246 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/88002d3ac03f65ebdef5ed47718fb16b.docx bc2dd115189c968c7246d42f3c443384 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ea8fba0344efaa7563730b49ba34620a.pdf a9098fa56aadd96cc13ad3f438d311e2 PDF Text Text Specific Features of Verb Forms in Italian for Specific Purposes Tamara Pirjavec Marčeta University of Rijeka/ Rijeka, Croatia Key words: business Italian, professional texts, verb forms, language learning strategies, business Italian course curricula ABSTRACT The research analyses verb forms based on an Italian business language corpus composed of 50 professional papers published in the "Il Sole 24 ore", an Italian journal in the field of economics. The aim of this paper is to establish the frequency rate of individual verb forms within the corpus by using primarily the quantitative analysis method. At macro level, the ratios of active-passive, simple-complex and indicative-subjunctive verb forms were analyzed. Each of these relations has further been studied according to the respective categories. The obtained results on the frequency of individual verb forms serve as a guideline in choosing the strategies for acquiring the morpho-syntactic structures that are specific for specialized texts. Furthermore, they are of crucial importance in the understandingof professional texts, and as such, represent significant guidelines in the development of the business Italian course curricula. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1981 Title A name given to the resource Specific Features of Verb Forms in Italian for Specific Purposes Author Author MARCETA, Tamara Pirjavec Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: business Italian, professional texts, verb forms, language learning strategies, business Italian course curricula ABSTRACT The research analyses verb forms based on an Italian business language corpus composed of 50 professional papers published in the "Il Sole 24 ore", an Italian journal in the field of economics. The aim of this paper is to establish the frequency rate of individual verb forms within the corpus by using primarily the quantitative analysis method. At macro level, the ratios of active-passive, simple-complex and indicative-subjunctive verb forms were analyzed. Each of these relations has further been studied according to the respective categories. The obtained results on the frequency of individual verb forms serve as a guideline in choosing the strategies for acquiring the morpho-syntactic structures that are specific for specialized texts. Furthermore, they are of crucial importance in the understandingof professional texts, and as such, represent significant guidelines in the development of the business Italian course curricula. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a03b2299c720e8dee4614b8e8ba0f68.docx 71cc7363e4ad4a0993ab53eec7e9e14d https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b33ade442c3491f02fba94a3d03bda6f.pdf 67ac57cbb776f21d15b7b0c8ebb68c2b PDF Text Text Specifičnosti Odnosa Ortografske i Ortoepske Norme U Nastavi b/h/s Jezika za Strance Bernes Aljukić Univerziteta u Tuzli/ Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT Uobičajeno je shvatanje da su b/h/s jezici obilježeni jasnim provođenjem načela „piši kao što govoriš“, odnosno „čitaj kao što je napisano“. Ovaj model koji se često navodi kao prednost b/h/s jezika u odnosu na druge jezike koji nemaju fonetski pravopis zapravo se pokazuje otežavajućim faktorom u nastavi b/h/s jezika, kako u osnovnoj, tako i u srednjoj školi pa čak i na univerzitetskoj razini, a posebno kada je riječ o kursevima b/h/s jezika za strance, kojima slijepo slijeđenje ovog pravila može znatno otežati stjecanje govorne i kompetencije pisane uporabe jezika. Iz tog razloga ovaj rad, nastao na osnovi savremenih promišljanja o odnosu ortoepske i ortografske norme na našem podneblju, bavi se međusobnim odstupanjima ovih dviju normi jedne od druge na fonološkoj i morfofonološkoj razini b/h/s jezika. To rezultira formiranjem modela koji će ovu problematiku jasnije osvijetliti i omogućiti polaznicima sličnih kurseva da brže i potpunije steknu jezičnu kompetenciju usmenog i pisanog izražavanja na b/h/s jezicima. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1735 Title A name given to the resource Specifičnosti Odnosa Ortografske i Ortoepske Norme U Nastavi b/h/s Jezika za Strance Author Author ALJUKIĆ, Bernes Abstract A summary of the resource. Uobičajeno je shvatanje da su b/h/s jezici obilježeni jasnim provođenjem načela „piši kao što govoriš“, odnosno „čitaj kao što je napisano“. Ovaj model koji se često navodi kao prednost b/h/s jezika u odnosu na druge jezike koji nemaju fonetski pravopis zapravo se pokazuje otežavajućim faktorom u nastavi b/h/s jezika, kako u osnovnoj, tako i u srednjoj školi pa čak i na univerzitetskoj razini, a posebno kada je riječ o kursevima b/h/s jezika za strance, kojima slijepo slijeđenje ovog pravila može znatno otežati stjecanje govorne i kompetencije pisane uporabe jezika. Iz tog razloga ovaj rad, nastao na osnovi savremenih promišljanja o odnosu ortoepske i ortografske norme na našem podneblju, bavi se međusobnim odstupanjima ovih dviju normi jedne od druge na fonološkoj i morfofonološkoj razini b/h/s jezika. To rezultira formiranjem modela koji će ovu problematiku jasnije osvijetliti i omogućiti polaznicima sličnih kurseva da brže i potpunije steknu jezičnu kompetenciju usmenog i pisanog izražavanja na b/h/s jezicima. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a7a0ea1567e3b3a601d33eacf747b6a.pdf bb51dc5f770469a073887f9ab91ffc4a PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Speed of Financial Integration before and after European Union Membership Aida Halilovid International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina halilovicaida88@hotmail.com Uğur Ergün International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina uergun@ibu.edu.ba This paper investigates a dimension of financial integration of developing equity markets of European Union members which are Romania, Bulgaria and Croatia with global dominant equity markets. The analysis is performed at the country level using daily (five days) national stock market indices. Publicly available data (Yahoo Finance) for US’s S&P500, England’s FTSE and German DAX; data of Bulgarian SOFIX and Romanian BET indices received from their Stock market exchange and data for Croatian CROBEX are used. Closing prices were denominated in local currencies and considered in three different periods: period before EU membership, period after EU membership, and whole period starting from September 1997 to December 2012. Comparison the daily stock market indices of Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania with these mentioned developed and mature markets is a need to investigate the short-and long-run dynamics of equity markets that either have been or are prospective members of the EU and because U.S.’s, German and England’s market play an influential role in international stock market, all international investment flows are dominated by these developed markets. Unit root test, Augmented DickeyFuller test statistic, Granger causality, Granger cointegration test and recursive cointegration method are employed. Empirical results show that all indices are integrated in whole period. The relationship is significant in the period after EU membership, but not significant in the period before EU membership. For Croatia, US’s S&P500 index has the strongest impact on CROBEX in whole period. The result implies that EU membership has strong positive impact on the integration of developing EU countries. Keywords: Financial Integration, European Union, Equity Market, Unit Root Test, Granger Causality, Cointegration, Recursive Cointegration 28 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1477 Title A name given to the resource Speed of Financial Integration before and after European Union Membership Author Author HALILOVIC, Aida ERGÜN, Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper investigates a dimension of financial integration of developing equity markets of European Union members which are Romania, Bulgaria and Croatia with global dominant equity markets. The analysis is performed at the country level using daily (five days) national stock market indices. Publicly available data (Yahoo Finance) for US’s S&P500, England’s FTSE and German DAX; data of Bulgarian SOFIX and Romanian BET indices received from their Stock market exchange and data for Croatian CROBEX are used. Closing prices were denominated in local currencies and considered in three different periods: period before EU membership, period after EU membership, and whole period starting from September 1997 to December 2012. Comparison the daily stock market indices of Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania with these mentioned developed and mature markets is a need to investigate the short-and long-run dynamics of equity markets that either have been or are prospective members of the EU and because U.S.’s, German and England’s market play an influential role in international stock market, all international investment flows are dominated by these developed markets. Unit root test, Augmented Dickey- Fuller test statistic, Granger causality, Granger cointegration test and recursive cointegration method are employed. Empirical results show that all indices are integrated in whole period. The relationship is significant in the period after EU membership, but not significant in the period before EU membership. For Croatia, US’s S&P500 index has the strongest impact on CROBEX in whole period. The result implies that EU membership has strong positive impact on the integration of developing EU countries. Keywords: Financial Integration, European Union, Equity Market, Unit Root Test, Granger Causality, Cointegration, Recursive Cointegration Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b0fb3a777e0d8db43479c1568e3648d5.pdf 6bfa35ecaa5b9c1ceb5ab4ea446bcee7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Master's Theses Description An account of the resource IT Master's Thesis collection features master's theses authored by graduate students in the Department of Information Technology. Each thesis reflects a significant research effort, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application to address complex challenges in the IT domain. These works demonstrate students’ advanced understanding of information systems, software engineering, data science, cybersecurity, and emerging technologies. The theses serve as a testament to the students' capability to conduct independent research, propose innovative solutions, and contribute to the advancement of the IT field. Subject The topic of the resource IT Master's Thesis Language A language of the resource English Language Author Author IT Department Master’s Students Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sports Results Prediction Using Machine Learning Author Author Alden Obradović Abstract A summary of the resource. <p>Over recent decades, machine learning technology has increasingly been used to predict sports performance. The sports industry generates extensive statistical data on players, teams, and seasons. Traditional prediction methods have shown limited accuracy. With data mining, sports organizations have recognized the outdated analysis in their data and are now utilizing it effectively.</p> <p>The goal of this thesis is to explore accurate sports result predictions. Identifying significant features and analysing their impact on match outcomes is essential. Key variables include team statistics, player statistics, and historical data. These factors help managers and club directors forecast match winners and determine strategies. Machine learning techniques like KNN, Random Forest, logistic regression, and SVM are often applied to predict match results.</p> <p>These predictions help coaches and managers assess player performance, evaluate skills, anticipate injuries, and strategize for upcoming games. Additionally, accurate predictions have significantly fuelled the sports betting industry, which is expanding rapidly thanks to the convenience of mobile and tablet devices.<br /><br />This research proposes an AI-based framework to predict football match outcomes. Itexamines the effectiveness of system learning algorithms and reviews data mining techniques for predicting sports performance, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. Despite previous research attempts, achieving high precision in game result predictions remains challenging.</p> Keywords Keywords. Machine Learning, Sport Results, Prediction machine learning master's thesis prediction sport results https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0653405820017109f5c622c09da2fe51.pdf 70337816cd03196af15d6b165a14d943 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Stabilization Of Carbon Dioxide In The Flue Gas With Ulexite Meh met Çopur* Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey mcopur@atauni.edu.tr M. M. Kocakerim Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey mkerim @atauni.edu.tr Ruşen Guliyev Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey rusen1985 @yahoo.com Abstract: Turkey is the country having the largest boron reserves in the world. 72% of the world boron reserves is in Turkey. Commercial boron ores include colemanite, tincal and ulexite in Turkey. +3 mm ulexite fraction produced in ulexite concentration plant is exported, but -3 mm fraction, which has 16.6 % B2O3 cannot be sold and is piled up in the mine area. The Taguchi method has been used to determine optimum conditions for stabilization of CO2 gas with ulexite. Chosen experimental parameters and their ranges were (i) reaction temperature, 5-40 °C; (ii) solid-to-liquid ratio (in weight), 0.1-0.5; (iii) ; (iv) mean particle size; -600 -150 µm; (v) stirring speed, 300-700 rpm; (vi) reaction time, 15-120 min. The optimum conditions were found to be reaction temperature, 40 °C; solid-to-liquid ratio, 0.1; mean particle size, -150 µm; stirring speed, 500 rpm and reaction time, 90 min. Under these optimum conditions and 29.78 L CO2/kg ulexite was stabilized. Introduction Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have the largest share of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases associated with global warming (IPCC 2001). CO2 is a effective greenhouse gas and the dominant contributorto anthropogenic climate change. Since the Industrial Revolution (i.e., about 1750), global atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have risen about 36 percent(IPCC 2007), principally due tothe combustion offossilfuels. Globally, approximately 29,195 million ton of CO2 were added to the atmosphere through the combustion of fossilfuelsin 2006(EPA, 2009). Fossilfuel burning power plants among largest CO2 emission worldwide(30%); otherlarge sources include cement plants(6%), steel mills(6%) and hydrogen production facilities(1%). Many studies have been accomplished in favor of CO2 removal from the gases. A number of CO2 capturing and removal processes and models have been developed to reduce CO2 in the fuel gases. In a research, NH3 and monoethanolamine (MEA) were used to determine the absorption capacity for CO2 removal effect. It has been determined that the solution of NH3 was more effective than that of the MEA solution to remove CO2 greenhouse gases under similar conditions. The MEA removal process yield was found 94 % and absorption capacity was 0,40 kg CO2/kg MEA, and the NH3 removal process yield was found 99 % and adsorption capacity was 1,20 kg CO2/kg NH3(Yeh and Baiu,1999). It has been reported that, N H3 effect and system performance of process parameters have been investigated in a CO2 absorption removal process at different conditions. The CO2 gas was supplied to the system continuously, formation of ammonium bicarbonate has been occurred through the trials and removal of the CO2 has been successfully observed.(Diao, 2004). A laboratory size spray dryer has been used in another research in different experimental conditions to determine the effecting parameters of CO2 removal. Best yield was acquired at the conditions of 150 o C 48% spray dryer, 10%NaOH + 5% Ca(OH)2 (Chen,2005). Modeling techniques have been used to calculatethe cost and performance of capturing and storing of CO2 from fuel gas of power plants. The research demonstrated thatthe expenses would be increased to excessive coststo reach the 85-90% yield of CO2 capture and storage (Rubin,2007). Fossil fuels provide alarge, affordable source of energy thatislimited by environmentalimpacts rather than resource constraints(Lee,1976). 157 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo As CO2 removalis getting more and more important,the removal process cost has been found a limiting parameter. The objective of Kyoto Protocol is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (UNFCC, 2005) Therefore developing reasonable removal methods have become a purpose for the researchers. In this research a novel reasonable method has been developed for the CO2 removal by using an unusable squander ulexite ore. M aterial Preparation and Experimental Method Approximately 16.6% ulexide under 3mm sieve from Eti Mine in Bigadiç has been used in the experimental trials. The ulexide samples powdered and sieved. The powders were fractioned to -600 ,-355, 250,-180 and-150 µ m. Volumetric and gravimetric methods have been used to determine the chemical compositions ofthe samples which are given in Table 1. H2 O 17.12 B2 O3 16.6 Na2 O Mg O Al2 O3 SiO2 SO4 CaO 4.20 7.72 0.42 13.22 0.22 25.62 Table 1. The chemical composition of ulexite used in study Fe2 O3 0.18 SrO 1.41 The com mercial CO2 gas was supplied from HABAS Company-Turkey. The experiments have been carried out in a 500 ml glass reactor under atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the reactor was controlled by a thermostatic controller at predetermined temperatures.300 ml distilled water was used to for each reaction trial and the water was saturated with CO2 gas. A water cooled glass cooler was used to recover the vaporized water from the reactor. When the reactor content was reached the desired temperature, a predetermined amount of the fractioned ulexite was added to the saturated aqueous media ofthe reactor while stirring at predetermined mixing speed and supplying 30 ml/min CO2 gas into the reactor. At the end of each trialthe reaction media was filtered and B2 O3 analysis has been carried outin solution. Taguchi method Taguchi method is a systematic application of design and analysis of experiments for the purpose of designing and improving product quality. There are two differences of this method from other statistical experimental design methods. First, parameters affecting an experiment can be investigated as controlling and not controlling (noise factor). Second, this method can be used to investigate the parameters for more than two levels(Çopur,1997). The use of the parameter design in the Taguchi method to optimize a process with multiple performance characteristics includes the following steps: (a) to identify the performance characteristics and select process parameters to be evaluated; (b) to determine the number of parameter levels for the process and possible interaction between the process parameters; (c) to select the appropriate orthogonal array (OA) and assignment of process parameters to the orthogonal array; (d) to conduct the experiments based on the arrangement ofthe orthogonal array;(e) calculatethe performance characteristic;(f)to analyze the experimental result using the performance characteristic and ANO V A; (g) to selectthe optimal levels of process parameters; and (h)to verify the optimal process parametersthrough the confirmation experiment [Nian,1999,Phadke,1989]. The orthogonal array experimental design method was chosen to determine experimentalplan, L25 (55)(Table 4), Because it is the most suitable for the conditions being investigated; five parameters each with five values (Phadke,1989).In order to observe the effects of noise sources on the dissolution process,each experiment was repeated twice under the same conditions at differenttimes. The performance characteristics were chosen as the optimization criteria. There are three categories of performance characteristics, the larger the- better, the smaller-the-better and the nominal-the-better. The the larger -the- better was evaluated by using the following equation (Pignetiello,1988, Peace,1995): 1 n 1  (1) SN = −10 log  ∑ 2  i = 1 n Y  i  where SNL is performance characteristic, n the number of repetition done for an experimental combination, and Yi the performance value of ith experiment. In Taguchi method, the experiment corresponding to optimum working conditions might not have been done during the whole period of the experimental stage. In such 158 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo cases, the performance value corresponding to optimum working conditions can be predicted by utilizing the balanced characteristic of OA. Forthis,the additive model may be used (Phadke et al., 1983) (2) Yi = µ + X i + ei If experimentalresults arein percent (%), before evaluating eqs 2 transformation ofthe percentage values should be applied first using the following equation. Values ofinterest arethen later determined by carrying out reverse transformation by using the same equation (Taguchi, 1987) 1  − 1 P  Ω( dB ) = −10  (3) Run No A B C D E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 1 3 4 5 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 1 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 1 5 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 Table 2. L25 (55) Ortogonal experimental plan table Parameters A B C D E Reaction temperature (°C) Particle size (µ m) Stirring speed (rpm) Solid-to-liquid ratio (g/cm3) Time (min) 1 5 -600 300 0.1 15 2 10 -355 400 0.2 30 Levels 3 4 20 30 -250 -180 500 600 0.3 0.4 60 90 5 40 -150 700 0.5 120 Table 3. Parameters and theirvalues corresponding to theirlevelsto be studied in experiments Since Eq. (2) is a point estimation which is calculated by using experimental data in order to determine whether the additive model is adequate or not,the confidence limits for the prediction error must be evaluated. The prediction erroristhe difference between the observed Yi and the predicted Yi. The confidence limitsforthe 159 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo prediction error are 1 1 Se = ±   σ e2 +   σ e2 n  0  nr  (4)  hatadan dolayı karelerin toplamı  σ e2 =   hatanın serbestlik derecesi  (5) 1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1 = + − + − + − .... n0 n  n Ai n   n Bi n   n Ci n  (6) where Se isthe two-standard deviation confidence limit, n isthe number of rows in the matrix experiment,isthe number of repetitions in the confirmation experiment and nAi, nBi, nCi,… are the replication numbers for the parameterlevels Ai, Bi, Ci,… Ifthe prediction erroris outside theselimits,the possibility thatthe additive model is not adequate should be suspected. Otherwise, the additive model can be considered to be adequate (Phadke, 1989). Result and Discussion The reactions between ulexide and CO2 in aqueous solution have been given in equations 7, 8 and 9. Na 2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3 .16H 2 O(k) +3CO2 → 2CaCO3(k) +NaHCO3 +NaB5O6 (OH)4 +5H3 BO3 +6H 2 O (7) Na 2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3 .16H 2 O(k) +3CO2 → 2CaCO3(k) +NaHCO3 +NaB3O3 (OH) 4 +7H3 BO3 +3H 2 O (8) Na 2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3 .16H 2 O (k) +2CO 2 → 2CaCO3(k) +Na 2 B4 O5 (OH) 4 +6H 3 BO3 +5H 2 O (9) The ratios of the borate ions depending on the pH values have been given in Figure 1. The pH value during the chemicalreaction was recorded as between 6.5-7. The stochiometricratio of different borat species according to pH values was given in Figure 1. At the pH value the borate ions were found out as follow B5 O6 (OH)4 -, B4 O5(OH)4-, B3 O3(OH)4- and B(OH)3. The amount of captured CO2 in solution is proportional with the borate ions. Figure 1.The stochiometric ratio of different borat species according to pH values(Adams,1964). The results acquired from the experiments have been analyzed according to optimization criteria and the results have given in Figures 2. Figure 2 was obtained by calculating captured CO2 by the aqueous media from Equation 160 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6, 7 and 8. To obtain optimal parameters levels,thelarger-the better performance characteristicin Eq.(1) has been taken for stabilization of CO2.The performance characteristics have been calculated and charted in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the degrees of the influences of parameter on the performance characteristics. The optimallevel of a process parameteristhe level with the highest SN. Parameterlevels make the performance value maximum as seen in Figure 5 were A5, B5, C3, D1 and E4. 35 34 33 SN = -10*log10(1/N* (1/y²)) 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 1 2 3 4 5 A 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 B 3 4 5 1 2 C 3 4 5 1 2 D 3 4 5 E Figure 5. The effect of each parameter on the optimization criteria for carbon dioxide stabilization In the working range, optimum conditions have found to be the temperature of 40 oC, particle size 15 µ m, stirring speed 500 rpm, solid/liquid ratio 0.1 g/cm3 and the time 90 min. Under these optimum conditions and 29.78 L CO2/kg ulexite was stabilized. Variance analysis was performed to determine the effective parameters and their confidence level for CO2 absorption. Statistical A N O V A table has been established to see the process parameters statistically important or not. F-testis atoolto see which process parameters have a significant effect on the stabilization of CO2. Usually, the larger the F-value, the greater the effect on the process due to the change of the process parameter. Optimal combination of the process parameters can be predicted with A N O V A analyses and performance characteristics. The results of variance analysis are given in Tables 4. As can be seen in Table 4 and Figure 5 for stabilization of CO2,it has been found thatrespectivelythe temperature,the solid-to-liquid ratio and time have significant effects on the absorption process while the stirring speed and particle size having no significant effect within the working range. Parameters SS Df MS F A 324.6316 4 81.15791 41.62341 B 18.0640 4 4.51600 2.31612 C 10.9688 4 2.74219 1.40638 D 130.1742 4 32.54356 16.69060 E 59.0990 4 14.77475 7.57752 Error 7.7993 4 1.94981 Table 4. Result ofthe analysis of variance forthe carbon dioxide stabilization 161 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A verification experiment is a powerful tool for detecting the presence of interactions among the control parameters.Ifthe predicted response under the optimum conditions does not match the observed response,then itimplies that the interactions are important. If the predicted response matches the observed response, then it impliesthatthe interactions are probably notimportant and thatthe additive modelis a good approximation [16]. It has been estimated that carbon dioxide can be captured in optimal conditions and were found to be 29.41 L CO2/kg ulexide. In order to test the predicted results, confirmation experiments were carried out twice at the same working conditions. Experimental value was obtained as 29.78 L CO2/kg ulexite. The fact that the CO2 absorbtion values from confirmation experiments are within the calculated confidence intervals shows that experimental results are within ± 5% in error. This case states that there is a good agreement between the predicted values and experimental values, and interactive effects of parameters are indeed negligible.It may be concluded thatthe additive modelis adequate for describing the dependence ofthis CO2 stabilization process on the various operational parameters (Phadke, 1989). It was observed that the temperature is much more effective than stirring speed on reaction between CO2 and ulexide. For a heterogeneous reaction system, the mechanism controlling the reaction rate can be determined by taking into consideration the parameters which affect the reaction rate. Accordingly, it can be deducted that for the processes in which stirring speed is more effective,the rate of the process is controlled by diffusion while for the processes in which temperature is more effective, the rate is controlled by a chemical reaction. Therefore,forthe present work it can be stated that carbon dioxide capturing process is controlled by chemicalreaction. Conclusion The results can be drawn from thisresearch: 1) It has been determined that-3 m m ulexide was an effective reactive to capture CO2 gas. 2) The important parameters are temperature, solid-liquid ratio and time. 3) The optimum conditions were found to be, 40 o C, 0.1 g cm−3, 500 rpm, 90 min, particle size 150 µ m. 4) 29.78 L CO2/kg ulexide was stabilized under optimum conditions. 5) Predicted and observed B2 O3 values were related each other. The experimental model process is adequate to determine the relations. Acknowledgements It is a great pleasure to thank TUBITAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) for their financial support during our project (107Y170). References U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(2009), Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks:1990 – 2007 Adams,B.M., (1964), Boron, Metallo-Boron Compounds and Boranes, Interscience (Wiley), New York, p.88 Chen, J.C., Fang, G.C., Tang, J., Liu, L., 2005 Removal of carbon dioxide by a spray dryer, Chemosphere 59 99–105 Çopur, M., Pekdemir, T., Çelik, C., Çolak, S., (1997), Determination of the optimum conditions for the dissolution of stibnite in HCl solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36 682–687. Diao, Y., Zheng, X., He, B., Chen, C., Xu, X., (2004),” Experimental study on capturing CO2 greenhouse gas by ammonia scrubbing”, Energy Conversion and Management 45 2283–2296. IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC reports (2001). Küçük, Ö.,Kocakerim, M.M., Yartaşı, A. and Çopur, M.,(2002), “Dissolution of Kestelek’s colemanite containing clay mineras in water saturated with sulfur dioxide”, Ind. Eng.Chem.Res.,41, 2853-2857. Lee,S.,(2006), Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing, Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis,P.305 Nian, C.Y., Yang, W.H., Tarng, Y.S., (1999), Optimization of turning operations with multiple performance characteristics, 162 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Mater. Processing Technol. 95 90–96. Peace, G.S., (1995),Taguchi Methods: A hands-on Approach to Quality Engineering, Addison-Wesley, New York, , p. 273– 337. Phadke, M.S., (1989),Quality Engineering using Robust Design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p. 292. Phadke, M.S., Kackar, R.N., Speeney, D.D., Grieco, M.J., (1983), Off-line quality control in integrated circuit fabrication using experimental design, Bell Syst. Tech. J. 62 (5) 1273–1309. Pignatiello, J.J., (1988),An overview of strategy and tactics of Taguchi, IEE Trans. 20 (3) 247–254. Rubin, E. S., Chen, C., Rao, A. B., (2007), “Cost and performance of fossil fuel power plants with CO2 capture and storage”, Energy Policy 35 4444–4454 Taguchi,G., (1987), System of Experimental Design, Quality Resources, New York, p. 108 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(2009), Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks:1990 – 2007 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved on 15 November 2005. Yeh, A. C., Baiu, H., (1999), “Comparison of ammonia and monoethanolamine solvents to reduce CO2 greenhouse gas emissions”, The Science of the Total Environment 228.121-133 163 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 499 Title A name given to the resource Stabilization Of Carbon Dioxide In The Flue Gas With Ulexite Author Author Çopur, Mehmet Kocakerim, M. M. Guliyev, Rusen Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey is the country having the largest boron reserves in the world. 72% of the world boron reserves is in Turkey. Commercial boron ores include colemanite, tincal and ulexite in Turkey. +3 mm ulexite fraction produced in ulexite concentration plant is exported, but -3 mm fraction, which has 16.6 % B2O3 cannot be sold and is piled up in the mine area. The Taguchi method has been used to determine optimum conditions for stabilization of CO2 gas with ulexite. Chosen experimental parameters and their ranges were (i) reaction temperature, 5-40 °C; (ii) solid-to-liquid ratio (in weight), 0.1-0.5; (iii) ; (iv) mean particle size; -600 -150 mm; (v) stirring speed, 300-700 rpm; (vi) reaction time, 15-120 min. The optimum conditions were found to be reaction temperature, 40 °C; solid-to-liquid ratio, 0.1; mean particle size, -150 mm; stirring speed, 500 rpm and reaction time, 90 min. Under these optimum conditions and 29.78 L CO2/kg ulexite was stabilized. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/142f8547b8747dffdbb65857ae99c75f.pdf 4d5d87a9b7b8c521f6b51f4149be20e8 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Stairways to hell (Historical interventionism as a truly roots of current global economic crisis) Djogo Marko University of East Sarajevo markodjogo@yahoo.com marko.djogo@ekofis.org Tamara Starovlah-Djogo University of East Sarajevo Economic crisis in Euro- Atlantic economy came in its fifth year although governments of developed countries have taken all measures that they were using more or less successfully in last 60 years. While governments keep looking for more drastically measures to end the crisis, we believe that the time has come for analyzing this situation from another angle. That angle is integral historical analyses of actual roots of this crisis instead of shallow partial analysis that take place these days. Keywords: economic crisis, state intervention, free market JEL classification: E02, E58, E6 87 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1551 Title A name given to the resource Stairways to hell (Historical interventionism as a truly roots of current global economic crisis) Author Author Đogo, Marko STAROVLAH-ĐOGO, Tamara Abstract A summary of the resource. Economic crisis in Euro- Atlantic economy came in its fifth year although governments of developed countries have taken all measures that they were using more or less successfully in last 60 years. While governments keep looking for more drastically measures to end the crisis, we believe that the time has come for analyzing this situation from another angle. That angle is integral historical analyses of actual roots of this crisis instead of shallow partial analysis that take place these days. Keywords: economic crisis, state intervention, free market JEL classification: E02, E58, E6 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/651d5e0e0dc9eeb2ff9170145d184854.pdf 4e2e9e518029104bbb1ae7012837021f PDF Text Text Xia, S.,Zhong F.,Zhang Y.,Li H.(2010).Bio- reduction of nitrate from groundwater using a hydrogen – based memrane biofilm reactor : Journal of Environmental Sciences , 22(2) 257 – 262. 811 �Stance of Undergraduates of Department of Construction at Vocational High Schools Upon Technician Training and Expectations from Both Higher Education Institutions and Governments: Sample of Vocational High School University of Düzce Assistant.Prof. Latif Onur UĞUR* lougur@ahievran.edu.tr Lecturer. Serdar KORKMAZ* serdarkorkmaz1984@gmail.com (*) Ahi Evran University Kaman Technical Vocational Collage Kaman, Kirşehir/Turkey Abstract: The goal of the study is to specify both opinions of undergraduates of department of construction at vocational high school over courses they take all through their education and expectations of them from authorities regarding technician training. For this reason, a questionnaire is carried out for seniors at department of construction of vocational high school of Düzce, T.R University of Düzce. According to the research, the seniors state they think they are going to benefit most from courses of Computer-Assisted Design, Ferroconcrete, Works of Quantities and Specifications, Statics of Construction and System Analysis and Design. % 50 of seniors state laboratory opportunities are on sufficient level; more than half of them state the education they have taken enables to work in this profession. % 40 of seniors expect from the administration to increase opportunities of practices (laboratory, land, computer…etc). Their leading expectation from governments is to improve signing authority. Training higher-up, improving job opportunities and developing laboratories- implementation areas succeed the expectation. Key words: Civil Technician, Vocational High School, Technician Training, Laboratory Practices. Introduction In Turkey, technician training started in 1953. In 1962, in technician schools totally 3700 students had received training including, 22 trainings in the evenings and 4 during the daytime. With the participation of technician schools which were opened in 1965 in Istanbul (night) and Ankara (daytime), technician training had continued until 1967. Due to various reasons, in 1967 technician training and in 1972 upper technician training had been brought to an end. In 1975, 45 colleges were opened bound to The Foundation of Common Higher Education (YAY-KUR), in 1979 the number of technician schools were increased up to 59, including 45 vocational high school. In 1982, vocational high schools were committed to the universities by being illustrated to Law No 2547 in Higher Education Law. The number of vocational high schools which were alienated to the universities in 1982 is 44. In 1997, the number of Vocational High Schools was around 400. Students who graduate from technical programs of Vocational High Schools are called “Technician”, and the students who graduate from social programs are called “Vocational Staff Member”. Entrance to the Vocational High Schools is provided with OSS. During the academic year of 1996-1997, approximately 68 thousand students registered for the Vocational High Schools. During the academic year of 1996-1997, approximately 150 thousand students were trained in Technical Programs of the Vocational High Schools (109 program), Economics and Administrative Programs (40 Programs) and Health Programs (18 Program). (Gürbüz, 1997, p.1). In consideration of the academic year of 2002-2003, 262 types of programs were provided in 474 vocational high schools. These are collected in three basic groups including Technical Programs, Economics and Administrative Programs and Health Programs. The number of associate degree programs in the Faculty of Open Education is thirteen. In Public Universities mostly technical programs, in foundation universities and open education associate degrees mostly social, economics and administrative programs are applied (Kaya, 2005). 812 �Today in our country vocational high schools are divided into five departments including Department of Skilled Trade Program, Department of Economics and Administrative Program, Department of Health Program, Department of Technical Program and Department of Agrarian Program. Every single department is divided into programs as well. Construction Program takes place in the Department of Technical programs. According to the OSS 2008 Choice Guide (TRNC included), 63 universities include construction program. According to OSS 2008 Choice Guide (2nd education included), total quota of 2 year construction programs is 6650 students (OSYM, 2008). The level of higher education is a system determined to provide to be recognized mutually in a national and international scale along with providing a compatibility between the qualifications earned through training and research, given degrees (Bircan,2008,p.2) Vocational High School: It is the only High School which cultivates the qualified manpower the industry needs. Vocational High Schools cultivates manpower with the title of technician and vocational staff member (YOK, 2004, p.10-26) The criteria in Vocational High Schools are determined according to the student number before the academic year. These criteria are; 11. Physical conditions of the unit which will go into operation ( classroom + laboratory + workshop) Computer Hardware; Up to 60 students, 60 students included, 2 computer centers with internet connection for 30 students Between 61-150 students 3 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 151-240 students 4 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 241-330 students 5 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 331- 420 students 6 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 421-510 students 7 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 511- 600 students 8 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 601-690 students 9 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Between 691-780 students 10 computer centers internet network connection for 30 students Physical conditions; For each program minimum two classrooms, For the teaching staff two offices, Library supporting the program, Considering every program type, proper workshop practice area and materials [May not be necessary in some social programs] (YOK, 2003, p.7) Technician: Technicians can be defined as vocation members who completed their associate degrees, cultivated according to the needs of the industry with the necessary information and qualifications as a result of the training they received, know how to reach the information, have ability to solve problems, have improved the ability to take a decision, have accepted the necessity of a lifelong education, have completed the development considering human relations, know another language at a basic level, use computer basically and for their jobs, can contribute to the social, cultural activities either directly or indirectly. Technicians have more theoretical knowledge than the other technicians whom they collaborate together as a team. From another aspect, they are technical employees who have no problems in perceiving the orders they get from senior managers due to their positions, who are in control of practice, who can easily pass an order to another employee or can create a solution in event of a problem (Solar Commission, 2007, p.1) Building technician; composes the vocational group who work actively as a technical employee in construction buildings such as, barrages, roads, airports, dwellings, etc., natural resources, transportation/ highway, construction departments and material testing laboratories of the controlling firms and public and local administrations. From the highway, bridge, barrage, airport, water carry / distribution systems and dwellings to the trade center, technicians play an important role in plans, projects, and construction and control steps of every building. (MEB-YÖK, 2002, p. 9) Law No 4702, provides the integrity in vocational and technical training. The first level of vocational and technical education in Turkish education is vocational and technical secondary education, and the second level is the associate degree given in vocational high schools. These two levels of education should be continuation and complement of each other (Kaya, 2005). The lessons taught in the Department of Technical Programs, Construction Program of the universities are arranged within MEB-YÖK Vocational High School Program Development Project. Düzce Vocational High School is chosen as a sample in this research and the courses taught for four semesters are included in Chart 1. 1st SEMESTER 813 �Optic Code 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 121 123 125 127 129 131 133 Optic Code 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 Name of the Course Mathematics-I Computer- I Scientific Principles of Technology Construction Static I Construction Technology I General and Technical Communication Material Science and Construction Material Mechanical Drawing Turkish Language I Principles of Atatürk and Revolution History-I English I German I French I Physical Education I Fine Arts I Theoretical 3 1 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 4 0 0 Practical 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Credit 4 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 1 1 0 0 28 Total 2nd SEMESTER Name of the Course Theoretical Practical Mathematics-II Computer- II Construction Static II Construction Technology II Beton Technology Resistance Construction Architecture and Detail Drawing Turkish Language II Principles of Atatürk and Revolution History-II English II German II French II Physical Education II Fine Arts II 814 Credit Type P P P P P P P P P P P P E E 3 1 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 2 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 28 Total 3rd SEMESTER Optic Code Name of the Course Theoretical Practical 201 Computer Supported Design I 1 1 203 Soil Mechanics I 2 1 205 Topography 2 2 207 Iron Concrete I 2 2 209 Construction Establishment Knowledge 2 0 211 Office and Construction Site Organization 3 0 213 Steel structure I 2 0 221 Hydraulics and Hydrology 2 1 223 Highway Construction I 2 1 225 Loss Assessment in Construction I 2 1 227 Vocational Foreign Language 2 1 229 Wooden Constructions 2 1 231 Prefabricated Constructions I 2 1 Total 4th SEMESTER Type P P P P P P P P P P P P P E E Credit 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 24 Type P P P P P P P E E E E E E �Optic Code 202 204 206 208 210 212 214 216 222 224 226 228 230 232 Name of the Course Theoretical Computer Supported Design II Soil Mechanics II System Analysis and Design Iron Concrete II Quality Assurance and Standards Business Management Footage and Detection Work Steel structure II Water Supply and Waste Waters Highway Construction II Loss Assessment in Construction II Entrepreneurship Masonry Prefabricated Constructions II Practical Credit Type 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 3 3 3 P P P P P P P P E E E E E 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 Total Table 1. Düzce Vocational High School Department of Construction Course List (Düzce Üniversity, 2008) 26 Students who achieve the final grade which universities determined, who complete required assignments, projects, model applications in the required norm; students who complete sixty work days of internship based on industry in two academic years and students who reach grade points average when they graduate get “Construction Technician” title. Literature Research High Education includes all educational institutions which provide higher education minimum two years. The aim of higher education is; “to educate students towards their interests, abilities and talents, to make researches on scientific fields, to publish research-observation results which enable science to improve, to complete the researches and observations required by the government and inform the results, to spread the information orally and in writing which improves the level of Turkish society and enlightens common opinion, and to serve in mass education considering the country’s science policy, society’s need for manpower at high levels and various levels.” Examining the statistic of the students graduated from high school between years of 1997-1998 and 2002-2003, majority of the graduates are found in the year of 1997-1998 with the number of 541.163. In spite of the fact that this number reduced in the following two academic years, it increased in 20012002 and 2002-2003 and exceeded half million. This shows that; in the near future, approximately half million new student will apply for high education. (Yağcızeybek, 2008, http://zulfikar.forumup.com/about1018zulfikar.html) With the influence of politics, vocational high schools continued to be opened in districts in order to prevent the buildup in universities, to cover the need of manpower, etc., and in the year of 2005 the number reached 555 from the number of 412 in the year of 2001. Majority of these schools have continued the education for the sake of qualified manpower in the buildings which are not suitable for education, and which are devoid of laboratory materials. There are even schools in which there is not a teaching staff. The lack of teaching staff is at the peak. There are schools which can not compose their administrative board. (Henden et, 2005) Vocational high schools had been stimulated for the variety of programs. The education of every profession was tried to be increased to the associate level and studies had been made towards this. Some of these diversification are, for example, programmes of bus driving, hair dressing, nut expert and etc. The aim is to satisfy the needs of environment. In the line with this purpose, the number of opening programme in vocational higher schools reaches 275. However, some programmes are combined by board of higher education on the account of the fact that vocational high schools’ programme diversity creates appellation conflict. In this context with the 04/12/2001 dated decision of Higher Education Executive Council programmes were developed within the scope of “Vocational and Technical Secondary Education Institutions Programme Coherence and Continuity Projects.” With the 19/07/2002 dated and 2002.27.2090 decision of Higher Education Institution 75 programme were developed and by associating lowered to 15. Association and aggregation were not argued enough in public opinion and the thoughts of related instructors of Vocational High Schools were not taken or if it was taken, it did not considered sufficiently. Although it is thought that association of programmes which have the same 815 �contexts is an appropriate decision, the associations of some programmes which have different contexts mostly affect the students who choose these programmes. For instance, students who win the drawer programme were placed to construction programme. When students come to school to enroll into drawer programme and when they learn they have to enroll into construction programme, it is seen that as a reaction they do not enroll into school. Also from students who want to enroll into school an application for enrolling in construction programme is wanted. Because students who win drawer programme were forced to enroll construction programme, after a while it is seen some of these students drop out. (Henden et.,2005) Vocational and technical education aims to raise producer people. Vocational and technical education system which can response to needs of skilled and technical of labor market in terms of quantity and quality can have a positive effect in the increase of Turkey’s competitive power in the Global market. Between the efficiency of vocational and technical education system and the quality of teachers of shop classes, there is a strong relationship. (Yağcızeybek, 2008, http://zulfikar.forumup.com/about1018-zulfikar.html) Vocational higher school students who go to vocational high school which is associated with vocational higher schools can not benefit from university instructors because of insufficient number of instructors and the distance of associated higher school and similar causes. Mostly high school teachers are appointed to these students’ lessons. Students can become university graduate without entering the university environment. Although these students do not enter the university environment and do not take university culture, how can we say these students are university graduate? Thus, students who are in associates MYO schools express that they do not want to come to MYO and do not want to take education in guest high schools because teachers of vocational high schools enter the lessons there that they do not see any difference and also benefiting from same workshop does not provide a plus them. Students announce that they want not associate high schools with MYOs but MYOs and they also want to leave vocational and technical education areas (METEB). (Henden et.,2005) Erdem prepared an investigation which consists of 45 questions. Questionnaire was applied to randomly chosen vocational higher school graduate group which has 144 person and the results were evaluated. According to study findings, from 114 person the percentage of %20.41 believe that during their education in their schools they take lesser skill about their basic skill; %44.10 believe that they take medium level education; and %34.50 believe that they take higher level education. It is seen that graduates information which is taken from vocational higher school use them %14.00 very little; % 16.60 little; %46.50 medium level; %24.60 higher level while solving a problem about their job. %35.00 of graduates work as worker while %44.00 as member of profession, %10.30 as manager and %9.70 as the owner of business office. Graduates can understand a text in foreign language at least %46.80 and talk a foreign language at least %50.80. Also it is seen that at least %54.40 of these graduates can use computer. Which easiness was there for the assessment of your spare time in your graduate school? %21. 90 of respondents claim they have none and %44. 70 claim they have less than three options. %69.80 expresses that although they have library in their school, they cannot benefit from it effectively. %42.60 of respondents believes they had a qualified education their graduate vocational high school. %60.30 prefers to take education in a vocational higher school which has international standards and complete its development rather than a newly opening faculty. %70.40 of the participants of questionnaire believes that apart from the permanent instructors for reaching a more qualified vocational higher school education, from experienced employee of production and service sector should be benefited. %56.50 of respondents does not believe they had a qualified education in their vocational higher school. (Erdem, 1999). Goal and Method Goal The aim of this study is to determine the thoughts of students of construction programme about the lessons they take during their education and the expectations of these students about construction technician education from authorized persons. Method In this study as an example students who are in second year in T.C. Düzce University Düzce Vocational Higher School Construction Programme are chosen. A Questionnaire is applied to 64 students who take the education of construction technician in Düzce Vocational Higher School Construction Technician Programme. The results obtained are explained by using frequency, percentage and graphic representations. Questionnaire application was done in 2009-2010 academic year spring semester before final examinations. Thus, it is aimed that students who are about to graduate can evaluate their education. 816 �Findings and Comment Lessons in education of Construction Technician Düzce Vocational Higher School was opened by depending on ministry of national education under the name of technical and social sciences departments in the year of 1976. In 1992 it is connected to Abant Đzzet Baysal University and in 2006 with the foundation of Düzce University, it is connected to Düzce University. (Düzce University, 2008). According to applied questionnaire results to students who are about to finalize their two year education in Düzce Vocational Higher School, 55 of the total 64 students are male (%85.94) and 9 (%14.06) of the them are female. While %67.19 of the participant students take place in the range of 17 and 21 years old, %32.81 of them are between 22-25 years old. There are not any students who are older than 25 years old. The age range appears low and this shows that more than the half of the students begins to university education at the latest two years after they finish their high school education. Figure 1. Sufficiency of Curriculum lessons for profession practice When it is asked whether their technician education which continues two year they take curriculum lessons is sufficient to perform that job; 36 students answered (% 56.25) as “yes sufficient,” 21 students (%32.81) as “it was sufficient reasonably,” and 7 students as (%10.94) “no, it was not sufficient.” An important number of construction technician applicants who are in construction programme and who will be graduate after final examinations think the education they took is enough for the practice of this profession. (See Graphic 1) Technical Programmes Departments of Universities are the places in which students learn information and skills which are belong to a technical field (construction, drilling, food, computer technology and programming and etc). Each technical programme should provide a technical education and through which students can realize that profession after their graduation. Students who take construction technician education after their graduation in the light of their knowledge which is taken from higher school will perform their professions. In the frame of committed questionnaire students who are about to graduate were asked: “Please mark the five lessons which do you think will help you mostly in your vocational life?” 55 (%85.94) of the total 64 students “computer aided design”, 40 of them (%62.50) “ferroconcrete” 40 of them (%62.50) “quantities and budget estimates”, 32 of them (%50.00) “construction statistics,” 27 of them (%42.19) “system analyses and design” lessons will be very beneficial for them in their vocational life, they think. According to questionnaire results the lessons “entrepreneurship,” “prefabricated structure,” “quality assurance and standards,” “building installations knowledge,” and “masonry units” are the lessons students think they will not benefit them from them very much from these vocations. When students were asked “please mark five lessons which do you think benefit in your profession life?” as a response 28 (%43.75) students mark “scientific principles of technology,” 28 (%43.75) students “business economics”, 27 (%42.19) students “quality assurance and standards”, 26 (%40.63) students “general and technical communication”, 25 (%39.06) students “soil mechanics”. According to data, students generally think that the lessons which have the context of project design, project design calculation and calculation via project will be more beneficial in their profession life. Nowadays because the preference computer aided programmes being practical and dependable can be a cause of this thought although it is not certain. 817 �In the frame of two year construction programme with the guideline of determined programme and lesson context by YÖK education is done in higher schools. In the frame of questionnaire the question “if you have the chance while taking education in construction technician department which three lessons do you want to take in a more detailed way?” to students who are applicant to do construction technician profession. While more than the half of the students (36 students, %56.25) want to take “quantities and budget estimate”, 17 students (%26.56) “building statistics” and 13 students (%20.31) “concrete technologies” lessons in a more detailed way. The applicants of construction technicians “lessons which they think they benefit most in their profession life” afore is determined as “computer aided design”, “ferroconcrete,” “quantities and budget estimate,” “building statistics” and “system analyses and design.” Students also “want to learn some lessons in a more detailed way” such as “computer aided design,” “ferroconcrete”, “quantities and budget estimate,” “building statistics,” and “concrete technology”. As it is seen the lessons show consistency with each other. The students of construction technologies want to learn the lessons which they will benefit mostly in their profession life in a more detailed way. Training hardware and education applications in construction technician education In the scope of the questionnaire when it is asked “whether they have enough laboratory in their schools” to construction technician graduate students, 23 (%35.94) students of total 64 students response as “yes, there is” while 32 students (%50.00) “there is in medium level” and 9 students (%14.06) “no, there is not.” %85.94 (50.00+35.94) of the students, who take two year technician education, expresses “there is enough laboratory possibility.” (See, graphic 2) Figure 2. Laboratory Possibility To construction technician applicants during their education it is asked “whether they make enough computer application.” 7 students (%11.00) express that they make “very much” application, while 13 students (%20.00) claim they make “enough” application, 28 students (%44.00) say they make “medium level” application, 9 students (%14.00) say they make “little” application and 7 students (%11.00) claim they make “very little” application. %25.00 (%11.00 + %14.00) of the participants of students think that “computer applications are not performed enough or done little application.” 818 �Figure 3. Sufficiency of land application When it is asked “whether they made enough land application” to construction programme students, 36 students (%56.00) response as the made very little application” 15 students (%23.00) claim they made “little” application, 12 students (%19.00) say they made “medium level” application and 1 student (%2.00) claims they made “very much” application. No one from the surveyed students mark the option “yes, I believe we made enough land application.” When the response of asked questions are examined, it is appeared that only %2.00 of the students believe they made “very much” or “enough” land application. %78.00 (%56.00 + %23.00) of the surveyed students think that they made “little” or “very little” application. Land application in technician education provides students to perform their theoretical knowledge in practical way in application areas. Because of the littleness of land application, it is possible for students to have hard times in their profession life after their graduation. In the ÖSS examination of construction programme, students can select this programme from the “computational” point type. The student who will graduate from construction programme will have the title of “construction technician.” In other words, this student will be “craft”. Solving a problem is one of the essential factors for one craft because a craft should have the practical calculating and solving skill. In this context when it is asked to students who will take the title of construction technician “whether they made enough problem solving”, 4 students (%6.00) express they made “very much” application, 12 students (%19.00) claim they made “enough” application, 18 students (%28.00) say they made “medium level” application, 17 students (%27.00) claim they made “little” application and 13 students (%20.00) suggest they made “very little” application. Expectations from authorized institution and organization The expectations of students from education system are directly proportional with their future planning. According to their future goals, students have some wish and demand from authorized institutions and organizations. For the purpose of the determination of the expectations of students who are about to graduate from Düzce Vocational Higher School with gaining related necessary theoretical and practical knowledge a questionnaire is performed and it is asked students to write their expectations with from the manager of Düzce vocational higher school and higher school management with the questions about these issues. EXPECTATIONS FROM HIGHER SCHOOL MANAGER Enhancement in application possibilities Active academic programme Enhancement in technical visits Enhancement in laboratory possibility Preservation of existing order Renewal of education staff Enhancement in the dialogue with teachers Enhancements in social possibilities 819 FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 23 13 10 7 1 1 1 1 40.35 22.81 17.54 12.28 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 �TOTAL 57 Table 2. Expectations from Higher School Manager 100 To surveyed students are asked about “their expectations from the higher school manager of their school.” This question is asked as an open ended comment and while 57 students of the total 64 students writing about their thoughts, 7 students does nor express any wish and demand. 23 students (%40.35) from 57 respondent students have the expectations of “enhancements of application possibilities,” 13 students (%22.81) want the “preparation of active academic programme,” 10 students (%17.54) want “the enhancements of technical visits,” and 7 students (%12.28) want “increase in laboratory possibilities.” “Preservation of existing lesson plan and social possibilities,” “renewal of academic staff,” “the enhancements of social possibilities” and “enhancements in dialogue with teachers” take place among the low ratio (%1.75) expectations. From this it is understood that students have expectations about “more application possibilities” and “more application field” from higher school management. (See table 2). Expectations from YÖK President FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 6 17.65 Circulation of education in a longer term 6 17.65 Giving signing authority to technicians 4 11.76 Abolishment of open admission 4 11.76 Giving attention on applied training 4 11.76 Abolishment of unnecessary lessons Abolishment of the difference between engineer 3 8.82 and technician 2 5.88 Making amendments in DGS 2 5.88 Enhancement in lesson hours Making introduction which makes department 2 5.88 more important 1 2.94 Auditing of teachers TOTAL 34 100 Table 3. Expectations from YÖK President In the survey, technician candidate students were also asked about their expectations from YÖK. While 34 students from total 64 students were writing something to this open ended question, 30 students did not write any wish and demand. 6 students (%17.65) from the total 34 respondent students express their expectation as “circulation of education in a longer term,” 6 students (%17.65) as “giving signing authority to technicians,” 4 students (%11.76) as “abolishment of open admission,” 4 students (%11.76) as “giving attention on applied training,” 4 students (%11.76) as “abolishment of unnecessary lessons,” 3 students (%8.82) as “abolishment of the difference between engineer and technician,” 2 students (%5.88) as “making amendments in DGS,” 2 students (%5.88) as “enhancement in lesson hours,” 2 students (%5.88) as “making introduction which makes department more important,” and 1 student as “auditing of teachers.” (See, Table 3). From this it is understood that students want more detailed and longer education about their department. One of the most important expectations of students from YÖK is “giving the signing authority to technicians.” However, this authority was given within certain limits by Ministry of Public Works and Settlement. Thus, in February 5, 2008 “the building control application regulations” of Ministry of Public Works and Settlement became valid by issuing in official journal. With the 15th item of regulation, as per building site the limits of audit mandate is given as following: Technician Techie Technical instructor (Building, Machine, (Building, Machine, (Building, Machine, Electric) Electric) Electric) 15.000 m² 10.000 m² 5.000 m² Table 4. Limits of audit mandate (Ministry of Public Work and Settlement, 2008) According to regulation, the audit mandate limit of building, machine and electric technician is 10.000 m². Through responses it is understood that some of the students do not know about this authorization. (See, table 4). 820 �EXPECTATIONS FROM POLITICAL FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE POWERS 5 45.45 Giving signing authority to technicians 2 18.18 Providing higher level education possibility 2 18.18 Providing job opportunity Enhancement of Laboratory and application 1 9.09 fields 1 9.09 Providing equality in education 11 100 TOTAL Table 5. Expectations from political powers For the purpose of determining the expectations of students from political powers, to the asked open ended question 11 students from the surveyed 64 students give answer but 53 students do not express any wish and demand. 5 students (%45.45) from the respondent 11 students are in the expectation of “giving signing authority to technicians,” 2 students (%18.18) are in the expectation of “providing higher level education possibility,” 2 students (%18.18) are in the expectation of “providing job opportunity,” 1 student (%9.09) is in the expectation of “enhancement of Laboratory and application fields,” and 1 student (%9.09) is in the expectation of “providing equality in education.” (See, Table 5). When we look at the students’ expectations, they want to have an application improvement in their education and they want to have an enhancement in authority, responsibility and job opportunities related with their education field. Results and Suggestions Results • Male students (%85.94) are predominant in the education of construction technician education. • A large proportion of the students are in the range of 17-21 years old (%67.19). • More than the half of the graduate students (%56.25) indicates that the lessons in the curriculum are enough for the application of this profession. • According to questionnaire results, if there is possibility the students want to take following lessons in a more detailed way because they think these lessons wil be very beneficial in their profession life: (%85.94) “computer aided design”, (%62.5) “ferroconcrete”, (%62.50) “quantities and budget estimate”, (%50.00) “building statistics” and (%42.19) “system analyses and design.” The lessons Atatürk Principles and history and Turkish language are excluded from this question. • According to questionnaire results, the least beneficial lessons in students profession life are (%43.75) “Scientific principles of technology”, (%43.75) “business economics”, (%42.19) “Quality assurance and standards”, (%40.63) “general and technical communication” and (%39.06) “soil mechanics.” • %50.00 of students indicates that laboratory possibilities are in “enough level.” While %36.00 of students think there is “medium level” laboratory possibility, %14.00 of students claim “there is not enough laboratory possibility.” • %25.00 (%14.00+ %11.00) of students think “laboratory applications are not done sufficiently.” • A large proportion of the students (%56.00+ %23.00) think “field applications are not done sufficiently or done very little.” • In the subject of enough problems solving students have different thoughts. While %25.00 (%6.00+ %19.00) of students think “lot of and enough application is done,” %47.00 (%27.00+ %20.00) of students believe “little or very little application is done.” On the other hand, %28.00 of students thinks “medium level application is done.” • %40.35 of students is in the expectation of “enhancement of application possibilities” from higher school management. “Arrangement of active lesson plans,” “enhancements of technical visits,” and “enhancement of laboratory possibilities,” follow aforementioned expectation respectively. • Students’ expectations from YÖK also show variety. Some these main expectations are “circulation of education in a longer term” (%17.65), “giving signing authority to technicians” (%17.65), “abolishment of open admission” (%11.76), “giving attention on applied training” (%11.76), and “abolishment of unnecessary lessons” (%11.76). • The main expectation of students from political powers is “giving signing authority to technicians” (%45.45). “Providing higher level education possibility” (%18.18), “providing job opportunity”, 821 �(%18.18), “enhancement of Laboratory and application fields” (%9.09), “providing equality in education” (%9.09) follows the aforementioned main expectation. Suggestions According to obtained data, the possibility of lessons which take place in higher school curriculum and theoretical knowledge application use of students should be increased. Hence, they can begin their profession life with a specific level application experience. Laboratory possibilities which students will use during their education actively should be renewed in a compatible way with the developing technology and new laboratories should be established. It should not be forgotten that learning by “doing- performing” is one of the learning types. Land applications should be considered as a part of the education and studies which provide more active participation of students to school-industry collaboration should be arranged. Moreover, instructing students about their after graduate authorization will be very beneficial. 822 �References Bircan, Đ. (2008). Towards [iro.atilim.edu.tr/Yeterlilik.ppt] a Framework for Qualifications of Higher Education of Turkey. p.2, Düzce University. (2008). Vocational High School of Düzce. [http://79.123.147.197/dmyo/] Erdem, A. (1999). Adequacy of Education in Vocational Schools and Quality Assurance”, ISSN 1306-0767 Journal Of Legıslatıve, year 2, number 23 Gürbüz, R. (1997). Expectations of vocational high school. p.1, Çankırı Henden, R. and Tunç, A. (2005). Vocational Technical Education in Transition without Exam Practice. Journal of The National Education, number 165, Ankara Kaya, F. (2005). Demographic Structure of Vocational High School Students and Research on the Effectiveness of Vocational High School. National Vocational Education and Journal of Social Sciences, number 168, Ankara MEB-YÖK. (2002). Vocational Schools Development Program- Construction Program. Trade Commission of Construction Program, p.9, Ankara Ministry of Public Work and Settlement. (2008). Buıldıng Control Applıcatıon Regulatıons. Official Newspaper, Number 26778, February 5 OSYM. (2008). ÖSS Preferences Guide. Yağcizeybek, S. (2008). Career Technical Education Issues and Suggestions. [http://zulfikar.forumup.com/about1018zulfikar.html] YÖK. (The Council of Higher Education). (2003). Criteria of Vocational High Schools. p.7, Ankara Solar Commission. (2007). III. National Meeting of Directors [http://myotoplantisi.cu.edu.tr/komisyon1/GünesKomisyonI.doc] , p.1, November 8-9, Adana of the Vocational, YÖK (The Council of Higher Education). (2004). Present Status of Vocational Higher School and Vocational and Technical High Schools in the Vocational High School Assessment exams without're Late. Ankara University Press, Ankara 823 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 632 Title A name given to the resource Stance of Undergraduates of Department of Construction at Vocational High Schools Upon Technician Training and Expectations from Both Higher Education Institutions and Governments: Sample of Vocational High School University of Düzce Author Author Uğur, Latif Onur KORKMAZ, Serdar Abstract A summary of the resource. The goal of the study is to specify both opinions of undergraduates of department of construction at vocational high school over courses they take all through their education and expectations of them from authorities regarding technician training. For this reason, a questionnaire is carried out for seniors at department of construction of vocational high school of Düzce, T.R University of Düzce. According to the research, the seniors state they think they are going to benefit most from courses of Computer-Assisted Design, Ferroconcrete, Works of Quantities and Specifications, Statics of Construction and System Analysis and Design. % 50 of seniors state laboratory opportunities are on sufficient level; more than half of them state the education they have taken enables to work in this profession. % 40 of seniors expect from the administration to increase opportunities of practices (laboratory, land, computer…etc). Their leading expectation from governments is to improve signing authority. Training higher-up, improving job opportunities and developing laboratories- implementation areas succeed the expectation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/922ad53ef9fdc7301c0d0adfab54ef26.docx 7393343a2a5030cad594109156682c0b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9356a9c7cd123f21c562841c0c2b05f0.pdf 08ffef513124237f73772ba9ebba3d8c PDF Text Text dr. sc. Suzana Bubić, redovni profesor Pravni fakultet Univerziteta „Džemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru STANDARD „NAJBOLJI INTERES DJETETA“ I NJEGOVA PRIMJENA U KONTEKSTU OSTVARIVANJA RODITELJSKOG STARANJA Autorica u radu, nakon opštih napomena o standardu „najbolji interes djeteta“, razmatra njegovo uređenje u konvencijskom i domaćem pravu te njegovu primjenu u kontekstu ostvarivanja roditeljskog staranja. Analizira ga s dva aspekta, u dvije situacije. Prva situacija je ona u kojoj roditelji žive zajedno, a između njih, ili izmedju njih i djeteta, nastane spor. U drugoj situaciji – u slučaju prestanka kohabitacije roditelja, najbolji interes djeteta posmatra kao odlučan za donošenje odluke o tome s kojim roditeljem će živjeti dijete i o održavanju ličnih odnosa i kontakata djeteta s roditeljem s kojim ne živi. Za ove situacije predlaže kriterije, odnosno smjernice kojih nadležni organi treba da se pridržavaju, a koji se izvode iz odredaba Konvencije o pravima djeteta i domaćeg porodičnog zakonodavstva te prakse Evropskog suda za ljudska prava. Ključne riječi: odgoj i obrazovanje djeteta, staranje o životu, zdravlju i razvoju djeteta, kontakti s roditeljima 1. Određenje i primjena standarda “najbolji interes djeteta” Standard “najbolji interes djeteta” prihvaćen je kao jedno od osnovnih načela za uređenje i zaštitu prava djeteta u Konvenciji o pravima djeteta (u daljem tekstu: Konvencija), ali i u drugim dokumentima koji se direktno ili indirektno tiču ovih prava. U stavu 1. člana 3. Konvencije normira se da „u svim aktivnostima koje se tiču djece, bez obzira na to da li ih provode javne ili privatne institucije za socijalnu zaštitu, sudovi, upravni organi ili zakonodavna tijela, najbolji interes djeteta bit će od prvenstvenog značaja.” U odredbi stava 2. ovog člana koristi se širi termin - “dobrobit” djeteta, prisutan i u dijelu uporednog prava,1 na čije osiguranje se također obavezuju države članice “uzimajući u obzir prava i obaveze roditelja djeteta, zakonskih staratelja ili drugih osoba koje su pravno odgovorne za dijete i preduzimaju u tom cilju sve potrebne zakonodavne i upravne mjere.” U oba slučaja radi se o standardu, zahvaljujući čijoj širini i neodređenosti je moguća njihova primjena u svim navedenim aktivnostima i svim sporovima, odnosno pri preduzimanju pojedinih mjera, uz obavezu utvrđivanja njihove sadržine u svakom konkretnom slučaju.2 1 U nekim zakonima se koristi samo ovaj standard (naprimjer u engleskom Children Act, 1989, član 1), na čije prvenstveno razmatranje se obavezuje sud pri odlučivanju o pitanjima podizanja djeteta ili njegove imovine. 2 Šire o određivanju sadržine standarda “najbolji interes djeteta” i njegovim karakteristikama: Bubić, S., Prilog raspravi o sadržaju standarda “najbolji interes djeteta” u oblasti porodičnog prava, Zbornik radova - XI Međunarodno savjetovanje "Aktualnosti građanskog i trgovačkog zakonodavstva i pravne prakse“, Neum, 21-23. 6. 2013, Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru 11 �Znači, određenje najboljeg interesa djeteta vrši se na individualnoj osnovi, imajući u vidu kontekst u kojem se odlučuje i okolnosti koje postoje na strani svakog pojedinog djeteta i roditelja. Postizanju uniformnosti ne treba da se teži: sa stanovišta djeteta ona bi imala više loših nego dobrih strana, a bila bi i suprotna ciljevima koji se hoće postići korištenjem standarda. U pravilu, ovaj standard je lakše odrediti negativno nego pozitivno, često je lakše reči šta mu je suprotno, nego šta mu ide u prilog. Međutim, ovakav način određenja trebalo bi da se izbjegava, jer u praksi dovodi do slabljenja značaja ovog načela. Nadležni organi i tijela su obavezni uvažavati ovo načelo pri donošenju svake odluke koja se tiče djeteta, bilo staranja roditelja o njemu, bilo ostvarivanja pojedinih prava koja su djetetu priznata Konvencijom. Pretpostavke za realizaciju ovog načela su dodatno osigurane i obavezivanjem roditelja da se rukovode najboljim interesom djeteta pri izvršavanju pojedinih dužnosti prema njemu. Ono je u funkciji pomoći u donošenju najadekvatnije odluke uz obavezno sistemsko traženje „rješenja s najviše pozitivnog ili najmanje negativnog utjecaja na dijete ili djecu u pitanju“, njegovom primjenom treba da se “ograniči širenje vlasti odraslih nad djecom (roditelja, profesionalaca, učitelja, ljekara, sudija itd)“3 Za određenje sadržaja najboljeg interesa djeteta i donošenje odluke koja će uvažiti ovaj interes, pogodniji od sudskog je postupak porodičnog posredovanja. Njegove prednosti su brojne, a izražene su naročito u postupku u kojem se odlučuje o staranju o djetetu i o kontaktima djeteta s roditeljem. Obaveza država da podstiču postupke posredovanja i druge postupke u kojim se postižu sporazumi normirana je Konvencijom o ostvarivanju dječijih prava (član 13),4 a na ove postupke upućuju, pored ostalih dokumenata, i Preporuke o porodičnom posredovanju Vijeća Evrope. Da bi na utvrđenom najboljem interesu djeteta mogli zasnovati odluku koja će osigurati ostvarivanje prava djeteta i optimalno zaštititi dijete unutar porodice i u širem okruženju u kojem živi, roditelji i nadležni organi moraju voditi računa o tome da interes djeteta, u pravilu, ne treba da ima apsolutnu prednost u odnosu na interese drugih, kako članova porodice, tako i ostalih subjekata te interese društva.5 U Konvenciji je normirano da najbolji interes 3 Zermatten, J, The Best Interests of the Child, Literal Analysis, Function and Implementation, Working Report 2010, Institut international des droits de l' enfant, str. 6. i 10, dostupno na: http://www.childsrights.org/html/documents/wr/wr_best_interest_child09.pdf, (pristup 12.3.2013) 4 Konvencija o kontaktima s djecom također obavezuje pravosudno tijelo da prilikom rješavanja sporova o kontaktima preduzme sve odgovarajuće mjere radi podsticanja roditelja i drugih osoba koje su u porodičnoj vezi s djetetom da postignu prijateljski dogovor u vezi s kontaktima, posebno korištenjem porodičnog posredovanja i drugih postupaka za rješavanje sporova (član 7. t.b). 5 Zermatten, J, L'intérêt superieur de l' enfant, Paris VIII (mars-mai 2005), Institut international des droits de l' enfant, str. 15 - 16. dostupno na stranici: http://www.dei-france.org/lettres_divers/2009/interet_superieur_enfant.pdf, pristup 20.3.2013) Na obavezu nacionalnih organa da uspostave pravičnu ravnotežu između interesa djeteta i interesa roditelja, ostalih osoba i interesa društva, ukazuje i Evropski sud za ljudska prava (vidjeti predmete Hokkanen p. Finske (Application 19823/92, Judgment 23-09-1994, &. 58, http://www.cg.org.uk/camp/hr/hokkanen.htm), K. i T. p. Finske (Application no. 25702/94, Judgment 12. July 2001, &194, 12 �djeteta ima „prvenstveni“ značaj, pod čim se ne podrazumijeva i njegov superioran značaj, njegovo stavljanje iznad svih ostalih interesa.6 „Vrhovni“ značaj mu je priznat samo u odredbi člana 21. koja se odnosi na usvojenje, a u kojoj se normira da „će države članice koje priznaju i/ili dozvoljavaju usvojenje osigurati da najbolji interes djeteta bude od vrhovnog značaja“. Radi osiguranja da odluka u svakom konkretnom slučaju zaista bude zasnovana na pravilnoj procjeni i ocjeni najboljeg interesa djeteta, nadležni organ u postupku donošenja odluke mora razmotriti, utvrditi i obrazložiti posljedice koje će odluka imati na dijete. Od više mogućih alternativa, nužno je utvrditi i odabrati onu koja će imati najpovoljnije efekte za dijete. Ta procjena se ne može izvršiti bez uključivanja i samog djeteta, bez davanja mogućnosti djetetu da iznese vlastiti stav i mišljenje te bez uvažavanja toga stava u skladu s njegovim uzrastom i zrelošću (član 12. Konvencije).7 Sama ocjena odraslih, bilo da se radi o roditeljima ili profesionalcima koji donose odluku, nije dovoljna. Pogotovo je opasno, polazeći od stava da samo roditelji znaju šta je najbolje za dijete i porodicu, ostaviti njima da sami utvrde šta je u najboljem interesu djeteta. U Konvenciji se, istina, polazi od pretpostavke da je u staranju o podizanju i razvoju djeteta osnovna briga roditelja najbolji interes djeteta (član 18. stav 1). Međutim, ona ne važi bez izuzetka. Roditelji se najčešće ponašaju tako da osiguravaju najbolji interes djeteta. Ako su sposobni i spremni pri svakodnevnom ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja ili izvršavanju pojedinih obaveza odlučivati uvažavajući ovaj interes, a pri tome vodeći računa i o potrebama drugih članova porodice i uspostavljajući ravnotežu između interesa unutar porodice, interesi djeteta će biti u potpunosti osigurani i zaštićeni. Ipak, ne smije se zanemariti mogućnost njihovog drugačijeg postupanja, izazvana različitim razlozima. Tako roditelji mogu, nesvjesno i nenamjerno, koristiti dijete kao sredstvo za ispunjenje svojih neostvarenih želja. Njihovi interesi http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-59587), Gluhaković p. Hrvatske, (Application no. 21188/09, Judgment 12 April 2011, &57, dostupno na stranici: http://echr.ketse.com/doc/21188.09-en-20110412/view/) 6 Prvenstveni značaj najboljem interesu djeteta priznaje se i u Principima Evropskog porodičnog prava koji se tiču roditeljske odgovornosti (Princip 3:3: „U svim predmetima koji se tiču roditeljske odgovornosti najbolji interes djeteta će biti od prvenstvenog značaja.“) te u Povelji EU o osnovnim pravima, u kojoj se normira njegovo prvenstveno uzimanje u obzir u svim aktvnostima koje se tiču djece, preduzetim bilo od javnih organa bilo od privatnih institucija (član 24. stav 2). U dijelu literature se navodi da je ovaj interes naglašeniji u Principima nego u Konvenciji i Povelji, pošto u Principu 3:3 ispred „primary consideration“ stoji „the“, a u druga dva dokumenta „a“ (Chapter II: Rights of the child, u: Principles of European Family Law Regarding Parental Responsibilities, published by the Organising Committee od European Family Law, Intersentia, Antwerpen –Oxford, 2007, str. 37). Drugi autori, nakon razmatranja razlika u korištenju „the“ i „a“, zauzimaju stav da se radi o nijansi koja ne jača niti slabi značaj principa „najbolji interes djeteta“; bitnim smatraju to što postoji obaveza pridržavanja ovog principa, a ne mogućnost izbora hoće li se on uvažavati ili neće (Zermatten, supra note 3,str. 11) 7 Konvencija o ostvarivanju dječijih prava također je obavezala nadležne organe da u postupcima koji se tiču djeteta prikupe sve potrebne informacije kako bi mogli donijeti odluku koja je u najboljem interesu djeteta i da osiguraju pretpostavke za slobodno formiranje i izražavanje djetetovog mišljenja kojem se mora dati dužni značaj (član 6). 13 �mogu biti drugačiji od interesa djeteta i ne moraju uvijek biti u službi interesa djeteta, tako da se ni iz svih radnji koje preduzmu roditelji ne mogu isključiti elementi njihovog vlastitog interesa.8 Ili, razlog može biti sukob interesa djeteta i roditelja, u slučaju čijeg postojanja roditelj može dati prednost svom interesu pred interesom djeteta. Opasnost za dijete je naročito prisutna onda kada je ovaj sukob prikriven, pa nadležni organ, obavezan intervenisati radi zaštite interesa djeteta u slučaju ovog sukoba, nije u prilici prepoznati tu situaciju i postupiti na način normiran zakonom. Otklanjanje navedene opasnosti i određenje sadržine standarda „najbolji interes djeteta“ moguće je, znači, samo primjenom, uz objektivni, i subjektivnog kriterija. Pored objektivnih elemenata, nužno je uvijek uzeti u obzir i poštovati stav i mišljenje samog djeteta sposobnog da ocijeni šta je njegovom najboljem interesu.9 Pri tome se djetetu mora pomoći da shvati problem i da učestvuje u njegovom rješavanju.Ono se često nađe usred problema koji nije izazvalo, za čije postojanje ne zna, koji ne razumije niti može sam utjecati na njegovo rješenje. Mada je uveden i prihvaćen radi osiguranja donošenja odluka koje će u potpunosti zaštititi dijete, neodgovarajuća i nepravilna primjena ovog standarda može izazvati upravo suprotan efekt i negativno se odraziti na dijete. Kao što je već naglašeno, uvijek se mora imati u vidu postojanje opasnosti da roditelji pri donošenju odluke daju prednost svom interesu pred djetetovim. Opasnost prijeti i od neograničene dispozicije u određivanju ovog interesa u postupcima koje vode nadležni organi. U teoriji se opravdano ističe da bi standard “najbolji interes djeteta”, po svojim karakteristikama fleksibilan i bogat, ali istovremeno i potencijalno slab, mogao anulirati razumijevanje prava djeteta i biti čak kontraproduktivan. Radi otklanjanja prisutnih slabosti – neodređenosti i nepreciznosti kriterija za njegovo određenje, ističe se nužnost njegove objektivizacije navođenjem kriterija koji će se primjenjivati u svakom konkretnom slučaju.10 Komitet za prava djeteta je na sličan način izrazio istu bojazan, istakavši da fleksibilnost ovog standarda može dovesti do manipulacija i njegove zloupotrebe. Zloupotrebljavaju ga mnogi radi ostvarivanja različitih ciljeva: vlade i druga državna tijela radi opravdanja rasističkih politika; roditelji da bi zaštitili vlastite interese u sporovima o staranju; profesionalci s ciljem izbjegavanja odgovornosti onda kada su propustili procijeniti najbolji interes 8 Na to da roditelji imaju nezavisne interese koji se ne mogu uvijek objasniti kao izvedeni iz roditeljskih dužnosti i ne služe isključivo unapređenju dobrobiti njihove djece, a koje će pravni sistem izričito podržati, u engleskoj teoriji ukazuje autor Bainham (Bainham, A, Is Anything Now Left of Parental Rights?, u: Responsible Parents and Parental Responsibility, edited by Probert, R, Gilmore S. and Herring, J, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2009, str. 24-28) 9 O tome v.: Eekelaar, J, The Interests of the Child and the Child's Wishes: The Role of Dynamic Self-Determination“ prema Alston, The Best Interests of the Child: Reconciling Culture and Human Rights, 1994, str. 53; The principle of the best interests of the child – what it means and what it demands from adults, Lecture by Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights, Council of Europe , Warsaw, 30 May, 2008, str. 9. 10 Zermatten, supra note 3, str. 17. 14 �djeteta, smatrajući to irelevantnim.11 Opasnost izazvana primjenom načela najboljeg interesa djeteta, posmatrano s aspekta prava djeteta, a na koju upozoravaju praktičari, može biti posljedica toga što “se njime često potvrđuje moć odraslih nad djecom ili njihovo posjedovanje djece na štetu svih ili nekih od njihovih ostalih prava”.12 Zbog toga se upućuju zahtjevi za opreznijim postupanjem i rukovođenjem odraslih time da se, pri donošenju svake odluke koja može utjecati na dijete, prvo mora imati na umu njegov najbolji interes. U isto vrijeme se pozitivnim i korisnim cijeni to što se o ovim pitanjima sve više raspravlja upravo iz perspektive ugroženih dječijih prava, mada se često polazi od shvatanja da je najbolji interes “zapravo formula odraslih s pomoću koje će se pronaći rješenje.“13 Uz poseban oprez i pažnju, primjenom objektivnih i subjektivnih kriterija moraju se utvrditi ne samo sadašnji, nego i budući interesi djeteta, odnosno posljedice koje će odluka imati za dijete u bližoj i daljoj budućnosti. Dijete je biće u razvoju, njegove sposobnosti, potrebe i interes se mijenjaju, tako da ono što je u njegovom trenutnom interesu nije i ne mora biti i njegov dugoročni interes.14 Kada se ima u vidu neodređenost sadržine standarda „najbolji interes djeteta“, razumljivijim se čini to što se u dijelu francuske literature, uz ovaj standard veže atribut „magičan“. Tako se on označava kao magičan termin, neodređen i pogodan za favorizovanje sudske arbitrernosti te kao ključni i neodređen termin, kao „ključ koji otvara neodređen prostor“.15 Najvažnijom ulogom sudije ne smatra se ocjena interesa, već određenje koja su prava jednih, a koja drugih osoba.16 Pri komentarisanju prakse Kasacionog suda navodi se da se ima utisak da su francuske sudije u konceptu najbolji interes djeteta našle „magični napitak“ i da ga, kao subjektivan, neodređen i koncept koji omogućava sve, mogu iskoristiti uvijek, za opravdanje svake prakse.17 Za dijete je važno da neodređenost i nedorečenost ovog standarda ne dovede u praksi do nejednakog tretmana u odnosu na drugo dijete ili djecu u situaciji sličnoj ili identičnoj onoj povodom koje se donosi odluka koja ga se 11 Committee on the Rights of the Children, General comment No. 14 (2013) on the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration (art. 3, para. 1), Distr.: General 29 May 2013, para 34. 12 Newell, P, Poštovanje dječjih prava u slučaju rastave ili razvoda roditelja: ključni izazovi, Djeca i konfliktni razvodi, u: Zbornik priopćenja s Godišnje konferencije Mreže pravobranitelja za djecu Jugoistočne Europe i stručnih rasprava Pravobranitelja za djecu RH, Zagreb 2010, str. 19. 13 ibidem 14 U tom smislu i: Zermatten, supra note 3, str. 17. 15 Carbonnier, J., Droit civil, t. 2, 18ème éd. n° 192, p.258, prema: Gobert, M, Le droit de la famille dans la jurisprudence de la Cour de cassation, http://www.courdecassation.fr/formation_br_4/2006_55/intervention_mme_gobert_9948.html?idp rec=8581 16 Carbonnier, J., Note Sous Paris, 30 avril 1959, in Dalloz 1960, p. 675, prema: Ost, F., Droit et intérêt: Entre droit et non-droit, l'intérêt, Publication des Facultés universitaires Saint - Louis, Bruxelles, 1990, str. 14. 17 Gobert, supra note 15 15 �tiče. Ova opasnost postoji kod svakog pravnog standarda, a ovdje je posebno izražena zbog njegovih karakteristika.18 2. Najbolji interes djeteta u slučaju zajedničkog života roditelja U slučaju zajedničkog života roditelja, kada se roditeljsko staranje ostvaruje zajednički, sporazumno i ravnopravno, postoje najveći izgledi i garancije da će najbolji interes djeteta biti osiguran zadovoljavanjem svih potreba djeteta, uspješnim izvršavanjem obaveze roditelja da se staraju o životu i zdravlju djeteta, omogućavanjem zdravog i stabilnog psihosocijalnog razvoja, odnosno potpunog i skladnog razvoja ličnosti djeteta. Upravo se time omogućava ostvarenje ciljeva kojim služi djetetu priznato pravo da živi s roditeljima, sadržano u odredbi člana 9. stava 1. Konvencije, a izričito normirano članom 124. stav 2. Porodičnog zakona Federacije BiH (u daljem tekstu: PZ FBiH), članom 81. stav 2. Porodičnog zakona Republike Srpske (u daljem tekstu PZ RS) i članu 107. stav 2. Porodičnog zakona Brčko Distrikta (u daljem tekstu PZ BD). U donošenje odluka pri ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja roditelji treba da uključe dijete, ukoliko je ono dostiglo uzrast i potrebnu zrelost za shvatanje i ocjenu svog interesa. Kroz razgovor s djetetom, tokom kojeg mu pomažu da razumije pitanje o kojem se odlučuje i posljedice koje će donesena odluka proizvesti za njega, roditelji treba da pomognu djetetu da formira i izrazi vlastiti stav i mišljenje koje će uzeti u obzir pri donošenju odluke.19 U dijelu domaćeg prava djetetu je, kao posebno pravo,priznato pravo na izražavanje i uvažavanje vlastitog mišljenja u skladu s njegovim uzrastom i zrelošću (član 125. PZ FBiH, član 108. stav 1.PZ BD). Ovo pravo mora biti poštovano od svih, a naročito od njegovih roditelja, s obzirom da oni svakodnevno donose odluke koje se tiču djeteta - njegovog odgoja, obrazovanja, zdravlja i razvoja. Roditelji nisu dužni uvažiti stav djeteta koje nije u stanju formirati ga, jer bi to bilo u suprotnosti s njegovim najboljim interesom. Razgovor s djetetom i saznanje njegovih stavova su posebno značajni pri donošenju važnijih odluka, onih koje će za njega imati dugoročne posljedice. U literaturi se naglašava da u praksi djeca obično traže pomoć odraslih pri donošenju teških odluka, tako da „najbolji interes djeteta 18 Zermatten, supra note 3, str. 16-17. Ova obaveza roditelja nije izričito normirana Konvencijom, već proizlazi iz obaveze države članice da osigura djetetu pravo na slobodno izražavanje svojih stavova i da ih uvažava u skladu s uzrastom i zrelošću djeteta (član 12. stav 1). Ostvarivanje prava djeteta, u postupcima koji ga se tiču, na dobijanje relevantnih informacija, na savjetovanje, izražavanje vlastitog mišljenja i informisanje o mogućim posljedicama uvažavanja ovog mišljenja i mogućim posljedicama odluke izričito je normirano članom 3. Konvencije o ostvarivanju dječijih prava. Međutim, to ne znači da ovo pravo ne treba da poštuju i roditelji. Ono je ustanovljeno i kao jedan od principa Evropskog porodičnog prava koji se tiču roditeljske odgovornosti (Princip 3:6): „Uzimajući u obzir djetetov uzrast i zrelost, dijete će imati pravo da bude informisano, konsultovano i da izrazi svoje mišljenje u svim predmetima koji ga se tiču, te da se izraženi stavovi uvaže." (Principles of European Family Law regarding parental responsibilities, dostupni na: http://ceflonline.net/wpcontent/uploads/Principles-PR-English.pdf) 19 16 �podrazumijeva partnerstvo“.20 Bez uspostavljenog ovakvog, partnerskog odnosa između roditelja i djece, odnosno djetetovog ravnopravnog položaja u odnosu na roditelje, ne može se odrediti niti osigurati najbolji interes djeteta. Ako bi roditelji djetetu koje je dovoljno zrelo i sposobno nametali nešto što ono ne želi i ne prihvata, to bi bilo suprotno njegovom najboljem interesu. Načelo zajedničke odgovornosti roditelja, sadržano u članu 18. Konvencije,21 domaći zakonodavci su prihvatili normirajući kao osnovno pravilo o ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja da se roditelji zajednički, sporazumno i ravnopravno staraju o djetetu, osim ako je drugačije uređeno zakonom (član 141. stav 1. PZ FBiH, član 124. stav 1.PZ BD) U najvećem broju slučajeva roditelji, rukovodeći se interesom djeteta, uspijevaju sporazumno se starati o njemu. Onda kada izostane sporazum, interes djeteta zahtijeva intervenciju u ostvarivanje roditeljskog staranja. U tom smislu zakonodavci normiraju da, ukoliko između roditelja nastane spor o ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja, odluku donosi sud u vanparničnom postupku (član 141. stav 3. PZ FBiH), odnosno organ starateljstva (član 85. stav 2. PZ RS i član 124. stav 3. PZ BD). Znači, onda kada se roditelji ne mogu sporazumjeti o ostvarivanju nekog prava djeteta ili o izvršavanju svojih obaveza i odgovornosti, zakonodavac je interes djeteta zaštitio davanjem ovlaštenja sudu, odnosno organu starateljstva da o tome odluči. Interes djeteta zahtijeva intervenciju u ostvarivanje roditeljskog staranja i onda kada različiti stavovi o ostvarivanju djetetovih prava i izvršavanju obaveza roditelja prema djetetu postoje između roditelja na jednoj, i djeteta na drugoj strani. Zakonodavac nije posebnom odredbom uredio nadležnost za postupanje u ovoj situaciji, već se zaključak o tome može izvesti iz odredbe člana 150. stava 1. PZ FBiH (odnosno člana 94. PZ RS i člana 133. stav 1. PZ BD), kojom se obavezuje organ starateljstva da po službenoj dužnosti (na osnovu neposrednog saznanja ili obavještenja) preduzme potrebne mjere radi zaštite prava i najboljeg interesa djeteta. Ovom odredbom dato je generalno ovlaštenje, odnosno generalno je obavezan organ starateljstva na preduzimanje mjera i izvan onih koje su izričito propisane u zakonu. Tumačenjem odredbe člana 198. PZ FBiH (odnosno člana 215. PZ RS i člana 179. stav 1. PZ BD)22 utvrđuje se da je njen ratio legis imenovanje posebnog staraoca i u ovoj situaciji. Naime, u odredbi upotrijebljeni termin „spor“ ne mora se odnositi samo na neslaganje o subjektivnom pravu zbog kojeg se pokreće parnica, već on može obuhvatiti i spor o ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja. Ni u slučaju nesporazuma između roditelja, koji se rješava u vanparničnom postupku, termin „spor“ nema pomenuto značenje: 20 Qu’est-ce que « l’intérêt supérieur de l’enfant »?,Préparé par Tara Collins et la sénatrice Landon Pearson, str. 4, dostupno na:http://03559de.netsolhost.com/htmfiles/hill/17_htm_files/Committeee/Tara-ABestInterest-Fr.pdf 21 “Države stranke učinit će sve što je u njihovoj moći u primjeni načela zajedničke roditeljske odgovornosti za odgoj i razvoj djeteta. Roditelji ili zakonski staratelji snose najveću odgovornost za odgoj i razvoj djeteta. Dobrobit djeteta mora biti njihova osnovna briga.” (stav 1. člana 18) 22 “Poseban staratelj imenovat će se djetetu (…) za vođenje spora (…) između njega i njegovih roditelja, kao i u drugim slučajevima kada su njihovi interesi u suprotnosti i kada je to normirano ovim Zakonom”. 17 �zakonodavac je izričito normirao da se radi o sporu o ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja. U suprotnom, on bi se morao rješavati u parničnom postupku. U skladu s članom 129. stav 2. PZ FBiH i članom 112. stav 2. PZ BD, 23 obe vrste spora, odnosno nastali nesporazumi, moraju se riješiti u najboljem interesu djeteta, kojem se uvijek daje prednost u odnosu na mišljenje roditelja. Što se tiče nesporazuma između roditelja, on može nastati o svim sadržajima roditeljskog staranja, prvenstveno o obrazovanju djeteta, odnosno izboru škole ili zanimanja djeteta. Isto tako, roditelji mogu imati različite stavove o odgoju djeteta, naročito religioznom, i disciplinskim mjerama koje primjenjuju na dijete. Nesporazum može nastati i o medicinskom tretmanu, odnosno načinu liječenja djeteta ili o primjeni preventivnih zdravstvenih mjera. U svim ovim situacijama u rješavanje spora i donošenje odluke treba da se uključi dijete kako bi se uspješnije ocijenio njegov najbolji interes. 2. 1. Odgoj i obrazovanje djeteta U oblasti odgoja i obrazovanja djeteta roditelji imaju veliku slobodu, država se ne upliće, već roditelje ograničava samo obavezom poštovanja načela najboljeg interesa djeteta. Pravo na slobodu misli, savjesti i religije, priznato djetetu u Konvenciji (član 14. stav 1),24 ograničeno je priznavanjem roditeljima prava i dužnosti usmjeravanja djeteta u ispoljavanju njegovih prava na način koji je u skladu s razvojnim sposobnostima djeteta (član 14. stav 2). Još veće ograničenje prava na obrazovanje, pa i religiozno, normirano je Protokolom br. 1. Evropske konvencije o ljudskim pravima (u daljem tekstu: EKLJP) priznavanjem roditeljima prava da djetetu osiguraju obrazovanje i propovijedanje u skladu sa svojom vlastitom religijom i filozofskim uvjerenjima (član 2). Pravo roditelja da religijski odgajaju i obrazuju dijete na način koji sami cijene najboljim može dovesti u pitanje ostvarenje prava djeteta na vlastiti religijski identitet. Mogućnost intervencije radi zaštite prava djeteta na slobodu religije postoji tek onda kada se roditelji ne uspiju sporazumjeti o religijskom odgoju i obrazovanju djeteta i kada za dijete može nastati šteta. Religijski odgoj i obrazovanje se odražavaju na sve aspekte života djeteta,25 kako one manjeg, tako i većeg značaja i utjecaja na dijete: od načina oblačenja i ishrane, učešća u različitim obredima i ritualima, preko načina liječenja djeteta, do obrezivanja sinova i primjene štetnih religijskih praksi koji 23 „Roditeljsko staranje ostvaruje se u najboljem interesu djeteta.“ Ovo pravo, kao pravo čovjeka, priznato je odredbom stava 1. člana 9. Evropske konvencije o ljudskim pravima, u kojoj je određena i sadržina ovog prava (pravo na promjenu religije ili vjerovanja i slobodu, sam ili zajedno s drugima i javno ili privatno, manifestovati svoju religiju ili uvjerenje, obredom, propovijedanjem i vršenjem vjerskih dužnosti i rituala. 25 Taylor, R., Parental responsibility and Religion, u: Responsible Parents and Parental Responsibility; edited by Rebecca Probert, Stephen Gilmore, Jonathan Herring, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2009, str.128. Autorica navodi da zakonodavci priznaju neka „neuobičajena“ prava roditeljima, kao dodatak njihovoj širokoj slobodi, sugerišući da se odluke roditelja koje se tiču religije posebno uzimaju u obzir. Kao primjere navodi apsolutno pravo roditelja da dijete isključe iz religijskog obrazovanja i kolektivnog obožavanja te pravo oca da pristane na obrezivanje sinova (str.129 - 130). 24 18 �nisu uvijek opravdani najboljim interesom djeteta. Svi aspekti religijskog odgoja djeteta u prvom redu štite interese roditelja, naročito onda kada dijete o njima ne može odlučivati zbog svog uzrasta, nezrelosti i nesposobnosti. U našem pravu pravci odgoja koje je zakonodavac odredio normirajući dužnost i pravo roditelja da odgajaju dijete, mogu i treba da posluže kao smjernice nadležnom organu u situaciji kada se roditelji ne mogu sporazumjeti o tome kako odgajati dijete. U tom smislu nesporazum će se riješiti, u skladu s odredbom člana 135. PZ FBiH i člana 118. PZ BD, uvažavajući potrebu da se dijete odgaja „u duhu mira, dostojanstva, tolerancije, slobode, ravnopravnosti i solidarnosti“. Drugi dio ove odredbe - da se u skladu s uzrastom i zrelošću djeteta unapređuje njegovo pravo na slobodu mišljenja, savjesti i vjeroispovijesti,26 može pomoći kako u rješavanju nesporazuma između roditelja, tako i spora između roditelja na jednoj, i djeteta na drugoj strani. U obe situacije odlučujući kriterij treba da bude to da li se postupanjem jednog, odnosno oba roditelja unapređuje ili se pak ometa njegovo pravo na slobodu mišljenja, savjesti i vjeroispovijesti. Pri tome se moraju uzeti u obzir i uzrast i zrelost djeteta. Tako dijete, ukoliko je dovoljno zrelo, ne smije biti isključeno iz donošenja odluke o religijskom odgoju. Uzrast nakon čijeg dostizanja se to ne može uraditi nije određen, po čemu se naše pravo razlikuje od dijela uporednog prava.27 O tome u kojem uzrastu će se stav djeteta uvažiti, u svakom konkretnom slučaju odlučuju sami roditelji, odnosno u slučaju nastanka spora između njih i potrebe zaštite interesa djeteta, nadležni organi. Zajednički život s djetetom omogućava roditeljima da kontrolišu dijete, njegove aktivnosti, postupke i odnose, i da, onda kada za tim nastane potreba, preduzmu odgovarajuće mjere prema djetetu. Kontrolisanje ponašanja djeteta zakonodavac normira i kao dužnost roditelja, čije izvršavanje zavisi od uzrasta i zrelosti djeteta (član 134. stav 3. PZ FBiH, član 117. stav 3. PZ BD). Obrazovanje, izbor škole i zanimanja zakonodavac normira kao pravo djeteta, a kao komplementarnu ovom pravu predviđa dužnost i pravo roditelja da se staraju o obrazovanju svoje djece.28 U slučaju da roditelji imaju različite stavove ili da je njihov stav o obrazovanju i njegovim pravcima drugačiji u odnosu na želju djeteta, kriteriji za rješavanje ovog sukoba mogu se naći u samom zakonu, u odredbama koje određuju pravce obrazovanja i onim koje su relativizirale pravo na izbor škole i zanimanja te pravo na zaposlenje. U skladu 26 Autorica je ispravila radakcijsku grešku napravljenu u ovoj odredbi. Ovaj uzrast je određen u njemačkom i austrijskom pravu. U njemačkom pravu dijete starije od 14 godina ima potpunu slobodu u ovoj oblasti, sa 12 godina ne može biti obrazovan u religiji drugačijoj od one prije toga i od one koju želi, dok se dijete sa 10 godina mora o tome saslušati. (Dethloff, N; Martiny, D, National report Germany, str.11, dostupno na stranici: http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/Germany-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf, U austrijskom pravu dijete starije od 14 godina odlučuje o religiji kojoj će pripadati, dok se protiv volje djeteta starijeg od 12 godina ne može obrazovati u religiji drugačijoj od one u kojoj se do tada obrazovalo. (§ 5Bundesgesetz über die religiöse Kindererziehung 1985). Isto važi i za obrazovanje djeteta u nereligioznom uvjerenju (§ 6) (Zakon dostupan na stranici: http://www.uibk.ac.at/praktheol/kirchenrecht/ru-recht/gesetze/staat/kindererziehung.html) 28 Konvencija o pravima djeteta je obavezala države da osnovno obrazovanje učine dostupnim i besplatnim svima, srednje obrazovanje svoj djeci, a više obrazovanje u skladu sa sposobnostima djeteta (član 28). 27 19 �s ovim odredbama, nastali sukob o obrazovanju i njegovim pravcima, bilo da ga roditelji pokušavaju sami riješiti, bilo da o tome treba da odluči nadležni organ, riješit će se uzimajući u obzir to da obrazovanje “treba da bude usmjereno na razvoj ličnosti djeteta i njegovih psihofizičkih sposobnosti, na poštovanje prava i osnovnih sloboda čovjeka, na pripremanje djeteta za odgovoran život u društvu te na poštovanje prirodne okoline” (član 136. stav 1. PZ FBiH i član 119. stav 1. PZ BD). Osim toga, pri ostvarenju prava na obrazovanje, kao i pri izboru škole i zanimanja, odlučujući kriterij su i djetetove sposobnosti i sklonosti (član 126. stav 1. PZ FBiH i član 109. PZ BD), tako da sama želja djeteta ne može biti presudna. Kriterij za rješavanje sukoba nastalog pri ostvarenju prava djeteta na zaposlenje jeste to da ono nije, odnosno da ne smije biti štetno za zdravlje i razvoj djeteta (član 126. stav 2. PZ FBiH i član 119. stav 2 PZ BD). Dužnost roditelja da se brinu o redovnom osnovnom i srednjem obrazovanju je bezuslovna, dok njihova dužnost da se staraju o visokom obrazovanju zavisi od mogućnosti roditelja i od sposobnosti djeteta (član 136. stavovi 2. i 3. PZ FBiH i član 119. stavovi 2. i 3. PZ BD), odnosno od mogućnosti roditelja te djetetovih sposobnosti, sklonosti i opravdanih želja (član 83. stav 3. PZ RS). Tako će imovinske prilike roditelja, uspjeh djeteta u dotadašnjem školovanju kojim je pokazalo sposobnost za nastavljanje obrazovanja te njegova izražena želja u tom smislu, biti kriterij za rješavanje nastalog spora. 2. 2. Staranje o životu, zdravlju i razvoju ličnosti djeteta Zbog značaja staranja o životu, zdravlju i razvoju ličnosti djeteta, kao sadržaja roditeljskog staranja, a naročito staranja o zdravlju, u ovoj oblasti sloboda roditelja mora biti ograničenija željom i stavovima djeteta sposobnog da odredi šta je u njegovom najboljem interesu, pogotovo ako se radi o starijem i zrelijem djetetu. Konvencija, kao što je to ranije navedeno, obavezuje roditelje da njihova osnovna briga pri staranju o podizanju i razvoju djeteta bude najbolji interes djeteta (član 18). Radi osiguranja zaštite ovog interesa zakonodavac mora odgovoriti na pitanja: koji stepen slobode mogu imati roditelji pri odlučivanju i kakav utjecaj na odluku ima mišljenje samog djeteta. Zakoni u ovoj oblasti, znači, treba da normiraju šta roditelj treba i šta može uraditi, a onda se o tome u praksi mora strogo voditi računa u svakom pojedinom slučaju. Sporazum roditelja koji bi bio suprotan najboljem interesu djeteta nadležni organ ne bi smio prihvatiti. Njegovim odbijanjem ne bi povrijedio njihovo pravo na poštovanje privatnog i porodičnog života, pošto je intervencija preduzeta radi zaštite prava djeteta (član 8. EKLJP). Da bi se roditelji mogli izjasniti i dati saglasnost za medicinski tretman, moraju biti sposobni i u stanju to uraditi, moraju biti upoznati s prirodom i posljedicama (ne)provođenja tog tretmana, o čemu treba da ih informiše ljekar koji liječi njihovo dijete. Roditelji u pravilu prihvataju mišljenje ljekara i podržavaju tretman od kojeg zavisi zdravlje, ozdravljenje i život djeteta, bilo da se radi o redovnim programima imunizacije, bilo o složenim hirurškim 20 �intervencijama preduzetim radi spašavanja života djeteta. Roditelji u tom smislu preduzimaju preventivne (imunizacija, kontrolni pregledi, korištenje sredstava za otklanjanje tjelesnih nedostataka) i kurativne mjere (oblici i načini liječenja, hirurške intervencije). Izuzetno, protivljenje roditelja postoji onda kada su oni i djeca pripadnici određenih religija i kultura, u kojim su predloženi medicinski postupci neprihvatljivi i zabranjeni. U tim slučajevima, kao i onda kada roditelji ne mogu postići sporazum o ovome (kada jedan prihvata, a drugi odbija prijedlog ljekara), odluku o primjeni predloženog nužnog medicinskog postupka mora donijeti nadležni organ. Pri određivanju šta je u najboljem interesu djeteta, on treba da se rukovodi u prvom redu medicinskim, ali i emocionalnim i drugim faktorima, uključujući psihološke i socijalne koristi za dijete, razloge koji su opredijelili roditelja, odnosno roditelje pri zauzimanju njihovog stava, kao i mišljenje djeteta.29 Protivljenje roditelja primjeni medicinskog postupka samo zbog njihove pripadnosti religiji ili kulturi je neprihvatljivo, isto kao što se ne može uvažiti ni zahtjev roditelja za tradicionalnim, ritualnim zahvatima na tijelu djeteta - pripadnika određene religiozne ili kulturne zajednice, ako najbolji interes djeteta na taj način neće biti zaštićen. I ovdje će nadležnom organu biti lakše utvrditi da je takav zahvat suprotan najboljem interesu djeteta, pa po tom osnovu ne prihvatiti mišljenje, odnosno sporazum roditelja. U domaćem pravu staranje o životu, zdravlju i razvoju ličnosti normirano je i kao pravo djeteta (član 124. stav 1. PZ FBiH i član 107. stav 1. PZ BD) i kao dužnost roditelja (osim staranja o razvoju ličnosti - član 134. stav 1. PZ FBiH i član 117. stav 1. PZ BD), odnosno kao pravo i dužnost roditelja (član 81. stav 1. PZ RS). Zakonodavac je odredio sadržinu ove dužnosti: roditelji su “dužni čuvati dijete, zadovoljavati njegove normalne potrebe i štititi ga od od svih oblika (…) nasilja, povreda, ekonomske eksploatacije, seksualne zloupotrebe (…)” (član 134. stav 2. PZ FBiH i član 117. stav 2. PZ BD). Svakodnevno uspješno izvršavanje ove dužnosti pretpostavlja sporazumijevanje roditelja o ishrani, smještaju, odjeći, obući, liječenju i svemu ostalom što osigurava pravilan fizički i psihički razvoj djeteta. Od svega navedenog po značaju se izdvaja potreba sporazumnog staranja o zdravlju, odnosno liječenju djeteta, pri čijem izvršavanju su roditelji obavezni, kada to zahtijeva interes djeteta, sarađivati s odgovarajućim medicinskim ustanovama. Interes djeteta može biti povrijeđen nepreduzimanjem potrebnih mjera, bilo zato što su roditelji nemarni, bilo zato što o tome ne mogu postići saglasnost. Ova oblast kod nas je uređena zakonima iz oblasti medicinskog prava. Rješenje nesporazuma o medicinskim mjerama koje treba da se preduzmu prema djetetu dijelom je uređeno Zakonom o pravima, obavezama i odgovornostima pacijenata.30U članu 22. ovog Zakona normirano je donošenje odluke o medicinskim mjerama koje treba da se preduzmu prema maloljetnom 29 O stavovima britanske sudske prakse, teorije i medicinskih udruženja u ovoj oblasti vidjeti: Hagger, L., Parental Responsibility and Children's Healt Care Treatment, u: ResponsibleParents&Parentalresponsibility, str.185 – 199. 30 "Službene novine Federacije BiH", broj 40, 2010. godina 21 �djetetu. Pravilo je da se ova mjera može preduzeti uz obavještenje i pristanak roditelja maloljetnog pacijenta (ili staratelja; stav 1). U slučaju da su interesi djeteta, u pogledu preduzimanja ove mjere, u suprotnosti s interesima njegovog roditelja, nadležni zdravstveni radnik je dužan odmah o tome obavijestiti nadležni centar za socijalni rad (stav 7). Znači, radi zaštite najboljeg interesa djeteta izričito je normirano uključivanje organa starateljstva u postupak donošenja odluke. Pod „suprotnost interesa djeteta i roditelja“ može se podvesti i nepostizanje saglasnosti između samih roditelja o preduzimanju zdravstvene mjere, tako da i u tom slučaju pristanak treba da da organ starateljstva. Iako se u zakonu govori o pristanku roditelja (koristi se jednina), a ne oba roditelja, ovajpropustzakonodavca nije razlog za nepoštovanje pravila o zajedničkom ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja (prihvaćenog u porodičnom zakonodavstvu), a u okviru njega pravila o zajedničkom izvršavanju obaveze staranja o zdravlju djeteta. Iz nedovoljno precizne odredbe stava 2. člana 22. ovog Zakona, prema kojoj se maloljetnik mora uključiti u donošenje odluke o pristanku na medicinsku mjeru,31 može se izvesti zaključak da, pored roditelja, i dijete treba da da pristanak ukoliko je zrelo i sposobno za to. Normiranjem obaveze uključivanja djeteta u odlučivanje o preduzimanju medicinske mjere, uvaženo je pravo djeteta priznato mu u članu 12. Konvencije, mada je izostavljeno uslovljavanje učešća djeteta i njegovim uzrastom. Sam uzrast djeteta učinjen je relevantnim u odredbi stava 5. istog člana u kojoj zakonodavac posebno normira položaj i ulogu djeteta starijeg od 15 godina. Naime, dijete koje je navršilo 15 godina i sposobno je za rasuđivanje, samostalno (što znači bez potrebe da se i roditelj uključuje i izražava pristanak) daje „pristanak na predloženu medicinsku mjeru, osim ako se radi o invazivnim dijagnostičkim i terapeutskim procedurama, operativnom zahvatu i prekidu trudnoće.“ Međutim, i onda kada se radi o odlučivanju o operativnom zahvatu i prekidu trudnoće, za što se ne zahtijeva pristanak djeteta, ono nije sasvim isključeno iz postupka donošenja odluke: dijete starije od 15 godina mora biti konsultovano i mora biti zatraženo njegovo mišljenje u skladu s njegovom sposobnošću rasuđivanja i zrelošću (stav 6). Stepen uključenosti djeteta u odlučivanje o preduzimanju zdravstvenih mjera – izražavanje pristanka ili samo njegovo konsultovanje i pribavljanje njegovog mišljenja, zavisi, znači, od uzrasta djeteta, njegove zrelosti i sposobnosti za rasuđivanje teod vrste medicinske mjere. Učešće roditelja i djeteta u donošenju odluka o zdravlju djeteta normirano je i Zakonom o transplantaciji organa i tkiva u svrhu liječenja32 Ovim Zakonom predviđeno je da za maloljetnog primaoca saglasnost za presađivanje organa ili tkiva daje njegov zakonski zastupnik (član 14. stav 3). Znači, ovu saglasnost treba da daju oba roditelja, kao zakonski zastupnici djeteta. S obzirom na to da je transplantacija uvijek u interesu djeteta, 31 “Maloljetni pacijent odnosno pacijent koji je lišen poslovne sposobnosti, treba i sam da bude uključen u donošenje odluke o pristanku na predloženu medicinsku mjeru, u skladu s njegovom zrelošću i sposobnošću za rasuđivanje.” 32 Službene novine Federacije BiH, broj 75, 2009. godina 22 �nesaglašavanje s njom jednog ili oba roditelja značilo bi postojanje suprotnosti interesa djeteta i njegovih roditelja, pa bi trebalo da se o tome obavijesti organ starateljstva, mada ovaj Zakon to izričito ne normira. Ukoliko se maloljetnik pojavljuje u ulozi davaoca tkiva, 33 pisanu izjavu o davanju tkiva daje njegov zakonski zastupnik (član 24. stav 3) - u razmatranoj situaciji njegovi roditelji. Interesi djeteta i roditelja ovdje ne mogu biti u suprotnosti, s obzirom da je jedan od uslova za davanje tkiva neprotivljenje davaoca tkiva - maloljetnika. Pristanak roditelja se, znači, ne može prihvatiti ukoliko se maloljetnik protivi davanju tkiva. Spor može nastati samo između roditelja, ukoliko se, onda kada se dijete ne protivi, jedan roditelj saglašava, a drugi protivi davanju tkiva. U skladu s odredbom člana 141. stav 3. PZ FBiH ovaj spor treba da riješi sud. 3. Najbolji interes djeteta u slučaju odvojenog života roditelja Konvencija o pravima djeteta obavezala je države članice da osiguraju da dijete ne bude protiv svoje volje odvojeno od roditelja, osim kada nadležni organi odluče u sudskom postupku, u skladu s odgovarajućim zakonima i procedurama, da je takvo odvajanje potrebno u najboljem interesu djeteta. Takva odluka može biti potrebna u posebnom slučaju, kakav je zlostavljanje ili zanemarivanje djeteta od roditelja, ili kada roditelji žive odvojeno, kada se mora donijeti odluka o mjestu prebivališta djeteta (član 9. stav 1). Znači, onda kada roditelji žive odvojeno – u slučaju nepostojanja, odnosno faktičkog prestanka bračne ili vanbračne zajednice te razvoda, poništenja ili utvrđenja braka nepostojećim, nadležni organ je ovlašten donijeti odluku o tome s kojim roditeljem će živjeti dijete i gdje će biti djetetovo prebivalište. Najbolji interes djeteta u praksi se najčešće utvrđuje i ima najveći značaj upravo u ovim slučajevima: nadležni organ odluku o tome s kojim roditeljem će dijete ostati živjeti zasniva na ocjeni ovog interesa. Za njegovo određenje neophodno je u svakom konkretnom slučaju utvrditi individualne potrebe svakog konkretnog djeteta, a uz to i saznati mišljenje djeteta sposobnog da razumije situaciju u kojoj se nalazi i o kojoj se odlučuje. Ovo mišljenje će se uvažiti ukoliko i ostale okolnosti, utvrđene primjenom drugih kriterija, idu njemu u prilog. Radi saznanja mišljenja djeteta, nadležni organ je obavezan uključiti u postupak dijete koje je dovoljno zrelo i sposobno formirati i izraziti svoj stav. Mogućnost da roditelji manipulišu djetetom može se eliminisati pažljivim izborom načina i mjesta vođenja razgovora s djetetom, oprezom pri prihvatanju argumenata iznesenih u prilog ili protiv svakog od roditelja i pri utvrđivanju stava i mišljenja djeteta.34 Pored djeteta, nadležni organ je obavezan uključiti i 33 Maloljetnik može biti davalac samo tkiva koje se obnavlja, i to uz ispunjenje pet uslova: „1. nema na raspolaganju odgovarajućeg darovaoca koji je sposoban dati saglasnost za uzimanje tkiva, 2. primalac je brat ili sestra darovaoca, 3. darovanje ima za svrhu spašavanje života primaoca, 4. pribavljena je saglasnost u pisanom obliku od zakonskog zastupnika, odnosno staratelja darovaoca, 5. mogući se darovalac ne protivi“ (član 24. stav1). 34 Newell ističe da „jedini način konstruktivnog djelovanja u cilju prekidanja ili barem ograničavanja manipulacije djecom od strane odraslih je osnažiti djecu, jednodušnopoštovati 23 �roditelja, jer će tek na činjenicama utvrđenim u tako vođenom postupku moći zasnovati odluku. Time se udovoljava i zahtjevu iz Konvencije (član 9. stav 2) – da se svim zainteresovanim stranama u postupku omogući učešće u ovim postupcima i da se sazna njihovo mišljenje. Najbolji interes djeteta, utvrđen od nadležnog organa, ne mora se, međutim, podudarati s izraženom željom djeteta, kao ni s mišljenjem i interesom roditelja. U tom slučaju nadležni organ je obavezan u odluci obrazložiti svoje motive i razloge za odlučivanje suprotno njihovoj izraženoj želji, odnosno stavu. Na značaj učešća oba roditelja u postupku u kojem se odlučuje o staranju o djeci ukazuje i Evropski sud za ljudska prava (u daljem tekstu: Sud). Tako je u odluci u predmetu Sporer protiv Austrije35 zauzeo stav da je u ovoj vrsti postupka lični utisak roditelja važan element i da roditelj (podnosilac zahtjeva) ima pravo pojaviti se pred sudom i biti lično saslušan (para 47). Povodom tvrdnje vanbračnog oca o povredi člana 6. stava 1. EKLJP učinjenoj time što nije lično saslušan pred sudom i što se nije izjasnio o odlučnom mišljenju vještaka o tome da je majka djeteta sposobnija od njega starati se o djetetu, Sud je naglasio obavezu ispitivanja da li je otac imao pravo na suđenje i ako jeste, da li je udovoljeno zahtjevima iz člana 6. stav 1. te da li je imao pravo da se lično pojavi i, ako jeste, da li je to njegovo pravo poštovano. Po njemu, ova dva pitanja međusobno su usko vezana, pa se moraju ispitati zajedno (para 45).36 U domaćem pravu nadležnost za odlučivanje o tome s kojim roditeljem će živjeti dijete uređena je na različit način: u Federaciji BiH i Brčko Distriktu ovi predmeti su u nadležnosti suda, dok je u Republici Srpskoj nadležnost podijeljena između suda i organa starateljstva, tako da je sud nadležan za odlučivanje u slučaju donošenja odluke o prestanku braka, a izvan toga odlučuje organ starateljstva. Kriteriji koji će pomoći nadležnim organima u određenju najboljeg interesa djeteta mogu se izvesti iz porodičnih zakona, u prvom redu iz odredaba koje normiraju odgovornosti, dužnosti i prava roditelja prema djetetu, odnosno prava djeteta prema roditeljima. Na osnovu njih, kao kriteriji se mogu utvrditi sposobnost, spremnost, mogućnost i volja, odnosno želja roditelja da uspješno izvršavaju svoje obaveze i odgovornosti. Prema Porodičnom zakonu FBiH sud ima mogućnost, u slučaju odvojenog života roditelja, odlučiti o pojedinačnom ili o zajedničkom ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja. Pri opredjeljenju za jednu od ovih varijanti, kriterij treba da bude postojanje, odnosno nepostojanje sposobnosti i spremnosti mišljenja što su ih izrazila djeca i pritom im naglasiti da se u svako doba imaju pravo vratiti pred sud i promijeniti mišljenje. (Newell, op.cit. str. 20) 35 Sporer v. Austria, Application no. 35637/03, Judgment 3 February 2011, Final 03/05/2011, dostupno na: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-103234#{"itemid":["001-103234"]} 36 Kako je utvrdio da je stručno mišljenje pripremljeno i ispitano na kontradiktoran način, pošto su obe strane podnijele sveobuhvatne pisane podneske o navodnoj nesposobnosti drugog roditelja da ostvaruje staranje, te da je ljekar s njima razgovarao pri pripremi mišljenja, da je ono dostavljeno podnosiocu zahtjeva i da ga je imao mogućnost komentarisati (para 53), Sud je zaključio da nije učinjena povreda člana 6. stava 1. (ibidem) 24 �roditelja na međusobnu saradnju i na zajedničko ostvarivanje roditeljskog staranja - na sporazumijevanje o svim pitanjima važnim za život i podizanje djeteta, na zajedničko donošenje bitnih odluka koje se tiču djeteta, na uređenje života tako da u njegovom centru i dalje bude dijete. Ukoliko se primjenom ovog kriterija utvrdi da je zajedničko staranje štetno za dijete, odnosno suprotno njegovom najboljem interesu, ono se ne smije odrediti. U određivanje najboljeg interesa djeteta u slučaju odvojenog života roditelja, neophodno je uključiti organ starateljstva i osobu ovlaštenu na posredovanje, ukoliko za posredovanje u konkretnom slučaju nije nadležan organ starateljstva.37 Vezano za razvod braka, ovu obavezu u Federaciji BiH ima, u prvom redu, osoba ovlaštena za posredovanje, kojoj se zahtjevom za posredovanje, prije pokretanja postupka za razvod braka, moraju obratiti bračni partneri koji imaju zajedničku djecu nad kojom ostvaruju roditeljsko staranje (član 45. stav 1. PZ). Jedna od obaveza ove osobe je da nastoji da se roditelji sporazumiju o svim pitanjima bitnim za dijete,38a ako sporazum nije postignut ili nije u interesu djeteta, obavezna je zahtijevati od organa starateljstva da odluči o ovim pitanjima, što ovaj organ može uraditi i po službenoj dužnosti. Njegova odluka važi samo do pravosnažnosti odluke o razvodu braka (stavovi 2. i 3. člana 50. PZ FBiH). Na ovaj način zakonodavac je osigurao zaštitu najboljeg interesa djeteta za vrijeme trajanja brakorazvodnog postupka. Interes djeteta je posebno zaštićen u slučaju sporazumnog razvoda braka, uslovljavanjem donošenja odluke o razvodu postojanjem sporazuma o ovim pitanjima, sklopljenom u postupku posredovanja i obavezivanjem suda da odbije zahtjev za razvod ukoliko ovaj sporazum nije u interesu djeteta (član 44. PZ FBiH). U toku postupka za razvod braka obaveza suda je da, u saradnji s organom starateljstva, zaštiti interes djeteta čiji se roditelji razvode (članovi 281 – 284. PZ FBiH, član 73. PZ RS i članovi 256 – 258. PZ BD). Primjenom kriterija primjerenih svakom pojedinačnom slučaju, utvrdit će se najbolji interes djeteta i na njemu zasnovati odluka o tome s kim će dijete živjeti i o održavanju ličnih odnosa i neposrednih kontakata. Pri odlučivanju o odnosima i kontaktima djeteta s roditeljem s kojim ne živi, sud treba da se rukovodi time da je Konvencija o pravima djeteta obavezala države članice na poštovanje prava djeteta odvojenog od jednog ili oba roditelja da redovno održava lične odnose i neposredne kontakte s oba roditelja, osim kada je to suprotno najboljem interesu djeteta (član 9. stav 3). Redovno 37 Osnov za njihovo angažovanje je odredba člana 5. stav 1. PZ FBiH: “Za pružanje stručne pomoći i zaštite prava i interesa djeteta i ostalih članova porodice, za rješavanje sporova između članova porodice, kao i u svim slučajevima poremećenih porodičnih odnosa nadležan je centar za socijalni rad kao organ starateljstva, sud i osoba ovlašćena za posredovanje.” U članu 2. stav 3. PZ BD normirano je pružanje ove pomoći i zaštite od organa starateljstva. 38 Prema stavu 1. člana 50. PZ FBiH ovlašćena osoba nastojat će da se oni sporazumiju o tome s kim će živjeti njihovo dijete, o njegovim ličnim odnosima s roditeljem s kojim neće živjeti, o njegovom izdržavanju i o ostalim sadržajima roditeljskog staranja. Ovu obavezu prema Porodičnom zakonu RS ima organ starateljstva (član 61), dok je ona u Porodičnom zakonu BD ograničena na postizanje saporazuma o zaštiti, odgoju i izdržavanju djece (član 45). 25 �održavanje ovih odnosa i kontakata normirano je kao pravo djeteta u porodičnim zakonima Federacije BiH i Brčko Distrikta.39 40 Kriteriji koji će se primjenjivati, ali isto tako i oni koji ne treba da budu odlučujući za utvrđivanju najboljeg interesa djeteta pri donošenju odluke o staranju o djetetu i o određivanju odnosa i kontakata, mogu se ustanoviti i istraživanjem prakse Evropskog suda za ljudska prava u ovoj oblasti. Tako se iz odluka ovog Suda, donesenih u više predmeta pokrenutih od roditelja nezadovoljnih odlukom nacionalnog organa, može izvesti zaključak da pripadnost roditelja određenoj religiji, odnosno vjerska praksa roditelja ne bi trebalo da bude odlučujuća za donošenje odluke, već da će one utjecati na procjenu najboljeg interesa djeteta samo kada se utvrdi da će se štetno odraziti na dijete.41U odluci u predmetu Palau - Martinez p. Francuske Sud je naveo da nacionalni sud nije utvrdio utjecaj religijske prakse majke na odgoj i svakodnevni život djece koja su živjela s njom nakon faktičkog prestanka bračne zajednice, niti njen pokušaj da na djecu proširi svoja vjerska uvjerenja. Stoga nije ni mogao zaključiti da je postojao razuman proporcionalan odnos između upotrijebljenih sredstava i legitimnog cilja, pa je utvrdio da je,odlučivanjem da djeca žive s ocem, učinjena povreda člana 8. u vezi s članom 14. 42U predmetu Ismailova p. Rusije Sud nije utvrdio ovu povredu, jer je našao da su se domaći sudovi fokusirali samo na interese djeteta, ne zasnivajući odluku na pripadnosti majke Jehovinim svjedocima, već na njenim religijskim praksama u koje je uključila djecu, što je imalo društvene i psihičke posljedice na njih i moglo bi se negativno odraziti na njihov odgoj.43 U predmetima pokrenutim od roditelja zbog navodne povrede prava na poštovanje porodičnog života odlukama nacionalnih organa kojim im se ograničava ili zabranjuje održavanje kontakata s djetetom, Sud zauzima stav da samo u izuzetnim, ekstremnim slučajevima kontakti djeteta i njegovih prirodnih roditelja treba da se definitivno onemoguće, dok u svim ostalim slučajevima njihovo održavanje ne smije biti spriječeno. Ovakav stav, usaglašen s Konvencijom o pravima djeteta, treba da bude poštovan od nacionalnih sudova. 39 U ova dva zakona ono je uporedo normirano i kao dužnost roditelja (član 124. stav 2. i član 140. stav 2. PZ FBiH, član 107. stav 2. i član 123. stav 2. PZ BD), dok je u Porodičnom zakonu RS određeno kao pravo i dužnost roditelja (član 81. stav 4.). 40 Na značaj ovog prava djeteta ukazuje činjenica da je Vijeće Evrope donijelo posebnu konvenciju koja uređuje ove kontakte – Konvenciju o kontaktima u vezi sa djecom (br.192, Strasbourg 15.5. 2003/ Convention on contact concerning children, tekst preuzet s interneta: http://conventions.coe.int). U njenoj Preambuli su kao ciljevi utvrđeni “poželjnost priznanja ne samo roditelja, nego i djece, kao nosilaca prava” i “mjere kojima se promoviše pomoć djeci u predmetima koji se tiču kontakta s roditeljem i drugim osobama koje su u porodičnoj vezi s djetetom”. 41 U ovim predmetima roditelji su živjeli odvojeno, majka je pripadala manjinskoj religiji (Jehovinim svjedocima), a domaći sudovi su odluku o staranju donijeli u korist oca. 42 Palau-Martinez v. France, Application no. 64927/01, Judgment 16.12.2003, para. 42. i 43, http://echr.ketse.com/doc/64927.01-en-20031216/view/ Sud je ponovio stav ranije zauzet u odluci u predmetu Hoffmann p. Austrije (Application no. 12875/87), Judgment 23.6.1993, http://echr.ketse.com/doc/12875.87-en-19930623/view/) 43 Ismailova v. Russia, Application no. 37614/02, Judgment 29 November 2007, para. 62. i 63, http://echr.ketse.com/doc/37614.02-en-20071129/view/) 26 �Domaći organi pri određivanju kontakata djeteta s roditeljem treba da imaju u vidu stav Suda, ponovljen u više predmeta, da obaveza države na provođenje pozitivnih mjera, u skladu s članom 8. EKLJP, podrazumijeva i preduzimanje svih potrebnih mjera radi ponovnog spajanja roditelja s djecom i olakšanja tog spajanja, što se odnosi i na predmete u kojima postoje sporovi između roditelja i/ili članova djetetove porodice o kontaktima i prebivalištu djece.44 U skladu s praksom Suda, domaći organi pri određivanju kontakata moraju uvažavati nekoliko zahtjeva. Jedan od njih je da, pri određivanju vremena i načina održavanja kontakata, treba da se vodi računa o tome da se podnosiocu zahtjeva osigura mogućnost efikasnog ostvarivanja prava na kontakte s djetetom,45 odnosno da se ne donese odluka o kontaktima koja se neće moći provesti bilo zbog njene neusklađenosti s mogućnostima roditelja (naprimjer s njegovim radnim rasporedom) bilo zbog neprikladnosti prostorija u kojima je određeno njihovo održavanje. Također, obaveza domaćih organa je da preduzmu mjere kojima će se olakšati kontakti roditelja s djetetom te pripremne i postepene mjere u situaciji kada se kontakti ne mogu uspostaviti odmah po donošenju odluke o njihovom ostvarivanju. U skladu s obavezom vođenja računa o interesima, pravima i slobodama svih učesnika u ovom sporu, a naročito djeteta, primjena sile u ovoj oblasti treba da se ograniči, odnosno isključi.46 U slučaju izostanka saradnje između roditelja, nadležni organi ne mogu biti oslobođeni obaveze preduzimanja svih mogućih aktivnosti radi osiguranja održavanja porodičnih veza, pa treba da preduzmu i praktične mjere radi podsticanja roditelja da učestvuju u porodičnoj terapiji ili radi postizanja dogovora o pripremnom kontaktu te da učine odgovarajuće i efikasne napore za ostvarenje prava na kontakt.47 Nacionalne vlasti moraju preduzeti mjere da, u skladu s konkretnim okolnostima svakog predmeta, olakšaju izvršenje odluke. Mjera koja bude preduzeta bit će odgovarajuća samo ako bude brzo provedena, pošto za odnose između djeteta i roditelja s kojim ono ne živi “protek vremena može imati nepopravljive posljedice.“48 Ako dobrobit i najbolji interes djeteta to zahtijevaju, kontaktiranje s roditeljem se mora dozvoliti, makar se drugi roditelj, s kojim dijete živi, tome protivi. Isto tako, ako je to u interesu djeteta, i onda kada se time vrijeđa pravo na poštovanje porodičnog života roditelja, kontakti ne samo da se mogu, već i moraju zabraniti, odnosno spriječiti. Pri donošenju odluke domaći organi treba da, kada je to moguće, utvrde ravnotežu interesa djeteta i njegovog roditelja, a u suprotnom prednost treba da daju interesu djeteta, i to ne samo trenutnom, već i budućem. Ukoliko je to moguće, moraju nastojati interes djeteta, umjesto zabranom kontakata, zaštititi na neki drugi način, čime će se osigurati postizanje svrhe kontakata, a i izbjeći povreda prava roditelja na poštovanje 44 Gluhaković p. Hrvatske, para. 56, supra note 5 Ibidem, para. 62. 46 Ibidem, para. 57 47 Ovakve propuste Sud je utvrdio u predmetu Fiala p. Češke Republike i na njima zasnovao zaključak o kršenju člana 8. EKLJP (App. 26141/03, Judgment 18. 7. 2006, http://echr.ketse.com/doc/26141.03-en-20060718/) 48 Gluhaković p. Hrvatske, para 58. i 59, supra note 5, 45 27 �porodičnog života. U predmetima vođenim po zahtjevu roditelja kojim su djeca oduzeta, a brigu o njima preuzele javne vlasti, Sud uvijek razmatra pitanje kompatibilnosti mjera preduzetih prema roditeljima sa integracijom djeteta u njegovu porodicu, kao krajnjim ciljem koji treba da se postigne u slučaju odvajanja djeteta od roditelja.49 U domaćem pravu o načinu održavanja ličnih odnosa roditelja s djetetom roditelji se sporazumijevaju, a u slučaju nepostizanja sporazuma ili njegove suprotnosti s najboljim interesom djeteta, odluku donosi sud, zajedno s odlukom o roditeljskom staranju (član 145. stavovi 1. i 2, član 304. stav 1. i član 307 PZ FBiH), odnosno organ starateljstva (član 93. stav 1. PZ RS)50. Kriteriji za donošenje odluke su sve okolnosti od kojih će zavisiti njihovo održavanje, značaj i utjecaj ovih odnosa na konkretno dijete te način njihovog održavanja koji će najviše odgovarati djetetu, a u isto vrijeme i biti poštovan od roditelja. Održavanje ličnih odnosa i neposrednih kontakata roditelja s djecom može se ograničiti ili zabraniti samo radi interesa djeteta (član 145. stav 3. PZ FBiH i član 128. stav 3. PZ BD), odnosno radi zaštite ličnosti i drugih interesa djeteta (član 93. stav 3. PZ RS). Ograničenje će se odrediti kada dijete treba da se zaštiti od lošeg utjecaja roditelja na formiranje njegove ličnosti (kada, naprimjer, razvija mržnju i otpor djeteta prema drugom roditelju) i na njegovo zdravstveno stanje (kada roditelj boluje od duševne bolesti) ili kada je dijete posebno osjetljivo. Ograničenje se može sastojati u kontaktu uz prisustvo stručnog radnika organa starateljstva, odnosno u odvijanju kontakata u ustanovi, u određenom trajanju ili na drugi način određen od suda. Lični odnosi i neposredni kontakti će se zabraniti onda kada dovode u opasnost odgoj, život ili zdravlje djeteta (npr. u slučaju teže duševne ili zarazne bolesti ili podsticanja djeteta na negativno ponašanje). S obzirom na značaj ovih odnosa i kontakata za dijete, u ocjeni interesa djeteta - da li je veća korist od neodržavanja ili pak šteta od njihovog održavanja, treba da učestvuju kompletan tim stručnjaka organa starateljstva, čije je mišljenje i prijedlog sud obavezan zatražiti (član 305). Rukovodeći se najboljim interesom djeteta, sud je, na zahtjev ovlaštenih osoba, ovlašten odrediti održavanje kontakata i između babe i djeda i unuka, između sestara i braće međusobno, kao i djeteta i još nekih osoba (član 148. PZ FBiH). Ukoliko ocijeni da ovi odnosi i kontakti nisu u najboljem interesu djeteta, neće odrediti njihovo održavanje. Pravosnažnošću odluke o određivanju roditelja koji će ostvarivati 49 Ovakav stav Sud je zauzeo u velikom broju predmeta iz ove oblasti, kao što su: Süss p. Njemačke (Odluka od 10.11.2005, objavljena u Newsletter Menschenrechte 2005/6, str.282 - 284. i Zawadka p. Poljske (Odluka od 23.6.2005, objavljena u Newsletter Menschenrechte 2005/3, str. 141 - 143). Šire o ovome vidjeti: Bubić, S, Pravo djeteta na život sa roditeljima u evropskoj praksi, Pravna misao, Sarajevo, 2002/11-12 50 Prema PZ BD odluku donosi organ starateljstva, uvažavajući sporazum roditelja ako je u najboljem interesu djeteta (član 128. stavovi 1. i 2) 28 �staranje, odnosno o održavanju kontakata s djetetom, najbolji interes djeteta neće biti uvijek zaštićen. U određenom broju predmeta ova zaštita se postiže tek po okončanju izvršnog postupka vođenog protiv roditelja koji nije postupio u skladu s donesenom odlukom. Stoga se postupak u kojem treba da se osigura najbolji interes djeteta može pretvoriti u svoju suprotnost – umjesto da se efikasna zaštita ovog interesa osigura u najkraćem mogućem periodu, u postupku koji traje neopravdano dugo on će se dovesti u pitanje. Pravilnim postupanjem i poštovanjem zakonom propisanih obaveza i pravila postupka nadležni organi moraju izbjeći povredu interesa djeteta i njegovih prava prema roditelju, kao i osigurati ostvarivanje prava roditelja. Znači, rukovodeći se najboljim interesom djeteta, domaći organi moraju, poštujući načelo hitnosti, provesti i postupak izvršenja odluka o staranju i o kontaktima. U prilog tome se u više predmeta izjasnio Evropski sud za ljudska prava, naglašavajući obavezu nacionalnih organa da u ovim predmetima budu aktivni i da blagovremeno preduzimaju odgovarajuće mjere, među kojima i one kojima se vrši priprema djece za vraćanje roditelju s kojim je odlučeno da živi. Nedovoljnom aktivnošću nadležni organi krše član 8. EKLJP koji pretpostavlja obavezu preduzimanja aktivnosti državnih organa u sprovođenju sudskih odluka, ali isto tako i član 6. stav 1. EKLJP, pošto zbog ovakve pasivnosti postupci dugo traju.51 Načelo hitnog postupanja je propisano domaćim procesnim i porodičnim zakonima, a sudove na njegovu primjenu, radi izbjegavanja nepotrebnih odugovlačenja, obavezuje i Konvencija o ostvarivanju dječijih prava. U njoj je posebno naglašena obaveza omogućavanja postupaka koji osiguravaju brzo izvršenje donesenih odluka, kao i mogućnost davanja ovlaštenja sudu da u hitnim slučajevima, kada je to prikladno, donese odluku koja će biti odmah izvršna (član 7). 4. Zaključna razmatranja Najbolji interes djeteta treba da se osigura i zaštiti u svim oblastima prava, pri ostvarivanju svih prava djeteta i uređenju svih odnosa u koje stupa dijete. U oblasti porodičnog prava, za dijete je najvažnije da ovaj interes bude osiguran pri ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja, naročito onda kada roditelji ne žive zajedno. Pri zajedničkom ostvarivanju roditeljskog staranja moguće je da nastane spor, biloizmeđu samih roditelja bilo između roditelja na jednoj i djeteta na drugoj strani, o njegovom ostvarivanju ili o izvršavanju pojedinih obaveza, 51 Tako je u predmetu Ignaccolo-Zenide protiv Rumunije (App 32346-96, Judgment 25. januara 2000,http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/fra/pages/search.aspx?i=001-58448#{"itemid":["00158448"]}) zauzeo stav da su rumunski organi vlasti zakasnili, da su bili neaktivni i nisu organizovali pripremu djece za vraćanje majci, naprimjer organizovanjem susreta djece sa psiholozima ili socijalnim radnicima. Povredu člana 8. EKLJP utvrdio je i u predmetu Santos Nunes p. Portugala (Requete no. 61173/08, du 22 mai 2012, http://www.fbls.net/8.htm#divorce), vođenom zbog neizvršenja odluke o predaji djeteta ocu kojem je sud povjerio staranje o njemu, a izazvanog time što je par kod kojeg je majka smjestila dijete u više navrata odbio predati dijete (para.78 – 79). 29 �odgovornosti i prava koja čine njegov sadržaj. Ovi sporovi se uvijek moraju riješiti u najboljem interesu djeteta, radi čijeg utvrđenja nadležni organi moraju primijeniti kriterije koje ocijene odgovarajućim u konkretnom slučaju. Pri tome nadležni organi, kao i roditelji, imaju različit - veći ili manji stepen slobode, zavisno od značaja pitanja o kojima postoji nesporazum. U slučaju da roditelji djeteta ne žive zajedno pa dijete više ne može ostvarivati pravo da živi s njima, odluka o tome s kojim roditeljem će ono živjeti, tj. o prebivalištu djeteta i o održavanju kontakata djeteta s drugim roditeljem, mora biti donesena uvažavajući najbolji interes djeteta. Pri utvrđenju ovog interesa nadležni organ mora odabrati i primijeniti kriterije najprimjerenije ocjeni interesa konkretnog djeteta te mogućnosti i sposobnosti roditelja da se na najbolji način staraju o djetetu u novoj situaciji, drugačijoj od one u kojoj su do tada ostvarivali roditeljsko staranja. To što oni više ne žive zajedno ne smije onemogućiti dalje zadovoljavanje svih potrebanjihovog djeteta i zaštitu i osiguranje njegovih interesa. Zavisno od toga šta utvrdi kao najbolji interes djeteta, nadležni organ će se opredijeliti za jednu od varijanti: za pojedinačno ili zajedničko staranje. Najbolji interes djeteta zahtijeva hitnu intervenciju. Nepostupanjem u skladu s načelom hitnosti, kako pri donošenju odluke, tako i pri njenom prinudnom izvršenju, ovaj interes će ostati neosiguran, a u isto vrijeme će biti povrijeđeno pravo roditelja na poštovanje porodičnog života i pravo na pravično suđenje. Kriteriji i smjernice kojim nadležni organi treba da se rukovode pri utvrđivanju najboljeg interesa djeteta i pri vođenju postupka, naročito izvršnog, treba da budu odredbe Konvencije o pravima djeteta i Konvencije o ostvarivanju dječijih prava, odredbe porodičnog zakonodavstva i relevantne odluke Evropskog suda za ljudska prava. Onda kada u domaćem pravu budu donesene Smjernice za određivanje najboljeg interesa djeteta, zadatak nadležnih organa će biti lakši i jednostavniji, ali će i tada svaki konkretan slučaj zahtijevati individualan pristup i davanje prednosti kriteriju koji u nekom drugom slučaju ne mora i najčešće neće imati isti značaj. 30 �Dr. sc. Suzana Bubić, full professor Law Faculty of University Džemal Bijedić“ Mostar STANDARD THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE CHILD AND ITS APPLICATION IN CONTEXT OF THE EXERCISE OF PARENTAL CARE Summary: The author in her paper, after having the general remarks on standard “the best interest of the child“ considers its regulation in the conventional and the domestic law, as well as its application in context of the exercise of the parental care, analising it in two situations. The first situation is the one when the parents live together and between them or amongst them and the child a dispute arises. In the second situation - the case of the termination of the cohabitation of the parents, the best interest of the child the author considers as the decisive for the decision making on subject with whom of the parents the child will be living, as well as the maintaining the personal relationships and the contacts between the child and the parent with whom the child do not live with. For these situation the author proposes criteria wich the authorities need to comply with and are derived from the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and domestic family legislation and practice of the European Court of Human Rights. Key words: upbringing and education of the child, care on life, health and development of the child, contacts with parents 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3033 Title A name given to the resource STANDARD „NAJBOLJI INTERES DJETETA“ I NJEGOVA PRIMJENA U KONTEKSTU OSTVARIVANJA RODITELJSKOG STARANJA Author Author BUBIĆ, Suzana Abstract A summary of the resource. Autorica u radu, nakon opštih napomena o standardu „najbolji interes djeteta“, razmatra njegovo uređenje u konvencijskom i domaćem pravu te njegovu primjenu u kontekstu ostvarivanja roditeljskog staranja. Analizira ga s dva aspekta, u dvije situacije. Prva situacija je ona u kojoj roditelji žive zajedno, a između njih, ili izmedju njih i djeteta, nastane spor. U drugoj situaciji – u slučaju prestanka kohabitacije roditelja, najbolji interes djeteta posmatra kao odlučan za donošenje odluke o tome s kojim roditeljem će živjeti dijete i o održavanju ličnih odnosa i kontakata djeteta s roditeljem s kojim ne živi. Za ove situacije predlaže kriterije, odnosno smjernice kojih nadležni organi treba da se pridržavaju, a koji se izvode iz odredaba Konvencije o pravima djeteta i domaćeg porodičnog zakonodavstva te prakse Evropskog suda za ljudska prava. Ključne riječi: odgoj i obrazovanje djeteta, staranje o životu, zdravlju i razvoju djeteta, kontakti s roditeljima Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f49524050e3a09928d7f28bfd6aa2337.pdf a7549d6c3d89cd78a2cafe120c5afce9 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Standard accent or Intelligibility: Desiderata for International Communication in English as a Foreign Language with special reference to the situation in Pakistan Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal UMT, Lahore (Pakistan) drziqbl@gmail.com Abstract:The main objective of learning a foreign language these days is to acquire communicative competence in such a language in real life situations. Being the most important lingua franca, English is the most sought- after foreign language in the contemporary world. There are, of course, two main options in pursuing this goal in countries like Pakistan. The so-called elite class of the society which always tends to set its self apart from the general masses and in some ways still wants to promote the colonial legacy wants to adopt the standard accent of English in their communications which means either ‗general American‘ or British ‗RP‘. The general public perforce resorts to ‗Pingilsh‘ due to many social constraints and pursues the criteria of mutual intelligibility, as a benchmark in speaking English as a foreign language. The aim of this paper is to highlight the significance of ‗Pinglinsh‘ as a model to be followed in the country uniformly in its entire system of education. Key Words :Comfortable Intelligibility, Accent, Pinglish, The Lingua Franca Core, RP INTRODUCTION Like so many other countries where the English language was transplanted from Britain in the process of colonization of such countries, Pakistan too inherited it as a colonial legacy but chose to retain it as the most important international language in the world purely for pragmatic reasons, although initially there was a strong reaction to this approach by those who perceived the English language as an undesirable reminder of the British colonial rule in the subcontinent. Thus, over a period a long time the original model of the English language transformed into what is now generally proclaimed as ‗Pinglish‘ or Pakistani variety of English characterized by various indigenous linguistic and sociolinguistic factors which have impinged heavily on the form and function of the prototype model of English. As corollary of all this, we have now two different models of English being pursed in different educational institutions of the country. The so-called English medium institutions claim to follow the original model of English, while the Urdu-medium institutions follow the Pakistani model of English in all their linguistic pursuits. Given the social ethos of Pakistan, because of their British or American accents students qualified from English medium institutions have an edge on students taught in the Urdu-medium institutions. Ideally, the system of education in Pakistan should follow a uniform policy of adopting one and the same model of English as a foreign language to avoid any social divisiveness or discrimination. But in reality, it has not been the case. However, for national considerations we need to revise our attitudes towards the Pakistani model of English presumed by some people to be inferior, and rethink our priorities which of course demands to give equal recognition to the Pakistani model of English at all levels education and in all contexts of social situations. Our financial resources do not permit us to follow the British or American models exclusively in our educational institutions. As far as the ‗RP‘ is concerned, experts have started questioning its validity. (kannedy 2008; Macauly 1988; Crystal 1995). It has also been investigated that not more than three percent of the UK population uses ‗RP‘. ‗RP‘ is a difficult model to acquire holistically for Pakistani learners of English in the kind of social and educational contexts in which they learn the English language. Kenworthy (1987) recommends pursuing what she terms comfortable-intelligibility in all international communications instead of ‗RP‘ or ‗GA ‗. This kind of attitude is already noticeable in the pronunciations books of many writers (Celc-murcia, Briton & Godwin, 1966; Kentworthy, 1987; Tench 1987). According to Walker (2001) there are now more exchanges between non native speakers of English than between non native speakers and native speakers and this situation is not going to change in favour of the native speakers. Some writers (Kenworthy 1987; Jenner 1989) have advocated for the ‗lingua franca core‘ identifying seven areas to be taken care for improving speaker pronunciation and facilitating mutual intelligibility amongst the native and non native speakers of English at international levels. 1299 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion In the light of the above facts and empirical studies, it is reasonable in typical Pakistani situation to follow a realistic and viable policy in its system of education with particular reference to adopting a model of English which suits its needs nationally as well as internationally. It is essential that we come out of the accent syndrome and concentrate our attention on the benchmark of international intelligibility as suggested by Kenworthy and Jenner. This is expected to help the learners shun their anxiety in communication and improve their communication at international level. References Brinton, D. (1995) Integrating Pronunciation in the Language Syllabus, Speak Out 16, IATEFL. Celce-Murcia, M, et al. (1996), Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of other Languages. New York: Cambridge University. Crystal, D. (1995), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge Univ. Press Jenner, B. (1989), Teaching Pronunciation: The Common core, Speak Out! 4, IATEFL Jenkins, J. (2000), The phonology of English as an international Language. Cambridge Univ. Press Kenworthy, J. (1987), Teaching English Pronunciation, Longman Kennedy, S. (2008), Intelligibility Comprehensibility Accentednesss of L2 Speech: The role of Listener Experience and Semantic Context The Canadian Modern Language Review 64, 3 Macauly, R. (1988), RP RIP, Applied Linguistics Volume. 9 No. 2 Tench, P. (1981), Pronunciations Skill. London: McMillan. Walker, R (2001) Pronunciation for International Intelligibility: English Teaching Professna, Issue 21 1300 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 679 Title A name given to the resource Standard accent or Intelligibility: Desiderata for International Communication in English as a Foreign Language with special reference to the situation in Pakistan Author Author Iqbal, Zafar Abstract A summary of the resource. The main objective of learning a foreign language these days is to acquire communicative competence in such a language in real life situations. Being the most important lingua franca, English is the most sought- after foreign language in the contemporary world. There are, of course, two main options in pursuing this goal in countries like Pakistan. The so-called elite class of the society which always tends to set its self apart from the general masses and in some ways still wants to promote the colonial legacy wants to adopt the standard accent of English in their communications which means either ‗general American‘ or British ‗RP‘. The general public perforce resorts to ‗Pingilsh‘ due to many social constraints and pursues the criteria of mutual intelligibility, as a benchmark in speaking English as a foreign language. The aim of this paper is to highlight the significance of ‗Pinglinsh‘ as a model to be followed in the country uniformly in its entire system of education. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3ca5d4e2ebe6679365a74b5498f8ef57.pdf bbdbf77b35216c7cc681e69556e70e42 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis Birol Çetin Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics / 60110 Tokat TURKEY birol.cetin@gop.edu.tr ABSTRACT This study aims to deal with the ways of creating wealth by economic activities, presenting experiences within Ottoman state tradition and a role of Ottoman state during this period. In this context, the economic power achieved by the state will be explained through examples of practices. The role of the state in the economy has been raised with the latest global crisis and despite the historical expriences, this role has been started to debate in the economics. In fact, the corrupted state concept should be re-evaluated and re-established. Otherwise, re-evaluation of fundamental issues such as market system or freedom of enterprise wouldn’t contribute much to the solution of the problem. KEYWORDS Ottoman, Global Crisis, Market Sistem ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted:21 Jun 2012 Resubmitted:08January 2013 Accepted:25 March 2013 JEL Codes: N00,N20,B10 Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 115 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis Introduction Role of the State in the Economy In the traditional Islamic thinking, economy was subsistence and economic activities were mainly based on the supplement of daily requirements. Although there was no prohibition of becoming prosperous or accumulating wealth, owners of the wealth were advised to spend it for charity. According to Holy Quran and the Sunna, words and acts of the prophet Mohammad, basic sources of Islamic knowledge, and principles of justice were important in economical affairs, and legal way of earning were accepted equal to worshipping. However, after the establishment of sultanate tradition, the state transformed a source of income mechanism into a distrubition of wealth mechanism. It is not possible to state that trade was excluded in the powerful central administration of Ottoman Empire. In terms of the state intervention to the markets, the central administration was parallel with the system of administration apart from some applications.The purpose of the state was to suppress all kind of power and influence of local authority over the economic life and to obtain a great influence over all kind of goods as well as people by means of eliminating the intermediate agents between the subjects and the Sultan (Güçer, 1987). Ibn-i Haldun,a famous philosopher of Islamic world,addressed the both normative and positive sides of the issue and stated that the state got power in the area where it shouldn’t have had it. According to Ibn-i Haldun, there were three ways of subsistence and income: agriculture, industry (crafts) and trade. It seems that he considered agriculture and industry affirmative while trade was doubtful. He considered agriculture and crafts honorable, because they rely on one’s direct labor and effort. But they both did not make a person rich. In addition, Ibn-i Haldun mentioned public service as a means of getting rich, despite the fact that it was not a regular way of subsistence. He thought that people should get close to either the state or trade in order to be rich. Imaret, described as a state governing by Ibn-i Haldun Imaret, was the way of collecting taxes through confiscating someone’s wealth using political power and administrative office. Therefore, state work is not a natural way of make for a living. He described the civil cervants as feminine people who cannot do their own business. According to Ibn-i Haldun the ones who cannot come close to the state in order to protect his capital and to be rich, in his own words “the ones who do not indulge and lick someones’ boots” cannot have wealth because wealth is produced by public office. The ones who seize the power and who come close to the rulers became rich. Although, the main purpose seems beneficial for the citizens as it is frequently appears on the documents such as “public good”, “development and prosperity of the country” or “increasing the welfare of the citizens” (Tabakoğlu, 1994), it was actually decreasing the state’s reserves as it was frequently appears on documents such as “working to increase the state’s wealth without taking inadequate taxes”. Some interventions aimed to take taxes while others aimed to buy goods and services below the market price by the state. Dominant State Policy in Markets: Although,the prices were formed by a system determined by the state,the markets were not competitive in mant big towns,notably İstanbul had had a dynamic economic life.It can be claim that the narh system,the state intervention on the market prices,had negatively affected this dynamism. Aims of The Narh System: In addition to economic aims,there were political,moral and administrative aims at the narh system.A brief study of these aims will show the functions of the narh system.Although to separte these aims is diffucult,significant ones can be determined based on the classification of examples.These can be listed as follows: Therefore, this study aims to describe the ways of getting rich appropriate to Ibn-i Haldun and reveal the formation of them in Ottoman Empire. Trade, public services and companies were predominantly analized in this study. Administrative and Politicial Aims: Sultans and “sadrazam”s sometimes had attempted to lower the narh or to keep it low in order to reinforce their positions as well as to get the support of the general public. These attempts were embodied in expressions found in “hatt-ı humayun” (decree of sultans) issued by Selim III to “sadrazam” Musa Paşa (“make sure that the price checks are strict and satistaction of the citizens is ensured. Also affairs of citizens should be facilitated through your day-andnight efforts. Blackmarketing should be prevented in order to supply the needs of people 116 Volume 3 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Number 2 Fall 2013 117 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis in Istanbul. The behaviours against rules should be punished (Pakalın, 2004). According to Tevkii Abdurrahman Paşa, a regulator, the narh should not be haphazardly dertermined. According to Şehit Ali Paşa, the form of “putting into effect the prices by the state should not be controlled by the judges and municipal police, also it should be checked on a daily basis. Overcharging should be eliminated. You should be aware of the fact that the narh is the most crucial work of the state.” Therefore,the narh system was not only for regulating the price stability but also played a significant role in maintaining the order of the community. In his book entitled “Fusul-i Hall’ü Akd and Usul-i Harc-i Nakd”, Gelibolulu Mustafa Ali points the following justifications as the purpose of the book: “... with increasing population, narh system could not be effectively practised. Thus, order of the society deteriorated, judiciary corrupted, and the system got into the hands of the dishonest. The sultan cannot be thought of accepting this( Yücel, 2003). ‘’ In this concept, deterioration of the narh, judiciary and social order are accepted as the same. Since the price instabilities which had the same meaning with the weakness of the state authority were taken as an indicator of administers’ and public’s weakness. This issue was taken seriously. It was also taken serious because speculations were forbidden religiously for the public. The narh system was not only to protect the consumers but also was necessary for the protection of produces and traders.Thus, the aim was to prevent non-standard and fraudulent good’s trade. There were various restrictions for traders who acted against the narh. For example, in a decree issued to Judge of Istanbul and municipality police in 1676, the Sultan himself dealt with the packaging and selling procedures for pears brought to marketplace: “Order to the Judge of Istanbul and Municipality Police Chiefs: As “Pazarbaşı” Veli and his deputies complained, since pears come into the marketplace, they are put into small boxes and sold as boxes, the poor cannot buy these boxes. The sales should be like before, i.e. Pears should be brought to the marketplace in big boxes and sold by kilograms based on consumer’s need.”(Çağatay,1981).The administrative interest abaout conforming to the narh system also involved quality and standard of the goods. For example, when it was noticed that the quality of fabrics produced in Bursa deteriorated, an inspector was sent to Bursa in 1477. The inspector found out that a cheaper production method was adopted due to increased raw material prices. This reason was approved and new product was allowed (İnalcık, 1993). 118 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Financial reasons: Fixed prices due to the narh system provided major advantage for the state, because state was the major buyer. The state could buy for lower prices. For example, grain prices formed as free market and the state had had to buy on that price. Free market prices were usually monitored on heritage notebooks and the prices on “tereke” notebooks were always higher than official ones. The reason was the higher “resm-I kısmet” (a kind of heritage tax) taken by judges because of higher “tereke” price. Although, price of wheat per kg was 11 “guruş” and the price of barley per “kile” (a weight in unit) was 5 “guruş” in 1799 at Tokat, according to official purchases by the state, price of wheat flour was 4.0 “guruş” and barley was 2.25 “guruş” (Öztürk,1987). However, it would not be realistic to say that official prices were always kept low and the narh prices were continuously suppressed by the state. Considering the fact that vast amount of agricultural products were sold in the market, it would be true to assume that suppressed prices were only common in extraordinary situations. Direct Interventions To Trade: Other than mentioned above,there were another intervention methods in trade. These were “yedd-i vahid” (monopoly) practices, regulations about market places and trade regions, gedik method (a kind of quota imposed on the craftsman about the number and location of businesses) and various confiscation procedures applied to traders. The aim here was to prevent speculations, blackmarketing, deceptive sale practices, and to establish the order in the country. Food supply in big cities was an issue to which much significance was attached and attention was paid. Ottoman administrators were deeply taking into account that a well running economic life would make other state affairs smooth. Otherwise,there would be many social and administrative problems. “Gedik” and “yedd-i vahid” practices aimed to facilitate the work of the tradesman and to keep things well organized establishment content. Although, confiscation procedures mainly involved state afficials, it applied traders who were thought to have become unjustly rich. Even in financially difficult times, state did not covet traders’ wealth. There was a significant explanation about this subject in “hatt-ı humayun”s issued by Selim III.During 1787-1792 AustrianRussian Wars,the state was in financial difficulty and Sultan asked for financial solutions. This was explained by Selim III as follows: “Kaymakam Paşa” what I say to you is: “There can be no answer if the state has no money, then how can we live such a pretentious lives and what did we consume? We showed our enemies that we are weak. And looking at your situation,I am surprised. Just tell me how it could be possible. You have been in public service for so long, you are the one who knows where the extra five akçe(a currency unit) is, and you are asking me. You said that this is away from here, and Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 119 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis didn’t I take it? (Karal, 1999) Although, upon this decree, Sadrazam wanted to confiscate heritage and merchandise of some traders, the Sultan strongly prohibited and saying: “Seizing the belongings of orphans is something contrary to my opinion. I can not allow to touch them.Whatever accumulated by someone should be left to his or her heirs after the death, whether it is accumulated through trade, farming or crafts, should be left to his heirs, after his death. Don’t ever touch them! Only the wealth of public servants belong to state treasury, neither to me or to his heirs. All of them should be spent for public. Our ascendants did so. If the accountant is afraid of God, he shouldn’t touch the heritage of craftsmen, otherwise he will be severely punished.” One of the clearest examples of direct interventions to market was obligatory migrations practiced upon traders in order to develop trade in some areas. However, these exchanges were provided some tax exemptions. After the conquest of Kefe, 300 traders, and their families, were deported to Istanbul. It is known that livestock traders and butchers worked under coercion in order to keep meat supply running in large towns, and free trade conditions were not applied in this area of work (Pamuk, 1994). Corporate Movements and Status of the State Being dominant in trade through the narh system, the state closely followed developments in the west regarding market economy and corporate movements, also tried to be involved in these activities.As a matter of fact,the first corporation “Şirket-I Hayriye” was established by the state. In this subtitle, the state’s effort to manage the process of capitalist development without losing power will discuss. Partnerships in Ottoman Trade Life: Although, tradesmen and craftsmen were confined with the strict laws which entrepreneurs had sufferd a lot,it seems that Ottoman State closely watched the corporate movements in the west.There is no doubt that partnership culture and practices always survived as an indicator of a deep rooted tradition. However, there were major differences between the corporate tradition of the west and Ottoman applications. There are three types of contract based on partnership in Islamic law consisting of capital, labour and credibility.These were in the form of “Şirket-i Inan” (a kind of 120 Journal of Economic and Social Studies labor-capital partnership) and “Mufavada Şirketi”, a kind of cooperation based on the equal rights of family members. Records about these partnerships were taken from “Mecelle” was common in “Şeriyye” Records. “Şirket-i Inan” practice was common among vegetable oil and honey markets, especially in far away trades. They had started from the supply of the product and ended when the product reached to Istanbul where it was shared. In some practices, it was seen that people became the joint-owner of ships through giving loans to ship owners as similar to the western practice (Farooqhi, 1993). Apart from this small scale partnerships which did not require much capital. Especially after beginning of the “Iltizam” practice, privatization of tax revenues, partnerships involved the merging of large companies had started to be common (Gedikli,1999). However, this kind of partnerships which require great amount of capital accumulation was formulated based on some privileges provided under certain circumstances and uncertain conditions (Cezar,1986). Private entrepreneurship and corporate culture had not developed adequately due to the fact that the capital accumulation was in the hands of high officials and profitable business was possible only between privilegers. As a result of “iltizam” practice, owner of “dirlik” (money obtained from the state land used for soldier training (similar with latifundia in Rome) were disappeared. Life-long “mültezim” concept appeared and provinces were left to “mültezim”s. Therefore, non-muslim traders gained power by means of the governor’s policy. Towards the end of the 18th century, some of this “sarraf ” s had fortunes more than a million pounds. These minority members were in close contact with foreign traders and they played significant role about providing loans to the state (Tezel, 1986). They acted like the treasury of the state during the hard times for financing military expences and like financial crisis. For example, in 1878 460,000 pounds were taken from banker Zarifi for military expences. Another document shows that “miri” farms in Yanya were given away for paying a previous loan of 25,000 Turkish liras. 1 Embassies and consulates of foreign countries started to market their own goods in modernization and especially in the later half of the 18th century. In this period, partnerships with minorities had become more and more common.These minority traders were also benefiting from various privileges given to foreign traders through merging. There were many minority members who changed their nationality. After securing minority rights through “Küçük Kaynarca” Treaty, this practice had become even more common and disguised traders became registered ones.Thus,the state could not stop this trend and gave the rights to its own minorities which were 1 - B.O.A. Yıldız Tasnifi, Sedaret Resmi Maruzat Evrakı no:1-40 Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 121 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis previously given to foreign traders and “European Mechanthood” was established. In order to keep balance,these privileges were given to Muslim traders with some extras,thus “Hayriye Merchanthood” was established. Unlike the former traders, later ones were also given the privilege of trade to Persia and India (Tabakoğlu, 1994). Corporate Movements in Ottoman Empire: There were some opinions in “Tanzimat” period that the economic problems country experienced could be overcome through corporate development. Sultan Abdülmecid stated that he struggled a lot to take loans but he failed and and revenue-increasing measures, such as forming companies as in other countries, were necessary to overcome the financial problems (Koraltürk, 1999). Ministry of Trade was established in 1840 and “Kanunname-i Ticaret” act of 1850 decelerated some developments about corporate development.”Kanunname-I Ticaret” was a translation of French law titled “Code de Commercé” of 1807 with some minor modifications.This act was current until 1926 and provisions about companies were mentioned in its 11th,13th,14th,19th articles (Şekerci,1981). According to an expression in 13th article, constitution which was formed in 1876 “Ottoman subject has rights to establish all kind of companies for trade,crafts and agriculture provided that they obey the rules and order”. Cevdet and Fuat Paşa established the first Ottoman share company, “Şirket-i Hayriye”,in 1851. At first, operating ferries were between Bosphourus and Karaköy. “Şirket-i Hayriye” increased its activities year by year, and became a modern business after obtaining the privilege of Bosphourus transportation. As a consequence of these developments, many maritime businesses were formed using state protection and practices after 1910 (Eldem,1994). Board of Industrial Development operated between 1860 and 1873 focues on corporate development and worked on restoration of craftsmen unions.The purpose was to collect the craftsmen operating as scatterd under share company system with a common capital investment. However, when the board started to dominate every decision from appointment of company executives to profit margins and sale prices, desired benefits were not achieved. An example of these efforts was a share company run by leather craftsmen of Istanbul with a capital of 10.000 golden coins. number of share holding formed and involved in economic activities in Ottoman land was 86. However, a total of 236 companies were established in 1908-1918 period only (Toprak, 1997). In the process of corporate development and strengthening the capital structures Galata Bankers who had been operating since the time of Sultan Mehmed made significant contributions. During the reign of Abdülhamid,not only public debt securities but also shares of companies which had been operating in transportation business such as railways, tramway , tunnel, and in mining, water, natural gas, electricity and manufacturing areas were being traded in Galata Stock Maket. Galata Stock Market started to buy and sell state bonds and company shares.Sultan Abdülhamid,himself,was involved in these affairs by means of his private banker Zarifi and it took public attention to this area (Kazgan,1995). By the act of “Development of Industry” which had been put into effect after “Meşrutiyet”, corporate development was encouraged and domestic companies were started to be established. Most of these companies were included in the list of Shares and Bonds Stock Market. Companies quoted in the stock market were in different ındustries such as such as Thread and Linen Goods Share Company (with a capital of 10.000 Lira), Ottoman Anonymous Ittihat Company (with a capital of 100.000 Lira), Ottoman Anonymous Rubber Company (with a capital of 20.000 Lira), Ottoman Marble Company (with a capital of 25.000 Lira), Turkish Naphta Industry (with a capital of 250.000 Lira) and “Dersaadet Cheesemaker Teavün” Company Company (with a capital of 25.000 Lira)( Fertekligil, 2000). Figures about factories and manufacturing plants in a statistical record dated 1897 gives information about trade life. Under the title of “Memalik-i Mahrusa-ı Şahane’de mevcut fabrika ve değirmen vesairenin nev’i” (number and kinds of factories and mills in Istanbul) 23.837 business places were mentioned (Güran, 1997). Corporate development gained speed in the second half of the 19th century. Following Şirket-i Hayriye, Bank-ı Osmani and Şirket-i Osmaniyye that run Aydın-İzmir railway were established. A majority of companies formed in this period were privileged foreign companies and they conducted banking, insurance, railways, mining, utiliy gas aand tramway operations.These were foreign companies.Until 1908, the Corporate concept in Ottoman Empire appeared as privileges of share corporations. In the study of Mehmet Cavid Bey entitled “İlm-i İktisat” after explaining various corporate types, the following information regarding share corporations were given (Mehmet Cavid Bey,2001). “A majority of companies are share companies. They performed profitable activities and much of work especially in trade and industry is done by these companies.As other European countries establishment of these companies are subjected to Sultan’s approval.Besides the company has to follow some procedures in order to get privilege”.Therefore,the key condition for the company was to obtain a privilege. While the corporates in the west formed around the capital accumulation.They were quite different in Ottoman Empire in terms of their logic since they did not 122 Volume 3 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Number 2 Fall 2013 123 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis fit to partnership cooperation.Ottoman corporate development process completely relied upon privileges, and getting rich through trade which was possible only via the permission of the state. Public Service and Its Monetary Advantages Strong bureaucratic structure in Ottoman Empire was a result of an effort which was to keep permanently the government in the hand of centralized administration.Therefore, the public service officers were pleased financially to create a strong bureaucracy.The richest top ranking officers known as “devletlü” were remarkably in large numbers.The methods to obtain a fortune for high ranking officers will be clarify in this chapter. Monetary Awards: The issues such as great military achivements, excellent pursuance of assigned duties, and neutralization of oppositions taken place against the Sultan were the prominent awarding examples within the bureaucratic structure of Ottoman Empire. Since entering the public service had been a matter of good chance,young people were accepted to the palace after passing all tests.They had been hardly training. Entering to the palace was not easy and selected ones had to have certain qualifications (Ricaut,1686). According to Gökyay ‘’When Architect Mehmet Ağa, who built the Blue Mosque, entered the office in the Palace, he saw the attention paid towards the musicians and wanted to be a part of this profession. He convinced his master to give him lectures on music. However, after a dream he gave up this profesion and decided that it would conflict with his belief.After getting know the various artisans in the palace, he was interested in the art of “sedefkar”s, inlay workers using mother-of-pearl, and decided to perform this art.” Although the training given in the palace and criteria the young people were subjected to decide the occupations to be assigned were out of the present study’s scope.It is important to note that the trainees could select the occupation themselves. It seems that this practice had aimed high productivity from the very first day in public service (Gökyay,1988). In fact, there was no need for additional awards since Ottoman administration system. The upper office was quite awarding financially and the state officers had done their best to get upper offices. In order to understand the income of the high officers the following incidence reported by Mustafa Nuri Paşa is interesting “During the end of 124 Journal of Economic and Social Studies the reign of Sultan Mahmud II, Paris ambassador Ahmet Fethşi Paşa was appointed to “Sancak” of “Aydın” and then the commander of division and former chief commander Namık Paşa was appointed as a “müsellim” with 25,000 “guruş” monthly salary. After a while,Ahmet Fethi Paşa came to Istanbul and then went to Aydın. He offered Namık Paşa 25,000 “guruş” in addition to income of all “mukataa”s and under-door revenues and other income for his sustenance. Since Namık Pasha did not accept the offer, he appointed Ahmet Efendi, one of his relatives as his müsellim. After earning two million guruş of income that year, Sultan Mahmud II notified the Minister for Mukataas Nazif Pasha and allowed Ahmed Fethi Pasha to keep only the half of the income and returned the other half to treasury. The aim of this example is to show that governors and mutasarrıfs of sancaks with good incomes had very high incomes and they hadn’t needed extra money from taxes imposed on the people.Here, salary differences between administrator and deputy classes were significant. According to accountant records of Istanbul Palace in the period of 1555-1556,daily income of “Dar’ül Saadet Ağası” was 45 “guruş”,while 24 “ağa”s which had worked under his supervision was only 5 guruş (Barkan, 1979). In statuebooks, chapters had not only the job description but also had the salary aspects of the officers. For example, “and beğlerbeğilik is the path of four people: province chief accountants, approval officer on behalf of the Sultan, judges whose incomes were five hundred “akçe” and province “bey”s whose incomes reached four hundred thousand akçe (Akgündüz, 1990)”. Therefore, significance of officers were defined based on the income income obtained. Besides,statue changes were also remarkable.High officals called “devlet erkanı” such as Prime Minister, “Şeyh’ülislam”, Navy Commander, Ministers, Minister “Kethuda”s,accountants and lawyers had residences and as many as 200 service personnel such as kethuda, mühürdar (sealer), cook, stableman, boatman, residence keepers and tailors. These service personnel attended to wars and conducted their service during the war. Although this practice was criticized heavily, it was not changed (Aksan, 1997). Wealth of high officers were staggeringly high. When a messenger from India said to Halil Hamid Pasha that they could give five thousand sacks of golden coins to Ottoman Empire in return for helping them, the Pasha said “I and Kaptan Paşa present here alone could give that much”. The amount mentioned was about two hundred fifty thousand golden coins. It is seen that regular payments were done for the central officers until 18th century. However, along with the deteriorating financial structure, a “grant based service fee” system was adopted in place of regular salary payment. In this system, the grant received by bureucrats increased as he worked harder and did his job properly (Findley, 1996). Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 125 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis Distinction should be made between two aspects of material award system: first, appointing one or more level above offices in return for the accomplishments and the second giving big bonuses. The former was common and effective in use. This practice continued after Tanzimat, although regulations regarding public officials were subjected to certain rules Ahmet Muhtar Pasha was promoted from colonel to Marshall after his extraordinary success in Yemen only in 9 months. He talks about this: “When the boat which was carring the document showing my promotion and accompanying officers came to Kunfuda and Şakik Edip Efendi and aide of the sultan set out to come near me. However,I had already a herald from Kunfuda,so I was higly affected and cried. I was closed up in my tent and did not accept anybody for an hour. The reason not having enough time to think about deserving this duty or not and having enough qualification for this duty. I was scared of being humiliated later. For I was a colonel nine months ago. My brigade and major general period are only nine months. Giving me these three big ranks meant that they expect a lot from me.” Another example of this was promotion of Topal Osman Nuri Paşa from colonel to marshall only in three years. In the practice, awards called the state awards and promotions were given collectively as well as privately. Collective awards called tip from the Sultan were given during ceremonies for the Sultan’s claim of throne and during another celebrations after big military triumphs.Examples of individual awards were decorations of historians appointed by the Sultan to “Divan-ı Humayun” and some other offices. Along with the formal start of the state historian statue in 1700, famous historian Naima was rewarded 500 “guruş-u attiye” and one “guruş” payment rise to his daily wage at customs (İlgürel, 1991). Sometimes there were payments for the officials relieved of the duty in order to prevent them to get offend and to make them feel good about the trust of his service. After Halil Paşa removed from the duty,Sultan Mehmed II (the Conqueror) gave him a village in Filibe Sancak as his own property in order to dispel his doubts and to decorate him (Çarşılı, 1988). The available documents show that sometimes there were extravagancies in rewarding. For example, after the Crimmean war, the British and French saw that saw that Ottoman gun powder was better than the ones produced in their countries. They offered big rewards to chief of gur powder manufacturing officer Ohannes Dadyan and wanted to bring him to their countries. He turned down their offers and said that “I was born in Ottoman Empire and raised here. I dedicate my life to this country”. After heard about it Sultan Abdülmecid donated him a land in Yeşilköy as far as his eyes could see (Pamukciyan, 1958). This land was in the area known Florya 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies today and consisted of 210 pieces of plots, which is almost all of today’s Florya. Dadyan’s inheritors had disagreements over the land in 1950’s and their cases went on for years in courts (Dadyan, 1954). Warrenties and Eliminating the Concerns for the Future: Incentive and awarding practices applied during the public service continues after termination of the service. Thus, officials conducted their lives without concerns. Besides a pension, the officials could retain all the wealth they accumulated during their service in their retirement. Although in Ottoman Empire only the Sultan could own property.”Paşa”s and “Vezir”s also could have properties such as large farms, palaces, residencies, whose incomes completely belong to them.In order to understand the practices on this issue, it is necessary to study Has (big Timars such as latifundia in Rome) concept. Although, “has” term is used for Sultan’s property in Great Seljuks,it has a meaning of private property land and “dirlik” which had returns at least 100,000 “akçe” in a year was belonged to servants of Sultan and palace officials such as “Bostaniyan-ı hassa”, “Doğanciyan-ı hassa”, “Mehteran-ı hassa”, as well as dynasty members, ministers, beylerbeyis, sancak beyis and accountants. For example, there was a rule regarding the sell of grain from “has”es and farms dated H.945 in Bursa (Gökbilgin,1988). “Has”es appropriated to “Vezir”s and high officals were abolished year by year and added to “Mir-i Mukataa”.After “Tanzimat” the principle of making all expenses through the state treasure was put in practice and this system was cancelled totally after starting regular salary payments. Divan-I Malikane” (life-long mültezim), a significant type of private property, was also an example of this privileged land property practice. “Malikane” owners had right to sell,donate,establish foundations and leave them to their children when they die (Barkan,1939).Giving to own a property right ,which exclusively belong to Sultan,to the state officals means that officers could demand nothing from the state since they had some privileges of sultan. As a result of having all financial needs that they could dream of the state officials could only focus on their duties.In addition belongings could have been passed to their heirs, so they did not have any concern for the future. Against the danger of confiscation or contraversions among family members, some officials disregarded inheritance rules of Islamic law and established Foundations special their children, so taking guarantee even the future of their children.In practice, in some cases children of some officials were paid salary.There was no doubt that confiscation was the main concern of state officials who had considerable amount of wealth accumulation. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 127 �Birol Çetin State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis “Müsadere” (confiscation) system took its legitimacy since “devşirme”s were in the same statue of slavery, the state had right to take their share of heritage according to Islamic law.Besides, hey had not pay any tax.they had to help the state in hard times just as the Sultans had paid from their own wealth.If all the wealth were confiscated, the state had to pay for the livelihood of statesman’s household. There were not any age limitations for statesman. Service was unlimited except for dismissal, dementia and impairment. There was an amount given in cash or dismissed officers called “arpalık”.This could be an annual income of a given land or a given sum appropriated from the treasury (Tabakoğlu, 1994). will result in drying of tax sources as well as the losses in production strength in long term. The most pressing question to be faced and to be answered is whether it is the state’s or the bank’s future that is important. References Akgündüz, A. (1990). “Osmanlı Kanunnameleri ve Hukuki Tahlilleri”, Fatih Devri Kanunnameleri Kanunname-i Al-i Osman Bab-ı evvel madde 14, Fey Vakfı Yay. İstanbul Aksan, V. (1997). “Savaşta ve Barışta Bir Osmanlı Devlet Adamı Ahmet Resmi Efendi 1700-1783”, Tarih vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Conclusion Barkan, Ö. L. (1939). “Türk-İslam Toprak Hukuku Tatbikatının Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Aldığı Şekiller Malikane Divani Sistemi”, Türk Hukuk ve İktisat Tarihi Mecmuası Ottoman Empire represents a strong central state tradition and this subject is the source of its economic power.These facts literally show that the state is the source of wealth.The fact that the state was the sole owner of the land restricted the ways of getting rich by trading and working in public service.Strict state control and getting low profit margins made it difficult to be rich through the trade. However, “sahaf ”s operating in financial markets and especially later period’s non-muslims dealing with trade were exceptions. Barkan, Ö. L. (1979). “İstanbul Saraylarına Ait Muhasebe Defterleri”, Türk Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi, T.T.K. Basımevi, c.9, sayı 13, Ankara. On the other hand civil service semms to be the only way of getting rich in Ottoman Empire.Confiscation establishment was one which could eliminate all concerns.The state was not complaining about high officials who were getting rich because it was thought that this wealth belonged to the state.The main reason for a conviction was the fact that statesmans could not leave this wealth to their inheritors. According to Ottoman political system took its power from economic strength.The state had to be as strong as possible within national borders.The state administration under control of financial system debilitated the state and thus hurt the citizen whose protector is the state. This became apparent with the financial depression happened in the 17th century. Bey M. C. (2001). “İktisat İlmi”, Çev.Sema Alpun Çakmak, Liberte Yayınları, Ankara. B.O.A. Yıldız Tasnifi, Sedaret Resmi Maruzat Evrakı no:1-1 B.O.A. Yıldız Tasnifi, Sedaret Resmi Maruzat Evrakı no:1-40 Cezar, Y. (1986). “Osmanlı Maliyesinde Bunalım ve Değişim Dönemi, 18. yüzyıldan Tanzimata Mali Tarih”, Alan Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Çağatay, N. (1981), “Bir Türk Kurumu Olan Ahilik”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Basımevi, Konya. Çarşılı İsmail Hakkı Uzun, “Çandarlı Vezir Ailesi”, T.T.K. yayınları, Ankara,1988. Çetin. B, (2001). “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Barut Sanayi 1700-1900”, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay. Ankara. Eldem, V. (1994). “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun İktisadi Şartları Hakkında Bir Tetkik”, T.T.K. Yayınları, Ankara, 1994. Farooqhi, S. (1993) “Osmanlı’da Kentler ve Kentliler”, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Fertekligil, A. (2000). “Türkiye’de Borsanın Tarihçesi”, İ.M.K.B. Yayınları, İstanbul. Findley, C. V. (1996). “Kalemiyeden Mülkiyeye Osmanlı Memurlarının Toplumsal Tarihi”, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa, “Sergüzeşt-i Hayatım’ın Cild-i Evveli”, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul, 1996. Present day situation is no different. In the recent recession, states must reconsider their relationships with financial system and make some reorganizations. It should not be forgotten that 90% of the public revenues come from taxes. Although cooperation with financial quarters can be conceived to the benfit of the states at first, it Gedikli, F. (1999). “Osmanlı Şirketleri”, Osmanlı, C.3, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, Ankara. 128 Volume 3 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Gökbilgin, T. (1988). “Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Devri Müesseseler ve Teşkilatına Işık Tutan Bursa Şer’iye Sicillerinden Örnekler”, T.T.K. yayınları, İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı’ya Armağan Sayısı, Ankara. Number 2 Fall 2013 129 �Journal of Economic and Social Studies Birol Çetin Gökyay, O. Ş. (1988). “Risale-i Mimariyye-Mimar Mehmet Ağa Eserleri”, T.T.K. yayınları, İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı’ya Armağan Sayısı, Ankara. Güçer, L. (1987). “16. ve 18. Asırlarda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Ticaret Politikası”, Türk İktisat Tarihi Yıllığı, İ.Ü. İktisat Fakültesi Türk İktisat ve İctimaiyat Tarihi Araştırmaları Merkezi , S.1, İstanbul. Güran, T. (1997). “Osmanlı devleti’nin İlk İstatistik Yıllığı 1897”, Tarihi İstatistikler Dizisi C.5, D.İ.E Yayınları Ankara. Süleyman, U. (2009). Ibn-i Haldun “Mukaddime” Cilt II. Dergah Yayınları İstanbul. Hülagü, M. M. (1994). “Topal Osman Nuri Paşa Hayatı ve Faaliyetleri 1840-1898”, Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi OTAM. Ankara. İlgürel, M. (1991)., “Vakanüvislerin Taltiflerine Dair”, İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Araştırma Merkezi Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu’na Armağan Sayısı, İstanbul. İnalcık, H. (1993). “15. Asır Sanayi ve Ticaret Tarihine Dair Vesikalar, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu içinde”, Eren Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Karal, E. Z. (1999). “Selim III’ün Hatt-ı Hümayunları”, T.T.K. Basımevi, Ankara. Kazgan, H. (1995). “Tarih Boyunca İstanbul Borsası”, İ.M.K.B. yayınları, İstanbul. Koraltürk, M. 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Impact of Military Expenditure and Economic Growth on External Debt: New Evidence from a Panel of SAARC Countries Khalid Zaman, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology / Abbottabad, Pakistan khalidzaman@ciit.net.pk Iqtidar Ali Shah Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology / Abbottabad, Pakistan iqtidar@ciit.net.pk Muhammad Mushtaq Khan Department of Humanities, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology / Abbottabad, Pakistan Mehboob Ahmad Department of Management Sciences, Bahria University / Islamabad, Pakistan Pakalın. M. Z. (2004). “Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü”, MEB yayınları, İstanbul. Pamukciyan, K. (1958) “İstanbul Ansiklopedisi”, Tan Matbaası, İstanbul. Pamuk, Ş. (1994). “Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık ve Büyüme (1820-1913)”,Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları.İstanbul. 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A A This paper examines the impact of military expenditure and economic growth on external debt for a panel of five selected AA countries including Bangladesh, India, epal, Pakistan and rilanka, over the period of 1988-2008. sing Pedroni’s (2004) test for panel cointegration, it was found that there is a long-run relationship between external debt, economic growth and military expenditure. The study finds that external debt is elastic with respect to military expenditure in the long run and inelastic in the short run. In the long run, 1% increase in military expenditure increase external debt between 1.18 % and 1.24%, while 1% increases in economic growth reduce external debt between 0.64% and 0.79%, by employed and M estimator respectively. In the short run, 1% increase in military expenditure increases external debt by 0.15%, while 1% increase in economic growth reduces external debt by 0.47 %. KEYWO D xternal ebt, conomic Growth, Military xpenditure, Panel ointegration, AA ountries. A I LE HI O Y ubmitted: 2 April 2012 esubmitted: 28. ebruary2013 Accepted: 25. March 2013 JEL odes: 1, 4, 5 and H5 130 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 131 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2390 Title A name given to the resource State as the Source of Wealth: In Ottoman Economic Thought: A different approach to reflections in the aftermath of the global crisis Author Author ÇETİN, Birol Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to deal with the ways of creating wealth by economic activities, presenting experiences within Ottoman state tradition and a role of Ottoman state during this period. In this context, the economic power achieved by the state will be explained through examples of practices. The role of the state in the economy has been raised with the latest global crisis and despite the historical expriences, this role has been started to debate in the economics. In fact, the corrupted state concept should be re-evaluated and re-established. Otherwise, re-evaluation of fundamental issues such as market system or freedom of enterprise wouldn’t contribute much to the solution of the problem Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-12-19 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)