24 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/657475036846a999bb2dda88388dd8e7.pdf bf54cf31eb1604257218fcd48e7ea55a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Air Intake Mass and Diesel Engine Performance Analysis Using Neural Networks Abdullah Uzun auzun @sakarya.edu.tr Sakarya University, Sakarya,Turkey Fahri Vatansever Sakarya University, Sakarya,Turkey fahriv@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Now a days neural network is used to many experiment area for get detail point. One of them is diesel engine technologies. There are lots of factors, at four-stroke six-cylinder a diesel engine’s performance. From the engine’s important characteristics, the air intake mass has considerable place. In this study, connected with as absorption air intake mass’s entrance conditions, changing of engine performance are tested as with intercooling for only five measuring. We calculated and show other detail data by neural networks model. 1. Introduction At the changing load conditions, middle (1600 rpm) and high (2400 rpm) revolution which volumetric efficiency and absorption air intake changing is experienced at the compressor, precompression to be subjected to air heat is increased. For more air get to cylinder, volumetric efficiency remaining from compressor outlet air is need cool condensation and amountincreasing intercooling filling air,absorption airintake increase. Volumetric efficiency and absorption airintake the mostimportant engine parameters of intercooling without intercooling turbo engine is smaller than intercooling engine. At the without compressor engines press and wining speedily air is warp up to compressor. This resultis dilate and density being small. Atthis conditions entering airto compressor,cooling densityincrease and but more small and fallen term air is enter to burning room, thus intercooling is positive effect for volumetric efficiency and absorption airintake . We understand, this effect at high and middle load condition is more, at small load and revolution condition is smallfrom experiment results. Fig. 1 Diesel engine airintake schema[1] 2. Measurement of air intake mass Determining engine of volume flow that the most variable contain and require care is measure for the engine of experiment. At the determining emission of characteristic and performance of engine the most important is volume flow. Volume flow must be known for air-flow ratio,air excess coefficient and like volumetric efficiency burning event of detail,emission properties and about suitable working forthe enough information. Consequently, amount of air must be measure sensitive forthe realist experiment results. If flowing is standing the most sensitive result is formed with tank of air damping sharp edge pipe and oblique manometerin the survey volume flow. In the experiment capacity of airtank must be littlerthan engine size’s from 50 390 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo layers. Size of sharp edge pipe isn’t chosen much too from 10 cmSS in the oblique manometer pressure. For sensitive measure we must use alightmanometerliquid. W hen air pass from narrow pipe cross-section is choked and its pressure goes down. As firststateifstatic air conditions is used,inthe 1m far of airtank from Bernoulli equation; [2] ρH V2 = ∆p = ρgh V (1) V is air speed in the most narrow cross-section,∆ p is difference in the between atmosphere pressure and cross-section pressure. When we considertip of manometer must open to atmosphere, othertip is narrow cross-section.If airisideal gas in the atmosphere condition, we use ρ H = pH .M H / RTH for air density. ( ) ° K ) is universal gas constant , M H = 28,96 (kg/kmol) is mol weight of air, TH (° K ) is air heat one meter of air depot in the distant.Iflevel difference ∆ h (cmSS ) in the manometer, given for This definition R=8134,3 , (J/kmol the PH with from Eq.1; pH M H V 2 = 98.0665∆hh RTH V (2) amount of air volume pass the unittime from pipe(m 3 / s ); 12 V & H  πd 2  196.133RTH ∆hh    = CD , H  pH M H  4   (3) At the this definition R and MH are dependent static’s and if we putthis value atthe definition’s place;  T ∆h V = 186.371CD. H d H  H H  ph & 2 12    (4) Cdh is constant of air tank-ringlet system geometry’s and if hole diameter’s is more small than main canal’s cross section diameter, CD , H = 0,6 . However if TH=298 ° K and ph=101325(N/m 2 ) and from Eq. 4; V & H = 6.064d 2 H (∆hh )1 2 (5) d H (m) is diameter of ringletflowing cross-section. We use (1.5) define for mass volume flow[3]; V & = 7.182d 2 H (∆hH )1 2 (6) 3. Measuring and Computing Method We tested engine (Table 1) airintake with intercooling and take some data in 1600-2000 and 2400 rpm about diesel engine performance. Then we calculated other detail data with neural network using the feed-forward back propagation network showed in Fig. 2 [5]. We calculated Motor RP M 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200 and 2400 rpm with intercooling. Crankshaft angels(CSA) are 18, 20, 22. In graphic can be calculated and show airintake mass practical and theoretical in every state (see Fig.2-3, Table 2). 391 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Engine specification for the Ford 6.0 Intercooler , direct injection 4 STroke Compression (1 ) −1 16.5 Piston stroke (mm) 114.9 Number of cylinders 6 Cylinder diameter (mm) 104.77 Engine power (kW-2400 rpm ) 136 Maximum speed (rpm) Engine volume (1) Injection advance Engine weight 2750-2800 5.947 20 500 Table 1: Engine specification [4] Fig. 2: The neural network model Fig. 3: Sample training graphic 18 CSA – 400 N 18 CSA – 450 N 0.17 Measured Neural network 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 0.16 0.17 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 18 CSA – 500 N 392 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.08 1600 Measured Neural network 2300 2400 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 18 CSA – 550 N 2300 2400 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0.18 0.17 0.16 Measured Neural network 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.15 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 0.08 1600 2400 1700 20 CSA – 400 N 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 20 CSA – 450 N 0.14 0.17 0.16 1800 Measured Neural network Measured Neural network 0.13 0.15 0.12 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.11 0.09 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 1600 2400 1700 20 CSA – 500 N 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 20 CSA – 550 N 0.17 0.16 1800 0.18 Measured Neural network 0.17 Measured Neural network 0.16 0.15 0.15 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 0.08 1600 2400 1700 22 CSA – 400 N 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 0.17 Measured Neural network 0.16 0.15 Measured Neural network 0.15 0.14 0.14 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 1900 22 CSA – 450 N 0.17 0.16 1800 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 22 CSA – 500 N 2200 2300 2400 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 22 CSA – 550 N 393 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 Air intake (kg/s) Air intake (kg/s) 0.16 0.17 Measured Neural network 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 Measured Neural network 0.08 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 Engine rpm 2200 2300 2400 Table 2: Measuring and computing results 4. Conclusions According to testresult and neural network model,intercooling is important,for volumetric efficiency. We can tested for 5 pointthat experiment (1600-1800-2000-2200-2400 rpm). Then we made model with neural network model and we found detail pointslike that(1600, 1610, 1620,… ). At the compressor, pre compression to be subjected to air heat is increased. For more air get to cylinder, volumetric efficiency remaining from compressor outlet air is need cool condensation and amount increasing Intercooling filling air, absorption air intake increase . Volumetric efficiency and absorption air intake the most important engine parameters of intercooling without intercooling turbo engine is smaller than intercooling engine. At the without compressor engines press and wining speedily airis warp up to compressor. This resultis dilate and density being small. At this conditions intake airto compressor, cooling density increase and but more small and fallen term air is enterto burning room, thus intercooling is positive effect for volumetric efficiency and absorption airintake. We understand, this effect at high and middle load condition is more, at smallload and revolution condition is smallfrom experiment resultsand neural networks. References Borat, O., “Internal Combustion Engine” C.1 Sept. 1994 Đstanbul (In Turkish) MATLAB, Neural Network Toolbox, The Mathworks Inc. Uzun, A., “Effects of Intercooling on a Turbo Charged Diesel Engine Performance ”, Automotive Technology Congress, Çukurova University Adana 1997 Uzun,A., ““Effects of Intercooling on Performance of a Turbo Charged Diesel Engine”, Sakarya University , Sakarya 1998 (In Turkish) Yaşar, H., “Effects of Thermal Barrier Coating on a Turbocharged diesel Engine Performance”, Sakarya University, Sakarya 1997 (In Turkish) 394 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 517 Title A name given to the resource Air Intake Mass and Diesel Engine Performance Analysis Using Neural Networks Author Author Uzun, Abdullah Vatansever, Fahri Abstract A summary of the resource. Now a days neural network is used to many experiment area for get detail point. One of them is diesel engine technologies. There are lots of factors, at four-stroke six-cylinder a diesel engine’s performance. From the engine’s important characteristics, the air intake mass has considerable place. In this study, connected with as absorption air intake mass’s entrance conditions, changing of engine performance are tested as with intercooling for only five measuring. We calculated and show other detail data by neural networks model. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0da01f52f6426c6e5cf867024285d473.pdf 69f03c14e816d5936e5d5f9e4f06a093 PDF Text Text Studies on In Vitro Regeneration of Some Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Cultivars Ka mile Ulukapi Ah met Secima Naci Onus Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture Antalya, Turkey kamileonal@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: The propagation possibilities of different commercial common bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris) by tissue culture were investigated in the research. For this purpose, Yörük Ayşe, Alman Ayşe 4, Alman Ayşe 5, Alman Ayşe 6 and Alman Ayşe 7 cultivars were used as plant materials. On the condition of tissue culture shoot tips were used for shoot formation (%) and hypocotyls were used for root formation (%) as explant materials. The highest shoot evolution was obtained from MS0 for Yörük Ayşe, for MS2 (1ml/l NAA + 1ml/l BAP + 1ml/l GA3) for Alman Ayşe 4 and Alman Ayşe 7 cultivars, from MS3 (2ml/l NAA + 2ml/l BAP + 2ml/l GA3) for Alman Ayşe 6. In terms of root formation the highest root formation was obtained from MS4 (MS0 + 3g/l active charcoal) in Alman Ayşe 4 with the proportion of %92. Keywords: Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L., in vitro, regeneration Introduction Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common bean) is an important member of genus Phaseolus and 90% of cultivated bean comes from Phaseolus vulgaris L. Common bean can be grown in all continents, except Antarctica and is the most important grain legume for human consumption specaily for meeting the need of protein.(Singh, 1999; Larsen, 2005). Due to easy growing and itsimportance in human nutrition com mon bean growing has become very popular in Turkey and all around the world and that is why many physiological and biochemical experiments have been conducted on bean (Torres et al., 2004). Classical breeding is the basic and general approach for production of the widespread varieties. Some problems such as genetic variations, low surviving ability of the interspecific hybrids, specific inheritances of some valuable characteristics, yield, disease and pests’ resistance, etc., are somehow difficult or time and labor consuming to be resolved by the conventional techniques. Plant biotechnology offers different strategies to overcome these difficulties (Veltcheva and Svetleva, 2005). With some exceptions and generally speaking species in the family Leguminosae are difficult to regeneratein in vitro conditions as grain legumes have less regeneration potential compared to some others.Itis possible to say that regeneration ability depends on the genotype, physiological state of the explant and donor plant,tissue and cell specialization of the culture and the culture conditions (Veltcheva and Svetleva, 2005). In accordance withthe previous studiesthereis no greatsuccessinthe studies conducted on in vitro regeneration of common bean in Turkey (Sağlam et al., 2005). The present study is conducted to reveal the propagation possibilities of different commercially grown bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)in vitro conditions by using shoottips and hypocotyls as explants. Material And Methods Yörük Ayşe, Alman Ayşe 4, Alman Ayşe 5, Alman Ayşe 6 and Alman Ayşe 7 cultivars, which are commonly grown and have com mercialimportance, were used as plant materials. Fully mature seeds of any cultivar were imbedded in distilled water prior to sterilization in order to simplify the process of removing testa from endosperm. Allthe seeds were subjected to surface sterilization by 445 �keeping them in 5% sodium hypochloritefor 10 minutes. After 10 minutes seeds weretransferred into a solution of 70% ethanol and kept for 2 minutes, then they were rinsed three times for 5 minutes each time in sterile distilled water and keptinthe last wash. Each endosperm-embryo complex was put on the surface of 2 culture media which consisted of 5 ml. Murashige & Skoog’s medium (MS) (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) with an agar concentration of 0.7% w/v, pH 5.8 in order to determine the best medium for seed germination. It should be noted that while one of the MS medium was free of all plant growth regulation (MS0), 1 ml/l GA3 was added to other MS medium. All the experiments were set up as three replicates with 2 phials in each replication and 5 seeds in each phial. The culture phials were placed in constanttemperature room (25±3 o C) untilthe seedlings had developed hypocotyls. Hypocotyls and shoot tips of in vitro grown seedlings were excised and used as explants. The culture phials were placed in a constanttemperature room (25±3 o C)to make the observations.In orderto determine the regeneration capacities of these two different kinds of explants different culture media with different contents were used as stated in Table 1. Media used for shoottip explants M S1 M S0 M S2 M S0 + 1 ml/l NAA + 1 ml/l BAP + 1 ml/l GA3 M S3 M S0 + 2 ml/l NAA + 2 ml/l BAP + 2 ml/l GA3 Media used for hypocotyls explants M S4 M S0 + 3 g/l active charcoal M S5 M S0 + 1 ml/l NAA + 1 ml/lBAP + 1 ml/l GA3 + 3 g/l active charcoal M S6 M S0 + 2 ml/l NAA + 2 ml/l BAP + 2 ml/L GA3 + 3 g/l active charcoal Table 1. Culture media Five shoot tip explants and five hypocotyls explants were taken and placed into phials. Hypocotyls explants were taken from the part close to roots assuming the cellsin the part have the more ability for rooting than the other parts(Figure 1). a b Figure 1. The part of plant where hypocotyls explants were taken (a),shoottips explantsin a phial(b) Afterwards responds of all cultivars in different culture media were recorded and percentages of shoot formation and root formation calculated as down stated. % Shoot formation= % Root formation = Number of shoottips forming shoots x 100 Total number of shoots Number of hypocotyls forming roots x 100 Total number of roots RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment results conducted in orderto determine the best medium for seed germination revealed that there is no need to add 1 ml/l GA3 into the media as all the seeds (a total of 30 seeds) in both media were 446 �germinated atthe end of 10 days period (Figure 2). Figure 2. Seedlings developed in MS0 media atthe end of 10 days period Hypocotyls and shoot tips of in vitro grown seedlings were excised and used as explants in order to determine the regeneration capacities of these two different kinds of explants and different culture media with different contents were used to serve the purpose. Experiment results revealed that shoottips explants formed leaf and shoot elongation took a part in 8-10 days period (Figure 3). On the other hand hypocotyls explants resulted with root formation with no shoot (Figure 3-b). a b Figure 3. Shoot formations from shoottip explants (a) and root formation from hypocotyls explants (b) Afterwards responds of all cultivars in different culture media were recorded and percentages of shoot formation and root formation for each cultivar were calculated and results are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. Cultivar Yörük Ayşe Alman Ayşe 4 Alman Ayşe 5 Alman Ayşe 6 M S2 M S3 Culture med ia M S1 M S2 M S3 10 7 Total number of shoots obtained 12 10 9 M S1 M S2 M S3 M S1 M S2 M S3 M S1 M S2 M S3 M S1 7 12 8 12 10 8 8 7 12 9 83 58 % shoot formation 100 83 75 58 100 67 100 83 67 67 58 100 75 447 �Table 2. Shoot formation obtained from shoottip explants As can be seen from Table 2, MS1 media was the most suitable medium for Yörük Ayşe and Alman Ayşe 5 cultivars. MS2 for Alman Ayşe 4 and Alman Ayşe 7 and MS3 for Alman Ayşe 6 media were found to be the most suitable for culture media were shoot formation. Kartha et al.(1981) reported that culture media with different concentrations of BA gave the best result on in vitro regeneration of bean. Cruz de Carvalho et al. (2000) reported that 10µM N6 -benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 10µM silver nitrate (AgNO3 ) increased the level of shoot development in vitro development of common bean. Results obtained from the present study are,therefore, in agreement with previous findings as culture media needs an effective cytokinin source for process of shootinitiation and elongation as reported by Veltcheva et al.(2005). Cultivar Yörük Ayşe Culture media M S4 M S5 M S6 Total number of explants formed roots 5 6 4 % root formation M S4 11 M S5 6 M S6 7 M S4 2 Alman Ayşe 5 M S5 2 M S6 2 M S4 6 Alman Ayşe 6 M S5 6 M S6 0 M S4 8 Alman Ayşe 7 M S5 5 M S6 0 Table 3. Root formation obtained from hypocotyls explants Alman Ayşe 4 42 50 33 92 50 58 17 17 17 50 50 0 67 42 0 As can be seen from Table 3 the highestroot formation (92%) was obtained for Alman Ayşe 4 cultivar in MS4 culture media. For allcultivarsthe highest and lowestrootformations were obtained from MS4 and MS6 culture media respectively. Results obtained in this present study are in agreement with Adak et al. (2001) as they reported that active charcoal had a positive impact on in vitro root formation and development in strawberry. As a conclusion; simple MS (MS0) is good enough culture media for seed germination of com mon bean. Callus formation took place from hypocotyls explants and root formation occurred in active charcoal added culture media. On the other hand when shoottips were used as explantsfor shootformation occurred with different cultivars in different culture media. As no culture media was found to be suitable for both shoot and root formation further studies are necessary to be conducted to find the optimum media. 448 �References Adak N., Pekmezci M. and Gübbük H. 2001. Değişik Çilek Çeşitlerinin Meristem Kültürü ile Çoğaltılması Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 14 (1), 119–126. Cruz de Carvalho M. H., Le B. V., Zuily-Fodil Y., Thi A. T. P. and Van K. T. T. 2000. Efficient whole plant regeneration of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) using thin-cell-layer culture and silver nitrate. Plant Science 159: 223- 232. Kartha K. K., Pahl K., Leung N. L. and Mroginski L. A. 1981. Plant regeneration from meristems of grain legumes soybean, cowpea, peanut, chickpea and bean. Can. J. Bot. 59: 1671 -1679. Larsen R. J. A., 2005. Discovery and Utilization of Molecular Markers for Genetic Studies of Common Bacterial Blight Resistance and Seed Coat Colour in Phaseolus vulgaris L. Thesis. Murashige T., Skoog F. (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and bio- assays with tobacco tissue culture. Physiol. Plant. 15, p. 473–497. Sağlam S. Çiftçi C. M. Khawar, Atak M. Özcan S. 2005. In vitro koşullarda fasulye bitkisine dört yapraklı aşamada transformasyon çalışmaları Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi , 18(2), s: 291 -294. Singh, S. P. 1999. Production and Utilization. In: S. P. Singh (Editor), Common Bean Improvement in the Twenty-First Century, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp.1- 25, Netherlands. Torres R. I. G., Villalobos R. A., Gaitán-Solís E. and Debouck D. G. 2004. Wild Common Bean in Central Valley of Costa Rica: Ecological Distribution and Molecular Characterization. Agronomía Mesoamericana 15(2): 145–153. Veltcheva M.2005. In vitro Regeneration and Genetic Transformation of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) – Problems and progress. Scientia Horticulturae. 107: 2- 10. Veltcheva M. and Svetleva D. 2005. In vitro regeneration of Phaseolus vulgaris L. via organogenesis from petiole explants. Journal Central European of Agriculture, Vol 6, No.1, 53 -58. 449 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 526 Title A name given to the resource Studies on In Vitro Regeneration of Some Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Cultivars Author Author Ulukapi, Kamile Secima, Ahmet Onus, Naci Abstract A summary of the resource. The propagation possibilities of different commercial common bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris) by tissue culture were investigated in the research. For this purpose, Yörük Ayse, Alman Ayse 4, Alman Ayse 5, Alman Ayse 6 and Alman Ayse 7 cultivars were used as plant materials. On the condition of tissue culture shoot tips were used for shoot formation (%) and hypocotyls were used for root formation (%) as explant materials. The highest shoot evolution was obtained from MS0 for Yörük Ayse, for MS2 (1ml/l NAA + 1ml/l BAP + 1ml/l GA3) for Alman Ayse 4 and Alman Ayse 7 cultivars, from MS3 (2ml/l NAA + 2ml/l BAP + 2ml/l GA3) for Alman Ayse 6. In terms of root formation the highest root formation was obtained from MS4 (MS0 + 3g/l active charcoal) in Alman Ayse 4 with the proportion of %92. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954a91e9ad47fc83309f22fc58488e03.pdf 761e2fb0d4a2d799dab5a77e4b8a59ba PDF Text Text The Democracy Education at Schools and Pre-service Teachers’ Observations to the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in School Selçuk UYGUN, Ph.D. Faculty of Education,Department of Educational Sciences, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University ÇANAKKALE /TURKEY selcukuygun17@gmail.com Abstract: In this research, the evaluation of approaches and implementations of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools has been aimed. To achieve this purpose, the pre-service teachers’, who has gone to primary and high school for teaching practice in Çanakkale (Turkey) in 2005-2006, observation reports have been used. Schools are the laboratories where the democracy culture and conscious are composed. In democratic systems, schools are the important organizations for teaching democracy. Democracy education should be taught as theoretical and practical. Democracy is a life philosophy. So, the knowledge of democratic values and attitudes is not enough, it has to be transferred to life. Education has importance on democracy than training. The approaches and implementations that related with democratic attitudes and behaviors can be differentiated in many times. When democratic values are accepted in generally, there is been up against lacks of implementations. This study’s importance is the comparing and describing of similarities and differences between democratic approach and implementation in schools through pre-service teachers’ observations and discussing on methods about democracy education. The universe of research is composed of primary and high schools in the Çanakkale City Center. The sample is defined randomly from schools that pre-service teachers have gone for practicing. The reports, that pre-service teachers wrote as composition, has been analyzed using content analyze. According to pre-service teachers, there are significant differences between democratic attitudes/behaviors and practicing in schools. Keywords: Turkey, democratic school, democracy education, pre-service teachers. Introduction Democracy education is needed for democracy development in schools of countries where the democracy is accepted. The schools shouldn’t be the places where the democracy education is only taught, but it should be also a place where the democracy education is put into practice. Because the democracy is a way of life (Kıncal ve Uygun 2006). John Dewey who plays a great role in constructing the Turkish education system, suggested a democratic education and teaching system in schools in Turkey in the first years of the Turkish Republic when democracy is accepted (Uygun 2008). It is impossible to educate individuals who will live a democratic life without undemocratic education system. The democracy education at schools in Turkey has developed like as a change a practice phase from the cognitive and sensational teaching of the democracy (Kıncal and Uygun 2006; Kepenekçi 2003). The attitudes and behaviors in schools are the indicators of the democratic life. The schools are not only the place where the students are equipped for a democratic life but also they are the places where democratic life is put into practice. For that reason the schools where the democracy is put into practice are important environments (Kaygun 2008). By order the attitudes and the behaviors of the directors, teachers, students and other staff are the determining factors for creating a democratic atmosphere in schools. The schools where democratic attitudes and behaviors are dominant called as a democratic school. Here are the two musts to be provided for being a democratic school (Kepenekçi 2003): 1. A correlative dialogue including love, respect, tolerance should be provided among people in schools and classrooms’ environment. 2. All of the members including directors, teachers, students, parents and others should be given the rights on taking decisions related to them. On evaluation democratic relation network in schools, the observations of the pre-service teachers who must be conscious about the democracy but not take part in the system yet, are important. The things what the pre-service 138 �teachers understand from democratic values and their perception about these values in school atmosphere will make contribution on developing democracy education practices. Aim of Research The aim of this study is to evaluate approaches and implementations of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools according to pre-service teachers’ observation reports. According to this general aim here are the sub-aims; 1. What are the notions related to democratic attitudes in pre-service teachers’ observation reports? 2. What are the evaluations of the pre-service teachers for the democracy education? 3. What are the observations of the pre-service teachers for democratic attitudes and behaviors of students, teachers and directors in schools? 4. According pre-service teachers; is there a consistency or not between the democracy implementations and the democratic attitudes and behaviors of students, teachers and directors? Method Between the years of 2005-2009 in each teaching term, the pre-service teachers who are taking their teaching training as a group of people each includes six people are asked to write observation reports about democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. The 44 pre-service teachers’ observations reports training in 5 primary schools and 3 high schools, are put through a content analysis. It is assumed that the data gathered in 4 years are adequate for a qualitative research. The democratic values in observations reports written by the pre-service teachers without any interference are evaluated by frequency and categorical analysis. In analysis phase, firstly the possible notions about the democratic values are found out by making good use of literature (Matusova 1997; Kıncal and Işık 2003; Şahin 2004; Çankaya and Seçkin 2004). The number of the specified notions that are mentioned in pre-service teachers’ reports are counted and the meanings what they refer are encoded by categorizing. The significant ideas in encoded content, are interpreted and quoted to research paper by giving code names to pre-service teachers. Findings In this part the findings of the research are listed as sub-titles and interpreted. Democratic Values The democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools are important for developing democracy culture. The teachers play a great role on developing democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. Firstly the teachers should be aware of what are the democratic values. The teachers, directors or somebody else lacking this conscious about democratic values can not make any contribution for developing and practicing of democracy (Aydoğan and Kukul 2003). The pre-service teachers’ perception on democracy values noted in reports is given at Table 1. - 139 �Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Democratic Value Respect Justice Tolerance Cooperation Responsibility Trust Dialogue Equality Honesty Sensitivity Self-confidence Freedom Individual Vote Critic f 124 115 103 102 96 95 80 67 62 58 34 20 13 10 2 Total 981 % 12.6 11.7 10.4 10.3 9.7 9.6 8.1 6.8 6.3 5.9 3.4 2.0 1.3 1.0 0.2 100 Table 1. The Frequency of Pre-Service Teachers’ Using the Terms of Democratic Values According to Table1, the pre-service teachers emphasize on these democratic values by ‘order’, ‘respect’, ‘justice’, ‘tolerance’, ‘cooperation’, ‘responsibility’ and ‘trust’. The frequently usage of these terms about democratic values by pre-service teachers, show us that they have knowledge about democracy education. And also ‘the democratic value’ written 981 times in reports by 44 pre-service teachers, is noteworthy. But these findings are not enough to say that they are in positive attitudes and behaviors on democratic values. Because the attitudes and behaviors towards the values can show differentiation. However individuals are in positive attitudes towards the democratic values, they ca not reflect their beliefs in real life. For instance; according to a research done by Kıncal (2000), it is seen that, the primary school teachers do not show enough effort to gain democratic values to the students. - Democracy Education in Schools Democracy is a rising value in Turkey same as it is in the world. Firstly the cognitive knowledge is taught in schools for developing democracy and making it as a life style. Especially in primary schools, the citizenship, human rights and democracy education are widely mentioned in the curriculum of the social sciences subject (Türkan 2009). In recent years these subjects are supported by activities helping the having democratic life style with the constructivist program and new projects are supported aiming at providing democratic benefits. These projects are, like educational social activities, honor committees, students committees, school councils, democratic citizenship education which all of these include practical democratic activities (Kepenekçi 2003; Kıncal and Uygun 2006; Altınova 2009). Here are some of the examples of evaluations about the democracy education in schools frequently emphasized in pre-service teachers’ reports: İA: “The teacher often uses question and answer method and helps the students to find the answers by themselves in teaching process. He tries to give voice to each student in classes.” HE: “The student who freely says her/ his ideas and sees that they are valid is a free one”. 140 �DK: “The pluralistic democracy should take its place in schools by some of activities. One of these activities is educational activity work the students learn cooperative working in these activities, which is a need in democracy”. TS:“In classes the teachers try to create a democratic teaching process by supporting the participations of the students and making students listen to others while they are speaking, and they follow the same philosophy inside the school too. Both the teachers and the directors try to earn the students the values of the universal, national and cultural in national feast by harmonizing this with the democracy. Especially the choice of representative students to the Student Council hold in April, is a good example of this.” - The Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in Schools In school environment, the dialogue of all the members and behaving each others in a way including democratic values such as respectful, tolerant, equal, sharing, responsible, trustful can be defined as democratic attitudes and behaviors. In a research named as’ Democratic attitudes of Teachers’ done by Gözütok (1995), he reached a finding that the pre-service teachers show more democratic attitudes than the teachers working at schools. Based on the finding in Gözütok’s research, the evaluation of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools are meaningful according to the pre-service teachers. One of the most important tasks of the school is to make students gain the democratic attitudes and behaviors. The students are not expected to have democratic life style, if they are not educated in a democratic way. The schools are the social life laboratories for students. And the directors and the teachers are the models for students (Kaygun 2008). So the school should be a model for society. Here are some of the quoted passages frequently emphasized in pre-service teachers’ observations on democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. In Turkey in order to develop democracy and democracy education a protocol signed on 13th of January in 2004 between the Ministry of Education and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. According to this protocol a lesson named as ‘Democracy Education and The Project of School Councils’ are put into curriculum at schools. In this Project, school councils are created at schools and the participant of the students for school management are tried to be supported (for more information look: Kıncal and Uygun 2006). AT: “Firstly the thing to be done is to show respect to students’ personal rights and make feel them that they are individual too. (respect, individual) GY: The students sometimes exceed the respect border cause of feeling close, cozy friends they are”. (respect) HS: “Because of the egocentric emotion, the justice thoughts of students are not enough grown”.( justice) İA: “ Generally there is a democratic attitude in school. There is no someone’s priority to anyone”.( equality) NK: “ The teacher behaves each student equally without considering the different level and environment of them”. (equality) NK: “The students show us that the democracy is in actual life by showing great tolerant to disabled students same as the way of behaving the others”.( tolerance) İÖ: “The teachers are more tolerant than the students deserve”.(tolerance) YA: “ Most of the students have the ability of responsibility because of being in a boarding school. They know their rights enough and defend themselves well. They believe that they can behave same as the teachers behave. (rights and responsibility) EY: The students are not honest while solving problems.” (honesty) ÜS: “I observe that some of the students are honest and forthright while solving problems.” (honesty) İÖ: “The teachers do not trust the students completely.” ( trust) İÖ: “It can be said that the students have enough self-confident.” (self-confident) SK: “The school administrations are sensitive to universal, national and cultural values”. DK: “A good dialogue is very important for democratization in school but it is not enough by itself.” (Dialogue) As far as can be seen both in important evaluations of pre-service teachers, the democratic attitudes and behaviors can show differences according to democratic values. In a research named as ‘The Evaluation of the Primary School Teachers’ Efficiency on Gaining Democratic Earnings’ done by Genç (2006) the levels of the teachers’ on making students gain democratic earnings show dissimilarity. This dissimilarity is obvious in preservice teachers’ reports, too. Pre-service teachers think that some of the attitudes in schools are suitable for democratic values but some of them are not. 141 �- The Consistency of the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in Schools The role of the schools is not only to teach students “what is democracy?”, but also adapt democracy to the life so that the students have the ability to put democracy into their life (Miser 1991). A well balanced harmonic consistency is needed in all members in school atmosphere to provide democracy as a life style. To achieve those schools should be democracy laboratories. All the elements in these laboratories should serve democratic earnings. The structure of school system, the philosophy of administration, the content of the programs, teaching strategies, the role of teacher, the degree of participation and the features like that, are effective factors to determine how many democratic attitudes and behaviors are in it (Gürşimşek and Görengenli 2004). Here are some the examples of mostly emphasized narratives chosen from observations of pre-service teachers about the consistency of the democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools: HE: ‘Suddenly the classroom door was knocked. The codirector and the Turkish teacher of the school have entered the room. He said that; I am sorry for disturbing you; but we will choose students as a school representative, we don’ t want to choose by ourselves so we think that the volunteer ones should be voted by the other students.’. This is a good example of teaching democracy conscious by using it in real life. DK: The students who participate in lessons are certain in each class. This situation is controversy to democracy. However a talented teacher should make students actively take part in classes. YŞ: The students are respectful to their teachers. But they don’t show the same respect to their friends. SE: In democratic classes the teacher-student relationship should be in a way sharing the freedom and knowledge. Unfortunately this democratic attitude is not transferred to students in classroom consciously. The students try to obey the classroom rules. But they don’t know why they obey these rules and also they are unconscious about the real aims of these rules. On that situation the teachers show an authoritarian attitude. And the students just obey the rules, without any critical way of thinking and inquisitorial point of view. SK: It can not be said that the teachers have a good dialogue with the students. They are in an attitude snubbing and seeing them as worthless. ÜS: There is a tolerance towards to students. But the students sometimes misuse this tolerance. MS: most of the students have extreme freedom because, maybe they are young. They accept the democracy and justice only when they profit from them. Their respect is not in great amount towards to both their teachers and friends. BÖ: The students knew their rights and responsibilities but they didn’t put them into practice completely. EY: The teachers trust their students, but they give too much responsibility to them. SY: The students’ self-confidence is exceedingly grown, so that sometimes they behave in a selfish way. SN: I can say that there is a hierarchic order in school. EM: I think that there is a healthy and democratic relationship between the school administration and the students. MS: In my opinion, the democracy attitude in our schools has developed recently. In contrast the authoritarian attitude in former times, changed its place with a dialogue in a way of respectful and correlative tolerance by and by. Sometimes it can be misused both by the teachers and the students. A student can show a wrong behavior by defending that they are living in a democratic world. Democracy is a value to be gained only when all the elements that surround human life become democratic. According to pre-service teachers, there is some sensitivity to gain this value but, it is not possible to talk about exact consistency. Yet the school environment must be a model in which democracy is active in order to make students gain democratic earnings. According to Bandura’s social learning theory, individuals acquire most of the behaviors by observing others (Yazıcı 2008). It is hard to gain consistent democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools where some of the values of democracy are used while some are not, and it is also hard to gain if there is no equality on democratic values practices. According to Sönmez’s research, when the students have rights to say something while taking decisions at school and when these decisions are the same both for the directors and teachers, a democratic atmosphere is acquired and in this atmosphere the students’ consistency in democratic attitudes and behaviors naturally improve. Conclusion The findings of the 44 pre-service teachers involving 5 of them for primary school and 3 of them for high school on observation reports of democratic attitudes and behaviors in school. 142 �Some results are found by analyzing and evaluating the observation reports of pre-service teachers on democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. These findings are listed below. - - - The pre-service teachers frequently used the terms about democratic values. The most frequently used terms are by order; ‘respect’, ‘justice’, ‘tolerance’, ‘cooperation’, ‘responsibility’ and ‘trust’. The pre-service teachers shaped their reports on their own beliefs about democratic attitudes and behaviors rather than democracy education practices in schools. Both the positive and the negative features of democratic values’ are together in evaluations of pre-service teachers on democratic attitudes and behaviors. They said and emphasized that some of the values are used in schools while some of them are not used or misused. For instance; the teachers show tolerance to students. But this tolerance is misused by the students and caused a discipline problem in school. According to pre-service teachers there is no exact consistency between the acceptance of democratic values and practices. However the schools assume a duty for teaching democratic values, there is not enough democratic atmospheres to make these values as a part of life. It must be provided that all the school system members need to have belief, idea and practice consistency on democratic values. References Altınova, A. (2009). “Demokratik Yurttaşlık Eğitimi Projesi”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (108). Çankaya, D.& Seçkin, O. (2004). “Demokratik Değerlerin Benimsenmesi Açısından Öğretmen ve Öğretmen Adaylarının Görüş ve Tutumları”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset. Genç, S. Z. (2006). “Demokratik Kazanımların Gerçekleşmesinde İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Etkilililiğinin Değerlendirimesi”. Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 35 (171). Gözütok, F. D. (1995). Öğretmenlerin Demokratik Tutumları. Ankara: TDV Yayınları. Gürşimşek, I. & Görengenli, M. (2004). “Öğretmen Adayları ve Öğretmenlerde Demokratik Tutumlar, Değerler ve Demokrasiye İlişkin İnançlar”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset. Kaygun, İ. (2008). “Demokratik Tutum ve Davranış Kazandırmada Okulun Rolü”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (105). Kepenekçi, Y. (2003). “Demokratik Okul”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (11). Kıncal, R.&Uygun, S. (2006). “Demokrasi Eğitimi ve Okul Meclisleri Projesi Uygulamalarının Değerlendirilmesi”. Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 35 (171). Kıncal, R. Y. & Işık, H. (2003). “Demokratik Eğitim ve Demokratik Değerler”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (1). Kıncal, R. Y. (2000). “İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Davranışlarının Demokratiklik Düzeyi”. II. Ulusal Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sempozyumu: Bildiriler. Çanakkale: ÇOMÜ Eğitim Fakültesi. Matusova, S. (1997). “Democratic Values as a Challenge for Education”. European Education, 29 (3). Miser, R. (1991). “Demokrasi Eğitimi”. Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 24 (1). Sönmez, V. (2003). “Dizgeli Eğitimle Sınıf Ortamında Doğrudan Demokrasi”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (11). Şahin, N. (2004). “ÇOMÜ Eğitim Fakültesi Sınıf Öğretmenliği Öğretmen Adaylarının Demokratik Sınıf Ortamı ile İlgili Görüşleri”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset. Türkan, F. (2009). “İlköğretim Programlarında İnsan Hakları ve Yurttaşlık Eğitimi”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (108). Uygun, S. (2008). “The Impact of John Dewey on the Teacher Education System in Turkey”. Asia – Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 36 (4). 143 �Yazıcı, H. (2008). “Sosyal Bilişsel Öğrenme Kuramı”. Eğitim Psikolojisi (Edit: K. Ersanlı ve E . Uzman). İstanbul: Lisans Yayıncılık. 144 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 363 Title A name given to the resource The Democracy Education at Schools and Pre-service Teachers’ Observations to the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in School Author Author UYGUN, Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, the evaluation of approaches and implementations of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools has been aimed. To achieve this purpose, the pre-service teachers’, who has gone to primary and high school for teaching practice in Çanakkale (Turkey) in 2005-2006, observation reports have been used. Schools are the laboratories where the democracy culture and conscious are composed. In democratic systems, schools are the important organizations for teaching democracy. Democracy education should be taught as theoretical and practical. Democracy is a life philosophy. So, the knowledge of democratic values and attitudes is not enough, it has to be transferred to life. Education has importance on democracy than training. The approaches and implementations that related with democratic attitudes and behaviors can be differentiated in many times. When democratic values are accepted in generally, there is been up against lacks of implementations. This study’s importance is the comparing and describing of similarities and differences between democratic approach and implementation in schools through pre-service teachers’ observations and discussing on methods about democracy education. The universe of research is composed of primary and high schools in the Çanakkale City Center. The sample is defined randomly from schools that pre-service teachers have gone for practicing. The reports, that pre-service teachers wrote as composition, has been analyzed using content analyze. According to pre-service teachers, there are significant differences between democratic attitudes/behaviors and practicing in schools. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f827a5dca1024f1150f03a25fcc32c3.pdf e41920e1e88d55713b6089842ec476ef PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Macroeconomic Effects of Interest Rate Liberalization: The Case of Turkey Talat ULUSSEVER Department of Finance and Economics, College of Industrial Management King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia talat@kfupm.edu.sa Abstract: This study proposes a financial computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, which represents the salient features of the Turkish economy. By including 15 production sectors and linking the real and financial sub-models through various channels of fund flows, interest rates, commercial bank intermediation, monetary and fiscal policies, we perform a counterfactual simulation using the financial CGE model to explore the potential macroeconomic effects of interest rate liberalization in the Turkish economy. Our results show that interest rate liberalization makes the government and the enterprises suffer a revenue loss, but households slightly and commercial banks notably revenue raise in both the short and long run. In addition, while the real GNP declines in the short run, it increases in the long run after the wage level has been adjusted fully and the employment effect has been eliminated. Keywords: Interest Rate Liberalization, the Turkish Economy, Financial Computable General Equilibrium Introduction It is a well known fact that 1980's witnessed liberalization movements all over the world. In line with this wave, the Turkish economy also launched and implemented the structural adjustment and liberalization program starting at the beginning of 1980 and achieved a notable improvement. The main purpose of this program was to increase the role of market mechanism in the allocation of resource by opening up the economy and reducing the state's role in the economic activities and transforming the distressed financial structure into a market-based system by aiming the commercialization of the banks, creation of more competition, liberalization of interest rate, central bank independence, development of monetary policy framework, liberalization of international trade and capital movement. Prior to 1980 structural adjustment and liberalization program, direct control methods were used in macroeconomic management and resulted in relatively large fluctuations in the economy, the state-owned enterprises became loss-making and relied on subsidized bank loans to keep operating, and the state–owned bank credits were allocated to the state policies rather than market principles. As a result of those economic policies, the Turkish economy had the following facts; • Interest rates control by the state: In contrast with the case of assuming functioning markets, controlled interest rate becomes insensitive to market fluctuations and the allocation of credits become inefficient. • An over-concentrated financial system: The state banks made loans according to the government policy rather than the market principles. Thus, while the state-owned sectors take a larger portion of the bank credits and investment resources, their output growth is slower than that of the non-state sectors. • Bank-enterprises debt problem: Due to the difficult situation of the state-owned enterprises, the objective of the government became to keep the state-owned sector going. Otherwise, the disturbance on the economy and the increase in unemployment could pose a threat to social stability. Thus, of the state-owned banks is deeply affected by the condition of state-owned enterprises. In this study, we focus on the first problem mentioned above and try to see what happens if interest rate is not controlled by the state rather it is determined by the market forces. Thus, the main purpose of this study is to explore the potential macroeconomic effects of interest rate liberalization in the Turkish economy. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, which mirrors the salient features of the Turkish economy with a financial sector, is formulated. In the model, the economy initially adopts a fixed interest rate regime, and then the fixed interest rate regime is liberalized to observe the potential macroeconomic impacts and the effects of freeing interest rate on economic agents. The plan of the paper is as follows: Section 2 provides literature review and data requirements of the model including parameter estimations. Model specifications are explained in detail in section 3. Finally, section 4 offers the simulation results. 1 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Literature Review and Data Requirements of the Model More than two decades applied general equilibrium models, also known as computable general equilibrium (CGE) models, have been used to study the effects of taxes, tariffs and other policies. A number of CGE models have been previously used for the Turkish economy. Those are Dervis, De Melo, and Robinson (1982), Grais, De Melo, and Urata (1986), Lewis and Urata (1983, 1984), and Yeldan (1989, 1990). They worked on a wide range of policy concern over the impact of macro stabilization, trade policy and structural changes on various aspects of the Turkish economy such as poverty, income distribution and economic growth. Besides the studies on poverty, income distribution and economic growth, financial CGE models were also formulated for the Turkish economy to investigate the financial policy issues. Lewis (1994) constructed a financial CGE model to demonstrate that financial liberalization through interest rate reform usually does not increase fixed investment much, since deposit rate increases are often matched by borrowing rate increases. Yeldan’s (1997) model tries to investigate the effects of Turkish financial liberalization reforms on the real economy. Tunc (1998) analyzes the interactions between real and financial sectors of the Turkish economy. There is a consensus among the CGE modelers that the data set that meets those requirements is the Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), which provides the most comprehensive and consistent data for creation of any CGE model. In other words, the most important part of the data required in CGE models is attained by constructing the SAM. Incorporation of the financial sector into the CGE model requires a financial SAM for the base year by using various financial data such as balance sheets of monetary institutions, sectoral capital stocks, and sectoral bank loan data. The financial SAM we used in this study is a slightly modified version of Tunc (1998). Every agent’s behavior embodied in the CGE model is reflected by the parameters, especially slope coefficients, and the specification of equations. We mostly used the parameter values estimated by Yeldan (1997). Financial CGE Model for Turkey We assume that production sector produces according to constant returns to scale production function. We further assume that the labor market is neo-classical. Capital stock is sector-specific and fixed in the shortrun. Then, the production function can be written, in general form, as: XDi(Li,Ki,Vji)=min{(1/a0i)VAi(Li,Ki),(V1i/a1i),(Vji/aji)} (1) where (XDi) is output of production sector i, (a0i) is the value-added requirement per unit of sectoral output, (VAi (Li ,Ki)) is value-added, (Li) is labor input by sector in number of persons, and (Ki) is capital stock by sector., (Vji) is the physical quantity of intermediate input from sector j to sector i (i,j=1,2,3,…15), and (aji) represents the fixed input-output coefficients. Value added in each sector is produced using two primary factors of production, labor (L) and capital (K) according to constant returns to scale Cobb-Douglas production function: VAi = αi Liβi * Ki1-βi (2) where (αI) is a constant, which represents the production function shift parameter of gross domestic output, (βi) is production function share parameter of labor, (1-βi) is production function share parameter of capital. In other words, sectoral domestic output (XDi) is determined by Cobb-Douglas production function with labor and capital. XDi = αi * Liβi * Ki1-βi (3) Given the Cobb-Douglas production function and the profit-maximization assumption about the enterprises, the share of each input in the value of output will be equal to the elasticity of output with respect to the input concerned. This relationship is used to obtain the values of βi by substituting the cost (the valueadded) of labor from the input-output table into the labor demand equations. Labor demand (LDi) is derived from the first-order condition of the production function where the value of marginal product is equal to the price of labor. LDi = XDi [(βi*PVi) ⁄ (WL*wfdist)] 2 (4) �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo where (PVi) is value added or net price, (WL) is average wage level, (wfdist) is variable labor market distortion parameter. The parameter of (wfdist) allows for labor market distortions and wages in different sectors to deviate from the average wage. Labor market closure rule applies to the labor supply specifications. We assume that labor wages are free to adjust to maintain full employment given a fixed total labor supply, which is a classical closure. L = Σ LDi (5) However, wages are rigid in the short-run and will only partially adjust, which is a Keynesian closure. The average nominal wage level relies on the change in real GNP and the price inflation, and employment varies negatively with the real wage level. WL=WLt-1*[ ω0+ ω1*(RGNP/RGNPt-1)+ ω2*(1+PINF)] (6) where (WLt-1) is average wage level of last period, (ω0) is constant term of wage equation, (ω1) and (ω2) are parameters of wage equation, (RGNP) is real gross national product, (RGNPt-1) is the real gross national product of last period, and (PINF) is inflation rate. GNP deflator is used for general price index (PLEV) for the economy. Then, PLEV is equal to nominal gross national product or value added in market prices (GNPVA) divided by real gross national product (RGNP). PLEV = GNPVA / RGNP (7) The price inflation rate (PINF) is computed as general price index this year divided by general price index last year minus 1. Given that money is used as the numeraire, price changes are obviously absolute changes (not relative changes as in the real CGE models), and we can examine the price inflation directly from the price level changes. If price level change is negative (positive), we can subtract (add) it from (to) the last year price inflation rate to find this year price inflation rate Household demand for goods (Ci) is a linear expenditure system and equal to the total value of household consumption (CONhh) times households consumption expenditure share (clesi,hh) divided by composite (domestic and imported) good price (PQi); Ci = (Σclesi,hh * CONhh) / PQi (8) The total value of household consumption (CONhh) is determined by household nominal income (YHhh) modified by household income tax (htaxhh) and household savings rate (SAVhh); CONhh = YHhh * (1- htaxhh) * (1-SAVhh) (9) Government demand for final goods is defined through multiplying a set of fixed shares, government expenditure share (glesi), with aggregate real government spending (gexp). Gi = (glesi * gexp * PLEV) / PQi (10) Households income comes from labor earnings (LYhh), the foreign remittance (RMT) and government transfer (GThh,g), price subsidies (SUBhh,g). In addition, households keep financial assets, and receive interest on enterprise bond (IEBh,ep), and bank deposits (IBDhh,b). Yhh=LYhh+RMT*ER+SUBhh,g+IEBh,ep+IBDhh,b+GThh,g (11) Households pay part of their total income (Yhh) as income tax at the rate of (thh) to the government. Thh = thh*Yhh saving. (12) The leftover will be the household’s net income. That net income is divided between consumption and The total amount of household savings depends on the total income as well as the savings rate (shh), which has positive relation with the average real rate of return of investment. shh = khh (irchh – infr) (13) 3 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo where (khh) is a parameter that measures the responsiveness of the household savings rate to a change in the average real rate of return, (irchh) is a composite interest rate determined as a weighted average rate of return of financial assets-treasury bonds, enterprise bonds and time deposits, and (infr) is price inflation. After netting the price inflation out, we reach the real rate of investment return (irchh – infr). Households now decide how much they will save or consume by considering the rates of return of various investment opportunities. The total amount of savings in the current period is obtained by multiplying the savings rate with the total net income. Then it is allocated among different savings options: money demand for transactions and other purposes (MDhh), financial assets; enterprise bonds (EBhh), time deposits (TDhh), and housing investment, computed as a fixed share (househh) of the savings. Shh = shh Yhh = MDhh + EBhh + TDhh + househh (14) The household demand for money is a transaction-based interest-elastic money demand function. MDhh = λhh* Yhh*(1 + ir – infr)-η (15) where (λhh) is money transaction demand factor, (ir) is interest rate, and (η) is interest elasticity of money demand. The function gives the current period stock of money demanded by household, (MDhh). Money demand consists of currency and demand deposits. Currency deposits (CDhh) and demand deposits (DDhh) take up fixed proportions of the total money demand. CDhh = cshh * MDhh DDhh = (1 - cshh )* MDhh (16) (17) where (cshh) is proportion of money held as currency by households. By subtracting the last period’s stocks of currency and demand deposits from the current stocks, we get the changes in currency and demand deposits. ΔCDhh = CDhh - CDhh, t-1 ΔDDhh = DDhh - DDhh, t-1 (18) (19) If we sum both up, we get the change in money demand (ΔMDhh) that is part of the household savings. ΔMDhh = ΔCDhh + ΔDDhh (20) Income of enterprises mainly comes from participation in the production of goods and services (XDi*PXi). In addition, enterprises own deposits and treasury bonds so that they get interest on enterprise deposits (IBDep,b), interest on treasury bonds (ITBep,g). Enterprises get the transfer from government (GTep,g) as well. On the other hand, enterprises spend on the provision of goods and services (epegs) and fixed investment (epefi). Moreover, since enterprises borrow funds from other economic institutions through bank loans and issuing of enterprise bonds, they have to pay interest to households (IEBh,ep) and commercial banks (IBLb,ep). Thus, the income equation of enterprises will become as follows; Yep = (XDi*PXi) + IBDep,b + ITBep,g + GTep,g + SUBep,g - (epegs+epefi)*PL – IEBh,ep – IBLb,ep (21) Enterprises pay income tax (Tep) to the government with the proportion of their income. Tep = tep * (Yep - δKep) (22) where (tep) enterprise income tax rate, (δ) is capital depreciation rate, and (Kep) is capital stock of enterprises. Deducting the income tax of enterprises from enterprises income, the remaining part will be the enterprise savings (Sep). Sep = sep* (1- tep) * Yep (23) where (sep) is enterprise savings rate. Enterprise savings generally support part of the expenditures. If the sources together cannot cover all the expenditures, enterprises have to borrow from other economic institutions. In other words, if there is 4 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo negative savings, which means the total expenditure is greater than the total sources, this gap constitutes the credit requirement of enterprises. A positive credit requirement indicates that enterprises need to borrow through borrowing banks loans, and issuing enterprise bonds. The government enters the model through its revenue, expenditure and deficit activities. The government revenue (GR) is comprised of mainly a variety of taxes: tariffs (TF), household income taxes (Thh), enterprise income taxes (Tep), indirect taxes (Tind), and interest payments of government deposits in central bank (IGDg,cb). GR = TF + Thh + Tep + Tind + IGDg,cb (24) Among the government expenditures, the two largest items are the spending on the provision of public goods and services (gegs) and fixed investment (gefi). Both are fixed in real values. Moreover, the governments spends on interest of foreign borrowing (IFBrow,g), interest of treasury bonds to enterprises (ITBep,g), transfers to enterprises (GTep,g), and households (GThh,g), subsidies to the money loosing enterprises (SUBep,g) and price subsidies on consumption goods to households (SUBhh,g). GE = (gegs+gefi)*PL + IFBrow,g*EXR + ITBep,g + GTep,g + GThh,g + SUBep,g + SUBhh,g outflow. (25) where (PL) is price level, (EXR) is exchange rate, and (cosg) is government share of current capital When the government’s total expenditure exceeds its revenue the government has to find extra fund (government borrowing) to finance its deficit. The government fiscal deficit (GFD) equals its expenditure minus its income. GFD = (gegs+gefi)*PL + IPFBrow,g*ER + ITBep,g + GTep,g + GThh,g + SUBftcg + SUBep,g + SUBhh,g + (26) TF-Thh - Tep - Tind - IGDg,cb When the government faces a deficit, there are three ways to finance it. First, the government can borrow from the central bank. ΔCBCg,cb = µ2 * GFD + ΔGD (27) where (ΔCBCg,cb) is the change in central bank credits to government, (µ2) is the share of deficit financed by central bank credit, and (ΔGD) is change in government deposits. This method is the easiest way to finance government deficit. Yet, this method increases the money stock and jeopardizes the money control function of the central bank. Second, government can issue the treasury bond. ΔTSTB = µ1 * GFD (28) where (ΔTSTB) is the change in supply of treasury bonds, (µ1) is the share of deficit financed by treasury bonds. Third, the government can borrow from the foreigners. This method might increase the national debt to the foreigners and affects negatively the balance of payments. Since we impose the government deficit, we will explicitly incorporate the decision of financing deficit into model using two-policy parameters µ1 and µ2 that represents the share of government deficit financed by treasury bonds and by central bank loans respectively. The remaining part, equal to (1- µ1 – µ2), will be financed by foreigners. Incorporating the banking sector into the model is one of the most important characteristics of financial CGE models. The banking sector of the model represents the functions of the central bank and the commercial banks. The central bank is the authority of monetary policy. The commercial banks are the financial intermediaries. They channel the savings of households and enterprises in the form of bank deposits to borrowers as loan. Since the commercial banks lend out bank loans and put reserves into the central bank, the income equation of commercial banks is little bit different from other sectors. The commercial banks receive interest on bank loans from enterprises (IBLb,ep), interest on treasury bonds from government sector (ITBb,g), and interest on bank reserves from the central bank (IBRb,cb). If it is the case, they can get foreign trade earn a profit on trade (bπftc). Then, the income equation of commercial banks becomes; Yb = (IBLb,ep) + ITBb,g+ IBRb,cb+ bπftc (29) 5 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo On the expenditure side, the commercial banks pay interest on bank deposits to household (IBDhh,b) and enterprises (IBDep,b). Since commercial banks borrow from the central bank, they pay interest on central bank loans (ICBcb,b). Eb = IBDhh,b + IBDep,b + ICBcb,b (30) The equation below shows the financial intermediation function of the commercial banks. The savings of households and enterprises in the form of bank deposits are channeled to borrowers as loans. ΔBL = ΔDDh + ΔDDep + ΔTDhh + ΔTDep - ΔBR (31) This equation simply says that the changes in total bank loans (ΔBL) is equal to the changes in total demand deposits of households (ΔDDhh) and enterprises (ΔDDep) plus the changes in total time deposits of households and enterprises (ΔTDhh) + (ΔTDep) minus the changes in total bank reserves (ΔBR). The commercial banks have to reserve a certain portion of their deposits in the central bank account. The equation below indicates that the total reserves of commercial banks (BR) deposited in the central bank account is equal to the total stock of demand deposits (DDhh + DDep) and total stock of time deposits (TDhh + TDep) with the ratio of reserve to commercial banks (rrb). BR = rrb (DDhh + DDep + TDhh + TDep) (32) To see authority of monetary policy function of the central bank clearly, we should introduce money base equations. Change in money base (ΔMB) is used to measure the money supply and defined as the household currency demand (ΔCDhh) and enterprise currency demand (ΔCDep) plus the total bank reserves (ΔBR). ΔMB = ΔCDhh +ΔCDep + ΔBR (33) It is obvious that if the money multiplier is constant, money supply will be affected by the change in the money base in the same direction. That means the central bank credits to the government is an injection of money into the economy, and this injection will expand money base. Simulation Results1 In the simulation result table below, we show nominal and real changes in the macroeconomic and financial variables as a result of freeing the interest rate. Since the central bank credit to enterprises and commercial banks stays at the original level as in the baseline situation, the simulation results show the pure effects of interest rate liberalization. Thus, there is no shift in monetary policy and what we see is a pure effect of interest rate liberalization. As it is seen from the simulation results, the price level drops by 1.33% in the short run and 1.95% in the long run. Notice that a drop in the price level does not mean there is no inflation. The price level of the base run is normalized to one, and the inflation rate is 60.3% initially. To see the price inflation level, we should examine the item "price inflation rate" in the macro and financial variable tables. This fall in the price level at the same time means that the inflation rate has gone down by about two-percentage point, from 60.3% to 58.97% in the short run and to 58.35% in the long run. For the other nominal variables shown in the tables, the change in the price level is a point of reference to compare with to get some ideas about the change in real values. Throughout all discussions we will check the changes in the real values of variables when they are necessary. In this case, as an example, the price level decreases by 1.33 % in the short run and thus for any nominal variable its value decreases by less than 1.33% in the short run, there is actually an increase in the real value. A drop in the price level proposes that the real wage level has risen, and thus, employment in the short run has fallen by 0.9% or unemployment increased by 171 thousands (by assumption only the short run has employment effect). A result of the drop in employment is that the real GNP decreases by about 0.3% in the short run. However, the story changes in the long run after the wage level has been adjusted fully and the employment effect has been eliminated. As seen in the table 1, in the long run, the real GNP increases slightly by 0.2%. From this simulation result, it can be concluded that interest rate liberalization, in fact, has slightly 1 Simulation results were obtained by using Generalized Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS) program. 6 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo improved, even if it is very small, the efficiency of the economy. Given that the capital stock is fixed, the increase in real GNP or production efficiency has to come from the reallocation of labor among sectors. In both the short and the long run, the nominal interest rate goes up even though the general price level falls, and the combined effect of the two gives rise to a jump in the real rate of interest by more than threepercentage point from 2.4% to 5.63% in the short run and to 5.45% in the long run. It should be remembered that freeing the interest rate allows the loanable funds market to reach the equilibrium and rationing of credit funds is no longer needed. Indeed, the leap in the real rate of interest is one of the mechanisms working towards equilibrating the financial and loans markets. The nominal total income of households falls by 0.95% in the short run and 1.03% in the long run. Yet, by taking the change in the general price level into account, the real income has actually risen in both the short and long run. Total nominal households income as a percentage of the GNP rises slightly from 85.6% to 86.25% in the short run and to 86.3% in the long run. Theoretically speaking, the saving behavior of households is expected to change due to the rise in the real interest rate. In line with the theory, our simulation results show that the nominal gross saving of households goes up even though the price level has fallen, and the result is an increase in the real savings around 4.7%, as indicated by the increase of savings as a percentage of the GNP, from 19.3% to 20.2% in both the short run and the long run. Furthermore, households compress their real consumption and lower their demand deposits. Money holdings decreased by 3.3% and 4.6% in the short run and long run respectively while time deposits increased by 9.1% and 9.74% in the short run and long run respectively. Thus, the households build up their time deposits directly as well as converting their money holdings into the interest earning deposits. Regarding the fiscal condition, government revenue drops in both the short and the long run. The nominal revenue decreases by 2.3% in the short run and 2.03% in the long run. Since the percentage of government revenue fall is larger than the price level change in both the short and the long run, government revenue decreases with not only nominal terms but also real terms. This real revenue decrease is also reflected in the decrease of government revenue measured as a percentage of the GNP from 21.1% to 20.95% in the short run and to 21.03% in the long- run. On the other hand, government expenses decrease by 0.4% in the short run and 0.2% in the long. Those expenses decreases are less than the price level change in both the short and the long run. Combining effect is that budget deficit or government borrowing requirement increases by 7.42% in the short run and 7.17% in the long run. The results show interesting outcome for enterprises. While the liberalization leads to more fixed investment, it hurts enterprises by lowering their net income for 2.19% in short run and 2.04% in the long run. That means real net income decreases in both the short and long run. The reduction in net income is largely due to the increased interest payments on the stock of enterprise loans. On the other hand, real fixed and total investment rises in the short and long run. In order to support a higher level of fixed investment, enterprises have to increase their borrowing in the current period — enterprise bonds issued goes up by 2.3% in the short run and 2.5% in the long run, and domestic bank loans goes up by 2.5% in the short run and 2.9% in the long run. The most fascinating results were obtained in the banking system comparing to households and enterprises. The increased credit demand of enterprises causes 2.5% increase in short run and 2.9% in the long run in the amount of bank loans to enterprises made in the current period. Besides, the increasing real interest rate coupled with the impact on household saving behavior causes the amount of demand deposits made in the current period to decline by 2.6% in the short run and 2.2% in the long run. On the other hand, in line with theory, increasing real interest rate causes the amount of time deposits to go up by 6.02% in the short run and 6.87% in the long run. Furthermore, a higher nominal interest rate means that interest payments received and paid by banks rush forward drastically. Thus, the total income of commercial banks rises substantially by 25.4% in the short run and 23.7% in the long run. On the other hand, the total bank expenses jump by 13.5% in the short run and 9.5% in the long run. To summarize, the following remarks can be concluded: 1. The simulation results show that while the government and the enterprises suffer a revenue loss, households slightly and commercial banks substantially gain from freeing the interest rate. This differential impact on the incomes of economic agents depends to a large extent on the initial distribution of financial assets and liabilities. 2. When interest rate is liberalized, we observe the income transfers from borrowers to lenders, and thus lenders tend to gain but borrowers to lose. Since main borrowers are enterprises and government, their net incomes decrease in he short and long run. 3. However, real net income of enterprises is getting better from the short run to the long run. While price level decrease from the short run to the long run is 0.62%, the decrease in net total income of enterprises is just 0.15%. Speaking with real terms enterprises are getting better from the short run to the long run even if their real net income is decreasing in both the short and long run. This situation would be explained by the increasing productivity of enterprises in the long run after interest rate liberalization takes place. 7 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. 5. 6. 7. The simulation results of interest rate liberalization indicate that the fixed interest rate system before liberalization is putting a squeeze on especially the banking sector by protecting the benefits of and maintain the status quo in other institutions. When the long run is compared to the short run, we see an increase, even if very small, in the long run real GNP while we have a decrease in the short run. Another important observation is the increase in the government-borrowing requirement as a percentage of the GNP in both the short and the long run. This result is similar to the context of enterprise. Since government is also borrower, increasing real interest rate is increasing government borrowing. The long run results suggest that some adverse effects associated with freeing the interest rate are reversed when a full adjustment is reached. Government and enterprises enjoy with low interest rate under fixed interest rate regime, while freeing the interest rate make household slightly and banking sector substantially better. Simulation Results INTEREST RATE LIBERALIZATION MACRO AND FINANCIAL VARIABLES (Billion TL) Price Level Price Inflation Rate (%) Nominal Interest Rate (%) Real Interest Rate (%) Employment (thousand) Wage Level (million TL/year) Real GNP Nominal GNP Government Revenues Revenues as % of GNP Expenditures Expenditures as % of GNP Deficit Deficit as % of GNP Households Total Nominal Income Total Nom. Inc. as % of GNP Total Real Income Total Savings Savings as % of GNP Nominal Consumption Nom. Cons. as % of GNP Real Consumption Demand Deposit Time Deposit Enterprises Net Total Income Working Capital Total Investment Real Fixed Investment Demand for Credit • Enterprise Bond Issued • Bank Loans Borrowed Commercial Banks Total Income Total Expenses Bank Loans to Enterprises Total Bank Loans Total Deposits • Demand Deposits • Time Deposits 8 Short run Long run Base 1.0000 60.30% 62.70% 2.40% 18,539 5,768 395,042 395,042 Value 0.9867 58.97% 64.60% 5.63% 18,368 5,701 393,840 388,602 %� -1.33% -2.21% 5.58% 135% -0.9% -1.16% -0.3% -1.63% Value 0.9805 58.35% 63.80% 5.45% 18,539 5,680 395,848 388,129 %� -1.95% -3.23% 3.99% 127% 0.0% -1.53% 0.2% -1.75% 83,317 21.1 % 103,867 26.3 % 20,550 5.2 % 81,396 20.95% 103,470 26.6% 22,074 5.68% -2.3% -0.71% -0.4% 1.14% 7.42% 9.2% 81,629 21.03% 103,652 26.7% 22,023 5.67% -2.03% -0.33% -0.2% 1.52% 7.17% 9.04% 338,379 85.6 % 338,379 76,173 19.3 % 262,206 66.4% 262,206 5,261 29,640 335,173 86.25% 339,691 78,565 20.2% 257,608 66.3% 261,080 5,086 32,345 -0.95% 0.76% 0.39% 3.3% 4.7% -1.75% -0.15% -0.43% -3.3% 9.1% 334,893 86.3% 341,553 78,451 20.2% 256,442 66.1% 261,542 5,017 32,527 -1.03% 0.82% 0.94% 3.1% 4.7% -2.2% -0.45% -0.25% -4.6% 9.74% 229,194 1,363 68,564 65,888 38,766 6,273 32,493 224,153 1,323 69,389 66,553 39734 6,419 33,315 -2.19% -2.93% 1.2% 1.0% 2.5% 2.3% 2.5% 224,521 1,329 69,658 66,994 39,860 6,431 33,429 -2.04% -2.49% 1.6% 1.68% 2.8% 2.5% 2.9% 44,308 39,179 32,493 76,261 93,928 29,295 64,633 55,560 44,485 33,315 77,176 97,066 28,536 68,530 25.4% 13.5% 2.5% 1.2% 3.3% -2.6% 6.02% 54,821 42,917 33,429 77,325 97821 28,647 69,074 23.7% 9.5% 2.9% 1.4% 4.1% -2.2% 6.87% �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Atiyas, I. and H. Ersel, (1994). The Impact of Financial Reform: the Turkish Experience, Chapter 13, in Financial Reform: Theory and Evidence, ed. by Atiyas, I., G. Caprio, and J. Hanson, Cambridge University Press. Bourguignon, F., Branson, W. H., and De Melo, J. (1992). Adjustment and Income Distribution; A Micro-Macro Model for Counterfactual Analysis, Journal of Development Economics 38, pp. 17-39. Bourguignon, F., De Melo, J., and Suwa, A. (1991). Modeling the Effects of Adjustment Programs on Income Distribution, World Development 19, pp. 1527-1544. Bourguignon, F., and Morrison, C. (1992). Adjustment and Equity in Developing Countries, Paris, OECD. Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Detragiache, E. Financial Liberalization and Financial Fragility, IMF/WP/83. Dervis, K., De Melo, J., and Robinson, S. (1982). A General Equilibrium Analysis of the Causes of a Foreign Exchange Crisis: The case of Turkey, Weltwirtschaftliches Archive Review of World Economics, 118, pp. 259-280. Fargeix, A., and Sadoulet, E. (1994). A Financial Computable General Equilibrium Model for the Analysis of Stabilization Programs, In Applied General Equilibrium and Economic Development, Present Achievements and Future Trends, edited by Jean Mercenier and T.N. Srinivasan, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Fiscal Statistics, (1998). The Undersecretariat of Treasury, Prime Ministry, Republic of Turkey. Grais, W., De Melo, J., and Urata, S., (1986). A General Equilibrium Estimation of Reduction in Tariff and Quantitative Restriction in Turkey in 1978, In T.N. Srinivasan and J. Whalley (Eds.), General Equilibrium Trade Policy Modeling, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. Karadag, M., and Westaway, T., (1999). A SAM-Based Computable General Equilibrium Model of the Turkish Economy, Loughborough University, Economic Research Paper No: 99/18. Lewis, J. D., and Urata, S. (1983). Turkey: Recent Economic Performance and Medium-Term Prospect, 1978-1990, World Bank Staff Working papers, 602, Washington. Lewis, J. D., and Urata, S. (1984). Anatomy of a Balance of Payment Crisis: Application of a General Equilibrium Model to Turkey, 1978-1980, Economic Modelling, 1, pp. 281-303. Lewis, J. D. (1994). Macroeconomic Stabilization and Adjustment Policies in a General Equilibrium Model with Financial markets, In Applied General Equilibrium and Economic Development, Present Achievements and Future Trends, edited by Jean Mercenier and T.N. Srinivasan. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. Shantayanan, D., Lewis, D., J., and Robinson, S., (1994). Getting the Model Right: The General Equilibrium Approach to Adjustment Policy, International Food Policy Research Institute, Draft Manuscript. Sherman, R. (1991). Macroeconomics, Financial Variables, and Computable General Equilibrium Models, World Development, Volume 19, No. 11, pp. 1509-1525. Shoven, J. B., and Whalley, J., (1992). Applying General Equilibrium, Cambridge University press, Cambridge. State Institute of Statistics (SIS) (1990). Household Income and Consumption Expenditure Survey Results, Ankara, Turkey. Tunc, G. I. (1998). A Financial Computable General Equilibrium Model for Turkey: Policy Analysis with 1990 Data, METU Studies in Development, 25(1), pp. 173-213. Yeldan, E. (1989). Structural Adjustment and Trade in Turkey: Investigating the Alternatives ‘Beyond export-Led Growth, Journal of Policy Modelling, 11, pp. 273-296. Yeldan, E. (1990). A General Equilibrium Investigation of the Optimal of Turkish Structural Adjustment, 1979-1983, METU Studies in Development, 17, pp. 25-71. Yeldan, E. (1997). Financial Liberalization and Fiscal Repression in Turkey: Policy Analysis in a CGE Model with Financial Markets, Journal of Policy Modeling, 19(1), pp. 79-117. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1 Title A name given to the resource Macroeconomic Effects of Interest Rate Liberalization: The Case of Turkey Author Author ULUSSEVER , Talat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study proposes a financial computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, which represents the salient features of the Turkish economy. By including 15 production sectors and linking the real and financial sub-models through various channels of fund flows, interest rates, commercial bank intermediation, monetary and fiscal policies, we perform a counterfactual simulation using the financial CGE model to explore the potential macroeconomic effects of interest rate liberalization in the Turkish economy. Our results show that interest rate liberalization makes the government and the enterprises suffer a revenue loss, but households slightly and commercial banks notably revenue raise in both the short and long run. In addition, while the real GNP declines in the short run, it increases in the long run after the wage level has been adjusted fully and the employment effect has been eliminated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08c7e7466fa53c8c1abc8cd35f270cb8.pdf ea117e3617978c832e4cca2be44db842 PDF Text Text Charter Schools M. Uğur Türkyılmaz International Burch University English Language Department Bosnia and Herzegovina uturkyilmaz@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Charter school movement in the USA: Would that be a new school model for the world? In this presentation, the charter school movement in the USA will be highlighted based on the questions below: Is there a Constitution article for charter schools? What is the legal status of charter schools in other states and in Wisconsin? Who can apply? Who can grant a charter? What degree of freedom do the charter schools have? How are the charter schools funded? What is the historical background of the charter schools? What does Instrumentality and Non-instrumentality mean? What is their current status? What is the impact and implications of charter schools for other schools? Key words: Charter, school funding, choice schools, hybrid schools Is There A Constitution Article For Charter Schools? “The sanctity of such charters was guaranteed as a constitutionally protected interest under the Obligation of Contracts provision of U.S Constitution.” (Alexander, Alexander, 2001) “Charter schools are public, nonsectarian schools created through a businesslike “contract or charter” between the operators and the sponsoring school board or other chartering authority.” (DPI, website). Actually, charter schools are public schools. That is why they are exempt from most state laws but not from the federal laws. The biggest difference between a public charter school and a regular public school is the existence of a very specific contract between the charter granting authority and the person(s) opening the charter school. The contract is spelling out the requirements the charter school needs to meet at the end of the charter term, which is usually five years. What Is The Legal Status Of Charter Schools In Other States And In Wisconsin? “The most obvious and direct federal involvement in charter schools comes through the Federal Charter School Grant Program, initially authorized by Congress in 1994. Legislation creating a federal start-up grant program was originally proposed in 1992 by Senators Dave Durenberger (R-MN) and Joseph Lieberman (D-CN). It has also consistently attracted bi-partisan support in the U.S. House of Representatives. The program provides competitive grants to states, which, in turn, make grants to individual charter schools. Grants can be used for both planning and start-up expenses of charters. A new program authorized in 1998 also gives states the option of making "Dissemination Grants" to more established schools to help start new charters and to spread their experience and best practices to other charters and to district public schools. ”(Charter School National Network, 2003) “No two states’ charter school laws are the same.” (Odden, Bush 1998) There is no one right way of doing things. Charter schools are certainly another fruit of the fertile educational system in the States. Wisconsin: ‰ “The original law was passed by the state in 1993 (Assembly bill 631). In June 18, 1998, Wisconsin Act 238 (1997) changed charter school law. In 1997, the state legislature made another revision to the law. This revision gave chartering authority to the Chancellor of the University of WisconsinMilwaukee (UWM), to the Milwaukee Area Technical College (MATC), and to the Common Council of the City of Milwaukee. ‰ In 1998, the state legislature made additional changes to the law, allowing a district to contract with a cooperative educational agency (CESA) to operate a charter school as long as it is located within the CESA. 161 �‰ ‰ ‰ Another change requires that a school board receiving a petition to establish a charter school or to convert a nonsectarian private school must hold a public hearing on the matter and must consider the fiscal impact of the decision. The changes that occurred in 1999-2001Biennial Budget revolved around Milwaukee per pupil aids and state assessments. In the 2001-2003 budget bill, limited chartering authority was granted University of WisconsinParkside.”(Wisconsin State Summary, 2003) Who Can Apply? “In some states, only public schools can apply for charter status; in others, groups of teachers or citizens, universities, and even regional education organizations can apply for a charter.” (Odden, Bush 1998). Wisconsin: ‰ “Any person”: an individual, partnership, association, or political or corporate body can operate a charter school. ‰ Prohibits a school board from entering into a contract that would convert a private, sectarian school into a charter school. This new law applies to Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS) as well: MPS formerly was allowed this option. “(Odden, Bush 1998). Who Can Grant A Charter? “States have created different entities for granting charters; in some states, only school boards grant charters, in others, the state grants charters; in some cases, both the state and the local school board must approve the charter”. (Odden, Bush 1998). The variety of charter school issuing agencies in state laws is also another reflection of how diversity is emphasized in this culture. It might be beneficial to take look at the achievement differences, if there is, when the granting authority is state or the local school board. Ohio legislation has changed its charter school law in the last year. Previously, Ohio was both issuing and sponsoring the charter schools. This was regarded as a kind of “conflict of interest”. After a lot of criticism that the state should not be both the money-provider and the sponsor, the state asked all the charter schools to find a sponsor. In that way, an independent local authority will audit the schools. Now, many schools are in a hurry to find a sponsor in one year, or they will go out of business. Wisconsin: ‰ The legislation allowed the Milwaukee Area Technical College, MPS, the University of WisconsinMilwaukee, and Milwaukee's Common Council to authorize or operate charter schools in the city of Milwaukee. ‰ With the exception of Milwaukee, as established in Wisconsin's original 1993 charter school law, the local school board remains the only entity that can grant a charter for a period of one to five years. ‰ Schools authorized by these government entities receive the shared state aid, currently at $5,600 per pupil. ‰ The state has the final approval for a charter school. ‰ “The state sets a statutory limit on the number of charter schools allowed in operation at any given time. The state simply receives the charter school application and approves them at the state level unless the state limit on the number of charter schools would be exceeded.” ‰ No appeal. “(Odden, Bush 1998). What Degree Of Freedom Do The Charter Schools Have? “In some states, the waiver of the state rules and regulations is automatic and wholesale, while in others, individual charter schools have to specifically request each proposed waiver.” (Odden, Bush 1998). This freedom is the greatest reason why charter schools are like private schools. Why do people choose charter schools? One of the important reasons charter schools will provide a better education for their children. (Manhattan Institute, 2003) 162 �Now the states are creating their own private schools with only one difference. Charter schools cannot charge tuition. Being independent from the state law is also attracting a lot of public schools. Most charter schools are converted from regular public schools. Wisconsin: ‰ “Charter schools in Wisconsin are exempt from most state requirements regarding public education. However, teachers in charter schools must be licensed by the DPI. ‰ Charter schools are not exempt from federal laws governing regular or special education or civil rights policies, nor are they exempt from local school board policies unless negotiated in the contract. This last provision does not pertain to the non-instrumentality charter schools. ‰ A charter school cannot charge tuition and must be equally accessible to all students in the district. ‰ Nonresident students may enroll in a district and be assigned to a charter school under the Wisconsin public school open enrollment program ‰ Charter schools may not discriminate on the basis of sex, race, religion, national origin, ancestry, pregnancy, marital status, sexual orientation, or physical, mental, emotional, or learning disability. ‰ Attendance at a charter school must be voluntary, and the district must provide alternative public education for pupils who do not wish to attend the charter school or who are not admitted to the charter school.” (Wisconsin State Summary, 2003) How Are The Charter Schools Funded? “Some states finance charter schools directly, some require charter schools to negotiate the budget with the local board, and some –Arkansas, Georgia, and Kansas- do not even address funding!” (Odden, Bush 1998). Charter schools are the prototypes of the school-based financing system model. “It (charter schools) places great store in the importance of competition improving the quality of schools.” (Alexander, Alexander, 2001) With a serious rival, other public schools would be forced to be competitive. The race is based on equal terms at least in terms of finance. All public schools are paid the same amount per-pupil state aid. The real difference is with the way the charter schools spend their money. As they are intended to be a model of school-based financing system, the state aid is paid in a lump sum. They spend their money the way they want to. Most charter schools are established by teachers or parents. Wisconsin: ‰ Funding is not specified in the law. It is negotiated locally between the charter school and school district (there is a maximum per-pupil funding level, which is set by law, though) How Does Wisconsin Do Overall In Dealing With Its Charter Schools? A recent report assessing the states’ performances in opening charter schools rated Wisconsin’s as B-. In the study, 13 states are graded B, 7 states graded C, and 3 states graded C. “Based on scores of 56 criteria, Wisconsin earned a C for its policy environment, a B for authorizer practices, B- for charter school support, B- for application processes, B+ approval processes, and B for oversight and renewal revocation processes. Overall, Wisconsin’s charter school system, although complex, rates rather well. However, support and external accountability for authorizers are lacking. Policymakers are advised to carefully review the criterion-based scores for that category.” (Palmer, Gau, 2003) What Is The Historical Background Of The Charter Schools? The first charter school was established in Minnesota, in 1991. “During the five years from 1991 to 1996, twenty six states enacted charter school laws and many other states debated charter school legislation.” (Odden, Bush 1998) There are various reasons why charter schools have flourished so rapidly in the last decade. Just like choice and voucher programs, charters provide a choice for the parents who are not happy with the regular public schools. 163 �“Wisconsin charter school law was established with an authorization for 1o school districts to establish up to two charter schools for a total of twenty in the state wide. Thirteen charter schools were created under this law. In 1995, revisions to that first charter school law gave permission to all school boards statewide and eliminated the cap on the total number of charter schools. ” (Wisconsin State Summary, 2003) “Charter schools are gaining momentum in the city of Milwaukee. From a modest beginning of less than 200 students in three schools in 1998-1999 school year, they have grown in five years to include 11,497 students in 31 different schools. Statewide 19,005 students are enrolled in 129 different charter schools. of this total, 60% are charter school students in Milwaukee. The pace of charter school is evidenced by the edition of seven new charter schools this fall and 2,055 students. Today charter school surpasses the enrolment in Milwaukee private school voucher program by 816 students, the chapter 220 program by 6,813 students, and the open enrollment program by 10,265.” (Public Policy Forum, 2002) Parents, complaining a lot about the ineffectiveness of the public schools once, are encouraged to start their own schools. “A year ago, Mimi Rothschild burst on the scene with an idea so grand and irresistible to parents disgruntled with public schools that it propelled her to the forefront of educational reform in Pennsylvania. Rothschild, who has no background in education, set out to open the biggest cyber school in Pennsylvania, if not the nation, where thousands of students could learn at home, at any time, with a click of a mouse.”(Hirsch, 2002) Then, they see things are not as easy as they seem to! Another great privilege that most charter schools have is that they are exempt from many of the state law; bureaucracy. People who establish charter schools love this freedom and try to create very different schools than regular public schools. If you are a non-instrumentality charter school, you may even hire your own staff. That freedom is crucial in the success of the charters, as they do not have to get stuck with ineffective administrators or teachers. Most of them offer a one-year contract. What Does Instrumentality And Non-Instrumentality Mean? “When a charter school is and instrumentality of the district, it can best be viewed as attached to the district.” (Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999) Thus, we can simple infer the meaning of non-instrumentality as a school not part of a district. “Teachers in "non-instrumentality" charter schools are not district employees and are eligible to negotiate as a separate unit with charter school governing body, or work independently.”(CER, 2002) “One attorney described it as an arm of the district, with many of the policies and procedures affecting the district flowing through to the charter school.” (Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999) Some other major elements of instrumentality charter schools in Wisconsin are listed in the article as: 1. “The employees remain the employees of the district. 2. “Teachers will keep whatever benefits they get as a result of their contract. Also, teachers will retain their access to the Wisconsin Retirement System, they get pension.” 3. “Unless it has been otherwise negotiated in the teacher’s bargaining agreement or through a memorandum of understanding, teachers in charter schools will be treated like other schools in the district around the issues of seniority.” 4. “The school board has the authority to determine which of its policies and procedures apply to charter school. This should be outlined in the contract between the charter school and the district.” 5. “Charter schools are waived from all but a handful of the statues regulating the schools. These include the rules about the number of minutes courses must meet and the number of days school must meet. Additionally, charter schools gain flexibility in terms of graduation requirements. They also gain some flexibility in teacher license requirements, similar to that of the provisional license.” 6. “Charter schools waived from the statues around issues of student health, safety and privacy. Additionally, state law does not and cannot waive charter schools from federal laws that apply to K-12 schools. .” (Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999) What is Their Current Status? “When charter schools came onto the education scene in the early 1990s they were viewed as a reform that could turn traditional public schooling on its head.”(Public Policy Forum, 2002) Are they there yet? Are they now a model for all other public schools? It is too soon to draw conclusions. But still in a very short period of time, they have at least proved that some things might be better if there is more autonomy. (Manhattan Institute, 2003) 164 �There are now 2,874 charter schools all over the nation. 400 new charter schools added in 2002-2003. (CER, 2002). Statewide 19,005 students are enrolled in 129 in different charter schools. Of this total, 60% are charter schools in Milwaukee. Considering the fact that each year 400 hundred charters are added, one day the market will be saturated, become wary of this new experiment and look for different possibilities. (CER, 2002). Virtual charter schools are now in the game. They are collecting more and more students from different districts. Just like home schooling, students who would like to stay away from buildings, they opt for other options. “Less than two weeks before the deadline, Wisconsin Virtual Academy - set to open this fall in a small, rural district in northern Ozaukee County - has more than 300 confirmed students who are coming from more than 100 districts around the state.” (Davis, 2003) People, who actually do not want to be taught by a teacher, will enjoy their computer screen. But is this just another student trick to get away from their responsibilities? Time will tell. “At last count some 30 cyber charter schools have already been established in 12 states.” (National Association of States Board of Education, 2001) Although there are very few cyber schools in operation, they are already a big controversial issue. Advocates for home-schoolers are suing the districts opening charter schools. They argue that there is no legal basis to open a cyber charter school. Charter school advocates claim that “The Department of Education holds the position that cyber schools are permitted under Act 22 of 1997, our charter school law.” There are two cyber schools in Wisconsin: Wisconsin Virtual Academy and Wisconsin Connections Academy. “Wisconsin Virtual Academy has 275 confirmed new students for next year and 653 approved applications. Wisconsin Virtual Academy - set to open this fall in a small, rural district in northern Ozaukee County - has more than 300 confirmed students who are coming from more than 100 districts around the state. Applications from some 600 more were pending after receiving preliminary approval.”(Davis, 2003) Considering the fact that cyber schools are collecting students from all the districts in their states, more and more entrepreneurs would knock on the department of education’s to submit their applications. “As of October 2002, there are 194 closures which is 6.7% of the 2874 schools ever given charters. The percent includes the schools that gained the charter school status but never opened, schools were actually consolidated back to the districts and remain open.” (CER, 2002). The report is a good analysis of why charter schools have been closed. It underlines that some of the closures are also because of districts. “Some groups, such as local school districts, and other in educational establishment that were threatened by these groups, are working to push them back. Why? Sadly, the closures are because most people do not like change, especially if that changes the affects one’s livelihood.” (CER, 2002). If a charter school gets closed because of poor academic results and therefore not meeting the contract requirements that would show what real accountability is all about. The real problem is when charter schools are shut down despite academic achievement, student and parental satisfaction and community support. People who support “status quo” have always been and will always be. Like Dr. Fuller said, “in this country there is no way you can change things without controversy.” (Alverno, 2003) What Is The Impact And Implications Of Charter Schools For Other Schools? If competition has anything to do with success, charter schools are challenging to regular public schools and private schools. The challenge is not just felt by the public schools but also by other choice schools and private schools. “ Today charter school surpasses the enrolment in the Milwaukee private school voucher program by 816 students, the chapter 220 program by 6813 students and the open enrollment program by 10.265” (Public Policy Forum, 2002) The pattern of growing numbers in student enrolment is, naturally, a big concern for regular public schools and private schools. Schools that lose their students to other programs have two options. They either reduce their staff or find more students. In order to keep your current student body or to have more students, you need to build up a good reputation in your neighborhood. Parental satisfaction is the key factor in student retention. As charter schools are tuition-free, parents who want to save up to thousands of dollars a year may choose to send their children to quality charter schools. Parents, who are dissatisfied with the performance of their children 165 �in the regular public schools and cannot afford private school tuitions, choose charters. Small classroom sizes and innovative curriculum are top reasons that attract parents. They all result in the increase of student numbers in charter schools. “ There are 11.497 students enrolled in Milwaukee charter schools in 2002-2003, a 21.8% increase from the number of students 9,442 attended charter schools in 2001-2002” (Public Policy Forum, 2002) Given that, it is still important to know that the number of students in charter schools is just 2.2% of the total student population in Wisconsin. That clearly proves that regular public schools are still the main education providers. It is believed that charter schools should stay as model schools that others can get inspired. They should keep trying new methods to improve the student achievement. It is also acceptable to fail now and then. People all learn from mistakes, sometimes even more than what they do right. One important criticism that charter schools receive is that they are getting more white students than African American since they are selective. “The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University (CRP) announces a new study of segregation patterns in the nation’s charter schools. “Charter Schools And Race: A Lost Opportunity For Integrated Education” by Erica Frankenberg and Chungmei Lee.”(The civil Rights Project, 2003) According to a research on charter schools in Milwaukee area, the district has 60% of student population is black and the number is 61% in charter schools. (Public Policy Forum, 2002) “ Whatever the condition of charter school, however, it is clear that, when compared with the failure of traditional public schools, charter schools are more likely to deliver on their promise providing an atmosphere that breed student achievement.” (CER, 2002) References Palmer, Louann, Gau, P. Rebecca. (2003). Charter School Authorizing: Are States Making the Grade? Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute Charter School National Network. Charter Friends Initiative- on –Federal Legislation and Policy: retrieved July25, 2003 from: http://www.charterfriends.org/fedpolicy/cfi-fedpolicy8.html Davis, Anne (2003) Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: Virtual Academy Gets As Many As 900 Students retrieved July25, 2003, from: http://www.jsonline.com/news/State/may03/143452.asp Hirsch, Melanie. (2002). Internet Schooling: Cyber http://www.psrn.org/Cyber%20schools/mcall%20internet%20schooling.html school is cautionary tale Odden, Allan, Bush, Carolyn. (1998). Financing Schools For High Performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Alexander, Kern, Alexander, M. David (2001). American Public School Law. Belmont CA: Wadsworth West –Group Forster, Greg, Green P. Jay. (2003) Apples to Apples: An Evaluation of Charter Schools Serving General Student Populations. Manhattan Institute Public Policy Forum (2002). The Research Brief: MPS Charter Schools Outperform City and UWM, Milwaukee Volume 90, Number 10 The Center for Education Reform. (2002). Charter schools today: Changing the face of American education. Washington DC The Civil Rights Project. (2003). Study Finds That Nation's Charter Schools Are Places Of Racial Isolation Cambridge, MA Wisconsin Charter School Resource Center. (1999). Understanding Instrumentality Charter Schools in Wisconsin: Briefing Paper. Wisconsin Wisconsin State Summary. (2003) History of Charter School Law http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/dpi/dfm/sms/pdf/023yrbk1.pdf 166 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 380 Title A name given to the resource Charter Schools Author Author Türkyılmaz, M. Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. Charter school movement in the USA: Would that be a new school model for the world? In this presentation, the charter school movement in the USA will be highlighted based on the questions below: Is there a Constitution article for charter schools? What is the legal status of charter schools in other states and in Wisconsin? Who can apply? Who can grant a charter? What degree of freedom do the charter schools have? How are the charter schools funded? What is the historical background of the charter schools? What does Instrumentality and Non-instrumentality mean? What is their current status? What is the impact and implications of charter schools for other schools? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1338a5054468b96cd6eacb30b9d13286.pdf 1081f954b9fc2eeac03cbbf5e5dded78 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Gurel Turkmen Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen @ege.edu.tr Os man Ozden Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department Izmir, Turkey osman.ozden@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water, land, fishmeal, and by other factors, such as environmental pollution. The problems caused by aquaculture wastes to the receiving water have drawn great attention worldwide in recent years. Intensive shrimp farming has been developed steadily over the last decade in response to increasing world market demand. The production system evolved from extensive toward intensive with increasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Thus, waste loads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. In traditional intensive shrimp culture, the deteriorated pond water is frequently exchanged with new external water supply to maintain desirable water quality for shrimp growth. The nutrient laden effluent discharged from shrimp farms can cause eutrophication of coastal waters and its impact has been a major environmental concern. Many technology and method has been developed to protect the water resources and environment from being polluted and wasted. In these systems shrimp is cultured next to other organisms, which are converting otherwise discharged nutrients into valuable products. Long-term growth of the shrimp aquaculture industry requires both ecologically sound practices and sustainable resource management. Sustainable Aquaculture Systems Sustainability may be expressed in terms of three interrelated aspects (Fig. 1): production technology, social and economic aspects,and environmental aspects(AIT 1994). An aquaculture farming system needs to be sufficiently productive to make it an attractive option to alternative or competing uses of resources i.e.,land and water, capital and labour, and farm by-products. Social and economic aspects of aquaculture have received relatively little attention compared to production aspects and are major constraints to development through aquaculture (Edwards 1994).Environmental aspects are only now beginning to receive the attention they require to prevent humans from exceeding the global carrying capacity for our species. An Environmental Revolution has been called for, as momentous as the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions that had such an impact on the evolution of human society (Harrison 1993). Production technology may be subdivided into three main aspects: cultured species, culture facility and husbandry. The choice of species influences the type of facility and together these determine the type of husbandry needed for the various stages of production (hatchery, nursery, grow-out). Husbandry may involve various methods of stock management (monoculture or polyculture; single or multiple, stocking and harvesting strategies), use of different feeds (natural,supplementary or complete feed), management of substrate and water quality, and disease prevention and therapy. Social and economic factors influencing sustainable aquaculture may be considered at the macro-level (international, national and regional aspects) and the micro-level (community and farm household). Macro-level issues include world trade, national development goals, government policy, and social characteristics such as cultural attitudes and input supply and marketing. Micro-levelissues are mainly alternative uses of resources. The environment is defined as being externalto the aquaculture system and includes the natural resources used for aquaculture development such as land, water, nutrients and biological diversity;the internal environment of the culture system is considered as part ofthe husbandry of production technology. The external environment is defined broadly to include the two-way interaction between itself and the aquaculture system. The natural environment (climate, geomorphology, hydrology and soils) and its human transformation (agroecology, urbanization,industrialization),exert majorinfluences on aquaculture, which may be either positive or negative. As an example of positiveinteraction between aquaculture and the environment,a pond dug on a small-scale 117 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo farm functions as a nutrienttrap and provides water forirrigation of rice seedlings and vegetables in addition to providing fish. Fish ponds may also be used to treat human sewage, manure from feedlot livestock as well as effluents from intensive aquaculture. Negative interactions between aquaculture and the environment are the adverse effects of pollution on aquaculture and adverse effects of aquaculture on the environment such as eutrophication, misuse of chemicals, and reduction of biodiversity and mangrove destruction. Production Technology Productive Sustainable Aquaculture Systems Socially relevant and profitable Social and Economic Aspects Environmentally compatible Environmental Aspects Figure 1: Sustainability of Aquaculture Systems (AIT 1994). An Overwiev on the World Shrimp Aquaculture Shrimp is one ofthe most populartypes of seafood inthe world. Approximately 5 million metrictons of shrimp are produced annually. Shrimp farms are being created throughoutthe worldto help meetthe demand for shrimp. In 1975, the shrimp aquaculture industry contributed to 2.5% of total shrimp production. Shrimp aquaculture, which increased nine fold during the 1990s and is one of the fastest growing forms of aquaculture, now accounts for one-third of the shrimp produced globally. Most shrimp aquaculture occursin China,followed by Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico, India, Brazil, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Philippines and Malasia (Fig. 2). Shrimp Aquaculture (MT) 1400000 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 Figure 2: World Shrimp Aquaculture by Countries (FAO 2007) 118 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, accounts for more than half of the total shrimp aquaculture output. Other important commercial species are P. monodon, P. merguiensis, P. japonicus, P. chinensis and P. indicus. In recent years,the export of Penaues vannamei to Asia has created a boom production, especially in China. The majority of farmed shrimp isimported to the United States, European Union and Japan. The growth has generated substantial income for developing and developed countries particularly Asia, the Americas and Africa but also has raised concerns about how shrimp farming affectsthe environment and society (FAO 2007). Shrimp Farms and the Environment Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water,land, fishmeal, and by otherfactors,such as environmental pollution (Schneider et al. 2005). Shrimp farming hasthe capacity to dramatically transform coastal areas. Extensive farms have an enormous requirement for land and the development of intensive culture practices increases nutrient impacts on the local coastal environment. Alongside environmental changes such as eutrophication, salination and land use changes, are attendant social transformations. Articles in popular science journals have focused public attention on the potential negative environmental impact of aquaculture, in particular intensive production of salmon and shrimp (Bunting 2006). The high demand for shrimp in overseas markets changed traditional farming practices along the coastal areas for peasantfarmers. Thairice farmers converted their coastalfields and often the mangrove foreststhat bordered them,to shrimp ponds. The production system evolved from extensivetoward intensive withincreasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Consequently, wasteloads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. Generally more intensive culture systems produce higher loads of nutrients such as N (Nitrate) and P (Phosphate) in their discharge (Alonso-Rodriguez & Paez-Osuna 2003). Formulated diets fed to shrimp consist of high amount of protein 35-50%, nitrogen 5.9-7% and phosphorus 1.5-2.1%. However, much of the feed is not assimilated into shrimp tissue butis discharged as dissolved and particulate waste. Based on food conversion ratio (FCR) of 2.0 with stocking density 30-50 shrimp/m2, shrimp feed of 2 tons, generates 1 ton of shrimp and waste of 900 kg organic matter, 87 kg nitrogen and 28 kg phosphorus. These compounds,together with excrement from the shrimp, increase organic matter, resulting in a high biochemical oxygen demand that can stimulate oxygen deplation (Jeganaeson & Annachhatre 2001, Tacon & Forster 2003). The two significant components ofthe pond environment are the pond water and sediments which interact continuously to influence the culture environment. Pond management activities are a third external factor which influence the culture environment. Management activities include feeding, use of aerators, water exchange and liming (Fig. 3) (Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998). Figure 3: Water Quality Đnteractions and Management Activitiesin Đntensive Shrimp Ponds. The solids budget shows that erosion of pond soil was the major source of both solids (88–93%) and organic matter (40–60%) in the pond. The feed applied to the pond was a significant source of organic matter (31–50%) but contributed little solids(4–7%) tothe system. Applied feed accounted for 78% oftheinput of N to the ponds. Erosion ofthe pond soils, whilst a major contributor of solids, accounted for only 16% of N added to 119 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the system. Other minor contributions were influent water (4%) and fertilizer,rainfall and postlarvae (2%). The sinks for nitrogen were the sediments (24%), harvested shrimp (18%), and discharged water (27%). The principal source of phosphorus in this system was the applied feed (51%). The 26% shortfall in inputs was assumed to be the eroded pond bottom (Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998). Hence shrimp farming become a curse in coastal areas due to their heavy discharge of used water with high organic and inorganic load and it has been regulated strictly under legislations (Tacon & Forster 2003). Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Typically the pattern of production from a shrimp farm is that of an initial ‘honeymoon period,’ characterized by success and good production followed by gradual decrease in yields over successive crops. Depending upon a wide range of factors, decreased yields are manifested as reduced growth, higher FCR, and disease outbreaks that require emergency harvesting. Serious production losses have occurred in shrimp producing countries around the world, principally due to poor rearing environments and pathogenic disease. In response to this,shrimp farmers are changing their culture methods. Long-term environmental sustainability and community acceptance of the shrimp farming industry requires on-going development of effcient cost-effective effluent treatment options. It is important to acknowledge that shrimp aquaculture systems can fulfil all the general sustainability criteriaoutlined in Tab. 1. LAN D USE Local. Do not convert mangrove ecosystems or agriculturalland into shrimp ponds . Reduce the negative indirectimpact on mangroves caused by access roads and water canals .Initiate mangrove restoration programs where aquaculture has caused significant damage tothis ecosystem . Minimise land use by good management . Place pond in areas with low population density to minimise land and water use conflicts . Use feasibility studies priorto development to minimise risk of arising resource use conflicts . Avoid overcrowding of pondsthat exceeds the environmental carrying capacity Global. Locate ponds in consumer countries SEED AND INTROD UCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES AND DISEASE Local. No use of gentically modified organisms (G M O) . Use hatchery produced seed . Close cycle in shrimp hatcheries by domesticating shrimps . Farm only native species Global. No transport of seed and broodstock between countries W A TER USE Local. Reduce water exchange rates and thus waterinput requirement . Site-specific methodlogical considerations: . Develop shrimp farming in fully marine watersto reduce the dependence on fresh watersources . Develop shrimp farming in low salinity watersto minimise the risk of salinisation of adjacent soil and water FEED Local. Use culture system that utilise natural or stimulated production in the ponds orincoming waters . Minimise the food conversion ratio (FCR) through proper management Global. Develop and use formulated feeds not based on fishmeal and fish oil, orreduce content ofthese . Use fish meal based on trimmings of fish processed for human consumption N UTRIENT LOADING Local. Use only certified organic fertilisers . Reduce water exchange rates and thus the amount of effluent discharge . Reduce nutrient concentrations in effluents by investing in settling and biologicaltreatment ponds,including integrated farming with e.g.seaweeds and filterfeeders .Improve feeds and managementto reduce the food conversion ratio (FCR) . Remove saltfrom sludge and use as fertiliser CHE MICAL AND ANTIBIOTIC USE Local. Reduce the need for chemicals and antibiotics by improved pond and water management thatlimitthe risk of exceeding the local carrying capacity ofthe environment Global. Minimise or refrain from chemical use . Refrain from antibiotic use . Use probiotics Table 1: Defining the Local/Regional and Global Criteria forImproved Environmental Sustainabilityin Shrimp 120 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Aquaculture (Rönnbäck 2002). Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture Recently, integrated closed recirculation systems have been developed because of growing concern of water pollution and avoidance of diseaseinfection through waterintake.Inthe system, high organic particles and nutrients in the water from intensive shrimp pond flow to the treatment ponds and then recycle back to the shrimp pond. The integrated culture of plants and herbivores side-by-side with fish and shrimp is a practical technology (Naylor et al. 2000). The system uses algae, fish, mussels, and other aquaculture species to reduce the waste in the effluent. Algae can reduce turbidity and phosphate in the effluent and the algae itselfis a good feed for shrimp as well as fishes. Mussels are also reported to reduce the turbidity but can increase am monia concentration. Fish as discussed is a good way to get rid of algae and other plankton. Several studies have been reported on integrated culture of shrimp with bivalves and macroalgae. For example, oyster removes suspended particulates and phytoplankton, while macroalgae absorbs dissolved nutrients (Wang 1990, Jones et al. 2001, 2002). However, high biofouling and the negative affect of high concentration of particles on growth of oyster were observed (Tanyaros 2001). Thus, sedimentation pond may be an important component in shrimp–bivalve and shrimp–macroalgae integrated culturing to reduce the level of suspended solid before oyster and macroalgae ponds (Jones et al. 2001, 2002). Fish has also been proposed for removing particulate organic matter in shrimp effluent (Tookwinas 2003). For example, grey mullet(Mugil cephalus L.)is effectiven in removing macroalgae from the effluent treatment system. Omnivorous tilapia can be effective for utilizing waste from intensive aquaculture. Closed polyculture systems of Chinese shrimp with constricted tagelus (Sinonovacula constricta Lamarck) and hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus x O. niloticus),in which tilapia was confined in a net cage, showed that the retention of input nitrogen (feed+fertilizers) into tilapia biomass ranged from 2.58 to 2.90% and the retention of phosphorus into tilapia biomass ranged from 6.07 to 11.04% (Tian et al. 2001). Systems that integrate shrimp and red seaweed have been studied, the largest being in Hawaii (Nelson et al. 2001, Gracilaria),and small-scale efforts have been reported by Phang et al.(1996) (Gracilaria)from Malaysia, Kinne et al.(2001) (various algae) from the USA and Chang and Wang (1985), Yin (1987), Wei (1990) and Liu et al.(1997) from China, all ofthem with Gracilaria. Ali et al.(1994) reported on a laboratory-scale integrated culture of shrimp and green seaweed (Ulva)in Japan. Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (ISAS) Desing and Lay Out Lay out Plan The lay-out plan of the ISAS is depicted in Fig. 4 (Ramanujam 2001). As per norms, 10 per cent of the cultivable area should be assigned for the ISAS. For example, for a farm of 5.0 hectare water spread area, 0.77 hectare land area or approximately 0.50 hectare water spread area (actual operational area) will be required for construction of the ISAS. For farms more than 5.0 hectares, the area under ISAS will also proportionately increase (e.g.for a 6.0 ha. farm area, 0.6 hectare under ISAS; for a10 hectare farm area 1.0 hectare under ISAS and so on). The size of the settlement pond, bio-pond and aeration pond has also been suggested taking into consideration the optimum production level of 2.0 tonnes/ hectare/ culture and specific water management practices. Water exchange schedule to be followed for operating the system. The schedule is based on the availability of a reservoir of suitable size for storage and treatment of water for initial filling of the ponds, topping up of waterlevel during the firsttwo months of rearing and limited water exchange during the third and fourth months of rearing (Ramanujam 2001). Settlement Pond/ Sedimentation Pond A settlement/sedimentation pond is basically used to remove suspended solids from the waste water flow. Shrimp farm suspended solid wastes under normal operating conditions (during culture as opposed to harvest) are primarily composed of living plankton cells,feed material and other organic material, which do not easily settle down. Sedimentation tank can trap only 5 to 10 percent of such suspended solids. A retention time of one hour is sufficient to trap the material, which can settle down. Thus settlement pond is less effective in trapping the solid contents of the waste water discharge during the course of culture. However, settlement tanks are effective in trapping suspended solids during the harvest, when solid loads are far higher and particulate matter is denser. Studies have shown that 90% of the solids in the harvest discharge settle in sedimentation ponds. Thus the sedimentation ponds prevent the release of most polluting organic matter that is discharged at the time of harvest(last 5to 10 cm water)tothe environment. 121 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 122 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bio-Ponds or Biological Treatment Ponds Biological treatment aims at using plants and animals to reduce nutrient load and particulate matter in the shrimp farm discharge. Farm discharge after the treatment in settlement and bio-ponds can be readily used for recirculation to ponds for farming operation. Various options available for biological treatment of farm discharge are as follows: - Sea weeds/ water weeds to reduce nutrient(N and P)level, - Molluscs to reduce suspended particulate matter and - Fish to transform the phytoplankton into organic matter Biologicaltreatment can only be used to treat operationalfarm waste wateri.e. during culture period as the waste water during harvest time is biologically unsuitable in its direct form, unless diluted. However, the harvest waste water if allowed to remain in the settlement pond for requisite duration can be treated in the biopond. Various species of weeds and animals availablefor biologicaltreatment(bio-remediation),their usefulness and the constraintsin using them are given in Tab. 2. Figure 4: Layout Plan of Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (5.0 Hectare Shrimp Farm). Group Sea Weeds Species Ulva latuca Enteromorpha Gracilaria Photomedgetone Crassistrea spp. Mollusc Geloria sp. Perna viridis Perna indica Villoria Paphia sp. Anadora granosa Meritrix Usefulness Reduces nutrientload -do-do-doRemoves particulate matter and control of algal growth -do-do-do-do-do-do-do- Constraints Survival and grow ≥ 25 ppt -do26-32 ppt 15-20 ppt Grow 15-25 ppt 15-35 ppt 20-25 ppt 20-35 ppt 2-15 ppt 2-15 ppt > 20 ppt > 20 ppt Mugil cephalus Fish Reduces phytoplankton and 20-35 ppt control of algal biomass Liza spp. -do20-35 ppt Chanos chanos -do2-35 ppt Table 2: Plant and Animal Species Usefulfor Bio-Remediation (Ramanujam 2001). 123 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Aeration Pond Aeration helps to increase the dissolved oxygen levels of water before it is pumped for recirculation. Besides,italso helpsto oxidise any left over ammonia and organic matterinthe waterthat comes out ofthe biopond. An integrated shrimp aquaculture system in shrimp culture is one strategy that minimizes waste from culture systems and the risk of disease and provides an additionalincome source as well. Closed and Semi-Closed Systems Com mon problems in the open water exchange system include phytoplankton crashes, deteriorated pond bottoms and bacterial diseases. A phytoplankton crash causes a significant increase in ammonia in the water, a decrease in dissolved oxygen and a risein organic material. One of the vital activitiesin shrimp culture to maintainthe proper conditions for shrimp is water exchange. Farmers have to drain waterfrom grow-out pond and acquire make-up waterforreplenishment. Forthese reasons,shrimp farms need high amount of saline water throughout the culture period. Impact of discharges from shrimp farms can be reduced by treating the nutrient rich effluent as well as by cleaning the sediments. Systems employing water reuse and recirculation should be adopted to minimize the amount of water exchange for preventing epidemic and to overcome scarcity of makeup water at the low tide. The general scheme of closed is similar to some conventional wastewater treatment facilities, which include sedimentation ponds, biologicaltreatment and aeration. The treated wateris stored in a reservoir pond before being returned to shrimp grow-out ponds. The technology for closed farming systems is still in the experimental phase, and currently the relative contribution to global shrimp aquaculture output is marginal from these systems. In the case of inland shrimp farming in Thailand, the likelihood of no effluents being discharged into the open environment has been questioned (Flaherty et al. 2000). There is no water exchange in the first two months after stocking in these systems, although filling of the pond is necessary towards the end ofthe second month. Depending upon season and rainfall,evaporative loss can cause salinity to rise to an unacceptably high level. To counteract this, freshwater is pumped where available although this has very serious environmental and social impacts if aquifer water is used. Low water exchange systems such as these are complete sinks for nutrients and thus there is no outlet for wastes during production except for discharge at harvest(Tab. 3). Nutrient Total Effluent Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange (kg crop-1) Open system Open system Open system Semi-Closed Closed lined pond clay soil mangrove soil system system 50.5 50.6 95.7 53.9 6.7 8.8 1.6 3.8 7.2 0.8 9.7 3.8 5.7 7.6 0.6 34.4 19.0 25.9 13.1 1.2 1.13 1.49 0.38 0.82 0.12 Total ammonia-nitrogen Nitrite-nitrogen Nitrate-nitrogen Total phosphorus Dissolved reactivephosphorus Chlorophyll a 5630.1 7126.2 7092.6 4261.2 312.3 Chemical oxygen demand 456.4 n.d. 432.8 244.1 21.1 Total suspended solids 4352.4 5053.5 4250.6 3555.6 336.3 Organic suspended solids 2236.7 2719.0 1836.6 1889.1 155.5 Table 3: Nutrient Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange Activities (Funge-Smith 1996). Polyculture of Shrimp with Tilapia Euryhalinous tilapia is characterised by good growth in seawater ponds through acclimation, easy reproduction and availability of fingerlings, resistance to disease, and marketable size reached within one growing season. Stocking performance and production in polyculture of Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) with red Taiwanese tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis mossambicus X O. niloticus) were studied by Wang et al. (1998).In two factorial design (3x4), shrimp juveniles (body length 2.85±0.16 cm) and tilapia hybrids weighing from 79.0 g to 193.8 g reared in net cages were stocked into 24 enclosures at a rate of 4.5, 6.0 and 7.5 shrimp/m2 and 0, 0.16, 0.24 and 0.32 fish/m2, respectively and reared by feeding commercialfeed and by administration of chicken manure and chemical fertiliser. To evaluate cultural pattern on tilapia, the shrimp juveniles and the 124 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo tilapiajuveniles were stocked intotwo enclosures at a rate of 6.0 shrimp/m2 and 0.24 fish/m2 (outsidethe cages), respectively. Overallsurvivalrate of shrimp was 78.6% and did not differ among treatments. Mean final sizes of shrimp decreased with increase in its stocking density. As stocking density of the shrimp increased from 4.5 shrimp/m2 to 6.0 shrimp/m2, mean shrimp yield increased from 325.4±15.3 kg/ha to 522.2±54.9 kg/ha. There was a pronounced influence oftilapia density on growth, survival and yields of shrimp at 6.0 shrimp/m2. At 0.32 tilapia/m2,survivalrate(96.67%), final body length (10.40 cm) and yield (585.5 kg/ha) of shrimp were high. The optimum stocking density of shrimp and tilapia was 60,000 shrimp/ha and some 400 kg tilapia/ha,respectively. Muangkeow et.al.(2007) was studied using outdoortank system with 6 treatment conditions: T1, single shrimp tank system; T2, closed recirculation system without tilapia; T3 to T6, integrated closed recirculation system with the tilapia–shrimp stocking density ratio of 0.01, 0.025, 0.05 and 0.075, respectively. The shrimp were stocked at a density of 40 individual m2 for alltreatments. Shrimp were fed with com mercial pellets, while tilapia was not fed with the feed pellet. The culture period was 8 weeks for shrimp and 7 weeks for tilapia. The shrimp growth rate and netincome ofthe system of T2 was significantly higherthan T5 and T6 (P<0.05) but was no differentfrom T1, T3 and T4. The tilapia growth ratein T3 was significantly higherthan the others (P<0.05). The nitrogen conversion rate into total (shrimp+tilapia) biomass of T2 to T5 was significantly higher than T1 (P<0.05). T6 showed a lower N conversion rate than the lower tilapia–shrimp ratio. The phosphorus conversion rateinto total biomass was significantly higher in T3 to T6 than T1 and T2 (P<0.05). These resultsindicate that tilapia stocking significantly improved P conversion rate but the N conversion and shrimp growth rates decreased with high tilapia stocking. Considering all parameters,theintegrated system with a low tilapia–shrimp ratio (the ratio of 0.01 and 0.025) were effective to improve the nutrient conversion rate to culture animals withoutlowering shrimp growth. Rice-Shrimp Farming in the Seawater Intrusion Zone of the Mekong Delta-Vietnam An estimated 19% (786,329 ha) of the total area in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam is affected by saline water with predominant freshwater in the rainy season and brackish water in the dry season. As saline water intrusion in the dry season is a major constraint to rice farming, many farmers develop alternating rice-shrimp farming system producing shrimp in the dry season and rice in the wet season in the same plot.In this farming practice saline wateris used to flood the rice fields in the dry season to raise shrimp (Penaeus monodon). At the beginning of the wet season, farmers flush salinity out of their fields using rain and fresh river water to plant rice. The integrated farming systems increase farmers’ income and improve the living standards of the local community (Vuong & Lin 2001). Marine Microalgal Culture in Discharge Water from Shrimp Culture Pond Marine microalgal species such as Skeletonema costatum and Chaetoceros coarctatus were cultured in Discharge Water (D W) from shrimp culture pond to recover the organic and inorganic nutrients released as waste (Vankatesan et al. 2006). Total nitrogen (N), nitrate-N and total phosphorus in the D W were observed significantly higher and theirmean values were 95.261, 32.6 and 11.312 mg L-1,respectively. Algalspecies were cultured in processed D W under 12 h light/12 h dark condition withlightintensity 6000-7000 Lux and compared with cultures made in standard Conway medium which served as a control. Cell density was obtained higher overthe control by 30.1 and 20.0 % in S. costatum and C. coarctatusrespectively. The study inferred that,asitis a low cost technology for microalgal production as well as mean for waste water treatment, marine microalgal culture in D W from shrimp farm will be integrated a approach towards sustainable utilization of aquatic resource. Constructed Wetlands As Recirculation Filters in Large-Scale Shrimp Aquaculture Effluent waters from shrimp aquaculture, which can contain elevated levels of phosphorus, ammonia, nitrate, and organics, must be managed properly if shrimp aquaculture is to achieve sustainability. Constructed wetlands are ecologically beneficial, low cost treatment alternatives proven capable of reducing suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals from wastewater of many sources. Tilley et al.(2002) studied to determine how well a constructed wetland performed as a filterin a fullscale shrimp aquaculture operation. A 7.7 ha (19 ac) mesohaline (3–8 ppt) constructed wetland treating 13,600 m3 per day of effluent from 8.1 ha of intensively farmed shrimp ponds at the Loma Alta Shrimp Aquaculture Facility (LASAF) (Fig. 5),located along the coast ofthe Gulf of Mexico in semi-arid South Texas, was found to 125 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo reduce concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS) and inorganic suspended solids (ISS) by 31, 65 and 76%, respectively, during recirculation, and maintained consistently low levels of mean BO D (<9 mg l−1), total ammonia (<1.8 mg N l−1) and nitrate (<0.42 mg N l−1). Constructed wetlands can perform satisfactorily as recirculation filtersinlarge-scale shrimp aquaculture operations,reducing the impact of effluent on local water bodies, conserving large quantities of water and providing valuable ecological habitat. Figure 5: Layout ofthe LASAF atthe H.P. El Sauz Ranch in South Texas, USA. (Tilley et al. 2002) Conclusion The rapid development of shrimp aquaculture in the coastal areas of the country has raised some environmental concerns, especially with regard to the impact of shrimp waste water on the ecology of the open waters systems. The Mediterranean coast supports many human activities, such as tourism, maritime traffic, industry,fisheries,aquaculture or conservation, all ofthem competing for coastal zone resources.Inthis context, the aquaculture industry has grown rapidly during recent years. The negative impact of shrimp aquaculture derives mainly from particulate and dissolved nutrients. The Mediterranean is an oligotrophic sea, with low nutrientlevels;itis an especially sensitive area due to itslow energy and has a limiting nutrientlevelthatisthe reason why a minimum increment of nutrients gives rise to important increases in the primary production. 126 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Different methods have been tried to minimize the effects of nutrient loading. The integration of effluent treatment system as a part ofthe shrimp farm willtherefore assistthe farmerstoimprove waste water quality and provide long-term strategies for sustainable shrimp farming inthe country. References AIT. (1994). The Promotion of Sustainable Aquaculture. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. 98pp. Ali, F., Yamasaki, S., & Hirata, H. (1994). Polyculture of Penaeus japonicus larvae and Ulva sp. fragments. Suisanzoshoku, 42 (3), 453–458. Alonso-Rodriguez, R., & Paez-Osuna, F. (2003). 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Kinne, P.N., Samocha, T.M., Jones, E.R., & Browdy, C.L. (2001). Characterization of intensive shrimp pond effluent and preliminary studies on biofiltration. North Am. J. Aquac., 63, 25–33. Liu, S., Jie, Z., & Zeng, S. (1997). The commercial cultivation of Gracilaria and its polyculture with prawn in China. J. Zhanjiang Ocean Univ./Zhanjiang Haiyang Daxue Xuebao, 17 (2), 27– 30. Muangkeow, B., Ikejima, K., Powtongsook, S., & Yi, Y. (2007). Effects of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone), and Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L., stocking density on growth, nutrient conversion rate and economic return in integrated closed recirculation system. Aquaculture, 269(1-4), 363-376. Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H., & Troell, M. (2000). Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature, 405, 1017– 1024. Nelson, S.G., Glenn, E.P., Conn, J., Moore, D., Walsh, T., & Akutagawa, M. (2001). 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Use of the Oyster Crassostrea belcheri (Sowerby) as a Biofilter in Intensive Shrimp Pond Water. Dissertation. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. Tian, X., Li, D., Dong, S., Yan, X., Qi, Z., Liu, G., & Lu, J. (2001). An experimental study on closed-polyculture of penaeid shrimp with tilapia and constricted tagelus. Aquaculture, 202, 57–71. Tilley, D.R., Badrinarayanan, H., Rosati, R., & Son, J. (2002). Sustainable shrimp aquaculture can be achieved by integrating constructed wetlands into facility operations as water filtration systems. Aquacultural Engineering, 26, 81–109. Tookwinas, S. (2003). Country Papers: Thailand (2). In: Cruz, D.A. (Ed.), Aquaculture Management. APO Seminar on Aquaculture Management held in the Republic of China, 3–8 December 2001. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, and Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, Keelung, pp. 239–254. Venkatesan, R., Kumaraguru Vasagam, K.P., & Balasubramanian, T. (2006). Culture of Marine Microalgae in Shrimp Farm Discharge Water: A Sustainable Approach to Reduce the Cost Production and Recovery Nutrients. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 1(3), 262-269. Vuong, D.Q.T., & Lin, C.K. (2001). Rice-Shrimp Farming in the Seawater Intrusion Zone of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. ITCZM Monograph No.6, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, 16pp. Wang, J.K. (1990). Managing shrimp pond water to reduce discharge problems. Aquaculture Engineering, 9, 61–73. Wang, J.Q., Li, D., Dong, S., Wang, K., & Tian, X. (1998). Experimental studies on polycultre in closed shrimp ponds I. Intensive polyculture of Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) with tilapia hybrids. Aquaculture, 163, 11-27. Wei, S.Q. (1990). Study of mixed culture of Gracilaria tenuistipitata, Penaeus penicillatus, and Scylla serrata. Acta Oceanol. Sin., 12, 388– 394. Yin, Z.Q. (1987). Mixed culture of the prawn Penaeus monodon and Gracilaria tenuistipitata. Chin. Aquac., 6, 17. 128 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 491 Title A name given to the resource Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Ozden, Osman Abstract A summary of the resource. Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water, land, fishmeal, and by other factors, such as environmental pollution. The problems caused by aquaculture wastes to the receiving water have drawn great attention worldwide in recent years. Intensive shrimp farming has been developed steadily over the last decade in response to increasing world market demand. The production system evolved from extensive toward intensive with increasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Thus, waste loads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. In traditional intensive shrimp culture, the deteriorated pond water is frequently exchanged with new external water supply to maintain desirable water quality for shrimp growth. The nutrient laden effluent discharged from shrimp farms can cause eutrophication of coastal waters and its impact has been a major environmental concern. Many technology and method has been developed to protect the water resources and environment from being polluted and wasted. In these systems shrimp is cultured next to other organisms, which are converting otherwise discharged nutrients into valuable products. Long-term growth of the shrimp aquaculture industry requires both ecologically sound practices and sustainable resource management. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1443e25b825452ce4455fd9d898d592f.pdf 33006d4010df00fdaf386e282e4d6036 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fish Health in Sustainable Development of Agriculture Erol Tokşen Ege University, Fisheries Faculty Department of Fish Diseases Đzmir, Turkey erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Haşmet Çağıgan Ege University, Fisheries Faculty Department of Fish Diseases Bornova 5100 Đzmir, Turkey hasmet.cagirgan@ege.edu.tr Uğur Değirmenci Ege University, Fisheries Faculty Department of Fish Diseases Đzmir, Turkey ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr Egemen Nemli Ege University, Fisheries Faculty Department of Fish Diseases Đzmir, Turkey egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr Meh met Ali Canyurt Ege University, Fisheries Faculty Department of Fish Diseases Đzmir, Turkey m.ali.canyurt@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Aquaculture is a fast-growing food production sector. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. With an intensification of operations, the risk of disease occurence and spread of infectious increases. In aquaculture prevention is a key issue more than in other animal productions in health management. The risk of the diseases increases with the intensification of the production and can be controlled mainly trough the implementation of sanitary or medical prophylactic programs. Sanitation relates to hygienic rules, cleaning and disenfection procedures, water treatment, but also good feeding and rearing practies. Good husbandry and vaccination programs should be applied. Diseases maps and certificaitons programs and regulations must be established. The aim of this paper is to present general overview of important applications for sanitation in sustainable aquaculture. Keywords: Fish, aquaculture, prevention, sanitation, disinfection 1. Introduction The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable developmentsin the aquaculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial,fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in the aquacultureindustry and the associated mortality and morbidity have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss oftrade due to food safety issues. Thus,disease is undoubtedly one ofthe major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability ofthe aquaculture industry. 104 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Infectious diseases have always been limiting factors for aquaculture. High population density, adverse environmental conditions and poorly designed culture systems frequently cause to stress consequenlty reduce to immunity of fish to pathogens. Bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi can cause outbreaks and high level mortality. All viral, many parasites and some of the bacterial diseases can not be treated with the chemicals successfully. Itis reality that the treatment of a diseases is expensive and more difficultthan prevention (Ahne and Winton, 1986). The ways of prevention and contingently of medicaltreatment of fish are very specific and often different from those in warm-blooded animals. They require a thorough knowledge of the environment of fish. Preventive arrangements are consisting of complicated set of treatments elaborated on the base of a good knowledge of the aetiology of disease and a host (fish) biology. It concerns the elimination or restriction of infection (invasion) sources and the possibilities of its further expansion likewise the enhancement of condition of fish organism in the way to be able to withstand the infection (invasion). The prevention is of basic importance in diseases elimination. No specifictherapeutics were developed for a number of diseases up to now and the result ofthe application of effective, experimentally verified medicaments,is often reversely affected by the operational conditions and/or the technology of rearing. The medical treatment becames economically unrenumerative in this way. In addition, some treatments cannot be performed in certain periods, e.g.in growing season, during the wintering, orin some fish culture units(e.g.large ponds). Thatis why itis much more importantto prevent from the diseases than to recover them. The effective preventive treatments are to be applied above allin specialized fish culture units with closed warm water system, in early fish fry rearing, hatcheries, trout farms, wintering ponds, net cages rearing and storage reservoirs. 2. Preventive Measures in Fish Health 2.1. Providing Water Sources Free of Pathogens Underground waters are the most suitable water sources free of pathogens. These sources are limited both for trout farms and hatcheries and for other special fish culture units at present. All surface water may contain species of wild fish which can act as reservoirs ofinfectious diseases (Roberts, 1989). The surface water from rivers and channels is used as the source of inflow waterin most cases.In these situations, suitable filters can partially reduce the numbers of invasion stages of parasites in inflow water, above all when supplying smaller reservoirs with intensive culture. Bars are usually placed before these filtersto separate rough particles. Sand filters are consisted of a set of sedimentation divisions terminated by filter with fibre and sand. These type of filters catch above allthe heavier parasite stages unable to move actively (e.g. spores). Lower efficiency is registered in elimination of moving parasites like e.g. infusorians (Tesarčík & Svobodová, 1991). The water from the pond with fish stock is quite unsuitable for these purposes (esp. as the source ofinflow water for trout farms, hatcheries and unitsfor early fish fry stages). Chemical treatment of inflow water is an emergency arrangement with often undesirable parallel affects. Disinfection ofthe water entering fish culture unitsby UV radiation is an usual way can be considered as the simple method how to destroy viruses, bacteria and moulds germs. Since the inflow water from rivers and channelsis slightly turbid and contents a number of suspended solids and dissolved compounds,the disinfective efficiency of UV radiation is markedly reduced in these situations (Liltved et al., 1995; Maisse et al., 1981; Kimura et al., 1976). Itis very profitable to supply the individual ponds and/or reservoirs independently, not throughflowly. The water from each pond or reservoir should be drained separately and should not flow into any other. Especially quarantine ponds and other reservoirs can be separated by this way. 2.2. Protection From the Transfer of Pathogens This principle means above allthe transfer of pathogens by uncontrolled transport of fish and spawns. The transport of fish with unknown health condition isto be avoided in principle. Alltransported fish are to be accompanied by veterinary certificate confirming that fish were examined before transporting them, they are healthy and originate from the environment in which no important transfer diseases appear. Some viral and bacterial diseases can be transfered also by spawns. Their transport must be completed by the same veterinary certificatelike fish transportfrom this reason (FAO, 1988). Eggs can act as an important vehicle fortransmission of diseases from parentto offspring and between hatcheries because opportunistic pathogens may be present in epiflore of fish eggs. The surface disinfection of eggs reduces the probabilityof development of pathogens (Planas & Cunha, 1999). Disinfection of eyed rainbow 105 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo trout eggs is important to reduce egg and fry mortalities by the reason of Flavobacterium psychrophilum (Rangdale et al., 1979). Egg can be disinfected by polyvinyl pyrolidone iodine or hydrogen peroxide. Both can be used 100 ppm for 10 minutes bath. However shouldbe neutralised with sodium thiosulphate if iodine used (Bruno, 1995). Fish introduced from otherterritories must be subjected to quarantine for one yearregardlessif native or extraneous species. The duration of quarantine can be prolongated e.g.in the case of fish imported from abroad until the period of 3 years. Prolongated period of quarantine is of special importance especially in spawners predestined for further reproduction ofimported species (Rosenthal, 1988). The selfsustaining in stock production in individualfarms and similar organizations is a significant way of prevention from dissemination of fish diseases. Only fish previously examined,free of diseases and relevantly treated by medicinal baths are to be stocked into ponds and fish culture units. The stocking of fry originating from semi-artificial and artificial spawning not contacted with fish of higher age categories also minimizes the danger ofinfection. The prevention from introduction of coarse fish into ponds and fish culture unitsisthe other important arrangement protecting the stock against transfer of pathogens. These fish are above all the source of ectoparasites, dangerous especially in the period of decreased resistence of fish. Except ofthisthey can transfer also some other pathogens which can resultin heavy losses in important fish species. Adequate bars and filters can serve for prevention from coarse fish penetration. The protection of piscivorous birds to step into fish culture units (esp. trout farms) is the prevention limiting the expansion of some fish diseases as IPN (Wolf, 1988). Protective nets are used to prevent the birds from running in. The numbers of piscivorous birds are regulated in localities where overpopulated. Preventive control of snails (Lymnaea sp.) as intermediate hosts of some fish parasites can be performed by biological (introduction of black carp, Myelopharyngodon piceus or 3-years-old tench, Tinca tinca), mechanical (placing nets in the inflow), physical (drying and freezing of the bottom) and chemical (application of molluscocides) ways. Safe and harmless removing of dead fish is a significant way how to prevent from further transfer of fish pathogens. Fresh or slightly decayed dead fish are decontaminated in the nearest veterinary facility. Lower masses of dead fish are to be burnt or burried into deep pits (aprox. 2 m) in distance of at least 20 m from the pond bank. The bottom of this pit and dead fish must be covered by burnt or chlorinated lime. The layer of at least 60 – 80 cm ofthe soil must coverthe content of a pit(Tesarčík & Svobodová, 1991). 2.3. Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals Increased trade of live aquatic animals and the introduction of new species for farming, without proper quarantine and risk analysis in place, result in the further spread of diseases. A scientific process should be undertaken to assist decision making regarding the risks versus the benefits for the species intended to be imported. Such an importrisk analysisincludes hazard identification,risk assessment,risk management and risk communication (Rosenthal, 1988, Bondad-Reantaso et al.,2005). 2.4. Disinfection of Ponds, Fish Culture Units And Equipment Disinfection is of a big importance in prevention and elimination of fish diseases. Preventive disinfection protectsthe fish stocks against pathogens. Hygiene of environmental conditions forfish isimproved by this way. Focal disinfection is performed for control ofthe focus of dangerous fish disease. Natural physical phenomena are fully used for disinfection in intensive fish culture due to their ecomical convenience. It concerns the drying and freezing ofthe pond bottom. The most of pathogens die after perfect drying of the pond bottom when its relative moisture had dropped on 10–15 %. The perfect freezing of the wet places and sun radiation (above all by its UV rays) have a very favourable effectin ponds. The influence of these natural physical phenomena is exploited by summer drying and winter freezing of water reservoirs (Tesarčík & Svobodová, 1991). Chemical disinfection is an effective way of prevention from fish diseases. Usually accessible disinfective preparations are used in fish culture (e.g. burnt lime, chlorinated lime, nitrogen lime, natrium hydroxide, potassium permanganate,formaldehyde, chloramine, chlorseptol etc.). Burntlime is mostly employed for disinfection of the bottom of ponds and reservoirsin the dose of 2.5–3 t.ha-1, or chlorinated lime in the dose of 0.5 – 0.6 t.ha-1.In case of myxosporoses, nitrogen lime (5 t.ha-1, or 0.5 kg.m-2) isto be applied. Immediately after fishing out the pond, the disinfection of fishing pit, pond ditches and muddy wet places is performed on large ponds where the whole-surface bottom disinfection is not possible. 5% water solution of formaldehyde, chlorinated lime (200 – 400 mg.1-1), 0.5 % water solution of natrium hydroxide, Chloramine and chlorseptol (30 g.1-1) or other disinfectants can be used for treatment of concrete channels, troughs and other arrangements employed for fish culture. The same disinfectants and concentrations are to be used for the treatment of the 106 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo equipment. Potassium permanganate (5 g.l-1) and other disinfectants can be also employed for these purposes (Bruno, 1995, De Kinkelin etal., 1985, Le Breton, 2003b). 2.5. Optimalization of Environmental Conditions The optimalization of natural environmental conditions is the main pre-condition how to ensure the good health condition of stock during the rearing period. The following principles must be ensured. Optimal water quality without stressing physico-chemical effects. Keeping the oxygen concentration on optimallevel and protection against water pollution are of specialimportance,(Tesarčík and Svobodová, 1991). 2.6. Good Husbandry Practices Choosing the optimal fish density is important. Depending on the fish species and water quality conditions (especially the oxygen saturation of the water, there is a certain fish density that should not be exceeded. A com mon mistake is to increase the stocking density to compensate for a decrease in survival rate. Thisis a source of stressforthe fishthat can lead to skin injuries,low performance and a higher susceptibilityto disease.In contrast,stocking fish optimally willallow fishto grow to their best potentialand decreasethe risk of disease outbreaks (Tan et al.,2006). 2.7. Good Feed Management Fish should be fed with a balanced diet as nutritional deficiency can have an adverse impact on immunity and disease resistance. Dry pelleted feed adapted to each farmed speciesis preferred overtrash fish as it gives a consistent supply of nutrientsfree from pathogens. Some internationalfeed companies have invested a considerable amount of resources in the development and supply of nutritionally-balanced pelleted feed for marine and freshwater fish. A wider usage of pelleted diet should contribute to an increase of the overall health status ofthe fish,thereby reducing nutrition deficiencies and the risk of disease. At the farm, dry feed should be appropriately stored in a cool and ventilated environment to avoid moulding that could lead to mycotoxicity problems (Tan et al., 2006). Live food as Artemia, Rotifer and algae are used to feed marine fish larvae. Improvementin live food culture trough the introduction of new techniques or products has also represented a major step. Bacteriostatic coumponds in Artemia culture enrichments represent a major help in controlling the level of hygiene and the development of bacterial flora in both live food culture and larval tanks. Bacterisid treatment such as formaldehyde can also be applied and eventually combined with probioticsto re-equilibratethe flora(Gatesoupe, 2002a). Trash fish bivalve mollusc, octopus, krill are used for feeding marine fish broodstock and some times for trout.It has been reported that IPN virus isolated from rotifer (Comps et al., 1990) and some bacteria have isolated from artemia. Ichthyophoniasis have reported by eating contaminated trash fish in rainbow trout (Holiman, 1993), cod, herring and sea bass (Bodatilla & Pellittero, 1990). 2.8. Regular Control of Health Condition And Preventive Treatment of Fish Preventive control of health condition isto be carried outin hatcheries and early fry rearing unitstwice a week, and in highly productive intensificated ponds, trout farms and fish culture units with recycling water weekly. Other stocks (esp.in usual pond culture) areinvestigated monthly. Health condition of fish is always to be controlled before fishing out, transporting fish and stocking. Preventive treatment can be suggested on the base of investigational results. This treatment is performed above all by the application of medicaments into the water environment and feeding by medicated feeds. During the past years, the use of immunostimulants in marine species production has increased (Sakai, 1999, Efthimiou, 1996) especially on larval and juvenil stages (Valdstein, 1997). Theirindications in non-specific prevention are multiple: before handlng or stressful situation, to reduce the risk of mortality after transfer, for broodstock during the maturation period and to prepare fish for vaccination and increas theirimmun respponse. 2.9. Selection of Hatchery-Raised Fingerlings The overall health status of fry and fingerlings is a critical factor for a successful production cycle. W hen choosing a species to be farmed, preference should be given to species that are already available from hatcheries. The attention given to fish in the hatchery, and the availability of specific larval diets required to obtain strong juveniles, will allow for a constant supply of good quality fingerlings (Tan et al., 2006). 107 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.10. To Minimize Stress Stress can be defined as any stimulus (physical, chemical or environmental) which tends to disrupt homeostasisin an animal. Under stressful conditions,fish must expend more energy to maintain homeostasis and less energy to combat disease (Edmondson, 1991). Aquatic organisms are fundamentally different from terrestrial animals:they are im mersed in their environment and can not go somewhere else. Some disease agents are almost always present in the water (Muroga et al., 1986). These opportunistic pathogens will invade fish when they become stressed. Some good practicesto reduce stressinclude: a) Starvation before handling of fish: handling is a source of stress as it puts fish under extreme conditions (overcrowding, manipulation outside the water, etc.). Starving the fish for 24-48 hours prior to handling will reduce stress and will avoid the deterioration of water quality when fish are overcrowded. b) Sedation during handling and transportation:in situations such as handling or transportation,fish are overcrowded. Therefore, there is a higher risk of skin injuries. To avoid such damage, sedation using approved fish anaesthetics/sedativesisrecommended asit decreasesthelevel of stress and possible skin injuries. c) Grading of fish to give a homogeneous population: when size variation increases in a cage,it often creates competition between the larger and the smaller fish. This can resultin stress, especially for the smaller fish. In addition, when feeding, the bigger fish are stronger and get more feed. As a consequence, the smaller fish get weaker and more susceptible to disease. As they get sick,they will also become a source of infection for bigger fish as size variation is also a source of cannibalism (leading to horizontal disease transmission). d) To maintain good water quality: water quality should be monitored on a regular basis and be maintained at optimal conditions. e) To avoid over-feeding: over-feeding can induce stress and unconsumed feed will pollute the water (Tesarčík & Svobodová, 1991). 2.11. Record Keeping And Disease Monitoring Record keeping is crucial in understanding the epidemiology of diseases and can also allow us to identify critical management points in the production cycle. The collection of this historical data will help us take early action in the case of disease outbreaks. Often, in small scale operations, recording of farming parameters such as daily mortality,feed consumption, growth rate and water quality parameters is not standard (Tan et al., 2006). 2.12. Proper Disease Diagnosis – a Prerequisite for Effective Health Management As aquatic animal health management is about implementation of control measures to prevent the incidence of diseases,itis a prerequisiteto have a good understanding of diseasesthat might occurin a particular fish species. Therefore, adequate attention should be given to disease diagnosis and epidemiology studies. As an example,a diseaseinvestigation and epidemiology study overthelast past 5 yearsin Asian seabass have allowed us to identify the most critical pathogens in this species (Grisez et al., 2005; Komar et al., 2005; Labrie et al., 2005a). 2.13. Vaccination, a Powerful Tool That Complements Other Health Management Practices In Europe as in others countries such as North America, The legislative framework is being developed for the marketing of veterinary products, limiting the number of licensed products available for treatment in aquaculture. The increasing request of the consumers for quality products, the implementation of quality schemes and enviromentalissues are pressuring the procudersto reduce the use of antibioticin their production. For these main reasons, fish vaccinlogy is becoming a major issue and an alternative in Aquaculture Health Management (Le Breton, 2003a). There are many problems associated with the use of antibiotics. In addition to developing antibiotic resistance, sick fish often do not eat and the efficiency of delivering antibiotics orally is often questionable (MacMillan, 2001; Smith et al.,1994). Two key technical com ments should be made regarding antibiotics: 1) by nature they are active mainly against bacterial pathogens and have no direct effect against viral and other pathogens and 2) antibiotics work only as long as they are presentin the appropriate concentration in the target organ. Whereas the use of antibioticsis a curative measure totreat an existing infection,in contrast, vaccination is a preventative measure, dependent on the immune system of the animal. 108 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Vaccines can act against bacterial, viral and, at least experimentally, parasitic infections and they will usually act only against the targeted pathogens. The duration of protection obtained with vaccines normally largely exceeds that of antibiotics. Vaccines are various preparations of antigens derived from specific pathogenic organisms that are rendered non-pathogenic. They stimulate the immune system and increase the resistance to disease from subsequent infection by the specific pathogen(s). Vaccination can be compared with an insurance policy - itis worth paying a basicfee for a policy that would later coverthe costs of a more expensive diseasethat may occur. Similarly, vaccination is a preventive measure that protects fish against a future disease and the associated costs due to morbidity, mortality and therapeutic treatment (Ellis, 1988). However, just as an insurance policy will cover the costs of an accident only if this fits the clauses of the insurance contract, a vaccine (generally) only protects against specific diseases. For example, a vaccine against S. iniae infection will protect the vaccinated fish against this specific species of Streptococcus but not against another streptococcal species such as S. Agalactiae (Tan et al., 2006). Specific, very effective way of prevention from diseases is the vaccination of fish. Vaccines against following relevant viral and bacterial diseases are recently tested with different success: CCV, IPN, SVC, VHS, IHN, furunculosis, ER M, and vibriosis (Le Breton, 2003). Individual vaccines are applied intraperitoneally, perorally orinthe form of bath. Peroral application or bath are most suitable ways from the point of view of fish culture practice. Also vaccines againstsome otherfish diseasesincluding parasitoses are currently developed (Li and Woo, 1995). However,it must be remembered that vaccination is only one of the tools for good health management and it is not sufficient on its own to guarantee high survival and profitability. All the measures mentioned previously are needed to sustain a successful aquaculture industry. 2.14. Applications of Therapeutic Substances Fish are subjected to therapy in those cases when a disease is so developed thatthe life or performance of the fishisimmediately endangered or expected to be endangered inthe subsequent period. Therapeutictreatment should be regarded as emergency measure resorted to when prevention has failed. The therapeutic treatments may be as follows: a. application of therapeutic substances and preparations to the aquatic environment (therapeutic baths for fish and eggs) b. administration oftherapeutic substances in feed c. administration oftherapeutic substances via a probe d. administration oftherapeutic substances by means ofinjections Therapeutic substances are put into water to control ectoparasitic, fungal and bacterial diseases of the body surface and the gills.In some cases the therapeutic baths can also be used (after absorption of the active substances via the skin) for controlling the causative agents of internal diseases. According to the lenght of exposure,the therapeutic baths are subdivided as follows: 1. immersion baths (up to 5 minutes) 2. short-term baths (5 minutes to 2 hours) 3. long-term baths (2 hours to several days) The long-term baths also include the treatment, with therapeutic substances, of whole fish culture reservoirs and ponds (Herman,1972). To perform the therapeutic baths effectively and to avoid losses ofthe fish, a number of general principles must be respected,including: a) The state of health of the fish stock must be continuously monitored so that the most effective therapeutic bath can be promptly chosen and applied:fishin an advanced phase of a disease are exhausted and weak and can be easily killed by exposure tothe drug in the bath. b) The results of examination of the fish serve as a basis for determining the type of therapeutic bath. Most ofthe therapeutic preparations are toxicto the fish at higher concentrations, so the instructions have to be strictly adhered to. The substances and preparations used for the baths must be fresh, packed in original containers. The dose to be used in the bath must be accurately calculated to avoid poisoning the fish by overdosage, orto avoid a poor effectifthe dose istoo low. c) Fresh and uncontaminated water must be used to prepare the solution for the bath. The physicochemical characteristics (temperature, pH, concentration of organic substances, acid capacity etc.) of the water influence the effectiveness of the therapeutic substances and preparations and also theirtoxicity to the fish. d) A tolerance test must have been conducted before any bath. The tolerance testis a bioassay on several fish to see the safety or harmfulness of the therapeutic bath for the fish stock to be treated under the existing conditions. 109 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo e) The therapeutic baths themselves are carried out in all-glass tanks, fibre-glass tubs, vats, fibre-glass plastictroughs,in concrete or earth storage basins or straightinthe ponds.Itis also possible to subjectthe fishto short-term therapeutic bathsinthetransport boxes during shipmentifthe shipment time isthe same as, or shorterthan,the recommended exposure time. The fish should have been given no feed before an immersion bath or a short-term bath to avoid increased need for oxygen (for example, one to three feedings are skipped on the trout farms). Fish exposed to long-term baths, with several days' exposure times, have to be fed with supplementary feeds. Emergency scenarios must be prepared forthe prevention of possible accidents: water aeration facilities must be ready for use, or precautions should be made for promptly removing the fish from the bath and putting them in fresh (preferably flowing) water, or an emergency inlet of clean and safe water must be available for fast dilution of the bath solution. The tanks or reservoirs with the therapeutic solutions should never be overstocked. f) When the treatment is finished the fish should be removed from the bath and put into clean (preferably flowing) water. If the treatment was performed in a whole pond, the inlet source must be strong enough to allow for rapid dilution of the bath solution. All regulations and standards regarding surface water quality conservation must be respected in discharging the used therapeutic solution outside the fish culture facility. In the majority of cases the used solutions are disposed of outside the aquatic environment: for example, they are leftto seep into the ground in places free of the danger of penetration into surface or underground waters. g) The effectiveness of the therapeutic baths must be checked by macro- and microscopic examination of 5 fish atthe minimum from each pond ortank afterthe rinsing ofthetreated fishin clean water. This must be done immediately afterthe bath, within one day ofthe termination ofthe bath atthe latest. h) It is a general principle that market fish should not be treated by therapeutic baths 14 days before shipment tothe market. i) Alllabour safety precautions must be taken during thetreatment offish by therapeutic baths(Tesarčík and Svobodová, 1991). 2.15. Using Chemicals/Antibiotics: W hile under certain circumstances antibiotics can help to control some bacterial diseases, there are many problems associated with their use. Also, as sick fish do not eat,the efficiency of delivering antibiotics orally is often questionable. Most countries have strict regulations on the use of antibiotics and chemicals. For example, malachite green, chloramphenicol and furazolidone are actually banned from use in most due to their teratogenic effects and severe measures are taken against exporters of fish and shellfish that contain residues (Alderman, 2003). Regulations on acceptable withdrawal periods must be adhered to. Between species, differences existin drug disposition and metaboliteformation. Moreover,temperature and composition ofthe water (fresh/salt water, pH value, hardness, organic material content, etc.) may affectthe absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs. Per species,relevant pharmacokinetic data are often lacking. Therefore, extrapolation of data from one species to anotheris difficult(Intervet,2003). Changes inthe taste of water caused by the addition of antibiotics can influence the intake of medicated feed negatively. Also, chemotherapeutics can negatively influence the immune system of fish (Grondel et al., 1987). Added to the water in recirculation systems (e.g.,for eel, catfish and turbot), antibiotics may disturb the biological clearing systems and (bio)filters. Especially in aquaria, there is a risk of serious disturbance when antibiotics/biocides are not used properly. Added to the water, antibiotics can rapidly lead to induction of resistant bacterial strains. The following attention should be paid regarding the use of chemicals/antibiotics: Tips fortreatment of fish: • Antibiotics should be used only as alastresort. • Definite disease diagnosis, including antibiotic sensitivity, should be made before administering antibiotics. • Observe the regulations on banned chemotherapeutants. Maximum residue limits and withdrawal periods should be considered before harvesting the fish. • The tolerance of the species should be known. For safety reasons, always first try the chemical/antibiotic at a given dose and treatment time with a small number of fish. Fish of different species and sizes under different water conditions (salinity, alkalinity and temperature) may well react differently.In general,lower watertemperature requires alonger treatment duration and vice versa. • Follow the correct dose and treatment time. Pay close attention to concentration of the active ingredient and adjustthe dose accordingly ifthe chemicalisnot pure (< 100% active). •If using an immersion approach, add the chemical/antibioticto a small portion of the waterin a small container and make sure it is dissolved completely before use. Then pour this ‘concentrate’ into a tank/containerto reach the desired final concentration and mix well before placing the fish into it. 110 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Withhold feed for 8-24 hours depending on the fish size. • Treat during the coolest partof the day. • Monitor water oxygen levels before, during and aftertreatment;if necessary, aerate as required. • Keep a close watch on the fish during treatment and be prepared to stop treatment im mediately if adverse reactions (e.g., gasping for air,strange swimming behaviour,etc.) are noted. •In some cases, such as the occurrence of a serious disease problem, eradication should be considered. Eradication includes removal of all susceptible species followed by thorough cleaning and disinfection of the cages/nets or ponds (Herwig, 1979). 3. Conclusion In conclusion, some ofthe practices recommended forthe fish farming industry for disease control are: - Protectfrom the transfer of pathogens - Controllive aquatic animals movements - Select hatchery-raised fingerlings - Quarantine incoming animals - Use pathogen free formulated pelleted feed - Disinfectthe ponds,fish culture units and equipment - Monitor water quality - Optimize environmental conditions - Good husbandry practices - Grade fish periodically - Controlthe health condition regularly - Minimize stress - Record disease monitoring - Remove dead fish atleast once a day - Diagnose the diseases - Vaccinate the fish - Applicatetherapeutic substances properly) References: Ahne, W. & Winton, J. (1988). Advanced methods for prevention of ifectious diseases in Aquaculture. The 3rd International Conference on Aquafarming ‘Aquacultura 86’, 1986. Efficiency in Aquaculture Production.: Diseases Control Verona, Italy. Alderman, D. (2003). 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Gatesope, F.J. (2002a). Probiotic and formaldehyde treatments of Artemia nauplii as food for larval pollack, Pollachius pollachius, Aquaculture, 212, 347-360. Grisez, L., Ng, J., Bolland, A., Michel, A., Wahjudi, B. & Segers, R. (2005). Demonstration and confirmation of etiology of a new facultative intracellular bacterium causing mass mortality in Asian Sea bass Lates calcarifer. World Aquaculture Society, 2005, Bali, Indonesia. Grondel, J.L., Nouws, J.F.M. & van Muiswinkel, W.B. (1987). The influence of antibiotics on the immune system: immunopharmakokinetic investigations on the primary anti-SRBC response in carp Cyprinus carpio L., after oxytetracycline injection. Journal of Fish Diseases, 10, 35–43. Herman, R.L. (1972). The principles of therapy in fish diseases. In: The Chemotherapy of Monogenean Which Pasitize Fish: A Review, Schmahl, G. (ed), Folia Parasitologica, 38, 97-106. Herwig, N. (1979). Handbook of drugs and chemicals used in the treatment of fish diseases, Charles C. 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In: World Symposium On Aquaculture in Heated Effluents and Recirculation System,1, 467-473. 112 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Muroga, K., Iida, M., Matsumoto, H. & Nakai, T. (1986). Detecton of Vibrio anguillarum from waters. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 52, 641-647. Planas, M. & Cunha, I. (1999). Larviculture of marine fish: Problems and perspectives. Aquaculture, 177, 171-190. Rangdale, R.E., Richards, R.H. & Alderman, D.J. (1997) Colonisation of eyed rainbow trout ova with Flavobacterium psycrophilum leads to rainbow trout fry syndrome in fry. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 17(3/4), 108-111. Roberts, R.J. (1989). Fish pathology. Ballière Tindall, London. Rosenthal, H. (1988). Principle and practice in quarantine operations. The 3rd International Conference on Aquafarming ‘Aquacultura 86’, 1986, Efficiency in Aquaculture Production: Disease Control.,Verona, Italy. Sakai, M. (1999). Current research status of fish immunostimulants. Aquaculture, 172, 63-92. Smith, P., Hiney, M.P. & Samuelsen, O.B. (1994). Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents used in fish farming: a critical evaluation of method and meaning. Annual Review of Fish Diseases, 4, 273-313. Tan, Z., Komar, C. & Enright, W.J. (2006). Health management practices for cage aquaculture in Asia - a key component for sustainability. The 2nd International Symposium, Cage Aquaculture in Asia, Hangzhou, China. Tesarčík, J. & Svobodová, Z. (1991). Prevention and Therapy of Fish Diseases, Diagnostics, Prevention and Therapy Of Fish Diseases and Intoxications Research Institute of Fish Culture and Hydrobiology, Vodňany, Czechoslovakia. Valdstein, O. (1997). The use of immunostimulation in marine larviculture: possibilities and challenges. Aquaculture, 155, 401-417. Wolf, K. (1988). Fish Viruses and Viral Fish Diseases. Cornell University Pres, Ithaca, New York. 113 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 488 Title A name given to the resource Fish Health in Sustainable Development of Agriculture Author Author Toksen, Erol Çağıgan, Hasmet Değirmenci, Uğur Nemli, Egemen Canyurt, Mehmet Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaculture is a fast-growing food production sector. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. With an intensification of operations, the risk of disease occurence and spread of infectious increases. In aquaculture prevention is a key issue more than in other animal productions in health management. The risk of the diseases increases with the intensification of the production and can be controlled mainly trough the implementation of sanitary or medical prophylactic programs. Sanitation relates to hygienic rules, cleaning and disenfection procedures, water treatment, but also good feeding and rearing practies. Good husbandry and vaccination programs should be applied. Diseases maps and certificaitons programs and regulations must be established. The aim of this paper is to present general overview of important applications for sanitation in sustainable aquaculture. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05afbe4639515dc5d410b7e9ce4bdf03.pdf 154e9d9b952be758ccce0f70bdcabd4f PDF Text Text Four Effective Ways to Enrich Your Vocabulary Alpaslan Toker International Burch University atoker@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: None other than the teachers of Second Language realizes how important the vocabulary is in learning a new language. With a basic level of vocabulary students will be able to convey their ideas to some extent, but effective communication can be achieved better when the students have obtained vast vocabulary knowledge. This is not something that can ever be completely mastered; it expands and deepens over the course of one’s lifetime. In this article I have focused on four effective ways that could help to enrich students’ vocabulary. Introduction People you get in contact with will get the first impression of you not only through your physical appearance or the way you walk but also judge you with the words that will come out of your mouth. No matter how brilliant and intelligent you are in science subjects like Physics and Chemistry, possessing an insufficient and scarce vocabulary will send a negative message that you are not at all intelligent. Steven Stahl puts forward the importance of vocabulary as “Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world.” Students, while reading this, may feel that they do not care about what other people think of them, there is however, more to this matter than what is apparent on the face value. When you have to give a presentation at a certain event or apply for a vacant position at a company, your vocabulary power will determine whether or not you are successful. Whipple, in 1925, states the vital importance of vocabulary thus: “Growth in reading power means, therefore, continuous enriching and enlarging of the reading vocabulary and increasing the clarity of discrimination in appreciation of word values”(p.76). Imagine you have a million dollar idea, you will not be able to attract any investors because of your poor vocabulary. Being able to improve your vocabulary will open to lots of doors, those normally would remain closed. For many years, the language programs that teachers prepared, gave little attention to the methods for assisting students to learn vocabulary. Even some books appeared to be advising teachers that students could learn all the words they needed without help. In fact, teachers were sometimes advised not to teach many words before their students mastered the grammatical structure and the sound system of the language. Volumes of articles appeared in journals and ELT magazines giving emphasis on pronunciation and grammar, there was often little or no stress on vocabulary teaching. In short, vocabulary teaching has been neglected in programs for teachers during the much of the twentieth century. In order to develop your vocabulary you must have a game plan. The best way to get this plan in action is to come up with strategies that can lead you to success. The importance of vocabulary to reading achievement, more specifically to reading comprehension, has long been established (Davis, 1944; Thorndike, 1917). Knowledge of word meanings and the ability to access that knowledge efficiently are recognized as important factors in reading and listening comprehension, especially as students progress to middle school and beyond (Chall, 1983). There are a variety of ways to improve your vocabulary, most of which are interactive and easy. This article reviews several easy ways to improve your vocabulary and learn new words. Enrich Your Vocabulary While You Read Studies have proven that reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge are strongly correlated.(Stahl, 1999), and researchers have found out that vocabulary knowledge in primary school can predict how well students will be able to comprehend texts they read in high school. (Biemiller,2000).Therefore there is no doubt that one of the most effective ways to build your vocabulary is to read, and read some more. You will want to read everything you can come across to. When you see a word that you're not familiar with, you will want to take the time to look it up. This may be tedious at first, you will have to make a habit of it. Once you get to do it a few times, you will 25 �become used to it, and this will help you enrich your vocabulary. Apart from this, reading also improves the way you speak. You will learn how to structure your sentences properly, and you can say them in a way that makes a lot of sense. However this requires lots of patience. Nothing great can ever be achieved over a night. It definitely will take time for you to build up a powerful and robust vocabulary, and the more you read, the better your vocabulary will become. Therefore, it is also essential to develop an interest in reading. You should not see reading as a chore. If you do, you will not be successful. The people who have the most impressive vocabulary skill are those who look at reading as being fun or recreational, not a chore that needs to be done. Poor readers often read less, because they consider reading to be boring and frustrating. This means that they don’t read enough to improve their vocabulary, which, in return, could help them to understand more. This perpetuating cycle can mean that as students continue through middle school and high school, the gap between the good and poor readers grows wider. Good readers often acquire much of their vocabulary through independent reading. However, explicit instruction can help students learn enough words to become better readers and thus obtain even more words. Direct vocabulary instruction is useful for students at all ability levels, but it is particularly useful for beginning students who have a limited reading vocabulary and little exposure to incidental vocabulary learning outside of school. The importance of wide reading in the growth of students’ vocabulary is critical (Nagy and Anderson, 1984). Reading is extremely important for three reasons: - It exposes you to known words in a repetitive way. This helps to cement the words in your mind. - It shows you the words in context. This is really important as it shows you how the word is used in a real word context. - It exposes you to collocations. I will cover this in more detail at a later point but simply collocations are sets of words that commonly occur together and “sound right” to a native speaker. For example, a quick shower sounds right, whereas a fast shower sounds wrong to a native speaker of English. Looking at the Context Research shows that there are more words to be learned than can be directly taught in even the most ambitious program of vocabulary instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives students tools for independently determining the meanings of unfamiliar words that have not been explicitly introduced in class. Since students encounter so many unfamiliar words in their reading, any help provided by such strategies can be useful. The vocabulary knowledge is indispensible to reading comprehension and one can not grasp the text without knowing the meanings of the majority of the words included. (Nagy,1988). Much of a student's vocabulary is learned incidentally through multiple exposures to words in multiple contexts (Stahl, 2003). Vocabulary development is a major focus in many classrooms because the words students use while speaking, reading, and writing will influence their success in any academic area. In order to understand vocabulary, it is important for the learner to construct meaning from many experiences. We knew that to be effective, vocabulary learning must occur in context (Sternberg, 1987). Looking at the context strategy can help you to become a master at building up your vocabulary. With this strategy, you can learn what a word means by the context of the word in the text. If you read a word that you don't understand, you will often find that the words which surround this word will often tell you what it means. It is important to realize that looking at the context can be further broken down into three additional methods. These methods are synonyms, comparison clues, and the definition. The definition is the easiest to use. The author will tell you what the word means, and it will be done on the same page where the word appears. With the synonym, the author will combine the unknown word with words they are similar to it. This will help the reader better understand what the word means. With the comparison clue, the unknown word will be used in conjunction with a word that is familiar. By comparing the unknown word with the word you know, this can allow you to learn the meaning of the unknown word. While some books may only use one of these methods, other books may use all of them. They are very useful in allowing the reader to increase their vocabulary, and the author takes a vested interest in helping them. When authors write, they often include context clues to the meaning of words they use but think that some of their readers may not know. The context clue is usually presented in the sentence or paragraph in which the word occurs. Sometimes a visual such as a picture is provided. The following figure shows the method for deriving word meanings. 26 �Method for Deriving Word Meanings Carefully look at the word; decide how to pronounce it. Look around the word for context clues. • Look within the sentence. • Reread previous sentences. Look in the word. • Look for prefixes and suffixes. • Look for base words. • Look for root words. • Read ahead for more clues. Carefully look at the word; decide how to pronounce it. If you think you have figured out the meaning of the word or if the word doesn’t seem important, keep on reading. If you don’t have a good idea as to the word’s meaning and if the word seems important, use a dictionary or a glossary. Figure 1 Here are five types of context clues used by authors to help the reader understand the meanings of words. An example is provided for each. In fact, good readers usually “blend” these types. 1. Definition context clue The author includes a definition to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, "tainted" is defined as having a disease. The people of the town were warned not to eat the tainted fish. The local newspaper published a bulletin in which readers were clearly told that eating fish that had a disease could be very dangerous. This was especially true for fish caught in Lake Jean. 2. Synonym context clue The author includes a synonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. A synonym is a word that means the same as or nearly the same as another word. In the following example, the synonym "pity" helps the reader understand the meaning of "compassion." After seeing the picture of the starving children, we all felt compassion or pity for their suffering. 3. Antonym context clue 27 �The author includes an antonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. In the following example, the antonym "eager" helps the reader understand the meaning of "reluctant." Joe was reluctant to take on the position of captain of the basketball team. He was afraid that the time it would take would hurt his grades. On the other hand, Billy was eager for the chance to be captain. He thought that being captain of the team would make him very popular in school. 4. Description context clue The author includes one or more descriptions to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, descriptions of President Kennedy as having charm, enthusiasm, and a magnetic personality help the reader understand the meaning of "charismatic." John Fitzgerald Kennedy, our 35th president, improved human rights and equal rights for all people. He was a very charismatic president. People were attracted to his charm and enthusiasm. His personality was described as magnetic. 5. Summary context clue The author makes a number of statements that help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, statements about being rude, showing no respect, having poor manners, and being impolite help the reader understand the meaning of "impertinent." Andrea was a very impertinent young lady. She was so rude that she talked while her teacher was explaining a lesson. She showed no respect for other students. Her manners were very poor. Even her parents thought that Andrea was impolite. Word Structure Students acquire words they are engaged in word-rich environments where they have opportunities to hear and use language. Reading, listening, speaking and writing to communicate a message all build word knowledge. But it is also important to draw students’ attention to word structure. Awareness of the way letters go together to make words not only helps students pronounce and spell words, but also gives them clues to their meaning. In fact, to acquire vocabulary it’s helpful to many English learners and struggling readers to hear the structure of words. For a learner of a second language it is probably easier to learn reading and writing if he learns to speak it first. Hearing the sounds and structure of words, and saying words, will prepare him for reading and writing. When students can hear, speak, read, and write a word, it fastens their learning of that particular word. We should ask this question then what students need to know about words to make learning them easier for them. There are several concepts about words that every reader should know according to Pinnell and Fountas(1998). Students first need to know that a word means something, it is made up of letters, the letters go from left to right, there is white space on both sides of a word, and words go together to send a message. When a student hears a spoken word and says it, he can also look at the structure of the printed word and begin to realize that: - A word has a special shape or configuration. - Some words have patterns (for example, -ame, ike, -ot) - Most letters in a word stand for sounds but some are silent (for example, “night”) - Some words have “chunks” of letters (for example, “un-happy” and “snow-man”) - One word may help to unlock the meaning of another word (for example, “drama” and “dramatically”) Early research on teaching word-part clues, or morphological analysis, produced mixed findings (Otterman, 1955; Thompson, 1958), but more contemporary studies have indicated that students can be taught various wordparts, most often prefixes and suffixes, to derive the meanings of untaught words (e.g., Graves & Hammond, 1980; Wysocki & Jenkins, 1987). If learners understand how this combining process works, they possess one of the most powerful understandings necessary for vocabulary growth (Anderson and Freebody, 1981). 28 �Through analyzing the structure of a word, students know-a base word, prefix, suffix, or word root-to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Once students understand how multisyllabic words are constructed, and once they master the meanings of common prefixes and suffixes, they can deconstruct the meaning of an unfamiliar word. - Base words are words that are complete by themselves. Words that can be divided are made up of two or more prefixes, suffixes, and word roots. - A prefix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the beginning of a word that has meaning only when attached to a word root. It changes the meaning of a word root. The most common prefixes are un- (not), re(back, again), dis- (away, off, opposing), and in- (not). - A suffix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the end of a word that changes the word's part of speech or tense. Many suffixes do have meanings, but they are more difficult to learn than are prefixes, which should be emphasized. - Root words, mainly Greek and Latin, are the words that carry the main meaning of the word but usually cannot stand alone. When introducing structural analysis, you can write a relatively easy and well-known word such as redo or rewrite on the chalkboard. Ask students how they might determine the meaning of the words if they could not use a dictionary or read them in context. Ask students to come up with several other words that they know that begin with the prefix re-, and have them infer the meaning of the prefix. Guide students to understand that the prefix re- means "back" or "again," and they know what the base words do and write mean. Therefore, they can figure out that rewrite means "write again," and redo means "to do again." Review common prefixes with students, and put five grade-appropriate vocabulary words that contain those prefixes on the board, and then ask students to find the meanings of the words. To help students decode unknown words, you can have them deconstruct compound words. For example, you might start by writing the word birdhouse on the board. Ask students to tell you what bird and house mean, and then guide them to figure out the meaning of the compound word by combining the meanings of the two base words. Group younger students into pairs, and have them find the meanings of several grade-appropriate compound words. There are a sizeable number of unknown words that you can figure out by using the word structure strategy. However, there are many situations where this strategy will not work. Word Mapping Word mapping for students is an effective way of acquiring and retaining knowledge of vocabulary. Word mapping enables students to improve their perception of key words by the means of mapping the words graphically. They help students to expand word meanings and discover relationships between the vocabulary items (Santa, Havens, & Valdes, 2004) They also help students to develop elaborated definitions, rather than simple, one or two word descriptions. Many students have a narrow conception of what the meaning of a word contains. Most of them conceive definitions as simplistic, imperfect statements that lack detail and personal comment. Word maps help students to create an expanded concept of a definition, one that encourages them to integrate their own knowledge (Santa et. al., 2004). By teaching word learning strategies over a period of time, students are provided a way to learn vocabulary independently. Concept of Definition Word Maps provides a structure for organizing conceptual information over the course of defining a word (Schwartz 1988; Schwartz & Raphael 1985). For example, on the map shown on Figure 2, students will map a word's meaning as derived from its context. Then, they will present a figurative meaning for the word by comparing it to a known object. Finally, if you are reading a novel, you will connect the word's meaning to three different characters who illustrate its use in the novel. Some key words to be defined could be family, pride, respect, hope, tenacity, knowledge, and ethics. Whatever you choose to define, connect it to one of the themes of the novel. These activities should be introduced and applied in conjunction with the lesson on context clues and idiomatic expressions. A Sample Word mapping Chart 29 �Figure 2 How to complete this word map! 1. Write the selected word and its meaning inside the box in the center 2. List three antonyms. 3. List three synonyms. 4. Lastly list three main characters who give the explanation of the basic meaning of this word. You can prepare the students for this activity by reviewing how to clarify for meaning when coming across to unfamiliar words within the context of the text. You can model a mapping process before having students map independently. Conclusion In this article, the importance of vocabulary and the strategies to build up vocabulary have been emphasized. It is a grave mistake to underestimate the importance of having a powerful vocabulary, even if you are proficient in areas such as math. Being able to speak and write properly will ensure that people think highly of you, and it can allow you to reach the heights of power and success. Again it will be a grave mistake to overlook one strategy while favoring other. All of these strategies are equally important in vocabulary development. But the reading strategy seems one step ahead of the rest of them. Reading is a foundation of worth building. A foundation that carries the person through all subjects, and all their lives. It is a good investment. Most theorists and researchers in education have assumed that vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are closely related, and numerous studies have shown the strong correlation between the two (Baker, 1995; Nelson-Herber, 1986). Therefore, helping students develop strong vocabularies is essential to their success, both in school and beyond. Students may forget many of the specific facts they learn in school, but the words they learn will serve them as useful tools for a lifetime. Effective vocabulary instruction is an attainable goal. The above-mentioned strategies can be applicable in wide range of fields where a robust vocabulary is essential. References Anderson, R.C., and Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews, 77–117. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 30 �Baker, Scott K., et al (1995). "Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications for Diverse Learners." Technical Report No. 14. Eugene, OR: National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators. [ED 386 861] Biemiller, Andrew. “Teaching Vocabulary: Early, direct, and sequential,” American Educator, Spring 2001, p.24. Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: Harcourt Brace. Davis, F. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9, 185-197. Graves, M. F, & Hammond, H. K. (1980). A validated procedure for teaching prefixes and its effect on students' ability to assign meaning to novel words. In M. L. Kamil & A. J. Moe (Eds.), Perspectives on reading research and instruction (pp.184-188). Washington, DC: National Reading Conference Nagy, W.E., and Anderson, R.C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19. Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Nelson-Herber, Joan (1986). "Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas." Journal of Reading. Otterman, L. M. (1955). The value of teaching prefixes and word-roots. Journal of Educational Research, 48, 611-616. Pinnell Gay Su & Fountas Irene C. Teaching Phonics and Spelling in Reading/Writing Classroom. Heinemann, 1998. Santa, C., Havens, L., & Valdes, B. (2004) Project CRISS: Creating independence through student owned strategies, third edition. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Schwartz, Robert M., & Raphael, Taffy E. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students’ vocabulary. The Reading Teacher. Stahl, Steven A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline Books, 1999, p.3. Stahl, S. (2003). How words are learned incrementally over multiple exposures. American Educator, 27(1), 18-19. Stahl, Steven A, and Nagy, William E Binding. Teaching Word Meanings. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005. Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Thompson, E. (1958). The "master word" approach to vocabulary training. Journal of Developmental Reading, 2, 62-66. Thorndike, E.L. (1917). Reading as reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 8, 323-332. Whipple, G. (Ed.) (1925) The twenty-fourth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Report of the National Committee on Reading. Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co. Wysocki, K., & Jenkins, J. R. (1987). Deriving word meanings through morphological generalization. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 66-81. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 315 Title A name given to the resource Four Effective Ways to Enrich Your Vocabulary Author Author Toker, Alpaslan Abstract A summary of the resource. None other than the teachers of Second Language realizes how important the vocabulary is in learning a new language. With a basic level of vocabulary students will be able to convey their ideas to some extent, but effective communication can be achieved better when the students have obtained vast vocabulary knowledge. This is not something that can ever be completely mastered; it expands and deepens over the course of one’s lifetime. In this article I have focused on four effective ways that could help to enrich students’ vocabulary Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22bc7a25f8582870767f95900954452e.pdf 686ecaba8812f7119a8f9143b5869b15 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electrorheological Properties of Environmental Friendly Modified Cellulose Tahir Tilki Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey ttilki@fef.sdu.edu.tr M ustafa Yavuz Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey Meh met Çabuk Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Mus Alparslan University Mus, Turkey Çigdem Karabacak Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey Abstract: Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids, which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being able to convert rapidly and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed. In this study, biodegredable cellulose (Cell) was modified and converted their carboxyl salts. Modified cellulose (Cell-Li) is characterised by (FT-IR), (SEM), (EDS) and (TGA). Suspensions of native and modified cellulose are prepared in corn oil. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator. These suspensions are determined; effects of electric field strength, shear rate, shear stress, temperature etc. onto ER activity. The results show not only that the ER properties are enhanced by increasing the particle concentration and electric field strength, but also the cellulose-based ER fluids exhibit viscoelastic behavior under an applied electric field due to the chain formation induced by electric polarization between particles. Introduction The biodegradable and biocompatible polymers have caused significant attention from both ecological and biomedical perspectives in the past decaded (Ikada & Tsuji 2000). Cellulose, as a natural polymer, has received great attention recently as a possible alternative to petroleum-based polymers and cellulose possess either branched polar groups such as hydroxy (-OH) groups (Tahiri & Vignon 2000). The polar groups may affectthe ER behavior underthe imposed electric field. Cellulose has the advantages of being renewable, biodegradable, abundantly available and low in costs. Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids (Winslow 1949), which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being ableto convertrapidly (Block & Kelly 1988) and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed (Trlica et al. 1996). A wide variety of particulates or solid particles,such as cellulose, starch,flour,silica, alumina,titania, zeolite and dielectric powders dispersed in low-conductivity non-polarmatrices such as silicone, hydrocarbon 135 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo oils and acrylic rubber, make up suspensions whose rheological properties can change abruptly on application of an external electric field;they are commonly known as electrorheological(ER) fluids( Tangboriboon et al. 2008). The typical characteristic of ER fluids,reversible and swifttransition between the liquid state and the solid state, potentially providesthe most efficient approach to controlling mechanicalresponses by adjusting electric field strengths. The electric field-induced interaction, arising from particle polarization,is commonly believed to be responsible forER behavior(Otsubo et al. 1992). In this study, we investigate cellulose and modified cellulose as a vigorous nominee for anhydrous particlesin high performance dry-base systems by analysing the effect of particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate and frequency via sheartests. Experimental 1. M aterials All chemicals (amorphous cellulose, 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy(TE MPO), LiBr) were Acros Organics products with analytical grade and used as received. Methanol, ethanol and acetone were used as a solvent throughout the experimental procedure. Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide were J.T.Baker products,sodium hypochlorite was Merck products and used as received. The host oilemployed was food-grade corn oil produced by Luna and had the following physical properties at 25 o C: density ρf = 0.936 g/cc, viscosity ηf = 45 mPa s, dielectric constant Kf = 3.34, and conductivity (E = 1 kV/mm) = 4X10-11 S/m. 2. M odification of cellulose Oxidation experiments were made underthe following conditions. Amorphous cellulose samples (0.648 g, 4 mmol of anhydroglucose units) were dispersed in distilled water (80 ml) for 1min with an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser. TE MPO (10 mg, 0.065 mmol) and LiBr (0.20 g, 1.9 mmol) were added in the suspension, which was maintained at 4 o C. The sodium hypochlorite solution (13%, 4.88 ml, 8.8 mmol) with pH adjusted to 10 by addition of 0.5M aqueous HCl was set at 4 o C by means of an ice bath, and added fourtimes (30 min each)to the suspension, which was stirred mechanically. The pH was maintained at 10 during the reaction by adding a 0.5 M NaOH solution. The temperature of the suspension was maintained at 4 o C by means of an ice bath during the oxidation reaction. When the solution became hazy, almost all the cellulose samples had disappeared and the reaction was stopped by adding either 10 ml of methanol or and a small amount of sodium borohydride. The reaction mixture was neutralised to pH 7 with 0.5 M HCl and centrifuged to remove the residual insoluble material. The oxidised cellulose sample in the supernatant was precipitated by adding an excess of ethanol (5– 10 volumes), followed by centrifugation. The precipitate was washed with ethanol:water (9:1) and centrifuged severaltimes and finally washed with acetone. The precipitate was then redissolved in distilled water, dialysed and freeze-dried. OH OH OH OH O O OH OH O OH O OH OH OH O O OH O OH OH OH TEM PO LiB r O O Li O OH OH OH O OH OH O O O O Li O Li OH O OH OH O O OH OH O O O Li Scheme 1. Modification reaction of cellulose. 3. Electrorheological measurements Suspensions of cellulose derivative particles were prepared in corn oil at a series of concentration (c = 5– 25% m/m). Suspensions were mechanically stirred before each measurement against sedimentation. Rheological properties of the suspensions were determined with a Termo-Haake RS600 parallel plate Electro-rheometer (Germany). The gap between the paralel plates was 1.0 mm and the diameters ofthe upper and lower plates were 35 mm. Allthe experiments were carried out at a controlled rate(CR) mode and at various temperatures (25–125 136 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ◦ C, with 25 ◦ C increments.). The voltage used in these experiments was also supplied by a 0–12.5 kV (with 0.5 kV increments) dc electric field generator (Fug Electronics, HCL 14, Germany), which enabled resistivity to be created during the experiments. Scheme 2. Mechanism of ER behavior. Results and Discussion 1. Characterization of native cellulose and modified cellulose FTIR spectra of cellulose and modified cellulose were recorded on a Mattson Model 1000 instrument (UK) as KBr discs. The FTIR spectrum of native cellulose showed the expected distinctive absorptions. The absorptions at 3330 cm-1 (O-H stretching), 2980 cm-1 (aliphatic C-H stretching), 1460 cm-1 (aliphatic C-H bending), 1170 cm-1 (C-H bending), 1100 cm-1 (C-O-C symetric bending). Modified cellulose also gave a FTIR spectrum similarto that of cellulose.In addition this,modified cellulose gave the absorption at 1700 cm-1 (C=O stretching). Scanning electron micrographs (SE M-EDS) of the samples were recorded using a Jeol JSM6360 LV scanning electron microscope (Japan). SE M-EDS photographs of native cellulose and modified cellulose are displayed in Figure 1a and 1b. The native cellulose granules appear elliptic, bread-like orirregular. After modification, cellulose granules become smaller and show more regular, homogenious and harmonious.In addition, as seen from EDS photographs, modified cellulose contains Li+ ions (Ko et al.2007). Figure 1a. SE M-EDS of cellulose. Figure 1b. SE M-EDS of modified cellulose. TGA analysis was carried out using a Setaram 8ET8 V8 Evolution 1760 model thermogravimetric analyzer in the presence of nitrogen atmosphere up to 600o C, at a heating rate of 10o C min-1. The thermal stability of modified cellulose particles approached 275°C as can be seen from the TGA, shown in Figure 2. In the case of modified cellulose particles, no chemicalreaction or decreasing weight was found below 275°C. The decomposition temperature of cellulose is between 290 and 330 °C. Thus it could be estimated thatthe modified cellulose particles dispersed in corn oil were stable below 275°C, which proved that the ER suspensions based on modified cellulose were anhydrous. 137 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2. TGA of native cellulose and modified cellulose. 2. Electrorheology 2.1.Effect of electric field strength Figure 3 shows the change in the electric field viscosity with electric field strength at constant conditions: γ& = 0.2 s−1, c = 15% m/m and T=20◦ C. As seen from the graph, electric field viscosity (ηE)increases with increasing electric field strength and nearly reaches to ηE = 5.5 kPa s for cellulose. Similar results were observed by Zhao et. al in ER studies of nano titanium oxide/silicone oilsystems (Zhao et al. 2008). Figure 3. The change of viscosity with electric field strength. T = 20o C, c = 15% m/m, γ& = 0.2 s−1. Figure 4. The change of shear stress with electric field strength. T = 20o C, c = 15% m/m, γ& = 0,2s-1. Figure 4 represents the change in shear stress with electric field strength which was obtained at constant 138 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo suspension concentration (c = 15% m/m), shear rate (γ& = 0,2 s−1) and temperature (T = 20o C). As reflected from the graph, shear stress sharply increases with increasing field strength, which indicates that the ER suspension becomes more stable under strong electric field strength. Modified cellulose suspension’s shear stress is about five times higher than cellulose suspension’s with electric field strength. . Similar results were observed by Yavuz and Unal (Yavuz & Unal 2004). 2.2. Effect of shear rate Figure 5. The change of viscosity with shear rate. T = 20o C, c = 15% wt, E = 0-500 V/mm. Change in the viscosity ofthe suspension with shear rate at optimum suspension concentration (15% wt), T = 20o C, E = 0-500 V/mm is shown in Figure 5. As is evident, with and without applied electric field, the viscosity of suspensions decreases sharply with increasing shear rate, giving a typical curve of shear thinning non-Newtonian viscoelastic behavior(Ling & Keqin 2006). 2.3. Effect of temperature Figure 6 shows the changes in the shear stress of cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions under various temperatures at constant conditions (E= 2 kV/mm, γ& = 0.2 s-1, c=15% wt). It was observed that, the shear stresses of allthe suspensions examined in this work decrease with increasing temperature. Generally,the temperature has two effects on the ER fluids: one is on polarization forces and another one is on the Brownian motion. The increase of temperature results both in decreased activation energy of polarization of suspended particles, and on the polarizability of particles, which resultsin a decrease in shear stress.On the other hand,the Brownian motion does not contribute to chain formation of suspended particles. Although shear stressincreases with increasing temperature reported in the literature by Choi (Choi et al. 1997) and Lu (Lu & Zhao 2004) Unal (Unal et al. 2006). and Liu (Liu & Shaw 2001). reported that shear stress decreases with increasing temperature. Modified cellulose is more thermal stabilitythan native cellulose. These results were supported by TGA results. Figure 6. The change of shear stress with temperature. c = 15% m/m, E = 2.0 kV/mm. 139 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.4. Effect of frequency For native cellulose/corn oil and modified cellulose/corn oil suspension systems, the GE' remains unchanged at linear viscoelastic region up to f = 46.4 Hz, then a sharp increase with the further increase in frequency after f = 70 Hz was observed. As seen from Figure 7 the GE' data obtained from the experiments, cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions show a strong vibration damping property, which is an important parameterfrom industrial point of view. The increase in G’ withincreasing externalfrequency was also reported inthe literature (Kim et al. 2001) asthe typical characteristic of a viscoelastic material(Hiamtup et al. 2006). Figure 7. The change of Gı with frequency. c= 15% m/m, T=20o C, = 10 Pa, E= 2 kV/mm Conclusions In this paper, modified cellulose particles were prepared with TE MPO/LiBr. Modified cellulose is characterised by FT-IR, SE M –EDS and TGA. The ER properties of the native and modified cellulose/corn oil suspension were then investigated by examining the effects of electric field strength, shear rate, temperature, frequency and shear stres. The following is a summary ofthe results. We have shown thatthe native cellulose can be partially modified and converted tothe Li+ salts. Colloidal stability of polymeric salt in corn oil was found to be 56% at 15% m/m suspensions concentration. Optimum concentration was found to be 15% m/m. ER activity of suspensions increased with increasing field strength and decreasing shear rate.It was observed thatthe viscosity of suspensions decreased sharply with increasing shear rate, causing typical shear-thinning non-Newtonian viscoelastic behaviour. It was found thatthe polymeric salt system studied in the present work was a little sensitive to high temperature within the limits studied. Complex shear modulus of cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions was observed toincrease with increasing external frequency and show a typicalcharacteristic of a viscoelasticmaterial and a potential of vibration damping. Acknowledgements We are grateful for financial support by The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (Project no: 108T615 ) References Block H. and Kelly J.P. (1988). Electro-rheology. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 21, 1661-1667. Choi, H.j., Kim, T.W., Cho, M.S., Choi, H.J. and Jhon M.S., (1997). Electrorheological characterization of polyaniline dispersion. Eur. Polm. J., 33 (5), 699-703. Hiamtup, P.; Sirivat, A.; Jameison, A. M. (2006). Electrorheological properties of polyaniline suspensions: Field-induced liquid to solid transition and residual gel structure. J. Coll. Inter. Sci., 295, 270-278. 140 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ikada Y., Tsuji H. (2000). Banded spherulites in poly(L-lactic acid): Effects of the crystallization temperature and molecular weight. Macromol Rapid Commun, 21:117-120. Kim, J. W. Kim, S. G., Choi, H. J.,Suh, M. S.,Shin, M. J.,Jhon, M. S. (2001). Electrorheological characteristics of phosphate cellulose-based suspensions. Polymer,42, 5005-5009. Ko, Y. G.; Sung, B. H.; Choi, U. S. (2007). Electrorheological properties of aminated chitosans. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 305, 120–125. Ling, R.; Keqin, Z. (2006). Electrorheological Effects at High Shear Rate. Tsınghua Scıence And Technology, 11(1), 88-95. Liu, B.; Shaw, M. T. (2001). Electrorheology of filled silicone elastomers. J. Rheol., 45, 641-657. Lu, J. and X. Zhao. (2004). A new approach of enhancing the shear stress of electrorheological fluids of montmorillonite nanocomposite by emulsion intercalation of poly-N-methaniline. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 273, 654–657. Otsubo, Y.; Sekine, M.; Katayama, S. (1992). A microstructural investigation of the nonlinear response of electrorheological suspensions. J. Rheol., 36, 479-496. Tahiri C. and Vignon M.R. (2000). TEMPO-oxidation of cellulose: synthesis and characterization of polyglucuronans. Cellulose, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Cellulose 7: 177-188. Tangboriboon, N.; Sirivat, A.; Wongkasemjit, S. (2008). Electrorheology and characterization of acrylic rubber and lead titanate composite materials. Appl. Organometal. Chem., 22, 262–269. Trlica J.,Quadrat O. and Bradna P. (1996). An anomalous electrorheological behaviour of magnesium hydroxide suspensions in silicone oil, Journal of Rheology, 40 (5), 943-945. Unal, H.I.;Agirbas,O.;Yilmaz, H.(2006). Electrorheological properties of poly(Li-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) suspensions. Coll. and Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 274, 77-84. Winslow W.M. (1949). Induced Fibration Suspension. Journal of Applied Physics, 20, 1137-1140. Yavuz, M.; Unal, H. I. (2004). Synthesis, characterization, and partial hydrolysis of polyisoprene-co-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) and electrorheological properties of its suspensions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 91, 1822-1833. Zhao,Y.; Wang, B.; Ding, C.; Zhao, X. (2008). Nano Titanium Oxide Organosol: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application for Electrorheological Fluid. J.Appl.Polym.Sci.,110, 3763-3769. 141 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 493 Title A name given to the resource Electrorheological Properties of Environmental Friendly Modified Cellulose Author Author Tilki, Tahir Yavuz, Mustafa Çabuk, Mehmet Karabacak, Çigdem Abstract A summary of the resource. Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids, which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being able to convert rapidly and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed. In this study, biodegredable cellulose (Cell) was modified and converted their carboxyl salts. Modified cellulose (Cell-Li) is characterised by (FT-IR), (SEM), (EDS) and (TGA). Suspensions of native and modified cellulose are prepared in corn oil. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator. These suspensions are determined; effects of electric field strength, shear rate, shear stress, temperature etc. onto ER activity. The results show not only that the ER properties are enhanced by increasing the particle concentration and electric field strength, but also the cellulose-based ER fluids exhibit viscoelastic behavior under an applied electric field due to the chain formation induced by electric polarization between particles. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fef52bacaee9172a6a6a636f97c46967.pdf e6c4a5f2eae98f586aadf585526b2cc4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Determination of the Optimum Conditions of the Dissolution of Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Chlorine Gas Hakan Temur Ah met Yartaşı M. Muhtar Kocakerim Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Chemical Engineering Erzurum, TURKEY mkerim @atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The present work aims an experimental design based on the of Taguchi approach to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas. The ranges of experimental parameters were between 16-45 oC for reaction temperature, 0.05-0.20 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 30-120 min for reaction time, 0.0270.4 mol.L-1 for [Fe3+] and 0.025-0.4 mol.L-1 for [Cu2+ ]. The optimum conditions were found to be as follows: Reaction temperature (oC); 45, solid-toliquid ratio(g.mL-1); 0.05, [Fe3+](mol.L-1); 0.2, [Cu2+ ] (mol.L-1); 0,025 and reaction time(min); 120. Under these conditions, the dissolution percentage of copper from chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine was 68.44 %. Keywords: Chalcopyrite, optimization, Taguchi method, chlorination. Introduction Chalcopyrite, being one ofthe most abundant copper oresin the world isthe mostimportant ore used in production ofthe copper by pyrometallurgical methods. Recently,in production of copper and its compounds hydrometallurgical process have taken the place of classicalmetallurgical processes1.Important features of chlorination are high reactivity of chlorine, high volatilitiesof metal chlorides and solubility of most metal chlorides in water. Chlorination of metal sulphides offersthe additional prospect of recovering sulphur in the nonpolluting elementalform2. The high reactivity of gaseous chlorine as an oxidizing agent in leaching processes have been caused a number of studies on the extraction of metal sulphides by chlorine leaching. Bayrakçeken et al.3 studied the kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspensions and found that the rate controlling step was the chemical reaction between chlorine and pyrite forthe temperature range 13-35 0 C, and the diffusion of chlorine through the fluid film forthe temperature range 40-60 0 C withthe activation energies respectively 36.7 kJ.mol-1 and 3.7 kJ.mol-1. Çolak et al.1 examined the kinetics of dissolution of chalcopyritein aqueous solutions saturated by chlorine gas and determined thatthe diffusion of the reactantsthrough productlayer was the rate controlling step with an activation energy of 9.81 kJ.mol-1. Reactions of copper sulfide minerals with chlorine in an aqueous medium were studied by Groves and Smith and determined that when the dissolution process was complete, the reaction products(copper, iron and sulfur) were in their highest oxidation states and stoichiometric amount of chlorine was consumed.4 In an study carried out by Ekmekyapar et. al.5 , they investigated the dissolution kinetics of an oxidized copper orein watersaturated by chlorine,and found thatthe dissolution process proceeded intwo stages and was controlled by diffusion through the ash layer in each stage. The authors determined that the activation energies forthe first and second stages were 27.15 and 20.21 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Chalcopyrite can be dissolved with various leaching agents such as hydrochloric acid6, chloride/hypochloride media7,ferric chloride8,9, acidic Cl- solutions10, CCl4 saturated with chlorine11 and H2 SO4NaCl-O2 12. In addition to these, oxide and sulphide ores of base metal minerals were examined by various 178 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo chlorinating agents such as Cl2, HCl, Cl2-O2, FeCl2 and O2 and CuCl2 .2 The optimization of leaching conditions of the ores is important in industrial processes and some researcher have been interested in these topics by using various techniques13-20. As a technique, Taguchi's Orthogonal Array (OA) analysis is used to produce the best parameters for the optimum design process, with theleast number of experiments.In recent years, Taguchi method has been used to determine optimum parameters because of its advantages. The main advantages of this method over other statistical experimental design methods are that the parameters affecting an experiment can be investigated as controlling and not controlling, and that the method can be applied to experimental design involving a large number of design factors18. In this study, determination of the optimum conditions of the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas was investigated by using Taguchi experimental design method. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio,reaction time, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. Materials and Methods The chalcopyrite concentrate used in this study was provided from Çayeli, Rize in Turkey and sieved by using a 75 µm AST M standard sieve. Chemical analysis of concentrate gave a composition of 24.02 % Cu, 29.36 % Fe, 36.55 % S, 2.19 % Zn, 0.19 % Pb, 0.1 % Al2 O3 , 0.9 % moisture and 6.69 % other components. Xray diffractogram of chalcopyrite concentrate obtained by Rigaku D M A X 2000 Series X-ray diffractometer is given in Figure 1.Itis seen thatthe chalcopyrite concentrate contains CuFeS2, FeS2, ZnS, Cu2 S, CuS and very small amount of Al2 O3 and SiO2. Also, SE M photogram of the concentrateis shown in Figure 2. Dissolution experiments were carried outtwo stages.In the firststage, 7.0 g chalcopyrite was added to 200 mL of distilled water saturated with chlorine gas and the mixture was stirred at ambienttemperature fortwo hours. Atthe end ofthe experiment,the mixture was filtered and determined that 17.99 % of Fe and 13.66% of Cu in the ore were dissolved.At the second stage, 3.5 g chalcopyrite was added to 100 mL ofthe filtrate saturated with chlorine gas and the mixture was stirred underthe same conditions ofthe first stage. Afterthe second stage experiment,the mixture was filtered and Cu and Fe analysis were done in the filtrate.It was seen that 65% of Fe and 60% of Cu inthe ore were dissolved. This means that Cu2+ and/or Fe3+ are effective parametersinthis dissolution system. Because ofthis fact,Cu2+ and Fe3+ concentrations were taken as parameters. The other parameters chosen forthis study were reaction temperature, solid to liquid ratio,reaction time and [H+]. Dissolution experiments were carried outin 250 mL a jacketed glass reactor at atmospheric pressure. The reactor contents were mixed by a mechanical stirrer with tachometer and its temperature was controlled by a constant temperature circulator. The reactor was fitted with a cooler to prevent the volume reduction of the solution by the evaporation. In the experiments, 100 mL- distilled water was saturated previously with Cl2 atthe desired experimental temperature. Afterthe sample was added to the reactor, during the desired time period, Cl2 was passed through the reaction mixture, and the mixture was stirred at a fixed speed. Atthe end of dissolution period,the amounts of Cu2+ passing to the solution during the reaction were determined the volumetric method21. In this study, Taguchi method was used to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated by chlorine. The application of Taguchi Method to optimize of a process by using multiple performance characteristics includes eight steps, which make up Robust Design cycle view of planning and performing the experiments and analysing and verifying the experimental result22: -identify the main function, side effects, and failure modes, -identify noise factors and the testing conditions for evaluating the quality loss, -identify the quality characteristics to be observed and the objective function to be optimized, -identify the control factors and their alternate levels, -design the matrix experiment and define the data analysis procedure, -conduct the matrix experiment, -analyze the data, determine optimum levels for the control factors, and predict performance under these levels, -conduct the verification(also called confirmation)experiment and plan future action. Performance characteristics chosen as the optimization criteria are divided by three categories,the largerthe-better, the smaller-the-better and the nominal-the-best. The first two of them were calculated by using Equation 1 and 2. 1 n 1 n ∑Y2  i =1 i Larger-the-better SNL = −10 Log 10      (1) 179 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1 n 2 Y  n ∑ i   i =1  Smaller-the-better SNS = −10 Log 10  (2) where SNL and SNS are performance characteristics, n number of repetition done for an experimental combination, and Yi performance value ofith experiment22. In Taguchi method,the experiment corresponding to optimum working conditions might not be found in randomized experimental plan table. In such cases; the performance value for optimum conditions can be predicted by using the balanced characteristic of OA. For this purpose; an additive model can be used as follows23. Yi = µ + X i + ei (3) where µ isthe overall mean of performance value, Xi the fixed effect of the parameter level combination used in ith experiment, and ei the random errorinith experiment. If experimental results are in percentage (%), before evaluating Eq 3 Ω transformations of percentage values should be applied firstusing the Eq. 4 by which values of interest are also later determined by carrying out reverse transformation by using the same equation24: 1  Ω( db) = −10 Log − 1 P  (4) W here Ω(db) is the decibel value of percentage value subject to omega transformation and P the percentage ofthe product obtained experimentally. Because Eq. 3 is a point estimation, which is calculated by using experimental data in order to determine whetherthe additive modelis adequate or not,the confidence limitsforthe prediction error must be evaluated22. The prediction erroristhe difference between the observed Yi and the predicted Yi. The confidence limitsfor the prediction error, Se ,is 1 1 Se = ±2   σ e2 +   σ e2  nr   n0  sum of squares due to error σ e2 = degrees of freedom for error 1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1 = + − + − + − ...... no n  n Ai n   n Bi n   nCi n  (5) (6) (7) where se is the two-standard-deviation confidence limit, n the number of rows in the matrix experiment, nr the number of repetition in confirmation experiment and n Ai ,nBi ,nC i ,… are the replication number for parameterlevel Ai ,Bi ,Ci ,… Ifthe prediction erroris outsidetheselimits,itshould be suspected ofthe possibility thatthe additive modelis notadequate. Otherwise,itcan be considered thatthe additive modelto be adequate. A verification experiment is a powerful tool for detecting the presence of interactions among the control parameters.Ifthe predicted response under the optimum conditions does not match the observed response,then itimplies that the interactions are important. If the predicted response matches the observed response, then it impliesthatthe interactions are probably notimportant and thatthe additive modelis a good approximation22. Experimental parameters used in this study and their levels are seen in Table 1. The orthogonal array (OA) was chosen as the most suitable to make up the experimental design, L16(54), with five parameters each four values given Table 2 18,22. Each experiment was repeated twice underthe same conditions at differenttimes, to determine the effects of noise sources on process. Results and Discussions Dissolution reactions W hen chalcopyrite concentrate is added into solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine,the reactions taking place in the medium can be written as follows1; 2CuFeS2(s) → Cu2 S(s) + 2 FeS(s) + S(s) (8) Cu2 S(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + CuS(s) 180 (9) �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo CuS(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + S (aq) (10) FeS2(s) →FeS(s) + S(s) (11) 2FeS(s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl2(aq) + 2S(s) (12) 4S (s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2 S2 Cl2(l) (13) 2 FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl3 (14) (aq) 2 S2 Cl2(l) + 10Cl2(aq) + 16H2 O → 4H2 SO4(aq) + 24HCl(aq) (15) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) →3Fe2+(aq) +2S(s) (16) CuFeS2 (s) +4Fe3+ → Cu2+ (17) 2+ (aq) +5Fe (aq) +2S(s) S(s) +6Fe3+(aq) +4H2 O → H2 SO4( aq) +6Fe2+ (aq) +6H+ (aq) (18) Statistical analysis The collected data were analysed by an IB M compatible PC using a program prepared by taking into account Tagushi aproach.In orderto see effective parameters and their confidence levels on dissolution process, the analysis of variance was performed. A statistical analysis of variance (ANOV A) was performed to see whether process parameters are statistically significant or not. F-test is a tool to see which process parameters have a significant effect on the dissolution value. The F value for each process parameter is simply a ratio of mean ofthe squared deviationstothe mean of squared error. Usually,thelargerthe F value,the greaterthe effect on the dissolution value due to the change of the process parameter. With the performance characteristics and A N O V A analyses, the optimal combination of process parameters can be predicted18. The results of variance analysis were given in Table 3. To obtain optimal dissolution performance, the larger–the-better performance characteristic (Eq. 1) has been taken for dissolution ofCu. The order of graphs in Figure 3-7 is according to the degrees of the influences of parameters on the performance characteristics. The optimal level of a process parameter is the level with the highest SN value calculated by Eq.1. At firstsightitcan be difficultand complicated to deduce the experimental conditions forthe graphs given in Figure 3-7. We’lltryto explain it with an example. Let’s see how Figure 4 is obtained. Figure 4 shows the variation of performance characteristics with solidto-liquid ratio. Let’s try to determine the experimental conditions for the first datum point. The level 1 is 0.05 g.mL-1 forthis parameterin this point. Now, let’s go to Table 2 and find the experiments for which the level in the column B is 1.Itseen in Table 2 thatthe levelis 1 forthe experiment with 1, 5, 9 and 13 numbers. The first datum point in Figure 4 is arithmetical average of performance characteristics for these experiments. All the pointsin Figure 4 graph and other graphs are established by the same way.In each graph,the numerical value of maximum point is correspond to the best value for that parameter. These values are seen to be A4 (45o C), B1(0.05 g.mL-1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min). Therefore,forthese process A4, B1, C3, D1 and E4 condition were taken as optimum dissolution conditions and the dissolution fraction under these conditions was found to be 68.44 %. If the experimental plan given in Table 2 is studied carefully together with parameter values given as A4(45 o C), B1(0.05 g.mL-1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min), it can be seen that experiments corresponding to optimum conditions A4(45o C), B1(0.05g.mL- 1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min) have not been carried out during the experimental work. Thus it should be noted that the dissolution percentages in Table 4 are predicted results obtained by using Eqs. 3-4 and observed results for same conditions. Also, the results in Table 4 are confidence limits of predictions. In order to test the predicted results, confirmation experiments were carried out twice at the same working conditions. The fact that the dissolution percentages from confirmation experiments are within the calculated confidence intervals calculated from Eqs.5-7 (see Table 4) shows thatthe experimentalresults are within ± 5 % in error. This case states thatthere is a good agreement between the predicted values and experimental values, and the interactive effects of the parameters are indeed negligible. It may be concluded that the additive model is adequate for describing the dependence of this dissolution process on the various parameters18. 181 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion The major conclusions from the present work are: 1-The effective parameters on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas are solid-to-liquid ratio,reaction time, [Fe3+],reaction temperature and [Cu2+ ],respectively. 2-The optimum conditions are 45 o C for reaction temperature, 0.05 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 120 min.forreaction time, 0.2 M for[Fe3+] and 0.025M for [Cu2+].Underthese conditions given in Table 4,it can be seen thatthe dissolution of 68.44 % isjustfor Cu. 3-The predicted and observed dissolution values are very closeto each other,it may be concluded thatthe additive modelis adequate for describing the dependence ofthe dissolution process on the examined parameters. 4-Since optimum conditions determined by Taguchi method in laboratory environment is reproducible in real production environments as well, the findings of the present study may be very useful for processing in industrialscale. 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System of Experimental Design, Quality Resources, New York, 108. 183 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters Levels 1 2 3 4 Reaction temperature (o C) 16 25 35 45 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 [Fe3+] (mol.L-1 ) 0.027 0.1 0.2 0.4 [Cu2+] (mol.L-1 ) 0.025 0.1 0.2 0.4 Reaction time (min) 30 60 90 120 Table1.Parameters and theirvalues corresponding to theirlevels studied in experiments. A B C D E Quantities and theirlevels Experiment No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 A 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 Conversion fraction of copper Experiment(I) Cu Experiment(II) Cu Average B C D E % % Cu % 1 1 1 1 34.65 39.88 37.27 2 2 2 2 31.75 23.01 27.38 3 3 3 3 30.45 25.73 28.09 4 4 4 4 16.22 20.17 18.20 1 2 3 4 48.11 41.70 44.91 2 1 4 3 33.65 36.33 34.99 3 4 1 2 25.73 22.12 23.93 4 3 2 1 18.61 23.33 20.97 1 3 4 2 56.62 54.23 55.43 2 4 3 1 18.78 20.18 19.48 3 1 2 4 38.63 37.09 37.86 4 2 1 3 30.85 34.65 32.75 1 4 2 3 47.79 43.14 45.47 2 3 1 4 56.75 49.62 53.19 3 2 4 1 24.68 29.38 27.03 4 1 3 2 29.54 26.52 28.03 Table 2. L16 (45 )Experimental plan table and results of experiments Degrees of freedom Parameters A B C D E Sum of squares Mean of squares F Reaction temperature (o C) 3 568.9250 189.6417 17.17 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 3 1929.8293 643.2764 58.26 [Fe3+ ](mol.L-1) 3 653.2051 217.7350 19.72 [Cu2+ ](mol.L-1) 3 181.0988 60.3663 5.47 Reaction time (min) 3 657.5962 219.1987 19.85 Error 16 176.6779 11.0424 Table 3. Results ofthe analysis of variance forthe chlorination of chalcopyrite concentrate Parameters Value Level Reaction temperature (o C) 45 4 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 0.05 1 [Fe3+ ](mol.L-1) 0.2 3 [Cu2+ ](mol.L-1) 0.025 1 Reaction time (min) 120 4 Observed dissolved quantity for Cu(%) 67.86 Predicted dissolved quantity for Cu (%) 65.19 Confidence limits of prediction for Cu (%) 60.21-70.17 Table 4. Optimum working conditions and alternative working conditions fortwo differentexperimental conditions, observed and predicted dissolved quantities of Cu A B C D E 184 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. X-Ray diffractogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 2. SEM photogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate 185 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 10 20 30 40 50 0 Reaction temperature ( C) Figure 3. The effect of reaction temperature on performance statistics 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 -1 Solid-to-Liquid ratio ( g.mL ) Figure 4. The effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on performance statistics 186 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,0 0,1 0,2 [Fe 3+ 0,3 0,4 -1 ] (mol.L ) 3+ Figure 5. The effect of [Fe ] on performance statistics 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,0 0,1 0,2 2+ [Cu 0,3 0,4 -1 ] (mol.L ) Figure 6. The effect of [Cu2+] on performance statistics 187 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 20 40 60 80 100 120 Reaction time (min) Figure 7. The effect of reaction time on performance statistics 188 140 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 505 Title A name given to the resource Determination of the Optimum Conditions of the Dissolution of Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Chlorine Gas Author Author Temur, Hakan Yartası, Ahmet Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. The present work aims an experimental design based on the of Taguchi approach to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas. The ranges of experimental parameters were between 16-45 oC for reaction temperature, 0.05-0.20 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 30-120 min for reaction time, 0.027- 0.4 mol.L-1 for [Fe3+] and 0.025-0.4 mol.L-1 for [Cu2+ ]. The optimum conditions were found to be as follows: Reaction temperature (oC); 45, solid-toliquid ratio(g.mL-1); 0.05, [Fe3+](mol.L-1); 0.2, [Cu2+ ] (mol.L-1); 0,025 and reaction time(min); 120. Under these conditions, the dissolution percentage of copper from chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine was 68.44 %. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)