ANN exercise by Karlık, B et al (17). It is adapted and fitted to our application with some changes. ANN architecture with multilayered, forward feeding and backward propagation algorithm was chosen for the training. The ANN architecture used is a 2:9:9:3 multi-layer architecture as shown in Fig. 2. Exact and ANN values of output are compared in Tab. 3 for various h and P values. For these training  FEM  ANN / ANN number of output values, the ANN algorithm produced results with average error less than 0.2 %. The maximum value for FEM / ANN is about 1.0351 in 0.4h infill height and 70 kN load value. 436 �Figure 2. Network Architecture for infilled frame Table 3. The results of ANN and FEM in training Left column Infill Height Lateral load kN Solution Method Stiffness ratio (Infill / no infill) FEM/ ANN Left column Shear force/lateral load FEM/ ANN Moment ratio FEM/ ANN (Infill / bare) FEM 5.65699 10 0.18999 0.19000 0.9977 ANN 5.67016 FEM 5.65699 40 0.9984 0.19030 0.18999 0.19000 1.0136 ANN 5.58108 FEM 4.77100 70 1.0004 0.18992 4.79018 FEM 3.97100 0.9650 0.19688 0.21499 0.25199 0.9960 ANN 1.0246 0.18543 0.9963 0.21580 1.01.91 0.24728 h 110 0.28000 0.34500 1.0105 ANN 3.92982 FEM 3.66800 150 0.9961 0.28110 0.31999 0.39299 0.9976 ANN 3.67685 FEM 3.51399 190 0.9859 0.32458 1.0051 0.39100 0.35999 0.42000 1.0034 ANN 0.9858 0.34998 0.9830 3.50218 0.36621 0.9942 0.42245 In Fig. 3, the mean square errors (MSE) in training versus iteration numbers are shown for problem. After 1600 iterations, the mean square errors dropped drastically. For more than 15000 iterations, our architecture 2:9:9:3 used in the analysis possesses the lowest total error values. 25,00 % MSE 20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 437 0,00 0 200 400 600 800 1.000 Number of ıteration 1.200 1.400 �Figure 3. Mean Square Errors (MSE) based on iteration numbers for infilled frame Different input values were applied to the program for testing the neural network and the results were obtained in milliseconds. Testing was performed for height of wall h and for load values of frame 20, 60, 100, 140, 180. In Tab. 4, we compare the test phase results of ANN and FEM. Table 4. Test Phase Results for infilled frame Load of Infill P wall kN Stiffness ratio Height 20 60 h 100 140 180 438 Method (Infilled / no infill) FEM 5,65700 ANN 5,64500 FEM 5,18800 ANN 5,22100 FEM 4,1140 ANN 4,2550 FEM 3,73100 ANN 3,68000 FEM 3,54200 ANN 3,53400 Left Column FEM Left column / shear force / Moment ratio ANN /lateral load (infilled/ 1.0021 0.9937 0.9669 1.0138 1.0022 0,19000 0,18600 0,19500 0,19700 0,27000 0,27130 0,31000 0,3088 0,35000 0.3485 FEM ANN FEM / ANN no infill) 1.0215 0.9898 0.9953 1.0038 1.0043 0,19000 0,19120 0,21400 0,2134 0,32600 0,31600 0,38000 0,37290 0,41400 0,41485 0.9938 1.0028 1.0316 1.0190 0.9998 � FEM  ANN / ANN number of output ) obtained is obviously about 0.269. The The average % error ( maximum value for FEM / ANN is about 1.0316 in 100 kN load value. From an engineering point of view, these errors are considerably low. The other parametric study has been conducted to observe the effect of different variables on behavior of confined reinforced section shown in Fig. 4. Figure 4. The cross-section considered in analyses. Variables selected to incorporate in the expression of moment-curvature are compressive strength of concrete (fck), the ratio of the axial load to the axial load capacity (N/No), yield strength in transverse reinforcement (fsh), space of transverse reinforcement (s), diameter of transverse reinforcement (Ø), ratio of longitudinal steel (), yield strength of longitudinal steel (fyk) as shown in Tab. 5. Where TY, TH, CvC, CoC , , M are yield in tension, hardening of reinforcing in tension , cover crushing, core crushing, strain at maximum moment, and maximum moment, respectively. The results obtained from Tab.5 demonstrates no very significant effect on Moment capacity from compressive strength (fck) in case of pure bending (N=0). The compressive strength becomes effective with increasing axial load. Maximum moment capacity shows changes of ±25% due to ±25% compressive strength variation. The increasing compressive strength causes the decrease in ductility. As level of the axial load (N/No) on the cross-section increases, ductility decreases. Increase in ductility with decreasing axial load is very significant. It is interesting to note that, although the section considered is well confined, the behavior becomes very brittle under high levels of axial load. The upper limits imposed on axial loads in seismic codes results from such considerations. Table 5. The results according to different variables of confined concrete section 439 �It is seen that yield strength in transverse reinforcement (fsh) has no effect on behavior for all levels of axial load. The spacing of the lateral reinforcement (s) in the confined section is ineffective on behavior at low level of axial load. The maximum moment capacity and ductility increase when spacing of the lateral reinforcement is reduced with increasing axial load. As ductility increases with diameter of transverse reinforcement (Ø), it has no very effect on moment capacity. The crushing of core concrete delays with increasing diameter of transverse reinforcement. The diameter of transverse reinforcement becomes effective with the increasing axial load. The quantity of longitudinal reinforcement (ρ) has an important effect on behavior of the confined section. Maximum moment capacity causes increasing 10% due to a the quantity of longitudinal reinforcement variation 30%. The quantity of longitudinal reinforcement has very significant effect on behavior at low level axial load. The moment capacity decreases with the higher axial load . The quantity of longitudinal reinforcement is ineffective on ductility. The yield strength of longitudinal bar (fyk) is effective parameter in case of pure bending. Maximum moment capacity causes changing ±10% due to a yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement variation ±30%. In this study , a neural network program which was written by Karlık et al. (1998) in PASCAL was used . Seven variables for input and six variables for output values were considered in the application. As it is known, in neural network applications, the input values and output values can be normalized to the values between 0-1. It is seen that the best results were obtained with learning rate  of 0.7, and momentum value µ of 0.9. The number of nodes in the hidden layer was changed for new trials. 1000 iterations were performed for each 440 �node number between 1 and 0, and the errors were obtained from the program per 100 iterations. The chances in % error values of 1000 iterations due to the number of hidden layer nodes are shown in Fig 5. Finally, the lowest errors were obtained in the order of 7:12:13:6 which means 7 input values, 12 and 13 nodes in hidden layers and 6 output value. Thus, the network architecture would be as in Fig 6 Figure 5. The error changes due to the number of nodes in the hidden layer 1000 iterations. The training iterations were increased to 5000. So, we obtained as low as 0.07% average errors, which is reasonably good for ANN applications. The change in errors can be seen in Fig. 7.. Figure 6. ANN architecture for confined sections 441 �% error 1,2 1,1 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Number of iterations Figure 7. The error change at ANN architecture (7:12:13:6) for confined sections ANN values of output are compared in Tab. 6. The average error between analytical and Analytical ANN / ANN numberof solution ANN ( ) is produced less than 0.2 %. The maximum difference (Analytical / ANN) for TY, TH, CvC, CoC, and M is about 0.965, 0.978, 1.039, 0.961 , 0.962 , and 0.976 , respectively. From an engineering point of view, these errors are considered low. Table 6. Training process and results for confined sections A comparison of test and analytical values is given in Tab. 7. The average error Analytical ANN / ANN numberof solution ( ) obtained is obviously about 0.33%. The maximum difference (Analytical / ANN) for TY, TH, CvC, CoC,  and M is about 0.967, 0.966, 0.972, 0.968 , 0.991 , and 0.992 , respectively. From an engineering point of view, these errors are considered low. 442 �Table 7. Testing process and results for confined sections 4. CONCLUSION In this paper, an alternative numerical and analytical technique, an ANN algorithm is used in the analysis of infilled frame and confined reinforced section. Neural simulation of numerical and analytical procedure is given in this study. To reduce the calculation time of the microprocessor of system, a new computer program is used by the ANN method, which gives answer in milliseconds. ANN architecture was chosen in which multi layer, feed forward, and back propagation algorithm is used. The training data of infill frame are provided by a finite element model in which non-linearity of materials and the structural interface were taken into account under increasing lateral load. For the inelastic static analysis, an incremental iterative procedure is adopted. Using the proposed analytical model (layered model) are generated the training data for confined reinforced concrete section. Developed model is using layered modeling technique and capable of taking into account; crushing of cover and core concrete, strain hardening of steel and effect of confinement on core concrete. After completing the training phase, verification of the performance of the network was carried out using old (included in training phase) and new (not included in training phase) patterns. The controls conducted in the test phase. ANN algorithms can not of course replace totally the conventional numerical and analytical techniques, since they need some key values for training. However, in the analysis infilled frame and confined reinforced sections, they can be implemented as an efficient supplementary tool reducing drastically the computational cost. Modeling process in neural network is more direct, since there is no necessity to specify a mathematical relationship between input and output variables. The trained ANN is able to produce quick results in the analysis of infilled frame and confined reinforced section with the same degree of accuracy as numerical and analytical model. Therefore, the trained ANN may be used in practice for the design of infilled frame and confined cross section as on alternative to the time consuming numerical and analytical procedure. 443 �REFERENCES Holmes M.1961. Steel Frames with Brick Work and Concrete Infilling. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. 19: 473-498 Smith BS.1962. Lateral Stiffness of Infilled Frames. Journal of Struct. Div. ASCE. 8, 183-99 Mallick DV and Severn RT. 1967. The behaviour of infilled frames under static loading. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. 38, 639-656. Bağcı M., Altıntaş G.2006. Artificial Neural Network Analysis of Infilled Planar Frames, Proceedings Of ICE, Structures & Buildings 159(1), 37-44. Parviz S, Jongsung S, and Jer-Wen H. 1991. Axial / Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Sections / Effects of Design Variables. ACI, 88, 17-21. Ersoy U.and Özcebe G.1997. Moment-Curvature Relationship of Confined Concrete Sections. First Japan-Turkey Workshop On Earthquake Engineering, Ankara, Turkey, 10-21. Jadid MN and Fairbairn DR.1996, Neural-network Applications in Predicting Momentcurvature Parameters from Experimental Data. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 9, 309-319. Lee Y, Oh SH., Hong HK., and Kim MW.1992. Design Rules of Multi-Layer Perceptron. Science of Artificial Neutral Nets in Structural Mechanics. Structural Optimisation, 1710: 329-339. Avdelas AV, Panagiotopoulos PD, and Kortesis S.1995. Neutral Networks for Computing in the Elastoplastic Analysis of Structures. Meccanica, 30: 1-15. Karlık B, Özkaya E, Aydın S, and Pakdemirli M.1998. Vibration of beam-mass system using artificial neural networks. Computers & Structures, 1998, 69: 339-347. Fiorato A. C., Sözen M. A.1973. An investigation of the interaction of reinforced concrete frames with masonry filler walls. Structural research series report No. 370, University of Illinois, Urbana. 444 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1201 Title A name given to the resource Structural Engineering Applications of Artificial Neural Networks Author Author Hakan , Başaran Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, infilled planar frames and confined reinforced concrete section have been analysed using Artificial Neural Network (ANN). ANN architecture was chosen in which multi layer, feed forward, and back propagation algorithm was used. The training data of infill frame used were provided by a finite element model in which non-linearity of materials and the structural interface were taken into account under increasing lateral load. Using the proposed analytical model (layered model) were generated the training data for confined reinforced concrete section. Analytical technique uses realistic material models for confined and unconfined concrete. After completing the training phase, verification of the performance of the network was carried out using old (included in training phase) and new (not included in training phase) patterns. The controls conducted in the test phase. The findings of this exercise show that the ANN algorithm can be successfully and easily used within reasonable accuracy in order to decrease computational time in finding infill frame and the momentcurvature relationships of reinforced concrete sections. Keywords:. Artificial Neural Network, Finite Elements Method, Infilled Frame, Confined Reinforced Concrete Section, Moment-Curvature Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),T Technology (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3bb53c815d9f0a70fbf423a47615638.pdf 65264272179df15a2d44210367ffab69 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Izabela DankiĤ Faculty of Philosophy University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina izabela.dankic@gmail.com Abstract: Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Key Words: practitioner research, teacher training, reflective practice Introduction In FL language teacher education, it is assumed that student teachers need to acquire the knowledge taught in introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses to become effective practitioners. The extent of impact of these courses on pre-service teacher beliefs, knowledge and practice is the subject of many debates and studies. Some even claim that teacher education courses seem to have little impact (Woods, 1996; Peacock, 2001; Lo, 2005; Busch, 2010) because students resist changing their pre-existing beliefs and position on learning resulting from their previous experiences. Therefore, they suggest that pre-service teachers should take into account the belief systems of their students in order to improve the outcome of training and promote reflective teaching since it seems to have a stronger effect on the belief systems than exclusive declarative knowledge teaching. Mann (2005, p. 108) points out that findings of several studies indicate that more reflective teachers are better able to monitor, make real-time decisions and respond to the changing needs of learners than less reflective teachers‖. Reflection, reflective practice or reflective teaching are all terms which are differently defined, but they encompass processes which involve ―meta-thinking (thinking about thinking) in which we consider the relationship between our thoughts and our actions in a particular context‖ (Shkedi, 2000, p. 95)‖ or ―inner dialogue‖ (Mann, 2005, p. 33). Loughran states that ―for others, it [reflective practice] is a well defined and crafted practice that carries very specific meaning and associated action‖ (Loughran, 2002, p. 33). Reflective teaching can also be seen as „an approach to teaching which is based on a belief that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences‖ (Richards, 2002, p. 23). They are to collect data on their own teaching practices by recording them, to reflect on their actions through journal writing and to review them by discussing them with their peers or by examining the recordings (Richards, 2002, p. 23). Halbach (2002) reports in her research that all entries made by teachers in their reflective journals could be classified into three types: summarizing, exemplifying and commenting. Amobi (2005) discusses a framework for analyzing reflectivity. It consists of four categories: describing, informing, confronting and reconstructing. She asked the teacher trainers to direct their attention in their teaching journals to answering these three questions in order for her to be able to construct their ―reflective thinking on their teaching practice‖ (Amobi, 2005, p. 119) according to the four categories: 1) What did I intend to do in this lesson? (informing) 2) What did I do? (confronting and reconstructing) 3) What would I do differently if I were to teach this lesson again? (confronting and reconstructing) The subjects in Amobi‘s study had minimal difficulties answering the first two questions, but some of them experienced problems in answering the third question related to confronting and reconstructing aspect of reflection. 656 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Different personal, professional and contextual factors may contribute to problems related to the teacher‘s ability to reflect, and, therefore, Stanley (1998) introduces several phases in the development of reflective teaching which involve engaging in reflection, thinking, using, sustaining and practicing reflection. Although many experts agree on the importance of reflection in pre-service teacher training, practitioners indicate that some students might find it difficult to reflect. One of the reasons stated was that some students could not see any value in writing reflections (Gunn, 2010, p. 218). We decided to explore the extent to which a reflective approach to teacher training is suitable for the students of English language and literature at the Mostar University (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The Outline of the Study The courses under study are the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University. These students study to become English teachers and it is expected that after these courses they will master basic theoretical postulates behind the second language acquisition and methods of teaching English. The practical experience of teaching in these courses is limited to peer teaching each other (microteaching experience) and the real classroom experience (field experience) is a separate course and left for the last semester of their education. The Mostar University is a public university, but due to the difficult financial and political situation, it is forced to find outside sources to support its operations. As far as the English teaching program is concerned, the lack of field experience is not felt in the long run due to the mandatory requirement that all graduates planning to work as teachers must pass a state teaching exam which among other requirements asks from students to observe, teach and study for a lengthy period of time with the state appointed mentors who are experienced elementary and/or secondary school English teachers. Using the principled framework of Exploratory Practice (EP), we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in these classes in order to follow their development. We have decided to apply EP because it is an approach to practitioner research which is devoted to understanding the quality of foreign language classroom life. In teaching pre-service teachers to develop reflective habits of mind, it is recommended that teacher educators determine the content to be reflected on and the quality of reflection (Valli, 1997). The present study inquired into reflective practice of pre-service teachers when asked to revisit their experience in the observed classes, their teaching actions and peers‘ and teacher‘s evaluation in a microteaching experience. As Amobi (2005) successfully analyzed recurring themes of reflectivity, we have also decided to conduct the analysis of the themes of reflectivity but our analysis is based on the free participants reflective journals and their position papers after the observed courses. Participants and Instructional Procedures Participants (N=35) were students enrolled in the fourth year second language acquisition (SLA) course and later as the fifth year students in a general methods (GM) course in 2010. They ranged in age from 22- 26 with no prior teaching experience. These courses met for 135 minutes once a week for 15 weeks. The SLA course did not include any microteaching. Students were required as a part of this course to write a journal which might include reflections on their experiences in the class, content and issues covered in the course, assignments they had to complete or in general to contribute to the class through their own critical thinking. The GM course did not include any field experience, but one microteaching activity. The students prepared a micro-lesson to teach to their peers exclusively using one of the 10 selected modern methods. This activity was commented on by the peers after the lesson, but was evaluated by the teacher. Data Collection and Analysis Processes We gathered the data during the courses from the participants‘ journals and in the GM course also from the post-course reflection in the form of 5-6 page long assumption paper in which they were asked to present their personal/philosophical perspective on the conclusions they were drawing about a particular assumption of teaching and learning based clearly on their readings, their experience in the course and their past experiences as a learner. Halbach (2002, pp. 245-246) writes that the type of reflection the students are able to produce and whether they comment on the course methodology indicates the effect of the course on their ability to be reflective and think critically. She distinguishes three degrees of reflection: - Summarizing – Students do not show any significant degree of introspection or reflection, but simply summarize the ideas and content covered in class. 657 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - Exemplifying – Students show a certain degree of introspection supported with their own experience as students. Commenting – As a result of meaningful reflection on the issues presented in the class, students comment and pose questions clearly indicating critical thinking. Findings and Discussion Judging from the type of reflection students were able to carry out at the end of the SLA course, only three students produced entries which reflected their own critical thinking. The rest of the students stayed at the level of exemplifying, with ten students staying at the level of summarizing. Only three of these students had struggled with the course material, and eventually needed more time to complete requirements and pass the course later than the other observed students The puzzle area was that none offered any comments in relation to the methodology used in the course, except for offering comments which can fall in the category of evaluation. We supposed that their awareness towards methodological questions has not been raised sufficiently as a result of their first encounter with such requirement. Nevertheless, the journal entries students kept for the GM course did not change. They were primarily made as a reflection to course readings and included limited introspection, although the classroom participation of the majority of students indicated active involvement and critical thinking. In discussion with them, we found out that there were several reasons for their limited journal entries. The first one was that they found that reflective and critical approach to writing consumes time which they decided not to spend on a requirement which carried only 10 % of their final grade. They also pointed out that they felt more comfortable to comment participating in classroom discussions, rather than to write their comments in the journal. When asked to explain this position they agreed that they would not be able to be direct and open, as they were when participating in the classroom discussions, because of the problems of how to put their comments in writing and also because these comments are a written record of their position. As one student said, they wanted to complete assignments to pass the course and they did not want to risk ―offending‖ the teacher if it turns out that their position is opposite to one presented by the teacher or if it questions the position of the teacher. In some other courses, they might risk having their grade lowered by being openly reflective. The advantage of the GM course in comparison to the SLA course was that students were required to write an assumption paper which would indicate whether attitudes to language learning/teaching changed as a result of the work done in the course. Halbach (2002) following the same group of students during two academic years found that rate of change was quite low and about half of her 23 students produced final paper which did not reflect communicative language teaching methodology the course was oriented towards. Unlike the students in the Halbach study, all students in our study reflected on the modern methods in their assumption papers. One could suggest that all students changed their attitudes towards learning/teaching upon completing this course. But, further analysis of their papers revealed that only six students offered reflective comments which would indicate critical thinking on selected aspects of modern methods, while 11 of them did not move beyond the first degree of reflection – summarizing. The others exhibited the second degree of reflection – exemplifying and reflected on their personal experiences. Only four students reflected on their experience related to the microteaching activity in the class. The students who were highly reflective were also the students whose English skills were more advanced in comparison to those who stayed at the level of summarizing. The Bologna reformed higher education allows English students to transfer courses which they do not successfully complete into next academic year, so it might happen that students are completing even 10 courses at the same time. If their English proficiency is not up to the requirement to freely reflect, the cause might be in low university entrance requirements and a system which allows students to combine courses, collect points and pass courses with minimal effort. Throughout their education from elementary school up to university in Bosnia and Herzegovina, students are not encouraged to critically think and reflect. Although the higher system of education got reformed, it is still heavily founded on the transmission of knowledge and students are required to reproduce it to prove that they have mastered it. Conclusions and Recommendations This short study points to similar results as Halbach found in her study. These English students in Mostar are not fully prepared for and open to reflection. Socio-cultural issues involving the educational system which does not encourage critical thinking and personal perspective which indicates that the objective is to complete the requirements to pass the course might suggest that reflective practice should not be encouraged. On the contrary, reflection should be used as a means to help the English students become aware of their teaching practice and themselves as learners and future teachers (Farell, 2004). Discussion proved to be a successful 658 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo instrument for finding the causes of resistance to reflection and teachers should not hesitate to use any means which would help their students become independent life-long learners and being reflective is just one of them. References Allwright, D. (2005). Developing principles for practitioner research: The case for exploratory practice. The Modern Language Journal, 89, iii, Amobi, F. (2005). Pre-service teachers‘ reflectivity on the sequence and consequence of teaching actions in a microteaching experience. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(1), 115-130 Busch, D. (2010). Pre-service teacher beliefs about language learning: The second language acquisition course as an agent of change. Language Teaching Research, 14 (3), 318-337. Farrell, T. S. C. (2004). Reflective practice in action. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press Halbach, A. (2002). Exporting methodologies: The reflective approach in teacher training. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15 (3), 243-250. Lo, Y. (2005). Relevance of knowledge of second language acquisition: An in-depth case study of a non-native EFL teacher. In N. Bartels Ed.), Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education: Vol. 4. Educational linguistics (pp. 135-158). New York: Springer. Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (1), 33-43. Mann, S. (2005). Language teacher‘s development. Language Teaching, 38, 103-118. Peacock, M. (2001). Pre-service ESL teachers‘ beliefs about second language learning: A longitudinal study. System, 29, 177-195. Richards, J. C. (2002). Theories of teaching in language teaching. In J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 19-25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Shkedi, A. (2000). Educating reflective teachers for teaching culturally valued subjects: Evaluation of a teachertraining project. Evaluation and Research in Education, 14 (2), 94-110. Stanley, C. (1998). A framework for teacher reflectivity. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), 584-591. Valli , L. (1997). Listening to other voices: A description of teacher reflection in the United States. Peabody Journal of Education, 72, 67-88. Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making, and classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 659 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 98 Title A name given to the resource Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Dankić, Izabela Abstract A summary of the resource. Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/277ccb2bcc1a93885c5603d23beeeaa1.pdf 713fcc8ab28178f5189f971fd2845cb6 PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ibrahim.muzaferija@stu.ibu.edu.ba zerina.masetic@ibu.edu.ba samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba dino.keco@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure. Keywords - Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning 1. Introduction Data mining (DM) is an approach to discover useful information in data. It uses statistical and machine learning (ML) techniques to operate on large volumes of data to discover hidden patterns and relationships that describe the behaviors of systems that produced the data. Relationships and patterns discovered provide helpful insight into decision making, as well as making predictions, thus solving numerous problems. In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of ML techniques in many fields, such as education, economics, business, statistics, medicine, and sport. The main objective of this paper is to apply ML techniques in the educational field to analyze student behaviors and to predict whether the student will attend the class. Traditionally, educational institutions are collecting large volumes of data related to students, classes, faculty members, and educational processes. However, collected data is often not analyzed enough to provide significant results. In general, collected data is used for producing simple reports that are not highly significant in contributing to the decision making process in the institutions. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Currently, educational systems aim to enhance the teaching and learning process by carefully analyzing collected data, and discovering patterns related to student behavior and their final outcome. Reasons are to identify which students will perform well, so that they can be awarded scholarships and more importantly, to identify the students who may fail so that some form of help and assistance may be offered to them. Besides identifying students by their performance, it's also important to discover which aspects of teaching and learning systems facilitate student learning and success. One of the aspects that are closely related to student performance is student attendance, meaning that students who have a higher attendance rate also have a higher success rate in the end [1]. The paper is structured in seven sections: 1. Introduction section; 2. The previous work section describes the previous efforts for the topic; 3. The methods and materials section describes data cleaning and processing steps; 4. The model creation section describes model selection and creation methodology; 5. The results section provides model results and evaluation; 6. In the discussion section, a comparison between this study and previous studies is made; 7. The conclusion section provides recommendations for future work in the area of educational data mining. 2. Previous Work Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] applied machine learning methods from the WEKA tool in order to predict students' performance from the College of Science and Technology – Khan Younis. Thir work was concluded with two classification algorithms, Naive Bayes and J48, which provided an accuracy of 63.59% and 63,53% respectively. C. Anuradha and T. Velmurugan [3] conducted a comparative analysis of the evaluation of classification algorithms in the prediction of students' performance. The dataset was obtained from the college database, containing 19 attributes that describe the student, his family, and the living environment, as well as previous performances. Their goal was to compare algorithms in predicting students’ performance in end semester examinations. The results show that Bayesian classifiers, as well as JRip and J48, had the highest accuracy which is very close to 70%. Abeer Badr El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby [4] describe the importance of Educational Data Mining (EDM) and Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) in achieving the main goal of higher education institutions, that is, providing quality education to students. They used classification algorithms to identify those students who needed special attention in order to reduce the failing ratio and taking appropriate action at the right time, resulting in a decrease of the falling ratio by more than 15%. Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] used a dataset that contains a huge number of features that describe a student, by applying feature selection algorithms like Correlation-Based Feature Selection (CBFS) and Information Gain Attribute Evaluation (IGATE), they reduced the number of features and performed cross �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 modeling with five machine learning algorithms: Decision Trees (DT), Bayesian Networks (BN), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP). Features related to gender, university, time, and family are the ones having the highest information gain, as well as the models created using decision tree algorithms, provide 10-15% more reliable performance in comparison to other classification algorithms. The study conducted by Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] confirms that past performances have indeed got a significant influence over current performances. Further, they used neural network algorithms and confirmed that the accuracy of the algorithms is proportional to dataset size, meaning that with the increase of dataset size, the algorithms generalize the problem better. In this paper, we’ll address the problem with a selection of best-performing machine learning algorithms for EDA, as proposed by Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] and Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2], such as Logistic Regression, Decision Tree, Rule-based, k-NN, etc. Moreover, an increased number of data samples is obtained in order to improve the algorithms generalizing ability, in contrast to the number of data samples used in the previous study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2]. 3. Methods and Materials The research is based on CRISP-DM [7] methodology as it describes common approaches used by data mining experts, while the paper contains a simplified version of the processing model shown below. Figure 1. Data processing workflow A. Data selection Initial data was obtained from International Burch University’s Student Academic System [8] and contains 2nd-year student attendance data from the years 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Although the dataset doesn't contain all the details about the students and their classes (such as day of the week in which the class was held, exact start and end time of classes, professor ID, etc.), it’s enough to extract the patterns of student attendance behavior and create a model that predicts it. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 The data was obtained as an SQL file, and after importing the file to the local database, RapidMiner [9] was used to fetch the tables and store them in CSV format. Every further operation is done using the RapidMiner, as it has the Weka [10] extension. The following table displays whether or not an attribute of the original dataset was copied over to the data mining dataset. All the selected attributes were considered relevant to the task of predicting student attendance to classes. Table 1. Initial dataset attribute selection Table Attribute Accepted Notes student_id x No need for additional IDs student_number x No need for additional IDs student_id ✓ Student ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch x Same values in other tables year x Same values in other tables semester x Same values in other tables student_id ✓ Student ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch ✓ Branch year ✓ Year semester ✓ Semester number course_date ✓ Starting date of the week in which class was held type ✓ Type of the class students student_courses student_attendance course_attendance �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 topic x Not relevant / High cardinality duration ✓ Duration of the class B. Data Cleansing In order to get an insight into data quality, graphical and statistical methods were used to detect anomalies, faults, outliers, missing values, etc. First, the dataset was divided into four parts: 1st semester of 2016, 2nd semester of 2016, 1st semester of 2017, and 2nd semester of 2017. After examination, data related to both semesters of the year 2016 contained no anomalies and were consistent, thus were labeled as clean data. Furthermore, 2nd semester of the year 2017 contained incomplete data due to university system failure (class attendance from the last 2 weeks is missing), and 1st-semester data were not consistent (having a huge number of recorded attendances in the 14th week and almost none in 15th week). The dataset contained automatic attendance values that were irrelevant for creating a model and those samples were removed. Some attendance samples recorded before and after the semester were marked as outliers. Samples related to midterm and final exams showed the decrease of recorded attendances due to the nature of exam weeks, as instead of multiple lectures in those weeks, only one was held - the exam. Those samples were not relevant in predicting the lecture attendance and were discarded. C. Deriving Data From the course_date attribute, containing the date of the week in which the class was held, week attribute was derived, containing week number in the semester. The attribute attended is added to the table student_attendances and contains the value 1, which reflects that the student attended the class. Later when joining tables, this attribute will have missing values which indicate that students didn't attend the class. The dataset contains only the records of students that attended the class and no records of students that didn't attend. In order to populate the attribute attended with reflection did the student attend the class, joining the tables is necessary. First, by performing an inner join of student_courses and course_attendance tables, matching course_code from one table with course_code from another, a new table is created containing a matched list of students per course attendance IDs. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Next, by performing a left join of the previously created table and student_attendance table, matching both attendance_id and student_id from one table with attendance_id and student_id from another table, a new table is created containing attendance values where the student attended the class and missing values where the student was absent. Finally, missing values were replaced with 0, indicating that the student was absent. D. Dataset Creation During the data preparation phase, attributes considered most relevant were selected to shape the model's prediction capabilities. Then, using the RapidMiner tool, all data was cleaned and exported as a CSV dataset that will be used in training and testing the model. The final dataset contains about 58,000 attendance samples from the 2nd semester of the year 2016, and the following table displays qualitative and quantitative aspects of all the attributes present on the final dataset. The goal attribute (or prediction class) is “attended” which indicates did the student attend the class (marked as 1) or not (marked as 0). Table 2 - Final dataset attribute description Attribute Data type Range Missing values Distinct values Unique values Statistics id integer [1,58019] 0 58019 58019 — attended integer 0,1 0 2 0 Least: 1 (21327) Most: 0 (36692) course_code nominal MAN 201, (...) 0 85 0 Least: IRES 305 (5) Most: MAN 201 (6784) branch nominal A,B,C,D,E, F 0 6 0 Least: D (1628) Most: A (37368) type nominal Recitation, lecture, lab 0 3 0 Least: recitation (1954) Most: lecture (46511) duration integer [1,4] 0 4 0 Min: 1 Max: 4 Average: 1.684 week integer [1,15] 0 15 0 Min: 1 Max: 15 Average: 7.861 4. Model Creation This machine learning problem belongs to the classification types [11]. In order to reach the business goal, the complete understanding of data is required to generate the model. Currently, there are several modeling algorithms for classification types of problems, and they are shown in the table below. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 In order to correctly create, evaluate and validate the model, one of the key steps is the separation of the data into training, testing, and validation. Table 3. Machine Learning algorithms Type Name Functions Logistic Regression ID3 (Decision Tree) C4.5 (J48) Trees Random Forest One-Rule Rules PRISM Memory-Based k-NN The most convenient method for training and testing separation is called Cross-Validation [12], as it splits the data into folds, and crosses the results of training and testing with different folds. The cross-validation is conducted using five folds of training data. Validation data will not be used in cross-validation in order to provide reliable testing results at the end. 5. Results All the decision tree algorithms had the minimal gain set to “0.01” in order to prevent premature pruning of the tree branches, and pruning confidence threshold to “0.25”. Other model settings have been kept on the default values because they are preselected for optimal model performance. After applying manifold training and testing methods known as cross-validation [13], building the models with different algorithms yielded promising results, as shown using the metrics such as accuracy, the area under the curve (AUC), precision, recall, fallout, and f-measure [14]. Moreover, models have been evaluated with validation data holdout and the results match with the cross-validation testing results presented below. Table 4. Evaluations of created models Algorithm Accuracy AUC Precision Recall Fallout F-Measure �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Logistic Regression 75.37% 0.803 71.09% 55.63% 13.16% 62.41% ID3 68.38% 0.697 56.20% 63.31% 28.68% 59.54% C4.5 77.41% 0.812 73.04% 61.12% 13.12% 66.55% Random Forest 66.48% 0.700 56.41% 38.73% 17.39% 45.92% One-Rule 74.60% 0.500 69.25% 55.65% 14.39% 61.69% PRISM 64.15% 0.500 71.90% 4.07% 0.93% 7.70% K-NN 70.42% 0.672 58.13% 69.86% 29.25% 63.45% The machine learning algorithm that creates the most accurate model is a decision tree algorithm known as C4.5. The reason is the enhanced method of tree pruning that reduces misclassification errors due to noise and too many details in the training data set, as described in the study conducted by Anuja Priyam et al [15]. The accuracy of the model is fairly satisfying, taking into consideration that previous works provided an accuracy of less than 70%. As opposed to previously mentioned studies, our data set contains more examples thus produces a more accurate prediction model. This process allows the extraction of relevant information from the model and helps draw the lines of action for this business problem. Table 5. Confusion matrix for C4.5 model true 0 true 1 class precision predicted 0 31878 8291 79.36% predicted 1 4814 13036 73.03% class recall 86.88% 61.12% In regards to interpretability, the decision tree generated by the C4.5 algorithm is easy to interpret as the size of the tree generated is 357 and the number of leaves is 230. The most important attribute on the dataset, as taken from the model, is the course code. Furthermore, it's wrong to assume that one student attending classes has the same cost, from a business perspective, as one that never goes to class. That means that students that attend classes are beneficial and students that miss classes have a cost. With that in mind, the model needs to help in finding the solutions that decrease the overall cost. There are four possibilities: 1. We predicted the student would attend class and he did; 2. We predicted the student would not attend class and he did not; 3. We predicted the student would attend class, but he did not; 4. We predicted the student would not attend class, but he did. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Point 1 is the best scenario, so it needs to have a negative cost (to be a benefit). Point 2 is the worst case, so it needs to have the highest cost. Point 3 is also negative, but not as negative as the previous one. Point 4 is positive, but not as good as the first point. With that information, it is possible to build a cost matrix for the class “Attended”: Table 6. Cost matrix for the model Actual T F T -15 15 F -5 5 Prediction Building the cost-matrix doesn’t affect the model’s performance but aids in the final outcome of prediction by introducing the business bias and targeting to increase the business value. 6. Discussion The possible issue with the study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] is the small number of instances (as low as 52) contained in the dataset and used to build the model. In order to make a model more accurate and more prone to generalization, Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] propose using a higher number of instances, which made the model described in this paper more accurate. Moreover, crossvalidation, as one of the extra steps that are taken in model construction, increased the model’s overall ability to generalize and provide higher accuracy than models in previous studies. While conducting the research, it was noticed that the quantity and quality of data plays a crucial role in the final outcome and performance. We highly devise to use a high number of instances in future studies, and continuum stream of attendance data in deployed models to continuously train the model as the trends responsible for student attendance dynamic behavior progresses over time. The feature engineering task in the data preparation step has yielded significant model improvement as compared to the models from previous studies that are built without deriving new attributes. Moreover, the induction of external data has also improved the performance of the model as outliers were removed. 7. Conclusion This study has shown that patterns for student attendance exist and can predict whether the student will attend the class. The importance of student data quantity and quality is presented, as well as the methods for cleaning and transforming the data. The creation of a machine learning model should include cross- �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 validation as one of the key steps, and we devise using multiple algorithms for achieving the best results. When there is a business value to achieve, it’s recommended to use a cost-matrix to further adjust the model and increase the business value. The model for predicting student attendance can be used to improve in the area of causing factors and increase the attendance ratio, which will subsequently increase the passing ratio, i.e., the number of students that graduate. Future works can include an increase in data set examples, as well as dimensionality increase by adding attributes for external factors of students’ attendance, such as a professor who held the lecture and weather information of the day. REFERENCES [1] A. S. N. Kim, S. Shakory, A. Arman, C. Popovic, and L. Park, “Understanding the impact of attendance and participation on academic achievement,” 2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000151. [Accessed: 14-Feb-2020]. [2] “Prediction Of Student Performance Using Weka Tool,” Vidya Publications. [Online]. Available: http://ijoes.vidyapublications.com/paper/Vol17/02-Vol17.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [3] “A Comparative Analysis on the Evaluation of Classification Algorithms in the Prediction of Students Performance.” [Online]. Available: http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/74555/58051. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [4] A. B. El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby, “Data Mining: A prediction for Student’s Performance Using Classification Method,” HR PUB. [Online]. Available: http://www.hrpub.org/download/20140105/WJCAT3-13701793.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [5] “Early Prediction of Students Performance using Machine Learning Techniques,” Semantics Scholar. [Online]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6447/4a9172a97cdf5d39c6fdcc21fc0c61fc7df3.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [6] “Student Performance Prediction using Machine Learning.” [Online]. Available: http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~rexlei86/SPP/otherswork/V4I3-IJERTV4IS030127.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [7] “IBM Knowledge Center.” [Online]. Available: https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS3RA7_15.0.0/com.ibm.spss.crispdm.help/crisp_ove rview.htm. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [8] International Burch University, “Home,” International Burch University. [Online]. Available: https://www.ibu.edu.ba/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [9] “Lightning Fast Data Science Platform for Teams | RapidMiner©,” RapidMiner, 19-Jan-2016. [Online]. Available: https://rapidminer.com/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [10] “Weka 3 - Data Mining with Open Source Machine Learning Software in Java.” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [11] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 [12] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. [13] “3.1. Cross-validation: evaluating estimator performance — scikit-learn 0.21.3 documentation.” [Online]. Available: https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/cross_validation.html. [Accessed: 10-Nov2019]. [14] L. Egghe, “The measures precision, recall, fallout and miss as a function of the number of retrieved documents and their mutual interrelations,” Inf. Process. Manag., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 856–876, Mar. 2008. [15] “Comparative Analysis of Decision Tree Classification Algorithms” [Online]. Available: https://inpressco.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Paper17334-3371.pdf. [Accessed: 05-July-2020]. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Author Author Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure Keywords Keywords. Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021313