245 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f2cc6181e7b9af146d9a90536c2c29f.pdf 920f144c65ac8dc84a68b1f0c697130b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Some Unresolved Issues in an ELT New Media Age: Towards building an interlanguage semantics Larry Selinker NYU & Research Production Associates larry.selinker@nyu.edu INTRODUCTION ELT teachers, like all of us, are in the situation that is correctly called ―DATA DELUGE‖ (Gleick, 2011; Nunberg, 2011). We are in a data-deluged digital world, a world of increasingly large data sets, and we need to learn to manage them. Our students? It is worse for them; they are buried in these new SMART handheld mobile devices and who knows where that will lead237? I would like the reader to ponder this phrase: VAST AMOUNTS OF DATA IN A DATA-DELUGED DIGITAL WORLD Now, add consideration of interlanguage your learners are producing in bulk, and you come to my initial premise for this paper, simple in principle but one that can lead to great tension in practice: In order for ELT teachers to make intelligent pedagogical decisions, IE, more targeted teaching practices, teachers MUST understand and manage the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pour out of the learners in front of them. I would now like the reader to ponder this phrase: VAST AMOUNTS OF INTERLANGUAGE DATA IN A DATA-DELUGED DIGITAL WORLD If we think of interlanguage data as information, we can‘t help wondering: How will we cope with vast amounts of this type of interlanguage information, amongst a vast number of other information, in a new media age? In a context where media and technology develop daily? If we take the ―Fundamental Difference Hypothesis‖ (Bley-Vroman, 1983) seriously, then NO NL NOR TL CATEGORIES CAN BE ASSUMED. We are thus into category proliferation, as well. This becomes exponentially true if we conceive of interlanguages as types of ―intersystems‖ that are basic to all types of learning. Where do we begin? First, here are the main themes I wish to put forward in this paper: - - a. There are a series of unresolved sets of issues in ELT & SLA with many if not most of these issues perspicaciously previewed in the earliest literature. - - b. None of these issues can be resolved without a serious interlanguage semantics, which we do not see at all. - - c. Maybe, just maybe, new media and new predictive technologies can help resolve some of the difficulties we have getting at interlanguage semantics and interlanguage intention. Though they are often more short-term product oriented, if we can, we should seriously consider joining forces with the many computational entrepreneurial efforts that often have resources which we lack, especially those trying to make sense of semantic problems in private computational endeavors 238. In trying to figure out what classical issues are still unresolved for today‘s world, my method is to start historically, attempting to dialogue with MY ―FOUNDING TEXTS‖ (Selinker, 1992)239. This is not history per 237 There are some student behaviours that are beginning to drive teachers I know, a bit mad. On the day I was writing this, the NYT had a poignant lead article discussing ―adjacent, but essentially alone‖ texting behaviour: ―Keep Your Thumbs Still When I‘m Talking to You‖, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/fashion/17TEXT.html?_r=1 Also, ―Cyberbullying and ―Facebook anxiety‖ are both apparently very real: http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=cyberbullying&aq=f&aqi=g-e6g1g-c1g1g-c1&aql=&oq= http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&source=hp&q=facebook+anxiety&aq=0&aqi=g5g-v5&aql=t&oq=FACEBOOK+ANX 238 This joining of forces with the entrepreneurial world makes even more sense in an age when governments insist on cutting funding across the board, even at times, demonizing teachers (think, Wisconsin), and, importantly. when some of the best researchers are in such private endeavors. I am gathering a list of private sponsorship of recent computational conferences, primarily where semantics is involved. 239 In Selinker (1992) I have presented this method of dialoguing with founding texts in detail, and provide a much more complete listing and discussion. 740 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo se but an attempt to understand foundation issues in a current context. I say ―my‖ founding texts, since I believe that each person will have DIFFERENT FOUNDING TEXTS. My suggestion is that each person discover which texts are founding texts for him or her, and what there is in the essence of each that speaks to current concerns, as these concerns evolve. So, my point here is that it is a worthwhile exercise to try to figure out what YOUR personal founding texts are and what issues in them speak to you, those that are international and those that are particularly important here in Sarajevo. In using such founding texts efficiently and wisely, especially if you are new to ELT and SLA, it is important that you approach this subject with a sense of where we have come from, since ‖reinventing the wheel‖ is a continual hazard of all academic life240. We next turn, therefore, to an interlanguage précis, from the point of view, of some of my own founding texts. I. AN INTERLANGUAGE PRÉCIS: Starting from the beginning, let us consider what interlanguage is and where the concepts underlying ―The Interlanguage Hypothesis‖ have come from. Remember, we are looking to dialogue with ―founding texts‖, heading toward trying to delineate sets of unresolved issues. Though there are very different views of interlanguage in various literatures (see the discussion on machine translation below), one useful way to look at interlanguage is that: Interlanguages are non-native languages which are created whenever people attempt to create meaning in a second language and are spoken wherever there is language contact. It has long been my view (Selinker, 1972) that people create these highly-structured interlanguages when trying to express meaning in ―meaningful-performance situations‖ in a second language. DICTIONARY DEFINITION OF ‗INTERLANGUAGE ..(in second-language acquisition) the linguistic system characterizing the output of a non-native speaker at any stage prior to full acquisition of the target language. (Unabridged Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 1987, p.995) These interlanguages historically derive from attempts to continually understand and up-date two central processes in SLA: 1) transfer from the native language (―language transfer‖), AND 2) learners ―getting stuck‖ in interlanguage patterns, often far from target language norms (―fossilization‖). Though transfer was known in Biblical times (the ―Shibboleth‖ story, Judges 12:4-6), the earliest modern reference is Whitney (1881), with discussion and assumptions by many linguists since that time until Harris in 1954 produced a full treatment, ―TRANSFER GRAMMAR‖, including the open methodological use of translation, a method we have abandoned to our detriment241. Weinreich(1953) interpreted transfer in a unique and important way, in terms of ―interlingual identifications‖: speakers in attempting to learn to speak a second language ―make the same what cannot be the same‖. This is cognitively profound. An INTERLINGUAL IDENTIFICATION EXAMPLE (Weinreich, 1953): if a Russian, as often happens, regularly says [tyaip] for English [thaip], ―type‖, he has made FOR HIM a palatalized /t/ the same as an aspirated /t/, even though to any observer, they are NOT the same. This fact puzzled Weinreich since it violates classical Saussurean principles of ―valeur‖ and ―system‖, and this paradox has never been resolved, remaining a profound mystery, except to note that there are many examples in the literature of such interlingual identifications, some very bizarre. It was recognized early that such processes occur on all levels of language, but it was not until Lado (1957) that we had the first clear language transfer hypothesis, spurring much research: … individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of 240 In my experience, it turns out that ―reinventing the wheel‖ is less a problem in the online entrepreneurial world than the academic world, since the bottom line is never far away, which can be a tough master for a small concern. 241 Translation is a neglected part of SLA methodology, but clearly it is used regularly by learners. It has long been my view (Selinker, 1992) that we would have a different SLA if translation were a prime ontological and methodological factor – an area waiting still to be explored, with translation taking on a concomitant role to transfer 741 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.‖ That view, basically has now been corrected to where transfer occurs NOT directly to any foreign language/culture - impossible in principle - but to the individuals‘ developing and more permanent interlanguage (by extension, to interdialect/ interculture, see below). Out of Harris, Weinreich, and Lado one of first detailed attempts to empirically present thousands of exemplars of word order language transfer appears in Selinker (1966 revised as Selinker, 1969)242. Corder (1967), amongst many other seminal concepts, flushed out the fledging language transfer concept, showing us that ―errors‖, one type of interlanguage form, are a ―window to the learner‖. By contrast, the attempt to understand the phenomenon that apparently every learner experiences of (permanently) ―getting stuck‖, is more recent with scholars struggling for several decades to grasp it since it was named ―fossilization‖ in the ―Interlanguage‖ paper that codifies this and other interlanguage processes, developing a research agenda (Selinker, 1972, reframed as Selinker, 1992). Examples occur in Weinreich(1953) and Nemser(1971) but these scholars do not focus on the phenomenon of the cessation of interlanguage development, which occurs in spite of extensive exposure to target language input and massive opportunities for interactive production with such speakers. Without the concept of fossilization, I have long maintained (discussed in Long, 2003) that, there would be NO second language acquisition, that there would only be ―language acquisition‖ with only one underlying cognitive architecture, not potentially two latent psychological mechanisms, as discussed in Selinker (1972)243. It is Han & Odlin (2006) and Han & Cadierno (2010) who bring fossilization up-to-date, showing that fossilization is differential or selective by context. There is a long debate in second language acquisition about the place of universal grammar (Cf. eg. White, 2000), as to whether interlanguages are formed in terms of these principles, fully?, partially?, or not at all? But this tale is beyond our scope. Related to this universal issue, is it indeed EVER the case that interlanguage equals the language of NSs? This was much discussed early on and still is not settled. There is an interesting number much discussed in the literature, sometimes called ―the magical 5%‖ (passim), a suggestion presented in Selinker (1972) involving an estimate of the number of people whose interlanguage MIGHT equal that of native speakers (NSs) of the target language. Where this number comes from is a story, but one thing is clear and presented there: The vast majority‖ of second-language learners do NOT have an interlanguage that equals that of NSs of the target language. The theoretical point is that, if such a subset as the 5% exists, they are on a different track than interlanguage learners and may be safely ignored when establishing the constructs underlying the ―psychologically-relevant‖ data which control the formation and structure of the vast majority of interlanguages. Is this concept really true? A most important characteristic of interlanguages, maybe their prime characteristic, is that they become independent of both native and target language. The empirical fact supporting this view, forcing us to recognize the existence of interlanguage, is that speakers attempting to produce a second language produce NEW FORMS that are neither in native nor target language. The [t yaip] example above is a phonetic example of such a new form. A syntactic/phonological example involving primary stress is the situation of a Spaniard in London not being understood. He was overheard at a kiosk asking: ―How much cñst banana?‖ NS: ―Pardon?‖ When he was not understood, the interlanguage Spanish-English speaker, appearing frustrated, uses his interlanguage resources and rephrases and says: ―How much dñes cost banana?‖ This is a particularly interesting example as the Spanish speaker has taken two English grammatical rules - - do-support and do-emphasis - - that NSs use all the time but he uses them in different idiosyncratic ways than NSs would and has thus created a new construction in his interlanguage English, ―How much dñes cost banana?‖. Such examples have appeared a thousandfold in the literature. Everyone finds in their production data new forms, not in the native nor in the target language. 242 I was Robert Lado‘s student at Georgetown in the early 1960‘s and this empirical work was produced under his supervision. I owe him much for his generosity and encouragement. 243 A complication is how fossilization and transfer might be linked. There has been at least one attempt to link these together as causative variables in terms of the ―multiple effects‖ principle (cf. Selinker & Lakshmanan, 1992), but there is little empirical validation to date. 742 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Interlanguage is not a monolith. There are various types of interlanguage though a complete typology is lacking, e.g. ―learner languages‖ which usually occur in classrooms, often with rapid development are the type most language teachers are concerned with. There are so-called ―fossilized interlanguages‖ where the vast majority of linguistic forms in the interlanguage continue for years with little or no change. All sorts of individual sets of variations exist in interlanguage and a needed research project is to produce an empirical typology. Note that various overlapping terms cover different members of the set 244. It gets more complicated when one considers ―interdialect‖ with another of my founding texts: Trudgill (1988). Trudgill argues cogently for the existence of ―interdialect‖ by citing ―new forms‖ in second-dialect acquisition with many solid examples from Norwegian. I have seen this phenomenon with Americans in London who uniformly when first arriving, say ―tube stop‖, a form apparently not in American nor in British English (cf. ―tube station‖). The same cognitive phenomenon seems to happen when a person approaches a new culture, creating an ―interculture‖ (Kramsch (1998) calls this a ―C3‖). This seems particularly apt for NYC (cf. Garcia & Fishman, 2001). Thus, it seems reasonable that in many types of learning, we can hypothesize that there exists cognitively the creation by learners of an intersystem. The creation of a new intersystem seems true – even for native speakers, apparently. Cummins (NYU, 2001 lecture) stated that academic language is ―different and more complex‖ than conversational language and that there are ―moving targets‖ for young students; the research literature shows that it takes ―at least 5 years‖ to gain academic proficiency (cf. academic life as ―a secondary culture‖; Widdowson, 1983). One can compare the various case study linguistic examples of ―Latino students in American schools‖ in Valdes (2000)245. Above we looked briefly at what interlanguage is and where the concepts underlying the interlanguage hypothesis have come from. Remember, we are looking to dialogue with ―founding texts‖, heading toward trying to delineate sets of unresolved issues. Next we delineate such issues. II. SOME UNRESOLVED ISSUES: Following from the above, for me, here are 10 pressing, unresolved (and overlapping) sets of issues in ELT and SLA from an interlanguage perspective, issues which have been with us from our earliest days, reframed if possible for current concerns246: AREA 1: How much, and what sort of data is required for ―effective SLA‖ in terms of the learner‘s ―internal syllabus‖? (Corder, 1967) WHICH LEADS TO: - - How should we conceive of the dimensions and pathways of a learner‘s internal syllabus? - - How should we relate these to the various syllabi of teachers and school systems? AREA 2: Since input ≠ intake (Corder, 1967), how exactly does a learner edit input? WHICH LEADS TO: - - How do we, in a principled way, understand and treat learner output when it is ―comprehensible‖ and when not? (Swain & Lapkin, 1995). - - What exactly are the effects of input and interaction as learners attempt to convert input into intake (Gass & Madden. 1985; Mackey & Polio, 2010)? - - What happens to output, when it develops towards some desired ―target‖ V. when it remains partially or completely unaffected by language exposure (Han, 2003)? 244 The best known are ―transitional competence‖ (Corder 1967) where development is emphasized V. ―approximative system‖ (Nemser 1971) where fossilization (unnamed) appears to be more dominant. 245 My favourite example is from a task where a student named Elisa has ―to write about her school or her family‖ and Valdes reports that the particular text the student writes: ―... reflects Elisa‘s spoken language and her confusion between spoken and written English. The use of a for I, for example in: a learn a lot of English AND a do (esperimin). The text presented ―revealed that she produced a schwa-like sound for the pronoun I in speaking. She then transcribed this sound both as a and I (Valdes, 2000, 97). Note variable use here: we get a do (esperimin) and I like math. Valdes also shows expected ―transfer of native language syntax‖. 246 I would really like feedback at the above email on this point of reframing for current concerns. 743 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AREA 3: - - What happens initially in a second language (Corder, 1967)? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Is Weinreich‘s (1953) concept of ―interlingual identifications‖, the fascinating and attested behaviour on the part of learners of ―making the same what cannot be the same‖? - - Or, is Corder‘s idea of (to put it in more current terms) ―matching‖ correct? ie. that one looks for what one already has in the input correct? - - Do universals of some sort kick in? (Adjemian, 1976 and all that UG SLA literature) OR is prior linguistic knowledge and information just too powerful, at least in some cases? AREA 4: - - When we do have attested influence from prior linguistic information, called ―language transfer‖, how is it governed ? (Lado, 1957) WHICH LEADS TO: - - Does the activation or blocking of transfer relate in any way to universal grammar principles of any kind? (Adjemian, 1976) - - Where there are at least two interlanguages involved in a multilingual context (Cenoz, et al, 2010) , what principles block transfer from NL and permit transfer to go through from Interlanguage1 to Interlanguage2 in the various and common multilingual settings247? AREA 5: Is it true that variation is a main characteristic of SLA (Tarone, 1983; 2004) and how is that to be integrated into any SLA theory? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Do we in fact see more and different types of variation in SLA, if like NS variation, every level of language shows interlanguage variation? - - In the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation by L2 learners, is there indeed ―considerable acquisitional difficulty‖ in one type of variation as opposed to another (Howard 2004)? - - If it is possible to successfully teach teachers how to do ―language learner analysis‖ (Tarone & Swierzbin, 2009), how exactly do we relate that endeavor to the outcomes of learners? AREA 6: In general, how should we understand getting stuck in an L2 (fossilization/ stabilization) often far from target norms and often with variable results amongst learners, even in the same context? (Selinker, 1972, 1992). WHICH LEADS TO: - - Why is it that such a large percentage of learners seem to get stuck in an L2, often far from target norms? Are factors like identity and social factors involved? - - How should we understand the relationship between development and getting stuck in an L2? - - Are there separate cognitive structures, some latent (Lenneberg 1967), perhaps that would account for differential and fossilized results in SLA? (Lenneberg, Selinker, 1972) - - Is this process of fossilization and its various relationships like other forms of learning or is there something ―special‖ about SLA? AREA 7: - - Where does a more recent focus on ―multilingualism‖ (Cenoz, et al, 2010), ―English as a Lingua Franca‖ (Seidlhofer, 2004; Jenkins, 2007) and ―translanguaging‖ in immigrant communities (Garcia, 2008) fit in? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Does the newer emphasis on more than two languages change everything in terms of governing SLA metaphors, as Jenkins argues? 247 Setting forth the principles as to when NL transfer is blocked allowing interlanguage transfer to occur remains an unanswered challenge in colleagues who put forth a multilingual perspective. One principle might be ―similarity of phonetic form‖ from interlanguage to desired target, though that will have to wait until another occasion. 744 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AREA 8: - - Thus, how can anyone have all that attested knowledge of any language, say English, in his or her head? (Culcover, 2004, 135)248. WHICH LEADS TO: - - Is that a reasonable way to think of storage in long term memory? - - If we multiply that for a multilingual how do people keep it all sorted? - - If they don‘t ... , well, apparently, they mostly don‘t. AREA 9: - - What would a clearly specified ―theory of learning‖ for language learning look like? How would we handle the SLA uniqueness (?) of practice NEVER making perfect? WHICH LEADS TO, what is the place of: - - A behavioral theory of learning based on ST-R relations? (Fries, 1945) - - A more cognitive theory of learning based on rule learning? (White, 1985) - - A more socially-situated one based on stored and edited experiences? (eg, Gee & Hayes, 2011) If a mixed model is desired, with even behavioral theory having a place covering the learning of some interlanguage structures, would the opposition ―context-dependent‖ V. ―context-independent‖ make more sense in the learning of complex systems 249? AREA 10: - - How does one treat in a pedagogically-relevant way SLA results and still unanswered questions (Corder, 1973 and passim in the literature), here particularly reframed as understanding and using learner data as information in pedagogical contexts?. WHICH LEADS TO: - - What are the principled criteria that allow one to use SLA research results in a language classroom? - - How does one make sense to teachers of the shared space between research and teaching given the lack of time and energy teachers have given the difficult daily task of lg teaching: teaching 18+ hours a week, heterogeneous classrooms, pressures of hassled administrators, of angry parents ...? Other issues abound of course, which we have no space to discuss250. In Section II., we have focussed on sets of unresolved issues, issues where over the decades we have made some profound, but piecemeal, progress on the above issues for sure, but resolved? Not a one! If we had, we would have the equivalent of a periodic table and we don‘t. It is my assumption that we are blocked from making progress in every area above by our lack of understanding of the making of meaning in interlanguage. Consider, VARIATION: How can we know that two forms that are variants in NL or TL categories are variants in interlanguage categorization? And, the reverse is certainly true, where you have interlanguage synonymy and TL variation. To alleviate that in each area, we need to move more seriously to: THE INTERLANGUAGE MAKING OF MEANING WITHIN COMPLEX SYSTEMS. If we want to take the basic premise of ELT teaching sketched above seriously - viz. that teachers, in order to make intelligent pedagogical decisions, that is, more targeted teaching practices that will relate closer to the learner‘s ―built-in syllabus‖ (Corder, 1967), teachers must understand the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pours out of the learners in front of them. Interlanguage intention and meaning must become a central part of that, since meaning is a central element of most, if not all linguistic activity. III. TOWARDS AN INTERLANGUAGE SEMANTICS 248 There is ample evidence that writing down the attested knowledge of any native language takes thousands of pages (e.g. Huddleston & Pullum, 2002). 249 I am very sympathetic to the attempts to treat SLA as a ―complex system‖, rather a series of complex systems, and like this quote: ―The processes for language acquisition, use, and change are not independent from one another but form aspects of the same complex adaptive system‖ (Ellis, 2008), though I am not sure of where ―adaptive‖ fits in. The major problem dealing with complex systems - one that drives systems people and neurologists nuts - is the coordination of all this information, especially in a reasonable model of the brain. 250 Early on there were some attempts at dealing with age effects in the creation of interlanguage (Hakuta, 1975 and Selinker, Swain & Dumas, 1977) and this strand of research has proven robust. Also, there are all sorts of methodological issues we will have to also leave aside here. 745 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We next move to the making of interlanguage meaning, trying to capture the notion of an ―interlanguage semantics‖, to draw upon learner intention being compatible, if we can, to intelligent automatic coding251. To date, what we have in SLA in the area of semantics is mostly lexically-oriented252, but we must dig deeper. We must attempt, no matter how hard it is, to go into its most deep representations to find out what is going on with our learners as they try to express intention in meaningful performance situations. In order to understand the mechanisms that create knowledge of interlanguage and drive its restructuring (when it occurs), we must code and analyze ―interlanguage in its own right‖, here in the semantic domain as well. ―Fundamental Differences‖ between the acquisition and structure of interlanguage V. native language needs a principled approach to such coding and analyzing! You get out of this comparative fallacy in principle, by NEVER assuming the correctness of target-language (or even native-language) categories to analyze interlanguage in its own terms? If we can move semantics of interlanguage into a sort of propositional logic, we find interesting work on machine translation. I am thinking now of the work by GOOGLE on machine translation which turns on their view of interlanguage and interlanguage semantics in a very different context: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Interlanguage_Semantics.svg where, though detail is hard to access, what Google seems to do is turn text, especially English text, into PROPOSITIONS, and when a text is needed to be translated, then one does not go from language to language, but from text to propositional storage to next language, something to ponder as we move to tr ying to get at interlanguage semantics, to see if there are indeed more and less universal interlanguage propositions, independent of the various NSs. The obvious problem with gaining access to an interlanguage semantics begins with the same difficulty as with any semantics: meanings, unlike sounds, are not physically manifest in sentences, either as manifested in sound or in graphic representation. One needs MENTAL DATA and cannot get away from that, requiring procedures to get at this mental data. We start with the premises that: - - ―meaning‖ is a central element of most, if not all linguistic activity. - - the ―making of meaning‖ always occurs in a situation or in a context. - - a learner who wants to convert intentions into language uses his (often limited & idiosyncratic) linguistic resources in what is essentially a potential matching task. - - in order to be understood, he needs to turn those intentions into semantics and language to match the semantics he has with the semantics of the listeners of that speech or writing. How are we going to restrict interlanguage semantics to some reasonable entity, to the meaning descriptions that learners create? In particular, we must include concepts of PRESUPPOSITION, ENTAILMENT, AND IMPLICATURES, as well as concepts of POLYSEMY, SYNONYMY AND CONTEXTUAL PARAPHRASE RELATIONS, IDIOMATICITY, AMBIGUITY and the like, concepts that in principle can become computational. A much later goal is to tie these concepts and relationships to interlanguage syntax, as it exists. AN EXAMPLEWHERE MEANING GOES BEYOND THE LEXICAL253 into a deeper semantics of presupposition, entailments. implicatures, and the like. This example actually led to misunderstanding in an 251 My experience here is limited to consultation on several LARGE INTERLANGUAGE DATA BASES in China and Japan, where I have seen first hand that Automatic Coding of Interlanguage involves multiple problems of the type hinted here, often involving semantic puzzles that remain unresolved (Cf. the papers by Tenfjord, et al, 2007; Izumi, et al, 2007). Additionally, I have explored two other new media areas: ―distance online interlanguage analysis‖, trying to develop a DOILA tool (Browne, Kinahan, & Selinker, 2002) and speech recognition by computer (Selinker & Mascia, 2002) 252 I do not wish to imply by anything I say here that I am intending a criticism of the current lexical semantics, ie. vocabulary acquisition that we have in SLA. My point is that the knowledge we gain from studies of the lexicon in SLA is far from the whole story, ie. we are dealing with necessary but not sufficient information. 253 This example is from data in my extensive diary studies as are other examples presented here, unless specifically referenced otherwise, are from my diary studies gained mostly in ordinary conversation; they are mostly digitalized and details are available upon request at email above. 746 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ongoing conversation, the source of data where interlanguage semantics must be coded in a divergent manner from native languages to get at underlying idiosyncratic semantic representation. Consider the context of the following sentence: in discussing some friends, a native Italian speaker says: - - ―but now they are broken‖? Native speakers in the conversation clearly do not understand and they starts to ask what they mean. Several exchanges follow and it took awhile til one of the Native Speakers said: ―oh, you mean they are broke.‖ ―Ah‖ went everyone else there. Now, in terms of this interlanguage semantics, there is a divergent association where ―broken‖ in being coded semantically and must associated with ―a person being broke‖ but ONLY IN THE INTERLANGUAGE254. This sort of idiosyncratic interlanguage association, the semantic linking of various forms of the word ―BREAK‖ differently in the native language and interlanguage cannot be predicted. This divergence between interlanguage (association of all the forms of ―break‖) and native language (no necessary association) shows what a difficult learning problem this is, because in terms of linguistic entailment, as Huddleston Pullam (2002) so clearly describe NATIVE ENGLISH SEMANTICS: 1. ―Frank broke the vase‖. ENTAILS 2. ―The vase broke‖. AND 3. ―The vase is broken‖. but the sentence ―Frank broke the vase‖ in Native English DOES NOT ENTAIL: 4. ―Frank knocked over the vase.‖. Thus, says Huddleston & Pullum (2002, ...) in their massive and impressive grammar of modern English. But they do not include any information on the many and various multilingual forms of English. By our extension to [+human} here, in Native English 1. ―Frank is broke‖ ENTAILS 5. ―Frank has no money‖, but the grammatical form ―broken‖ in: 6. Now they are broken‖. DOES NOT ENTAIL in Native English: 7. ―Frank has no money‖ as it does in this interlanguage. What is the divergent grammar? Clearly the subject of the verb must be human, but does that cover it all the time. The IL speaker is making a cognitive connection that native speakers do not, i.e. between ―broke‖ meaning no money and ―broken‖ the past participle of the verb ―break‖; this is the core of the interlanguage analysis. coded ―broke‖, not necessarily ―break‖ differently. With this sort of ―idiosyncratic association‖, we are back to Corder‘ idea (1973) of interlanguage as an ―idiosyncratic‖ system, in this case, a semantic IDIOSYNCRATIC ENTAILMENT, but such a particularity related to ONLY ONE FORM OF ONE VERB. But, to generalize, if we see it here from someone who knows English very well, we are ready to assume that this will happen whenever particular forms of a word take on specific idiomatic meanings but only with some of its grammatical forms, which is surely widespread, eg. if you say: 8. ―I am having trouble with my transmission.‖ you are probably talking about your automobile though there is nothing in the semantics of the core simple form ―transmit‖ to tell you that. This is the kind of ―semantic thing‖ - UNEXPECTED INTERLANGUAGE ENTAILMENTS - - - that abound in interlanguage, that lead to misunderstandings, and that must be accounted for in an interlanguage semantics, coming within range of computational coding, especially that deemed ―predictive‖. The oral version of this paper attempted to explore some of the unresolved areas outlined in II. above, starting with the idea that: 254 Note that in this context, in native language semantics, it is ―broke‖ only, and in certain contexts, but not ―break‖ or ―broken‖, that appently gets coded for the ―no money‖ entailment. 747 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AN INTERLANGUAGE SEMANTICS REQUIRES AT LEAST 5 THINGS: 1. an understanding of ―information packaging‖ and how this works in interlanguage. 2. an understanding of ―conversational implicature‖. 3. an understanding of the ability to perform referential tasks (adequately?). 4. an understanding of how ―semantic networks‖ are created and persist in interlanguage. 5. paraphrase relations in the interlanguage, and how they are the same or different for more standard languages. These are some of the most important bits of interlanguage semantic information that must be coded in order to build an interlanguage semantics, one that in principle can be coded in ways that can be accessed by SMART predictive technology. TWO FURTHER EXAMPLES: I have in mind such interlanguage semantic information as: - - the coding of the academic idiosyncratic use of the word ―claim‖ in certain kinds of linguistic contexts, where the absence of presupposition is the presence of error. - - the unexpected use of reflexives inside a clause. amongst other types255. I attempted to sketch out key variables, as I understood them that day, concerned with the issue of the creation of an interlanguage semantics relatable to developing technologies, especially where machine learning and predictive technology is involved. This latter information technology perspective is developing daily and on the web page listed below my name, I will try to keep up-to-date information on what is true and what is false, as I understand it and compile it256. It is incumbent upon us to try to make as clear as possible the details of the applied aspect of the basic premise above, especially their relation to, that for more targeted teaching practices that will relate closer to the learner‘s ―built-in syllabus‖ (Corder, 1967), teachers must understand and manage the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pour out of the learners in front of them, and the amounts and types of information relating to interlanguage semantics, machine learning, and predictive technology such teachers need to master and for what purposes. Below, I have added computational references which I hope will be helpful and would appreciate feedback, particularly the value of annotating those which intersect the unresolved areas presented in II. with computational semantic concerns. 255 Interlanguage coding of verbs like ―claim‖ presents a case of ―absence without presence‖ (Selinker, ) due to ―transfer of training‖, where teaching PREVENTS a presupposition known to technical writers, even to many NNS proficient technical writers. However, most NNS students I have worked with in technical & academic writing use ―claim‖ as a synonym for ―show‖ or even ―prove‖ and do NOT know that ―claim‖, in certain constructions, presuppose that you are about to deny, or at the least question, the proposition. A classical example would be the sentence: ―Chomsky claims that syntax must be autonomous of semantics.‖ where I the writer imply that I doubt it, without directly saying so, but note that the peculiarity that this truth condition may only hold in second and third person. EG, above, I have used ―claim‖ but with the first person subject and there was no presupposition I was about to deny my own claim: ―This is the kind of thing - unexpected entailments - that we claim abound in interlanguage, that lead to misunderstandings, and that must be accounted for in an interlanguage semantics.‖ Transfer-of-training comes in causally where grammar books, even enlightened ones such as Conrad & Biber ( 2009) miss this entailment and lump ―claim‖ together with other verbs such as ―argue, imply, postulate, indicate, propose, contend, maintain, suggest, hypothesize‖ under the vague heading of: ―reporting verbs‖ with a ―certainty level‖ of ―less certain‖, several of these verbs do not have this presupposition of denial. Another intriguing type of construction where interlanguage is involved concerns sentences like: "You put myself in this terrible situation." where without knowledge of interlanguage intention, the interlanguage is inherently ambiguous. You have to know that this NNS uses the NS ―island constraints‖ (Ross, 1968; Lakoff, 1971; amongst others) in the standard manner, NOT violating the standard syntactic rule but only when intending emphasis substituting ―themselves‖ for ―them‖, using the reflexive pronoun emphatically, allowing ―the pragmatic use of reflexive pronoun to take precedence over the syntactic rule forbidding reflexive pronouns in that slot in that construction.‖ (I thank John Lawler for discussing this issue with me.) 256 If you desire more current information than I have time to code, such as updated reference lists, please email me at the above email address. 748 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References This is a unified bibliography for both this paper and for oral presentation and its handout, which I can send to readers. Also, I have annotated several entries as an aid for new readers. Adjemian, C. 1976. On the nature of interlanguage systems. Language Learning 26, 2: 297-320 [The first paper to show that universal grammar principles might be working in the formation of interlanguage.] Allwright, R. & Hanks, J. 2009. The Developing Language Learner: An Introduction to Exploratory Practice. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. [This well-written book forms the theoretical background for the practical work of Tarone & Swierzbin (2009). They lay out ―a clear rationale for why it is that ESL/EFL teachers might want to improve their lives in the classroom by solving puzzles that come up there.‖ AND, learner language, as a type of interlanguage, is full of such puzzles. Ameka, F. (1987). ―A comparative analysis of linguistic routines in two languages: English and Ewe. Journal of Pragmatics 11, 299-326. Bley-Vroman, R. 1983. The comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies: The case of systematicity. Language Learning 33: 1-17 Browne, C., Kinahan, C. & Selinker, L. 2002. Distance online interlanguage analysis (DOILA): an aid to language learning. Thought Currents in English Literature, 77. 749 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cenoz, J. , Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (Eds.). 2010. The Multilingual Lexicon. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Clark, A. and S. Lappin (2010), Unsupervised Learning and Grammar Induction in A. Clark, C. Fox, and S. Lappin (Eds.), The Handbook of Computational Linguistics and Natural Language Processing, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. [Though this handbook is clearly out-of-date, it still provides a useful introduction to an important area of formal semantics, ―situation-based theories‖, which we will need if fossilization is truly ―selective‖ in Han‘s terms (refs. above). For a more up-to-date summary see: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/situations-semantics/ ] Cohen, A. D. & Macaro, E. Eds. 2007. Language Learner Strategies: Thirty Years of Research and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. USE THIS. [In great detail, the papers in this volume summarize where our knowledge stands in terms of the various types of strategies and their interactions with interlanguage.] Conrad S & Biber, D. 2009. Real Grammar: A Corpus-Based Approach to English. NY: Longman/Pearson. Corder, S. P. 1967. The significance of learners‘ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 5 (4): 161-70. Corder, S. P. 1973. Introducing Applied Linguistics. London: Penguin. Egbert, J., Akasha, O., Huff, L., Lee, H. 2011. Moving Forward: anecdotes and evidence guiding the next generation of CALL. International Journal of ComputerAssisted Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 1-15. Ellis, N. (2008). ―Language as a Complex Adaptive System‖. Videos of conference presentations: In celebration of Language Learning‘s 60th anniversary, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan. http://www.wiley.com/bw/podcast/lang.asp Fawcett, R. (2007) The Many Types of ‗Theme‘ in English: Their Semantic Systems & Functional Syntax. Centre for Language & Communication. Research Papers in Humanities No.4. School of English, Communication& Philosophy. Cardiff Univ. Gass, S. & Madden, C. (Eds.) 1985. Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. [One of the first full treatments of the interactionist hypothesis.‘ Garcia, O. 2008. Multilingual language awareness and teacher education. In Cenoz, J. & Horeberger, N. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd edition Vol 6. Knowledge about Language. Berlin: Springer, pp. 385-400 Garcia, O. & Fishman, J. (Eds) 2001. The Multilingual Apple. Languages in New York City (2nd edition). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gee, J. & Hayes, E. 2011. Language and Learning in the Digital Age. NY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge. [This is a very up-to-date effort to explore the exciting world of games as it takes over most entertainment funds, exhibiting and affecting types of learning, continuing the effort to understand the making of meaning ―on the fly‖ in context-dependent and ―flexibly-construed‖ situations, a most impressive effort.] Gleick, J. 2011. The Information: A History, a theory, a flood. NY: Pantheon Books. Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation, in P. Cole & J. Morgan (ed.), Syntax and Semantics, 3: Speech Acts, pp. 41–58, New York: Academic Press. Hakuta, K. 1975. Prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. Language Learning 24: 287-97. Han, Z-H. 2003. Fossilisation: From Simplicity to Complexity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 6:2 95-128. Han, Z-H. & Cadierno, T. (Eds). 2010. Linguistic Relativity in Second Language Acquisition: Thinking for Speaking. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Han, Z-H & Odlin, T. (Eds) 2006. Studies of Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar. International Journal of American Linguistics. 20: 259-270. Howard, M. 2004. Sociolinguistic Variation and Second Language Acquisition: A Preliminary Study of Advanced Learners of French." SKY Journal of Linguistics 17: 143-165. [This paper provides a very nice literature review of recent work in SLA, and particularly interlanguage variation studies.] Izumi, E. Uchimoto, K. & Isahara, . (2007). Error annotation for learner English. Special issue of Rivista di Psicolinguistica Applicata on ―Current Issues in Interlanguage‖. 6:3. 109-122 Jenkins J. 2007. English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kempson, R. 1966. Semantics, pragmatics, and natural-language interpretation. In: Lappin, S. 1966. 750 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Kramsch, C. 1998. Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures. University of Michigan Press. Lappin, S. 1996. (Ed.) The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley and sons. Lewis, D. 1980. ―Index, Context, and Content,‖ in Philosophy and Grammar, Kanger, S. and Ohman, S. (eds.), Boston: Reidel. Long, M. 2003: Stabilization and fossilization in interlanguage development. In: Doughty, C. & Long, M. (Eds) 2003. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell. [An extremely well researched case for the effect of fossilization (or not) on interlanguages.] Mackey, A. & Polio, C. (Eds.). 2010. Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Studies in Honor of Susan M. Gass. NY: Routledge. McCawley, J. 1998.The syntactic phenomena of English (2 nd Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Nemser, W. 1971. An Experimental study of Phonological Interference in the English of Hungarians. The Hague: Mouton. Nunberg, G. 2011. Review of Gleick, 2011, NYT Book Review, March 20, 2011. Schachter, J. & Rutherford, R. 1979. Discourse Function and Language Transfer. Robinett, B. & Schachter, J. Second Language Learning: Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and related aspects. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Seidlhofer B. 2004. Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Vol.24 Selinker, L. 1969. Language transfer. General Linguistics. 9: 67 92. Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10: 209-231. Selinker, L. 1992. Rediscovering Interlanguage. London: Longman. Selinker, L. 2011. ―Interlanguage― entry in Robinson, P. (Ed). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition. NY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge. Selinker, L. & Douglas, D. 1985. Wrestling with ‗context‘ in interlanguage theory. Applied Linguistics. 6.190-204. Selinker, L. & Mascia, R. 2002. Interlanguage speech recognition by computer: implications for SLA & computational machines. Applied Language Studies. 1.1, 19-55. www.solki.jyu.fi/apples/ Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1992. Language transfer and fossilization: The ‗Multiple Effects Principle‘. In Gass S. and Selinker, L. (Eds). Language transfer in language learning. (Revised edition). Amsterdam: Benjamins. [This paper attempts to tie these two concepts together theoretically and empirically, setting up language transfer as a privileged effect out of many potential in creating interlanguage.] Selinker, L., Swain, M. & Dumas, G. 1975. The interlanguage hypothesis extended to children.Language Learning. 25:139 152. Sevi, A. 2005. Exhaustivity. A Semantic Account of ―Quantity‖ Implicatures, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Tel Aviv, available online at scribd.com. Swain, M. and Lapkin, S. 1995. Problems in Output and the Cognitive Processes They Generate: A Step Toward Language Learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371-391 Tarone, Elaine E (1983). On the variability of interlanguage systems. Applied Linguistics, 4, 142-163. Tarone, E. 2004. Does Social Context Affect Second-Language Acquisition? The research evidence. Power point, Iowa State University lecture. [This power point neatly summarizes the variationist approach to the formation of interlanguage.] Tarone, E. & Swierzbin, B. 2009. Exploring Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tenfjord, K., Hagen, J. E., & Johansen, H. (2007). The hows and whys of coding categories in a learner corpus. Special issue of Rivista di Psicolinguistica Applicata on ―Current Issues in Interlanguage‖. 6:3. 93108. Tsimpli, I.M. and Sorace, A. 2006. Differentiating Interfaces: L2 performance in syntax-semantics and syntaxdiscourse phenomena. BUCLD Proceedings 30: 653-664. Trudgill, P. 1988. Dialects in Contact. Cambridge: Blackwell. [This detailed study shows in great detail why interlanguage applies to interdialect in the case with Norwegian dialects.] Valdes, G. 2000. Learning and not Learning English. NY: Teachers College Press. Van der Wardt, V, Bandelow, S., & Hogervorst, E. (2010). The relationship between cognitive abilities, wellbeing and use of new technologies in older people. In W.-P. Brinkman & M. Neerincx (Eds.) European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics ECCE 2010: Caring technology for the future, Delft/The Netherlands: Mediamatica. 751 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton. [The key reference that demonstrates the centrality of ―interlingual identifications‖ in forming interlanguage and how bizarre such ―identifications‖ by learners can be, when ―they make the same what is not the same.] Weinreich, U. 1980. On semantics, ed. by W. Labov & B. Weinreich. Philadelphia, PA: Universityof Pennsylvania Press. Whitney, D. 1881. On mixing in language. Transactions of the American Philological Association. 12:1-16. Widdowson, H. 1983. Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yuanrong, D, & Mingcai, S. (2010). Analyzing Interlanguage of Non-English Majors by Proposed Semantic Criteria. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33:2. 752 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 110 Title A name given to the resource Some Unresolved Issues in an ELT New Media Age: Towards building an interlanguage semantics Author Author Selinker, Larry Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7fe348c8348ddc429a308eae8b8e76d3.docx 119f4d2572ff93a408d1c3bbd69d00f0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/eb32cfb9bea9f65b77548a67c8db8345.pdf 74fb2e4e85edff425980712031dd4052 PDF Text Text SON DÖNEM ÂŞIK ŞİİRİNDE BOSNA Münir CERRAHOĞLU Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Çankırı / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk edebiyatı, âşık şiiri, Bosna savaşı. ÖZET 20. yüzyıl siyasî ve tarihî olayları içinde II. Meşrutiyet’ten itibaren büyük bir çoğunluğu Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopan Balkanlar, çeşitli yönleriyle Türk edebiyatında ele alınmıştır. Balkanların Osmanlı’dan kopmasıyla başlayan ayrılık sürecinden günümüze Türk edebiyatının hemen her şubesinde farklı cepheleriyle gündeme gelen Balkanlar, aramızdaki tarihî ve kültürel bağlar nedeniyle Türk toplumunda aydın tabakasından sade vatandaşına kadar yakın ilgi odağı olmuştur. Balkan toplumlarının Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopmalarıyla birlikte bu topraklar üzerinde yaşayan özellikle Müslüman halka karşı yapılan baskı, zulüm ve katliamlar Türk halkını derinden etkilemiştir. Bu zulümlerin son halkasını oluşturan 1992’de yaşanan Bosna zulmü ise başta bir çok şair ve yazarımızda olduğu gibi yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiştikleri toplumun duygu ve düşüncelerine tercüman olmuş aşıklarda da büyük üzüntü oluşturmuş yaşanan bu trajedi, zulüm ve soykırımlar karşısında duydukları kızgınlık, öfke ve tepkilerini şiirleriyle dile getirmişlerdir. Yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiştikleri toplumun duygu ve düşüncelerini dile getiren aşıkların son dönem temsilcileri Bosna’da yaşanan dramı farklı açılardan şiirlerine taşımıştır. Bu bildiri de, yakın tarihimizde sıcaklığını hala yitirmemiş Bosna trajedisi merkezde olmak üzere son dönem aşık edebiyatının temsilcileri arasında yer alan Ozan Nihat, Aşık Temel Turabî, Âşık Feymanî ve Furkanî’nin Bosna konulu şiir örnekleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Bosna Savaşı’nda yaşanan dramatik olayların Türk halkının belleğinde bıraktığı etkiler bağlamında Bosna olaylarının son dönem aşık edebiyatına yansıması ele alınmıştır. � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ec97a62cc437c1d17b135e0d76e1bfa4.doc 34cf788da997cb4f5b569d8478476eb9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c2ad3bea91664a31c0be176f4ea22286.pdf bbff338b9fc1830f3f0a5151b90efa92 PDF Text Text SON DÖNEM ÂŞIK ŞİİRİNDE BOSNA Münir CERRAHOĞLU1 Özet 20. yüzyıl siyasî ve tarihî olayları içinde II. MeĢrutiyet‟ten itibaren büyük bir çoğunluğu Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopan Balkanlar, çeĢitli yönleriyle Türk edebiyatında ele alınmıĢtır. Balkanların Osmanlı‟dan kopmasıyla baĢlayan ayrılık sürecinden günümüze Türk edebiyatının hemen her Ģubesinde farklı cepheleriyle gündeme gelen Balkanlar, aramızdaki tarihî ve kültürel bağlar nedeniyle Türk toplumunda aydın tabakasından sade vatandaĢına kadar yakın ilgi odağı olmuĢtur. Balkan toplumlarının Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopmalarıyla birlikte bu topraklar üzerinde yaĢayan özellikle Müslüman halka karĢı yapılan baskı, zulüm ve katliamlar Türk halkını derinden etkilemiĢtir. Bu zulümlerin son halkasını oluĢturan 1992‟de yaĢanan Bosna zulmü ise baĢta birçok Ģair ve yazarımızda olduğu gibi yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiĢtikleri toplumun duygu ve düĢüncelerine tercüman olmuĢ âĢıklarda da büyük üzüntü oluĢturmuĢ yaĢanan bu trajedi, zulüm ve soykırımlar karĢısında duydukları kızgınlık, öfke ve tepkilerini Ģiirleriyle dile getirmiĢlerdir. Yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiĢtikleri toplumun duygu ve düĢüncelerini dile getiren âĢıkların son dönem temsilcileri Bosna‟da yaĢanan dramı farklı açılardan Ģiirlerine taĢımıĢtır. Bu bildiri de, yakın tarihimizde sıcaklığını hala yitirmemiĢ Bosna trajedisi merkezde olmak üzere son dönem âĢık edebiyatının temsilcileri arasında yer alan Ozan Nihat, ÂĢık Temel Turabî, ÂĢık Feymanî ve Furkanî‟nin Bosna konulu Ģiir örnekleri üzerinde durulacaktır. Bosna SavaĢı‟nda yaĢanan dramatik olayların Türk halkının belleğinde bıraktığı etkiler bağlamında Bosna olaylarının son dönem âĢık edebiyatına yansıması ele alınacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk edebiyatı, âĢık Ģiiri, Bosna savaĢı BOSNİA İN THE RESENT EPOCH ASHIKS POETRY Abstract Within the political and historical events of the 20th century II. A large majority of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy from the geography Knight of the Balkans, discussed various aspects of Turkish literature. The Balkans from Ottoman Turkish literature to the present separation process that begins nearly every gap. Branch came up with different facades of the Balkans, due to historical and 1 Yrd. Doç. Dr., Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, munircerrah@hotmail.com. 1 �cultural ties between the Turkish Cypriot community alone has been the focus of attention as close as simple citizens layer. Balkan communities with breaking out of the Ottoman geography living on this land, especially along Muslim massacres, persecution and repression against the Turkish community deeply affected. This causes the Bosnia in 1992 who created the last ring is especially a lot of cruelty and writer grown in society for centuries, such as feelings and thoughts that the interpreter has been enamored is also great sadness in the face of this tragedy, oppression and genocide have created when they have expressed resentment, anger, and reactions of the poems. Lovers for centuries, voicing the thoughts and feelings of the society they grew up in the late representatives of the drama in Bosnia moved poems from different angles. This paper, the recent history of end stage as the center temperature of the tragedy of Bosnia is still not lost their love of literature in the area between the representatives of Mr Ozan, Love Basic Turabi, will focus on examples of love poems titled Feymanî and Furkanî'nin Bosnia. Effects of the Turkish people had left the memory of the Bosnian War in the context of the dramatic events in the recent events in Bosnia and fell in love with the reflection of literature will be discussed. Key Words: Turkish literature, ashıks poem, the warn in Bosnia Giriş Ġkinci dünya savaĢından sonra Avrupa‟nın en büyük talihsiz olaylarından ve trajedilerinden biri de zulümlerin ve soykırımlarının yaĢandığı Bosna Hersek olaylarıdır. “Üç yıldan fazla süren bu savaĢ sırasında, Uluslararası Kızıl Haç Örgütü verilerine göre Bosna Hersek‟te 312 000 kiĢi hayatını kaybetmiĢtir. Bu kayıpların 200 000 kadarı BoĢnak halkına ait olup Bosnalılar dünyanın gözü önünde ve Avrupa‟nın göbeğinde sistematik bir soykırıma tabi tutulmuĢtur. Sadece Srebrenica‟da olanlar hakkında elle tutulur delillerin varlığı söz konusu olsa da, çok yakın tarihte gerçekleĢen soykırımı aydınlatmaya yetmemektedir.” (wikipedia.org, Bosna Soykırımı) (E.T 29.01.2013) Aradan yirmi yıl gibi bir süre geçmesine rağmen Bosna Hersek‟teki Sırp zulmü, katliamların acısı, insanlara karĢı vahĢeti aratmayan uygulamaları hala unutulmamıĢ, uzun yıllarca da unutulacağa benzememektedir. Avrupalının insanı merkeze alan insan sevgisini öğütleyen hümanizm felsefesinin, demokrasi anlayıĢlarının bir noktada iflası anlamına gelen bu olaylar, Batılının insan hakları kavramına getirdikleri yorumları ve uygulamaları hakkında 2 �bir gösterge kabul edilebilir. Bir tek insanına zarar gelmesi durumunda tüm dünya kamuoyunu ayağa kaldıran sözde insan haklarını savunan bu anlayıĢ, Bosna‟daki yüz binlerce masum, savunmasız insanın katledilmesi, kadınlarının kirletilmesi karĢısında sessiz kalmayı tercih etmiĢtir. Uluslararası barıĢ, istikrar ve güvenliği sağlama ve korumada birincil derecede yetkili ve sorumlu uluslararası kuruluĢ olan BirleĢmiĢ Milletlerin (BM) Sırpların Bosna Hersek‟e saldırıları, hak ihlalleri ve zulümleri karĢısında sessiz kalması, Müslüman Bosna halkına karĢı büyük bir çifte standart göstergesi olarak tarih sayfalarında yerini almıĢtır. Bosna‟da 1990‟lı yılların baĢında meydana gelen iç savaĢ sırasında iĢlenen savaĢ suçlarına ve katliamlara karĢı BirleĢmiĢ Milletler sistemi etkili bir tutum benimseyememiĢtir. Ġkinci Dünya SavaĢı sonrası kurulan ve Soğuk SavaĢ‟ın sona ermesinden sonra birkaç önemli sınavdan geçen BM sistemi Bosna„da büyük bir hayal kırıklığı yaĢatmıĢtır. Uluslararası düzenin önemli aktörleri eski Yugoslavya topraklarındaki soykırım ve diğer suçları uzunca bir süre seyretmekle yetinmiĢlerdir. Örneğin BM ve AB Bosna‟daki soykırım konusunda etkili bir tutum benimseyememiĢtir. Bunun en temel nedeni olarak büyük güçlerin askeri müdahale seçeneğini dikkate almamıĢ olmasıdır. (http://bilgestrateji.com), (E.T 29.01.2013) Balkanların ortasında yer alan, kültür ve dinlerin kesiĢme noktasında bulunan ve dünya tarihi açısından önemli olaylara sahne olan Bosna Hersek, Türk halkının gönlünde her zaman özel bir yeri olmuĢtur. 1463 yılında Fatih Sultan Mehmet tarafından alınması ile baĢlayan kültürel ve tarihi birliktelik beĢ asır sürmüĢ, böylece her iki ülkenin sosyal ve siyasî hayatlarında karĢılıklı sağlam ve kalıcı bağlar kurulmuĢtur. Türk insanı Bosna‟yı hemen her dönemde kendisinden bir parça olarak görmüĢ, tarihin hemen her döneminde bu gönül bağını koparmamıĢtır. Ġki ülke arasında kurulan kültürel ve tarihî köprüler günümüze kadar varlığını korumuĢ, günümüzde de siyaset, güvenlik alanları, ekonomik alan, kültür ve eğitim alanları baĢta olmak üzere hemen her sahada iliĢki ağları geniĢletilmiĢ, iki millet tek yürek haline gelmiĢtir. Bosna halkı ile Türk insanı arasında tesis edilen birlik, beraberlik ve kardeĢlik duyguları iki ülke insanı arasında büyük bir sevgi halesi oluĢturmuĢtur. Osmanlı zamanında atılan sevgi ve hoĢgörü tohumları, zamanla yaĢayan halkların gönlünde yeĢermiĢ, iki ülke insanı arasında, tarihlerinin en zor dönemlerinde bile dost ve kardeĢlik bağını koparmamıĢtır. Müslüman Bosna halkının yanı sıra bu topraklarda yaĢayan farklı din ve mezheplere mensup insanların yakın zamanda yaĢanan savaĢa rağmen değiĢik vesilelerle Osmanlı‟nın hoĢgörü ve adaletini dile getirmesi, Osmanlı‟dan övgüyle söz etmesi Türk insanının bu coğrafya ile bağının ne denli sağlam olduğunun bir göstergesidir. 3 �II. MeĢrutiyet‟ten itibaren büyük bir çoğunluğu Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopan Balkanlar, çeĢitli yönleriyle Türk edebiyatında ele alınmıĢtır. Balkanların Osmanlı‟dan kopmasıyla baĢlayan ayrılık süreci, Türk edebiyatının hemen her Ģubesinde farklı cepheleriyle gündeme gelmiĢ, Bosna ile aramızdaki tarihî ve kültürel bağlar nedeniyle Türk toplumunda aydın tabakasından sade vatandaĢına kadar yakın ilgi odağı olmuĢtur. Bu ilginin yansıması her iki ülkenin edebiyatında, müziğinde, güzel sanatlarında kendini göstermiĢtir. Özellikle 1992‟de Bosna Hersek‟te yaĢanan savaĢın dramı son dönem aĢık edebiyatında iĢlenmiĢ savaĢın acı yüzü aĢık Ģiirinde çeĢitli yönleriyle ele alınmıĢ ve Bosna son dönem aĢıklarının da ilgi odağı olmuĢtur. Böylece Bosna halkının savaĢta yaĢadığı dram ve Türk halkının Bosnalı‟nın dramı karĢısındaki duyguları konu edilmiĢtir. Bu bildiri de, yakın tarihimizde sıcaklığını hala yitirmemiĢ Bosna trajedisi merkezde olmak üzere son dönem âĢık edebiyatının temsilcileri arasında yer alan Ozan Nihat, ÂĢık Temel Turabî, ÂĢık Feymanî, ÂĢık Celalî ve Furkanî‟nin Bosna konulu Ģiir örneklerinden hareketle son dönem âĢık Ģiirinde Bosna konusu üzerinde durulacaktır. Bosna SavaĢı‟nda yaĢanan dramatik olaylar, Türk halkının belleğinde derin izler bırakmıĢ, gerek savaĢ sırasında gerekse sonrasında Türk halkı maddi ve manevi olarak Bosnalı kardeĢlerinin yanında olmaya çalıĢmıĢtır. Bosna halkının yaralarının sarılması için gıda, sağlık ve eğitim baĢta olmak üzere hemen her konuda destek olmaya çalıĢan Türk milleti her zaman Bosnalı‟nın derdini kendi derdi olarak görmüĢ, onun derdiyle dertlenmiĢtir. ÂĢıklar aĢk, tabiat, din ve tasavvuf konularının yanı sıra içinde yaĢadıkları dönemin tarihî ve sosyal olaylarını da Ģiirlerinde dile getirmiĢlerdir. Ġki millet tek yürek olan Türk ve Bosna kardeĢliği âĢık edebiyatında önemli bir tema olarak iĢlenmiĢ, âĢıkların Ģiirlerinde iki ülke kardeĢliğine dair önemli mesajlar yer almıĢtır. Son Dönem Âşık Şiirinde Bosna ÂĢık bir geleneğin sanatçısı olarak aĢk ve sevdaya dair en güzel Ģiirleri terennüm eden, sözleriyle insanlara iyiyi güzeli öğütleyen, çevresinde olup biten sosyal ve tarihî hadiseleri mısralarında iĢleyen, haksızlık ve zulümler karĢısında sözünü esirgemeden tepkisini dile getiren halk sanatçısıdır. Onlar Ģiirlerinde halkın umutlarını, isteklerini, duygularını, tarihî olayları Ģiirlerine taĢımıĢ, yaĢadıkları döneme dair pek çok olay ve hadiseler hakkında bilgiler vermiĢtir. ÂĢık, hem döneminde hem de sonraki dönemlerde sesini geniĢ kitlelere duyurmuĢ bir halk sanatçısıdır. “Her edebiyat akımı gibi, âĢık Ģiiri de kendi döneminin zihinsel atmosferinin bir sonucu olarak oluĢmuĢtur. ÂĢık yaĢadığı kültürel ortamla iç içedir, âĢık Ģiiri toplumun ihtiyacına bağlı olarak ortaya çıkmıĢtır. ÂĢık destanları Türk milli edebiyat 4 �geleneğinin en eski Ģiir formlarından biridir. Ozan-baksı geleneğinden âĢıklık geleneğine ve aĢık Ģiirine intikal etmiĢtir” (Çobanoğlu 2000: 333) YaĢanan hadiseleri kendi duygu ve düĢünce süzgecinden geçirerek mısralarına taĢıyan âĢıklar hadiselerin halk üzerinde bıraktığı etkiyi ve kendi üzerindeki tesiri Ģiirlerine taĢırlar. “Sanat ürünleri toplumun yapısıyla iç içedir. Her toplumun kendine özgü acıları, sevinçleri, umutları, özlemleri, iç dünyası vardır. Bunlar sanat ürünlerinde dile getirilir. ÂĢıkların Ģiirleri yaĢadıkları toplumun ortak dünya görüĢüne ve değerler sistemine göre Ģekillenir. ÂĢıklar halkın duygularını dile getirerek, geniĢ kitlelere yayarlar.” (Artun 1996: 296) ÂĢıkların tarihi bir olayı konu alan destanları buna örnektir. SavaĢları konu alan destanlarda en dikkati çeken nokta, savaĢların toplum üzerinde bıraktığı olumsuz etkilerdir. “Kaybedilen vatan toprakları geride kalan insanların acıları, halkta derin yaralar açar. Bu tür destanlar bir deyiĢle savaĢların halk üzerindeki psikolojisi ve sosyal etkisinin ĢiirleĢmiĢ bir anlatımıdır.” (Esen 1991: 53) Sırpların 1992- 1995 yılları arasında Bosna Hersek‟te yaptıkları zulümler ve soy kırımları son dönem âĢık edebiyatında iĢlenen önemli tarihî konulardan biridir. Bu bağlamda son dönem âĢıklık geleneğinin önemli temsilcileri arasında yer alan Ozan Nihat, ÂĢık Turabî, ÂĢık Ġsmetî, ÂĢık Feymanî, ÂĢık Celalî ve ÂĢık Furkanî Ģiirlerinde Bosna savaĢı ile ilgili gördüklerini, duyduklarını ve gönül dünyasında yaĢadıklarını, ayrıca savaĢın Türk kamuoyu üzerindeki etkisinden hareketle Türk halkınıın duygularını dile getirmiĢ, Avrupa‟nın ve BM‟nin yanlı tutumlarını mısralarında eleĢtirmiĢ, böylece Bosna olayları karĢısında hüzünlerini ve Sırplara karĢı öfkelerini mısralarına taĢımıĢlardır. Savaş Karşısındaki Üzüntüler, Çaresizlikler Ve Tepkiler Dile Getirilir. ÂĢıkların en önemli görevlerinde biri de evrensel boyutta insanlığın kederlerini haykırmak, problemleri dile getirmek ve onlara tercüman olmaktır. YaĢanan haksızlıklar ve zulümler karĢısında sanatının da gücünü kullanarak haksızlık ve zulümlere insanların dikkatini çekmek, yanlı kararları mısralarında eleĢtirmektir. Bu bağlamda son dönem âĢıkları yaĢadıkları dönemin en talihsiz olayları arasında yer alan Bosna SavaĢı ve Bosnalının yaĢadığı dram karĢısında içten ve samimi üzüntülerini, kederlerini ayrıca yaĢanan talihsiz olaylarla ilgili bir Ģey yapamamanın verdiği çaresizliklerini Ģiirlerine taĢımıĢlardır. ÂĢık Ġsmeti ve Ozan Nihat yüreklerindeki bu yangını ve kahırlarını Ģu mısralarla dile getirir. ÂĢık Ġsmeti'yim bu sözün aslı Kılıcım kınında çıkmıyor paslı 5 �Sen orda kan ağla, ben burda yaslı Yüreğim yanıyor Bosnalı gardaĢ (ÂĢık Ġsmetî Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com), (E.T: 05.02.2013) Karabağ karardı, Bosna kapkara Kafkaslarda kanar, bir büyük yara GardaĢlarımızın, göz göre göre Vurulup ölmesi kahreder beni (Uğur 2008: 393) sözleriyle Bosna‟da yaĢanan katliamlar, göz göre göre Ģehit edilen Bosnalılar için yaĢadıkları çaresizliklerine karĢı üzüntüleri dile getirir ve kahırlarını ifade ederler. Savaş İki Millet Arasındaki Mücadeleden Çok Bir Planın Parçasıdır. Görünürde iki millet arasındaki mücadele gibi gösterilmeye çalıĢılan savaĢ dönemin âĢıklarına göre Batılı güçlerin perde arkasında hazırladıkları sinsi planların, döndürülen dolapların bir neticesidir. ÂĢık Ġsmetî Bosnalı GardaĢ Ģiirinde bu oyunlara Ģu mısralarla dikkat çeker: Sözlerinde durmaz oldu hainler Avrupa bunuyor, Bosnalı gardaĢ. Perde arkasında, sinsi oyunlar Dolaplar dönüyor, Bosnalı gardaĢ (ÂĢık Ġsmetî, Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com),( E.T:05.02.2013) sözleriyle sözünde durmayan Avrupalı devletleri eleĢtirir ve Bosna halkı üzerinde bir takım oyunların oynandığına dikkat çeker. Dönemin âĢıklarından Ozan Nihat ve AĢık Ġsmetî, Batılının dünyaya verdiği barıĢ ve kardeĢlik söylemlerinin, insanlık derslerinin boĢ sözlerden ibaret olduğunu hatta bunların pek çoğunun yalan çıktığını, insanlık için gittikleri her coğrafyayı talan ettiklerini geride ise kan ve gözyaĢı bıraktıklarını belirtirler: Ne olursa olsun, Bosna denince Yüreğime yazdım, Ģunu unutmam Batılı ne demek, her Ģeyden önce Bosna‟da belloldu, bunu unutmam (Uğur 2008: 440) Her ne dedilerse o çıktı yalan Nereye varsalar ettiler talan 6 �Kan ile gözyaĢı geriye kalan Batının yüzünü Bosna'da gördüm. (ÂĢık Ġsmetî, Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com),( E.T: 05.02.2013) mısralarında Batılının gerçek yüzünün Bosna SavaĢı‟nda açıkça ortaya çıktığı, dünyaya verdikleri kardeĢlik ve barıĢ mesajlarının yalan olduğu, dünyanın hangi ülkesine gittiklerde talan ettikleri ve geride ise kan ve gözyaĢı bırakıldığı açıklanır ve Batının samimiyetsizliğine vurgu yapılır. Ġnsan haklarından söz eder sana Batının yüzünü Bosna 'da gördüm Hiç biri olmadı barıĢtan yana Batının yüzünü Bosna'da gördüm. (ÂĢık Ġsmetî, Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com), (E.T:05.02.2013) Medenî denilen Avrupa sustu Elbet susar, çünkü zalimin dostu Ne kadar zehiri var ise kustu Orda sergilenen kini unutmam.(Uğur 2008: 441) Ġnsan haklarından dem vuran Batının Bosna savaĢıyla bir samimiyet imtihanından geçtiği, söz konusu Bosna olunca barıĢ nutuklarının sadece verilen beyanlarda kaldığı, savaĢı ve dökülen kanı durdurma adına hiçbir giriĢimde bulunulmadığı, böylece Batının gerçek yüzünü gösterdiği açıklanır. Son dönem âĢıklarından AĢık Celalî‟ye göre Bosna SavaĢı‟nın temel nedeninde ırklar arası bir mücadeleden çok Müslüman-Hıristiyan mücadelesi olduğu inancı vardır. Küfür ile nurun mücadelesi Sakın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın Haydı gayret sönmesin nur çırası Yakın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 174) ÂĢık Celalî‟ye göre Bosna‟da verilen mücadele tesadüfî mücadele olmayıp etnik bir mücadeledir aynı zamanda küfür ile nurun bir mücadelesidir. Celalî‟nin mısralarında Bosna Hersek‟in unutulmaması Bosna halkına destek olunması, böylece söndürülmeye çalıĢılan Ġslam çırasının yakılması öğütlenir. Türklerin Adaletli ve Hoşgörülü Yönetimine Rağmen Sırpların Bosna Halkına Zulmü Kabul edilemez. 7 �ÂĢıklar mısralarında sık sık Osmanlı‟nın Avrupa topraklarında adalet, sevgi ve hoĢgörü getirdiğini bunun karĢılığında ise ihanete uğradığı telmih edilir. Buna örnek olarak da Sırpların Bosna halkına uyguladığı vahĢet ve Ģiddete isyan belirtilir. Osmanlı getirdi adil adalet ġimdi Osmanlı‟ya karĢı ihanet Sırplar uyguluyor vahĢet ve Ģiddet Kalkın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 174) ÂĢık Celalî mısralarında Osmanlı‟nın adaletine vurgu yaparken Sırpların Bosna halkına zulüm uyguladığını ifade eder. Son dönem âĢıkları Ģiirlerinde savaĢın zorlukları ve sıkıntıları karĢısında Bosna halkına cesaretli olmalarını öğütler ve kendilerinin verdikleri bu onurlu mücadelede yalnız olmadıklarını hatırlatır. KardeĢlerim zoru engeli aĢın Ezilen Bosna‟ya yardıma koĢun Kısasa kısastır sizde bir kurĢun Sakın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 174) mısralarıyla Türk halkına ise ezilen Bosna‟ya bir an önce yardıma koĢulması gerektiğini dile getirir ve yardım konusunda kamuoyu oluĢmasına katkıda bulunur. Nerde insan haklarının barıĢı Dinmedi akıyor Bosna gözyaĢı Ġnsanlık âlemi vahĢete karĢı Çıkın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 174) Ġnsan hakları ve barıĢın Bosna‟da geçerli olamadığı acı gerçeğinin dile getirildiği mısralarda ise Bosnalı‟nın akan gözyaĢının hala dinmediğine iĢaret edilir, insanlık âleminin vahĢete karĢı Bosna Hersek‟e sahip çıkılması istenir. Bosnalı‟nın suçunun sadece Müslüman olmasından kaynaklandığı ve insanlık âlemine yaĢanan bu olayların bir kara leke olarak kalacağı ve bu vebalden insanlığın kurtulamayacağı söylenir, verilen mücadelenin kutsallığına iĢaret edilir. Hançerdir Sırpların haçı Kıyılır insanın içi Müslüman Türk olmak suçu Kan ağlıyor Bosna Hersek.(Uğur 2008: 584) 8 �Suçları Müslüman olmaktır herhal Ġnsanlığa kara leke bu vebal Cihat farzdır gel bu farzdan hisse al Hakk‟ın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 175) Tarih neler söyler ibret alana Bütün dünya düĢman Ġslam olana Dedikleri türlü yalan dolana Gafiller kanıyor Bosnalı gardaĢ. (ÂĢık Ġsmetî, Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com), (E.T:05.02.2013) Tarihi tekerrürlerin olabileceğinin telmih edildiği mısralarda Türk halkına da bir sesleniĢ vardır ve Bosna olaylarından ibret alınması gerektiği öğütlenir. Bu gün Bosna ise yarın hepimiz Gaflet uykusundan uyanalım biz Manadan habersiz hey maddeci göz Bakın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 175) Zalim Sırplar solduruyor gülümü YaĢlı kadın, çocukların ölümü Yapılan iĢkence gaddar zulümü Yıkın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 175) Gerçek yolu beyenmeli Sırtın Hakk‟a dayanmalı Müslümanlar uyanmalı Kan ağlıyor Bosna Hersek.(Uğur 2008: 584) Bosnalı‟nın maruz kaldığı vahĢetin bir gün Türk halkının da baĢına gelebileceği endiĢesi dile getirilir, manadan habersiz maddeci gözlere gaflette olunmaması, insan hakları, yeni dünya düzeni gibi bazı söylemlere adlanılmaması gerektiği uyarısında bulunulur. Gün Kardeşlik Günüdür Ve Bosna’ya Yardım Eli Uzatılmalıdır. ÂĢık Ģiirinde Türk Bosna kardeĢliğine vurgu yapılarak günün kardeĢlik günü olduğu söylenir ve zaman kaybetmeden Bosna‟ya yardım ve kardeĢlik elinin uzatılması gerektiği hatırlatılır. 9 �Müslüman tok yatma din kardeĢin aç Yarası sızlıyor ol merhem ilaç Vicdanların bam telini hedef seç Dokun Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 175) ÂĢık Celalî mısralarında “KomĢusu aç iken yatan bizden değildir” hadisine vurgu yapar, hemen yanı baĢımızda sızlayan yaraya merhem olunmasını öğütler. Türk insanının gönlüne Bosna halkı her zaman dostluk ve kardeĢlik duygularıyla yer etmiĢ, yaĢadığı en son savaĢta yardımına koĢmuĢtur. Dostun dosta sahip çıkmak görevi Kurulsun yuvası yapılsın evi ĠnĢa için her biriniz bir çivi Çakın Bosna Hersek unutulmasın. (Yenitürk 2000: 175) Halkın bu konudaki duygularını dile getiren Celali dostun dosta sahip çıkmasının önemli bir görev olduğunu yuvaların ve evlerin yeniden kurulup inĢa edilmesinde her bir Türk vatandaĢının görev alması gerektiğini söyler. Savaşın Soğuk korkunç yüzü, yaşanan zulüm ve vahşetler mısralarda ifade edilir. Kendisini bir Bosnalı gibi görüp bir Bosnalı yüreğiyle duygularını dile getiren Turabî mısralarında savaĢ sırasında Bosna halkının yaĢadığı zorluklara, zulümlere tercüman olur, savaĢın acımasız ve korkunç yüzünü Ģu sözlerle dile getirir. Ben Bosnalı mülteciyim kan gölünde yüzüyorum Kızımın gelinliyine vas‟yetimi yazıyorum Bir kolum yok bir ayağım sürünerek geziyorum Yirmi beĢ ay feryat ettim imdadıma gelen yoktur Bu ne biçim insanlıktır gözyaĢımı silen yoktur. (Saran vd. 1998: 139) Yirmi beĢ ay süresince kan gölüne dönen Bosna sokaklarında bir mülteci gibi hayalen gezinen âĢık, kan gölüne dönen Bosna sokaklarında adeta kan gölü içinde yüzdüğünü, kızının gelinliğine vasiyetini yazdığını, kolu ve ayağı olmadan sürünerek gezdiğini, feryat ettiğini ancak imdadına gelenin olmadığını söyler. Turabî, gözyaĢını silmeyen, yardımına koĢmayan insanlığa isyan eder. Umut teselli veren yok ağlanacak hâlim var Genç kıza korkunç tecavüz anneye dehĢet zulüm var Bu çemberde Müslüman acımasızca zulüm var Sokaklar cesetle doldu gelip sahip olan yoktur Tabutları siper yaptık gelip cenazeyi kılan yoktur. (Saran vd. 1998: 139) 10 �mısralarıyla Bosna sokaklarının cesetlerle dolu olduğunu, acımasızca zulüm ve iĢkencelerin yapıldığını, genç kızlara ve annelere insanlık dıĢı davranıldığı anlatır; adeta tabutların siper olarak kullanıldığını, cenazelerin alınmasına bile imkân tanınmadığını açıklar. Ġçerde dıĢarda hep ölüm kokar Çocuklar vurulur devletler bakar O dökülen kanlar sel gibi akar IĢıklar sönüyor Bosnalı gardaĢ. (ÂĢık Ġsmetî, Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com), (E.T:05.02.2013) Yankılanıp Saraybosna‟dan gelen Acı acı semalara yükselen Duyunca, insanın bağrını delen Feryadı, çığlığı, ünü unutmam.(Uğur 2008: 441) Çoluk çocuk hep periĢan Kan ağlıyor Bosna Hersek Seller gibi akıyor kan Kan ağlıyor Bosna Hersek. (Uğur 2008: 583) Ekranda görmüĢtüm, Sırplı bir tazı KirletmiĢti masum, küçücük kızı Ġçim parçalandı, neydi o sızı Hiçbir zaman ben o anı unutmam. (Uğur 2008: 441) Yankılanıp Saraybosna‟dan gelen Acı acı semalara yükselen Duyunca, insanın bağrını delen Feryadı, çığlığı, ünü unutmam. (Uğur 2008: 441) Harabeye döndü köyler bucaklar ġehitlerin salı oldu kucaklar Söndürüldü yüz binlerce ocaklar Katledilen bunca canı unutmam. (Uğur 2008: 441) 11 �Haçlı ordusunun cengi değiĢti Sivil halkı vurdu, dengi değiĢti Masmavi suların rengi değiĢti Oluk oluk akan kanı unutmam. (Uğur 2008: 441) ÂĢıkların dizelerinde savaĢın korkunç yüzü tüm gerçekliğiyle ifade edilir. Ölüm kokan Bosna‟da çocuk, yaĢlı demeden insanların vurulması, Bosnalı Ģehitlerin kanlarının sel gibi akması, aile ocaklarının sönmesi bir bir anlatılır; dünyaya insanlık ve medeniyet dersi vermeye kalkan devletlerin yaĢanan vahĢet karĢısında sessiz kalmasına duyulan öfke dile getirilir. Birleşmiş Milletlerin Yanlı Politikası Eleştirilir. BirleĢmiĢ milletlerin Bosna savaĢındaki sessizliği, uygulanan ambargolar bir çifte standart olarak görülür bir haçlı düĢüncesiyle Hıristiyanlığın Müslümanlığa karĢı mücadelesi olarak yorumlanır. BirleĢmiĢ Milletler, çizgiden saptı Ġnsan haklarını çiğnedi, tepti Kara dinli kâfir, vicdansız kipti Butros Gali var ya, onu unutmam. (Uğur 2008: 442) Piyon milletler birleĢmiĢ kiliseyi kurmak için Haçlılar sefere çıkmıĢ minareyi kırmak için Katil ordu silahlanmıĢ bebekleri vurmak için Benim gözüm yolda kaldı ambargoyu delen yoktur Öldüyüme gam yemem de benim gibi ölen yoktur. (Saran vd. 1998: 139) BM‟nin kuruluĢ amacına hizmet etmemesi, insan hakları çiğnenmesine rağmen sessizliği, dönemin BM Genel Sekreteri Butros Gali‟nin yanlı tutumu, Bosna‟ya karĢı alınan ambargo kararı eleĢtirilir. Batılı Milletlerin Yanlı Politikası Eleştirilir. ÂĢıklara göre Batılı ülkelerin savaĢ karĢısında sessiz kalmalarının diğer bir nedeni de Bosna‟da çıkar iliĢkilerinin bulunmamasından kaynaklanmaktadır. AĢıklar ayrıca yüz binlerce Müslüman kaybı karĢısında Ġslam dünyasının sessizliğine de bir anlam veremez. Bosna‟da çıkar olsaydı yağmacılar gelirdi Elimize silah verip savunmaya kalırlardı On tane hayvan avlansa ona mâni olurlardı Yüz binlerce Müslüman‟ın kaybını bilen yoktur 12 �Ġslâm dünyası uyuyor Turabî de yalan yoktur. (Saran vd. 1998: 139) Furkanî ise Bosna Hersek‟in Azerbaycan‟ın kan ağlamasına dünyanın dört bucağını kan bürümesini ve bunun karĢısında ise dertlenilmesini ve ah çekilmesini ister. Bosna, Hersek, Azerbaycan, Dünyayı bürüdü bir kan. Ah çekerek derdine yan. Tüm Sırbistan kan ağlıyor. (Boyraz 2010: 278) Son dönem âĢık Ģiirinde Bosna‟da yaĢanan dramı, insanlık ayıbını ve vahĢeti dile getiren önemli ozanlardan biri de Ozan Nihat‟tır. Bosnalı‟nın derdini kendi derdi gören ozan Ģiirlerinde iĢlediği konularla Bosna Hersek‟te yaĢanan insanlık ayıbını dile getirir. Karabağ‟ım karaları bağlıyor Bosna Hersek yürekleri dağlıyor Çeçenistan, Kırım, Kerkük ağlıyor Ġslam âlemini güldür Ya Rabbi.(Uğur 2008: 458- 459) Bosna Hersek baĢta olmak üzere Karabağ, Çeçenistan, Kırım ve Kerkük gibi zulüm altında inleyen Ġslam âleminin yüzünün gülmesi, akan kan ve gözyaĢının dinmesi temenni edilir. Sonuç Sonuç olarak Türk milleti ile arasında derin tarihî ve kültürel bağları bulunan Bosna Hersek her zaman Türk halkının yüreğinde ve gündeminde yerini korumuĢtur. YaklaĢık altı asra yakın süren bu kültürel ve tarihi birliktelik her dönem canlı kalmıĢ, her iki ülke arasında içtimaî ve siyasî hayatlarında karĢılıklı sağlam ve kalıcı bağlar kurulmuĢtur. Türk insanı Bosna‟yı hemen her dönemde kendisinden bir parça olarak görmüĢ, tarihin hemen her döneminde bu gönül bağını koparmamıĢtır. Bu sevgi bağı temelinde Bosna halkının her zaman Türk sosyo-kültürel ve siyasî hayatında önemli bir yeri olmuĢtur. Son dönem aĢık edebiyatında Bosna özellikle 1992‟de yaĢadığı savaĢ önemli bir konu olarak ele alınmıĢ, savaĢta yaĢanan trajediler, zulümler ve soykırımları değiĢik açılarla iĢlenmiĢtir. ÂĢıklar Ģiirlerinde Bosna‟da yaĢanan dram karĢısındaki kızgınlıklarını, öfkelerini ve savaĢla ilgili düĢüncelerini Ģiirlerinde dile getirmiĢlerdir. Bu bağlamda aĢıklar savaĢ karĢısındaki üzüntülerini, çaresizliklerini ve tepkilerini ifade etmiĢlerdir. Bosna savaĢının iki millet arasındaki bir mücadeleden ziyade Batılı güçlerin sinsice hazırladıkları planın bir parçası olarak görmüĢlerdir. Türklerin Balkanlardaki adaletli ve hoĢgörülü yönetimine rağmen Sırpların Bosna halkına karĢı iĢlediği insanlık suçu karĢısında kızgınlıklarını ve öfkelerini ifade etmiĢler, savaĢın soğuk ve korkunç yüzünü, yaĢanan zulüm ve vahĢeti mısralarında dile 13 �getirmiĢlerdir. Batılı ülkelerin soykırım karĢısındaki sessizliklerinin çıkar iliĢkisinin bulunmadığından kaynaklandığı açıklamıĢlar, BirleĢmiĢ Milletlerin yanlı politikasını eleĢtirmiĢlerdir. KardeĢliğin önemine vurgu yapan aĢıklar Bosna‟ya yardım elinin uzatılmasını öğütlemiĢlerdir. Kaynakça Artun, Erman. Günümüzde ÂĢık Geleneği Ve ÂĢık Feymanî, Adana, Hakan Ofset, 1996 Boyraz, ġeref. Furkanî‟nin ġiir Evreni Bağlamında Bir Monoğrafi Denemesi, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara, 2010 Çakmak, Cenap. Atılgan, Cansu. BM Bosna Soykırımı ve Küresel Adalet. Bilgi Stratejisi. C.4. S. 7. http://bilgestrateji.com (E.T 29.01.2013) Esen, Ahmet ġükrü. Anadolu Destanları. Ankara. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. 1991 Namlı, Abdulkadir. (ÂĢık Ġsmetî), Bosnalı Gardaş, http://www.antoloji.com, (E.T:05.02.2013) Saran ġevket, Soysal Ġsmail. Erzurumlu ÂĢık Temel Turâbî. Tunalı Matbaası, Karacabey/ Bursa. 1998 Yenitürk, Celal. Gönül Gözü-II, Bakanlar Matbaacılık, Van, 2000: 175 UĞUR, Fidan: Denizlili Âşık Ozan Nihat, YayınlanmamıĢ Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, 2008 wikipedia. org, Bosna Soykırımı (E.T: 05.02.2013) 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2250 Title A name given to the resource SON DÖNEM ÂŞIK ŞİİRİNDE BOSNA Author Author CERRAHOĞLU, Münir Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk edebiyatı, âşık şiiri, Bosna savaşı. ÖZET 20. yüzyıl siyasî ve tarihî olayları içinde II. Meşrutiyet’ten itibaren büyük bir çoğunluğu Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopan Balkanlar, çeşitli yönleriyle Türk edebiyatında ele alınmıştır. Balkanların Osmanlı’dan kopmasıyla başlayan ayrılık sürecinden günümüze Türk edebiyatının hemen her şubesinde farklı cepheleriyle gündeme gelen Balkanlar, aramızdaki tarihî ve kültürel bağlar nedeniyle Türk toplumunda aydın tabakasından sade vatandaşına kadar yakın ilgi odağı olmuştur. Balkan toplumlarının Osmanlı coğrafyasından kopmalarıyla birlikte bu topraklar üzerinde yaşayan özellikle Müslüman halka karşı yapılan baskı, zulüm ve katliamlar Türk halkını derinden etkilemiştir. Bu zulümlerin son halkasını oluşturan 1992’de yaşanan Bosna zulmü ise başta bir çok şair ve yazarımızda olduğu gibi yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiştikleri toplumun duygu ve düşüncelerine tercüman olmuş aşıklarda da büyük üzüntü oluşturmuş yaşanan bu trajedi, zulüm ve soykırımlar karşısında duydukları kızgınlık, öfke ve tepkilerini şiirleriyle dile getirmişlerdir. Yüzyıllardır içerisinde yetiştikleri toplumun duygu ve düşüncelerini dile getiren aşıkların son dönem temsilcileri Bosna’da yaşanan dramı farklı açılardan şiirlerine taşımıştır. Bu bildiri de, yakın tarihimizde sıcaklığını hala yitirmemiş Bosna trajedisi merkezde olmak üzere son dönem aşık edebiyatının temsilcileri arasında yer alan Ozan Nihat, Aşık Temel Turabî, Âşık Feymanî ve Furkanî’nin Bosna konulu şiir örnekleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Bosna Savaşı’nda yaşanan dramatik olayların Türk halkının belleğinde bıraktığı etkiler bağlamında Bosna olaylarının son dönem aşık edebiyatına yansıması ele alınmıştır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a8d09c16a6c422deffa13eb65c8ee36c.docx 31947794b7625aceb52f81a93da577ba Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sorani Kürtçesinde Türkçeden Geçen Kelimeler Author Author Kenan Arslan Abstract A summary of the resource. ÖZET Dil, insan yaşamının ve iletişimin en temel gereksinimlerinden biridir. Dil, milletlerin ve kültürlerin geçmişi ve geleceği arasında bir köprü vazifesi görür. Dil sadece insanlar arası iletişimde değil, kültürler ve milletler arası iletişimde de büyük rol oynayan bir unsurdur. Tarih boyunca diller çeşitli sebeplerden dolayı birbirleriyle etkileşim içinde olmuştur. Teknolojinin gelişmesi ile diller arası etkileşimin hızı da artmıştır. Yüzyıllar boyunca diller arası etkileşim üzerine çeşitli çalışma ve araştırmalar yapılmıştır. Bu çalışma diller arası etkileşim açısından Türkiye Türkçesinin Sorani Kürtçesi üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi amacıyla yapılmıştır. Bu amaçla Kürt şair Nâlî’nin Kürtçe divanı taranmıştır. Nâlî, kesin olarak bilinmese de (1797-1856) yılları arasında yaşadığı düşünülmektedir. Kürtçe bir divan yazmıştır ve şiirleri divanı ile günümüze kadar ulaşmıştır. Kürtçe dışında Türkçe, Arapça ve Farsça da bilmektedir. Şairin divanında aslen Türkçe olan kelime ve dil unsurları tarama ve doküman analizi kullanılarak tespit edilmiş ve yorumlamaları yapılmıştır. Tarama sonucunda 2461 Kürtçe olmayan kelime tespit edilmiştir. Bu kelimelerden 33 tanesi Türkçe, 1647 tanesi Arapça, 761 adeti Farsça ve beş adedi de diğer dillerden geçmiş kelime varlığı olarak tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca dört kelimenin de Türkçe ek almış olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sekiz adet kelimede dil-edebiyat ortaklığı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Üç kelimenin de hibrit kelime olduğu saptanmıştır. Elde edilen bu veriler sırasıyla fonetik, tematik, semantik ve etimolojik açılardan gruplandırılmıştır. Nâlî divanı çerçevesinde Türkiye Türkçesinin Sorani Kürtçesinde kayda değer bir etkisi olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Türkçenin aynı zamanda başka dillerden de taşıyıcılık yaptığı görülmektedir. ABSTRACT Language is one of the main needs for human life and communication. It is a bridge between the past and future of cultures. Language is a key factor not only for human communication but also communication among cultures. Languages interact with each other for many different reasons in history. By the advanced of technology, the interaction between languages is also increased. There are variety of studies on interaction of languages for centuries. This study is prepared to indicate the language interaction and influence of between Turkey`s Turkish on Sorani Kurdish. For this reason, we have scanned Kurdish author Nali`s Divan. Nali is believed to be lived from 1797 to 1856. He wrote a divan, a set of poems, in Kurdish and his poems in his Divan has reached us through the years. He knew Turkish, Arabic and Persian besides Kurdish. In his Divan, we scanned and found out the Turkish originated words and phrases by document analyzing. By this scanning, we found 2461 foreign words. 33 words out of these are Turkish, 1647 words are Arabic, 761 words are Persian, and 5 words from other languages are found after our research. Also, 4 words are added Turkish prefixes and suffixes. And 8 words are commonly used in Turkish and Kurdish literature. 3 words are hybrid words. The outcomes have been categorized by phonetic, thematic, semantic, and etymologic respectively. After all the evaluations, we have found out that there is a significant Turkish influence on Sorani Kurdish in Nali`s Divan. We also found out that Turkish is carrying words from a language to one another. Keywords Keywords. Nali, Nâlî divanı, Divan Edebiyatı, Kürtçe Divan, Kürtçeye Türkçeden Geçen Kelimeler, Sorani Kürtçesi. Language A language of the resource Turkish language https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7ad6c52e85c97bd473b2f544d9ad2e2f.pdf 367b7390bf1c81a043d8bdc5f4a39d71 PDF Text Text BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 SOSYAL HAYDUT KURAMI BAĞLAMINDA “İSLAMOĞLU” Hüseyin ÖZCAN Fatih Üniversitesi, İstanbul / Türkiye Bilal ERGİN Fatih Üniversitesi, İstanbul / Türkiye Anahtar Sözcükler: Eşkıya, Eşkıyalık, Sosyal Haydut, Osmanlıda Eşkıya, İslamoğlu. ÖZET Bu çalışmada halka göre bir kahraman, otoriteye göre ise azılı bir eşkıya olan İslamoğlu, Eric Hobsbawn’ın “Sosyal Haydut veya Halk Kahramanı Kalıbı” kuramına göre incelenmiştir. Asıl adı Mustafa olan İslamoğlu ekibi ile birlikte Kütahya, Afyon, Uşak ve Aydın gibi beldeleri kasıp kavuran ve bir eşkıya olarak tanınmaktadır. Çok güzel cura çaldığı bilinmektedir. Zengin kervanlarını, ağa konaklarını, çiftlikleri basarak elde ettiği ganimetin bir bölümünü dağıtmakta, düşkünlere yardım etmekle tanınmaktadır. Bu bağlamda geçmişten günümüze eşkıyalık hareketleri hakkında bilgi verilmiş ve bu hareketlerin içinde yaşadığı devletin ve milletin nezdinde nasıl bir karşılık bulduğu irdelenmiştir. Ege yöresinde adına izafe edilen ‘İslamoğlu Zeybeği’ de yaygın olarak icra edilmektedir. Çalışmada bu eşkıyaların özellikle de İslamoğlu’nun neden halk katında isyancı değil de kahraman olarak görüldüğü, halkın nazarında kahramanlık sürecine gelme süreci sosyal haydut kuramı bağlamında ele alınacaktır. IN THE CONTEXT OF A SOCIAL BANDIT "ISLAMOGLU" Keywords: Bandit, banditry, social bandit, bandit in the Ottoman Empire, Islamoglu. Social bandit or social crime is a term invented by the historian Eric Hobsbawm in his 1959 book Primitive Rebels, a study of popular forms of resistance that also incorporate behavior characterized by law as illegal. In this study, a hero in the ring, according to the authority which a notorious bandit İslamoğlu, Eric Hobsbawm's "Social Bandits or the People's Heroes Pattern" were analyzed according to the theory. In this context, moving from past to 175 �BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 present given information about banditry and this act of the state where they live in and how to get a response in the eyes of the nation were discussed. Also İslamoğlu these thugs, especially on the floor of the reasons people are not rebels was seen as a hero were explained. İBNÜ’L-FARIZ VE KASİDE-İ HAMRİYYE’Sİ Halil Karabulut Trakya Üniversitesi, Edirne / Türkiye ÖZET Büyük mutasavvıf İbnü’l-Farız (1181-1235), şiirleri geniş yankılar uyandıran, “Sultanü’l-âşıkîn” olarak tanınan bir şairdir. Divanı ve şiirleri, takipçileri tarafından defalarca tercüme-şerh edilmiştir. İbnü’l-Farız şiirlerinde tasavvufî ve ilâhî aşkı dile getirmiş, çoğu şiirini sekr halinde irticalen söylemiştir. Bildiri metnimize konu olan şiir ise, İbnü’l-Farız’ın en meşhur iki şiirinden biri olan Kaside-i Hamriyye’sidir. Şarabın ilâhî aşkı temsil etmesi sebebiyle bu isimle anılmıştır. Ayrıca kafiye harfi mim olması dolayısıyla Kaside-i Mimiyye olarak da tanınan bu şiir, başta Molla Cami ve İdris-i Bitlisî olmak üzere birçok şarih tarafından şerh edilmiştir, şerh edilme ihtiyacı duyulmuştur. Bildirimizde İbnü’l-Farız’ın şarap etrafında şekillenen 41 beyitlik bu tasavvufi şiiri, yapı ve şekil bakımından incelenip şarihlerin dikkat çektiği hususlar sunulacaktır. 176 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2694 Title A name given to the resource SOSYAL HAYDUT KURAMI BAĞLAMINDA “İSLAMOĞLU” Author Author ÖZCAN, Hüseyin ERGİN, Bilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalışmada halka göre bir kahraman, otoriteye göre ise azılı bir eşkıya olan İslamoğlu, Eric Hobsbawn’ın “Sosyal Haydut veya Halk Kahramanı Kalıbı” kuramına göre incelenmiştir. Asıl adı Mustafa olan İslamoğlu ekibi ile birlikte Kütahya, Afyon, Uşak ve Aydın gibi beldeleri kasıp kavuran ve bir eşkıya olarak tanınmaktadır. Çok güzel cura çaldığı bilinmektedir. Zengin kervanlarını, ağa konaklarını, çiftlikleri basarak elde ettiği ganimetin bir bölümünü dağıtmakta, düşkünlere yardım etmekle tanınmaktadır. Bu bağlamda geçmişten günümüze eşkıyalık hareketleri hakkında bilgi verilmiş ve bu hareketlerin içinde yaşadığı devletin ve milletin nezdinde nasıl bir karşılık bulduğu irdelenmiştir. Ege yöresinde adına izafe edilen ‘İslamoğlu Zeybeği’ de yaygın olarak icra edilmektedir. Çalışmada bu eşkıyaların özellikle de İslamoğlu’nun neden halk katında isyancı değil de kahraman olarak görüldüğü, halkın nazarında kahramanlık sürecine gelme süreci sosyal haydut kuramı bağlamında ele alınacaktır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-23 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-582X P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/722f59cb7e2b36636f2d4bb5914f0ecd.pdf ebf4d29ce33235a553af027e9ee60c80 PDF Text Text Sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish History İsmail Mangaltepe Faculty of Letters Department of History, İstanbul University Turkey ismailmn@istanbul.edu.tr Abstract: There are not too many sources about the historical events of the periods before the adoption of Islam of the Turks. Given the thousands years of the Turkish history, the fact that adequate written and archeological materials have not been left may be criticized. However, it may be understood if the role played by the Turks in the formation of a crucial stage of history is taken into consideration. Even though the number of the written sources left by the Turks, who achieved dominance in many geographical regions from Asia to Europe, is not high it is possible to shed light on the pre-Islamic history of the Turks thanks to the obtained archeological materials, oral sources and the information given by the people they were connected. In this study, we shall try to introduce Orkhon Inscriptions, which are the most significant written sources of the Turks, after giving brief information about the oral sources, archeological materials and written sources of the Turkish history. All scientific studies on history should be based on a source. Sources may be defined as materials of any kind providing us with information about historical events or we may call any data guiding and aiding scientists to write out historical events as sources. Sources of the Turkish history are evaluated under three titles: Oral Sources, Archeological Materials, Written Sources. A- Oral Sources: It is widely known that in the political and social life of the Turks there are many oral sanctions which are not written yet agreed. The body of oral laws which we may call usage at the present day and the Turks called “Töre” (traditional law) is the most important of oral sources. As a matter of fact, it is much more appropriate to regard Töre as the basic establishment of the political philosophy, mentality and lifestyle of the Turks rather than just a body of laws. Coming into existence as result of a process based on centuries, Töre is an essential element, the irresistible law, the constitution that should be abided by and a body of sanctions and senses keeping national reflexes alive of the community life. For the Turks, the primary practices of Khagans are to protect and glorify the state and Töre (traditional law). Thus, it is possible to find tens of examples in Orkhon Inscriptions in this regard: a- “My ancestors Bumin Khan and İstemi Khan dominated over the humankind. Following this dominance, they maintained and arranged the state and Töre (made usage dominant)”. (Kül Tigin, East, 1) b- “My uncle khagan dominated over that Töre” (Kül Tigin, East, 16). c- “..created and brought up in accordance with my ancestors’ Töre..” (Bilge Khagan, East, 12) (Ergin, 1988a). As is seen, for the Turks Töre is considerably alive and has a significant value of source for a historian as it enters into all realms of life. In addition, epics and legends which maintain their liveliness for centuries constitute another part of oral sources. They have spread over different geographies by being talked about. In Chinese sources, stories in which the adolescence and fights of Mo-Tun are told are the materials having the characteristics of the first epic of the Turkish history. Since his father does not announce Mo-tun (B.C. 209-174) as the successor of the throne, he revolts against his father together with the soldiers under his command. He kills his father and takes the throne of Hun Empire (A. Onat, S. Orsoy- K. Ercilasun, 2004, p. 6). Epics about the creation and reproduction of the Turkic people provide historians with information having essential value of source. Epics may be defined as a total of heroic stories of nations, a kind of national history (Gömeç, 2009, p. 26), the most important source of motivation in indoctrinating rising generations with the idea of loyalty to their origins and a significant element in the increase of pride and esteem against other nations. Being the literary reflections of the steppe culture, these epics and legends are the best oral sources which tell the claim of Turkic nation their place in history, their fights against the enemies and their struggles for life and existence in the best way. Numerous tragic and pleasant events have been experienced during the travel in the historical scene of the Turks, who have a special place among the deep-rooted nations. As a result of the fact that these events developed in the form of story and were talked about, several epics came into existence. It is possible to list these basic epics which are among the important oral sources of the Turkish history without going into particulars as follows: 285 �1Epic of Creation (Yaradılış Destanı): The subject is the creation of the world, sources of good and evil and the order of the world. This epic was edited among Altay Turks by W. Radloff in the 19th century. (Ögel, 1993, p. 451) 2Alp Er Tonga Epic: According to Mahmud al- Qashqari, writer of “Divan ü Lûgat-it Türk” (“Diwan Lughat at-Turk”) and Yusuf Has Hajib, writer of “Kutadgu Bilig”, “Alp Er Tunga” is the great and legendry Turan emperor of the Iranian epic “Şehname” (“Shahnameh”) named Efrasiyab (“Afrasiyab”). There are three different versions of the epic.( Gömeç, 2009, p. 247). 3Oghuz Epic: Oghuz Epic took form around the life of Hun emperor Mo-tun, who reigned between 209 and 174 B.C.. (Togan, 1981, p. 68). Oghuz Epic has very different versions. Besides, narratives which have the characteristics of an epic are encountered in the works of numerous authors under the title of “Oghuz-Nâme”. 4Ergenekon Epic: The variance identified in Chinese sources is known as “Bozkurt” and the variance identified in History of the Turks (Şecere-i Türk) by Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadır Khan is known as “Ergenekon”. The epic is named after Ergenekon, which is a sacred place surrounded by impassable mountains and where the Turks lived and reproduced for centuries by ploughing, hunting and processing mine. Ergenekon Epic was written out by a Mongolian historian named Rachid-al Din for the first time in the 13th century. The epic has five different versions. 5Reproduction and Migration Epic of the Uyghur (Türeyiş ve Göç Destanı): Two epic parts were identified named Reproduction and Migration of the Uyghur. The part called Reproduction exists in Chinese sources and the part called Migration exists both in Chinese and Iranian sources. 6Şu Epic: Telling the life and experiences of a Turkic emperor called Şu, who lived in 400 B.C, and being combined with the march of Alexander the Great of Macedon to the Turkic countries, this epic lived among the Turks until the 11th century and recorded by Kaşgarlı Mahmud (Mahmud al- Qashqari) in that century. 7Epic of Manas: Epic of Manas, which came into existence among Kyrgyz Turks, still endures with all its vividness within Kazak-Kyrgyz Turkic cultural circle. This epic is thought to have been formed between 11th and 12th centuries. The hero of the epic named Manas is regarded as a hero struggling for spreading Islam like Satuk Bugra Khan in the Islamic version of Oghuz Epic. 8Dede Korkut Stories: Dede Qorqut Epic comprises of twelve stories. It is possible to find information about numerous Turkic tribes in these stories as well as the traces of Oghuz people. In this regard, it is stated that the formation of the epic coincides with the period when the Turks mostly came to the west. The epic is thought to have been written out in late 16th century. (Ergin, 1988b, p. 12). B- Archeological Materials: Archeological materials are the base of the material cultures left by tribes. It is of essential to indicate primarily balbals (kurgan steales), inscriptions, tombs, burial vaults and tombstones, cooking utensils, guns, coins and clothes among those remnants. Thanks to these materials, social, cultural and financial life and military powers and materials of societies are understood much more easily. Additionally, it is possible to determine the development, activities, migrations, cultural backgrounds and civilizations of societies. As is known, the Turks had to emigrate from their native lands to the west for some reasons. Due to these emigrations, the archeological materials remaining from the Turks extend over a large area from Baikal Lake to Danube Basin. The number of archeological excavations has increased especially as of the 19th century in parallel with the increase of the interest in the characteristics of the Turkic people and the states they established. As a result, very rich materials belonging to the Turks have been brought to light rapidly. (Mangaltepe, 2008, p. 121). The inscription on a pot which takes the first written source of the Turks back to a period before Christ is the most significant source of the Turkish history. The most valuable historical document in terms of the Turkish history and civilization is an inscription comprising of two lines and 26 letters on a pot broken in half which is stated to belong to 5th-4th B.C (Kafesoğlu, 2003, p. 337) and was found in the tomb of a Turk Tigin (son of a sovereign or prince) (Donuk, 1988, p. 48) in Kazakhstan in 1969. This inscription is a treasure that sheds light on and guides the Turkish historical science, language and culture and takes the written history of the Turks to 25 centuries back. In this tomb, which has not been identified in terms of the Tigin yet, famous golden garments were found and thus these findings were recorded as “Golden Man” in the scientific world. The most ancient Turkic inscriptions which had been known until that day were the inscriptions on Yenisey and Orkhon inscriptions yet these date fourteen centuries back from our days. This inscription on the document says “Tigin died at the age of 23, May the life of Esik people be spared”. 286 �Esik Inscription Picture of Khagan and Hatun on a coin It is possible to list the archeological materials obtained from excavations and are of essential in terms of the Turkish history, culture and civilization as follows: 1. Casual dresses, military uniforms 2. Coins: may be called as the most important archeological material. 3. Ornaments: mirror, comb, earrings, hairpin, belt, necklace 4. Fighting tools: Arrow heads, spear, sword, knife, axe, mace 5. Harnesses, bridle, stirrup 6. Cooking utensils 7. Tamga (stamps) 8. Small structures: sacred stones, sculptures. C- Written Sources: a- Library Materials: Until the 19th century, Chinese almanacs, Byzantine sources, Travel Books and the works written by Arabian and Mongolian historians in the 12th and 13th centuries were used as sources for the Turkish history in the scientific world. Information in Chinese sources made use of in the Turkish history writing are placed under the chapters titled “Turks” of the almanacs called Shih-Chih, Han-Shu, Hou-Han-Shu, San-kuochih, Chin-Shu, Sung-Shu, Nan-Ch’i-Shu, Liang-Shu, Ch’en-Shu, Wei-Shu, Pei-Ch’i-Shu, Chou-Shu, Nan-Shih, Pei-Shih, Sui-Shu, Chiu T’ang-Shu, Hsin T’ang-Shu (there are 26 Dynasty Histories). Almanacs are divided into different chapters: Emperor Almanacs, Noble Families, Chronological Tables, Scientific Tracks and Biographies. The most important and detailed information about the Turks are in “Biographies” sections of the almanacs (Taşağıl, 1996, p. 116). Chinese Almanac There are many Byzantine sources giving information about the Turks. Of these sources, the ones giving the most important and detailed information are as follows: Priskos (Ahmetbeyoğlu, 2001, p.1), Jordanes, 287 �Ammianus Marcellinus, Eunapios, Olympiodoros, Zosimos (İplikçioğlu, 1997, p. 446) Prokopios, Ioannes Malalas, Agathias, Paschale Chronicle Menandros, Euagrios, Flavius Corripus, Maurice-Strategicon, Theophylact Simocatta, Sergios, Georgios Pisides, Theodoros Synkellos, Theophannes, Nikephoros, Konstantin Porphyrogennetos, Anna Komnena, Niketos Akominotos and Ioannes Kantakuzenos. As indicated before, the Turks established states in different geographies and contacted with different nations. Thus, it is very natural that they are mentioned in the works of those states. Furthermore, Arabic and Islamic sources which are the elements of a different geography and speak of the Turks should be mentioned as well. Geographical works and other sources evaluated under the name of Islamic sources are as follows: İbn Havkal, El-İstahrî, İbn Hurdazbih, El-Ya’kûbî, İbn Fakîh, İbn Rüsteh (Yörükan, 2004) İbn Kesir, Makdisî, İdrisî, Gerdızî, Mesudî, Kazvînî and Birûnî ( Şeşen, 1998) are the most significant authors. Russian almanacs comprise a part of written sources. Of these almanacs where quite detailed information about the period between the 9th and 13th centuries of the Turkish history may be found thanks to the studies carried out especially recently, it is possible to list the ones where particularly the Turks are the subjects as follows: Povesti Vremennih Let (Story of Previous Years), İpatiyevskaya Letopis (İpatyev Almanac), Lavrentiyevskaya Letopis (Lavrentev Almanac), Radzivilovskaya Letopis (Radzivilov Almanac), Troitskaya Letopis (Troits Almanac), Voskresenkaya Letopis (Voskresen Almanac), Nikonovskaya Letopis (Nikonov Almanac), Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Sinodalnıy Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Sinodal Version), Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Komissionny Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Commission Version) and Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Akademiçeski Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Academy Version) (UyduYücel, 2007). Easterner and Westerner travelers stopped by the Turkic states during their travels. Having mentioned the things they saw, experienced and learned among the Turks in their works, authors made significant observations on the Turkish social, military and economical structure. These works are of essential in consequence of being the impressions written out by a person from a different culture and community. Giving information about the Turkic communities, Chinese Hsüan Tsang Travel Book, Wang Yen-Te Travel Book, İbn Fazlan Travel Book, Plano Carpini Travel Book, William Rubruck Travel Book, Marco Polo Travel Book, İbn Batuta Travel Book and Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo Travel Book have gone down in history as the most crucial ones of these works. The fact that the Turks, who had a steppe culture, gradually adopted a sedentary life and established cities after Gokturk Empire brought along important changes and developments in the social life. Furthermore, the Turks started to write large-volume works by making significant contributions to educational activities and science as a natural result of this process which accelerated upon the adoption of Islam. It is seen that two important works which are as valuable as a treasure for the Turkish history were created in this period. 1) Yusuf Has Hajib - Kutadgu Bilig The work named Kutadgu Bilig written by Yusuf Has Hajib is the leading of the most important works created in this period. The famous work of Yusuf Has Hâjib written between 1069 and 1070 is a political treatise which can be ignored neither by the history of the Turkic Culture nor by the Turkic Language and Literature in the Islamic period. The word “Kutadgu” was formed by adding the infix “+ad-” making verbs from names and then the suffix “-gu” making names from verbs to the word “kut” which means “happiness, bliss” and together with “bilig”, Kutadgu Bilig it means “the wisdom/science which brings happiness, bliss”. The entire work comprises of 6645 couplets. Apart from those couplets, there is a poem of 77 couplets added to the book later on. This poetic prologue provides information about the work itself and its author. Consisting of 88 sections in this manner, the work includes 173 quatrains (Yusuf Has Hacip, 1994). Has Hajip chose the form of dialogue in the text section of the work. It added both a different characteristic and a theatrical style to the work. For the purpose of expressing his ideas and thoughts, the author wrote his work as a discussion or stage writing with dialogues among four important people. The names and roles of the said four people are as follows: 1- Kün-Toğdı: He is the sovereign and represents justice and law. 2- Ay-Toldı: He is the vizier and represents happiness and state. 3- Ögdülmiş: He is the son of the vizier and represents wisdom and knowledge. 4- Odgurmış: He is the devotee and a relative of the vizier and speaks of conviction and fate. Kutadgu Bilig is a significant work giving information about the general knowledge, religious and world views and social lives of the Turkic intellectuals in the period of Karakhanids State, including such true and realistic ideas and advices that most of them are applicable even today and being exemplary in all respects. Yusuf Has Hajib identified most of the social and political problems of his time and offered prescriptions for the solution of these problems in his book. 288 �2) Kaşgarlı Mahmud (Mahmud al- Qashqari) - Divanü Lûgat-İt Türk (Diwan Lughat at-Turk) Having been written in the 466th year of the emigration (1072-1073), Divanü Lugat-it Türk (Diwan Lughat at-Turk) is a significant source of information with respect to the Turkic language, culture, civilization and art. The work was written for the purpose of demonstrating the greatness of the Turkic nation and teaching the Turkic language to Arabic people. It is a work where the Turkic words are listed in accordance with Arabic principles and their meanings are explained. It is a kind of Turkic-Arabic dictionary. The manuscript version comprises of 638 pages and includes quite detailed Arabic explanations of approximately 9000 Turkic words. Additionally, it contains information interspersed in the text and a brief introduction about the history, geographical spread, tribes, dialects and lifestyles of the Turks (Kaşgarlı Mahmud, 1998). The work is not only a dictionary but also a grammar book indicating the language properties and throwing light upon the morphology and phonology of the Turkic language in the 11th century and a source of personal names, tribe names and place names. Furthermore, it is an encyclopedic work containing rich information about the Turkish history, geography, mythology, folklore and literature as well as giving information about the medical and therapeutic methods of that time. Map drawn by Mahmud al- Qashqari b- Inscriptions: There is no doubt that inscriptions are the most significant cultural richness and sources left by the Turks as written sources. Until two centuries ago, the Turkish history had generally been written based on the information acquired from foreign sources. However, a new leaf was turned over for the Turkish history in the 17th century and the scientific world was informed about the inscriptions. There are not many sources for the Turkish history before Christ. Yet the cultural stages identified provide us with an idea about those periods. It is possible to point out the remnants taken out of the tomb of the above mentioned “Golden Man” as the first written source for Hun period in spite of the fact that they are not in the form of an inscription. In addition, it is witnessed that wide range of materials were left especially in Gokturk period. The unearth of the inscriptions having Gokturk letters which Cüveyni (Djuvaini) reported for the first time in the 13th century is a landmark (Ergin, 1988a, p.11). Being an orientalist and an envoy of Romanian origin and known as Nikolay Gavriloviç Mileski Spafariy, Nicolaie Milescu was sent by the Russian Tsar Aleksi Mihayloviç to China as an envoy and saw and described the stone inscriptions in the canyons of Yenisei River in the summer months of 1675. Later on, in his Siberian Cartography published in 1697, S.U. Remezov made use of the said information and informed the Swedish scientists about Yenisei inscriptions thanks to his writing called “Runic Stones in Russia”. In 1721 and 1722, D.G. Messerchmidt and P.J.T. Strahlenberg found out new inscriptions on the shores of Uybat, Erba and Tes rivers in Yenisei. On the other hand, new inscriptions were unearthed by P.S. Pallas in Uybat in 1793. In 1818, G.I. Spasskiy published the pictures of Yenisei inscriptions (Öztürk, 1996, p. 15). N.A Kostrov discovered Açura inscription in 1857 in Koybal steppe on the left shore of Abakan; E.F. Korçakov discovered Altın Köl inscriptions in 1878 on the shore of Golden Lake on the right side of Abakan; A.V. Adrianov discovered Kaya Uçı inscription in 1879. A museum was established in Minusinsk city as a result of the discovery of several ancient works in the vicinity of Yenisey River and its tributaries. Finnish Archeology Association charged O.H. Appelgren in 1887 and J.R. Aspelin in 1888 with transcribing those stones. Aspelin published the results of these researches in 1889 under the title of “Yenisei Inscriptions”. In the course of the studies on Yenisei Inscriptions, N.M. Yadrintsev who was sent to Mongolia in 1889 in order to carry out researches in the name of Russian Geography Association unearthed Köl Tigin and Bilge Khan Inscriptions in the vicinity of Koço-Tsaydam Lake and the shore of Orkhon River, 60 km from Karakum and Kara Balgasun Ruins and 400 km to Urga (Ulan-Bator). Then Fin-Ogur Association sent a committee under the presidency of A.O. Heikel to Koço-Tsaydam region in 1890 and had the inscriptions transcribed (O, Sertkaya- C. Alyılmaz- T. Battulga, 2001). O. Donner presented the album including the pictures and tablet copies of Köl Tigin and Bilge Khan Inscriptions prepared by Fin-Ogur Association in 1892 in London (Thomsen, 1993, p. 1). Upon these 289 �developments, Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent a committee under the presidency of Radloff to Orkhon region in 1891. Radloff published the information obtained in series. After the stones located in Orkhon had been published in Finnish and Russian cartographies and it had been understood from the Chinese texts of these stones that these inscriptions belonged to Turkic Khans and Tigins, experts started to compete for deciphering the alphabet on the inscriptions. The deciphering of the inscriptions was accomplished for the first time by Danish V. Thomsen (1842-1927) who thought that the texts were in Turkish (Thomsen, 1993). It is stated that Thomsen deciphered the inscriptions within one hour on November 25, 1893. Thomsen sended to Radloff a letter stating that he had managed to read the inscriptions and the solutions. Having deciphered 11 letters of Gokturk alphabet, Radloff succeeded in reading the texts with the help of the alphabet sent by Thomsen and published his famous work in 1895. V. Thomsen published his translations in 1896 under the title of Orkhon Inscriptions. This study is much more valuable than the work of Radloff due to the fact that Thomsen introduced his work containing a more accurate translation of the texts together with highly valuable explanatory notes. New inscriptions were found in the course of these studies. While examining the flora of Northern Mongolia, botanist N.Z. Klements discovered Tonyukuk inscriptions in Bain-Tsokto region which is 66 km from Ulan-Bator. Radloff prepared a preliminary report on Tonyukuk inscriptions in 1898 and published the transcriptions and translations of the inscriptions in 1899. Radloff became a guide who read, translated and prepared the dictionaries and grammars of a total of 56 inscriptions, namely 40 Yenisei inscriptions, 10 Hoytu Tamir inscriptions and 6 inscriptions in Mongolia (Köl Tigin, Bilge Khan, Ongin, İhe Aşete, İhe Hanin Nur and Tonyukuk) between 1894 and 1899 and evaluated new inscriptions from different aspects. (O, Sertkaya- C. Alyılmaz-T. Battulga, 2001) On the other hand, the first study on the texts with Gokturk letters was carried out by Şemseddin Sami who made use of the work of Thomsen in Turkey yet it was not published. In his publication called “The Most Ancient Turkic Writing” comprising of 35 pages, Necib Asım (Yazuksuz) who was a lecturer of “History of Turkish Language” in İstanbul Darülfünun (University) introduced Gokturk letters in 1897. Furthermore, N. Asım published his work “Orkhon Inscriptions” in 1925. Later on, valuable studies were performed on Orkhon and Yenisei Inscriptions by Ragıp Hulusi Özdem, then in 1990s by Nihal Atsız and Hüseyin Namık Orkun. Recently, Osman Nedim Tuna, Talat Tekin, Muharrem Ergin, Osman Fikri Sertkaya and Cengiz Alyılmaz have published new works on the inscriptions. Of the inscriptions discovered during the studies that have been conducted over the last centuries and created especially in Gokturk, Uygur and Turgesh periods, important ones are as follows. Bilge Khan İnscription, Köl Tigin İnscription, Tonyukuk İnscription, Ongin Inscription, Köl-İç Çor Inscription, Bugut Inscription, Çoyr Inscription, Hoyd-Tamir Inscriptions, Aru-Han Inscription, Sevrey Inscription, Şine-Usu (Moyun Çor) Inscription, Taryat Inscription, Karabalgasun Inscriptions, Suci Inscription, A-çor Inscription, Altın Köl Inscription, Uybat Inscriptions, Nagy-Szent-Miklos Treasures of Pechenegs and inscriptions of Bulgarian Turks written in Ancient Greek. Of these inscriptions which are called by the Turks as Bengü Taş (Eternal Stone) (Öztürk, 1996, p. 20), let us introduce Bilge Khan, Kül Tigin and Tonyukuk İnscriptions which include the most comprehensive information and are known as Orkhon Inscriptions as well. 1- Köl Tigin İnscription: Located in Koçho Tsaydam region of Arhangay Aymag in Mongolia, Köl Tigin Inscription was erected in 732 by Bilge Khan upon the death of his younger brother Köl Tigin in 731. Being a part of the külliye (social complex) constructed in the memory of Köl Tigin, the inscription has a height of 331 cm and a width of (eastern and western façades) 138 cm and (southern and northern façades) 41 cm. Of the inscription having four façades, 40-line and 13-line Turkic texts in Gokturk letters appear in the eastern façade and southern and northern façades respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 9). In Köl Tigin Inscription, events belonging to Gokturk history are narrated by Bilge Khan and a message of unity and integration is conveyed. In the inscription, whose author is Bilge Khan, it is stated that the Chinese deceive people by means of presents and pleasant words and do evil and emphasized that people should get hip to such things. In the western façade of the inscription, the Chinese message which was sent by T’ang Emperor of that period due to the death of Köl Tigin speaks of the order of the universe, the esteemed personality of Köl Tigin and the importance of peace. In the western façade of the inscription, except for the Chinese writings, there are two lines in Gokturk letters added afterwards. The author of the eastern, northern and southern façades of the inscription is Yollug Tigin. The inscription includes expressions of Yollug Tigin (southern façade, 13th line). On the other hand, the western façade was inscribed by Çang Sengün (General Çang), nephew of T’ang Emperor Hiuan Tsong. In the mausoleum complex of Köl Tigin some parts of the inscription, tortoise base, altar stone human sculptures, ram sculptures, balbals (kurgan steales), floorings, tiles, bricks and clay pipes were found. 290 �Köl Tigin İnscription A Detail From Bilge Khagan İnscription 2- Bilge Khagan İnscription: It was erected by Tengri Khagan in 735 after the death of his father Bilge Khagan. It has considerable similarities with Köl Tigin Inscription in terms of shape, structure and content. Probably Bilge Khagan prepared the texts of the inscription to be erected in the memory of himself before his death. Placed on a tortoise base, the inscription is approximately 369 cm high and 126 cm wide and comprises of four façades. 41-line and 15-line Turkic texts in Gokturk letters were detected in the eastern façade and southern and northern façades of the inscription respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 103). In addition to a Chinese text in the western façade, a Turkic text was inscribed in verse in the middle of the upper section. Furthermore, there are texts in Gokturk letters in the south-eastern, south-western and western façades. The one narrating the events and giving advices is again Bilge Khagan. Events which occurred after the death of Köl Tigin were included to the inscription as well. The sections in Gokturk letters were inscribed by Yollug Tigin. There are expressions of Tengri Khagan and Yollug Tigin in the southern and south-western façades respectively. Four blocks of the inscription were taken under preservation in Store-Museum-Excavation House building constructed in Koçho Tsaydam region by the Presidency of Turkish Cooperation and Development Administration (TİKA). Bilge Khagan gives essential advises which the next generations may make use of as well as historical warnings to the Turkic nation: “Turkish nation, if you dwell in Ötüken forest you shall have a state forever”. “Turkish nation; who may disturb your state order unless the sky falls down at the top and the earth is worn through at the bottom? Turkish nation; come to your senses, turn to your origin!”. “Here, I have inscribed that the Turkish nation shall be a powerful state if unified as well as that it shall die if not unified and integrated.” (Ergin, 1988a) 3- Bilge Tonyukuk İnscription: Bilge Tonyukuk inscriptions are located in Bayn Tsokto (Bayn Çokto) region of Mongolia. The reason why this inscription is mentioned under the title of Orkhon Inscriptions together with Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions in spite of the fact that it is not in the vicinity of Orkhon River is that it belongs to the same period and consists of the same subject matters. Located in Bayn Tsokto region in the upper bed of Tola River and approximately 360 km from Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions, Tonyukuk Inscriptions comprise of two inscriptions with four façades erected by the great vizier, commander and advisor of Second Gokturk Khaganate Bilge Tonyukuk himself before his death. The first inscription is 243 cm high and the second one is 217 cm high. 35-line and 27-line texts in Gokturk letters were inscribed in the first inscription and the second inscription respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 182). The exact date of the erection of the inscriptions is not known. Some researches state this date to be between 720 and 725 while others point out between 732 and 734. Just like Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions, historical events belonging to Gokturk period are narrated by Tonyukuk himself in Bilge Tonyukuk Inscriptions. While conveying the historical events, Tonyukuk gives the messages of unity and integration; he highlights that the rulers achieve great successes if they have wise advisors and work in harmony with those advisors. As the fact that the Turks are an ancient civilization has been realized recently, especially as of the 20th century, thousands of research works have been introduced on the Turkish history, culture and civilization. The leaders of these works have been the westerners yet the Turkic scientists succeeded in creating sources including more reliable and accurate information by making use of these works. 291 �Conclusion If the sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish history are examined as a whole, the contribution of Turkic people to the social life, institutionalization, military developments and moral values may be seen explicitly. Even though the inadequacy of these sources is emphasized from time to time, it is possible to trace the three thousand years’ historical process of the Turks wholesomely thanks to the works, inscriptions and archeological materials discovered. However, as may be understood from the text, most of these sources are Turks, Byzantine and Arabic sources. Even if those works of foreign authors contain historical facts, they should be made use of carefully due to some partial, wrong and imperfect information from time to time. Data should not be accepted as exact information without their accuracy is proven and the most accurate and healthy information should be obtained by means of comparison. The Turks have not left several library materials except for one or two highvolume books and inscriptions. The majority of our sources are based on oral and archeological materials except for the inscriptions. The most significant characteristic of the inscriptions, which have an immense source value for us, is that they are the first Turkic texts where the name of Turkic nation is mentioned. They are the most important information treasures and sources in the history left by the Turks. In the inscriptions, Khans make their selfcriticism and emphasize the mutual duties of the state and the nation. Being the evidences for the existence of order, töre (law), civilization and culture of the state, the inscriptions are the biggest documentaries of the history of the Turkic Literature. Furthermore, they are valuable treasures owing to the contents which have the power of making a civilization out of a tribe and where the written language, rhetoric and style are excellent. References Ahmetbeyoğlu, A. (2001). Avrupa Hun İmparatorluğu. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. Alyılmaz, C. (2005). Orhun Yazıtlarının Bugünkü Durumu. Ankara. Kurmay Yayınları. Donuk, A. (1988). Eski Türk Devletlerinde İdarî-Askerî Ünvan ve Terimler. İstanbul. Türk Dünyası Araştırmalar Vakfı Ergin, M. (1988a). Orhun Abideleri. İstanbul. Boğaziçi Yayınları. Ergin, M. (1988b). Dede Korkut Kitabı. İstanbul. Boğaziçi Yayınları. Gömeç, S. (2000). İslam Öncesi Türk Tarihinin Kaynakları Üzerine, Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, 20/31 (pp. 51-92). Ankara. Dil Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Yayınları. Gömeç, S. (2009). Türk Destanlarına Giriş. Ankara. Akçağ Yayınları. İplikçioğlu, B. (1997). Eskibatı Tarihi I, Giriş, Kaynaklar, Bibliyografya. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayını. Kaşgarlı Mahmud. (1998). Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk. Trans.: B. Atalay. Ankara. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Mangaltepe, İ. (2008). Arkeolojik Buluntulara Göre Avar, Peçenek ve Kuman-Kıpçaklarda Askeri Teçhizat. Eskiçağ’dan Modern Çağ’a Ordular-Oluşum, Teşkilat ve İşlev (pp. 121-152). Ed. M.F. Emecen. İstanbul. Kitabevi. Onat, A.- S. Orsoy & K. Ercilasun. (2004). Han Hanedanlığı Tarihi-Hsiung-Nu (Hun) Monografisi. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. Ögel, B. (1993). Türk Mitolojisi I. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. Öztürk, A. (1996). Ötüken Türk Kitabeleri. İstanbul. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Sertkaya, O.F- C. Alyılmaz- T. Battulga. Moğolistandaki Türk Anıtları Projesi Albümü. Ankara. TİKA (Türk İşbirliği ve Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı. Şeşen, R. (1998). İslâm Coğrafyacılarına Göre Türkler ve Türk Ülkeleri. Ankara. Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü. Taşağıl, A. (1997). Türk Tarihi ile İlgili Çin Kaynaklarının Türkçe Neşri Üzerine Düşünceler. Tarih Boyunca Türk Tarihinin Kaynakları Semineri (pp. 113-124). İstanbul. İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi. Thomsen, V. (1993). Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, Çözülmüş Orhon Yazıtları. Trans. V.Köken. Ankara. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Togan, Z.V. (1981). Umumî Türk Tarihi’ne Giriş. İstanbul. Enderun Kitabevi. Uydu-Yücel, M. (2007). İlk Rus Yıllıklarına Göre Türkler. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. 292 �Yörükan, Y.Z. (2004). Müslüman Coğrafyacıların Gözüyle Ortaçağ’da Türkler. İstanbul. Gelenek Yayıncılık. Yusuf Has Hâcip (1994). Kutadgu Bilig. Trans.: R.R. Arat. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. 293 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 359 Title A name given to the resource Sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish History Author Author Mangaltepe, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. There are not too many sources about the historical events of the periods before the adoption of Islam of the Turks. Given the thousands years of the Turkish history, the fact that adequate written and archeological materials have not been left may be criticized. However, it may be understood if the role played by the Turks in the formation of a crucial stage of history is taken into consideration. Even though the number of the written sources left by the Turks, who achieved dominance in many geographical regions from Asia to Europe, is not high it is possible to shed light on the pre-Islamic history of the Turks thanks to the obtained archeological materials, oral sources and the information given by the people they were connected. In this study, we shall try to introduce Orkhon Inscriptions, which are the most significant written sources of the Turks, after giving brief information about the oral sources, archeological materials and written sources of the Turkish history. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7bc6c09a76afe2899d4c9a803e0db511.pdf 12dd89cc0808bb28d4df942df0a7f269 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Sovereign Credit Risk and Credit Default Swap Spread Reflections Neslihan Topbaş Atılım University, Ankara, TURKEY ntopbas@atilim.edu.tr The already experienced turbulence in the global financial system has focused the attentions of the market participants to especially sovereign risk; its major determinants, systematic nature as well as its contagion potential. In this study, the direction of the analysis of the sovereign risk is within the framework of the credit default swap (cds) transactions. The sovereign risk can also be elaborated by using the bond spreads of the sovereign but the latter is also driven by factors other than the sovereign risk such as the interest rate movements, supply conditions, liquidity etc. The already available economical and financial data provides invaluable opportunity to analyze the sovereign risk anticipation of the financial markets as it incorporates the valuation of cds in real crisis times of 2008 and 2009 and 2011-first half of 2012 as well as the before and after economic and financial data of the selected countries namely Brazil, Turkey, Russia, Korea, Greece and Spain. The attitude of the investors towards risk as reflected in the financial market conditions affect the cds spreads of the sovereigns and this creates commonality which can be measured by the correlation between the individual sovereign cds spreads. In order to explain the co-movements in the cds spreads of the selected countries into a smaller number of common factors, principal component analysis was performed and it is seen that the first principal component captures nearly 62 percent and the first three component captures nearly 90 percent of the correlation matrix In this Study, in order to capture the relationships between the cds spreads and the country-specific and the global financial and economic factors, regression analysis has been performed. The country specific factors are determined as foreign exchange rate, foreign currency reserves, local stock market returns, external debt, and current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic products. The global financial and economic factors added to the model as independent variables are indexes about US Stock Market Return, US Treasury yields, US corporate yields and Emerging 224 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo market yields, as well as indicators of equity, term and volatility premium and bond and equity flows. The relationship between the global financial variables and cds spreads reveals the fact that the risk appetite in the global financial market affects the credit risk perception and consequently the cds spreads regardless of the employed indicator of the risk appetite. Specifically, it is also determined that domestic economic situation has significant effects on cds spreads (excluding Greece who experienced considerable turmoil in its economic and financial position), the local variables explain more than 75 percent of the cds spread level and this ratio increases to more than 80 percent when four emerging market countries are referred. Keywords: Credit Default Swaps, Sovereign Risk, Global Financial Indicators, Risk Appetite, Financial Crisis. 225 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fe394422cfcb082ee17c1587460d1cb0.docx 7b78ea5ae1667d305abe19e7a6a99592 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4744ecbff8fbd0ec538835f36d174841.pdf 6a354a8b24b3b436629e372e9393b393 PDF Text Text International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Sovereign Credit Risk and Credit Default Swap Spread Reflections NeslihanTopbas Atılım University, Ankara, Turkey ntopbas@atilim.edu.tr Abstract The already experienced turbulence in the global financial system has focused the attentions of the market participants to especially sovereign risk; its major determinants, systematic nature as well as its contagion potential. In this study, the direction of the analysis of the sovereign risk is within the framework of the credit default swap (cds) transactions. The sovereign risk can also be elaborated by using the bond spreads of the sovereign but the latter is also driven by factors other than the sovereign risk such as the interest rate movements, supply conditions, liquidity etc. The already available economic and financial data provides invaluable opportunity to analyze the sovereign risk anticipation of the financial markets as it incorporates the valuation of cds in real crisis times of 2008 and 2009 and 2011-first half of 2012 as well as the before and after economic and financial data of the selected countries namely Brazil, Turkey, Russia, Korea, Greece and Spain. The attitude of the investors towards risk as reflected in the financial market conditions affect the cds spreads of the sovereigns and this creates commonality which can be measured by the correlation between the individual sovereign cds spreads. In order to explain the co-movements in the cds spreads of the selected countries into a smaller number of common factors, principal component analysis was performed and it is seen that the first principal component captures nearly 62 percent and the first three component captures nearly 90 percent of the correlation matrix In this Study, in order to capture the relationships between the cds spreads and the country-specific and the global financial and economic factors, regression analysis have been performed. The country specific factors are determined as foreign exchange rate, foreign currency reserves, local stock market returns, external debt, current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic product. The global financial and economic factors added to the model as independent variables are indexes about US Stock Market Return, US Treasury yields, US corporate yields and Emerging market yields, as well as indicators of equity, term and volatility premium and bond and equity flows. The relationship between the global financial variables and cds spreads reveals the fact that the risk appetite in the global financial market affects the credit risk perception and consequently the cds spreads regardless of the employed indicator of the risk appetite. Specifically, it is also determined that domestic economic situation has significant effects on cds spreads (excluding Greece who experienced considerable turmoil in its economic and financial position), the local variables explain more than 75 percent of the cds spread level and this ratio increases to more than 80 percent when four emerging market countries are referred. Keywords: credit default swaps, sovereign risk, global financial indicators, risk appetite, financial crisis 1 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Introduction The nearness of Greece to sovereign default situation which was resulted with the biggest sovereign debt restructuring in the amount of approximately €100 billion out of the total debt of €350 billion of the country, triggered the relevant credit default swap transactions under the restructuring definition of the credit event. This had been constituted an important test of the financial system to the payment on sovereign bonds as referenced in credit default swaps (cds). In fact, this restructuring had been the breaking point of the long lasting Eurozone sovereign debt crisis since 2008, and considered to be the beginning point of another era of financial turmoil which will probably end up with new sovereign default cases. This experience was an impressive illustration of the usefulness of cds as an insurance against default risk. A cds is a credit derivative contract providing protection against the default risk (credit event) for a given reference entity (sovereign or corporate). The cds may cover a bond issued by the reference entity or the reference entity itself directly (in which case the contract will be unwound through a cash settlement only). Generally, the buyer of the cds has already exposed to the risk of the reference entity by lending it in the form of loans or bonds and, by the use of the cds, she acquires the right to sell the specific bond which she already owns (reference bond issued by the reference entity) at par value if a credit event occurs in exchange of the payments to the seller in the agreed amounts at regular intervals until the cds expires or a credit event occurs. In the latter case, the buyer makes a final payment and the swap is unwound either by delivery of the underlying asset or in cash. Within this framework, the Depository Trust and Clearing Corporation (DTCC) who provides post-trade processing services for over the counter (OTC) credit derivative trades announced that it completed the restructuring event for the Hellenic Republic (Greece sovereign entity) and a total of US$2.89 billion in net funds were transferred from net sellers of protection to net buyers in March 2012. The amount of the net funds to be transferred was calculated on the basis of the auction for Greece sovereign bonds which was conducted in accordance with the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA) protocols1 This experience revealed the importance of the legal specification of the “credit events” on the time of the initiation of the cds transaction whether the reference entity is sovereign or corporate. The already experienced turbulence in the global financial system focused the attentions of the market participants to especially sovereign risk; its major determinants, systematic nature as well as its contagion potential. In this study, the direction of the analysis of the sovereign risk is within the framework of the credit default swap transactions. The sovereign risk can also be elaborated by using the bond spreads of the sovereign but the latter is also driven by factors other than the sovereign risk such as the interest rate movements, supply conditions, liquidity etc. In the first section of this study, the cds will be elaborated especially in terms of the definition of the credit event under the legal documentation. The aim is to underline that not only default, but also restructuring of the debts can result with a cds to be unwounded. The Second section of this Study will begin with a literature review in order to figure out several different approaches to analyze the sovereign credit risk concept. In the next section, the data and the methodology employed to analyze the sovereign risk within the framework of cds transactions and the findings will be revealed. 1 http://www.dtcc.com/news/press/releases/2012/dtcc_successfully_completes_greek_cds.php 2 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo In the analysis, the multivariate approach of Longstaff, Pan, Pedersen and Singleton (2011) has been employed. In their study, Longstaff and friends used the country specific macroeconomic factors such as domestic stock market return, foreign exchange rate against US $ and foreign reserves of the sovereign and also global financial factors that may indicate the risk appetite such as US Stock Market Returns, US Treasury yields, corporate yield index etc. The main contribution of this study will be covering the data of the whole crisis time of 2008 and 2009 and especially Greece experience in the late 2011 and beginning 2012 although the sample countries is relatively limited. The already available economical and financial data provides invaluable opportunity to analyze the sovereign risk anticipation of the markets as it incorporates the valuation of cds in real crisis times of 2008 and 2009 and 2011-first half of 2012 of the selected countries namely Brazil, Turkey, Russia, Korea, Greece and Spain. When selecting the countries firstly the countries which have been in trouble in terms of sovereign riskiness such as Greece and Spain were preferred (although they have been considered as developed countries so far), then geographical diversification of the emerging market countries was considered in order to point out the possible region specific developments (if exists). Credit Events under Cds Legal Documentation Credit event refers to any credit-related event that triggers the realization of the obligations under a credit default swap. Although the parties may agree to exclude one or more of the defined events, the following six situations are industry-standard as defined in the 1999 ISDA credit derivatives definitions: Bankruptcy is defined in the section 5(a)(vii) of the ISDA Master Agreement and it encompasses a large variety of events associated with bankruptcy or insolvency proceedings under English law or New York law, as well as analogous events under other insolvency laws. The ISDA scope of bankruptcy is wider than insolvency-related events used by rating agencies, certain actions taken by the reference entity, like a board meeting or a shareholders meeting to consider the filing of a liquidation petition, may be considered to be an act of bankruptcy as well. 2 Obligation Acceleration concerns the situation, excluding a failure to pay, where the relevant obligation becomes due and payable before its normal expiration date but it is mostly the result of a default by the reference entity. Generally, the credit event is accepted to occur only if the relevant sum being accelerated is above a minimum threshold. Obligation Acceleration is different from obligation default in that if in a credit derivative transaction, obligation default is already specified as a credit event, and obligation acceleration will only be relevant if the default requirement is lower than the one of the obligation default. Obligation Default concerns the situation, excluding a failure to pay, where the relevant obligation becomes capable of being declared due and payable as a result of a default by the reference entity before the due time but the relevant sum being defaulted must exceed a minimum threshold generally. Failure to Pay refers to a failure of the reference entity to make any payments under one or more obligations at due time but usually it takes into account any contractual or institutional grace period before the credit event is triggered. 2 http://www.ericbenhamou.net/documents/Encyclo/Credit%20event.pdf 3 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Repudiation/Moratorium refers to situations where the sovereign disaffirms, disclaims or otherwise challenges the validity of the relevant obligation. Usually, like for obligation acceleration or default, a default requirement threshold is specified. Restructuring concerns situations where the terms of the relevant obligation especially the external indebtedness in the case where sovereign is the reference entity are modified and become less favorable to the obligation holders. Typical examples are a reduction in the principal amount, a decrease of interest payable under the obligation, a postponement of payment, a change in ranking in priority of payment or any other composition of payment. However, a restructuring event would not be considered to occur in circumstances where the relevant event does not result in a deterioration of the creditworthiness or financial condition of the reference entity. In fact, until Greece experience, sovereign is perceived to be risk free in the financial markets and consequently the pricing of a cds transaction for a specific sovereign was set lower than a reference entity other than sovereign located in the particular country. 3 This positioning has been a result of credit risk, any credit risk other than sovereign also includes sovereign risk as the sovereign may prohibit to make any payment abroad. Basically, the sovereign and corporate default differ in two main aspects; firstly in the case of the corporate default the courts are generally entitled both liquidation and restructuring mechanisms to the assets of the borrower to enforce the creditor rights but in case of the sovereign as most of the assets are located domestically within a country, sovereign cannot credibly commit to handing these assets over in the event of default. On the other hand, the sovereign immunity protects the assets of the sovereign outside the country as well. (Ang and Longstaff 2011, p.4) Secondly, there exists no recognized international process to be followed in case of the sovereign default. In practice, when such a probability occurs, either intergovernmental institutions such as International Monetary Fund comes into the scene in order to provide lending to the country in trouble or consortium of the international banks sit on the table in order to restructure the debt in order to make it payable for the borrower country. The default of any sovereign can be detrimental not for only itself but also for the global financial system as a whole because of the relatively larger amounts of indebtedness. The external indebtedness of the less developed countries is owed mainly to the intergovernmental institutions such as IMF and World bank as they have limited access to private financial system and those institutions lend the money collected from the member countries. For many of the emerging and all of the developed countries, generally external indebtedness has been owed to the international banks and financial institutions. In such a framework, the default of any sovereign is a shock to the international investor confidence so no one wants it to be realized but this does not mean that the financial system never permits any sovereign default. It is a fact that some countries have never defaulted in the past such as the United States at the federal level, Canada, Australia, South Africa (except for an episode related to sanctions in 1985), most Asian countries, and most Arab countries. On the other hand, Latin America as a region is represented in all default waves since the 1820s as Argentina, Ecuador, and Uruguay defaulted in the most recent wave as well as most previous waves. After the worst global financial crisis in 1930s, the default wave occurred in 1980s affecting many countries especially the newly independent Africa countries. The second important default cycle realized in the period between 1998-2004, 3 i.e. Reinhart and Rogo (2008) illustrate the public misperception of government debt as a safe haven on their Paperpreparedforpresentation at theAmericanEconomicAssociationmeetings in San Francisco, January 3, 2009. 4 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo but IMF played a more aggressive role in preventing debt restructurings. (Sturzenegger and Zettelmeyer 2007, p.9-10) Although it is said to be postponed but not prevented yet, the last default cycle commenced in 2008, ironically not affecting Latin America and other developing countries but developed ones in Europe such as Greece, Spain, Portugal and even France. Literature Review As the financial reports of a company reveals the financial position of a corporation, the macro economic factors shows the debt payment capacity of the sovereign as well as the vulnerability of this capacity to the external shocks. There exists no agreement on the determinants of sovereign default risk, as reflected in sovereign credit spreads. While some of the analysis show that the government‟s ability to service its debt depends on the underlying macroeconomic fundamentals and, therefore, is country-specific, some others revealed strong commonality in the movement of cds spreads regardless of the country specifics. Most of the early studies had taken into account the individual macroeconomic variable(s) as independent variable and test the relationship between those macro-economic variable(s) and cds spreads such as: - Low Current Account Balance to GDP ratio signals a decrease in the default probabilities of a country and reduces the cds spreads (Georgievska et al. 2008, p.1037) - High Import to GDP ratio should lead to higher cds spreads as foreign exchange outflow increases (Georgievska et al. 2008, p.1040) - High Debt to Export ratio increases cds spreads (Catao and Sutton 2002, p.16) - High Reserves to Debt ratio should have a negative relationship with the sovereign cds spread (Catao and Sutton 2002, p.16) - High debt to GDP ratio is positively related with cds spreads (Mellios and Blanc 2006, p.363) - High inflation rate should increase the credit risk attached to a nation (Mellios and Blanc 2006, p.365) - Economic growth decrease the credit risk associated to that country and thus its cds spread (Baek et al. 2005, p.544) - A devaluation of the exchange rate of a country should increase the price of the cds spreads as it conveys a doubtful credit position (Baek et al. 2005, p.545) - High Household Debt to GDP ratio of an economy increases the credit risk attached which should lead to higher cds spreads (Reinhart and Rogoff 2008, p.119) - The Risk-free rate should therefore be negatively related to cds spreads (Fontana and Scheicher 2010, p.16) - Spreads on emerging market instruments have strong and well-defined relationships to their credit rating, maturity, and currency denomination. (Kamin and Kleist 1999, p.16) - Sovereign ratings effectively summarize and supplement the information contained in macroeconomic indicators and are therefore strongly correlated with marketdetermined credit spreads.( Cantor, R. and Packer, F. (1996), p.37) 5 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo As cds was originated as an insurance against credit risk, the theoretical findings that particular country specific macro-economic variables determine the cds spreads is not surprising. Nevertheless, the observed degree of co-movement of the individual country cds spreads pave the way for researchers to identify the common factors(s) driving sovereign credit risk and to study the common variation in global sovereign cds spreads. The findings supporting the commonalities in credit spreads are summarized below: - Spreads on sovereign bonds today co-move to a greater extent than they did historically as they are driven more by global events than country specific fundamentals.(Mauro, Sussman and Yafeh 2002, p.703) - The sources of credit risk for the emerging markets can be split into three elements: The first element, which is the least relevant, is the result of shocks through country-specific fundamentals. The second element is the result of global variables, such as US stock market returns and the slope of the US Treasury bond curve and the third and most important, element is the contribution of regional factors, such as a systematic component of the four stock markets, a systematic volatility component and investor sentiment.(Weigel and Gemmill 2006, p.497) - Since the structural models of sovereign credit risk focus on country-specific factors in explaining the credit spread of sovereigns, they fail to capture aggregate market effects which are important determinants of sovereign credit spreads (Westphalen 2001, p.20) - A single common factor drives the common portion of variation in sovereign bond spreads for a sample of 15 emerging market countries (McGuire and Schrijvers 2003, p.20) - Sizeable common factor in the changes of emerging market spreads is related to international developments. (Garcia-Herrero and Ortiz 2007, p.150) - Liquidity, solvency and economic stability variables significantly affect the market premium of country risk as reflected in the cds spreads. (Baek, Bandopadhyaya and Du 2005,p.547) - The credit spreads for Mexico, Turkey and Korea share a strong common relation to US stock market volatility as measured by the VIX index.( Pan and Singleton 2008, p.2380) - The distance-to-default is largely driven by systematic global and regional factors, so investors should treat the credit risk of these emerging markets as nondiversifiable. ( Weigel and Gemmill 2006, p.490) The research of Longstaff and friends (2011) stipulates that sovereign credit risk is driven much more by global financial market variables and global risk premia than by local economic forces. This dependence on common global factors such as U.S. stock market returns and high-yield spread changes induces significant correlation into the credit spreads of a broad cross-section of sovereign nations. After inclusion of the data of crisis time of 2008 and 2009, they went one step further and determined that both the risk-premium and default-risk components of cds spreads are strongly related to global macroeconomic factors. Another update research on systemic sovereign credit risk as reflected in the cds spreads are done through comparing the credit risk components of the US and Europe member countries and resulted with interesting findings. (Ang and Longstaff 2011)Using a multifactor affine credit model, the sovereign credit risk was decomposed into a systemic component and a sovereign-specific component and it is found that the systemic risk represents a much smaller fraction of total credit risk for US states than is the case for members of the EMU although the reverse was expected. The commonality in sovereign cds spreads was also elaborated on a consumption based framework and the role of US consumption forecasts and volatility in explaining sovereign 6 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo cds was investigated.(Augustin and Tedongap 2011) The findings suggest that sovereign credit risk is priced globally rather than locally, consistent with previous literature. The Data The data used in this study is monthly US Dollar denominated cds spreads of the selected countries, namely Turkey, Brazil, Russia, Korea, Greece and Spain with 5 year maturity. 5 year is selected as the relevant maturity in order to better address the reflections of the changes in sovereign default risk to cdspremia as 5 years is accepted as the most representative maturity by the market players with regards to its liquidity. The sample period is from May 2005 to June 2012, this period is selected because of the availability of the data not only of cds spreads but also other country specific and global macroeconomic and financial factors. All of the data is gathered from Datastream. All cds spreads are quoted in basis point (bps) and Table 1 provides summary information about the sovereign spreads. Table 1 clearly reveals the situation of cds spreads when default probability increases, as in Greece. The min and max values of cds spreads of Greece diverge considerably while the standard deviation shows great variance. The second highest vulnerable country seems as Russia as reflected in standard deviation, followed by Spain. The most stable cds spread movements belongs to Korea that was prepared to deal with new crisis after 1997-1998 crisis in terms of foreign reserves, improved financial structures of firms and banks, relatively mild house price hikes, and the sound government budget, as well as the foreign exchange policy that honored market forces, the monetary policy that stabilizes domestic economy, and the fiscal policy that was carried out on time. (Cho 2010, p.21) Correlations and Principal Component Analysis There exist many different views and definitions about the credit risk but it is widely accepted that credit risk consist of two components: the default risk and the spread risk. The default risk is relevant with the non-compliance of the borrower to the legal, financial and operational obligations covered and so, more related with the documentation-related aspect of a transaction creating exposure. The other component is the spread risk and it is relevant with the market value of the contract when the credit quality of the borrower changes. Reflecting this definition of the credit risk to the definition of cds spreads, the decomposition generally clarifies the possible risk factors that may have affect. The magnitude of the default risk component is determined by the factors affecting the probability of the default of the specific entity, sovereign in our analysis, or from a different terminology the arrival rate of default which is highly country-specific. On the other hand, the second component, spread risk is clearly relevant with the market conditions affecting all other transactions such as liquidity in the markets, risk appetite etc. In this framework, the market related component of credit risk is applicable to all cds transactions especially the sovereign cds where sovereigns are from the same market segment such as emerging markets so co-movement in the cds spreads of the sovereigns must not be surprising. It is accepted that the financial market conditions do affect the cds spreads of the sovereigns and this, probably, creates some degree of commonality which can be measured 7 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo by the correlation between the individual sovereign cds spreads. The commonality is originated from some principal factors which can be measured by principal component analysis. The proposed co-movement of the cds spreads reveals itself on the correlation for the counties and Table 2 shows the pair-wise correlations of the cds spread changes of the selected countries. It is seen that Greece and Spain considerably diverged from other four countries whereas the other four countries have very high correlations between themselves. Table 3 indicates support to the idea that in crisis time the co-movement between the individual country cds spread changes increases. September 2008 is defined as the beginning of the crisis time and the pairwise correlations are calculated by using the data before and after that period. For all of the pair of sovereigns, the correlation increased. The highest increase is realized in the correlations of the Spain with other countries, reflecting the co-movement further. In order to explain the co-movements in the cds spread of the selected countries into a smaller number of common factors, principal component analysis was performed. Table 3 stipulates the principal component analysis of the correlation matrix of cds spread changes as given in Table 2. The results indicate that there is significant amount of commonality in the variation of cds spreads. The first principal component captures nearly 62 percent of the variation, whereas the first three components capture nearly 90 percent of the correlation matrix. This finding is parallel to the determinations of Longstaff and friend (2011) although they used a different base period (October 2010- January 2010) and a different sovereign set of 26 countries. Regression Analysis The empirical studies focusing on sovereign risk as reflected in the cds spreads have generally adopted two different approaches, one of which is based on comparing the actual credit spreads with the selected structural model and the other has been regressing the changes in the credit spreads with the change rate of the selected variables. In this study, in order to capture the relationships between the cds spreads and the country-specific and the global financial and economic factors, regression analysis has been performed; the dependent variable is set as the change in cds spreads and the change in the independent variables which are summarized below are grouped under two main headings, the countryspecific variables and the global financial variables and the rate of change of these variables. Country-specific Variables The country specific economic variables have been selected by referring their affects to possible payment failure of the sovereign. All the data mentioned below are gathered from DataStream which is a product of Thompson Reuters, unless otherwise stated in the definition of the variable. It is also noteworthy to mention that all of the country-specific factors mentioned are also included in the sovereign rating methodology of the major rating agencies as Standard &Poors and Moody‟s. - Cds Spreads: The spreads of US Dollar denominated sovereign cds transactions with 5 years maturity of each country are used. - Foreign Exchange Rate: The monthly local foreign currency rates per U.S. Dollar against domestic currencies are used. There exist floating exchange rate regimes in all of 8 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo the selected countries, consequently the foreign exchange rate acts as a barometer against the possible fluctuations in of the countries capability of paying external indebtedness except Spain and Greece having Euro as the domestic currency. - Foreign Currency Reserves: The U.S.Dollar equivalent of the foreign currency reserves is used. From the lenders side, the higher the amount of such reserves, the more comfortable they feel as in tough times the sovereign will be able to pay its debts without needing further financing. - Local Stock Market Returns: The monthly changes in the local market indexes are taken as the measure of the local market return. All the countries involved have wellfunctioning local equity markets and those markets reflect not only domestic real economical balances but also the global risk appetite through foreign portfolio investments. The factors explained above were the ones also employed by Longstaff and friends (2011) who determined that the country-specific factors comes behind the global market factors in determining the sovereign riskiness and cds spreads. In order to better address the sovereign default risk as perceived by the market participants two more country-specific factors have been added to the model: - External Debt: The U.S.Dollar equivalent of the total external indebtedness of each sovereign is used. From the lenders side the higher the external debt of a country, the more vulnerable it would be to fluctuations in the international funding environment. - Current Account Balance as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product: This ratio represents all the economic activities of the nation affecting the foreign exchange flows, it includes net foreign trade and also capital flows. This variable is added to the original model referring to the study of Hilsher and Nosbusch who worked on the effect of particularly the export performance of the countries to its debt paying capacity. (Hilsher and Nosbusch, 2010) Global Financial Variables Many of the earlier research have ended up with the determination that the cds spreads are driven more by the global financial markets than the country-specific variables. The following factors representing the overall climate of the global environment are employed in the analysis: - US Stock Market Returns: The S&P 500 composite index is employed in order to reflect the risk appetite as indicated by U.S. equities. In order to fully reflect the stock market developments, not the excess return but the monthly return as calculated by the changes in S&P 500 composite index has been employed. - US Treasury yields: As for the cds spreads 5 year maturity is selected as reference term, the S&P 5-Year U.S. Treasury note Excess Return Index is employed in order to address the fluctuations in the bond returns. In addition to this index, the yields of 5 year maturity constant maturity treasury (CMT) rates computed by the Federal Reserve Board are also employed. CMT is based on the corresponding Treasury yield curve rate and is usually computed by averaging either the past week's or the past months daily rates of the underlying constant maturity Treasury. 9 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo - Corporate Yields: The index of the spread of the US corporate with rating AAA minus that of US corporate with rating A as produced by Merrill Lynch is used. For the difference in the spreads of the US non-investment grade corporates with BBB and B ratings, the difference of the indexes for the both group of the corporates as produced by Thompson Reuters is used. Both of the variables are perceived as the measure of risk/return preferences of the investors. - Equity Premium: The monthly price/earnings ratio for the S&P 100 index is used as a measure of equity premium. - Volatility Premium: Chicago Board Options Exchange Market Volatility Index, also named as VIX, measuring the market's expectation of stock market volatility over the next 30 day period is used as a proxy for volatility premium. Among the market-level variables, changes in VIX, a proxy for market-wide risk aversion or the so-called “fear factor”, have more significant explanatory power than others. - Term Premium: The index calculated by Barclays to represent the spread difference between the US Treasury bonds with 5 years and 1 year maturity is used as a measure of the term premium. - Bond and Equity Flows: The Datastream provides the net flow of mutual funds to global bond and global equity markets and those amounts are used. - Emerging Market Index: As a measure of the risk appetite towards specifically to the emerging market countries EMBI index as calculated by JP Morgan is employed. The EMBI index track foreign-currency denominated government bond yields for a number of emerging market economies and it is commonly used as measures of country risk. Correlations of the Variables with the cds Spreads The variables are intentionally selected with regards to their anticipated relationship with the cds spreads which is thought to have affect on the sovereign risk. In this framework, the correlation between monthly changes in the value of each variable and cds spreads may be questioned when evaluating their effect on the cds spreads. A correlation matrix indicating the pairwise correlations of each variable with the cds spreads for each sovereign is given in Table 5. Also, by using the country specific eigenvalues as weights, a comprehensive correlation was calculated in order to measure the correlation of each variable and those correlations are given in the rightmost column of Table 5. Also, in order to better address the co-movement between the cds spreads and global financial variables before and after the financial crisis, the correlations of each variable with individual countries cds spreads is given in Table 6. Referring to the correlations given in Table 5 and Table 6, the following determinations can be made: - Amongst the country-specific variables, the equity index has the highest negative correlation with the cds spreads. While the correlation is above -0,60 for the countries in the emerging country segment, it is lower for Spain and Greece, respectively -0,215 and 0,357. This strong negative correlation is in line with the finding of Coronado and friends (2012) but the lower correlation of Greece and Spain contradict with their finding that correlations are more significant in the case of the countries with 10 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo higher risk premiums (Italy, Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal) than th others with lower cds spread levels. - There exist considerable positive relationship between the monthly changes in FX rates and the cds spreads(on average +0,53). As devaluation of the domestic currency generally signals difficulty in the external economic positioning of a country, such a parallel increase in the cds spreads is understandable. - Although FX reserves and foreign indebtedness of a country have been regarded as amongst the major default risk components, such relations are not confirmed with the data employed referring to Table 5. - Amongst the global financial market variables, the highest and negative correlation exist between the monthly changes in S&P 500 index and cds spreads of the selected countries. This finding is in line with the findings of Longstaff and friends (2011). There is extensive evidence that shocks to the US financial markets are transmitted globally. It is thought that US security prices incorporate information about economic fundamentals or market liquidity that is relevant to a broad cross-section of countries. Referring to Table 6, the negative relationship widens after financial crisis for each of the country reflecting a further highlighting the risk concerns of the investors. - The correlation of the monthly changes in cds spreads and EMBI index represents a considerable positive relationship (on average +0, 42). The EMBI widens as risk aversion increases, so do cds spreads. Table 6 shows that generally positive or slightly negative relationship between two variables before crisis turn to higher negative relationship after crisis. It is noteworthy to mention that while the correlation of EMBI spreads and cds spreads are very low for Greece and Spain, they shows a negative relatively high relationship after crisis like other emerging market countries analyzed. - Accepting US Treasury bonds as a safe heaven, the sovereign bonds and US investment grade corporate bonds compete for funds as alternatives of the investment decisions. In this regard, the negative and relatively high relationship between the changes in the spread difference of US corporate bonds with AAA and A ratings and the cds spreads of the selected countries, which is -0,379 on average is understandable. Referring to Table 5, for Greece and Spain, the correlation is -0,06 and -0,11 respectively, meaning that they differ from the emerging market countries. However, the correlation increases considerably for both countries after the crisis as stipulated in Table 6. - Another US- financial market indicator is spread difference of the corporate with BBB and B ratings. Table 5 shows a negligible correlation between those spreads and cds spreads. However Table 6 shows a different picture; while before crisis there exist negative correlations for all the countries, after crisis the relations become positive and relatively high for all of the countries. This can be explained in such a way that as risk aversion increases in financial markets, the sovereign, as well as non-sovereign US risks are regarded as within the same “risky” assets group. - The relationship between 5 years US Treasury excess returns and cds spreads is ambiguous referring to Table 5 as both has a correlation of -0,06. However, Table 6 signals a relatively high negative relationship after crisis although the relationship has positive sign before. This can be interpreted again with risk aversion in the market after crisis when 11 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo funds flow to US Treasury as safe heaven, spreads fall while cds spreads widened. The correlation between the cds spreads and CMT index which is another indicator of US Treasury yield is higher as compared to 5 years UST Excess Returns. - Amongst the variables representing the premiums, the monthly changes in the volatility premium as represented by VIX index has highest positive relationship with cds spread. This finding is in parallel with the findings of Longstaff and friends. (2011), Pan and Singleton (2008) and Remolona and friends (2008). - Unlike the expectations, the correlation of the monthly changes in the both flows, equity and bond, are not that significant. Results of the Regression Analysis Putting together all the selected and analyzed variables with regards to their relationships with the monthly cds spread changes of the selected sovereigns, firstly the regression was performed with only the country specific data; the computed t statistics for each variable is given in Table7. Specifically, Adjusted R2 for each country shows that the individual country economic situation has significant effects on cds spreads except Greece who experienced considerable turmoil in its economic and financial position. Although it is presumed that this deterioration has to be reflected in the cds spreads, the announcement of ISDA that the credit event occurred in the form of restructuring inevitably created imbalances such as illiquidity which in turn may make the cds spreads meaningless. The relationship between US Dollar against domestic currency rate and cds spreads is rather ambiguous as out of 6 countries 2 of them have negative signed t statistics. One of the recent studies for explaining and predicting sovereign credit risk with exchange rate volatility revealed the facts that the exchange rate volatility has an important role in the structural model of sovereign risk but the market does not fully price in the sovereign balance sheet information into CDS spreads. ( Duyvesteyn and Marten, 2011) When evaluating the affect of the variables in determining the cds spreads individually, the negative local stock market return coefficient across all the countries attracts attention. This can be understood in such a way that when many things go well in an economy this is reflected in the stock index to rise and cds spreads to fall.4 The relationship between the FX reserves of a country and cds spreads is also negative across countries. From the foreign lenders perspective, the higher FX reserve means higher payment capacity without the need of further financing, more generally a decline in foreign currency reserves, and/or a rise in the foreign debt default will increase cds spreads. 5 The relationship between external debt and cds spreads is also impressive in having positive signed t statistics in all countries except Greece again. This positive relationship is logical and confirmed with many other research such as the one performed by Garcia and 4 Therelationshipbetweenstockmarketsandtherealeconomicactivity has beenextensivelydebated in themacroeconomicandthefinanceliterature. Since 70‟s, standardvaluationmodelsestablishthattheaggregatestock market is determinedbymacroeconomicfundamentals [Cochrane (1991), Fama (1981)]. Evidencefromtherelevantresearchsuggesttheexistence of such a linkagebetweenthatfinancialmarketsandeconomicfundamentalsacross a variety of marketsand time horizons. 5 See IMF GFSR (April 2006), Box 3.6forsovereign CCA andimpact of changes in debtstructure. 12 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Rigobon (2005), who find that risk-based measures of debt sustainability are closely related to spreads in the case of Brazil. Balance of Payment as a % of GDP is included in the model as an independent variable because it is believed that this ratio not only gives the general foreign exchange related position of a country but also relates its external position with the economical capacity. From Table 7, it is seen that the relationship between this variable and cds spreads is negative across all the countries which is also logical as this ratio increases so the inflow from abroad in terms of trade relations as well as capital flows and the perceived riskiness will decrease as reflected in cds spreads. Despite all of these inferences, it is noteworthy to mention that many of the internal variables does not have significance at a 95 percent confidence level . Given the high level of Adjusted R2, this does not mean that the model does not work but some caution is needed to generalize the results. Broadening the perspective in the analysis of the cds spreads of the selected countries by adding the global financial factors, new regressions were realized and the produced t statistics are given on Table 6. First of all, comparing Adjusted R2 „s of Table 7 and 8, the considerable increase in the predictive capacity of the model for each country does worth to mention. With the inclusion of the global financial variables not only the predictive capacity increased, but also t statistics especially of the country-specific variables gained significance in 95 percent confidence level as can be seen from Table 8. In the last row of Table 8, a new dimension was included named as Local ratio by Longstaff and friends (2011) which is calculated as Adjusted R2 of the model when only country-specific variables included divided by the Adjusted R2 when all variables are included. This ratio shows that except Greece, the local variables explain more than 75 percent of the cds spread level. The situation for Greece is exceptional as it has already experienced a quasi-default occasion. In fact, the low local factor ratio for Spain can be interpreted with the revised market pricing of cds transactions of Spain after the Greek experience. The other countries, all of which are in the emerging market segment, have local ratios near or above than 80% which means that their credit standing is highly dependent on the local macro-economic environment. Surprisingly, Balance of Payment as a % of GDP ratio is the most significant local variable at 95 percent confidence level as t statistics are significant for 4 countries out of 6 but the direction of the relationship reveals some ambiguity. For Russia and Korea, t statistics have positive sign unlike the other countries which can be explained by the fact that these two countries are net exporters. The domestic equity index and cds spread are again negatively correlated except Turkey, but this variable is statically significant only for Greece. The external debt also keeps the direction of the relation as positive for all the countries except again Greece whose external debt in type of bonds have restructured to longer terms in the first quarter of 2012. The FX reserves variable is significant for Korea and Greece although the former indicates a positive and the latter a negative relationship. As the direction of the relation of this variable is ambiguous, may be it was better to specify the external debt as a fraction of GDP. From the Table 8, it is seen that many of the global financial market variables have significant t values for the countries involved. As parallel to the findings of Longstaff and friends (2011), the variable of 5 years US Treasury excess returns has significant t values across all the countries. The direction of the relationship between cds spread is equally 13 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo distributed among countries. A similar variable is Constant Maturity Treasury with 5 years maturity, 3 out of 6 countries it has significantly affected cds spreads. The softening risk appetite generally results with a shift of funds from US Treasury to equity and relatively high risk bonds and the first address is to less risky shares as covered by S&P 500 index, consequently increasing S&P 500 index generally signals improved risk appetite which is expected to smoothen the cds spreads as well, so a negative relationship is expected but the results of the analysis does not support this view. The direction of the relationship is negative for Brazil and Turkey and positive for the others. The relationship between the monthly changes in S&P 500 index and the cds spreads of the selected sovereigns has significance for 2 countries out of 6. In the market place, the return difference between the US corporate with AAA and A ratings decreases when the risk appetite smoothens, the same is true for also US corporate BBB and B difference as the investors will not differentiate the riskiness of the categories so a negative relationship is expected. The expectations are confirmed with the findings as can be seen from Table 8 as both of the variables have generally negative signs and it can also be said that this variable is also significant at 95 percent confidence level. The other group of global variables are premiums of equity, volatility and terms measuring the relation of the cds spreads with price earnings ratio of S&P 100 index, VIX and the index issued by Barclays indicating the spread difference between 5 and 1 year bonds respectively. From Table 8, it is clearly seen that all the premiums are statistically significant in determining cds spreads at 95 percent confidence level. The last interesting finding from Table 8 is that funds flow from US to invest to whether bonds or equity does not affect the cds spreads considerably although funds flow is expected to rise in good times when also cds spreads narrows. Conclusion The protection provided by a cds transaction has gained importance especially after the quasi-default situation of Greece. The market participants have begun to question not only the dissolution procedure of the cds transactions after the realization of a credit event but also the protection they provided and whether the cds spreads truly reflect the credit risk of the sovereign. The cds spreads should reflect the developments in the country-specific macro-economic fundamentals affecting the default probability of a sovereign in order provide hedging capability. However cds is a trade able instrument, the spreads are determined in the market place so inevitably are affected by the market climate. Many researchers have focused on the local and global factors affecting the cds spreads and this study also aimed to figure out the cds spreads of six countries, namely Brazil, Russia, South Korea, Turkey, Greece and Spain. The first four countries are amongst the emerging market segment and intentionally selected representing different geographical locations, as well as trade positions and Greece and Spain were selected in order to capture the possible dynamics in the cds spreads in case of quasi-default and default rumors which are the cases for them respectively. Whatever the source of commonality, it is a fact that the cds spreads of the sovereigns do move together as indicated by high correlation among the cds spreads of the selected countries for the period between May 2005 till May 2012 covering the crisis times of 2008-2009 as well as Euro-sovereign crisis. When evaluating the pair-wise correlations of monthly changes of the cds spreads the decomposition of Greece and Spain from the other 14 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo countries is seen easily. This decomposition may be attributable to the troublesome conditions they face but also to their origination to Euro area of economic cooperation and the developed nature of their economies. Not surprisingly, the emerging market countries have high correlations amongst themselves as the internal and external factors affecting their credit riskiness are similar. The monthly cds spreads movements are not only correlated highly but also a limited number of common factors have affect all of the sovereigns as 62 percent of the variation is explained by the first common factor and the first three component captures nearly 90 percent of the correlation. The relation of the cds spreads with some index such as S&P 500 index and VIX have been analyzed by many of the researcher and the result is parallel to earlier findings such that the principal source of variation across the sovereign cds spreads of the selected countries comes from US stock market return and volatility as defined by those indexes. The correlation of the monthly changes in each variable with that of the cds spreads indicated a very significant negative relationship between domestic equity index (Greece and Spain decomposed) and a relatively significant positive relationship with FX rates against US Dollar. The relation with FX reserves and foreign indebtedness are not confirmed although these variables may be considered to be amongst the determinants of the credit riskiness of a country. The relation was even loose for the variable which is specified as the balance of payment as a percentage of GDP. Amongst the global financial variables, the most influential are US equity indices as represented by S&P 500 index with a high degree of negative correlation and EMBI with a high degree of positive correlation. Another impressive finding is that the difference between the spreads of US corporate with AAA and A rating and also that of BBB and B ratings has negative and relatively high correlations. Notably, the correlation between the monthly changes in cds spreads and VIX index is also positive and high. The financial market related variables and their relationship with cds spreads reveals the fact that the risk appetite in the global financial market affects the credit risk perception and consequently the cds spreads regardless of the employed indicator of the risk appetite. But, the portfolio flows do not have significant relation with cds spreads, may be steaming from their probable lagging occurrences. In fact, the regression analysis produced supportive results to the above mentioned determinations. Specifically, it is revealed that individual country economic situation has significant effects on cds spreads except Greece who experienced considerable turmoil in its economic and financial position. More specifically it is seen that except Greece, the local variables explains more than 75 percent of the cds spread level and this ratio increases to more than 80% when four emerging market countries are referred. Adding global financial variables into the system not only increased the predictive capability of the model but also increased the significance of the contributions of the local variables more significant so making the overall model more predictive. 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Appendix Russia Brazil Turkey Korea Greece Spain Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Credit Default Swap Spreads Mean Standard Minimum Median Maximum Deviation 184,04 182,54 43 137,16 1.001,01 162,33 85,99 62,7 127,56 446,40 227,07 93,88 132 195,85 605,82 102,20 94,21 14,5 93,32 450 1.500,586 3.611,67 4,7 104,5 14.904,36 103,72 117,73 1,05 61,08 449,51 17 N 86 86 86 86 86 86 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Table 2 Correlation Matrix of Monthly Changes in Sovereign Credit Default Swap Spreads of the Selected Countries Russia Brazil Russia 1,0000 0,8531 Brazil Turkey Korea Greece 1,0000 Turkey 0,8254 0,8106 1,0000 Korea 0,7846 0,6917 0,7750 1,0000 Greece 0,3639 0,3026 0,3044 0,3801 1,0000 Spain 0,3040 0,2844 0,2734 0,3294 0,3554 Spain 1,0000 Table 3 Correlation Matrix of Monthly Changes in Sovereign Credit Default Swap Spreads of the Selected Countries Before and After Crisis Brazil Turkey Korea Greece Spain beforecri aftercri beforecri aftercri beforecri aftercri beforecri aftercri beforecri aftercri sis sis sis sis sis sis sis sis sis sis Russi 0,8148 0,8723 0,6498 0,8217 0,7073 0,8817 0,3428 0,3821 0,2091 0,5932 a Brazi 0,8125 0,8437 0,6928 0,8740 0,4461 0,4297 l 0,2971 0,6834 Turk 0,5824 0,8694 0,2944 0,3000 ey 0,1534 0,5403 Kore 0,3706 0,4391 a 0,2200 0,6316 Gree ce 0,3596 0,5900 Table 4 Principal Component Analysis Results of the Correlation Matrix of Monthly cds spread changes Principal Percent Total Component Explained First 0,6192 0,6192 Second 0,1707 0,7899 Third 0,1074 0,8972 Fourth 0,0515 0,9788 Fifth 0,0212 1,0000 Table 5 Correlation Between the Monthly Changes of the Variables and cds Spreads FX Rate FX Reserves External Debt Equity Index Balance of Payment as of Russia 0,3789 0,0666 0,0711 0,7405 - Brazil 0,6526 0,1573 0,0234 Turkey 0,7760 0,0191 Korea 0,6057 0,0284 Greece 0,3267 0,3127 0,0638 0,1662 0,6002 - 0,7644 - -0,635 0,0299 -0,357 - - 18 Spain 0,2071 0,0052 0,3504 General 0,5311 -0,0006 0,2147 0,0768 -0,6018 0,0668 -0,0319 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo GDP 0,0397 0,0264 0,0802 0,0272 0,0483 S&P 500 Index 0,6377 0,4347 0,0162 0,5894 0,4988 0,01 0,6546 0,4084 0,0254 0,2366 -0,114 0,3581 0,1177 0,1123 0,0726 0,0212 0,4922 0,1822 0,1586 0,4883 0,4675 0,4927 0,0656 0,0538 0,1591 0,0508 0,269 -0,5830 0,2487 0,0887 0,4802 0,6157 0,4883 0,0252 0,1973 0,0404 0,1244 0,4223 0,0613 0,5233 0,1804 0,1393 0,2971 0,1285 0,0897 0,5363 0,0811 0,0575 0,5069 0,0027 0,2658 0,1748 0,1471 0,0721 0,2029 0,0008 -0,1052 0,1225 0,0521 0,0199 0,084 0,1433 0,0767 0,1213 0,0128 0,1315 0,0784 0,1499 0,0505 -0,1102 US Corp. Spread AAA-A US Corp. Spread BBB-B CMT-5 years Diff. Diff. 5 years UST Excess Returns EMBI Equity Premium Volatility Premium Term Premium Bond Flow Equity Flow -0,3792 -0,0119 -0,1956 -0,0673 0,4075 -0,0946 0,03073 Table 6 Correlation Between the Monthly Changes of the Variables and cds Spreads Before and After Crisis Russia before crisis S&P 500 Index Brazil after crisis before crisis Turkey after crisis before crisis Korea after crisis before crisis after crisis Greece before crisis after crisis Spain before crisis after crisis -0,4973 -0,6906 -0,5844 -0,5905 -0,6473 -0,6648 -0,5407 -0,7082 -0,4733 -0,4944 -0,3029 -0,6431 Corp, Spread Diff, AAA-A -0,2282 -0,6663 0,0833 -0,7222 0,1359 -0,2484 0,006 -0,3446 0,429 -0,2043 0,4359 -0,1358 0,4693 -0,1658 0,4342 -0,1553 0,1608 -0,162 0,2203 Corp, Spread Diff, BBB-B -0,1926 CMT-5 years -0,3579 -0,2159 -0,037 -0,6918 -0,2545 -0,6899 -0,427 -0,1806 -0,2274 -0,1676 -0,2944 -0,1699 -0,4173 -0,0543 -0,1632 -0,0284 5 years US Treasury 0,2825 -0,2343 0,0797 -0,1809 0,1389 -0,3102 0,414 -0,2142 0,3393 -0,2291 0,2048 -0,2483 Excess Returns EMBI 0,1075 -0,6498 0,0431 -0,6452 -0,1162 -0,6428 -0,0976 -0,6779 -0,0991 -0,383 0,0399 -0,3367 Equity Premium Volatility Premium 0,1626 -0,129 0,0052 -0,1706 0,678 0,4734 0,5566 0,2271 0,009 -0,1302 -0,0024 -0,1009 -0,0796 -0,3222 -0,1195 -0,0817 0,6697 0,487 0,4968 0,5453 0,2541 0,1537 0,1479 0,3824 Term Premium 0,1097 -0,3167 0,1602 -0,2579 0,0399 -0,1536 0,2322 -0,1767 0,2518 -0,3921 0,1551 -0,2468 Bond Flow 0,1432 -0,1594 0,3565 -0,0626 0,2427 -0,2156 0,0845 -0,182 0,0786 -0,1943 -0,1539 -0,2927 Equity Flow -0,1952 0,0902 -0,1596 0,121 -0,1476 0,1264 -0,1914 0,0618 -0,257 -0,0464 -0,1573 -0,0513 19 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Table 7 Regression Analysis Results of Country Specific Variables and cds Spreads of the Selected Sovereigns 1 Russia FX Rate Equity Index FX Reserves External Debt Balance of Payment as % of GDP Adjusted R2 1 -1,25 -11,22 -3,12 5,79 -3,02 Brazil Turkey 5,6 -1,12 -3,76 2,46 -4,45 1,68 -13,74 -1,33 5,48 -1,58 0,7206 0,8121 * 0,7674 Korea Greece 9,15 -1,28 -3,64 4,31 -1,92 -0,94 -7,71 -3,14 -4,57 -2,9 * * * 0,8809 Spain * 0,4701 5,6 -1,12 -3,76 2,46 -4,45 0,7206 t statistics having significance at 95percent confidence level is denoted by *, Table 8 Regression Analysis Results of Country Specific and Global Variables and cds Spreads of the Selected Sovereigns 1 Russia Turkey Korea 6,23 -0,18 4,35 -4,55 6,66 0,05 Greece FX Rate FX Reserves 0,98 -1,02 ExternalDebt 1,18 3,43 5,91 1,51 -7,46 Equity Index -2,15 -1,57 0,09 -1,48 -0,46 -2,69 -0,82 Balance of Payment as of GDP 1,48 S&P 500 Index 0,81 -0,46 * -1,74 Diff, -3,12 0 * -1,45 Diff, -1,32 Corp, Spread AAA-A Corp, Spread BBB-B CMT-5 years 5 years US TreasuryExcessReturns 1 * Brazil * * -2,33 -1,34 * * 1,02 * * 0,63 -0,33 Spain * * -0,05 1,41 0,62 * -2,61 -1,93 -1,48 1,16 1,21 * 0,4 -3,21 -1,45 * 2,2 * -1,03 -3,01 -0,74 * 0,28 -1,31 * -3,43 -0,52 * -3,36 * * 3,29 * 1,89 * 1,59 * -0,74 * -2,36 * 2,64 * -1,05 EMBI -2,79 * -4,92 * -4,21 * -3,59 * 4,15 3,29 * Equity Premium -2,15 * 1,32 * -3,40 * -4,09 * 3,06 -1,03 * Volatility Premium 3,07 * 0,59 * 3,03 0,12 * -1,23 * 0,58 * Term Premium -3,5 2,59 * 1,77 1,12 * -1,34 * -2,17 * Bond Flow 2,43 2,82 -0,07 -0,04 -1,68 -4,41 EquityFlow 1,79 -0,75 -0,02 0,02 0,21 1,09 Constant 3,93 -0,17 3,12 1,34 1,42 -2,73 Adjusted R2 0,9288 0,9118 0,9312 0,9693 0,8672 0,9626 LocalRatio 0,8262 0,7903 0,8721 0,9088 0,54209 0,7486 * t statistics having significance at 95 percent confidence level is denoted by *, 20 * * �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 21 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1637 Title A name given to the resource Sovereign Credit Risk and Credit Default Swap Spread Reflections Author Author TOPBAS, Neslihan Abstract A summary of the resource. The already experienced turbulence in the global financial system has focused the attentions of the market participants to especially sovereign risk; its major determinants, systematic nature as well as its contagion potential. In this study, the direction of the analysis of the sovereign risk is within the framework of the credit default swap (cds) transactions. The sovereign risk can also be elaborated by using the bond spreads of the sovereign but the latter is also driven by factors other than the sovereign risk such as the interest rate movements, supply conditions, liquidity etc. The already available economical and financial data provides invaluable opportunity to analyze the sovereign risk anticipation of the financial markets as it incorporates the valuation of cds in real crisis times of 2008 and 2009 and 2011-first half of 2012 as well as the before and after economic and financial data of the selected countries namely Brazil, Turkey, Russia, Korea, Greece and Spain. The attitude of the investors towards risk as reflected in the financial market conditions affect the cds spreads of the sovereigns and this creates commonality which can be measured by the correlation between the individual sovereign cds spreads. In order to explain the co-movements in the cds spreads of the selected countries into a smaller number of common factors, principal component analysis was performed and it is seen that the first principal component captures nearly 62 percent and the first three component captures nearly 90 percent of the correlation matrix In this Study, in order to capture the relationships between the cds spreads and the country-specific and the global financial and economic factors, regression analysis has been performed. The country specific factors are determined as foreign exchange rate, foreign currency reserves, local stock market returns, external debt, and current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic products. The global financial and economic factors added to the model as independent variables are indexes about US Stock Market Return, US Treasury yields, US corporate yields and Emerging market yields, as well as indicators of equity, term and volatility premium and bond and equity flows. The relationship between the global financial variables and cds spreads reveals the fact that the risk appetite in the global financial market affects the credit risk perception and consequently the cds spreads regardless of the employed indicator of the risk appetite. Specifically, it is also determined that domestic economic situation has significant effects on cds spreads (excluding Greece who experienced considerable turmoil in its economic and financial position), the local variables explain more than 75 percent of the cds spread level and this ratio increases to more than 80 percent when four emerging market countries are referred. Keywords: Credit Default Swaps, Sovereign Risk, Global Financial Indicators, Risk Appetite, Financial Crisis. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8ed9b9e64ef6afff8c59cc174e1eb912.docx e3ef2368c009e09c4048a9d41220fa56 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27ecec16af87a6a0b5adc3d4385f9a99.pdf 7a68d6774362f07a266c411469e271ac PDF Text Text SÖZLÜ KÜLTÜR ORTAMINDAN DERLENEN MASALLARIN YAZIYA AKTARIMI ÜZERİNE BAZI DİKKATLER Ferhat ASLAN İstanbul Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, İstanbul / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Halk Bilimi, Kültür Ortamları, Masal, Söz, Yazı. ÖZET Halk bilimi sahası içerisinde değerlendirilen masallar, insanlık tarihi boyunca öncelikle yüz yüze iletişimin sağlandığı sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde söze dayalı olarak üretilip aktarılmıştır. Medeniyet seviyesinin yükselmesi ve yazının icadıyla birlikte diğer halk bilgisi ürünlerinde olduğu gibi masallar bir yandan sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde üretilip aktarılırken diğer yandan da yazılı kültür ortamına uyum sağlamış ve yazıya aktarılarak kitaplaştırılmıştır. Görselliğin ön planda olduğu günümüz dünyasında ise masallar elektronik kültür ortamına adapte olarak; çeşitli internet sitelerinde görsel ve işitsel malzeme haline getirilmiş hatta sinemaya aktarılmış böylece ilgililerine ulaştırılmıştır. Masallar halk bilimciler tarafından daha çok sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde, sözlü kaynaklardan derlenerek yazıya aktarılmıştır. Gerek Avrupa’da gerekse Türkiye’de halk bilimi araştırmalarının erken dönemlerinde masallar üzerine yapılan çalışmalara bakıldığında masalların icra bağlamı ele alınmaksızın sadece masal metnine odaklanılarak derlendiği ve derlenen bu masal metinleri üzerine daha çok tip ve motif çalışmalarının yapıldığı görülmektedir. Bugünkü halk bilimsel teoriler göz önünde bulundurulduğunda halk bilimi araştırmalarının yapıldığı erken dönemlerde halk bilimciler ya da meraklılar tarafından derlenen masalların yazıya aktarımında gerek dil ve üslup gerekse metnin üretildiği bağlam ile ilgili çok çeşitli eksikliklerin olduğunu görülmektedir. Bu bildiride; Türkiye’de çeşitli araştırmacılar tarafından derlenen masallardan hareketle sözlü kültür ortamında icra edilen halk bilgisi ürünlerinin yazıya aktarımında karşılaşılan sorunlar halk bilgisi ve dil bilgisi verileri ışığında ele alınarak bir durum tespiti yapılmıştır. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2173 Title A name given to the resource SÖZLÜ KÜLTÜR ORTAMINDAN DERLENEN MASALLARIN YAZIYA AKTARIMI ÜZERİNE BAZI DİKKATLER Author Author ASLAN, Ferhat Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Halk Bilimi, Kültür Ortamları, Masal, Söz, Yazı. ÖZET Halk bilimi sahası içerisinde değerlendirilen masallar, insanlık tarihi boyunca öncelikle yüz yüze iletişimin sağlandığı sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde söze dayalı olarak üretilip aktarılmıştır. Medeniyet seviyesinin yükselmesi ve yazının icadıyla birlikte diğer halk bilgisi ürünlerinde olduğu gibi masallar bir yandan sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde üretilip aktarılırken diğer yandan da yazılı kültür ortamına uyum sağlamış ve yazıya aktarılarak kitaplaştırılmıştır. Görselliğin ön planda olduğu günümüz dünyasında ise masallar elektronik kültür ortamına adapte olarak; çeşitli internet sitelerinde görsel ve işitsel malzeme haline getirilmiş hatta sinemaya aktarılmış böylece ilgililerine ulaştırılmıştır. Masallar halk bilimciler tarafından daha çok sözlü kültür ortamı içerisinde, sözlü kaynaklardan derlenerek yazıya aktarılmıştır. Gerek Avrupa’da gerekse Türkiye’de halk bilimi araştırmalarının erken dönemlerinde masallar üzerine yapılan çalışmalara bakıldığında masalların icra bağlamı ele alınmaksızın sadece masal metnine odaklanılarak derlendiği ve derlenen bu masal metinleri üzerine daha çok tip ve motif çalışmalarının yapıldığı görülmektedir. Bugünkü halk bilimsel teoriler göz önünde bulundurulduğunda halk bilimi araştırmalarının yapıldığı erken dönemlerde halk bilimciler ya da meraklılar tarafından derlenen masalların yazıya aktarımında gerek dil ve üslup gerekse metnin üretildiği bağlam ile ilgili çok çeşitli eksikliklerin olduğunu görülmektedir. Bu bildiride; Türkiye’de çeşitli araştırmacılar tarafından derlenen masallardan hareketle sözlü kültür ortamında icra edilen halk bilgisi ürünlerinin yazıya aktarımında karşılaşılan sorunlar halk bilgisi ve dil bilgisi verileri ışığında ele alınarak bir durum tespiti yapılmıştır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caca84b6e7854acb439e49d29d57310a.pdf 6d1ed6106109d4a3f018f19d69343680 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Daniel Luca Lucian Blaga University Sibiu (Hermanstadt), Romania danycafr1970@gmail.com Abstract: The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Key words: periphery, suburbia, centre, novel, interwar literature. Introduction According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2001, 1144) periphery is: ―1. If something is on the periphery of an area, place, or thing, it is on the edge of it (…). 2. The periphery of a subject or area of interest is the part of it that is not considered to be as important or basic as the main part (…)‖. Still, the significances of the term ―periphery‖ go far beyond the sphere of these definitions and have to be correlated to the one of ―centre‖, since they form together a dialectical couple (Hess, 2001, 93). The centre and the periphery represent research topics that one may find more and more often in various fields like biology linguistics, philosophy, sociology, politics or economics. As far as literature is concerned, Virgil Nemoianu proposes the notions of ―main‖ and ―secondary‖ which may be equivalated to those of ―centre‖ and ―periphery‖. According to him, literature appears as peripherical with respect to other activities (that constitute the centre) – ―literature is itself a secondary issue in contrast to the central human preoccupations and to the central gearings of the history‖ (1997, 6) – while, on the other side, literature is a mirror ―reflecting in its substance, the connections between principal and secondary – between the structure and the texture, as some old critics would have put it – or, at least, interprets for the reader, the dialectical drama of the relationship between them. It means hegemony and subjugation, revolt and harmony, anarchy and order‖ (1997, 7). And, there are, indeed, hegemonies in the very core of literature. One may find, this way, first shelf books and second shelf ones. The differentiation is grounded on an aesthetical criterion, which is, however, in a continuous change. Another point of view comes from Constantin Cublesan who notices the turn from rural to urban areas in the Romanian novel written shortly after the First World War. ―There will be a special place within the description and analysis of the tentacular city occupied by a set of novels oriented to surveying the human universe at the bottom of the society, of those from the rudimentary peripheries‖ (2009, 181). A doctoral thesis has been already defended on this topic, at the West University in Timisoara (2009), by Alina Georgeta Toman, entitled The Centre – Periphery Relation in the Romanian Literature. The Case of G.M. Zamfirescu. It is mainly concerned with the way in which the work of G. M. Zamfirescu – he, himself, a marginal - had been perceived in the media of his time. Georgiana Sârbu has published a comparative book The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. She discusses 301 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there three different novels from different times: The Field with Love (1933) by G. M. Zamfirescu, The Hollow (1957) by Eugen Barbu and The Lover of the Wheat Boiling Woman38 (1996) by Radu Aldulescu. Usually, the slum area is ―thrown‖ away by the city: garbage hallows the place where the garbage is stored or where the dead animals are thrown away. The pub, the brothel, the church, the street are emblematical toposes of the periphery, being rich of colour and significances that we will uncover in this paper. Although we will analyse them separately, they form a unitary entity which plays an important role in designing a complete picture of marginality. It follows that the city‘s periphery has constituted a permanent preoccupation of Romanian writers, especially in the interwar period, when the topic was checked with a realistic approach, since it has its own, particular life at the edge between rural and urban. Despite of all these, it remained a second or third shelf literature and has seldom interested the critics. It was merely the vigour and the novelty of this space, as we have discovered it in the time‘s novels, the reason which determined us to conduct the present research. We will study here the novels: Love God – 1921 (1991) and The Decomposed Man – 1925, by Felix Aderca; The Diplomat, Leather Dresser (1928) and The Actress The House with Girls (1930), by Carol Ardeleanu; Don Juan Hunched (1933), The Childhood of a Worthless (1936), The Trust (1937), by Ion Calugaru; Codin – 1925 (1970) and Nerantzula – 1927 (1974), by Panait Istrati; The Field with Love – 1933 (1986), by G. M. Zamfirescu and The Nights of Miss Mili (1935), by Isac Peltz. Method of Study In the first paragraph, entitled Space of Periphery we will make a general presentation of the marginal spaces, using synthesis as it emerges from the notions of ―open space‖ and ―closed space‖ (Kovacs, 1987, p. 245). After this, we will analyse part by part, the main elements of such spaces, like the pub, the brothel, the church and the street. With respect to the pub, we will point to its parable aspect (Piskonov, 1979, 299) in order to compare and synthesise facts and ideas from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu and Felix Aderca. The same methods will be used while speaking about the brothel in order to depict the way this institution has been reflected in the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Felix Aderca, Panait Istrati, G. M Zamfirescu, Ion Calugaru. The next chapter will reflect the church issue as one can extract from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Ion Calugaru and Panait Istrati, while the paper ends displaying the significances of the street as they come out from the novels of Isac Peltz, Panait Istrati, Carol Ardeleanu and Ion Calugaru. The slum, as it is drafted in these novels, is a relatively new space, a transitional one, but which generates other areas like: the pubs, the brothel, the church, the street. The Space of Periphery In the present day theory of literature, the notions of open space and closed space have been defined. Thus, while the open space suggests freedom, unchaining, returning to the imaginary paradise of nature, the closed space would represent on one hand claustration, death, extinction, and on the other, protection, safety. There are plenty of cases in this respect, starting from the sacred space of the traditional house to the comfortable, intimate and protective of the modern person‘s car. While speaking about the closed space from a slum, there is no way to think about protection, safety or the same. On the contrary, getting together several members of a family in a single, sordid room is an endless opportunity for conflicts. It follows that we may say – once with the critics – that in Romanian slum ―we often find closed, inhospitable, hostile spaces, generating the feeling of sequestration or the act itself, if not the non-being‖ (Kovacs, 1987, 245). Moreover, we might tend to think that nothing is sure as related to the Romanian slum, since the spaces that usually are destined to providing safety, calm and happiness turn, all of a sudden into threatening, adversary, aggressive ones. To conclude, we should say that the entire topic of the space of Romanian slum is meant to draft an area of desperation, of refusal of life The pub This is the place where the men (in the majority of cases, but sometimes, women, as well) find their salvation – be it even a temporary one – from the home hell or from the Calvary of the animalic work in the 38 It refferes to a woman who usually boils wheat with honey and nuts for the funerals; 302 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo factory, enterprise, station, port. It is obvious that such a person becomes the slave of alcohol and finally, dependent on it. The pub means socialization. Is a place of getting information (Ardeleanu, 1930), here is where it comes out Consuls idea to kill Andrei (Ardeleanu, 1928), here friendships are tied and untied, and here destinies get united (the match-making of Nuta in novel The Lady in Neptun Street, by Felix Aderca). The pub is a parable inside the same type of prose, meaning a protective space of these disinherited people. It functions as a shelter of the unhappy guys in the slum but also as an element of local flavor, since there can‘t be imagined a periphery without a pub. Therefore, one may say, without the risk of exaggeration, that the true house of the unhappy inhabitants of the slum is the pub. They are genuine alienated men. This place of perish, the pub, becomes some sort of club, where the individual feels himself as a whole and may talk to his equals. ―This is what they are looking for, while crossing the threshold of the pub, which is, however, places in the middle of the road: the atmosphere‖ (Sarbu, 2009, 97). The pub is, in the novel of Romanian periphery, a place where the plenitude of life is more than anywhere else, manifested. Much more, according to some exegetes, it is the rationality of the novel. There is an emergent world, a humanity asking its right to existence and history, beyond the sometimes morbid aspect, over which the wing of death is often floating: ―the self reliance of novel grew up, especially after he XVIIIth and XIXth century, when it has dealt with the moral force of individuals and their relation to the surrounding world.‖ (Toma, 2003, 17) There is here, in this protector space of the pub where the clients spend a time of ―getting out of the world‖, of the world‘s time, namely of the one during which they are sentenced to work. We might call it a ―sacred time. This time is a profound spatial and concrete one.‖ (Bahtin, 1982, 436) The pub has also a narrative function that should not be ignored, besides its social, psychological, existential one, representing a bank of salvation, a realm of illusions, of hopes and dreams. It follows that people entering the sordid pubs of the slums hope to forget, to enter a different world, a different life. But life itself does not change. It can‘t become another one. The brothel The brothel should not be taken in a literary, textual sense. We do not always speak about a proper said institution. Thus, the hotel can replace (and it does very well) the brothel, according to all the proper rules, especially to those of paying the tax. ―Girls were raising their shirts to make him feel ashamed. Hey, merchant, have a look, since you got no money to pay…‖ (Calugaru, 1937, 160). Beyond the status of feminity, beyond the mix of guilt, shame, pleasure and horror that the sexual act supposes – at least at the beginning – being or not paid, eventually, the ―inhabitants‖ of the pleasure houses cross easily over their not honourable status, telling themselves (as well as all the people in the slum) that they have been pushed to it, by need. ―At the beginning, it was something that no women can say: a mix of pleasure and impulse; later on, frenzy of senses, and after, a vice or a habit, while now, at the end of the day, of all the instinctual joys, the need‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 27). Brothels are differentiated according to their quality, into select and common ones. This typology appears both in The House of Girls by Carol Ardeleanu (where Margarita‘s house belongs to the first group) and in Nerantula by Panait Istrati: ―we also knew two or three such houses in the ditch, where officers from the ships and married, well educated men used to go‖ (1974, 135). The connection to mud is not hazardous. There is primary instinct at work, the satisfaction of needs: ―The house here has its own smell: that of mud turned upside down. People used to enter though a dark courtyard full of dirty water, since the used water was thrown out from the chain of rooms, directly in the yard, thought the windows‖ (Aderca, 1925, 217). 303 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo But still, the brothel hosts its own feelings. It balances between uniting (in The God of Love, by Felix Aderca, Aurel meets Ema again and marries her) and decomposition (in Decomposed Man, by Felix Aderca, where the tired less search of the brothels in all the cities in the country ends in human dissolution, in sinking into the mud). While in Ion Calugaru‘s book, the brothel means the gain of sexual maturity, in Felix Aderca‘s work there is a different significance: looking for childhood (Ema), for heard purity. All these remain a simple illusion and leads to the search of other love affairs. This meaning is very similar to the one in Nerantula, by Panait Istrati, where the brothel reappears as a place of meeting again, even if painful. The paradox consists of preserving the soul‘s innocence despite of body‘s dishonour. Nerantula‘s room unveiled ―in its order and disorder, so much naïve innocence, so much childhood‖ (Istrati, 1974, 141). For Carol Ardeleanu (1930), the brothel is a means of enrichment, an affair; while for G. M. Zamfirescu (1986) it gains the connotation of revenge (Gore punishes Sultana through a sodomization act merely inside the house for she dared to disclose his truth). This space influences decisively the life in the slum as well as the shape of persons‘ characters. Therefore, the merit of these novels is that of describing realistically, with no prejudices, an authentic space. The Church Most of those populating the Romanian slums feel themselves left by the entire world, especially by their parents – and for many of them, this is the truth. Therefore, in the deep of their souls, they consider the church as a real mother, although expressively, they are against it. It may be ―unrealistic‖ that the girls from various brothels of the slum are faithful in the full sense of this word. Despite of their ―profession‖, they make their cross while passing along the church and say, voiceless, a pray. ―She passed in front of a church, stopped for a while, made a cross and whispered, only for God to listen: ―God, help me!‖…‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 15) Despite of her status of matron, a female in Carol Ardeleanu‘s work finds no impediment to move, for the winter time, from the brothel into the church. ―Following the advice of Margareta and Negrila, Jana has written to Alexandra that the possession enforcement had been postponed and she moves with Natasa into the church.‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 178). The church represents a bank, a light in a sea of despair, in this world of hopelessness and misery. For these disinherited people, the church is not a place (nor the time) of regret, of penance. It is the only hope that perhaps, somewhere, even if not in this world, there is some room for their happiness, as well. ―All the girls were still hoping for something and all were going to the church to pray‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 189). An important feature of this world is what we would call today as inter-ethnicity. Usually, the inhabitants of the slums are Romanians who had been expelled or self-exiled from the village world. But there are also, in these Romanian slums, many Turks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Russians, even Armenians, but, especially, Jews. It is obvious that synagogues will appear in these communities, bearing the religious function they had been ―invested‖ with. ―At the synagogue, lights should be burnt on the Atonement‘s Day, for all the Deaths.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 233). There are not rare the cases in which one of the partners in a couple (although it is hard to define them like that), converts himself to the other one‘s religion. Intention may be noble and the turn, a major one, but the overcoming of a miserable and crisis situation is seldom a success. ―The Jew woman received <the secret of the baptistery> from which she was waiting for a change in her Christian lover‘s attitude, but he was very little interested in all these stories ―with priests‖. However, a change had happened, but in a reversed way: my mother turned from a clean and working woman, into a dirty, uncaring and bad smelling bigot‖ (Istrati, 1974, 161). The Street On our territories, the cities ―appear‖ from the old markets, ―emerged‖ at their turn from the old ―capitals‖ or most often from the most developed rural communities, perhaps with commercial potential. Systematization had never been a preoccupation of the Romanians – at least with respect to cities‘ building – except, of course, for those in the Habsburgic or Austro-Hungarian Empire. While the cities still come out of something, the slums with their streets come into being from the dust of the fields full of thistles. ―Many houses 304 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo have been built, now having many inhabitants, on what had been desert streets, like five years ago.‖ (Peltz, 1935, 282). There is not only the religious perspective, but also an ethnical one to organise the streets. Mainly, those belonging to one ethnicity or nation, those coming from the same country (which they have left, mostly for economic reasons), all these settle in the same ―place‖, in the same desert space of a collectivity-to-be. ―I have passed, this way, through he slums, through the streets which are most characteristic for the city: the Russian one, the Jewish one, the Greek one, the Gipsy one. And I have found new morals and habits, all over‖ (Istrati, 1970, 31) In most of the cases, these streets are nothing but former, present or future ―garbage fields‖: here is where not only the rests of a slum are thrown away (animals‘ corps, all kind of garbage) but also those of the city. The smell, the bad one is the distinctive sign of ―reaching the place‖, much before the depressive picture. ―The Sun (…) was stirring here poisoned stinks, especially from some heaps of spoiled sour cabbage, entire butts thrown directly in the street, since the spring was already here.‖ (Istrati, 1970, 43). The general aspect of the slum is, thus, one of desegregation, of lack of systematization, of organization, of order: ―The pavement was broken by cobble stones, deepening hole after hole and creating the moon‘s landscape as seen through bad telescopes, when the ordinary people look at the miracle in exchange of some little money― (Ardeleanu, 1928, 9). There is a current admonition – used even nowadays - for those kids behaving unruly, namely sine you haven‘t grew up in the street. But the slum‘s kids literally are growing up on the street. Since they are very little, these kids discover the flavour of freedom, in the street, they find a space were they can breath, running away from the scandals in the miserable, crammed rooms where people quarrel, beat, struggle for gaining the daily food. ―Here there are the worse kids. The children of gypsy shoeing smiths, of German wheelwrights, the younglings of Jewish carriage makers or those of baggage men from the mill, they run after dogs, catch the geese in the court yards with the angling line, play oina in the middle of the street, throw stones in calm passers by or in the sick ones, or follow the crazy people in the market‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 40). The street of the slum is also the place where the stories of this unhappy place, come out. For instance, there had been a rumour that on a certain street, in a certain place, gold and silver had been thrown away. This is the golden dream of mankind. ―From the hidden small streets, from the military barracks, from the gypsy side, from the slums with fountains, people were coming to check whether was true that gold and silver had been thrown away.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 232) The street is not only a component of the slum, it is its epidermis. Here is where everything is seen from, here is where the pulse of life is caught beyond the shrunk walls ready to fall down. ―The street is a transparent skin through which one may see how the inner organs work: but also a part of eternity that may be shared‖ (Calugaru, 1933, 6). Conclusions: We may conclude by saying that the problematic of space in the Romanian novel of the slum is, in the same time, complex and productive from a narrative point of view. It is complex, because, in contrast to the rural space, the slum is a relatively new area in our country and, in the same time, a transitional one. Currently, the slums of the big cities had been swallowed by the city. But, we believe, that the other way around is also true, namely, that the centre got enlarged and included the periphery. Many changes have occurred here, too. There have been not only mental ones, but also spatial changes. Secondly, we have to say that this literary tip which is the slum is generous from the point of view of generating new spaces, genuine scenes of a rather tragic show: the pub, the brothel, the street, the church. It is interesting to be hold that all these spaces have, in a normal context, some positive functions and significances, since the urban collectivities have precisely this role, to enlarge the safety of its inhabitants, to offer them a richer, easier, better life. This kind of literature throws away the idyllic picture of the periphery with coquette small houses, with ordered streets, with storks in the window. It is a terrible, tough, misery world, being in full and permanent degrading process. 305 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Aderca, F. (1991). Love God. TimiĢoara: Argo. Aderca F. (1925). The Decomposed Man. BucureĢti: Ancora. Ardeleanu Carol (1930). The House with Girls. BucureĢti: Cugetarea. Ardeleanu Carol (1928). The Diplomat, Leather Dresser and the Actress. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Bahtin M. (1982). Problems of Literature and Aesthetics. BucureĢti: Univers. Călugăru Ion (1933). Don Juan Hunched. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei. Călugăru Ion (1936). The Childhood of a Worthless. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei S.A. Călugăru Ion (1937). The Trust. BucureĢti : Naţionala – Ciornei S.A.R. (2001). Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Glasgow: Harper Collins. Cubleșan Constantin (2009). Literary Conferences. Târgu-Lăpuș: Galaxia Gutenberg. Durand Gilbert (1977). Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. BucureĢti: Univers. Hess Remi (2001). Centre et périphérie. Paris: Anthropos. Istrati Panait (1970). Selected Works, Tome V: Codin, Mihail. BucureĢti: Minerva. Istrati Panait (1974). Selected Works, Tome VI: Neranţula, Familia Perlmutter, Ciulinii Bărăganului. BucureĢti: Minerva. Kovacs Albert (1987). The Poetics of Dostoievski. BucureĢti: Univers. Manolescu Nicolae (1991). Noe‘s Arch, Tome II. BucureĢti: Eminescu. Nemoianu Virgil (1997). A theory of the secondary. BucureĢti: Univers. Peltz I. (1935). The Nights of Miss Mili. BucureĢti: „Universala‖Alcalay and Co. Piskonov Vladimir coord. (1979). Poetics, Aesthetics and Sociology. BucureĢti: Univers. Sârbu Georgiana (2009). The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Toma Pavel (2003). Thinking on the Novel. BucureĢti: Humanitas. Zamfirescu George Mihail (1986). The Field with Love. IaĢi: Junimea. N.B.: Research conducted under Project 7706 POSDRU growing role of PhDs and PhD competitiveness in a united Europe financed by European Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources Development from 2007 – 2013. 306 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 46 Title A name given to the resource Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Author Author Luca, Daniel Abstract A summary of the resource. The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3552 Title A name given to the resource SPANISH SPORTS DISCOURSE: INTERDISCURSIVITY AND CULTURAL CODES Author Author Kotenko, Valentyna Abstract A summary of the resource. The notion of “sports discourse” is an umbrella term used for the range of genres, united by the same functioning area, common agents and goals. It is manifested via the complex of media articles, books, reviews, Internet blogs, synchronous commentaries of the competitions, interviews, TV programmes, music, and movie industry works that are unified by the common topic – sporting events – and produce sports discourse representing sportsmen, coaches, fans and journalists. However, in this article I want to focus on its written presentation: newspaper articles and books. Sports discourse doesn’t function in an isolated way. Considering the fact that discourse inherently is a semantic and pragmatic phenomenon, it is necessary to highlight that it is a multifaceted notion which exists in a dialogical communication with other discourses. Interdiscourse relations are understood as the interaction between several discourses that marks a particular space and tends to generate new meanings. This paper aims to single out the main types of these discursive formations that mark the dialogue between the Spanish sports discourse and other kinds of discourses. To a greater extent we are talking about sports discourse VS artistic discourse, briefly mentioning some aspects of its relation to medical and culinary institutionalized discourses. Among the most productive agents of interdiscourse actualization I primarily distinguish lexical level that leads us to understanding global hidden codes. These markers also enable us to extract some typically Spanish cultural codes: bullfighting, tradition of flamenco guitar, and even national cuisine. This lexis layer creates a particular stylistic image of any text dedicated to sport regardless of its genre. This aspect proves one of the main features of discourse highlighted by the majority of scholars – social nature of discourse that brightly reflects life of a particular society. The culture is not a child of work, but a child of sports1. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 762 Title A name given to the resource Speaking Anxiety in EFL: Causes, Factors, and Solutions / A Reasearch in a Multi-Cultural EFL environment Author Author Karatürk, Ahmet Benk, Kemal Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study investigates the factors causing anxiety for EFL learners in learning and using speaking skills in English. Bosnian and Turkish students at English preparatory classes and first year classes studying at International Burch University (IBU) in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been taken as the object of this investigation. This study reveals the factors making Bosnian students more competent in speaking English than Turkish students. On the other, the factors affecting students’ proficiency level in speaking are determined. Communicative Learning Approach is proposed as a remedy for overcoming students’ anxiety in oral productive skills. The parameters studied to figure out the factors affecting the language anxiety in groups of Bosnian and Turkish students at IBU can be classified as follow: cultural and social background differences, influence of media, differences in education systems between the native countries, phonological similarities between students’ native language and English. Some key issues causing anxiety in language learning process such as self-esteem and competence are addressed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics