239 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f63ab00622fc37eba0d55a42c31a63f3.pdf cfa72d179e302ddc8842a034ca9f8b35 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Shakespeare‘s Othello: A Representation of the Clash between the Orient and the Occident Alpaslan Toker International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina English Language and Literature atoker@ibu.edu.ba Melih Karakuzu Atatùrk University, Turkey The Department of English Language mkarakuzu@hotmail.com Abstract: This paper attempts to trace how Shakespeare‘s Othello reflects the deeprooted Eurocentric ideology of the Elizabethan people and show how such views created distinctions like self vs. other, master vs. slave, civilized vs. savage, white vs. black, good vs. evil, strong vs. weak, occident vs. orient. These views had such a deep impact that many writers have portrayed the Europeans as superior and the ‗self‘ as belonging to the ‗centre‘ or ‗Occident,‘ whereas people in far-away lands are shown as inferior and the ‗other‘ belonging to the ‗margin‘ or ‗Orient‘. In Elizabethan England, African men were regarded as illiterate, barbaric, lustful womanizers who were the white man‘s property and apt to be used as servants. These views have been handed down century after century. However, in the play Othello Shakespeare breaks away from these beliefs and introduces an African man who disregards such stereotypical views and thus shocking his audience with this deviation from the norm. He presents a reality that African men are indeed polite, educated, loyal and faithful husbands. Shakespeare even makes Othello more prejudiced against his own culture than against another race. In Othello, Shakespeare sets a mood that questions the way a person sees his or herself and the world around. Shakespeare‘s depiction of Othello departs from the stereotype established by his cultural predecessors. To understand the matter well, we will have to try to define the word ‗Moor‘, explore how these oriental people were regarded in Elizabethan England and finally conclude by pointing out how Shakespeare differed from his own society and culture. The whereabouts of unknown ‗dark‘ worlds have always appealed to travelers from European. This fascination gave rise to the discovery of the oriental East via land routes and across the Mediterranean towards the Atlantic Ocean. These explorations made in pursuit of slaves, gold, ivory, slaves and resources laid the foundation for imperial intercourse through trade and travel with those mysterious lands. These European colonizers divided the world into two different sections - the West or the Occident and the East or the Orient. The relationship between the Occident and the Orient exhibited a ―relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony.‖8 Western imperialism had despised the colonized lands and their inhabitants as backward, savage as well as exotic. Therefore, the imaginary friction and geographical breach between the imperial center and its peripheries constituted the concepts of imperial superiority, attitudes and experiences. The Elizabethans considered the far-away lands, its people and culture as exotic and mysterious with all the negative attributes of darkness. Said also points out the generalized notions of the Orient, ―its strangeness, its difference, its exotic sensuousness and so forth‖9 that form the history and perceptions of the world. Othello‘s tales are very much exciting and are laden with the mystery and mysterious pleasures of the Orient. Not only do we come to learn that he was ‗sold to slavery‘, but also he faced: …cannibals that each other eat, The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads 8 9 Edward W. Said. Orientalism. London: Penguin Books,2001. p.5. Ibid.p.72 109 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Do grow beneath their shoulders. (I, ii.143-145) It is at this very point that Desdemona does ‗seriously incline‘, and at this point, too, Othello shifts his focus from himself to Desdemona. The fascination can be placed, as Kim F. Hall has stressed in her discussion of travelers‘ tales in early modern England, in ‗not only…the mysteries and ―strangeness‖ they depict but in the yet-untold marvels that they present to the potential future travelers‘ 10 wonders which expose restrained attitudes to the body. Othello himself, since, he is a part of the exotic cultures which he describes, can be regarded as Desdemona‘s ‗new-found-land‘ at this point. Said states that there is a line drawn between the East and the West11. Said and his followers voiced that the East and the West stay in a dual vicious circle: civilization versus backwardness, humanity versus barbarism, religion versus atheism and so on. In history and culture, we get to see ―European superiority over Oriental backwardness‖12 as the so-called advanced Europeans believed that the exotic oriental lands cannot have independent history or culture. Therefore, theses barbarian territories should be ruled and be under the hegemony of the Occidentals who took up the challenge of bringing civilization to those backward lands of the Orient. Othello‘s oriental characteristics and physical aura have kindled manifold divisions among the doyennes of English Literature. These Shakespearean critics have notably diverged in their views with regard to Othello‘s depiction in the play. A.C. Bradley, for example, asserts that ―in regard to the essentials of his character‖ Othello‘s race is of no importance, and that Shakespeare would have laughed if anyone had praised him on ―the accuracy of his racial psychology.‖13 G.K. Hunter and Eldred Jones have argued that Shakespeare criticizes the ongoing negative Elizabethan stereotypes of Africans by invoking them on the stage. William Hazlitt, one of the most prominent Shakespeare researchers of the early nineteenth century, seems to suggest a reason as to why Othello‘s character changes throughout the course of the play. He states that ―the nature of the Moor is noble, confiding, tender, and generous but his blood is of the most inflammable kind.‖ 14 The question of Othello‘s exact race is debatable. Historians have trouble determining who exactly the Moors were. What is known is that the Moors were people, possibly of Berber and Arab origin, settled in Northern Africa. It is learnt that in the eight century, people called Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, which contains both today‘s Spain and Portugal. They were eventually forced out of their last bastion in Southern Spain in the year 1492, which corresponds to Columbus's sailing to the New World. The word ‗Moor‘ is an obscure term mainly used in Medieval and Renaissance England to refer to the ‗Moors‘, ‗blackmoors‘, ‗Negroes‘, ‗Indians‘, or ‗Muslims‘. As critics have established, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these terms were more often used interchangeably one instead of another despite the fact that the English came to recognize the distinctions between different types of blacks. 15 European people have historically pinpointed a number of related ethnic groups as "Moors". Sometimes "Moor" is communicatively used for any person with North African origin. Some people, to whom it is applied, think of the term as irreverent and racist. Jack D‘Amico, in his introduction to The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, states that ―as an opposite in race, religion, and disposition, the Moor can be used to confirm the superiority of Western values‖16 Both the Elizabethan dramatists and audiences found the exotic stories about the Orient and its people appealing.17 The logic behind using Africa as a setting by dramatists in the Occident is that such an act, conceivably, would bring more excitement to the theatre. Shakespeare, in Titus Andronicus, introduces an evil Moor called Aaron whom we see changed towards the end and showing goodness when he pleads for his child's life. .A Moor also appears in The Merchant of Venice. He comes from the Oriental country Morocco. He is the Prince and he is a potential suitor for Portia‘s hand in marriage. Even before he arrives to make his bid for her, he becomes a subject of Portia‘s racist remarks. The dichotomy between East or the Orient and West or the Occident is emphasized once again. 10 Kim H. Hall. Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England. Cornell University Press, 1995. 11 Edward W. Said. Orientalism. p.57 12 Ibid.p.7 13 A.C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy (1904; rpt. London: Macmillan, 1941), p. 187. 14 William Hazlitt, Characters of Shakespeare's Plays. London: C.H. Reynell, 1817. 15 Antony G. Barthelemy, Black Face Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne, London: Louisiana State University Press,1987, pp. 5-17. 16 Jack D‘Amico, The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, Florida: University of South Florida Press, 1991, p. 2. 17 Eldred Jones, Othello‘s Countrymen: The African in English Renaissance Drama. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 37. 110 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Othello is often addressed as ‗the Moor‘, not with his actual name. This, on the one hand, debilitates Shakespeare‘s effort to emphasize Othello‘s race and Oriental descent, and, on the other hand, places Othello into the scheme of the stereotype, despite his honorable and special nature. Elizabethans thought of Moors as being dark strangers. They did not have a clear picture in mind, they came to know about them when Shakespeare and his contemporaries described people with darker skins as black and Moors. Virginia M. Vaughan, in her book entitled Othello. A contextual history, points out that ―blackness became so generally associated with Africa that every African seemed a black man,...the terms Moor and Negro used almost interchangeably.‖18 Therefore it is very confusing and unclear how dark the color of the Moor‘s skin in Othello actually was in Shakespeare‘s time. However, Moors were, without any doubt, regarded as being exotic and different from the Europeans themselves. It is important to mention that the Elizabethan audience had a stereotype in mind when they saw Othello being performed on the stage. Elizabethan playwrights obtained their stories about the Orient from four main sources: returning fighters who fought against the Muslims in the Medieval period; history books and published travel narratives that were available at that time; the living merchants and traders who travelled to the Orient; and, most importantly, the stories of those captives who were captured by Moorish and Turkish pirates through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare attempted to create a realistic portrait of a Moor for this protagonist. The protagonist in Cinthio‘s novella called ―Un Capitano Moro‖(―A Moorish Captain‖), is an absolute stereotype, notorious in Venice only for being black, jealous, and vengeful. Shakespeare‘s protagonist is not only liberally complex but also individualized and differentiated from Venetian society in his posture, and, most importantly, his language, with its unusual poetical rhythms, splendor, and eccentricity. Moreover, Lois Whitney claims that many of Othello‘s specific attributes probably were derived from Shakespeare‘s reading of Leo Africanus‘s, Geographical Historie of Africa.19 Othello‘s Oriental aura and his otherness delighted the exclusively white European people. In the same way the Barbary ambassador to the Queen, Abdel Ouahed bin Messaoud with his sixteen delegates, used to draw attention from Londoners with their native dresses, customs and behavior. This Moorish ambassador sometimes was claimed as an inspiration for Othello. Although Othello is set in Venice and Cyprus, the sentiments and values shared in the text by the members of Venetian society are probably reflective of the attitudes and values of Shakespeare's own society. During the time Othello was written, the English were becoming more and more conscious of the presence of other races in the world. People started travelling a lot and in Europe, blacks were beginning to be used for the slave trade. Othello contains one of the most powerful, disputable representations of the black other in Elizabethan drama. The portrayal of the Moor in Othello, oftentimes contradictory, surfaces the wide-spread racial attitudes of the time period, and has continued to generate insight into removing social disagreements throughout the centuries since its performance. Despite Othello‘s unclear true race, his status as a foreigner or outsider truly influences the racial effects of the play. Being from a different race meant, for the most part, being an Other, non-English, as well as non-Christian. This utter otherness can also be seen in the subtitle of the play itself (The Moor of Venice), which describes the main character not in terms of his social role but only in terms of race. Interestingly enough, in spite of his Oriental background Othello is initially considered honorable; but when race is associated with multiracial sexual and marital unions that it turns into a passionate sentimental issue for the Venetians, and for the members of the audience in the seventeenth century. It may be assumed that, because Othello kills his wife Desdemona after the shrewd plots of Iago, then perhaps Othello is as much as a victim of Iago's evil designs and Desdemona is as much as Othello's extreme anger. Some may protest that Iago‘s plot to prepare the downfall of the Moor is much more worse because it stems out of a diabolical, calculating mind, as opposed to Othello‘s sin, which is committed because he has become a mere pawn in Iago's hands, blinded by injury, destroyed by his own candor. However, it can be 18 Virginia M. Vaughan, Othello: A Contextual History, Cambridge: CUP, p.64. Leo Africanus‘s book Geographical Historie of Africa was originally written in Arabic. It was collected and translated into English by John Pory in 1600. It has been suggested that William Shakespeare may have been inspired by Leo Africanus' book to create the character of Othello. 19 111 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo claimed that Othello allows himself to be manipulated. Iago's suggestions of Desdemona‘s infidelity only supplies the alibi Othello needs to justify the murder of the wife, who he believes, cannot sincerely love him. It can be argued that Desdemona's murder is a result of Othello's pride and rush to judgment and, as a result, he must be held responsible for his action. Unlike Iago, Othello, has the potential to form strong, loving and affectionate relationships; his sincere friendship with Iago substantiates this fact. Othello allows Iago to influence him, and allows Iago to bring out his most evil characteristics from. Although Iago may be the one with the more innately evil nature, Othello does not do much to prevent his base instincts taking control over him. In order to find out why Othello commits his crime and why he should be hold responsible for it, we have to analyze the hidden intention behind it. It may not be wrong to claim that what actually prompts Othello to commit murder is not his being mentally impaired and manipulated by Iago, but rather his pride and lack of confidence which he allows him to gain control. Othello is a strong leader, very assertive in his ability to cope with military matters, but when it comes to personal qualities he is uncertain and hesitant. He has arrived in a new city with different customs, but he is not well-aware of it. He has a new young and beautiful bride, whom he loves. He is quite puzzled as to why Desdemona would choose him for a husband, and can only bring one possible explanation, "She lov'd me for the dangers I had pass'd." (1.3.167) Shakespeare is emphasizing the well-known fact that Othello greatly differs from the society he lives in. Desdemona‘s murder, as critics say, is significant in the sense that it helps Othello‘s innate barbaric nature resurface. It is a well-established fact that Othello is an honorary white. He certainly is pretty conscious of the prevailing prejudice in Venice and certainly must question why Desdemona would disregard her culture and fellow white Venetians by marrying a black man. Othello is in doubts about Desdemona before Iago starts his act of conspiracy. Despite the fact that his wife shows nothing but genuine love for him, Othello cannot wholeheartedly believe in her love. Othello is going to speculate that Desdemona's tenderness and virtue alone make her to fall in love with the unlovable and the unlikable. When Iago does rupture Othello‘s whimsical image of Desdemona, he is just fueling what Othello, deep down, believes to be totally probable: that Desdemona could very well love another man. Iago dexterously argues that Desdemona is pretty much capable of betrayal because she has already shown it by betraying her own race. At the outset of the play we are informed that Brabantio willingly lets him enter his house before he elopes with Desdemona. It is only after their inconceivable marriage that he employs this discriminatory attitude. Therefore, it is Desdemona who becomes the reason for his isolation. The matrimonial union of a black man and a white woman is not welcome in Venetian society. Desdemona shattered Othello‘s precarious entrance into the world of white people. This also accommodates Iago‘s attacks against Desdemona and the workings of racism. In Othello‘s last speech, he contrasts himself with a Turk. The way Othello‘s character is depicted stands in strong contrast with the previously categorized Europeans‘ view of the Moor. Shakespeare does not only reject presenting Othello as the devilish Moor, but arguably introduces him as the protector of Christendom against invasion. Othello is a Christian. Othello is to going to defend Cyprus against the ―General enemy Ottoman‖ (I, iii, 49). He is an essential part of Venetian civic society. He is highly sought after by the duke and senate, as proven by Cassio‘s remark that the senate ―sent about three several quests‖ to look for Othello (I.ii.46). The Venetian government entrusts Othello with martial and political command in Cyprus. However, Othello shows his nobility by abandoning his sweet newlywedded bride‘s chamber to join the conflict without hesitation. The play's action shows how deep is the affection shared by Othello and Desdemona. Through the exotic and mesmerizing power of Othello's poetry and Iago‘s treachery, Shakespeare invites his audiences to locate the true color of villainy. Marjorie Garber, in her book Shakespeare After All, comments on how Shakespeare depicted his Moor, first giving him noble qualities then making him boil with jealousy and rage afterwards. She goes on to say that ―here then is the key dramatic point, one typically Shakespearean at the same time establishing and critiquing a stereotype: Othello looks black, but it is Iago who become the pole of moral negativity (conventionally, blackness) in the play.‖20 20 Marjorie Garber, Shakespeare After All, Random House, 2004, p.592. 112 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Othello murders Desdemona under the pretence of righteous outrage and will not reveal his true motive. When Othello discovers that Desdemona is absolutely pure and innocent, as the enforcer of justice he is left no choice but to commit suicide. Justice must be served and rendered, this time upon himself. Due to Othello's genuine repentance and subsequent suicide, we should not place him on the same level of villainy as Iago. But, in the meantime, his feelings of remorse after the act of cruel murder cannot be enough to exonerate him. Othello has a responsibility to give a chance to Desdemona to confront the charge of adultery. He chooses to ignore that obligation in order to satisfy his own fixations. Shakespeare‘s play Othello is, after all, about a great man whose tragedy lies in his insistent romantic belief that the world is wholly good, that his "perfect soul" will protect him from prejudice, and that lago could not possibly be dishonest. Yet even he sees, too late, that a devil like lago can never be killed, only acknowledged. Othello is allowed to join the so-called Venetian society and enjoyed the words of compliment and bravery like ‗valiant Moor‘, ‗brave Moor‘, ‗warlike Moor‘, ‗the Moor my lord‘ and ‗Moor…a full soldier‘, uttered by the leading personalities of the society. Emily Bartels holds that Othello is ‗so integrated into Venetian society that he can set the terms of both military and social action.‘ 21 However, it is when he dares to marry a white woman that he becomes subject to discriminatory behavior from the very people who praised him with their words of flattery. He thought he could blend into this white Occidental society, but, it is when he becomes a pawn in Iago‘s hands, boils with rage and jealousy that his barbaric nature surfaces and he becomes the stereotyped Oriental character that Shakespeare tries very hard to keep him away from. Othello surrenders himself to the prison of race he thought he had escaped. Othello is a professional soldier and he is well aware of his responsibilities as the Commander of the Venetian military. As Shakespeare shows, Othello himself is quite the reverse of the stereotypical ―lusty Moor‖. To respond to the call of arms, he delays his wedding-night happiness without hesitation, almost welcoming it in a curious way. Shakespeare is demonstrating his firm belief in merit and in the equivalence of great minds but the play is also a testimony that a happy outcome should not to be expected in an unromantic world. G.K. Hunter and Eldred Jones, in particular, have argued that Shakespeare invokes the negative Elizabethan stereotypes of Africans only to discredit them. Critics have not arrived at any sort of consensus about the role of race in Othello, despite the fact that the topic of racism continues to be one of the most prevailing issues about the play. The Shakespearean scholars greatly deviate in their treatment of Othello. Coleridge honored Othello as ―noble, generous, open-hearted, unsuspicious and unsuspecting.‖22 Indebted to Coleridge, A.C. Bradley‘s character analysis, even though it is a very much contested assessment of Othello, has been central. Bradley excessively idealizes the Moor as a romantic figure: Othello is, in one sense of the word, by far the most romantic figure among Shakespeare‘s heroes; and he is so partly from the strange life of war and adventure which he has lived from childhood. He does not belong to our world, and he seems to enter it we know not whence – almost as if from wonderland. There is something mysterious in his descent from men of royal siege; in his wanderings in vast deserts and among marvelous peoples… 23 However, through his tender and caring portrayal of Othello, Martin Orkin and Emily C. Bartels state that Shakespeare was criticizing racism, and putting the blame on his society for its racist behavior . It is safe to say as we are drawing our conclusion that Shakespeare made daring and intrepid attempts to bridge the gap between the Orient and the Occident by bestowing on his hero qualities like nobility, eloquent diction, sobriety, and trustworthy that were only thought possible in white men. He also places him in an important position of as a commander of the Venetian military. He enters the play as ‗noble‘ and ‗valiant‘ Moor and exits as a ‗blacker devil‘ and ‗erring Barbarian.‘ 21 Emily C. Bartels, in her article entitled Othello and Africa: Postcolonialism Reconsidered published in The William and Mary Quarterly magazine in 1997, comments on Othello‘s elevated status in the Venetian society. 22 Coleridge‘s Shakespearean Criticism; edited by Thomas Middleton Raysor, Harvard University Press, 1930. p.227. 23 A.C.Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy. Penguin (Non Classics), 1991.p.153 113 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bartels, E.C. (1997). Othello and Africa: Postcolonialism Reconsidered. The William and Mary Quarterly. Barthelemy, A.G. (1987). Black Face Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne, London: Louisiana State University Press. D‘Amico, J. (1991). The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, Florida: University of South Florida Press. Garber, M. (2004). Shakespeare After All, Random House. Hall, K. H. (1995). Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England. Cornell University Press, Bradley, A.C. (1941). Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Macmillan. Hazlitt, W. (1817). Characters of Shakespeare's Plays. London: C.H. Reynell. Johannes, L.Africanus, Pory, J. (1993). A Geographical Historie of Africa. Jones Research & Pub Co. Jones, E. (1965). Othello‘s Countrymen: The African in English Renaissance Drama. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Raysor, T.M.(1930). Coleridge‘s Shakespearean Criticism. Harvard University Press. Said, E.W. (2001). Orientalism. London: Penguin Books. Vaughan, M.V.(1994). Othello: A Contextual History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 114 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 20 Title A name given to the resource Shakespeare‘s Othello: A Representation of the Clash between the Orient and the Occiden Author Author Toker, Alpaslan Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper attempts to trace how Shakespeare‘s Othello reflects the deeprooted Eurocentric ideology of the Elizabethan people and show how such views created distinctions like self vs. other, master vs. slave, civilized vs. savage, white vs. black, good vs. evil, strong vs. weak, occident vs. orient. These views had such a deep impact that many writers have portrayed the Europeans as superior and the ‗self‘ as belonging to the ‗centre‘ or ‗Occident,‘ whereas people in far-away lands are shown as inferior and the ‗other‘ belonging to the ‗margin‘ or ‗Orient‘. In Elizabethan England, African men were regarded as illiterate, barbaric, lustful womanizers who were the white man‘s property and apt to be used as servants. These views have been handed down century after century. However, in the play Othello Shakespeare breaks away from these beliefs and introduces an African man who disregards such stereotypical views and thus shocking his audience with this deviation from the norm. He presents a reality that African men are indeed polite, educated, loyal and faithful husbands. Shakespeare even makes Othello more prejudiced against his own culture than against another race Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c596664a86f12128270aedf48997549.pdf 0b5ef5489d706ef8bf3478874b7c8c9f PDF Text Text INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE SHAKESPEARE’S FEMINISM vs. 20th CENTURY FEMINISM GRADUATE PROJECT by Raisa Bušatlić Project Supervisor Dr. Shahab Yar Khan SARAJEVO December, 2010 �SHAKESPEARE’S FEMINISM vs. 20th CENTURY FEMINISM Raisa Bušatlić MA, English language and literature, 2010 Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language and literature INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY 2010 �INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE SHAKESPEARE’S FEMINISM vs. 20th CENTURY FEMINISM Raisa Bušatlić APPROVED BY: Dr. Shahab Yar Khan University of Sarajevo ... Assoc. Prof. Dr. Azamat Akbarov International Burch University … Prof. Dr. Gunay Karly International Burch University … APPROVAL DATE: �SHAKESPEARE’S FEMINISM vs. 20th CENTURY FEMINISM Abstract We know very little about William Shakespeare. What we do know for a fact: he is a social phenomena, his name echoes everywhere. He is celebrated as a local poet all over the world. In the history of mankind no writer has enjoyed so much prosperity and reception. In this work I have presented one aspect of his work, his attitude towards womenhood in socal, political, and emotional context. Through few plays I emphasized Shakespeare's approach towards philosophy of life, not only when he spoke about women; life in his case has levels which are being reached, and his heroins proove this easily. Finally, this work will explain feminism through heroism in Shakespearean drama, studying similarities and differencies within this age, history, and Shakespeare's universal era. Key words: feminism, womenhood, universalities �Acknowledgements Nothing is its own excuse for being, everything happens for a reason. This is the important thing I’ve learned from my supervisor, Dr. Shahab Yar Khan, and he is the first person to whom I have to say “Thank You”. I am deeply grateful to him for letting me “use” his mind to the maximum. I have to thank the International Burch University, my professors there, and especially my colleagues from the class for being patient with the only woman among them, and the youngest one as well. Moreover, many thanks to kind employees who led me through this process, even though I wasn’t the easiest student to handle. Many thanks to my dearest ones for all the support and sacrifices, patience and encouragement... My parents, my sister, and my love… �If I would choose any earthly reason for dong this it would be to please You… To my dearest ones… �Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ iii 1. Inroduction .............................................................................................................. 2. Historical Background of Faminism .................................................................... 2.1. Three Waves of Feminism …………………………………………………. 2.2. Important Documents Regarding Women’s Rights ……………………….. 3. “As You Like It” – Character of Rosalind …………………………………... 3.1. Creation of Rosalind’s Character and its Importance………………………. 3.2. Purpose of the Play ………………………………………………………… 4. “Macbeth” – Character of Lady Macbeth……………………………………. 4.1. Iron Lady or Disatrium? ………………………………………………….. 5. “King Lear” – Character of Cordelia ............................................................... �5.1. Cordelia – Machiavellian or Christfigure? ……………………………….. 6. “Hamlet” – Character of Ophelia …………………………………………… 6.1. Ophelia’s Frailty …………………………………………………………. 7. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….. References ……………………………………………………………………….. Curriculum Vitae …………………………………………………………………. ��Chapter 1 Introduction The best thing about being a woman is to feel like one. “Ţene su narod za sebe.” (Talmud, 1982) Translation of this sentence is: “Women are nation for itself.” While reading Talmud one afternoon I came across this sentence, which is, in a way simple, yet so complex; depends who, and why is one reading it. Some crazy feminist would probably categorize this sentence as anti feminist statement, and just the thought of it makes me angry. If we have in mind perfect literary works, sacred books, like Koran, Bible, or any of Shakespeare’s works, we cannot fail to observe the fact that women have been placed on a golden throne ever since the Earth felt human feet on its surface. O mankind! Surely We have created you of a male and a female, and made you tribes and families that you may know each other; … (Kur’an s prevodom, 1991) This means that male and female complement each other in numerous ways; in mental, physical, and emotional qualities. Women in Islam, as in any other religion, are seen as independent, and self-reliant individuals, therefore, this challenges the traditional view of Islamic family structure, and her position in Islamic society in general. For those more suspicious ones these words will say everything: “O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you… Do treat your women well and be kind to them…” (Last Sermon, Prophet Muhammad a.s.) Words spoken centuries ago, by Prophet, make such a great impact on us. The thing that troubles me is that human beings found the way to ruin sacredness of existence, whether it is male or female existence. For example, word mankind ruins sacredness of female existence. Does this word mean woman is kind of a man?! I’m not trying to say that the word should be womankind, but it is a simple fact that some other languages found better solutions for this specific word, like Bosnian language – čovječanstvo – it is more neutral. Does this mean that West had less sensitivity when equality, in every sense, is concerned? Of course! �Here is another example: Olympic Games, or better to call those, a farce. There we have a proof so obvious that I can’t perceive why nobody spoke about this. Why do we have separate disciplines, male and female disciplines, at the Olympics, if men and women are equal? Even though, in this writing, I’m ode to “defend” women, I have to point out that not only men are to blame for farce of this kind – women are to be blamed too. It is women’ attempt to compete men in every section of life: military, sports, cooking, baby sitting … It is simply unnatural. Men and women keep forgetting one thing, and that is Balance. If God wanted He could have created us the same, but He obviously had other plans, and hypocritical West can’t realize this, not even in 21st century. Moreover, from 12th to 15th century, women played an important role in foundation of many Islamic educational institutions; it means women were educated, they were business women, like Muhammad’s wife, Khadijah, or hadith scholars and military leaders like his other wife, Aisha; while in West, women were shadowed, and had to fight, even for their natural rights. However, lesbian – feminists dare to criticize everything mentioned, including Shakespeare. Having a pure and opened mind, I decided to write my paper on “Shakespeare’ feminism vs. 20th century feminism”, hoping I’ll free some other minds and souls, giving them opportunity to enjoy natural balance of male and female figures in Shakespeare, as well as in life itself. While the West was sleeping, and women were poisoned by the “tradition”, “About three hundred years ago William Shakespeare, not knowing what to do with his characters, turned them out to play in the woods, let a girl masquerade as a boy and amused himself with speculating on the effect of feminine curiosity freed for an hour from feminine dignity.” (Bloom, 1999) This is what I want to talk about in my paper, about unconventional Shakespeare, about his female characters, about genius that created us, because: … Shakespeare’s function is to bring life to mind, to make us aware of what we could not find without Shakespeare. (Bloom, 1999) Before I start writing about Shakespeare’ plays, I have to give short historical background of feminism, just so comparison between history, presence, and mindset of Shakespeare could be made. ��Chapter 2 Historical background of Feminism Feminism is the belief that women should have political, social, sexual, intellectual and economic rights equal to those of men. According to some, the history of feminism can be divided into three waves; the first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s, and the third extends from the 1990s to the present. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape; for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination. Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". 2.1. Three Waves of Feminism The first wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The second wave refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of, secondwave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. 2.2. Important documents regarding women’s rights American women gained right to women' vote from 1920s. In 1918 the British Parliament finally passed a bill allowing women over the age of 30 to vote. In 1928 the age limit was lowered to 21. Women first won the right to vote in New Zealand in 1893, in Australia in 1902, and �in Finland in 1906, preceding the United States and Britain in affirming full voting rights. Different conventions, agreements, and documents were signed, ratified and came into force, in order to protect rights of women, even though those rights are guarantied by the low of Nature. Some of those documents are: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). This document is described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3rd of September 1981. The United States is the only developed nation that has not ratified the CEDAW. Maputo Protocol is The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa. It was adopted by the African Union on 11th of July 2003. The term women's rights, refers to freedoms and entitlements of women and girls of all ages. These rights may or may not be institutionalized, ignored or suppressed by law, local custom, and behavior in a particular society, but we were born with those. �Chapter 3 “As You Like It” – Character of Rosalind When talking about Shakespearean feminism it is inevitable to start from his play „As You Like It“, and his famous female character, Rosalind. Shakespearean women are almost without exception faithfull as wives, as lovers, as servants, regardless of changes in circumstances. Shakespearean men may well, as we know, waverand change, forsaking parents, siblings, wives, lovers, and masters. But the women are almost always ready to take risks, leave name, put on a new and dangerous identity, to serve those to whom they have pledged themselves. (Schalkwyk, 2008) 3.1. Creation of Rosalind’s Character and its Importance Shakespeare wrote this play for personal reasons. If “Hamlet” was written for his son, than “As You Like It” was written for his daughter. This is the first objective reason why this play cannot be anti feministic. Shakespeare gave Rosalind strong and powerful mind, so she can easily be compared to Hamlet and his mental capacities. Every sentence given to Rosalind, by Shakespeare, is meaningful and intellectual, starting from her humor. Rosalind is the only character in the play to whom Shakespeare gave intellectual kind of humor, and she is a female character in comparison to Touchstone’ professional humor, and Jaques’ melancholic, dark humor. This is one of the reasons why this play is significant, and it has to be said that, Shakespeare, by no means, harmed female mind. Rosalind dominates this play. As George Bernard Shaw said: Rosalind matters to us… (Bloom, 1999) for three reasons: 1. She speaks blank verse only for a few lines; Rosalind speaks to us in prose, and that is Shakespeare’ greatest achievement, because this was prose heard for the first time. Prose makes this play the most understandable one. After 450 years, we still speak this way. �It must not be forgotten that a woman, Rosalind, was the first to speak this way. The conclusion emerges: Shakespeare liberated women’ minds from the boundaries of those days tradition, he liberated intellect of nowadays women. Shakespeare created emancipated woman. 2. She wore skirt for few moments. Rosalind matters to us for another reason: we dress like her. She was the first woman to wear men’ clothing with pride. This is where Shakespeare put the sign of equality between men and women. Maybe, nowadays, this doesn’t seam like something special, but in 1597/98 it was of a great significance. Truth is: If femininity and masculinity have any permanent validity, it exists independent of the clothes society ordains for men and women to wear… a woman in disguise, or the masculine woman in breeches, is changed by her male dress only because it allows her to express a part of her nature which society suppresses in the interest of that narrow femininity… Disguise makes a woman not a man, but a more developed woman. (Dussinbere, 1975) 3. Finally, she made love to a man, instead of waiting for a man to make love to her. Genius, Shakespeare, liberated sexuality of a woman. It is sad that his message isn’t completely understood in 21st century; however, he gave us sexual power. In my opinion, the purpose of the play is to explain men – women relationship: ...that between you and women the play may please... (Shakespeare, 1996) This play was not written to glorify women and degrade men, nor the other way around, but to give an example of how things should look like. Just like Prophet, Shakespeare gives us instructions for future. His every play can be applied to any time. Every period sees something of its own interest in Shakespeare’ plays and characters; Elizabethans and Victorians were not exception, nor are we today. �3.2. Purpose of the Play Shakespearean dramas often attribute cunning intellect, calculated control and enigmatic beauty to his female protagonists. (Bence, 2001) Shakespeare was and still is beyond conventions. Rosalind who was then unconventional for an houris now the convention of an epoche. (Bloom, 1999) As far as this play is concerned, he went against one of the two main principles of drama; he gave woman the power and asignement of chorus, he left her sum up the play, he gave her epilogue: It is not the fashion to see the lady the epilogue; but it is no more unhandsome than to see the lord the prologue... (Shakespeare, 1996) As professor Khan said, her epilogue comes out of the mouth of 20th century feminist, not Elizabethan. Fascinating. Rosalind is a joyous representative of life’s possible freedoms… (Bloom, 1999), and depiction of modern women, us. �Chapter 4 “Macbeth” – Character of Lady Macbeth It is absolutely fabulous how Shakespeare portrayed his heroines. It is certain that he knew origin of female character and its essence. His every heroine represents one aspect of a woman which is undeniably there, hidden or obvious, but still incorporated in a woman by her birth and knowledge of the world. I can’t decide which one of Shakespeare’ heroines I like the most, but it is certain that all of them deserve respect. Talking and writing about Lady Macbeth would be so easy if I could only gather my thoughts. So many things I have to say about IRON LADY. 4.1. Iron Lady or Disatrium? While reading some “feministic” criticism, which I will not bother to mention here, concerning Lady Macbeth as a female character, and Macbeth as a play and character, I couldn’t stop wondering; am I being too pretentious when calling myself a feminist, or so called feminists lost their sense of femininity, so they are categorizing Macbeth as anti feministic play. Then I came to a conclusion: not every soul has the capacity to see behind, and not every feminist is a lesbian. However, Lady Macbeth is so impressive female character of Shakespeare. She is ambitious, passionate, brave, and she deserves our respect; but most of all, her role is the leading one because Macbeth needs her. She moves his mind. So, not only has Shakespeare equalized man and woman, but he put woman ahead of man. Still, we cannot forget that: …with surpassing irony Shakespeare presents them as the happiest married couple in all his work. (Bloom, 1999) Shakespeare surpassed those days patriarchal system and he showed true love of a man for a woman. We can clearly see that in a letter that Macbeth sent to his lady, where he called her: …my dearest partner of greatness… (Shakespeare, 1996) �Besides that Shakespeare made Lady Macbeth an expert in speech: … yet do I fear thy nature; It is too full o’th’ milk of human kindness To catch the nearest way: thou wouldst be great; Art not without ambition; but without The illness should attend it: what thou wouldst highly; That wouldst thou holily, wouldst not play false, ... ... ... …That I may pour my spirits in thine ear;… (Shakespeare, 1996) No misogynist could give such speech to a woman. Shakespeare made intellectual, competent, strong, and authoritative woman who spoke philosophy. Not only she made herself “big” by her statements and acts, but Macbeth speaks of her as the great one: Bring forth men – children only; For thy undaunted mettle should compose Nothing but males… (Shakespeare, 1996) This is Scottish/Irish context and it means that Lady Macbeth is a woman who is greater than women. Macbeth glorifies her, he admires her. Macbeth’ psychological life depends on Lady Macbeth; Psychologically and spiritually she is more potent. (Khan, 2008) Since Lady Macbeth looks scary, at least in the beginning of the play, and as professor Khan says: “inhuman”, I feel obliged to elaborate on her femininity which she tried to conceive. �… Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here; And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full of direst cruelty! Make thick my blood, Stop up th’ access and passage to remorse, ... ... ... …Come to my woman’s breasts, And take my milk for gall, you murd’ring minisTers, … (Shakespeare, 1996) It has to be understood that Lady Macbeth would not invoke evil spirits to come into her if she was evil in her nature. Shakespeare did not take away her femininity. He gave her consistency and ambition. Even her cruelest sentences like: I would, while it was smiling in my face, Have pluckt my nipple from his boneless gums, And dasht the brains out… (Shakespeare, 1996) preceeded with lines like: I have given suck, and know How tender 'tis to love the babe that milks me: ... (Shakespeare, 1996) Just like professor Khan said: … a woman is the symbol of life and care… (Khan, 2008) Shakespeare didn’t deny that part of Lady Macbeth’ personality, but he emphasized her ambition and consistency. With these lines she was persuading Macbeth to proceed with their plan. She was manipulative, and she didn’t choose means to gain her goal. Moreover, Shakespeare didn’t deny her feminine weakness, or better to say her humanity: �Ark! The crime is not done Hath he not resemble my father I could have done it myself. (Shakespeare, 1996) Clearly, she is making excuses not to commit a murder. This is perfectly normal state of mind. Guilty conscience made her weak: Out, damned spot! out I say! One, two; ... ... ... Here is the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand… (Shakespeare, 1996) She is a very complex character, and as professor Khan said, it is in her character that in her weakest moments she can stop the agony of her life with only one determined strike. (Khan, 2008) Great woman! �Chapter 5 “King Lear” – Character of Cordelia “Today is to be decided…” (Shakespeare, 1996) if the play “King Lear” should be categorized as misogynist play. Shakespeare’ tragedy “King Lear” is often criticized by feminists for its supposed misogyny, but opposing patriarchal and feminine notions prove exactly the opposite. One would underestimate Shakespeare by saying such nonsense. To prove that Shakespeare pictured strong female characters, I will analyze this play through character of Cordelia. In hope that my words, some day, will be taken as positive, true, feministic theory, I will try to convince poisoned female minds, and say that very few men in the world will have negative concept of women in their minds, unless women make them think so by their constant effort to find “humiliating statements” spoken or written by men and concerning women. Dear ladies, expand your horizons. Cordelia appears in the play only few times, but the impression she leaves is long and permanent. She is not representative of mercy, but morality. Everything about Cordelia is love full, starting from her name: “cor” which means heart, or “cordel” which means one that unites. She is totally “love personified”. (Khan, 2009) Shakespeare made her, from the very beginning, such a symbolic character. Only a very crazy person can say that Lear is misogynist. How can hatred exist in a father – daughter relationship? It is not possible, and the text proves my point: Now, our joy, Although our last, not least, to whose young love the vines of France and milk of Burgundy Strive to be interest; … (Shakespeare, 1996) Before these lines were spoken, Lear spoke to his other two daughters: Goneril, Our eldest – born, speak first. (Shakespeare, 1996) �and Our dearest Regan, wife to Cornwall? Speak. (Shakespeare, 1996) It is more than obvious that Lear loves Cordelia the most. He changed the tone and vocabulary when he spoke to her. So, by no means Lear is misogynist. Shakespeare gave to Cordelia only 16 years and a very strong mind. When Lear asked her what she had to say concerning her love for him, her answer was: Nothing, my lord. (Shakespeare, 1996) Lear loved her so much that he gave her more than one chance to “mend her speech”, but she stayed persistent in her decision, and proved feminine determinacy and morality. Shakespeare gave her very honest and truthful speech: I love your majesty According to my bond; nor more nor less. ... ... ... Good my lord, You have begot me, bred me, loved me: I Return those duties back as are right fit, Obey you, love you, and most honor you: Hoply when I shall wed, That lord whose hand must take my plight shall carry Half my love with him, half my care and duty: Sure, I shall never merry like my sisters, To love my father all. (Shakespeare, 1996) This is so beautiful speech. She remained faithful to her heart. She thought her sisters’ speeches were hypocritical, and she didn’t want to deliver one like they did. �This can, also, be explained as Machiavellism, because we can suppose that she was in love with king of France. Anyway, Shakespeare portrayed Cordelia as strong, love full and honest person. She might not be willing to respect “code of mannerism” (Khan, 2009), and speak the way one speaks to a king, but the point is that she could not be different. Even, when her father banished her from England: Here I disclaim all my parental care, ... ... ... thou my sometimes daughter. (Shakespeare, 1996) she only wanted to explain her “sin”: I’ll do’ t before I speak, - that you make known It is no vicious blot, murder, or foulness, No unchaste action, or dishonour'd step,… (Shakespeare, 1996) These words gave Cordelia even bigger reputation, and king of France was impressed. His statements like: She is herself a dowry., or Love is not love When it is mingled with regards that stand Aloof from the entire point., (Shakespeare, 1996) show that in only few minutes Shakespeare gave respect, honor, love, and a title of a queen to a female character. I am sure that this proves my point. There is another fact that proves Lear’s true love for Cordelia. He wanted to marry her to Burgundy and not to King of France because he wanted her to be close to him, always. Even �when he banished her from country, he offered her to Duke of Burgundy, just to keep her close to him. 5.1. Cordelia – Machiavellian or Christ figure? Shakespeare gave Cordelia the power to be everything. At the beginning of the play she was Machiavellian (but not in negative context – Shakespeare created characters who are positive Machiavellians), then she left the play, and when she came back it was to restore balance in the kingdom. She fought for the cause which was not entirely hers, that is why critics properly called her “CHRIST FIGURE”. She fought for the cause for which she suffered, but she was mindful of a great sacrifice: We are not the first Who, with best meaning, have incurr'd the worst. (Shakespeare, 1996) The woman is not harmed in this play. Great tribute that Shakespeare gave to a woman/Cordelia is Lear’s kneeling and begging for her forgiveness. But, “Cordelia’s feminine modesty is active and heroic” (Fernie, 2002), and Shakespeare gave a suggestion that “men should learn shame from women.” (Fernie, 2002) When Lear asked Cordelia for forgiveness, his ego was not functioning. “Since there is no self, there’s no ego. Lear’s self has Cordelia’s self, and reversely. Without erasing ego there’s no love.” (Khan, 2009) In the end, when Cordelia dies, Shakespeare’s intention is clear; “she may die, but her purpose of life becomes her essence.” (Khan 2009) That essence will continue through a man, Edgar. From her very first sentence and after her death Shakespeare portrayed Cordelia as a great woman, and this play must not be argued as misogyny. �Chapter 6 “Hamlet” – Character of Ophelia When the time came to write about “Hamlet”, or to be more precise, Ophelia, I felt very uncomfortable. She is a kind of a woman that makes my heart sorrowful and her destiny makes me very angry. She is the symbol of humbleness, as professor Khan says, but he also suggested that her being humble, very often, transmits into being weak. She is gentle, mild, submissive, obedient, and fragile. These are all human qualities, in general, but a woman should own them to some extend. Everything else is about being post of society. If the line: “Frailty, thy name is woman.” Has double meaning, than this other, negative one, can easily be applied to Ophelia. I cannot ignore the fact that Ophelia was only 16, she was a teenager, insecure, childish, innocent. Professor Khan said that her innocence gives to her character such a charm, that despite her frailty, she is so lovely. (Khan, 2008) 6.1. Ophelia’s Frailty I appreciate professor Khan’s comment so much, because he described Ophelia’s character in very positive manner. Ophelia was not sure about anything; she didn’t even know if she loved Hamlet, or not, she didn’t know herself primarily. However, I have to justify her – she was a teenager in pursuit of happiness – in pursuit of “self”. Some people spend their entire life trying to discover the essence of their own life and don’t �manage to discover it, that is why we cannot blame a 16 year old girl for being weak and not revealing the “only truth”. She is not passionate like Cordelia, but maybe, just maybe, she didn’t want something so badly like Cordelia did. If she was passionate enough about anything, the action would be certain. We cannot underestimate her character if we have in mind her estimation of Hamlet’ character: courtier, soldier, scholar, an example of all Denmark. Character of Ophelia can’t be fully analyzed without Hamlet. He is the reason for her tragic outcome. Critic described him as: A hero who pragmatically can be regarded as a villain: cold, murderous, solipsistic, nihilistic, and manipulative. (Bloom, 1999) Each of these characteristics influenced and helped Ophelia’s madness, and finally, her tragedy. In Act I, Scene III we have obvious example of Ophelia’s childishness. Leartes tried to worn her about Hamlet: For Hamlet and the trifling of his favor Hold it a fashion, a toy in blood; A violet in thy youth of primy nature, Forward, not permanent, sweet, not lasting, The perfume and suppliance of a minute; No more. (Shakespeare, 1996) Ophelia didn’t believe that love was just that; she laughed. Every word Leartes had spoken came out to be truth. It seams like Leartes knew Hamlet better than anyone else. Shakespeare created a character who would protect Ophelia, but the only person from whom he couldn’t protect her was Hamlet, because Hamlet was a King. How innocent was Ophelia to think, in one moment, that she loves Hamlet, when in other she in other she is so scared of him: Lord Hamlet, with his doublet all unbraced; No hat upon his head; his stockings foul'd, �Ungarter'd, and down-gyved to his ancle; Pale as his shirt; his knees knocking each other; And with a look so piteous in purport As if he had been loosed out of hell To speak of horrors,-- (Shakespeare, 1996) How can a person that you “love” so much scare you that way. Indeed, she was not only childish, but childishly confused. One group of critics said that Hamlet went to Ophelia after meeting ghost of his father, because he needed a word of consolation, and these critics would blame Ophelia because of not saying anything. Other critics said that Hamlet went there on purpose, to give an impression that he is mad. He appeared to her as a mad man, so she could tell that to her father, Polonius to King and Queen; so Hamlet would gain his aim. Ophelia was used by Hamlet. Hamlet is not the only one who used Ophelia; Polonius and king used her too. Two of them agreed to set a meeting between Hamlet and Ophelia where she was suppose to prove that Hamlet is m ad because of love letter he allegedly wrote to her. When they saw each other they hugged, and for a second, Ophelia forgot the purpose of her being there: My lord, I have remembrance of yours That I have longed long to re-deliver; I pray you, now receive them. (Shakespeare, 1996) But Hamlet, superior mind, knew that something was going on: No, not I; I never gave you aught. (Shakespeare, 1996) Now Ophelia changed her mood and gave Hamlet idea something was wrong. After this, Hamlet turned to be very violent. He pushed Ophelia and he insulted her by saying: �Get thee to a nunnery: why wouldst thou be a breeder of sinners? … He literally pushed her to madness. God has given you one face, and you make yourselves another: you jig, you amble, and you lisp… (Shakespeare, 1996) She is innocent and 16, so we cannot believe Hamlet. If we remember description of his father, that Hamlet gave to us, or his accusations of Claudius, than we are aware of his exaggeration. Professor Khan divided this play into two parts: 1. before “About, my brain!”, which he calls emotional part, and 2. after “About, my brain!” which is, according to Khan, intellectual part. (Khan, 2008) The way he spoke to Ophelia I can only describe and categorize as his emotional crises. This was Hamlet’s state between “To be” and “Not to be”. When the “player scene” took place I realized that Shakespeare’ design was very clear: Hamlet was designed as deranged person, with deranged mind. (Khan, 2008) Hamlet: Lady, shall I lie in your lap? Ophelia: No, my lord. ... ... ... Hamlet: I could interpret between you and your love, if I could see the puppets dallying.” Ophelia: You are keen, my lord, you are keen! Hamlet: It would cost you a groaning to take off my edge. (Khan, 2008) �This conversation was happening in front of Polonius. This was the way people talked to prostitutes. I can’t figure out who is to be blamed for this: Hamlet for being so obscene, Polonius for not reacting, or Ophelia herself, for being so weak. This play is not the tragedy of Hamlet, it is the tragedy of Ophelia; undeserved destruction and death. She is a victim. To make things worse, at Ophelia’s funeral Hamlet said: I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers Could not, with all their quantity of love, Make up my sum.- (Shakespeare, 1996) This is not romance for God’s sake. It is just the way to compete with his brother. It is just a matter of possession. Hamlet had no mercy, not just for Ophelia, but for his friends Rosencrantz and Guildestern, Polonius, Claudius, nor anyone else in this play. Life remains imbalanced, inharmonious; so purpose of existence is to create balance, harmony, paradise. (Khan, 2008) Hamlet shows how balance can be achieved; Ophelia, unfortunately, didn’t live long to do the same, or at least to try. Probably, she wasn’t suppose to. Maybe, she was simply depiction of those days women. However, Gertrude’ words spoken at Ophelia’s funeral: “sweets to the sweet”, best describe this lovely woman. �Conclusion I must say, it was so easy to write this paper, I enjoyed every second of it. Shakespeare and professor Khan influenced my life so much. It seams like all of us were veiled “…till one greater Man Restore us…” I felt so many things before we have met, but I couldn’t name those. Now, my universe functions perfectly. Certainly, “The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a haven of hell and hell of haven.” This topic, “Shakespeare’s feminism vs. 20th century feminism”, gave me a lot of things to talk about. My freedom was unburdened. I loved writing about Cordelia, Rosalind, Ophelia, Lady Macbeth. Moral, strong, independent, weak, lovely, women released all my passions. The thing that makes this topic even more attractive is the fact that all these women were explained and carefully stored in my mind by a man, actually, by two men. When Shakespeare was creating, God was expressing Himself, it was the Beauty, it was the Truth. The tragedy of human existence is passing time, but Shakespeare and his Ladies are eternal. Now, I feel like I leave a part of me with them, and I know I’ll be there longer than even I can perceive. Now I am sure that words of a certain lady: “If a woman has a misfortune of knowing something, she must conceal it. Imbecility in a woman is great enhancement.”, were completely wrong. One of Prophet’s friends once said that we should say whatever we want, because our death protects us. I know these words are true. This is the reason why I wanted to write about women, not to be silent. �Curriculum Vitae Raisa Bušatlić was born in Mostar, April 14, 1985. She has graduated from “Dţemal Bijedić“ University of Mostar, Faculty of Humanities, English Language and Literature Department, in 2009. In the same year she has enrolled International Burch University, Faculty of Education, English Language and Literature Department, for her MA studies. Her research studies deal with English Literature, specifically William Shakespeare. She is currently employed at the Embassy of the State of Palestine in Sarajevo, as an Office Manager and Interpreter/Translator. �Appendix A Format for References A.1 Examples for Alphabetical System The following reference list provides examples of referencing journal articles, books, articles in a book, theses, conference papers, reports, and articles in the internet. References Bence, J., (1891), Shakespeare and the Education of Women, W. Stewart & Co., London, pp. 157 Bloom, H., (1999), Shakespeare the Invention of the Human, Riverhead, pp. 298, 552 Dussinbere, J. (1975), Shakespeare and the Nature of Women, Macmillan, London, pp. 186 Hadimu–l–Haremejni–š–Šerifejni–l–Melik, (1991), Kur'an s prevodom, Sarajevo, pp. 335 Keršovani, O. (1982), Talmud, Rijeka, pp. 3. Schalkwyk, D. (2008), Shakespeare, Love and Service, University of Cape Town, Cambridge University Press, Cape Town, pp. 147, 259, 270 Shahab, K., (2008), 3rd year lectures, “Dţemal Bijedić” University of Mostar, Mostar Shahab, K., (2009), 4th year lectures, “Dţemal Bijedić” University of Mostar, Mostar �Shahab, K. (2008), O Šekspirovim Tragedijama, Dobra knjiga, Sarajevo, pp. 77, 30, 97, ... Shakespeare, W. (1996), The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, Wordsworth Edition, Limited, London, 64, 88, 91, 150, 568, 930, 1221 http://www.wikipedia.org http://www.islamicity.com http://www.shakespeareswomen.net http://shakespearesfellowship.org http://www.stjohns-chs.org �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 743 Title A name given to the resource SHAKESPEARE’S FEMINISM vs. 20th CENTURY FEMINISM Author Author Busatlic, Raisa Abstract A summary of the resource. We know very little about William Shakespeare. What we do know for a fact: he is a social phenomena, his name echoes everywhere. He is celebrated as a local poet all over the world. In the history of mankind no writer has enjoyed so much prosperity and reception. In this work I have presented one aspect of his work, his attitude towards womenhood in socal, political, and emotional context. Through few plays I emphasized Shakespeare's approach towards philosophy of life, not only when he spoke about women; life in his case has levels which are being reached, and his heroins proove this easily. Finally, this work will explain feminism through heroism in Shakespearean drama, studying similarities and differencies within this age, history, and Shakespeare's universal era. Key words: feminism, womenhood, universalities Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-04-22 Keywords Keywords. Thesis NonPeerReviewed PC Romance languages Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3418 Title A name given to the resource SHAKESPEAREAN UTOPIA: T H E T EM P ES T Author Author Peksoy, Emrah Abstract A summary of the resource. According to Ryan (2003), Shakespeare’s comedy and romance are not less valuable than his tragedies since they also challenge the existing conditions of life, but in a different p. 28). For Frye (1965), “The mythical backbone of all literature is the cycle of nature, which rolls from birth to death and back again to rebirth” and comedy and romance deal with the second part of this cycle; rolling from death to rebirth, new order, rebirth, a new spring etc. (p. 200). The Tempest as Shakespeare’s last play and romance is the realization of this renewal of life with its extra ordinary style, poetry and plot. Shakespeare wrote what many critics accepted as the play of his ‘farewell to stage, The Tempest, 100 years after Thomas More wrote Utopia and nearly 15 years before Francis Bacon wrote the New Atlantis. Like these texts, The Tempest can also be considered as a utopian text and it can be argued that Shakespeare in his last play experimented the possibility of an ideal society in the world. After setting his ideal place on an island, Shakespeare introduces, describes and criticizes utopian world building concept. Island’s physical setting and unclear geographical location make it an ideal world to live a dream life. Prospero’s dealings with himself and other characters in the play illustrate the characteristics of an ideal ruler who can build a real commonwealth, a social and political order that ensures the welfare of the whole community. In Prospeo’s person, Shakespeare describes the qualities an ideal ruler should possess and compares Prospero’s existing utopia with Gonzalo’s visionary ideal state. Seeing the impossibility of a golden age, Shakespeare combines the real and utopic with the marriage of Ferdinand and Miranda. Keywords: The Tempest, utopia, ideal world, island, marriage, ruler Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 817 Title A name given to the resource Shaping Value Systems by Means of Conceptual Metaphor – American Inaugurals Author Author Maslo, Adi Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper tries to give an insight into political reasoning through the theoretic framework of cognitive linguistics. Through an analysis of conceptual metaphors used in the corpus of inaugural speeches of American presidents, we will show how the American value system was constructed and for what purpose. This analysis will show the importance of conceptual metaphor as a rhetoric device and how it can be used. It will eventually be claimed that American presidents have deliberately used conceptual metaphors as a uniting linguistic element. Along with conceptual metaphor we will also make use of two other fundamental parts of cognitive linguistics – image schemas and semantic frames. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9dd0abe29dddfb846d40cbdffe577fd7.pdf 7a3fad884309468c7967afd97e0264f3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sharing and Managing Risks in Islamic Finance Ahmet SEKRETER Bosnian Turkish College ahmetsekreter@hotmail.com Mehmet CAN Prof. Dr., International University of Sarajevo mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: For most of the people the prohibition on interest is the well known part of Islamic finance however the rest is considered as an unknown finance system that is based on the rules which are written thousands years ago. Indeed, the concept of Islamic finance is not be discussed enough till financial crisis, after crisis it started to be seen as an alternative financial system. However some new approaches are needed to demonstrate Islamic finance as an alternative of conventional finance. Sharing the risks is main concept in investments but question is what the investments are. In the new approach of risk management the idea is consumers can follow their money and investments and banks have to inform the consumers. Introduction Islamic finance is any finance that is compliant with the principles of Islamic law (Shari‘ah). In terms of finance, Shari‗ah explains in details the ethical concepts of money and capital, the relationship between risk and profit and the social responsibilities of financial institutions. [1] This definition may tell us that Islamic finance gives us limited opportunities to make profit and people can think there are many strict rules which are written thousands years ago. So because of this Islamic finance is not applicable in today‘s modern world. However the last crisis shows that conventional finance is not perfect. So Islamic finance is started to be searched and seen that Islamic finance can be an alternative for conventional finance and there are financial instruments in Islamic finance like in conventional finance. These instruments can easily adopt to our modern world. Major instruments of Islamic finance Murabahah This concept refers to the sale of goods at a price, which includes a profit margin agreed to by both parties. The purchase and selling price, other costs, and the profit margin must be clearly stated at the time of the sale agreement. The bank is compensated for the time value of its money in the form of the profit margin. This is a fixedincome loan for the purchase of a real asset (such as real estate or a vehicle), with a fixed rate of profit determined by the profit margin. The bank is not compensated for the time value of money outside of the contracted term (i.e., the bank cannot charge additional profit on late payments); however, the asset remains as a mortgage with the bank until the default is settled.[2] Istisna Istisna is the second kind of sale where a commodity is transacted before it comes into existence. It means to order a manufacturer to manufacture a specific commodity for the purchaser. If the manufacturer undertakes to manufacture the goods for him, the transaction of Istisna comes into existence. But it is necessary for the validity of Istisna that the price is fixed with the consent of the parties and that necessary specification of the commodity (intended to be manufactured) is fully settled between them. [1] Islamic Finance: An Ethical Alternative to Conventional Finance,(2008), Aziz Tayyebi Wikipedia.org 55 [2] �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The contract of Istisna creates a moral obligation on the manufacturer to manufacture the goods, but before he starts the work, any one of the parties may cancel the contract after giving notice to the other. But after the manufacturer has started the work, the contract cannot be cancelled unilaterally. However, the party placing the order has the right to retract if the commodity does not conform to the specifications demanded.[3] Ijara Ijarah means lease, rent or wage. Generally, Ijarah concept means selling the benefit of use or service for a fixed price or wage. Under this concept, the Bank makes available to the customer the use of service of assets / equipments such as plant, office automation, motor vehicle for a fixed period and price. [4] Musharakah Musharakah is a relationship between two parties or more, of whom contribute capital to a business, and divide the net profit and loss pro rata. This is often used in investment projects, letters of credit, and the purchase or real estate or property. In the case of real estate or property, the bank assess an imputed rent and will share it as agreed in advance. All providers of capital are entitled to participate in management, but not necessarily required to do so. The profit is distributed among the partners in pre-agreed ratios, while the loss is borne by each partner strictly in proportion to respective capital contributions. This concept is distinct from fixed-income investing (i.e. issuance of loans). Sukuk Sukuk is the Arabic name for a financial certificate but can be seen as an Islamic equivalent of bond. However, fixed-income, interest-bearing bonds are not permissible in Islam. Hence, Sukuk are securities that comply with the Islamic law and its investment principles, which prohibit the charging or paying of interest. Financial assets that comply with the Islamic law can be classified in accordance with their tradability and non-tradability in the secondary markets.[5] Takaful Takaful is an alternative form of cover that a Muslim can avail himself against the risk of loss due to misfortunes. Takaful is based on the idea that what is uncertain with respect to an individual may cease to be uncertain with respect to a very large number of similar individuals. [6] Muqarada This technique allows a bank to float what are effectively Islamic bonds to finance a specific project. Investors who buy muqarada bonds take a share of the profits of the project being financed, but also share the risk of unexpectedly low profits, or even losses. They have no say in the management of the project, but act as non-voting shareholders.[3] Salam Salam literally means ‗futures‘. A buyer pays in advance for a designated quantity and quality of a certain commodity to be delivered at a certain agreed date and price. It is limited to fungible commodities and is mostly used for the purpose of agricultural products by providing needed capital prior to delivery. Generally, Islamic banks use a salam contract to buy a commodity and pay the supplier in advance for it, specifying the chosen date for delivery. The bank then sells this commodity to a third party on a salam or instalment basis.With two salam contracts, the second should entail delivery of the same quantity and description as the first contract and is concluded after the first contract (El-Gamal, 2000).[7] Total assets of Islamic banking worldwide estimated at about $250 billion, and are expected to grow by about per a year.[8] In these days customers are going to an Islamic bank and putting their money and sharing profit or loss. However customers are all the time getting some money from profit by a percent that is pre-agreed before. This percentage is all the time very close to the interest rate of conventional banks. How it can be possible that an Islamic bank invests money to many different areas but makes a profit at a level of interest rate. If Islamic finance wants to be seen as an alternative of conventional finance it should be characteristic and different from conventional banks. So there must be some new approaches in Islamic finance and especially in Islamic banking systems. These new approaches can be established in two main topics, transparency and asymmetric information. Transparency There must be some standards for transparency which should be agreed, widespread and easy to establish. Of course these standards must provide ―Shariah‖. This would be in the interests of consumers. Some services can be established to protect consumers in Islamic finance. So these services can check the implementation of standards. The implementation of Islamic finance products should be supported by documentation and consumers should be aware of that greater transparency will be in the interests of them. [3],[5] Instrument of Islamic Finance and Banking Mohammed Ali Elgari, Mufti Taqi Usmani, Yusuf Talal Delorenzo, M. Umar Chapra. [4],[6] Wikipedia.org 56 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The main issue is who will standardize the standards. Indeed standards are already exist in Shariah, so the process will be standardized. After deciding who will standardize then it must be known that only the process will be standardized. These standards will bring extra responsibilities Islamic finance services. Islamic finance services should comply with these standards. There should be some partners who work with these services and consumers. So partners can feedback on the decided standards. These partners can help Islamic financial institutions explaining the support for the standards and its requirements. These partners can evaluate whether an Islamic financial institution seeking to comply with the standards actually met the standards‘ requirements. If partners have reasonable opinions, determines that the institution complies the standards. A number of service providers will already comply with the suggested standard. Preliminary research has suggested that some service providers will not – which indicates that they are acting contrary to market practice. However, if such a standard is agreed by the main industry players, market forces may force the other product providers to comply with the standard. This would be in the interests of consumers. [9] The success of the implementation of decided standards depends on financial institutions. These institutions have to be fair, clear and not misleading. The wide-spread adoption of decided standards will be a very important support for establishing these standards. Islamic financial institutions, consumers and their partners should prepare some consultation papers so that the implementation of standards will be easier.If there is a sufficient support then these standards can be settled by institutions and partners. The success is based on the responses to the consultation papers. To promote the acceptance of the standards, it can be entered into informal associations with public organizations. A logo can be used so that Islamic financial institutions can assert compliance with the standards. Press conferences, media briefings can be organized. A website which is a bespoke can be created for the standards and in this website Islamic financial institutions that comply with the standards can be mentioned with Asymmetric Information Asymmetric information is an information that differs between parties to transaction situation in which consumers, suppliers, and producers do not all have the same information on which to base their decisions. [10] Since in Islamic finance profit and loss are shared it motivates to assess risks more carefully and monitor the use of the funds by borrowers. Because of this reason, Islamic financial institutions, consumers and partners should be interested in the outcome of the underlying transaction. Norashikin Mohd Kassim says ―One of the most important lessons to be learnt from the present crisis is that the financial sector became too removed from the real world economy. Asymmetric information should be provided by only Islamic institutions and partners to consumers. Consumers should act according to supplied information when doing the business. Consumers should decide the investments. Partners will give help consumers to decide the investments. Islamic financial institutions have to inform consumers about the investments and supply documents and give opportunity consumers to see profit or loss. Consumers should decide several type of different investments with different percentage. According to Mohsin a brief profile and a link to their website. Islamic financial institutions, consumers and partners have to answer some questions. (a) Would there be support for the creation of an independent institution which can decide the standards, follow the process of the implementation of the standards, check Islamic financial institutions that comply with the standards, and feedback both partners and consumers? (b) Who will be included in that independent institution? (c) Should there be disclosures for the institutions that do not comply with the standards? (d) Would product providers be amenable to the partners taking steps to verify compliance with the standards?Khan(2000), the Islamic banks have to develop a contract to keep the monitoring costs for projects at a reasonable level and eliminate the moral hazards, a concept that originated in the insurance industry, issues arising when the lender and the investors have asymmetric information on the profits from the investment. In Islamic finance the major funds are obtained from the short-term mark-up deals. The limitation of financial instruments is the main problem of Islamic finance. Mark-up deals are low risk investments instruments so since there is no real profit or loss sharing system in Islamic finance nowadays mark-up deals are used very commonly. [7] Hand of Islamic Banking,(2007), M. Kabir Hassan and Mervyn K. Lewis [8] Choong and Liu, 2006; Ainley and others, 2007 [9] Business & Economics Committee, The Muslim Council of Britain,(6 October 2008) 57 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion Islamic finance has actually many financial instruments but because of imitation of conventional finance causes to be seen Islamic finance a system that has only with limited instruments. Establishing real profit or loss sharing system will bring many different alternatives for investors and lenders. In the new approach transparency and asymmetric information are very important issues. For the real profit-loss sharing system documentation must be supplied by institutions, there must be partners work with lenders and investors, for transparency standards must be decided, and institutions that comply with these standards must be certificated by independent institutions including public institutions. By using media and organizing conferences, symposiums, settling independent websites these standards can be wide-spread. [10] www.qfinance.com/dictionary/asymmetric-information Aziz Tayyebi. (2008). Islamic Finance: An ethical alternative to conventional finance. Humayon A.Dar and John R.Presley. (2009). Islamic Finance: A Western Perspective. Kabir Hassan and Mervyn K. Lewis. (2007). Hand of Islamic Banking. Norashikin Mohd Kassim. (24 may 2009). Sunday‘s Zaman. References The Muslim Council of Britain. (6 October 2008). Business & Economics Committee. Zahida Aslam . (13 July 2006). Key Center for Islamic Finance. 58 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 173 Title A name given to the resource Sharing and Managing Risks in Islamic Finance Author Author SEKRETER, Ahmet CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. For most of the people the prohibition on interest is the well known part of Islamic finance however the rest is considered as an unknown finance system that is based on the rules which are written thousands years ago. Indeed, the concept of Islamic finance is not be discussed enough till financial crisis, after crisis it started to be seen as an alternative financial system. However some new approaches are needed to demonstrate Islamic finance as an alternative of conventional finance. Sharing the risks is main concept in investments but question is what the investments are. In the new approach of risk management the idea is consumers can follow their money and investments and banks have to inform the consumers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/afc06c5d1994753dee14e79fa00735be.pdf 719e2a8c1fce7108c10eccf928fc91ab PDF Text Text Sharing Economy in Western Balkans: Potential for Rural Development Admir Čavalić Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla Bosnia and Herzegovina admir.cavalic@yahoo.com Abstract: With the development of technology, especially information and communication systems, new ways of providing services emerged, based on the model of "collective consumption" or "sharing economy". This represents a trending economic phenomenon when it comes to consumption. Within sharing economy, consumers are organized by using specific technological platforms that enable them to innovatively consume or produce a particular product/service. These models provide maximum use of scarce resources on the basis of technological support and social capital of the community. Consequently, efficiency and confidence are essential for the functioning of sharing economy, whose size is estimated at 225 billion dollars by 2025. However, these trends are not evenly distributed and the development of the sharing economy depends on a series of conditions, which will be discussed in the paper. Thus, sharing economy makes tremendous challenges for all relevant stakeholders, especially the governments, in the context of adjusting the regulatory framework to meet its demands. Compared to developed countries, Western Balkan countries are significantly lagging when it comes to sharing economy. This is reflected in the lack of foreign and domestic investment in this area. The aim of this paper is to present the conceptual framework for this new economic trend, with the emphasis on the current state of sharing economy in Western Balkans. Paper will focus on the discussion of development potentials of sharing economy in the function of rural business development. Based on this, a set of recommendations will be made for improving the state of sharing economy in the Western Balkans. Keywords: sharing economy, Internet, rural development, Western Balkans JEL Classification: O18, O33, M13 Introduction The sharing economy has become a new economic paradigm of modern business, especially in Western countries. Although unevenly distributed, these trends are further spreading to other countries of the world. Across the world, domestic sharing companies are being established, but more often global sharing apps are spreading their influence. Unfortunately, these trends have not yet fully gained momentum in the countries of the Western Balkans. There are some sharing initiatives in certain cities in this region, but this is still inadequate for taking advantage of all the potential of sharing economy. In order to understand these new trends, the first part of the paper will present the concept of sharing economy, with its definitions and models. The second part of the paper presents the state of the sharing economy in the Western Balkan, and in the third part of the paper, we discuss the potential of sharing economy in function of improving rural development in this region 126 �Theoretical framework of sharing economy Sharing is a phenomenon as old as humankind, while the sharing economy is phenomena born of the Internet age (Belk, 2014). The term collaborative consumption first time occurred in 1978. in paper by Felson and Spaeth (1978), where they defined it as those events in which one or more persons consume economic goods or services in the process of engaging in joint activities with one or more others. This was later popularized by Algar (2007), who argued that technology is democratizing the purchasing process and that gives consumers control when it comes to price optimisation. Sharing economy is part of a global trend characterized by the democratization of technology (home computers for all), the democratization of finance (credit cards for all) and the democratization of information (the Internet for all) (Friedman, 2000). Buczynski (2013) states that this model is making the step forward from consumer based society to economic democracy. This in fact, strongly supports the old thesis that capitalism is an economic democracy in the strictest sense of the word (Mises, 2006). According to the theory of Thomas Kuhn, it is clear that the research area of sharing economy is still in “before paradigm” stage, characterized by a series of incomplete, competing theories in the scientific community, that compete for primacy to be a new paradigm (Letica, 2010). Therefore, there are many definitions of sharing economy, which will be presented in the following lines. Juho et. al. (2016) define the sharing economy as an umbrella concept that includes several ICT developments and technologies, among others collaborative consumption, which endorses sharing the consumption of goods and services through online platforms. Defined as an “umbrella concept”, sharing economy may relate to the fulfillment of number of consumer needs: from cooking over transportation up to alternative currencies. Previously, these products/services were provided by major companies, not individual entrepreneurs (Zervas et. al., 2016). Sharing economy can be defined as a form of consumption in which the social aspects become more relevant and important (De la Calle Vaquero, De La Calle Calle, 2013). This new business model interferes with the older ways of doing business and changes not only what is consumed, but also how it is consumed (Stanić, 2015). In order to sum up these definition, some mayor principles of sharing economy business model can be introduced (Umihanić, Omerović, 2016): relying on the Internet technologies, especially smartphone apps; maximizing the utilization of existing resources; trusting to strangers and creating impersonal relationships, and designing the win-win-win deal for all parties included. Sharing economy only works via Internet technologies, and the main goal is to maximize resources using trust (social capital) as a basis of economic relations. When it comes to the causes that lead to rise of sharing economy, Sundararajan (2013) writes that “reengineering” of consumption is a natural consequence of the ongoing consumerization of digital technologies. Because of fast development of sharing economy and the fact that Internet is a media of unprecedented opportunities (Husejnefendić, 2011), that leads to the compression of space and time (Harvey, 2012), there are many extraordinary challenges for regulators when it comes to this area. That is why some individual regulators who failed to reach concrete solutions, decide to completely ban certain sharing models in their countries. Sharing economy covers a variety of sectors (Frodesiak et al., 2011): transportation (cars, bikes), apparel (clothing, accessories), food, living spaces, household appliances, money (social lending, virtual currencies, time banks) workspaces, travel, accommodation, space (storage, parking, spare rooms). Intensity of sharing in each sector is determined by nature and attractiveness of the sector, but also the influence and organization of consumers. The consumer is indeed the one who determines what company 127 �is (Drucker, 2008). Thus, sharing companies are mainly in the sectors of transport, accommodation, money and the like. Within the sharing economy there are different business models that enable the realization of transactions and profit earning (Zott et al., 2011). Rachel Botsman (2013), coauthor of a book "What's Mine Is Yours: The Rise of Collaborative Consumption", identified seven basic sharing models: service fee, white label, freemium, on sale, flat membership, tiered subscription plans, membership plus usage. Each of these models is based on a different financial scheme, depending on the area in which it operates. Sharing economy in Western Balkans Taking into account the current situation on the labor market, respectively the level of youth unemployment in the Western Balkans, and bearing in mind that the most frequent participants in the sharing economy are young people (Kumar, 2015), it could be expected that sharing economy would have an exceptionally fertile ground in this region. One of the main conditions for the development of sharing economy is, as noted earlier, Internet technology and the ability to access and share information. Goudin (2016) states that it is necessary to look at the Internet penetration statistics and number of social networks and mobile phone users in order to have a complete picture of the countries' predispositions for the development of a sharing economy. When it comes to Western Balkans, these, predispositions are there. Thus, in Albania there is an Internet penetration of 63%, while 52% are users of social networks and up to 165% are mobile users. Internet penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina is 69%, and is Serbia 65% with a growth of over 22% in the period from January 2016 to January 2017. Croatia has Internet penetration of 75%, Macedonia 70% and Montenegro 65%. When it comes to the number of active users on social networks, in Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 45% of them, in Croatia 47%, Macedonia 53%, Serbia 39% and Montenegro 56% users. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 90% of the population has a mobile subscription, 113% in Croatia, 113% in Macedonia, 108% in Serbia and 161% in Montenegro (WeAreSocial, 2017). This data shows that there is a huge technological potential for sharing economy development. Another important factor is opportunity to start new business. Regarding this, the region moves in a positive direction, and on Doing Business World Bank index (2017), when it comes to starting a new business, Albania is currently at 46th place, Macedonia at 4th place, Croatia 43rd, Serbia 47th, Bosnia and Herzegovina on 79th, and Montenegro on 51th place. In addition to the regulator's actions, one factor negatively effects the development of the sharing economy in the Western Balkans. It relates to social capital. Namely, war events and national conflicts caused the loss of trust and community feeling, which permanently damaged the social capital of the region. The benefits of the sharing economy can only be realized if marketplaces are safe and stable (Saidi, 2013). Still, it can be concluded that there are basic assumptions for the development of a sharing economy in Western Balkans. These are related to the developed technology, the ability to open new businesses, and a large number of young unemployed people who can work within the sharing economy. But still, factors like the lack of social capital and rule of law, as well as positive action by the regulator, determine that sharing economy is still in a poor condition. 128 �When it comes to examples of sharing economies in the Western Balkans countries, primarily in the field of transport services, the biggest interest is taken by Uber. This company attempted to start working in Serbia where company's regional leadership met with representatives of the Ministry of Civil Engineering, Transport and Infrastructure of the Republic of Serbia. Later the same Ministry (2015) issued a statement stating that there are no legal requirements for Uber's operation on the territory of the Republic of Serbia "due to the disagreement with the legal regulations". Although Uber representative for the Balkan region, Alexandra Corolea confirmed Uber's interest in entering the market of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Minister of Transport of Canton Sarajevo said that something like this is not possible because it is not in accordance with the legislation (SarajevoTimes, 2016). Unlike Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia has decided to allow Uber to operate on the territory of the City of Zagreb. But still despite a large number of interested users and more than 50,000 downloads of applications in the first six months of operation (Telegram.Hr, 2016), there was a significant resistance of existing taxi service who couple of time organized violent protests (Milekić, 2015; Pavlić, 2016). It is interesting that in Belgrade there is a domestic CarGo sharing application that operates on a model similar to that used by Uber. This app adapted to the regulatory legislation on the territory of Belgrade. When it comes to other countries of the region, there were no indications of Uber's interest to enter their market. Experiences in which sharing platforms such as Uber and AirBnB faced both protests and violence, similar to those in Zagreb, as well as regulatory responses that sought to reduce the share of market sharing economy (Gata, 2015) were present both in the metropolises of the United States, and in the countries of Western Europe. But unlike Western Balkans, these problems were solved and now sharing economy flourishes in Western countries. The most striking successes in the region have sharing application that relate to accommodation, above all AirBnB. This application exists in every country in the Western Balkans. The reason for this is that there are still unresolved private property issues so the government does not control this market too much. This was capitalized by AirBnB. This sharing application has actively involved thousands of people across these countries, who can now easily lease their own (unused) space. What is important to note is that the system protection is extremely rigorous, so when registering, besides their financial information, users also need to show the proof of identity such as a valid passport. AirBnB success is quite interesting, because some authors argue that for a accommodation sharing, there needs to be fulfillment of three factors: trust, efficiency, and economic benefits (Tussyadiah, 2015). Another successful sharing application developed in all countries of the region is Couchsurfing. Similar to AirBnB, this application capitalizes on the lack of order when it comes to renting market. Analyzed by individual countries, apart from AirBnB and Couchsurfing, there are a number of transport sharing companies in Serbia, such as CarGo, Car4Use and BlaBlaCar (Blic92, 2015). In Montenegro, there are so-called condo hotels (Radio Televizija Crne Gore, 2015), which also belong to the sharing movement. Also, in 2015, an academic panel discussion on the potential of the sharing economy for Montenegro was organized. Croatia has the biggest number of sharing applications, such as BlaBlaCar, which allows transport sharing, Porthop, which solves the problem of reserving boats, Click & Boat for chartering, Appetite, a mobile application that 129 �allows finding local meals made by professional and amateur chefs, “Milo za drago” direct exchange system and Home Exchange that allows users to exchange their houses (Laslavić, 2015; Kolić, 2016; Poslovni.hr, 2017). There is also domestic time sharing bank called “Ura po Ura”, as well as the BitCoin ATM. As far as Albania is concerned, it is interesting that this country hosted the global HitchGathering event, which also promotes the concept of sharing (Dodig, 2014). Looking at the cases of sharing economy in the Western Balkans, it is noticeable that Croatia has made the most progress. Sharing potential for rural development Agriculture has been a backbone of the Western Balkans for centuries and has always played an important role in these societies (Znaor, 2013). However, compared to EU, there are many problems in the context of rural development. First of all, there is no proper statistical record of land used in relation to total agricultural land. This is primarily due to the lack of well-defined property rights, as well as other post-conflict problems, such as the usurpation of refugee land. Agriculture in most Western Balkan countries primarily meets the social, and then economic, function. The small-scale and fragmented nature of private farming remains a general characteristic of agriculture in all Western Balkans, representing a long-term structural handicap (Volk, 2010). One important trend is the migration from rural areas to large cities, but also general emigration of the population to the EU. Further problems concern the lack of proper infrastructure, capital, as well as major networking (such as agricultural unions, consortium, etc.). What is also problematic for domestic rural development is the lack of domestic and foreign investment due to long-term uncertainty (Hall, 1996). Namely, the political, economic and legal instability of the Western Balkans often affects the potential of any major investment in the rural development of these countries. In addition, a significant part of the Western Balkans is mountainous and hilly, or has a karst feature and is thus less favorable for agriculture. Regions with such features are subject to substantial aging and depopulation processes, which can hold back the development of agriculture in these areas (Volk, 2010). A large part of the agricultural area is not used for production or is extensively used. All of this, it carries a number of negative consequences. First, it creates many reasons for leaving rural settlements. In addition to the great poverty, there are serious problems in terms of infrastructure, public institutions (health and education), as well as inability to recruit. Migration, especially when it comes to young people, can lead to irreversible decline and depopulation not only in rural and peripheral zones, but also in small towns that often play an important role in providing basic services (Vittuari, 2011). Although sharing economy primarily develops in cities (Helms, Palacios, 2017), yet there is evidence that this trend is also taking momentum in rural areas (Philips, 2013). If rural development is defined as process of improving the quality of life in rural communities (UNDP, 2013), then we can trace the potential for rural development in key features of sharing economy. The main benefit of sharing economy is that is uses unused resources. As Lombardo notes, it is a form of recycle, reuse and repurpose (Lombardo, 2015). Sharing economy is maximizing the use of resources like empty apartments, unused cars, unemployed workers and the like. Sharing 130 �services allow for items to be used productively that would otherwise be gathering dust (Baker, 2014). This is the effect of product service systems, which allow members to share multiple products that are owned by companies or by private persons (Matzler et al., 2015). For rural development, this feature is particularly important and that is because of the seasonal utilization of rural resources. In particular, this could create opportunity for Western Balkans farmers to share their resources which would otherwise be unused (for certain times of the year, according to the nature of agricultural crops). By maximizing the use of resources, sharing economy affects the price reduction of goods and services, which is important in the context of price competitiveness of Western Balkan agricultural products. Agricultural producer prices are rather high, mostly above the EU average, indicating weak price competitiveness for most Western Balkans products compared to EU countries (Volk et al., 2012). Market price pressure is particularly intensified in recent years, with the opening of local markets for EU products. This forces domestic farmers to use low-cost strategies in order to achieve their own competitive advantage. Sharing economy also lowers the operating costs for small businesses, which helps new entrepreneurs to have significant savings in the first years of operation. Small agricultural businesses usually have insufficient cash flow that can not cover higher capital expenditure and costs, which means that they can rely on a cheaper sharing alternatives. Sharing rather than purchasing can help small businesses survive (Hakobyan, 2017). For rural development, small businesses are important because they can lead to creation of family enterprises, that on the long-run reduce unemployment and help keep rural population stable. Sharing models are also developing new services. For certain services, traditional industries simply did not have the capital or market initiatives. Innovative sharing models enable cheap sets of new services for consumers. Thus, tourists using sharing apps like AirBnB can visit the outermost regions of a particular Western Balkan country. These places would otherwise be bypassed by tourists because of the lack of large-scale capital investment for the development of tourist infrastructure, but also because local communities do not have needed resources for marketing promotion. One of most important features of sharing economy is that creates new jobs and thus directly affects the employees. Unemployment is reduced as new employees join the labor market and circle of those who participate in the process of sharing, expands. In addition, sharing economy increases the productivity of individuals involved in these activities, while allowing greater flexibility of the workplace. Workers in these new industries tend to avoid traditional business hours. This keeps up with current labor trend of increasing the number of freelancers. In U.S. alone in 2014. there was about 54 million workers (34% of the population) that considered themselves freelancers (Horowitz, 2014). It is also true for work in rural areas, where entrepreneurs themselves determine how much and when to work. What is most interesting is the social impact of the sharing economy. Many authors write about the developing of new sense of community and strengthening of local communities. For instance, according to TechRepublic, Airbnb has coordinated free accommodations for people affected by natural disasters, and TaskRabbit has experimented with organizing volunteers and crisis situations. These and other trust-building efforts help sharing economy participants see one another as 131 �equals, building constructive relationships where none existed previously (Martucci, 2015). This is especially important for local rural communities, which already own social capital for the development of commonality and trust needed for sharing economy. In addition to the abovementioned features of sharing economy, we can outline four basic ways to capitalise these new trends in function of Western Balkans rural development:  Sharing infrastructure and land.  Creating and funding agricultural innovations (crowdfunding).  Barter and swap economy, alternative currencies.  Improving rural tourism by using sharing economy models. By sharing infrastructure and land, farmers can use their own, expensive, infrastructure throughout the year. For instance, FarmBackup and MachineryLink allow farmers to share their assets – machines and manpower, with similar companies at greater distances. This makes machinery exchange a flexible solution that won’t affect the regular production (Grigoras, 2016). This answers the problems that farmers have because different agricultural products use different resources throughout the year. Sharing economy enables farmers to share their equipment with others and thus increase the level of its utilization. Another important way to use the sharing economy for rural development is to use sharing systems that finance agricultural innovations. Agriculture is precisely one of the most innovating industries today, mostly for the purpose of reducing the share of human labor in this area, and consequently increase of productivity and ultimately profitability. By using platforms such as crowdfunding, local farmers can get the necessary capital for their innovations. Sharing economy can be used for creation of a parallel monetary system within the country's legal economic flows. Lack of financial resources is one of the main problems of rural areas (Berjan et al., 2015). Barter or swap arrangement can be created to increase domestic liquidity, which is a usual problem of Western Balkans rural stakeholders. As an example, across Brazil's farm belt, barter trade is making a comeback as tightening credit, falling crop prices and a volatile currency open a multibillion dollar business to merchants and tractor makers (Ewing, 2015). Also, it is possible to use alternative currencies like Bitcoin, to allow easier value preservation. Finally, perhaps the most important way of using sharing economy is to improve rural tourism. This happen in Ireland with AirBnBThe (AirBnBCitizen, 2016). Sharing economy opens up opportunities for bringing more tourists to distance, rural areas. Sharing applications attract tourists and do a free promotion of rural tourism, which in the long run creates the potential for rural development. Sharing economy can also develop creative tourism. This can be done by so called rural hubs, that offer space for creative work (Paoletti, 2014). These hubs attract urban people that work in areas of creative industries. Finally, it should be added that the sharing economy has a positive impact on ecology that represents the basis of rural development. Increased resource utilization contributes positively to the reduction of pollution and the general ecology (Gururaj, 2015). 132 �Sharing economy also reduces waste. Thus, for example, UberPool lets people share their Uber ride, which results in a lower fare for everyone and reduced pollution / traffic (Minton, 2015). Conclusion Within the paper, the sharing economy is presented as a new economic trend that determines current standards of consumption. Unlike the traditional economy, sharing economy integrates unused resources, which, in turn, increases productivity, but also employment, especially of the marginalized labor market groups. The sharing economy creates a number of challenges for regulators, which unfortunately has prevented its development in the Western Balkan countries. Thus, the paper showed that UBER is only partially active in this region and that apart from the success of AirBnB, there are only a few good examples of foreign and domestic sharing applications. According to that, there are very limited sharing resources that can support the rural development in these countries. However, this does not harm the long-term sharing potential that can be utilized in the future. Specifically, the sharing economy can support the maximization of resources in agriculture, lead to greater innovation, develop alternative monetary models, and significantly influence the development of rural tourism. For the purpose of using these new technologies, in function of regional rural development, we can set out following recommendations:  Regulators in the countries of the Western Balkans must provide legal frameworks in order to support the development of the sharing economy. This means greater openness of the legal system for new business models that are based on new technologies and sharing. By developing a sharing economy, the possibility of opening up new jobs increases, but also there is an increase in competitiveness of the entire economy.  Rural development of the Western Balkans should be based on new technologies and increased competitiveness and innovation of the rural sector. Sharing economy models should become an integral part of rural development strategies in a way that they support the existing, traditional ways of doing business.  In order to develop the sharing economy in the Western Balkans, it is necessary to work on the long-term improvement of all of the assumptions for its development. These assumptions relate to the development of technology, but also to the advancement of social capital, which represents main problem in this region. In the end, it can be concluded that the sharing economy represents an exceptional chance for rural development of Western Balkan region. This paper offers only a basic insight into the given area, and its weakness is that it lack empirical research of this area. Because of that, future research should focus on empirical exploring of the state, characteristics and needs of sharing economy in the Western Balkans. 133 �References AirBnBCitizens. (2016, November 04). 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Abstract: With the development of technology, especially information and communication systems, new ways of providing services emerged, based on the model of "collective consumption" or "sharing economy". This represents a trending economic phenomenon when it comes to consumption. Within sharing economy, consumers are organized by using specific technological platforms that enable them to innovatively consume or produce a particular product/service. These models provide maximum use of scarce resources on the basis of technological support and social capital of the community. Consequently, efficiency and confidence are essential for the functioning of sharing economy, whose size is estimated at 225 billion dollars by 2025. However, these trends are not evenly distributed and the development of the sharing economy depends on a series of conditions, which will be discussed in the paper. Thus, sharing economy makes tremendous challenges for all relevant stakeholders, especially the governments, in the context of adjusting the regulatory framework to meet its demands. Compared to developed countries, Western Balkan countries are significantly lagging when it comes to sharing economy. This is reflected in the lack of foreign and domestic investment in this area. The aim of this paper is to present the conceptual framework for this new economic trend, with the emphasis on the current state of sharing economy in Western Balkans. Paper will focus on the discussion of development potentials of sharing economy in the function of rural business development. Based on this, a set of recommendations will be made for improving the state of sharing economy in the Western Balkans. Keywords: sharing economy, Internet, rural development, Western Balkans JEL Classification: O18, O33, M13 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1618fba4ed43bf9e85da98d017b7543b.docx be34f001c39323d3c10b40c4d7a2888c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c351ce53a40b64858d7fcd0f6e51cc90.pdf 4f25d3873221d82f5e7c8353a1d8f93e PDF Text Text Shedding Light on Production of Idioms by ESL Learners: A Quantitative Study at International Burch University Harun Baştuğ & Selma Salihagić International Burch University/ Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: figurative expressions, idioms knowledge, idioms production ABSTRACT Learning a language implies learning both, its literal and figurative elements. Idioms, as figurative expressions in language, are considered as very important part of communication, since they are commonly and very often used in English language in speaking and writing, as well as in formal and informal context. The aim of this paper is to present results of a study which purpose is to investigate whether there is a correlation between idioms knowledge and idioms production. The study is conducted at the International Burch University on the students of English Language and Literature Department on the assumption that even if learners of ESL are being taught and exposed to hear idioms, understand them and are aware of their importance, still, they are reserved when it comes to their usage in communication. Thus, answers will be sought on the following research questions: Can students recognize idioms? Do students understand idioms? Do students use idioms in their communication? � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1792 Title A name given to the resource Shedding Light on Production of Idioms by ESL Learners: A Quantitative Study at International Burch University Author Author BASTUG, Harun SALIHAGIC, Selma Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: figurative expressions, idioms knowledge, idioms production ABSTRACT Learning a language implies learning both, its literal and figurative elements. Idioms, as figurative expressions in language, are considered as very important part of communication, since they are commonly and very often used in English language in speaking and writing, as well as in formal and informal context. The aim of this paper is to present results of a study which purpose is to investigate whether there is a correlation between idioms knowledge and idioms production. The study is conducted at the International Burch University on the students of English Language and Literature Department on the assumption that even if learners of ESL are being taught and exposed to hear idioms, understand them and are aware of their importance, still, they are reserved when it comes to their usage in communication. Thus, answers will be sought on the following research questions: Can students recognize idioms? Do students understand idioms? Do students use idioms in their communication? Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3368 Title A name given to the resource SHYNESS AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY Author Author Ordulj, Antonia Grabar, Ivana Abstract A summary of the resource. Communication in a foreign language, as an inevitable component of modern human life, often makes speakers experience anxiety, which may sometimes lead to avoidance of communication. This paper explores whether the students of Italian language courses in two foreign language schools experience foreign language (Italian) anxiety. The sample used in the study consists of students whose mother tongue is Croatian, and they have been learning Italian as a foreign language for a different period of time and at different levels. The authors wanted to examine whether there are differences in foreign language anxiety with regard to the level and the length of learning the Italian language, and whether the students’ levels of shyness correlate with the level of foreign language anxiety. The results showed that among the participants there is a correlation in foreign language anxiety depending on the students’ level of shyness: participants with pronounced shyness showed a higher level of foreign language anxiety when compared with the participants with medium and low levels of shyness. Individual characteristics of each student and various experiences gained in the process of learning a foreign language could be the reason for the absence of other differences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 773 Title A name given to the resource Shyness and Foreign Language Anxiety Author Author Ordulj , Antonia Grabar, Ivana Abstract A summary of the resource. Communication in a foreign language, as an inevitable component of modern human life, often makes speakers experience anxiety, which may sometimes lead to avoidance of communication. This paper explores whether the students of Italian language courses in two foreign language schools experience foreign language (Italian) anxiety. The sample used in the study consists of students whose mother tongue is Croatian, and they have been learning Italian as a foreign language for a different period of time and at different levels. The authors wanted to examine whether there are differences in foreign language anxiety with regard to the level and the length of learning the Italian language, and whether the students’ levels of shyness correlate with the level of foreign language anxiety. The results showed that among the participants there is a correlation in foreign language anxiety depending on the students’ level of shyness: participants with pronounced shyness showed a higher level of foreign language anxiety when compared with the participants with medium and low levels of shyness. Individual characteristics of each student and various experiences gained in the process of learning a foreign language could be the reason for the absence of other differences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 875 Title A name given to the resource SIGHTS AND SOUNDS IN UPON WESTMINISTER BRIDGE AND I’M LISTENING TO ISTANBUL Author Author TEMİZ, Hülya Abstract A summary of the resource. Orhan Veli Kanık was a Turkish poet who is the founder of Garip Movement together with some other eminent Turkish poets. He is known for his innovative poetry with a style closer to free verse and his unique voice, and depth of emotion underlying his diction. In his momentary poems he observes the scenery and listens to the music in nature. In the same way, William Wordsworth mirrors the harmony within nature in his poetry .He was a major English romantic poet who, with some others, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature. The aim of this study is to analyse Wordsworth’s “Upon Westminister Bridge” sonnet describing London and the River Thames and Orhan Veli’s “I’m Listening to İstanbul” from a stylistic point of view by the help of vivid nature images of sights and melodic examples of sounds from the poems. Thouroughout our study it will be revealed that how Eastern and Western ways of perceiving natural beauty change and how sounds and sights in two different poems picturing two imperial capitals of two different culture resemble each other. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics