242 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d12c463f0b8c9d7fcb2492a883cdcdde.pdf cef55fafd04e948eb3a292620cb8ab65 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Fatma Nur ĐPLĐK Cukurova University Karatas School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Turkey, nuriplik@cu.edu.tr Kemal Can KILIÇ Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Turkey, kcan@cu.edu.tr Abstract: Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Keywords: Globalization, Cooperation, Internationalization Strategy, International Arena, SMEs, Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies, Turkey. Introduction As the rate of economic globalization becomes faster and faster, small businesses can no longer afford to ignore the challenge of international commerce. Thus small businesses that are playing an increasingly vital role in today's business environment must develop a global culture, gain crucial international experience and overcome their size barrier (Rowden 2001; Steensma et al. 2000) by cooperating with other firms. This requires choosing the appropriate entry strategy and the right partner if they hope to have any chance of success in the international arena. In this context, this study focuses on the cooperation of SMEs that have been built for the purpose of international expansion. Most of the early studies related to internationalization strategies have dealt with large firms, whereas SMEs are only rarely investigated (Fink et al. 2008). So there is still insufficient knowledge about the internationalization of these types of firms (Westhead et al. 2001). However, the development of communication and transportation technologies has made international expansion possible for SMEs as well (Saarenketo et al. 2008). In this direction many approaches have been developed for the understanding of the internationalization process of SMEs. One of them is the cooperative international expansion is the main theme of this article. The facilitating role of globalization and outsourcing has expanded firms’ use of external resources to reduce innovation time spans, costs and risks, and acquire greater flexibility in their operations. Indeed, the very success of the SMEs vis-a`-vis their larger competitors may be due to their ability to utilize external relationships more efficiently. So the growing use of networks by a broader cross-section of firms reflects a catchup by larger firms: it has long been recognized that one of the major competitive advantages SMEs have over 105 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo large firms has been their flexibility (Narula 2004) that enables them to match quick changes in market demands (Colley 2006). To date, an entrepreneur’s human capital as well as business demographics promoting independent owner-managed firms to sell their goods or services into foreign markets is not well understood. Nevertheless, there is a growing awareness of a need for a greater understanding of this group of entrepreneurial ventures (Westhead et al. 2001). In this direction, this paper seeks to enhance understanding of the international expansion of SMEs. Notwithstanding, from a theoretical perspective, the primary focus of this paper is to provide suggestions for how SMEs will use cooperative business strategy to carry out successful entry into international markets. SMEs Business Characteristics SMEs are not simply smaller versions of traditional firms and have many differences in ownership, resources, organizational structures and management systems (Pangarkar 2008). Compared with larger firms, small (less than 50 employees) and medium (between 50 and 250 employees) sized firms (Gilmore et al. 2006) have limited financial and managerial resources, personnel and capabilities. Further, SMEs are usually owned and managed by founders, whereas large firms are managed by professionals. As a result of this, the decisionmaking in SMEs is highly centralized (Lu and Beamish 2006). Previous literature recognizes that SMEs are heavily reliant on the attitudes, skills and expertise of their personnel. Thus multiple roles being filled by staff and a lack of organizational slack make dealing with anyone outside of the company much harder (Major & Cordey-Hayes 2000). Due to staffing limitations, small firms often suffer from managerial inexperience with international markets and have limited global informationgathering capabilities (Rowden 2001) compared to large firms. Small entrepreneurial firms are responsible for much of the growth and innovation in global economy (Steensma et al. 2000). They promote private ownership and diversification of economic activities, stimulate innovations, generate the majority of jobs, support sustainable development, make a significant contribution to exports and trade and develop entrepreneurial skills (Colley 2006). Compared to MNCs, smaller firms are unfettered by bureaucracy, hierarchical thinking, and expensive existing information systems. But they are often more customer- oriented, and have quicker response times when it comes to implementing new technologies and meeting specialized needs and tastes. So they are usually more able to adapt their systems, routines, and the collective employee mindset to the imperatives of international competition (Liesch & Knight 1999). SMEs that are operating in demands a high level of customer-orientation as well as an emphasis on new (technological) knowledge development (Gills 2005) are generally regarded as more easily influenced by external forces than are larger firms (Cheng & Yu 2008). Further, SMEs are subject to the liability of smallness which is reflected in this type of firms’ difficulties in obtaining and securing critical resources and their vulnerability to environmental changes. Such disadvantages impose constraints on the expansion of SMEs either in the domestic or international markets. So that SMEs usually have less international experience and are subject to more severe local knowledge deficiencies when they expand their facilities across borders (Lu and Beamish 2006). In this context, SMEs can carry out expansion of their operations into foreign markets successfully by developing cooperative relationships with other firms. The Concept of Internationalization Internationalization is the process by which firms increase their awareness of the direct and indirect influence of international transactions on their future, and begin to engage in transactions with firms in other countries (Lu and Beamish 2001). In other words, it is the discovery, enactment, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities across national borders to create future goods and services (McDougall & Oviatt 2005). A number of explanations have been proposed to account for firms’ internationalization processes. For example, the resource-based view of the firm has been shown to be important since the managers leverage resource advantages and minimize transaction costs to obtain a competitive advantage overseas (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, several theories from the international business literature have been presented below to explain why firms engage in international operations (Westhead et al. 2001): • Transaction cost theory suggests that firms choose the least-cost international location for each activity they perform and grow by internationalizing markets, bringing interdependent activities under common ownership and control up to the point where the benefits of further internationalization are outweighed by the costs. • A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms. 106 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Monopolistic advantage theory suggests that firms will internationalize when they can use their established advantages in foreign countries at little or no additional cost. • Internationalization theory suggests that firms internationalize to reduce costs by internationalizing the transfer of goods and services across national borders where it is cheaper. • Product cycle theory suggests that firms internationalize in an attempt to protect their existing markets of mature products. • The stage theory of internationalization suggests that a firm’s international operations will gradually increase as it gains knowledge and experience in the international arena and as it develops relationships that cross international boundaries. • Oligopolistic reaction theory suggests that firms will try to reduce their risk by imitating competing firms’ entrance into foreign operations. • Strategic choice theory suggests that firms facing strategic complexities respond opportunistically to changing market opportunities through a careful evaluation of risks with managers actively determining many features of a firm’s internationalization. Although there have been a number of attempts to synthesize the internationalization literature, a single, commonly accepted interpretation of ‘‘internationalization’’ is yet to be found. According to this, the internationalization patterns of individual firms seem to be rather unique and situation specific (Saarenketo et al. 2004). International Expansion of SMEs Internationalization is an issue that –until recently– was in most cases only relevant for large companies. But increased pressure on the home market coming from international competitors is now, however, being felt by SMEs as well, moving them to seek opportunities in international markets (Fink et al. 2008) actively. Many SMEs, especially high technology firms, are forced to internationalize early in their development due to a focus on niche markets and the small size of their domestic markets relative to the potential that exists abroad (Bradley et al. 2006). But although SMEs have been increasingly active in international markets, existing theories of internationalization have tended to focus on large MNCs and argued that firms must have strength either in resources or knowledge if they are to fully overcome the transaction costs in integrating across borders (Cheng & Yu 2008). There is an array of modes for entering international markets, such as exporting, licensing, non-equity strategic alliances, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages (Lu & Beamish 2006). But exporting is still the primary foreign market entry mode used by small firms in their internationalization efforts presumably because it offers an effective means of international expansion without over-extending the capabilities or resources of the firm (Bradley et al. 2006). For SMEs, internationalization is an entrepreneurial activity, and entering new geographic markets can be regarded as, on a large scale, the act of adopting new practices (Cheng & Yu 2008). But SMEs attempting to internationalize face a basic marketing dilemma—do they attempt to internationalize unaided or do they form a partnership with stronger firms in their business system that can help them. One such way is to internationalize as part of a supplier-customer network in partnership with established MNCs to respond to customer product and service preferences in myriad international markets (Bradley et al. 2006). Motivations for International Expansion of SMEs SMEs are increasingly internationalizing their business activities. The drivers for increasing involvement of them in the world markets, to name a few, have been the increasing competition in both domestic and foreign markets and the fast development of information and communication technologies. As a result of this rapid internationalization, managers of SMEs are facing challenges regarding how to enter countries which are, in many ways, different from the home country (Ojala 2008). But they can overcome the challenges and uncertainty of the complex internationalization process by cooperation. Although SMEs are generally considered to be more risk-averse than their larger counterparts to adopt the new practice, which makes them less willing to go abroad, they also tend to react to the quests from external parties easily, which induces in them the need to go abroad. The environmental context that is a critical factor for SMEs most likely pushes them to initiate internationalization. It may be said, then, that the way in which a SMEs internationalizes is the result of the combination of its actual internal abilities and its leader’s cognition of its external environment (Cheng & Yu 2008). A major reason why the managers of SMEs internationalize is to pursue growth opportunities and they often collaborate for that purpose. These collaborative ventures are creating a shift in business relationships 107 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from a conflict mode based on competition to a collaborative mode. Presently, the trend is for management teams to concentrate on core competencies (Westhead et al. 2001) and potentially outsource those that do not provide a competitive advantage in order to increase agility and flexibility (Spence et al., 2008) and cover the uncertainty of the internationalization process (Fernández and Nieto 2005). The International Expansion Process of SMEs International expansion is an important growth strategy for SMEs when the scope of their business is geographically restricted. Some researchers have asserted that when SMEs initiate internationalization, they will tend, due to lack of resources and advantages, to export goods as their mode of foreign market entry. In addition, researchers have asserted that such firms will typically increase their international involvement through a series of carefully planned stages (Cheng & Yu 2008). The operations in a foreign country are supposed to start by indirect entry modes, which do not require extensive knowledge about the environment of the target country and more commitment to the market. According to this, indirect entry modes increase a firm’s knowledge about the target country and allow it to learn about how to deal with the customers in that country. Once the country has become more familiar for a firm, direct operations can start there (Ojala 2008). In this context, the typical stages of internationalization process for a small business include (Dollinger 1995): 1. Passive Exporting: The firm fills international orders but does not seek export business. At this stage, many small business owners do not realize that they have an international market. 2. Export Management: The owner or a specific manager specifically seeks export sales. Because of resource limitations, most small businesses at this stage rely on the indirect channel of exporting. 3. Export Department: The firm uses significant resources to seek increased sales from exporting. The key for most small firms is finding a good local partner for distribution. 4. Sales Branches: When demand for the product is high in a country, it justifies setting up local sales offices. Small firms must have the resources to transfer home managers to expatriate assignments or to hire and train local managers and workers to run these operations. 5. Production Abroad: Production moves a firm beyond downstream value-chain activities and allows them to gain local advantages. This is often a very difficult stage for small firms because the cost of a failed direct investment can put the whole firm at risk for survival. 6. The Transnational: Small size does not preclude a small business from developing a globally integrated network that characterizes the transnational corporation. The movement through the stages of the entry process is intimately connected to the development of institutional knowledge, making it easier to develop customer relationships. As a consequence, the more relationships in a foreign country that have reached later stages, the more established and internationally experienced the firm becomes and the higher the degree of internationalization of the SME. And also the more countries in which the SME has established relationships, the more internationally experienced is the firm (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). Advantages and Disadvantages of SMEs’ International Expansion Prior literature is in broad agreement that internationalization has a positive impact on firm performance. Drawing from the literature on international and global strategies, firms can have greater cost efficiencies primarily due to a greater volume of business and the ability to exploit economies of scale. An international firm also benefits from the diversity of environments it operates in. Thus it enjoys tremendous learning opportunities while satisfying the diverse customer needs and responding to different competitors in international markets (Pangarkar 2008). The literature on the international entrepreneurship emphasizes the use of formal and informal relationships to penetrate and expand into foreign markets. According to this, the need to collaborate and to achieve an international presence has become a necessity, especially for SMEs, but the challenges encountered with such strategies are high as it is not uncommon to see high failure rates (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, when SMEs make their initial entry into international markets, they are especially prone to problems associated with the liabilities of foreignness and smallness, which may lead to poor financial performance and a variety of other concerns for managers (Bell 1995; Lu & Beamish 2001). Although internationalization can be regarded as an opportunity-seeking choice on the part of firms, it may also represent a critical decision due to the costs and risks involved (Cheng & Yu 2008). Prior literature has identified the numerous constraints faced by SMEs in international expansion. Typically SMEs do not perform global scanning and hence might lack the information and managerial expertise necessary for exploiting the international opportunities. Buckley (1999) argues that, due to constraints of management time, smaller firms frequently take short-cuts in decision-making and information gathering, which can be disastrous. 108 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Further, internationalization increases the requirements for coordination and communication among different units within the SME as well as other parties located in different geographic areas (Pangarkar 2008). Many SMEs suffer scale and resource disadvantages compared to their global rivals, adversely impacting the likelihood of success of their internationalization initiatives (Pangarkar 2008). Compared to large firms, SMEs are less competitive; for instance, they may not be able to capture business opportunities due to inferior products, shortages of finance and limited administrative capacity (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In addition, any foreign market initiative will take a larger proportion of resources of a SME than a large firm. In the event of failure of the particular initiative, the impact on a SME may be greater, which increases the risk levels of them (Lu & Beamish 2001). Despite the constraints and challenges faced, SMEs are likely to enhance their performance through greater internationalization. And by becoming international, SMEs may be able to provide better service to their MNC clients and, in the case of foreign direct investment, avoid import tariffs (Pangarkar 2008). In this context, many approaches have been developed for examining the internationalization of SMEs (Saarenketo et al. 2004). One of them is the cooperative internationalization of small firms depends on an organization’s set of relationships with partner firms rather than a firm specific advantage. Cooperative International Expansion of SMEs Organizations that seek to reduce costs, to respond rapidly to market demands and to build competitive advantages around their core competencies can not execute strategies without drawing on the skills and resources of other organizations (Lin & Zhang 2005). Thus in an environment characterized by globalization, new expectations from customers and changing competitivity criteria, many dynamic SMEs have opted to (Raymond & Blili 1997) cooperate with other firms to overcome these challenges, to avoid significant barriers to long-term success, to enhance their competitivity in the market and to reduce their environmental uncertainty. The traditional internationalization theories suggest that the firm’s international involvement increases in stages as a result of incremental learning. However, due to the key characteristics of SMEs, cooperative internationalization is becoming an increasingly important option for them. Thus for the small firms showing very rapid and intensive international growth that they would otherwise not be able to take on by themselves enabled (Saarenketo et al. 2004; Fink et al. 2008) by cooperation with other firms. Because partner firms provide useful information about business opportunities, characteristics, obstacles or problems that they face in the foreign market, the perceived risk for SMEs is lowered as a result. In terms of research in this area, scholars have found that relationships are at the core of the internationalization process (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In light of the relatively lower transaction volume of SMEs when compared to large companies, effective and efficient coordination mechanisms in the cooperative internationalization of SMEs are accordingly of particular importance. Indeed, the characteristics of SMEs create particular challenges in the internationalization process. But recently, cooperative arrangements have received increased attention as a means to meet these challenges (Fink et al. 2008). Collaborative ventures can be formed for the purpose of gaining a significant presence in a new market, acquiring technology, enabling faster entry into the market and facilitating international expansion (Spence et al. 2008). Further, in the early phase of internationalization, SMEs gather more information about foreign markets through international strategic partners (Lee 2007). Thus in the environment that is characterized by speed, flexibility and innovation, cooperative internationalization plays an important role in the success of SMEs’ business strategy. Researches have shown that a significantly greater percentage of small firms are using cooperative strategies than are their larger counterparts (Steensma et al. 2000). Thus SMEs’ international expansion is often dependent upon a myriad of agreements with firms from the same or unrelated industry sectors, suppliers, customers, competitors and public organizations (Spence et al. 2008). SMEs can compensate for their liabilities of smallness through the establishment of inter-firm cooperations (Fink et al. 2008) that offer an effective means of internationalization for them in general (Fernández & Nieto 2005). Thus a promising way for SMEs that have a smaller pool of internal resources and knowledge to increase their global competitiveness is to form cooperative relationships with larger MNCs. Such arrangements allow them to reach global markets and to achieve economies of scale, by integrating into the value chains of the larger firms (Etemad et al. 2001). In addition to this, cooperative internationalization is a useful way for SMEs to access new opportunities, to reduce costs and allows them to compete more effectively with more powerful competitors in the foreign markets. By joining competencies, cooperative international expansion requires a lower amount of internationalization know-how on the part of the partners than would be needed (Fink et al. 2008). Moreover, partnerships formed in order to ease entry into foreign markets are likely to increase the degree of internationalization of the firm (Reuber & Fisher 1997). Thus due to the attractiveness and importance of 109 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo cooperative international expansion for SMEs, this special form of internationalization will be focused upon in this paper. In this part of study, we focus on why and how the firms -which are located in different countriesengage in international operations? A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms (Westhead et al. 2001). So we will explain network organization theory shortly from the perspective of SMEs and then give an example from Turkey. Strategic Cooperation of SMEs and Organizing Model for Entering Foreign Market: Network Organizations SMEs give importance developing strategic cooperation and organizing model such as networking as a result of the new competition thought. Most of small firms have not enough competence, knowledge and sources to be alive. So they transfer the competence from the other firms and make strategic cooperative agreements. After transferring some sources from other the firms specializing on their core area (Christensen 1994; Esener 1997; Hamel & Prahalad 1995; Sanchez & Heene 1997; Quinn 1994; Ozgen et al 2003). Large organizations use size advantages although the small size ones use flexibility, lean and innovativeness. By developing strategic cooperation SMEs use large size advantages as well as small size. Network structure emerged as a result of strategic cooperation among different sized firms. There are some benefits of network form for SMEs such as creating value, competitive advantage, improving exporting, finding and serving new markets (Miles & Snow 1992). The Structural Result of Being in Network Organization for SMEs: Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies Case for Turkey In Turkey, SMEs motivated to exporting by the model of Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC). SMEs take advantages of being in network type such as SFTC in Turkey after 1980s liberation period (Ozgen et al. 2003). In SFTC structure, there are many SMEs at the same production field being together and part of the same organizing model. The main aim of this model is to enter different world market. The most important advantages of this model are economies of scale and professional marketing activities in exporting for SMEs (Celik & Akgemici 1998). The role of SFTC is not only maintaining exporting activities but also developing new competences, socializing new business ideas to partners, creating trust, transferring knowledge between partners (Ozgen et al. 2003). Conclusion In today’s globalization era, complex business environment generates enormous challenges for all firms especially for SMEs that seek opportunities in foreign countries. But SMEs that face several constraints and risks in international expansion process can also benefit from internationalization in several different ways. Since international expansion is based on the capability of the firm to exploit its local advantages in foreign markets, the lack of strategic resources, the uncertainty and complexity of the process and smallness make international expansion a difficult goal to achieve for SMEs. In this direction many small firms choose to concentrate on their domestic market, neglecting opportunities of international markets. But in order to achieve successful international expansion, they may choose to cooperate with other firms to overcome certain traditional barriers, to facilitate demands of business environment of global markets and to gain and sustain the global competitive advantage. Small businesses often do not have the inhouse resources to identify or go directly to foreign markets. Thus collaborative ventures may be attractive to the managers of SMEs who are interested in lowering costs, expanding what they offer to the market, getting access to additional resources, managing uncertain international environment, overcoming operational weaknesses, learning from partners and improving effectiveness in the market. An organization’s growth largely depends upon its relationships with other organizations. In this context, to address competitive threats and concentrate on their core competences and strengths cooperative internationalization increases the success chance of SMEs. Thus cooperative internationalization that is the alternative choice for SMEs’ expansion in the new markets provides benefits for them to broad a product line or to develop new products, to acquire new capabilities and to reduce the threat of competition. 110 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo SME owner/managers cooperate with other firms for international expansion if they understand how to use this strategy in a practical way by avoiding potential obstacles to success. In this study, an extensive review of literature is made to identify the cooperative internationalization of SMEs. In this context, owner/managers of SMEs should give much more attention to the following issues for cooperating with other firms to internationalize their facilities and to compete successfully in the global arena: • As they must be aware of the challenges of entering the international marketplace, SME owner/managers should analyze some important issues such as cultural characteristics, business environment and practices, politics and laws in the foreign country. And they should focus on a country where they believe the benefits of international expansion to be the strongest. • SMEs that expanding their facilities abroad should gather and interpret information from its external environments and have strong ownership advantages if they are to successfully overcome the disadvantages of operating in host countries. In this context, managers should pay more attention to how and with whom cooperative relationships should be established and what management skills are required over time. • Without appropriate capabilities and knowledge international expansion may not lead to better performance. Thus an important role of SME owner/managers is to build up their capabilities useful for internationalization process. • SME owner/managers should pay more attention to the integration of systems, cultures, and individuals of the partner firms in the early phases of cooperative internationalization. In addition, they should have multicultural competence, use specific coordination tools to link together activities processed by different firms and to federate independent goals. • SME owner/managers should be aware of mutual benefit is critical to maintaining the relationship at an appropriate level, focus on creating synergy and achieve win-win situation for both sides and an ongoing long-term relationship with partner firm. • In order to cope with the complexity of internationalization process, partner firms should arrange detailed negotiations for determining the level of strategic and operational fit, managerial rules, the responsibilities of the partners and the management and term of the relationship. • SME owner/managers should participate in goal setting and planning activities altogether for achieving the aims of better performance outcomes for international expansion and review the performance of relationship periodically. • International expansion of SMEs by cooperating experienced partner reduces risk and uncertainty in the market. But SMEs should be more careful about choosing the right and non-opportunistic partner that has relevant resources and capabilities, because they have limited opportunities to fail. • Cooperative international expansion requires building interpersonal relationships between the partner firms. Because good relations between partners build trust, facilitate harmonious relationships and lead to achieve strategic goals. • SME owner/managers should be sensitive about the communication strategies employed in their relationships and give attention to the accuracy, timeliness, adequacy and credibility of information exchanged between firms. This behavior helps them to realize mutual benefits by reducing misunderstandings. • The business environment in which SMEs have to operate has become increasingly complex, unpredictable and unstable. Thus they should be flexible enough to satisfy environmental needs and fit the dynamic requirements of the economic, social, cultural and industrial conditions of the international market. • SFTC structure is an important advantage for SMEs for entering foreign markets (Ozgen et al. 2003). Because strategic cooperations provide SMEs to develop projects that are not done alone and solve the scale problems of small firms, owner/managers of these firms should choose the right expansion strategy with the right partner in the right time. Cooperative internationalization that is the way of rapid internationalization for SMEs improves the competitiveness of firms by speeding up organizational learning, by providing access to external resources, by reducing risk and production cost, and by fostering rapid learning and change. In this context, SMEs that are characterized by limited resources may overcome their resource shortages, reduce strategic and environmental uncertainty and increase their viability in the foreign markets by cooperating with other firms. So this study suggests that despite the several constraints faced by them, for SMEs in a fiercely competitive environment, the best way to enter international market is to build cooperative relationship with the right partner at the strategic level. The new developments in the world create an excellent opportunity to study the internationalization of SMEs, which is an underdeveloped area in international business research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In this 111 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo context, this study provides a greater contribution to the understanding of the phenomenon of SMEs’ international expansion by cooperating with other firms. References Bell, J. (1995). 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Linking knowledge and internationalization in small- and medium-sized enterprises in the ICT sector. Technovation, 28, 91–601. Saarenketo, S., Puumalainen, K., Kuivalainen, O., & Kylaheiko, K. (2004). Dynamic knowledge-related learning processes in internationalizing high-tech SMEs. International Journal of Production Economics, 89, 363–378. Sanchez, R., & Heene, A. (1997). Reinventing strategic management. European Management Journal, 15 (3), 303–317. Steensma H.K., Marino, L., & Weaver, K.M. (2000). Attitudes toward cooperative strategies: A cross-cultural analysis of entrepreneurs. Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (4), 591–609. Spence, M.M., Manning, L.M., & Crick, D. (2008). An investigation into the use of collaborative ventures in the internationalization of high performing Canadian SMEs. European Management Journal, Article in Press. Westhead, P., Wright, M., & Ucbasaran, D. (2001). The internationalization of new and small firms: A resource-based view. Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 333–358. 113 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 133 Title A name given to the resource Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Author Author İPLİK, Fatma Nur KILIÇ, Kemal Can Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5acc37572264cfe717918cc6df3f1646.docx 042f36e99eda683b40526900dc75aedd https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a7fc9033f4e4d704f64c601767210fc.pdf 5c2a03aee60300f06fe260c8214b82d0 PDF Text Text Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) in the Region of Prizren Dren Bllaca Epoka University Albania dbllaca10@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The objective of this study is to analyze the financial investment of small and medium enterprises in Republic of Kosovo, respectively in the region of Prizren. The development of private sector is one of the main objectives of the development of Kosovo society. Establishment and development of the SMEs sector is dependent on the development of the system of financing the investments in these companies. Commercial banks and micro-financing institutions have financed investments of SMEs through various loans and micro-credits. Therefore the main objectives of this paper are: Identification of the financing situation of SMEs in the region of Prizren, research and reflection of the activities of commercial banks and micro-financing institutions in the region of Prizren, research forms and conditions for financing SMEs and proposals for the improvement of the institutional environment and avoidance of financing problems for SMEs investments. Keywords: SME, Investments, Financing, Economy, Envelopment. 177 �177 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2656 Title A name given to the resource Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) in the Region of Prizren Author Author BLLACA, Dren Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to analyze the financial investment of small and medium enterprises in Republic of Kosovo, respectively in the region of Prizren. The development of private sector is one of the main objectives of the development of Kosovo society. Establishment and development of the SMEs sector is dependent on the development of the system of financing the investments in these companies. Commercial banks and micro-financing institutions have financed investments of SMEs through various loans and micro-credits. Therefore the main objectives of this paper are: Identification of the financing situation of SMEs in the region of Prizren, research and reflection of the activities of commercial banks and micro-financing institutions in the region of Prizren, research forms and conditions for financing SMEs and proposals for the improvement of the institutional environment and avoidance of financing problems for SMEs investments. Keywords: SME, Investments, Financing, Economy, Envelopment.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d568519ac38564feb082eb65a095b6f4.docx 32fec0e9b789c400750ec2534bb972ad https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90d074c71271139faffa5e6c918b4037.pdf 46c0f215fd5d593edb91cd2e59c7c72c PDF Text Text Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) in the Region of Prizren DrenBllaca Epoka University Albania dbllaca10@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The objective of this study is to analyze the financial investment of small and medium enterprises in Republic of Kosovo, respectively in the region of Prizren. The development of private sector is one of the main objectives of the development of Kosovo society. Establishment and development of the SMEs sector is dependent on the development of the system of financing the investments in these companies. Commercial banks and microfinancing institutions have financed investments of SMEs through various loans and microcredits. Therefore the main objectives of this paper are: Identification of the financing situation of SMEs in the region of Prizren, research and reflection of the activities of commercial banks and micro-financing institutions in the region of Prizren, research forms and conditions for financing SMEs and proposals for the improvement of the institutional environment and avoidance of financing problems for SMEs investments. Keywords: SME, Investments, Financing, Economy, Envelopment. 177 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2665 Title A name given to the resource Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) in the Region of Prizren Author Author BLLACA, Dren Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to analyze the financial investment of small and medium enterprises in Republic of Kosovo, respectively in the region of Prizren. The development of private sector is one of the main objectives of the development of Kosovo society. Establishment and development of the SMEs sector is dependent on the development of the system of financing the investments in these companies. Commercial banks and micro-financing institutions have financed investments of SMEs through various loans and micro-credits. Therefore the main objectives of this paper are: Identification of the financing situation of SMEs in the region of Prizren, research and reflection of the activities of commercial banks and micro-financing institutions in the region of Prizren, research forms and conditions for financing SMEs and proposals for the improvement of the institutional environment and avoidance of financing problems for SMEs investments. Keywords: SME, Investments, Financing, Economy, Envelopment. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2da29320d2aa3d50e104be8bc961751.docx 06c969552340bd9c3e1e1d6df2b19573 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/616c87f11f1ac0d48470d031eb66976f.pdf 7112229d03359e5de97bdc00521a87f8 PDF Text Text SMART GRID IMPLEMENTATION IN ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION OF ELEKTROPRIVREDA B&H – REQUIREMENTS AND OBJECTIVES Elvisa Bećirović EPC Elektroprivreda, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e.becirovic@elektroprivreda.ba Mustafa Musić EPC Elektroprivreda, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina m.music@elektroprivreda.ba Nedžad Hasanspahić EPC Elektroprivreda, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina n.hasanspahic@elektroprivreda.ba Samir Avdaković EPC Elektroprivreda, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina s.avdakovic@elektroprivreda.ba Keywords:smart grid; regulatory framework; electricity market; distribution activity. ABSTRACT In terms of power sector restructuring and electricity market opening there have been significant changes in the functioning of activities at the level of Public Enterprise Elektroprivreda BiH d.d Sarajevo (EPBiH). Distribution activity in an open electricity market is not a market activity, but the regulated activity, and although does not participate directly in the electricity market, its action must allow unhindered development and functioning of the market in which suppliers competes. The introduction of the smart grid concept in electricity distribution activity is a particularly challenging area of research due to the actuality and importance. The paper presents the elements of the business framework of EPBiH in terms of application of modern technologies in the area of smart grid and the changes that inevitably occur during transition process of energy sector in general. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2135 Title A name given to the resource SMART GRID IMPLEMENTATION IN ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION OF ELEKTROPRIVREDA B&H – REQUIREMENTS AND OBJECTIVES Author Author BECIROVIC, Elvisa MUSIC, Mustafa HASANSPAHIC, Nedzad AVDAKOVIC, Samir Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords:smart grid; regulatory framework; electricity market; distribution activity. ABSTRACT In terms of power sector restructuring and electricity market opening there have been significant changes in the functioning of activities at the level of Public Enterprise Elektroprivreda BiH d.d - Sarajevo (EPBiH). Distribution activity in an open electricity market is not a market activity, but the regulated activity, and although does not participate directly in the electricity market, its action must allow unhindered development and functioning of the market in which suppliers competes. The introduction of the smart grid concept in electricity distribution activity is a particularly challenging area of research due to the actuality and importance. The paper presents the elements of the business framework of EPBiH in terms of application of modern technologies in the area of smart grid and the changes that inevitably occur during transition process of energy sector in general. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4e873cc961ac7a9785095eb5220009bd.pdf f5c19ea8a51d3a142db433fe6ad33581 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource SMARTLOCK: IOT-BASED LOCKING SYSTEM WITH FACE RECOGNITION Author Author Anđela Jeftović Abstract A summary of the resource. In an era characterized by rapid technological advancement and increasingly demanding lifestyles, there is a growing need to modernize approaches to security in residential, commercial, and institutional settings. This thesis addresses this challenge by proposing the design and development of a smart lock system. The system integrates multiple methods of access, including PIN authentication, facial recognition, RFID cards, and a mobile application. The hardware implementation includes components such as the NodeMCU microcontroller, IR and RFID sensors, and the ESP32-CAM module for image capture and recognition. The backend is developed in Python, while a Flutter-based mobile application enables users to monitor lock status, review access logs, and manage system settings in real time. Testing confirmed that the system reliably authenticates users across the different access methods and provides accurate monitoring through the application. The results indicate that multi-modal authentication systems can offer a more robust solution compared to traditional locking mechanisms. This project contributes to the growing field of IoT-based smart home and office security, with potential for future improvements such as cloud integration, advanced encryption, and scalability to larger environments. Keywords Keywords. Smart Lock, Internet of Things (IoT), Access Control, Face Recognition, RFID authentication, PIN code authentication, mobile application, Flutter, ESP32-CAM, NodeMCU, microcontroller, FastAPI, ResNet50, MQTT protocol. iot sdp smart lock https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4a68968d17edb884b43ce9aafd1d2535.pdf 4e36186019ec5b13487100802b376404 PDF Text Text SMEs, the Backbone of the Albanian Economy Suada Dajçi Epoka University Albania Amela Dalipaj Epoka University Albania Abstract: Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) play a fundamental role in the economic growth of a country. This report’s purpose is to determine and prove the great significance they have in Albanian economy, and what measures are needed to be taken in order to stimulate the establishment of new SMEs and assuring a long term sustainability of the existed ones in the market. In this paper is being analyzed the impact that SMEs have in GDP, employment, innovation, and investment. The data used in this report is gathered from INSTAT; Albanian Ministry of Economic Development, Trade and Entrepreneurship; Eurostat; and European Commission. According to this data, even though Albania has made improvements in the business sector, there is still much to be done related to SME development such as: the improvement of business climate, further simplification of legislation, implementation of favorable financial assistance schemes, and easily providing low interest loans. Keywords: economic growth, GDP, employment, innovation, investment, turnover Introduction Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have a different definition in various countries around the world because of the number that states decide as a ceiling in staff headcount and either turnover or balance sheet total. The definition made by European Commission defines SMEs as enterprises with less than 250 employees, a turnover less or equal to 50 million euros, and either a balance sheet that does not exceeds 43 million euros3. In order to bring the SME definition closer to EU standards, Albania amended the law no. 8957 in October 17th of 2002. In the article 4 of this law is stated that: Micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) include those entities which employ fewer than 80 people and have an annual turnover that does not exceed 80 million ALL1. Later on 29-10-2008 it further changed with the new law no. 10183. Now the definition states that: “Micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) includes those entities which employ fewer than 250 people and have an annual turnover that does not exceed 250 million Albanian Lek. Small enterprises are those entities which employ less than 50 persons and have an annual turnover that does not exceed 50 million Albanian Lek. Micro enterprises are entities which employ less than 10 persons and have an annual turnover that does not exceed 10 102 �million Albanian Lek.” (Kruja, 2013) To avoid confusion we need to clarify that this definition is only for individual firms, and these ceilings do not apply to firms that are part of a large group. SMEs have a very important role in the economic growth of their country. The significance they have varies in different economies. This report’s purpose is to determine and prove the great significance they have in Albanian economy, and what measures are needed to be taken in order to stimulate the establishment of new SMEs and assuring a long term sustainability of the existed ones in the market. “The only way to reduce poverty in a sustainable way is to promote economic growth, through wealth and employment creation. In developing countries, SMEs are the major source of income, a breeding ground for entrepreneurs and a provider of employment7” (UNIDO Report, 2003). We can measure the real importance of the SMEs in Albanian economy by analyzing the impact that SMEs have in GDP, employment, innovation, and state budget. Most of the data used in this report are gathered from the Albanian Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), Albanian Ministry of Economic Development, Trade and Entrepreneurship, Eurostat, EBRD BEEPS survey, European Commission, European Investment Bank, and SBA Fact Sheet. The significance that SMEs have in Albania in reducing poverty through employment, the role they have in state budget, the impact in GDP, and the percentage of investments made on SMEs are shown in Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3. The importance of SMEs in reducing poverty As it is shown in Table 1, SMEs are the main engine that can reduce poverty in Albania, because they provide 79.9% of the total employment, while the European Union average is around 67 %. This means that SMEs are the main job providers in Albania, considering the great number of people that get self employed by creating their own businesses, and at the same time creating job vacancies. While the number of unemployed people is reduced, meanwhile the number of people living in poverty line will be reduced. “[We] find that small firms have the largest shares of job creation but large firms have the largest share of job losses4” (M. Ayyagari, A.Demirguc-Kunt, V. Maksimovic, 2011, p. 12).The reason why small and medium sized firms have the greatest share of job creation is because the velocity of the creation of new firms is greater than their speed towards failure, that’s why the number of net job creation by SMEs is high as shown in Figure 1. But the number of net job creation by SMEs can be greater if less of these enterprises failed. Failure mostly comes from the lack of finance, because obtaining external financing requires a long bureaucratic administrative aspect of the lending procedures, and in the case of bank loans it is requested a collateral in a form of property or bank deposit with high interest rates, so for SMEs external financing might be unaffordable, time wasting, and no profit is generated from it. A solution to this problem might be implementation of favorable financial assistance schemes as loan guarantee funds and micro credits. 103 �Table 1 shows that the number of persons employed in SMEs in Albania has been increasing since 2008, while in European Union has been having sustainability with the tendency to decline that can better be noticed in 2012. Figure 2 Business Demography; Birth rates of enterprises %, Source: Knomea (2016) The role of SMEs in state budget SMEs in Albania constitute 99.8% of all enterprises, they provide almost 68 % of the total value added, which has dropped by 3% from 2012, due to the poor performance of small firms which experienced a 13 % drop in value added. SME employment grew by 15 % during 2012-14. Moreover SMEs generate more than 3/4 of the State’s turnover. This is why government must support SMEs with different policies as being the main contributors in the state budget. The fluctuations of the value added of SMEs curves in Albania and in EU are shown in Figure 2. 104 �Table 5 SMEs basic Figures, Source: 2016 SBA Fact Sheet Figure 2: Number of persons employed in SMES (index: 2012=100) Source: European Commission Figure 3: Value added of SMEs (index: 2012=100) Source: European Commission 105 �SMEs impact on GDP Table 2, 3 and 4 on the other hand shows the right number of: enterprises, people employed, turnover, and investments in all industries, in good producers and in service producers respectively. We drag the following statistics from Table 2: Nine from ten enterprises engaged less than 5 employed. Enterprises with 250+ employed, even though constitute only 0.1 % of enterprises, engaged 18.7 % of employed, realized 33.5 % of investment, 22.4 % of turnover and 33.7 % of value added. Most of enterprises in Albania are services producers as it is shown in Figure 3. Further on in Figure 4 and Figure 5 are shown the percentages of enterprises according to the number of employees. According to Albanian Ministry of Economy the contribution of SMEs on GDP since 2008 is 73%. As a result, it can be said that the SMEs play an important role in the economy of the country. GDP is the main indicator to evaluate the economic growth of a country, which means that in order to have economic growth a government needs to stimulate with different policies, reforms, and measures the increase of SMEs production. The best way is by favorizing SMEs exports. If we take a look to Table 2 and Table 3 on investment column we will notice that although SMEs cover most of employment, GDP, value added, still investments are not shared equally. Table 6: Basic indicators and their structure by size class of enterprises Source: INSTAT (2015) 106 �Table 7: Enterprises, employed, turnover, investments of goods producers by size class of enterprise Source: INSTAT (2014) Table 8: Enterprises, employed, turnover, investments of service producers by size class of enterprise Source: INSTAT 2014 Producers of Services groups by their number of employees. Producers of goods 13% Group by the number of employed 5-9 5% Group by the number of employed 1-4 91% Producers of services 87% Figure 4: Companies in Albania according to their activities, Source: INSTAT 2014 Diğer 4% Group by the number of employed 1049 3% Group by the number of employed 50⁺ 1% Figure 5: Producers of Services groups by their number of employees. Source: INSTAT 2014 107 �Figure 6: Producers of Goods groups by their number of employees Producers of Goods groups by the number of their number of employees. Group by the number of employed 5-9 10% Group by the number of employed 1-4 71% Group by the number of employed 10-49 15% Diğer 19% Group by the number of employed 50⁺ 4% Source: INSTAT 2014 Innovation and SMEs “Technological progress is not translated into economic benefits and jobs by governments, countries, or sectors, but by innovative firms. Innovative firms are not superior algorithms to maximize production functions, but efficient learning organizations that seize technological and market opportunities creatively in order to expand production frontiers5” (OECD , 1996). In Albania, in the previous years, used to be organized a business plan competition for innovative start-ups, with the main purpose of attracting young people with entrepreneurial skills. In 2014, the Albanian Investment Development Agency (AIDA) has provided public grants to SMEs through the 'Competitiveness Fund 2013-2015' and the newly established 'Innovation Fund 2015-2017", aiming to improve the quality of exported products as well as to diversify and increase the exports by subsidizing the SMEs2. In 2015, AIDA implemented the ‘Enhancement of institutional capacities for research and innovation’ to further support the development of research and higher education systems. The Albanian government has focused on improving the quality of the Vocational Education and Training (VET), aiming to establish linkages of the VET with the labor market, increasing employment for women, youth and vulnerable groups. Moreover it has adopted and implemented the ‘Effective implementation of Digital Agenda Strategy’, which introduced a range of instruments to support SMEs using ICT and innovative technologies. Within the last years more organizations are coming up which actively support innovative startups and existing SMEs such as ProTIK ICT Resource Center. It was established in 2012 to catalyze the development of the ICT sector in Albania and has developed an accelerator program for startups. ProTIK aims to become the Albanian ICT hub. Albania needs to work more on setting stronger links between technology, science, higher education and businesses because it is essential in improving human capital. Promotion of entrepreneurship at all levels of education, support of start-up businesses, improvement of 108 �investment climate conditions are also some of the measures that need to be taken. SMEs are flexible in market changing conditions, they are very widespread in all economic activities as they represent 99.8% of all enterprises, and furthermore they run in perfect competition. These make SMEs the perfect tool to spread innovation, try new technologies approaches while they compete one another, all characteristics which result in economic growth. Innovation is very important even for firms, because innovation means differentiation that is accompanied with more incomes, employing more workers, demanding for high level skills, paying higher wages, and offering more stable prospects for the workforce and as the economy functions as a chain one thing will follow another and this will bring economic growth to the firm. Conclusion SMEs play a vital role in our economy; they are the generators of employment, main indicators in GDP, and economic growth promoters. SMEs employ 81% of the employed persons, and meanwhile they make up 99.9% of all registered business entities. SMEs in Albania are mostly spread in the service producers’ economic activity this because service producers sector has 87% of enterprises in the market. The contribution of SMEs on GDP since 2008 is 73%. They are very widespread in all economic activities, they have the ability to respond quickly to market changes, and furthermore they run in perfect competition, all these make SMEs the perfect tool to promote economic growth through innovation. But even though Albania has made improvements in the business sector, there is still much to be done related to SME development. The new fiscal package that was pass by the Government cause of growing public debt increased the corporate income tax for large and medium companies but reduced the tax burden for small enterprises, which is positive. Some measures that the Government of Albania should undertake in order to promote SMEs in Albania are as follow: the improvement of business climate, further simplification of legislation to open a SME, implementation of favorable financial assistance schemes as loan guarantee funds and micro credits, easily providing low interest loans, or improving access to finance through developing the venture capital market and alternative sources of finance, and setting stronger links between technology, science, higher education and businesses because is essential in improving human capital. They could also consider the promotion of entrepreneurship at all levels of education; they can put more emphasis on the introduction of incubators, clusters and technological parks, enhanced public support to increase their exports, and creating fast-track and specific bankruptcy procedures for SMEs, especially in view of the issue of the non-performing loans.. If we take care for the development of the SMEs Albania will experience economic prosperity. Bibliography AIDA. (2015, December 02). Aida Funds. Retrieved from Albanian Investment Development Agency: http://aida.gov.al/pages/aidas-funds Business and Financing Consulting. ( August 2016). Assessment of financing needs of SMEs in the Western Balkans countries. European Investment Bank. 109 �On Small and Medium Enterprises, Law no.8957, article 4 (Consitution of the Republic of Albania,Commercial Law October 17, 2002). Commission, E. (n.d.). Entrepreuneurship and SMEs. Retrieved from European Commission. European Commision. (2016). 2016 SBA Fact Sheet Albania. European Commision. European Commission. (2015, December 02). Entrepreuneurship and SMEs. Retrieved January 03, 2016, from European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/growth/smes/business-friendlyenvironment/sme-definition/index_en.htm Instat. (2015). Statistics on small and medium enterprises, 2015. Tirana: Instat. INSTAT. (2017). RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL SURVEY OF ECONOMIC ENTERPRISES. Tirana: INSTAT. Knomea. (2016, October 11). Candidate countries and potential candidates: business demography. Retrieved October 20, 2016, from Knomea: https://knoema.com/cpc_insbs/candidate-countriesand-potential-candidates-business-demography?regionId=AL Kruja, A. D. (2013). The Contribution of SMEs to the Economic Growth (Case of Albania). Editura Universitara Danubius . M. Ayyagari, A.Demirguc-Kunt, V. Maksimovic. (2011). Small vs. Young Firms across the World Contribution to Employment, Job Creation, and Growth. World Bank. OECD . (1996). Technology, Productivity and Job Creation. Paris.: The Washington Workshop. PBM. (2011). The Importance of SMEs in Albanian Economy and the Role of Government and Financial Institutions in their Development. In Enhancing SMEs Development in Albania: A Study on Macro-Financial Soundness Indicators (pp. 65-67.). Tirana: Klean Publisher. UNIDO. (2003). WSIS Report. 110 �Impact of Agricultural Policies on Rural Development and Increase of Competitiveness of Agriculture of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a Special Emphasis on Achievement of Reform Goals Sanja Kavaz Hukic Bosnia and Herzegovina sanja_kavaz@bih.net.ba Abstarct: For the Balkan countries, the agricultural sector and rural development are of great importance, primarily because they are ensuring food security of the population, and then, also, because they have effects on employment, the creation of total gross value as well as on the foreign trade. Having in mind open processes of joining the European Union in these countries, with a special focus on Bosnia and Herzegovina, the implementation of the EU policies and practices will represent both a challenge and an opportunity for the development of the state and the improvement of its position in the single European market. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with a distinct rural character, with over 50% of the rural population, where every third household acquires some kind of income from agriculture, and which is currently facing a number of problems when rural development is concerned (from insufficient investments, uncompetitive production, inefficient administration, abandonment of rural areas, failure to use EU funds, etc.). Nevertheless, with adequate policies and dynamic approach to the agricultural sector, and strategy for increasing competitiveness and attracting investment, the potential of Bosnia and Herzegovina's agriculture could be used and exploited, and the country could go towards progress and success. Therefore, this paper explores and analyzes the European Union's common policies, as well as the ways and means of their implementation in the Balkan region countries, especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Then, the paper points the importance and necessity of investing in rural development (infrastructure, mechanization, marketing, agro-environmental measures, etc.), and provides guidelines on how to modernize and reconstruct the agricultural sector, in order to increase the country's competitiveness and reduce the long-standing trade deficit in this area, and, at last, how to effectively approach to the European Union with harmonization of legislation and the use of development plan. The agricultural sector and the overall modernization of rural communities, with a clear vision, and with increasing employment, economic growth and competitiveness, can become the cornerstone of the development of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a key factor of its inclusion in the European and the world trends. Keywords: EU common agricultural policy, agriculture, rural development, competitiveness. JEL Classification: Q17, Q18, O13, 018 Introduction The Common Agricultural Policy (further: CAP) is one of the oldest polices of the European Union (further: EU) and represents set of measures and programs for subsidizing agriculture in the European Union. It was created in 1962, so the application of common agricultural policy 111 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3662 Title A name given to the resource SMEs, the Backbone of the Albanian Economy (doi: 10.14706/icesos1725) Author Author Dajci, Suada Dalipaj, Amela Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) play a fundamental role in the economic growth of a country. This report’s purpose is to determine and prove the great significance they have in Albanian economy, and what measures are needed to be taken in order to stimulate the establishment of new SMEs and assuring a long term sustainability of the existed ones in the market. In this paper is being analyzed the impact that SMEs have in GDP, employment, innovation, and investment. The data used in this report is gathered from INSTAT; Albanian Ministry of Economic Development, Trade and Entrepreneurship; Eurostat; and European Commission. According to this data, even though Albania has made improvements in the business sector, there is still much to be done related to SME development such as: the improvement of business climate, further simplification of legislation, implementation of favorable financial assistance schemes, and easily providing low interest loans. Keywords: economic growth, GDP, employment, innovation, investment, turnover Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e4f8523fdb83d45ca1d1fea6948b24ab.docx 58b81e2afb35ae5c5784adabc79978a5 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/725f71f44ffbdc7d4a2c56db9f67d068.pdf 65c2dbcebdf3987055cdea5c11c67ec4 PDF Text Text Prethodno saopćenje Prof. dr. Nenad Hlača Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Rijeci Republika Hrvatska SMIJE LI SIROMAŠTVO BITI PRETPOSTAVKA ZA ODUZIMANJE RODITELJSKOG PRAVA Miroslav Krleža: »Bijeda je krasta žućkasta kao šafranov prašnik.« U radu se propituju trendovi u suvremenim društvima koji utječu i na pravne sustave u kojima se imati nameće kao dominanta koja potire ono praiskonsko biti. Evidentno je da ideologija neoliberalizma širi utjecaj na društvene i humanističke znanosti. Ukida se povijesna geneza obitelji, a pojedinac se podvrgava trţišnim zakonima i u sferi privatnog ţivota. Društvo tako postaje uronjeno u gospodarstvo, umjesto da je gospodarstvo uronjeno u društvo. Trţišna demokracija nudi se kao zamjena za socijalnu demokraciju, a budući da trţište nije podreĎeno etičkim normama ono osiromašuje društvene odnose koji se temelje na uzajamnosti i solidarnosti. Temelj obiteljskih odnosa je ljubav. Siromaštvo ni u kojem slučaju ne smije biti spomenuto u zakonu, niti se smije pojavljivati u obrazloţenjima sudskih odluka kojima se roditelje kaţnjava oduzimanjem roditeljskog prava. Ključne riječi: siromaštvo djece, obiteljsko pravo, socijalna drţava. Mary Ann Glendon zaključuje da su suvremena društva krenula u socijalni eksperiment olako prihvaćajući novine u kontekstu spolnosti i reproduktivne funkcije obitelji. Tako sve veći broj djece ţivi u nepotpunim obiteljima bez očeva, često u siromaštvu.1 „Obitelji u kojima su ţene glave obitelji zbog razvoda braka, napuštanja zajednice ili roĎenjem izvanbračne djece danas su nedvojbeno ogroman rezervoar siromaštva u globalnim razmjerima.“ 2 Pravo svih prava su ekonomska i socijalna prava, ali dijete samo za sebe nije i ne moţe biti titular tih prava. Socijalni programi moraju biti usmjereni na obitelj kako bi djeca kad god je to moguće ostala u obitelji i izbjegao stres napuštanja obitelji.3 Nameće se potreba bijega od globalnih, generalizirajućih prosudbi jer biti samohrana majka primjerice u Danskoj ili Holandiji znači čak biti u privilegiranom društvenom poloţaju. U svakom slučaju ţivotni standard majki 1 Glendon Mary Ann, Foreword, u: Reconceiving the Family, ed. Robin Fretwel Wilson, Cambridge University Press, 2006, str.xiii-xv. 2 Glendon, loc.cit. 3 Van Bueren Geraldine, Combating Child Poverty – Human Rights Approaches, Human Rights Quarterly,21, 1999,3, str.686. 125 �koje same podiţu djecu i još k tome nisu na trţištu rada zasigurno je niţi od onih ţena koje privreĎuju. Srodnički sustav u kojem ţivi čovjek postmoderne odraz je novog modela ţivota kojeg označava erozija tradicionalnih vrijednosti i morala. Ključni termin postmoderne postaje tako destrukcija, odnosno dekonstrukcija. Utvrditi danas tko su sudionici obiteljskog ţivota znači istraţivati socijalno ekonomske veze. Dekonstruirana obitelj više se ne temelji na biološkim poveznicama srodstva. Čini se da je brak ipak još uvijek uobičajen, iako ne i isključivo nuţna osnova za ostvarivanje prava iz obiteljskog ţivota. Netipične obitelji u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi počinju dobivati legitimitet. Novi sustav vrijednosti polazi od obiteljskog suţivota koji se ne mora nuţno graditi na pretpostavci krvnog srodstva. Postmodernu u ţivotu čovjeka obiljeţava kriza humanističkih znanosti koje udubljene u parcijanosti nemaju više ikakvu vrijednost podupirući zapravo opasni relativizam i posvemašnju krizu vrednota. Čovjek početkom 21. stoljeća ţiveći kao raspojasani individualist ostvaruje ţivot slobode bez odgovornosti. To izobilje raznovrsnih, često proturječnih informacija, kao da paralizira sposobnosti čovjeka da ih shvati i razumno prilagodi svojim potrebama. Moral i religija kao povijesno vaţni korektivi koji su odrţavali značaj i vaţnost obitelji i srodstva počinju gubiti utjecaj. Postavlja se pitanje što će biti s etikom za postmoderno doba. Činjenica je da su danas razorene tradicionalne vrijednosti. PotvrĎuje se da svaki napredak čovječanstva ima i svoju cijenu. Ţivot čovjeka postmoderne obiljeţava rastakanje obitelji. Pravni su poretci omogućili brzo i lako razaranje braka i omogućili jednostavno zasnivanje uzastopnih obitelji. Ali i danas kao i jučer sav ţivot ovisi o solidarnosti, jer nitko si ţivot ne daje sam, mi ga dobivamo i dajemo dalje na dar od drugoga i drugih. Čovjek je kao društveno biće da bi opstao uvijek solidarno prihvaćen i uveden u društvo ljudi. Na početku i na kraju ţivota upravo su srodnički sustavi bili okosnica i potpora toj solidarnosti. Svi ovisimo o onima koji nas prihvaćaju, koji nas podnose i stoje iza odluke da ipak ţive s nama i s našom nesavršenošću. Suvremeni pravni poretci iz domene obiteljskog prava kao da potiču tu autonomnost odluke zapostavljajući povijesno vaţan element odricanja i ţrtve za drugoga što je dokazano povijesno i komparativno bitna poveznica srodničkih odnosa. Pitanje koja je temeljna, neideološka, humana poveznica partnerskih i roditeljskih veza. Jedna sasvim nepravna kategorija koja apsolutno ne podlijeţe nikakvoj definiciji. Ljubav je: „ …….? “ Kao visoki ideal koji teško da će biti postignut i dalje stoji jednakost sve djece kao pretpostavka za društvo jednakih šansi. Vaţna su razmišljanja prema kojima fokus zanimanja pravne drţave treba pomaknuti na zaštitne mehanizme socijalne drţave.4 U kontekstu novih, gotovo već i prevladavajućih trendova pluralizma formi zajednica u kojima se raĎaju i odgajaju djeca status roditelja (brak, nakon 4 Voegeli Wolfgang, Basic Values and Family law in the Recent Judgments of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, u: Family Law and Family Values, ed. Maclean Mavis, Hart publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2005, str.42. 126 �razvoda braka, izvanbračni status, izvanbračna zajednica…) prestaje za drţavu biti vaţan i pravni poredak se usmjerava gotovo isključivo na dobrobit djece. Norma se svodi na načelo koje se kreativno tumači od slučaja do slučaja, a oni koji je primjenjuju kao mantru stalno i neprestano moraju ponavljati: '… in the best interest of the child!' Tako doista dolazimo do teorijskog modela ograničenog, unaprijed teško predvidljivog, domašaja norme.5 Povijest i sadašnjost pravnih poredaka koji zadiru i u obiteljske odnose odnos je proţimanja u mijenama društvenih i pravnih institucija. Povijesni značaj obitelji, srodstva, nasljeĎivanja, mirazni reţim sve su to iskustvom dokazani obrambeni društveni mehanizmi za preţivljavanje i protiv siromaštva. Obiteljsko i nasljedno pravo sve do druge polovine dvadesetog stoljeća obuzdavali su na neki način nepromišljeni individualizam nametanjem strogih moralnih, običajnih pa slijedom toga i pravnih ograničenja. Liberalizacijom razvoda braka, izjednačavanjem statusa izvanbračne djece i prodorom izvanbračnih zajednica s pravnim učincima uslijedio je nepovratan raspad tradicionalnih obiteljskih vrijednosti, ali i obiteljskopravnih instituta. Rezultati istraţivanja i stajališta uglednih stručnjaka glede pojave siromaštva u novim oblicima nepotpunih obitelji otvaraju potrebu preispitivanja obiteljskopravnog instituta uzdrţavanja. Nedvojbeno je da iznosi koji se daju na ime uzdrţavanja nisu dostatni za odrţavanje prosječne kvalitete ţivota čime su najviše ugroţena djeca. Ravnopravno izvršavanje svih sadrţaja roditeljske skrbi uključujući uzdrţavanje nakon razvoda braka, u slučaju roĎenja izvanbračnog djeteta ili raskida izvanbračne zajednice, u praksi očito nije zaţivjelo. Korisno je podsjetiti, primjerice na broj uzastopnih brakova, i djece koju „po zakonu treba“ uzdrţavati. Studentima obično ukaţem na primjer jedne javne osobe iz Republike Hrvatske koji je prošao kroz četiri braka iz kojih ima šestero djece. Vrlo je vjerojatno da je i neka od bivših supruga ispunjavala barem neko vrijeme pretpostavke za uzdrţavanje bivšeg bračnog druga. Obiteljsko pravo kraja 20.st. obiljeţava ubrzana dinamika odnosa, jedino što preostaje u biti su načela kroz primjenu koja se podvodi pod „flexibility“.6 U prevladavajućem modelu demokracije prevladava naravno načelo obiteljske autonomije. Svjedoci smo rastakanje tradicionalnih modela obiteljskog zajedništva koji je polazio od „binarnog biološkog modela“: ' … the binary biological model may still express our ideal but it does not reflect our world.“7 U suvremenom svijetu teško je odrţiva univerzalna koncepcija ljudskih prava. Tako su primjerice u Brazilu teţak socijalni problem migracije siromašnog stanovništva prema velikim gradovima. Pod kampanjom „Borba protiv siromaštva“ koriste se i maltuzijanske ideje poput sterilizacije ţena, ali i poticanje programa poput „Kontrola raĎanja posvojenjem“ i to često preko 5 Eekelaar John, Empowerment and Responsability: The balance Sheet Approach in the Principles and the English Law, u: Reconceiving the Family, ed. Robin Fretwel Wilson, Cambridge University Press, 2006, str.443. 6 Eekelaar, op.cit, str.441. 7 Baker K. Katharine, Asymmetric Parenthood, , u: Reconceiving the Family, ed. Robin Fretwel Wilson, Cambridge University Press, 2006, str.141. 127 �posredničkih agencija s meĎunarodnim „export“ elementom!8 Globalni pristup zapravo je štetan budući da otklanja odgovornost lokalne zajednice za djelovanje u okvirima mogućeg i dostupnog. Pogodan je znanstvenicima, a napose političarima, jer uvijek mogu prstom uprijeti na one kojima je još gore. Objavljeni su podatci Svjetske banke za 2009. godinu prema kojima u zemljama u razvoju deset milijuna djece ne dočeka peti roĎendan.9 U Africi je sve veći broj djece koja sama doslovno ţive na ulici zbog porasta broja preminulih od side, njihovih roditelja i roĎaka.10 Europska komisija iznosi podatke da u EU 2008. godine svako peto dijete ţivi na granici siromaštva.11 Brojnost i prihodi obitelji realan su ekonomski pokazatelj socioekonomskog najprije statusa djeteta, a onda tek moţemo govoriti o nekim konkretnim pravima. Za Republiku Sloveniju u godini 2008. granica siromaštva tročlane obitelji bila je na letvici s iznosom od 1144 eura ukupnih prihoda.12 Razvijene drţave suočene s negativnim demografskim trendovima počinju cijeniti vrijednost ţivota svakog novog ljudskog bića kao karike u ekonomskom opstanku. Te socijalno odgovorne drţave počinju uzdrţavanje djece shvaćati kao normalni dio sustava socijalizirane društvene skrbi. Solidarnost s uskog srodničkog kruga tako prelazi na širu, odgovornu društvenu zajednicu koja se zove socijalna drţava. U europskim razmjerima zanimljiv je problem očuvanja specifičnog identiteta romske populacije. U Bugarskoj, primjerice članici EU uobičajena je prodaja i dogovor obitelji glede cijene mladenke i sklapanje ugovorenih maloljetničkih brakova. Za pripadnike nacionalnih i etničkih manjina, poput romske, vaţna je presuda EHCR iz 2012. (Aksu v.Turkey) u kojoj je sud zaključio da drţave imaju pozitivnu obvezu zaštite etničkih manjina od 'negativnih stereotipa'.13 Bugarska nam je, na ţalost, kao zemlja članica EU posebno zanimljiva. Objavljeni su podatci da u je u nekim selima nezaposlenost romske populacije 90%.14 Velik je broj prostitutki koji dolaze iz te populacije, a siromaštvo neminovno dovodi do marginalizacije i porasta kriminala.15 Čini se da je trebalo proteći vremena da se shvati da je i pretpostavka zajedničke skrbi o djeci nakon raspada zajednice nerealno očekivanje.16 U Europi je najveća nezaposlenost meĎu mladima, a istraţivanja dokazuju da je samo 50% 8 Cardarello Andrea, The right to have a family: 'Legal trafficking of children', adoptuon and birth control in Brazil, Antropology & Medicine, 19,2012,2, str.225-240. 9 Pikl Tamara, Vpliv družinskega okolja na revščino in socijalno izključenost otrok, Socijalno delo, 49,2010, 4, str.201. 10 Van Bueren, op.cit, str.680. 11 Pikl, op.cit, str.201. 12 Pikl, op.cit, str.205. 13 Omejec Jasna, Konvencija za zaštitu ljudskih prava i temeljnih sloboda u praksi Europskog suda za ljudska prava, Novi informator, Zagreb, 2013, str.932. 14 Naoumova Stefka, Ethnicity and Expectations Concerning Family Law and Family Values in Bulgaria, u: Family Law and Family Values, ed. Maclean Mavis, Hart publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2005, str.285. 15 Naoumova, op.cit, str.285 16 Ekelaar, op.cit, str.441. 128 �samohranih majki zaposleno.17 U većini drţava OECD-ea 55.2% djece koje ţivi samo s jednim, i k tome još nezaposlenim roditeljem, preţivljava na granici siromaštva.18 Što je niţi stupanj, obrazovanja samohrane majke to je i teţi njezin socioekonomski status i veća socijalna isključenost.19 Bivše socijalističke zemlje osiromašene tranzicijom, a neke i ratovima, primjer su urušavanja sustava socijalne solidarnosti. Na to se nadovezuju loši stambeni uvjeti, veća pojavnost kriminala… Nije teško zaključiti: „Tako su povrijeĎena gotovo sva prava koja ima dijete po Konvenciji UN o pravima djeteta!“20 Nezaposlenost mladih, loši demografski trendovi potiču drţave na iznalaţenje rješenja. Prostor EU priča je za sebe. Slobodna cirkulacija radne snage dovela je do migracije ljubavi i disperzije potomstva diljem Europe…. Pitanje je koliko je poznat podatak da je samo program ERASMUS koji se provodi od 1987. godine i u kojem je sudjelovalo tri milijuna studenata zasluţan za baby boom i raĎanje milijun djece.21 Vjerojatno se dijelom radi i o ljubavnim pričama sa sretnim završetkom, meĎutim u studentskoj populaciji, s visokim postotkom mladih koji su nezaposleni, zasigurno ima i puno samohranih majki s lošijim socioekonomskim statusom. Ostvarivanje zajedničke skrbi, susreti i druţenja, sve su to apstraktne kategorije prava koje je bez materijalne baze teško ostvariti napose kad se raspadom veze udaljenost mjesta prebivališta bivših partnera, ali zauvijek roditelja djeteta, mjeri satima leta. U SAD se predlaţe kao neophodno ustrojavanje učinkovitog sustava drţavne potpore djeci radi osiguranja neophodnih materijalnih sredstava.22 Obiteljsko pravo koje je omogućilo lak i brz razvod braka istovremeno priznajući učinke i drugim oblicima zajednica kao da nije bilo svjesno dalekoseţnih posljedica te revolucije. Podatci za 1996. ukazuju da je u SAD u statusu siromaštva bilo 41.9% samohranih majki i njihove djece što je 30% više od praga siromaštva potpunih obitelji.23 Analize ukazuju da će djeca koja odrastaju u nepotpunim obiteljima četiri puta biti siromašnija od djece koja odrastaju uz oba roditelja.24 Uz porast broj djece roĎene u prolaznim izvanbračnim vezama evidentno je da dolazi do nastanka nove podklase Amerikanaca.25 Studije ukazuju da će djeca koja odrastaju uz samohrane majke češće imati psihijatrijske poremećaje, biti hiperaktivna, imati emocionalne 17 Pikl, op.cit, str.209. Pikl, op.cit, str.209. 19 Wroblewska W, Women's health status in Poland in the transition to a market economy, Social Science and Medicine,54,2002,5, str.707. 20 Pikl, op.cit, str.214. 21 European Unuion: Erasmus programme has produced one million babies, says EU, http://www.thejournal.ie/erasmus-baby-boom-love-stories-europe-1684557-Sept2014/, stranica posjećena 9.3.2015. 22 Baker, op.cit, str.139. 23 LeRoy Sylvia, Welfare & Poverty: Family Matters, Fraser Forum, March 2994, str.18. 24 LeRoy, op.cit, str.18. 25 LeRoy, op.cit, str.19 18 129 �poremećaje ličnosti, teţe se prilagoĎavati školskom sustavu od djece koja odrastaju uz oba roditelja.26 MeĎutim razumni istraţivači paradoksa koji se moţe nazvati „siromaštvo koje raĎa siromaštvo“ kao društvenu pojavu sasvim primjereno suprotstavljaju trendove koji dokazuju da i „dobro stojeća djeca“ ponekad postaju siromašni odrasli graĎani.27 Istraţivanje teme siromaštvo i djeca u znanstvenim bazama objavljenih radova dovelo je do zanimljivih podataka o multidisciplinarnosti istraţivanja. Polazna hipoteza banalno je jednostavna i razumljiva na svim jezicima: „Ne biti gladan nije nikakva kulturološka posebnost!“28 Čini se da su najbrojniji radovi koji se bave populacijskom politikom i planiranjem obitelji u nerazvijenim zemljama. Zatim slijedi velik broj radova iz područja medicine koji siromaštvo povezuju s bolestima djece. U svakom slučaju siromaštvo je načelno ograničavajući faktor koji sputava ostvarivanje talenata i koči dijete u ostvarivanju deklariranih prava. Siromaštvo obitelji u siromašnoj zemlji teţak je Damoklov mač koji visi nad sudbinom svakog djeteta. Gotovo da i nema smisla razmišljati o nekim drugim, 'višim' pravima djeteta koje se zateklo u siromaštvu. Razumno se upozorava da kad se borimo za maksimum prava borimo se tek za ideale, a na zemlji nas drţi ono što je dostupno.29 Istraţivanja potvrĎuju da je dijete u nepotpunoj obitelji samohranog roditelja u EU u 27% slučajeva izloţeno riziku siromaštva i društvenog isključenja: „ Djeca koja odrastaju u siromaštvu i društvenom isključenju vjerojatno će postizati lošije rezultate u školi, imati lošiju zdravstvenu skrb i teţe ostvarivati pune talente, kasnije u ţivotu kad odrastu izloţena su većem riziku nezaposlenosti, siromaštva i isključenja iz društva.“30 Isto je istraţivanje potvrdilo hipotezu da su djeca migranata vrlo osjetljiva populacija. Nepotpune obitelji u svim istraţivanjima, bez obzira na norme obiteljskog prava i zakonsku obvezu uzdrţavanja u najvećem su riziku od potencijalnog siromaštva i isključenosti.31 Nema politike koja bi glede djece bila vrijednosno neutralna: onaj tko poznaje problematiku postavit će političarima pitanje koliko drţavu košta zanemarivanje prava djece, a nikad ne pitanje koliko košta puno ostvarivanje prava djece.32 Urušavanje tradicionalnih obiteljskih modela ţivota razvodom braka i labavošću veza u partnerskim odnosima dovele su do toga da je dijete i EU u nepotpunoj obitelji sa samohranim roditeljem u 49,8% slučajeva izloţeno riziku 26 LeRoy, op.cit, str.19. Ludwig J., Mayer S., „Culture“ and the intergenerational transmission of poverty: The prevention paradox, Future of Children,16,2006,16, str.175-196. 28 Van Bueren, op.cit, str.683. 29 Van Bueren, op.cit, str.691. 30 Lopez Vilaplana Cristina, Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion – Statistics Explained, str.2, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php?title=Children_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion&printable=yes, stranica posjećena 9.3.2015. 31 Lopez Vilaplana, op.cit, str.3. 32 Van Bueren, op.cit, str.703. 27 130 �siromaštva u usporedbi s 19,3% djece koja ţive u potpunim obiteljima.33 Iscrpna istraţivanja tako primjerice potvrĎuju da djeca u Bugarskoj ili Rumunjskoj u ogromnom postotku oskudijevaju u kvalitetnoj hrani, odjeći i obući. Tako primjerice u Luxembourgu 0,7 posto djece oskudijeva u primjerenoj obući, dok je u Bugarskoj postotak najviši u EU i iznosi 44,3%.34 U tom je istraţivanju utvrĎeno da 30% djece u Bugarskoj ne dobiva dnevnu preporučenu dozu mesa, piletine, ribe ili vegetarijanskih proteina zato što im to roditelji zbog siromaštva ne mogu priuštiti. Uvijek treba ponavljati da nije poţeljno, niti je moguće zaštiti prava djece mimo njihovih obitelji i zajednice.35 Centralna ideja kršćanske religije kojoj pripadam upravo se slikovito ukazuje u prizoru roĎenja djeteta u štalici kojem se opetovano svake godine o Boţiću vraćamo. Granice odrţivog razvoja kad-tad će morati obuzdati ovo suludo potrošačko društvo. Uvjeren sam da treba podsjećati na taj čin siromaštva, roĎenja djeteta u štali, odnosno nekom prirodnom zakloništu, kojeg su grijali vol i magarac. Vol i magarac u jaslicama stoje kao Boţji svjedoci protiv nemarnih i nehajnih ljudi. Oni su ţivi prijekor i opomena nama kršćanima, da se i na nama ne obistine riječi Ivanova evanĎelja “K svojima doĎe, i njegovi ga ne primiše” (Iv 1, 11). A prvi su došli pokloniti se skromni pastiri. Taj skromni čin roĎenja i obnove ţivota postao je najveći potrošački dogaĎaj zapadnoga svijeta za izvanjsko obiljeţavanje kojeg se svake godine troše milijarde! Kad bi se taj godišnji iznos dao za siromašne uvjeren sam da siromaštva više ne bi bilo! Vrijednost ljudskog ţivota kroz biti daleko je vaţnija od imati. Napose je ugroţeno dijete ako ima previše. Tada je njegov pogled na svijet sasvim iskrivljen i ugroţena su njegova prava kao odgovornog bića i dijela šire zajednice. Siromaštvo je često i poticaj za upornost, marljivost, kreativnost, stvaralaštvo…a jedino ljubav vječna je i ona je pravo nad svim pravima, nešto slično kao pjesma nad pjesmama. Siromaštvo ni u kojem slučaju ne smije biti spomenuto u zakonu, niti se smije pojavljivati u obrazloţenjima sudskih odluka kojima se roditelje kaţnjava oduzimanjem roditeljskog prava.36 33 Lopez Vilaplana, op.cit, str.4. Lopez Vilaplana, op.cit, str.5. 35 Van Bueren, op.cit, str.682. 36 Prokop Ana, Porodično pravo, odnosi roditelja i djece, Zagreb, 1966, str.253.: „Po Krivičnom zakoniku iz god. 1947. gubitak roditeljskog prava bio je predviĎen kao sporedna kazna čl.37 u vezi sa članom 42, pa je gubitak roditeljskog prava izricao krivični sud. Krivični zakonik iz 1951. i novelirani iz god. 1959. ovu vrst kazne više ne poznaje.“ 34 131 �Prof.Nenad Hlača Law faculty University of Rijeka, Croatia SHOULD THE POVERTY BE TREATED AS THE REASON CAUSING THE LOSS OF THE PARENTAL RIGHTS The paper analyzes trends in modern societies in which the dominant feature is to have which erases primeval to be. It is evident wider impact of the ideology of neoliberalism on the social sciences and humanities. It eliminates the historical genesis of the family, and the individual is subjected to market rules even within the private sphere. Society becomes immersed in the economy, rather than vice versa. Market democracy is offered as a substitute for social democracy, and since the market is not subordinated to the ethical standards it impoverishes social relations based on reciprocity and solidarity. The basis of family relationships is love. Poverty in any case should not be mentioned in the law, and may not appear in the court decisions dealing with the loss of the parental rights. Autor keywords: child poverty, family law, social state. 132 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2992 Title A name given to the resource SMIJE LI SIROMAŠTVO BITI PRETPOSTAVKA ZA ODUZIMANJE RODITELJSKOG PRAVA Author Author HLAČA, Nenad Abstract A summary of the resource. U radu se propituju trendovi u suvremenim društvima koji utječu i na pravne sustave u kojima se imati nameće kao dominanta koja potire ono praiskonsko biti. Evidentno je da ideologija neoliberalizma širi utjecaj na društvene i humanističke znanosti. Ukida se povijesna geneza obitelji, a pojedinac se podvrgava tržišnim zakonima i u sferi privatnog života. Društvo tako postaje uronjeno u gospodarstvo, umjesto da je gospodarstvo uronjeno u društvo. Tržišna demokracija nudi se kao zamjena za socijalnu demokraciju, a budući da tržište nije podređeno etičkim normama ono osiromašuje društvene odnose koji se temelje na uzajamnosti i solidarnosti. Temelj obiteljskih odnosa je ljubav. Siromaštvo ni u kojem slučaju ne smije biti spomenuto u zakonu, niti se smije pojavljivati u obrazloženjima sudskih odluka kojima se roditelje kažnjava oduzimanjem roditeljskog prava. Ključne riječi: siromaštvo djece, obiteljsko pravo, socijalna država. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78afd5e0935fa5ce6544cbd0a2064456.pdf 5b0ca31fe9d3b29cdd6293e97ce2490f PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market Yüksel Köksal Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Burdur, Turkey ykoksal@mehmetakif.edu.tr Nihal İçöz Gjana Epoka University Tirana, Albania nihalgjana@gmail.com Abstract: TV serials can be leveraged as an effective mass communication means that is capable of sneaking into people’s lives, and altering their perceptions, habits and preferences. Today globalization has come to facilitate the way in which consumers are exposed to a myriad of foreign products, and country of origin and image emerge as major hints in assessing these products. Foreign TV programs that become popular in a country are known to contribute to the country of origin image of products involved. This study aims to study the way TV viewers in Albania, where Turkish soap operas are popular, perceive products of Turkish origin and whether Turkish TV programs have any effect on the purchasing decisions of Albanians. To this end, the data set of the study was compiled through one-to-one interviews with 413 participants in three Albanian cities (Tirana, Durrës and Kukës). Quantitative data were analyzed using factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) methods while qualitative data were obtained using the in-depth interviews with the people from the field who hold opinions about the matter at hand. The study produced positive findings that imply that TV serials influence product preferences of consumers. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Keywords: Opera; Country Image; Product Preference; Turkish TV Serials. JEL Classification: M31 Article History Submitted: 19 March 2014 Resubmitted: 5 June 2014 Resubmitted: 7 July 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEO CSS11513 219 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana Introduction Films, TV serials and shows have the potential to influence the audience views and make them adopt certain attitudes in specific issues (Pervan & Martin, 2002; O’Connor et al., 2008; Busby & Klug, 2001; Desai & Basuroy, 2005; Cho, 2007; Hudson & Ritchie, 2006; Kim et al., 2007; Riley et al., 1998). The characters in TV serials may emerge as real life role models for viewers and the places where these serials were shot may turn into popular tourism destinations (Balli et al. 2013, Kim & Long 2012, Busby & Klug, 2001). Soap operas are seen as one of the successful advertising venues (Pervan & Martin, 2002). They have a significant role in influencing lifestyles, purchasing habits and brand preferences of viewers as well as in boosting the image of the country of origin (Cho, 2007; O’Connor et al., 2008). They are at least capable of increasing the level of awareness of their country of origin (Kim et al., 2007). The image effect created by films and soap operas do not tend to be short-lived in general. This applies to both positive and negative images. Advantages of the positive country of origin image created by films and soap operas or disadvantages of the negative image so created may last for years (Hudson & Ritchie, 2006). The soap operas that portray a positive country image can boost the country of origin as a popular brand, thereby giving a competitive edge to the products of that country in the international markets and influencing the purchasing preferences of consumers. Turkey started to sell soap operas to foreign countries in 2001. Its exports have increased in recent years and Turkish soap operas have come to enjoy a sizable audience in the Middle East and Balkans. As these shows that secured international followers made positive contributions to the country of origin image (Brljavac, 2011; Türbedar, 2012; Radic, 2011), this also changed the perspective on Turkey (Öktem, 2010). The first Turkish soap opera was aired in 2011 in Albania, a country located in the Balkans, but it was in 1980 when Albanians first got in touch with Turkish films. “Al Yazmalım” (The Girl with the Red Scarf) is the first Turkish film aired in Albania (Telegraf, 2012). After several films that were aired in those years, Turkish soap operas invaded Albanian TV stations and they quickly became very popular (Agolli, 2012). Despite the fact that both countries enjoyed a common past, little was known about Turkey in Albania, and this has changed thanks to Turkish soap operas (Dumani, 2012). Common past and culture and similarities in family life 220 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market between Albania and Turkey were cited as the reason why Turkish soap operas became popular by dethroning their previously popular Latin American counterparts (Tirana Times, 2012). Whether there has been a change in how products of Turkish origin are perceived in Albania in parallel to the image change attributable to the impact of Turkish soap operation was an object of curiosity, and this study aimed to measure the effect of Turkish soap operas on product preferences of Albanian consumers. Country-of-origin image The country of origin image (COI) consists of views and beliefs a person may hold about a specific country. Beliefs s/he may hold in his/her mind about that country may have been acquired from different sources and at different times. These beliefs may be real or unreal, but they still can affect that person’s attitudes and perceptions concerning the images of the products from that country. Before making a purchasing decision and during the phase of assessing the products, consumers tend to pay attention not only to their internal characteristics such as taste, design, performance and capacity to serve the purpose as well as to their external features such as price, packaging, brand and warranty (Bilkey & Nes 1982; Zain & Yasin, 1997; Agrawal & Kamakura, 1999). While characteristics such as price and brand signify the quality of a product (Rezvanil et al.), the country where that product is produced or the country which is represented by that product, i.e., the perceptions created in the minds of consumers by the country of origin image, may emerge as major hints and criteria for evaluating the products involved (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Roth & Romeo, 1992; Ayyildiz & Cengiz, 2007; Zamantılı & Durmusoglu, 2008; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009; Lampert & Jaffe, 1998). This implies that the success of products in the international markets is determined not only by objective factors such as price and quality, but also subjective factors. It was Schooler (1965) who first used the term “country of origin” in the marketing literature (Pereira et al., 2005). Since then, a number of studies have been conducted on this topic (Lopez et al., 2011) and this concept has even become one of the most studied themes in the marketing literature (Agrawal & Kamakura 1999; Bloemer et al, 2009). Some literature studies (Al-Sulaiti & Baker, 1998) argued that the term country of origin should enter the literature as the fifth element of the marketing mix in addition to the product itself, its price, promotional activities and distribution channels (Dosen et al., 2007). In time, the term country of origin has come to be perceived as the country of origin image (Pereira et al, 2005). It was Nagashima Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 221 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana (1970) who was first to make a widely accepted definition of the country of origin image. Nagashima (1970) defined the country of origin image as “the picture, the reputation, the stereotype that businessmen and consumers attach to products of a specific country.” For Nagashima (1970), this image is created by such variables as representative products, national characteristics, economic and political background, history and traditions (Nagashima 1970; Pereira et al, 2005; Rezvanil et al, 2012; Lin & Chen, 2006). Means of mass communication enjoy a guiding effect in the shaping of the image in the minds of consumers, but personal experiences of consumers and opinion leaders in the society, too, play a role in this process. Given all these aspects, the country of origin image may guide consumers emotionally and behaviorally in the purchase decision process. A number of studies suggest that the country of origin image can make a significant impact on the consumer preferences (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Agrawal & Sikri, 1996; Kaynak & Kara, 2002; Ozretic Dosen et al., 2007) and the relation between the country of origin image and the purchasing behavior becomes more important in the ongoing global marketing conception. Given the fact that developed countries enjoy a more positive image compared to the developing countries, we see that products and brands of developed countries tend to be perceived as having higher quality and more reliable (Abedniya & Zaeim, 2011). Numerous studies confirmed such consumer tendencies (Zain & Yasin, 1997). Some studies found that the products whose country of origin is not specified tend to be perceived as more reliable than the products of underdeveloped countries (Acharya & Elliott, 2001: Kaynak et al., 2000). Although the past studies found that consumers tended to perceive domestic products more positively compared to foreign products (Watson & Wright, 1999), the tendency to prefer domestic products over imported products is higher in developed countries (Chryssochoidis et al., 2007). Moreover, some studies suggested that when a choice is to be made between two countries with and without cultural similarity with the own country, consumers tend to prefer the products of the country with the cultural similarity (Crawford & Lamb, 1981; Wang & Lamb, 1983; Watson & Wright, 1999). Likewise, TV serials tend to bring about cultural and social convergence among different societies (Castello, 2010). This lends credence to the argument that increased popularity of Turkish TV serials in Albania will boost Turkey’s country image and foster Albanians’ preferences for Turkish products, given the sheer amount of cultural values historically shared between two countries. In support of this argument, it was observed that the increased popularity of Turkish TV serials in 222 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market the Middle East and Balkans led to an increase in Turkey’s trade and tourism revenues from the countries located in these regions that imported TV serials from Turkey (Balli et al., 2013). It is widely acknowledged that TV serials tend to increase overall consumption and are an effective advertisement tool (Pervan & Martin, 2001; Miller, 1995). The conceptual model and hypotheses developed in this framework can be listed as follows. Figure 1: Conceptual Model H1a Country Image H2 H1c Soap Opera Product Preference H1b Considering Country Origin of Product H3 H1a: There is a positive correlation between watching TV country and the image of that country. H1b: There is a positive correlation between watching TV country and noticing the country of origin of products. H1c: There is a positive correlation between watching TV country and preferring products of that country. H2: There is a positive correlation between having a good preferring products of that country. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 serials of a specific serials of a specific serials of a specific country image and 223 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana H3: There is a positive correlation between noticing the country of origin of products and preferring specific products. Research methodology Quantitative method was employed in this study. The data were obtained from three Albanian cities, namely Tirana (the capital), Durrës (a tourism city) and Kukës. Face-to-face interviewing was adopted as the method of collecting quantitative data. In designing the questionnaire, three local linguists were consulted about the comprehensibility of the questions. A sample run was made with 20 questionnaires to revise certain questions and make additions to and omissions from the final questionnaire. 74 people from Kukës, 112 people from Durrës and 227 people from Tirana participated in the study. The face-to-face interviewing of the participants produced no invalid questionnaire. The questions which were asked to participants during the interview and which sought to measure their attitudes and approaches to identify the impact of Turkish TV serials on consumers in the Albanian markets are given in Table 3 with mean values, standard deviation and factor values. The conceptual model and questions were designed by the researcher in the light of literature (Castello, 2010, Chryssochoidis et. al, 2007, Kaynak et.al, 2000, Kim & Long, 2012) data as the literature review produced no study that measured the direct effect of TV serials on product preferences. 14 variables in the conceptual model were measured using the 5-level Likert item (ranging between “I strongly disagree” and “I strongly agree”). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to test the conceptual models and obtain scientific findings. Analysis and Results The demographic information relating to participants, including gender, age, marital status, education, occupation and income is given in Table 1. 224 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market Table 1: Sample Characteristics Category Gender Freq. % Male Female 129 284 TOTAL Single Married one Marital Married child Status Married two Married three TOTAL 18 or younger 19-30 Age 31-40 Category 41-50 51 or more 413 172 76 54 70 41 TOTAL 413 45 174 112 60 22 413 Category € 200 or less € 201-350 € 351-700 € 7001-1,500 € 1,501 or more 100 TOTAL 41.6 Less than 18.4 high school 13.1 Education High school Bachelor 16.9 Post 9.9 Graduated 100 TOTAL 10.9 Own 42.1 Business 27.1 Occupation Student Worker 14.5 Private Sector 5.3 Public Officer Other 100 TOTAL 31.2 Monthly 68.8 Individual Income Level Freq. % 117 153 113 14 16 28.3 37.0 27.4 3.4 3.9 413 100 44 10.7 149 124 96 36.1 30.0 23.2 413 100 35 47 105 142 54 30 8.5 11.4 25.4 34.4 13.1 7.2 413 100 15.7% (65 people) of the participants said they do not watch Turkish TV serials regularly. The number and percentages of TV serials regularly watched by participants before and during the studied period are given as follows: Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 225 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana Table 2: Numbers of Watching Turkish TV Serials Number of Percent Number of Number of TV Serials (%) People TV Serials 1 26.2 108 4 2 22.5 93 5 3 23.7 98 6 Percent 9.4 1.7 0.7 Number of People 39 7 3 Participants were asked whether they prefer Turkish products while shopping, and 69 % (285) gave affirmative answers. 50.8 % (210 people) of the participants noted that Turkish TV serials make a positive effect on their preferences for Turkish products. To better understand the role of TV serials in driving product preferences, the relation between the “number of Turkish TV serials regularly watched” and the “preference for Turkish products” was tested using the chi-square method and a significant relation was found (p>0.000). Thus, while the rate of those who never watch Turkish TV serials regularly was 43.1%, this rate was 68.5% for those who regularly watch at least one TV serial, 78.6% for those who regularly watch three TV serials and 85.7% for those who regularly watch five TV serials and 100% for those who regularly watch six serials. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were measured using four factors and 19 variables. For the reliability level of variables, Cronbach’s alpha was measured as 0.848. This rate is considered as sufficient and appropriate for the reliability of findings obtained (Kalaycı, 2010). Also the KMO measure of sampling adequacy has been measured as 0.875 and Approx. Chi-Square; 3907.102, df; 171, Sig; 0.000. Variables and mean values and factor loads are given in Table 3. Table 3: Factor Loads No Factors and Sub- Items S1 Soap Opera I often follow the Turkish serials S2 I like watching Turkish serials 3.63 .871 S3 I intend to follow also other Turkish serials in the future Turkish TV serials are among the most favourite programs for me 3.41 .857 3.27 .815 S4 226 Mean Factors Loads Values Factor Variance: 31.64% 3.47 .880 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market S5 I like all Turkish serials S6 When Turkish serials are broadcasted I don’t 2.79 .761 have any plan to do Considering Country Origin of Product Factor Variance: 6.88% I do not prefer products the countries I do not 2.96 .797 like The products of some countries not prefer 3.13 .775 consciously I prefer products according to the origin of the 3.41 .517 country Country of origin gives me ideas about products 3.73 .500 O1 O2 O3 O4 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 P1 P2 P3 P4 3.17 .781 Country Image Factor Variance: 7.40% I believe that the products of developed countries 3.87 .804 are more quality I always prefer products of developed countries 3.47 .712 I mostly prefer products of economically 3.66 .702 developed countries I prefer products according to price and quality 3.97 .507 not to origin of the country Country of origin of the product should be 3.55 .454 respected Product Preference Factor Variance: 16.95% After I followed the Turkish serials my ideas have 2.91 .774 changed positively for Turkish products I always prefer Turkish products in shopping 2.65 .770 I have started preferring Turkish products after watching Turkish TV serials Before the Turkish serials I have not preferred Turkish products so much Total Variance Explained 2.76 .728 2.59 .613 62.87% The total variance of 62.87%, obtained via the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), is regarded as a significant rate in terms of representativeness of the general opinions and this rate should be at least 50% for acceptability of the analysis (Meyers et al., 2006). Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 227 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana The relationship between factors and variables was analyzed using the structural equation modelling (SEM). Initially, we couldn’t reach to the model reference values of Goodness of Fit with these EFA variables. So the model was refined by eliminating three items (S5, I1 and I3) that have largest error variances. After removing three items, the test of final measurement model showed a good fit as shown Figure 1. Figure 1: Conceptual Model H1a = .118 Soap Opera H1b = .029 Country Image H1c= .700 Considering Country Origin of Product H2 = .293 Product Preference H3 = -.185 The findings that were obtained in the SEM analysis and that indicated the Goodness of Fit results of the analysis are given in Table 4 while the findings showing the hypothesis results were given in Table 5. Table 4: Goodness of Fit Indication Chi-Square 1/Degrees of Freedom (x2/df) 228 Tested model 3.04 Reference values 0-5 interval Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) .915 ≥.90 Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) .884 ≥.90 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) .931 ≥.90 Tucker Lewis Index (known as NNFI) (TLI) .916 ≥.95 Incremental Fit Index (IFI) .931 ≥.90 Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) .07 < .08 Source: Meyers et al, 2006; Hooper et al, 2008; Ayyıldız and Cengiz, 2006. Table 5: SEM Hypotheses Hypotheses H1a Soap Opera H1b Soap Opera H2 Product H1c Soap Opera H2 Country Image (CI) St. p Results β Errors values .053 .118 .026** S Considering COO of .028 .029 .304 NS Product Preference .059 .700 .001*** S .094 .293 .002*** S Country Image (CI) Product Preference H3 Considering COO of Product Product .112 -.185 .098* Preference *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10, S: Supported, NS: Not Supported. S The findings obtained via the structural equation modeling indicate that people who watch TV serials of a specific country tend to prefer the products of that country. The most strongly supported hypotheses are the power of TV serials to influence product preferences of consumers and the effect of the country image in product preferences. Also, the hypothesis that TV serials tend to boost the image of the country where they are produced was found acceptable with a 5-percent margin of error. In this context, the increase in Turkey's exports to the countries where Turkish TV serials are followed (Balli et al., 2013) signifies a positive indication of this hypothesis in practice. Likewise, the hypothesis that the country of origin is respected in product preferences was another approach which was found acceptable with a 10-percent margin of error. No correlation was found between watching the Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 229 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana TV serials of a specific country and the checking the country of origin of products in shopping, and the hypothesis was rejected. Discussion and conclusions The basic purpose of this study is to examine whether there is correlation between watching TV serials of a specific country and preferring to buy products of that country and find out the potential of TV serials for influencing consumer preferences. The findings of the study indicate that many Albanian consumers have developed positive attitudes toward Turkish products after watching Turkish TV serials. Even 50.8% of the participants said Turkish TV serials are the main factor influencing their decision to buy Turkish products. In addition to other benefits, TV serials have created a new marketing sphere called destination marketing with which the places where TV serials take place are promoted as touristic locations or holiday resorts to be visited by the audience (Balli et al., 2013; Kim & Long 2012; Busby & Klug 2001; O’Connor et al., 2010). The findings obtained using the exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling as well as the hypotheses results indicate that TV serials play a major role in shaping consumer preferences directly or indirectly. The hypothesis that sports a direct correlation between watching TV serials of a specific country and preferring products of that country (H1c) was accepted most strongly (Table 5, p<0.01). The hypothesis that was accepted with the second highest values is H2 that shows the effect of the country image on the product preferences (p<0.01). The finding that TV serials affect product preferences also indirectly is found at the hypothesis H1a, which is accepted in the light of the findings (p<0.05). This is because the regularly watched TV serials of a country tend to have a positive effect on that country's image and they enhance the country image (Cho et al., 2007). Given the fact that H2, which indicates the role of the country image in the product preferences, is also supported, it is clear that TV serials have a direct or indirect effect on consumers' preferring the products of the country where those serials are produced. The hypothesis, H3, which signifies the impact of the image of the country of origin in product preferences, and which was extensively studied previously (Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Roth and Romeo, 1992; Lampert and Jaffe, 1998; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009) was verified in this study as well (p<0.10). However, as no correlation was found between watching the TV serials of a specific country and the 230 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market checking the country of origin of the products preferred and the hypothesis H1b was rejected. To sum it up in the light of the foregoing discussion, the rate with which the TV serials of a specific country are watched is effective in directly or indirectly driving the popularity of the products of that country. Of course, other marketing components, too, should be effectively employed in order to increase the popularity of products of a country. But it is clear that when other marketing components are well-designed, popular TV serials play a critical role in boosting the popularity of the products of the country where those serials are produced as well as enhancing the image of that country. Implications for managers That TV serials can play a strong role in facilitating the market penetration of the products of the countries where they are produced has important implications for firms and managers. Given the fact that the places featured in TV serials emerge as potential tourism destinations (Kim & Long, 2012), the products used or consumed in these serials are also advertised. Product placement has today become a widely used advertisement tool (Pervan & Martin, 2002). Thus, product placements in the serials and sponsor advertisements run before and after the serials are recognized as very effective way for ensuring product penetration in the countries to which these serials are exported. Brand managers may choose to focus more on the markets in the countries where the TV serials which feature advertisements and placements of their products are broadcast, and by doing so, they can increase their market share and launch branding efforts in those markets. Likewise, it is generally accepted that women are more resolved and eager to regularly watch TV serials (Stern et al., 2005: Thompson et al., 2000). Thus, the brand managers who sell products specifically geared for women may select TV serials as the media where their products are advertised. Limitations and future research This study focused on a topic which has not been intensively studied, but was restricted to a sample group of 413 people due to constraints imposed by lack of resources and time. Still the study's sample size is above 384 people, which is defined as the number for 5-percent margin of error (Balcı, 2010) and its sample size is Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 231 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana regarded as 'good' in terms of having 300 subjects and over for factor analysis (Meyers et al., 2006). That the study was conducted solely with Albanians due to lack of resources and costs can be considered as another restriction for the study. This study focused on the role of TV serials in product preferences, but future studies may choose to examine the product placement approaches by the firms which operate, or plan to operate, in international markets or their tendencies for sponsoring TV serials which have the potential for being exported, with a view to finding out the place and role of TV serials in marketing. Moreover, the potential for becoming successful in foreign markets and the role and effects of cultural proximity between different societies in international marketing are other potential areas for study. References Abedniya, A. & Zaeim, M.N. (2011). The Impact of Country of Origin and Ethnocentrism a Major Dimensions in Consumer Purchasing Behavior in Fashion Industry. European Journal of Economics, Finance And Administrative Sciences, 33, 222-232. Acharya, C. & Elliott, G. (2001). An Examination of the Effects of ‘Country-OfDesign and Country-Of Assembly’ on Quality Perceptions and Purchase Intentions. Australasian Marketing Journal, 9 (1), 61-75. Agarwal, S, & Sikri, S. (1996). Country Image: Consumer Evaluation of Product Category Extensions. International Marketing Review, 13(4), 23-39. Agrawal, J. & Kamakura, W.A. (1999). Country of Origin: A Competitive Advantage? International Journal of Research in Marketing, 16, 255–267. Al Sulaiti, K. & Baker M. J. (1998). 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Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 237 �Yüksel Köksal, Nihal İçöz Gjana Türbedar Erhan, “How is Turkish foreign policy perceived in the Balkans?”, Today’s Zaman, April 30, 2012, http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById .action?newsId=279073. 238 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2701 Title A name given to the resource Soap Opera Effect on Product Preferences in Terms of Country Image: A Case of Turkish TV Serials in Albanian Market Author Author Köksal, Yüksel Gjana, Nihal İçöz Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: TV serials can be leveraged as an effective mass communication means that is capable of sneaking into people’s lives, and altering their perceptions, habits and preferences. Today globalization has come to facilitate the way in which consumers are exposed to a myriad of foreign products, and country of origin and image emerge as major hints in assessing these products. Foreign TV programs that become popular in a country are known to contribute to the country of origin image of products involved. This study aims to study the way TV viewers in Albania, where Turkish soap operas are popular, perceive products of Turkish origin and whether Turkish TV programs have any effect on the purchasing decisions of Albanians. To this end, the data set of the study was compiled through one-to-one interviews with 413 participants in three Albanian cities (Tirana, Durrës and Kukës). Quantitative data were analyzed using factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) methods while qualitative data were obtained using the in-depth interviews with the people from the field who hold opinions about the matter at hand. The study produced positive findings that imply that TV serials influence product preferences of consumers. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-01-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HC Economic History and Conditions,HM Sociology https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e92de3a736a3ece0c71ba9f2fb4d9c18.pdf 9c7f45192537fe5c69937685221efc50 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Hilmi KIRLIOĞLU / Zülküf ÇEVİK Kırlıoğlu, H. (1998). Kalite Maliyetleri Muhasebesi. Değişim Yayınları. Low, S. P., & Yeo, H. K. (1998). A construction quality costs quantifying system for the building industry. International Journal of Quality & eliability Management, s. 329 - 349. Montgomery, D. C. (2005). Introduction to tatistical Quality ontrol. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Oliver, J., & Qu, W. (1999). Cost of quality reporting: Some Australian evidence. International Journal of Applied Quality Management, 233-250. Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Bilal Sisman Economics and Administrative Science Faculty Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey bsisman@aku.edu.tr Ömürgönülşen, M. (2009, May). A research on the measurement of quality costs in the Turkish food manufacturing industry. otal Quality Management & Business xcellence, 547-562. Özcan, S. (2012). An Empirical Research about Quality Cost Analysis and Its Impact on Managerial Decisions in Automotive Supplier Industry. International onference on Management, Applied and ocial ciences (I MA ’2012) March 24-25,(363-367. Dubai. Sinan Yoruk Education Faculty, Department of Education Science Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey syoruk@aku.edu.tr Pirsig, R. M. (1974). en and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. New York: William Morrow & Co. Rodchua, S. (2006, Oct-Dec). Factors, Measures, and Problems of Quality Costs Program Implementationin the Manufacturing Environment. Journal of Industrial echnology, 510-515. Sarıkaya, N. (2003) oplam Kalite önetimi. 1. Baskı. Sakarya: Sakarya Kitabevi. Ali Eleren Economics and Administrative Science Faculty Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey aeleren@hotmail.com Şimşek, M. (2001). oplam Kalite önetimi. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Tsai, W. -H. (1998). Quality Cost Measurement Under Activity-Based Costing. International Journal of Quality and eliability Management, 719-752. Vahevanidis, N. M., Petropouolos, G., Avakumovic, J., & Mourlas, A. (2009). Cost Of Quality Models And Their Implementation In Manufacturing Firms. International Journal for Quality esearch, 27-36. A A With the growing popularity of Internet communication among KEYWO D adolescents, the Internet, social media, instant messaging and cell phones ocial Anxiety, ommunication have become important social tools in their life. This study examines teens’ use of social interactive technologies and the role that social anxiety plays on ools, echnology, Adolescents how adolescents communicate with others (technology or face-to-face). A questionnaire was designed and distributed to selected sample in the cities A I LE HI O Y of Afyonkarahisar, Manisa and şak in order to analyze the relationship ubmitted: 22. Jun 2012 between adolescents’ social anxiety and their preference of communication esubmitted: 25 eptember 2012 tool. The data were gathered from 544 respondents among High chool esubmitted: 9 ctober 2012 adolescents (ranged from 15-18; freshman, sophomore, junior and senior). Accepted: 22 ovember 2012 indings show that adolescents rarely use messenger sites and mail addresses. They generally send instant messages with their cell phones. They spend 1-2 hours for listening music and averagely 30 minutes for acebook in a day. More than half of teens have hi-tech cell phones that enable to call, send message and access to Internet. The findings of the present study also reveal that females use text messaging more than males. However, males spend much more time than females to play games. In addition, females feel themselves more uncomfortable than males for face-to-face talking with others. And, on the contrary to males, females also prefer to some extent, to communicate with other on internet instead of face-to-face talking. imilarly, females prefer more than males to make new on internet. JEL odes: 12, I12 100 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 101 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Introduction The use of socially interactive technologies, such as social media, text messaging or instant messaging rises among young people (Pierce, 2009). Among adolescents, the Internet has become indispensable for instrumental purposes such as school work information gathering as well as for communication purposes. The communication applications of Internet, such as e-mail, instant messaging (IM), blogs and chat rooms have entrenched themselves in the lives of adolescents and Internet has become an important social context in the lives of adolescents today. In fact, a national survey of adolescents (10-17 years of age) revealed that in the year before they were surveyed 25% of Internet users had formed casual online friendships (Wolak et al., 2002; Subrahmanyam and Lin, 2007). Instant messaging is also an increasingly popular form of communication. A study by the Pew Internet and American Life Project found that 53 million Americans use IM, and 36% of these users reported using IM on a daily basis (Shiu and Lenhart, 2004). IM is a text based form of communication in which two or more people exchange text messages in real time using the Internet (Lenhart, 2005). Some researches suggest that socially interactive technologies allow users to avoid or replace face-to-face communication (Nie and Erbring, 2000). If the person is shy (socially anxious) and feels uncomfortable with face-to-face interactions, these technologies may serve as a useful tool for avoiding such unpleasant situations and therefore may replace face-to-face communication (Pierce, 2009). US, Canadian and Dutch studies have shown that the vast majority of adolescents spend several hours daily online. Further surveys show that adolescents consider the Internet a highly important medium in their everyday social life and use it to form and maintain social relationships (Selfhout et al., 2009). that high school level about 15-18. The beginning of puberty and the end of puberty is the reason why we selected this age range. Because, puberty is a vital phase for growing of young people and determine their personalities. This study is not been applied only Afyonkarahisar teens but also Uşak and Kütahya provinces are included. The purpose of this study is to research adolescents’ use of social media, computers, text messaging, cell phones and instant messaging related to social anxiety effective’s technological tools versus face-to-face communication. Because, especially 15-20 years-old-teens have been noticed to use on-line communication means having faster and interactive features rather than having face-to-face communication while talking to their friends or their parents. Consequently, in this study, the reason for this choice has a connection with whether social anxiety or gender will be researched. Literature Overview Internet Use among Teens Use of Internet continues to increase worldwide. Colley and Maltby (2008) indicated that, 57% of households now have access, in comparison to 46% four years ago in the UK (National Statistics, 2006). The Digital Future Project in the US has found that 78.6% of Americans went online in 2005, with an accompanying increase in the amount of time spent per week on the Internet (Center for the Digital Future, 2005). Today, social anxiety, social phobia and shyness are features that seen every individuals of all ages. Both adolescents and adults who have social anxiety against life and their environment scope, has led to more research on them. This study is related on teens Many of the studies in this area have been conducted with university students, in part because of their widespread use of the Internet as a social tool; indeed such use among students is increasing. In addition, a number of studies have found a high prevalence of social anxiety among university students who may then turn to the Internet as a way of regulating, challenging or escaping their social fears (Shepherd and Edelmann, 2005). Many university students commenting that they are shy in social situations, but are more open, easy going on the net, in chat rooms. They are shy about approaching people at a party or in large group, for example, but not about talking with people in chat rooms. 102 Volume 3 Motivation Journal of Economic and Social Studies Number 2 Fall 2013 103 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Cell Phone Use among Adolescents Auter (2007) researched that some of them related to adolescents and young adults use the cell phone differently than their parents and other older users. They prefer to consider it their primary phone –traditional landline phone – for its. Some studies have found little or no difference in use based on gender (e.g., DeBaillon, 2003; DeBaillon and Rockwell, 2005). Other studies have found, however that boys tend to be more intrigued with technical aspects of the devices, while girls tend to prefer the interpersonal connectivity – and spend more time using their phones for voice calls (Henderson et al., 2002; Rakow and Navarro, 1993; Skog, 2002). In fact, while women in one study felt the phones resulted in more freedom, male teens found the additional connectivity a constraining inconvenience. A recent Pew Internet research study found that approximately 33% of teens have a cell phone. Of the 33% of teens who reported owning a cell phone, approximately 64% said they had sent text messages. In addition, the Pew study found that of the young cell phone users, teenage girls tended to use text messaging much more than their male counterparts. Older teens (17 year olds) also reported sending more text messages on average than younger teens. Although cell phone use and text messaging have risen among U.S. teens, their popularity remains considerably less than European teens (Lenhart et al., 2005; Pierce, 2009). Seventy-five percent of teenagers now own cell phones, and 25% use them for social media, 54% use them for texting, and 24% use them for instant messaging. Thus, a large part of this generation’s social and emotional development is occurring while on the Internet and on cell phones (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007). Instant Messaging The two previously mentioned theoretical approaches might adhere to different types of Internet activities that may have differential effects on well-being. One type of activities surfing, which can be described as visiting web sites on the Internet for non-communication purposes. In contrast to surfing, Instant Messaging (IMing) consists of sending messages directly to others one has invited to the online conversation. Because of its dyadic, real-time, and private format, IM-ing has 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies been as an excellent ‘training ground’ for adolescents in terms of their social skills (Morgan and Cotten, 2003; Valkenburg and Peter, 2007). A survey study showed that among freshmen college students whereas increased time spent IM-ing was uniquely associated with less reported depression, increased time spent surfing was uniquely associated with more reported depression (Morgan and Cotten, 2003). Social Anxiety and Gender Differences Social anxiety has variously been referred to as both shyness and social phobia. Social phobia, (also known as social anxiety disorder) is at the more extreme end of the continuum of social anxiety and “includes a collation of symptoms which unlike shyness can vary in severity throughout one’s life” these symptoms are only elicited in certain social situations (Leary, 1983). In contrast shyness while at the less severe en of the social anxiety continuum is more likely to be a life long characteristic of an individual’s temperament which is experienced in every social occurrences (Lecrubier et al., 2000; Shepherd and Edelmann, 2005). Individuals are often motivated by a need to feel a sense of belonging; however, those with social anxiety may find it difficult to fulfill this social need because of the Internet. For socially anxious individuals, the Internet and socially interactive technologies (text messaging) can have both positive and negative results. Kraut et al (1998) found that online interaction greatly reduced face-to-face social interaction. Females usually have more negative attitudes toward computers and greater computer anxiety than males. Researches on computer self-efficacy in general also revealed that males on average have better computer self-efficacy than females (Hackett, 1985). Similarly, one might expect adolescent girls to be more worried than boys about peers’ negative evaluations of them. Indeed, surveys have found that adolescent girls are more concerned than boys about others’ judgments of their appearance and behavior. Moreover, rates of internalizing problems are higher among girls than boys and adult women are about twice as likely to be socially phobia as men (Schneier et al., 1992). Thus, adolescent girls may be more vulnerable than boys to feelings of social anxiety, and this may have implications for their social functioning (La Greca and Lopez, 1998). Jackson et al. (2001) predicted that women would use e-mail more and men use the Web for information more, based on the greater interpersonal orientation of women Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 105 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents and greater task orientation of men. This prediction was supported in a large sample of Anglo-American undergraduates, even after computer self-efficacy, loneliness and depression were controlled for. Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott (2005) found that women use e-mail slightly but not significantly more than men but that men use chat rooms more. Shepherd and Edelmann (2005) study social anxiety and Internet use to explore in relation to regulation of social fears. It is hypothesized that high social anxiety will be associated with low ego strength as well as greater scores on the Internet. Methods Participants and Data The data was gathered from 544 students among High Schools in Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya and Uşak cities. The age of the participants ranged from 15 to 18. 32.4% were freshman, 24.1% were sophomore, 28.1% juniors and 15.4% were seniors. The sample consisted of 227 (41.7%) males and 317 (58.3%) females. We first were contacted the principals and asked permission in order to survey some classes on school. After that, teacher was chosen to gain a sample of students from each school year. After obtaining permission from teachers, each student was warned about survey able to tell it their parents. The survey was applied in the students’classrooms and teachers were present during all testing. All students received the same instructions and their identity would remain secret. Each participant completed a report questionnaire. Purpose It is very important to analyze of instant messaging, text messaging and other socially interactive technologies among teens due to significant popularity. Since social anxiety can affect one’s type of social interaction, it is prominent to examine if social anxiety is influencing how adolescents communicate with others and which technology. The purpose of this study is to research adolescents’ use of online social sites, cell phones, test messaging and instant messaging and if social anxiety influences technology versus face-to-face communication. So, the following hypotheses are proposed: • • • • • • 106 H1: Females use socially interactive technology (text messages, cell phones, e-mail, and instant messages) more than males. H2a: There is a relationship between not feeling comfortable talking with others in person and feeling more comfortable talking with others online. H2b: There is a relationship between not feeling comfortable talking with others in person and feeling more comfortable messaging with others. H2c: There is a relationship between the amount of their families’ monthly income and social anxiety. H3: Males are more social anxiety with face-to-face interactions than females. H4: Males are feeling more comfortable talking with others through a social interaction technology than females. Journal of Economic and Social Studies Measures The first two questions of the questionnaire consisted of primarily demographic questions such as age, sex, year in school, and general information. The next series ten questions included items of the students’ comfort level in interacting with others face-to-face, online talking, cell phone or text messaging. Questions were prepared by using both nominal (yes or no) and 5 point likert-type scales. All hypotheses were developed by us to measure the relationship between social anxiety and usage of technological tolls among teens. The reliability of tests confirms our measurement (Cronbach α=72.4). This test can be acceptable according to rule of thumb for describing internal consistency 0.7 ≤ α ≤ 0.8 Results 3.7% stated the amount of children who separate from their families is not adequate for measuring the relationship between social anxiety and family situation. First of all, participants were asked about type of technological tools they had use. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 107 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Table 2. Regression estimates and correlation • 88.9% reported having personnel computer. • 79.2% reported having Internet on their PC. Variables • 92.6% stated that having messenger address. Dependent • 73% reported having e-mail accounts. Gender (technology use) • 96.7% reported having cell phones. Gender (face-to-face interac- • 72.2% reported having text messaging capabilities on their cell phones. • 84.3% stated having social media sites and most of them are using Facebook (49.2%). Most of the other has more than one membership in social sites (twitter, MySpace, LinkedIn etc). The following next questions asked how much time adolescents use each of their time on their technological tools on average day. Table 1 shows the results. tion) Gender (talking online) Gender (making friends online) Game Feeling anxiety Table 1. Technological tools use 9 h + (%) 7-8 h (%) 5-6 h (%) 3-4 h (%) 1-2 h (%) Msn Instant message Cell phone Social sites Music Game Mail Internet 0.4 3.7 0.6 0.7 3.9 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.4 2.2 0.2 1.7 2,4 0.9 0.2 0.4 0 4.6 0.4 1.5 5.0 1.3 0.2 1.1 0.6 10.8 2.2 8.0 10.3 4,3 1.1 6.7 4.3 17.5 11.9 29.0 39.0 17.7 3.9 26.8 30 min (%) 13.6 23.6 56.9 33.3 31.8 24.0 12.8 40.1 İncome (monthly) None (%) 80.7 37.5 27.8 25.8 7.6 51.0 80.9 23.8 As shown in Table 1, adolescents rarely use messenger sites and mail address. They generally send instant message with their cell phones. They spend 1-2 hours for listening music and averagely 30 minutes for Facebook in a day. More than half of teens have cell phones that enable to call, message and access to Internet. All following hypothesis were examined to 95% level of confidence. Regression analysis was made to see the relationship between feeling anxiety and family income with technological tools usage among adolescents; T-test, Chi-square test and one way ANOVA test was performed in the study to see gender differences with technology use, face-to-face interaction, talking online, making friends online and playing games. 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Males Females Males Females Males Females Full sample (n:544) Standart Significant Coefficient deviation (p) 1.52 2.31 0.019 1.08 1.90 1.86 0.99 0.003 2.12 0.92 3.48 1.05 0.009 3.71 0.96 Males 3.62 1.19 Females Males Females Instant message Social sites Msn Cell phone Instant message Social sites Msn Cell phone 4.14 0.30 1.06 0.069 0.139 -0.005 0.308 173,737 -270,341 -8,104 -38,099 1.04 0.75 1.66 0.054 0.052 0.025 0.045 119,286 115,816 55,636 99,021 Independent Correlation coefficient (r) 0.000 0.000 0.201 0.008 0.851 0.000 0.146 0.020 0.884 0.701 0.449 0.125 After T-test was made for hypothesis 1, table 2 shown that females (M: 1.08, SD: 1.9) reported that they are using text messaging more than males and significant relationship between text messaging and interactive technology (M: 1.52, SD: 2.31, p: 0.019). In addition, males (M: 0, 3, SD: 0.75) spend much more time than females to play games and there is a gender differences between playing games on computer and social technology using (M: 1.06, SD: 1.66, p: 0.000). There are not gender differences in use of instant messaging, e-mail, social network sites and chat rooms. When someone have to talk face-to-face, feeling anxiety was positively correlated with feeling comfortable with others through cell phones and social media sites (r:0.449, p: 0.000). There isn’t a relationship between social anxiety of face-toface interaction and feeling comfortable with others via messaging (p: 0.204). The regression analysis showed, there isn’t a relationship between the amount of families’ monthly income with social interaction technologies (p: 0.230, r: 0.125). Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 109 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents According to the results of Chi-square test, significance was not found for hypothesis 3. However, a female feels more uncomfortable than males for face-toface talking than males (Levene’s test p: 0.017). There is just significant differences feeling comfortable by talking with social media sites with gender (p: 0.003), that is; famales (M: 2.12, SD: 0.92) are more uncomfortable than do males (M: 1.86, SD: 0.99, p: 0.000). Many studies in this area is conducted for university students. The use of Internet as a social tool is more common among at this age adolescents. But this study is related to high school level for students and we examined the relationship between social anxiety and the use of Internet, cell phone as a technological tool. Further studies may apply for university students. There is significant difference for hypothesis 4, after One-way Anova test was made, teens prefer talk with someone on computer instead of talking and make new friends with someone on computer. Females (M: 3.71, SD: 0.96) prefer talking with some on computer instead of talking face-to-face than males (M: 3.48, SD: 1.05, p: 0.009). Similarly, females (M: 4.14, SD: 1.04) prefer making new friends with someone on computer more than males (M: 3.62, SD: 1.19, p: 0.000). Finally, adolescents who may be shy, have social phobia, and feel anxiety about talking with someone, various and different technologies provide reliable opportunity for them to contact with them. It is possible to reproduce the contributions of technology for our world. Although this technology facilities the lives of people, it sometimes breaks the peace. Technology has changed the way we live today and also changing our communication skills with high costs. Only time will tell what is going on in the future. Parents and teachers have great responsibilities for this subject. Conclusion References In Turkey, cell phone, text messaging, instant message and social sites membership are recognized as the most important medium of communications among adolescents. Internet access via PCs and mobile phones plays very significant role Turkey adolescents. Technology tools effect teens’ social emotions against their families and friends. This study demonstrated that teens are using socially interactive technology to communicate with others and it serves social anxiety and decreasing face-to face communication. Auter P. J., (2007). Portable Social Groups: Willingness To Communicate, Interpersonal Communication Gratifications, and Cell Phone Use Among Young Adults, Inetrnational J. Mobile Communications, 5(2) 139-156. The findings of the current study found that females are using text messaging more than males. However, males are playing games for a long time than females. In addition, females are feeling more uncomfortable talking with others face-to-face than males. And, females also prefer talking with some on computer instead of talking face-to-face than males. Similarly, females prefer making new friends with someone on computer more than males. Colley, A., and Maltby, J., (2008). Impact Of The Internet On Our Lives: Male and Female Personal Perspectives, Computers In Human Behavior, 24, 2005-2013. Hinduja S, Patchin J. (2007). Offline Consequences Of Online Victimization: School Violence And Delinquency. J Sch Violence. 6(3): 89 –112. La Greca, A. M. and Lopez N., (1998). Social Anxiety Among Adolescents: Linkages With Peer Relations and Friendships, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(2), 83-94. Lenhart, A. (2005). Protecting Teens Online. Pew Internet and American Life Project. URL: http:// www.pewInternet.org/. Morgan, C., and Cotten, S. R. (2003). The Relationship Between Internet Activities and Depres-sive Symptoms in a Sample of College Freshmen. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 6(2), 133–142. O’Keeffe, G. S., and Pearson, C., (2011). The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents and Families, Journal of American Academy Of Pediatric, 800-805. Beyond the results of this study, we examined something very important situation related to adolescents’ today currents. While the age of participants were increasing, the time spend in social media is decreasing. The reason for such conclusion revealed that, senior students have to work more for university exams during education session. So, they can’t spend much more time on social media sites. Pierce, T., (2009). Social Anxiety and Technology: Face-To-Face Communication Versus Technological Communication Among Teens, Computers İn Human Behavior, 25, 1367-1372. 110 Volume 3 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Selfhout, M. H. W., Branje, S. J. T., Delsing, M., Bogt, T. F. M., and Meeus W. H. J., (2009). Different Types Of Internet Use, Depression, and Social Anxiety: The Role Of Perceived Friendship Quality. Journal of Adolescence, 32 819-833. Number 2 Fall 2013 111 �Bilal Sisman / Sinan Yoruk / Ali Eleren Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Shepherd, R. M., and Edelmann, R. J., (2005). Reasons For İnternet Use and Social Anxiety, Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 949-958. Subrahmanyam S. and Lin, G., (2007). Adolescents On The Net: Internet Use and Well-Being, Adolescence, 42(168), 659-677. Valkenburg P. M., and Peter J., (2007). Online Communication and Adolescent Well-Being: Testing the Stimulation Versus the Displacement Hypothesis, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1169-1182. 9+ 7-8 5-6 3-4 1-2 30 min- None hours/ hours/ hours/ hours/ hours/ utes/ daily daily daily daily daily daily Instant messaging Text messaging with cell phone Talking with cell phone Social networking Listening music Playing game E-mail Online (surfing on the Internet) 15. How comfortable are you talking with friends, family and teachers face-to-face? Appendix 1 ---Very comfortable ---Comfortable ---Normal The purpose of this questionnare is to research 15-20 year old adolescents’ use of online social sites, cell phones, test messaging and instant messaging and if social anxiety influences technology versus face-to-face communication. Bilal Şişman Assoc. Prof. Ali Eleren Assist. What is your sex? 2. What is your year in school? (select only one) ---Frequently ---Sometimes ---Rarely (very few) ---Uncomfortable ---Very uncomfortable ---Uncomfortable ---Very uncomfortable 19. How comfortable are you talking with others on your instant messaging? ------(10) ------(11) -----(12) ---Very comfortable ---Comfortable 4. Does your mother and father live together? ---Yes ---No 5. Do you have a daily computer? ---Yes ---No 6. Do you have a Internet access on your computer? ---Yes ---No 7. Is your Internet connection wireless? ---Yes ---No 8. Do you have a instant messaging address? ---Yes ---No 9. Do you have e-mail address use actively? ---Yes ---No 10. Do you have a cell phone? ---Yes ---No 11. Do you have access to the Internet on your cell phone? ---Yes ---No ------------TL (Twitter, Facebook, MySpace etc) ---Yes ---No 13. If yes on 12, which of the following social networking do you have? ------Linkedin ---Normal ---Uncomfortable ---Very uncomfortable 20. How comfortable are you talking with others on your cell phone (talking)? ---Very comfortable ---Comfortable ---Normal ---Uncomfortable ---Very uncomfortable 21. How often dou you text message someone instead of talking to them face-to-face? ---Always ---Frequently ---Sometimes ---Rarely (very few) ---Never 22. How often do you talk with someone on the computer instead of talking to them in person? ---Always ---Frequently ---Sometimes ---Rarely (very few) ---Never 23. How often dou you text message someone instead of talking with them on the cell phone? ---Always ---Frequently ---Sometimes ---Rarely (very few) ---Never 24. How often dou you make new friends with someone on the computer? 12. Do you have a social networking account? ------Twitter ---Never 17. How comfortable are you talking with others using text messaging? ---Very comfortable ---Comfortable ---Normal What is your families’ total income? ------Youtube ------Classmates ------Other (please specify)--------------------14. On an average day, how much time do you spend with each of the following? 112 ---Always 18. (If yes on 12) How comfortable are you talking with others on your social networking sites? ------Male ------Female 3. ------Facebook ---Very uncomfortable 16. Do you find yourself getting anxious when you have to talk with someone face-to-face? ---Very comfortable ---Comfortable ---Normal 1. ------(9) Asst. Prof. Sinan Yörük Reserch ---Uncomfortable Journal of Economic and Social Studies ---Always ---Frequently ---Sometimes ---Rarely (very few) ---Never 25. When confronted with a difficult stuation with another person, which of the following would you typically use to talk with other person? ------Text messaging with cell phone ------Talking with cell phone ------E-mail ------Instant messaging ------Social networking sites Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 ------Face-to-face communication 113 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2389 Title A name given to the resource Social Anxiety and Usage of Online Technological Communication Tools among Adolescents Author Author SISMAN, Bilal Yoruk, Sinan ELEREN, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. With the growing popularity of Internet communication among adolescents, the Internet, social media, instant messaging and cell phones have become important social tools in their life. This study examines teens’ use of social interactive technologies and the role that social anxiety plays on how adolescents communicate with others (technology or face-to-face). A questionnaire was designed and distributed to selected sample in the cities of Afyonkarahisar, Manisa and şak in order to analyze the relationship between adolescents’ social anxiety and their preference of communication tool. The data were gathered from 544 respondents among High chool adolescents (ranged from 15-18; freshman, sophomore, junior and senior). indings show that adolescents rarely use messenger sites and mail addresses. They generally send instant messages with their cell phones. They spend 1-2 hours for listening music and averagely 30 minutes for acebook in a day. More than half of teens have hi-tech cell phones that enable to call, send message and access to Internet. The findings of the present study also reveal that females use text messaging more than males. However, males spend much more time than females to play games. In addition, females feel themselves more uncomfortable than males for face-to-face talking with others. And, on the contrary to males, females also prefer to some extent, to communicate with other on internet instead of face-to-face talking. similarly, females prefer more than males to make new on internet. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-12-19 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bed005cd783c503ecb7db4df5a61cbd9.pdf 038af5804a596ea6e0691cdd30f9f278 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Social Aspects of the Economic Crisis: An Evaluation of Sociology of Economics Bilge Afşar KTO Karatay University, Konya, Turkey bilge.afsar@karatay.edu.tr Ayşegül Sili KTO Karatay University, Konya, Turkey aysegul.sili@karatay.edu.tr Economic crises, which occur on a regular basis in the capitalist system, means the opportunity in Chinese language, affect all segments of society. Capitalism is an economic system that is common in today’s world is open to crises as its nature. On the basis of the crisis of the capitalist system has a tendency to falling rate of profit. After the process of 1929 depression which is the most famous and oldest crisis experienced by the system, it is observed that as of 1980, the increasing economic globalization movements trigger the nature of the economic crisis. These crises, in comparison to the pre-globalization term, increase the effects of the economic facts such as balance of payments, inflation and unemployment which reflects to the society, at the same time moved economic determinants to an international dimension. Impact of the economic crisis that occurred worldwide, established noticeable changes in the socioeconomic life of local communities. Addition to the macro-economic effects, insecurity and pessimistic approach of individuals nourishes the risk of contagiousness of the crisis. While in general, the academic literatures emphasize the economic analyses on crisis, sociological dimensions of the subject are not sufficiently analysed. At this point, it is a fact that up to date and comprehensive analyses are needed in the context of sociology of economics. In this study, economic analyses of the economic crisis and its sociological effects will be examined. Issues such as unemployment, income inequality and as result poverty, increase in crime and divorce rates which are among the sociological effects come forward. This study aims to analyse and to share the results of the sociological effects of the crisis which can be seen and measured. Some of the sociological effects have quantitative trait while others do not. In addition, 59 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo each country has different socio-cultural characteristics and they are not experiencing the same social consequences during the economic crisis. Referred to the concept of contagion effect in economics, a severe crisis occurs in a country or a sector and affects the whole world. Alike effects of the economic crisis to other areas such as social-political-cultural-religious vary from society to society. This distinction is explained as a sociological fact that societies with different social dynamics. As these points and purposes, the basic question of the study can be summarized as follows: What are the most obvious and measurable socioeconomic consequences of the crises? With these results, the nature of the interaction between the causes of the economic crisis will be discussed in this study. Keywords: Capitalism, Economic Crisis, Sociology of Economics, Social Dynamics, The Effect of Contagion 60 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1499 Title A name given to the resource Social Aspects of the Economic Crisis: An Evaluation of Sociology of Economics Author Author AFSAR, Bilge SILI, Aysegul Abstract A summary of the resource. Economic crises, which occur on a regular basis in the capitalist system, means the opportunity in Chinese language, affect all segments of society. Capitalism is an economic system that is common in today’s world is open to crises as its nature. On the basis of the crisis of the capitalist system has a tendency to falling rate of profit. After the process of 1929 depression which is the most famous and oldest crisis experienced by the system, it is observed that as of 1980, the increasing economic globalization movements trigger the nature of the economic crisis. These crises, in comparison to the pre-globalization term, increase the effects of the economic facts such as balance of payments, inflation and unemployment which reflects to the society, at the same time moved economic determinants to an international dimension. Impact of the economic crisis that occurred worldwide, established noticeable changes in the socioeconomic life of local communities. Addition to the macro-economic effects, insecurity and pessimistic approach of individuals nourishes the risk of contagiousness of the crisis. While in general, the academic literatures emphasize the economic analyses on crisis, sociological dimensions of the subject are not sufficiently analysed. At this point, it is a fact that up to date and comprehensive analyses are needed in the context of sociology of economics. In this study, economic analyses of the economic crisis and its sociological effects will be examined. Issues such as unemployment, income inequality and as result poverty, increase in crime and divorce rates which are among the sociological effects come forward. This study aims to analyse and to share the results of the sociological effects of the crisis which can be seen and measured. Some of the sociological effects have quantitative trait while others do not. In addition, each country has different socio-cultural characteristics and they are not experiencing the same social consequences during the economic crisis. Referred to the concept of contagion effect in economics, a severe crisis occurs in a country or a sector and affects the whole world. Alike effects of the economic crisis to other areas such as social-political-cultural-religious vary from society to society. This distinction is explained as a sociological fact that societies with different social dynamics. As these points and purposes, the basic question of the study can be summarized as follows: What are the most obvious and measurable socioeconomic consequences of the crises? With these results, the nature of the interaction between the causes of the economic crisis will be discussed in this study. Keywords: Capitalism, Economic Crisis, Sociology of Economics, Social Dynamics, The Effect of Contagion Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564