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Rimsko pravo kao temelj ne slobode i povezanost instituta "kmetića" s okolicom Bihaća
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ĐUKIĆ, Zlatko
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Pravo u ulozi zaštite robova opisano je u radu kroz povijesno pravne odnose robova i njihovih gospodara. Poznata su tri načina postanka ropstva: rođenjem, zbog duga i ratom (zarobljenici). Rad nastoji prikazati položaj robova od 2000. godine stare ere počevši od najstarijih Mezopotamskih zakonika od Bilalame, Hamurabija, preko zakonika XII ploča, Zakonika o izbacivanju (tereta) - Lex Rhodia de iactu, ulogom rimskog prava, pa do pojedinih srednjovjekovnih statuta istočnog Jadrana. Postoje pravni spomenici starog vijeka koji reguliraju položaj robova. Isto tako u odredbama srednjovjekovnih komunalnih statuta istočnog Jadrana navode se robovi. Kako se te dvije skupine pravnih vrela nalaze u središtu pozornosti u radu će se dati temeljni podaci i analiza pravnih spomenika toga razdoblja s temeljnim ciljem prikaza robova i njihova položaja u društvu i s osvrtom na njihov položaj na brodovima. Trgovina robovima imala je za cilj povezivanje različitih tržišta radi prodaje i kupovine robova. U zaključku će se navesti najvažniji rezultati rada
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Rise in Non-performing Loans: Determinants and Repercussions
Amir Salkanović
International University of Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
salkanovic@yahoo.com
Abstract: Ever since 2008 as the global financial crisis came about, we witness quite major
increase in non-performing loans in Bosnia and Herzegovina but also elsewhere in Eastern
and Southern Europe and around the world. Non-performing loans can be viewed as
realization of credit risk and indicator of financial health of the banking sector but also as an
indicator of liquidity in real sector. The paper investigates determinants of non-performing
loans and concludes that both macroeconomic and bank level determinants play a major role
in determining level of non-performing loans in a country. The paper also discusses the
feedback effect of rising level of non-performing loans back to the economy and finds that
there is effect and repercussion on short term to medium term on macroeconomic climate. The
paper also shortly addresses the banking regulation that regulates management of credit risk.
Keywords: Non-performing loans, macroeconomic and bank level determinants, feedback
effect, banking regulation.
84
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Rise in Non-performing Loans: Determinants and Repercussions
Author
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SALKANOVIĆ, Amir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Ever since 2008 as the global financial crisis came about, we witness quite major increase in non-performing loans in Bosnia and Herzegovina but also elsewhere in Eastern and Southern Europe and around the world. Non-performing loans can be viewed as realization of credit risk and indicator of financial health of the banking sector but also as an indicator of liquidity in real sector. The paper investigates determinants of non-performing loans and concludes that both macroeconomic and bank level determinants play a major role in determining level of non-performing loans in a country. The paper also discusses the feedback effect of rising level of non-performing loans back to the economy and finds that there is effect and repercussion on short term to medium term on macroeconomic climate. The paper also shortly addresses the banking regulation that regulates management of credit risk. Keywords: Non-performing loans, macroeconomic and bank level determinants, feedback effect, banking regulation.
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International Burch University
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2014-04-24
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ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6cc6aaea93f37f9203859acec2b1b696.docx
208a0db9201ac7bbfbb43ce846682360
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62e7c614e01af87f39d851d43b18d090
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Rise in Non-performing Loans: Determinants and Repercussions
Amir Salkanović
International University of Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
salkanovic@yahoo.com
Abstract: Ever since 2008 as the global financial crisis came about, we witness quite major
increase in non-performing loans in Bosnia and Herzegovina but also elsewhere in Eastern and
Southern Europe and around the world. Non-performing loans can be viewed as realization of
credit risk and indicator of financial health of the banking sector but also as an indicator of
liquidity in real sector. The paper investigates determinants of non-performing loans and
concludes that both macroeconomic and bank level determinants play a major role in
determining level of non-performing loans in a country. The paper also discusses the feedback
effect of rising level of non-performing loans back to the economy and finds that there is effect
and repercussion on short term to medium term on macroeconomic climate. The paper also
shortly addresses the banking regulation that regulates management of credit risk.
Keywords: non-performing loans, macroeconomic and bank level determinants, feedback effect,
banking regulation.
125
�125
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Rise in Non-performing Loans: Determinants and Repercussions
Author
Author
SALKANOVIĆ, Amir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Ever since 2008 as the global financial crisis came about, we witness quite major increase in non-performing loans in Bosnia and Herzegovina but also elsewhere in Eastern and Southern Europe and around the world. Non-performing loans can be viewed as realization of credit risk and indicator of financial health of the banking sector but also as an indicator of liquidity in real sector. The paper investigates determinants of non-performing loans and concludes that both macroeconomic and bank level determinants play a major role in determining level of non-performing loans in a country. The paper also discusses the feedback effect of rising level of non-performing loans back to the economy and finds that there is effect and repercussion on short term to medium term on macroeconomic climate. The paper also shortly addresses the banking regulation that regulates management of credit risk. Keywords: non-performing loans, macroeconomic and bank level determinants, feedback effect, banking regulation.
Publisher
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International Burch University
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2014-04
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ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f62d5d838f22929c8e059d7caf945c47.pdf
72ada5110bc18d0819b39fa7e6d38bb3
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Richman S., (1997), The evils of economic sanctions, http://www. fff.org/freedom/0297c.asp,
(accessed on December 24, 2012)
Rudy, M., and Venteicher J., (2006), Prospect Theory and economic sanctions, Midwest
Political Science, pp. 9-11
Talwar, P., (2001), Iran in the balance, Foreign affairs, Vol. 80, No. 4, pp.58-71
The Economist, (2012), http://www.economist.com, (accessed on February 7, 2012)
Today’s Zeman, (2010), http://www.todayszaman.com/mainAction.action, (accessed on
February 7, 2012)
Torbat, A. E., (2005), Impact of the US trade and Financial sanctions on Iran, The world
economy, Volume 28, Issue 3, pages 407–434
Torchia, A.,(2012), Analysis: Iran economy could limp along under sanctions,
Reuters, http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE8150MH20120206, pp. 1-8.
Wallensteen, P.,(1968), Characteristics of Economic Sanctions, Journal of Peace Research,
Vol. 5, No. 3 pp. 248-267
Wall Street Journal, (2012), http://europe.wsj.com/home-page, (accessed on February 7,
2012)
Risk Tolerance and Investment Preferences in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Mela Hadrovic, Ugur Ergun
International Burch University, Faculty of Economics,
71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mails: mela_hadrovic@hotmail.com, uergun@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract
Risk tolerance is considered as an important factor in making financial decisions, saving and
investment choices. This paper has examined level of investment risk tolerance and
investment preferences of B&H’s population and it had explored whether demographic and
socioeconomic factors to risk tolerance and investment preferences. Using a randomly chosen
sample of 200 individuals above the age of 20, empirical analysis has shown that above
independent variables that are significantly affecting individual’s risk tolerance are income
level, education level and gender. Regression analysis has proven that above average risk
tolerance is associated with higher income level and higher education level. Moreover,
analysis has supported the assumption that males are more risk tolerant then females.
Regarding the investment preferences, obtained results show that the out of eight independent
variables, only variable measuring whether an individual has a financial commitment is
significantly negatively related to the investment.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Keywords: Risk tolerance, Risk aversion, Investment preferences, demographic and
socioeconomic factors, regression model, level of significance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Risk tolerance is being defined as degree to which an investor is willing and able to accept the
possibility of an uncertain outcome to an economic decision. This means that risk tolerance is
maximum amount of uncertainty one is willing to accept when making a decision, in this case
financial decision (Holton, 2004).Due to the fact that risk tolerance is major factor affecting
financial decisions, numerous researches have been done to explore and define what are the
factors affecting risk tolerance. These researches have been considering demographic,
socioeconomic and attitudal factors as factors affecting risk tolerance and have examined
factors such as gender, age, marital status, income level, education, occupation and others as
determinants of individuals risk tolerance. (MacCrimmon&Wehrung, 1986; Grable & Lytton,
1998; Hallahana et al., 2004).
The primary goal of the research is to analyze how risk tolerant or risk adverse are people in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, to examine their investment preferences and to test what
demographic and socioeconomic factors are significantly affecting level of risk tolerance and
investment preferences.
The paper is organized as follows. In the next section, sample of date is being introduced and
described and independent and dependent variables are being shortly described and analyzed.
The same section also explains the methodology of the research. Section 3 presents and
discusses results of the empirical analysis. Finally, Section 4 summarizes the research and
presents key conclusions of the research.
2. DATA, VARIABLES AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
2.1. Data
The research is based on the data gathered from the survey. 200 individual have been asked to
complete 10 question survey and survey instrument contained information about respondents’
demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Two hundred respondents were randomly
chosen and survey was performed by phone and this is why there are no missing values for
any question.
2.2. Variables
In the first analysis risk tolerance variable is taken as dependent variable. It represents the
self-assessed level of risk tolerance each respondent has determined for himself. In the second
analysis investment type is defined as dependent variable and it is taking following values for
different types of investment: 1=deposit, 2=lend to someone, 3=stocks, 4=real estate,
5=mutual funds, 6=gold and silver and 7=collectibles.
When considering independent variables, based on the previous research performed by
Demirel and Gunay (2011) and Al-Ajmi (2008), age, marital status, education level, number
of dependents, stability of income source, and whether individual has financial commitments
are chosen as variables that are expected to be significantly affecting risk tolerance and
223
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
investment preferences. Independent variables and their values are being summarized in the
table below.
Variable
Gender
Measurement
1= male
Variable
Number of dependents
2= female
Age
Respondents’ age (20 Stability
– 60)
source
of
Measurement
Respondents’
number of
dependents
income 1 = unpredictable
2= somewhat
predictable
3= reasonably
predictable
4= predictable
5= very predictable
Marital Status
1= married
Income
1= <300 KM
2= 300 – 700
2= not married
3= 700 – 1000
4= 1000 – 1500
5= 1500 – 2000
6= 2000 – 2500
7= >2500
Education
1= secondary
2= postsecondary
3= Bachelor
4= Master
5= PhD
Table 1. Independent variable definitions
2.3. Statistical Analysis
224
Financial
commitments
0= no loan
1= having loan
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The model used for the empirical analysis is multiple regression model that permits estimating
effect on Yi of changing one variable X1i while holding the other regressors constant (Stock
& Watson, 2006). Multiple regression models that are going to be estimated is as following:
Yi = β0 + β1Age + β2Gender+ β3Status + β4Educ + β5Dep + β6FreqY + β7IncLev + β8Loan (1)
Model developed is used for both analyses, for testing significance of independent variables
in relation to either risk tolerance in first case and investment preferences in the second
analysis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Sample characteristics
Regarding the sample characteristics, out of 200 respondents 58.5% were male and 41.5%
were female. Respondents have ranged from 22 to 59 years old and approximately 70% of all
respondent are in the age range from 25 to 46. Furthermore, 60.5% of respondents are married
and 39.5% are not married. For the simplification of the analysis “not married” are considered
all who are either single, divorced, separated, widowed, etc. (Grable & Lytton, 1999). Most of
the respondents are having either secondary or bachelor degree, 45% and 39% respectively,
while all other education level account only for 16%. When it comes to the number of
dependent, response have ranged from 1 to 5 members and most of the respondents, about
37% of them have 4 family members. Considering income aspect, most of the respondents
have either predictable or at least reasonably predictable (stable) income source, accounting
for approximately 65% of all response. Data on the income level match the data provided by
Federal Office of Statistics that the average salary is approximately 800 KM and survey has
shown that most of the people are in the income group from 700 – 1000 KM (Federal Office
of statistics)
When considering dependent variables, it is evident that people in Bosnia and Herzegovina
are below average risk tolerant given the fact that approximately 70% of respondent have
rated their risk tolerance 5 or less then 5, on the scale from 0 to 10.
The unwritten rule states that people in B&H only believe in investment in real estate and this
research has proven so, 57% of all respondents have stated that they would invest in real
estate, while all other six types of investment account for the 43% (deposits 20%, lending to
someone 0.5%, stocks 9%, mutual fund 4.5%, gold and silver 8% and collectibles 1%).
3.1. Risk tolerance estimated model
Coefficientsa
Model
1
225
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
(Constant) 2.274
Std. Error
.354
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
t
6.425
Sig.
.000
95,0% Confidence
Interval for B
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
1.576
2.972
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
.096
.385
.443
2
IncLev
.669
(Constant) 1.733
6.949
4.499
.000
.000
.479
.973
.859
2.492
.102
.149
.399
.357
.217
3
IncLev
.540
Education .476
(Constant) 1.389
5.265
3.203
3.481
.000
.002
.001
.338
.183
.602
.742
.770
2.176
IncLev
.478
.103
.316
Education .519
.147
.236
Gender
.793
.289
.172
a. Dependent Variable: RiskTol
Table 2.I Multiple regression; coefficients
4.627
3.525
2.746
.000
.001
.007
.274
.228
.223
.682
.809
1.363
Based on the stepwise multiple regression, the final estimated model for the risk tolerance is
as follows:
Y = + 1.389 + 0.478IncLev + 0.519Educ + 0.793Gender (2)
β0 represents the intercept and the its value in the final model is 1.389 meaning that if all
independent variables are zero value of an individual’s risk tolerance will be 1.389. This can
further be explained as human nature of being resistant to risk. Furthermore, although gender
variable is statistically insignificant (0.07>0.05) model includes it because of significant
bivariate correlation with risk tolerance. In such a situation, researcher can decide whether to
include given variable in the model or not.
R2 and adjusted R2 are measures that quantify the extent to which the regressors account for
the variation in the dependent variable. Since R square is increasing when every next variable
is added to the model, adjusted R2is better measurement of the mode fit (Stock & Watson,
2006). The estimated model has adjusted R2value of 0.253 meaning that 25.3% of the
variations in the dependent variable are explained by income level, education level and gender
variables. This indicates that research should be revised and improved by adding new
independent variables that are potentially affecting risk tolerance and better predicting
variations. Variables that could be considered for the future research could be: current
economic situation in the county, economic expectations, interest rates and financial
knowledge (Ribeiro, 2001; Grable & Lytton, 1999).
3.2. Investment preferences estimated model
All the independent variables have been introduced in the model and by performing stepwise
multiple regression the following coefficient were estimated:
226
Coefficients
a
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Model
Unstandardized
Standardized
95,0% Confidence Interval
Coefficients
Coefficients
for B
B
1
(Constant
Std. Error
3.833
.158
-.514
.208
Beta
t
Sig.
Lower Bound Upper Bound
24.213
.000
3.521
4.146
-2.474
.014
-.924
-.104
)
Loan
-.173
a. Dependent Variable: Investment
Table 3. II Multiple regression; coefficients
As shown in the table above out of eight independent variables, only variable measuring
whether an individual has a financial commitment proved to be significantly affecting
investment type.
Y= 3.833 – 0.514Loan
(3)
Equation (3) shows that if all independent variables are exactly zero, value of dependent
variable (investment type) will be approximately 3.833, approaching value of investment in
real estate. Moreover, adjusted R2 has a value of 0.025 meaning that produced equation
provides explanation for only 2.5% of variations in investment type preferred by respondents.
The graph shows that most of the respondents (57%) have answered that they would invest in
the real estate. 20% would
make deposit in the bank,
while other four investment
types all together account for
30%. As in the case of risk
tolerance, insignificance of
independent variables suggests
that further research should be
performed by introducing new
variables mentioned in the
previous section. Conventional
wisdom claims that people in
B&H
only
believe
in
investment in real estate and
consider it the least risky. This
explains the outcome of the
survey.
Figure 1 Graphical representation of investment types
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, model for testing significance of demographic and socioeconomic factors in
determining risk tolerance and investment preferences was developed. Firstly, income level,
education level and gender were proven to be significant and positively related to risk
tolerance. As each of these variables increase, risk tolerance is increasing. Secondly, multiple
227
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
regression models has identified that only financial commitments are significant for
determination of investment and this relation is negative, showing that if an individual has a
financial commitment it investment will decrease or it will choose less risky investment. Due
to the fact that both estimated models are having low adjusted R2, they are not a very good
explanation of variations in dependent variables; in the future of the research new variables
should be included. Until now research was mostly focused on demographic characteristics of
each survey respondent, but in the future more of the socioeconomic factors characteristic for
Bosnia and Herzegovina are going to be considered. In this way, current economic situation,
macroeconomic data, interest rates, economic expectations and individual’s financial
knowledge are going to be used as predictors of risk tolerance and investment preferences.
This will improve the model, it will provide more complex and accurate explanation of what
are the possible reasons why risk tolerance and investment preferences vary. However
research needs improvements in the future, the overall conclusion of the is that demographic
and socioeconomic factors are affecting risk tolerance and investment preference.
REFERENCES
Al-Ajmi, Y. J. (2008). Risk Tolerance of Individual Investors in an Emerging Market.
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics.Vol. 17, pp. 15-26.
Demirel, E. and Gunay, S. G. (2011).Financial Risk Taking Behavior Comparisons between
Two Different Countries Based on Demographic Factors: Turkey and Macedonia Case.
Middle Eastern Finance and Economics.Vol. 10, pp. 111-120.
Federal Office of Statistics. Last Accessed on 4 27, 2012, from http://www.fzs.ba/
Grable, J. E.and Lytton, R. H. (1998). Investor risk tolerance: Testing the efficacy of
demographics as differentiating and classifying factors. Financial Counseling and Planning, 9
(1), pp. 61-74.
Grable, J. E. and Lytton, R.H. (1999).Assessing Financial Risk Tolerance: Do Demographic,
Socioeconomic,And Attitudinal Factors Work?. Journal of the FRHD/FERM.
Hallahana, T. A., R. W. Faffb and M. D. McKenziea, 2004. “An Empirical Investigation of
Personal Financial Risk Tolerance”, Financial Services Review 13, pp. 57–78.
Holton, G. A. (2004). Defining risk.Financial Analyst Journal.60 (6),pp. 19-25.
MacCrimmon, K. R. and Wehrung, D. A. (1986).Taking risks.New York: The Free Press.
Ribeiro, B. M. and Teixeira, J. R. (2001).An econometric analysis of private-sector
investment in Brazil.Cepal.Review 74, pp. 153-166.
Stock, J. H. and Watson, M. W. (2006).Introduction to Econometrics.2nd edition, Pearson
Education International
228
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Title
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Risk Tolerance and Investment Preferences in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Author
Author
Mela , Hadrovic
ERGÜN, Uğur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Risk tolerance is considered as an important factor in making financial decisions, saving and investment choices. This paper has examined level of investment risk tolerance and investment preferences of B&H’s population and it had explored whether demographic and socioeconomic factors to risk tolerance and investment preferences. Using a randomly chosen sample of 200 individuals above the age of 20, empirical analysis has shown that above independent variables that are significantly affecting individual’s risk tolerance are income level, education level and gender. Regression analysis has proven that above average risk tolerance is associated with higher income level and higher education level. Moreover, analysis has supported the assumption that males are more risk tolerant then females. Regarding the investment preferences, obtained results show that the out of eight independent variables, only variable measuring whether an individual has a financial commitment is significantly negatively related to the investment. Keywords: Risk tolerance, Risk aversion, Investment preferences, demographic and socioeconomic factors, regression model, level of significance.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance
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Rješavanje interlokalnog sukoba zakona u statusnim i nasljednim odnosima u Bosni i Hercegovini
Author
Author
Poljić, Adis
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Sažetak: Predmet rada je način rješavanja privatnopravnih odnosa sa međuentiteskim elementom u statusnim i nasljednim odnosima u pravu Bosne i Hercegovine. Radi se o materiji međunarodnog privatnog prava iako se odlučuje o interlokalnom sukobu zakona. Postojanje interlokalnog sukoba zakona je posljedica složenog pravnog poretka Bosne i Hercegovine. Ne može se zanemarivati postojanje međuentitetskog elementa u privatnopravnim odnosima, posebno iz razloga što su zakonska rješenja različita i mogu dovesti do potpuno drugačijih rješenja slučaja, s obzirom da je većina privatnoravnih odnosa normirana od strane entiteta i Brčko distrikta. Cijeneći da određeni privatnopravni odnos može da utiče na cjelokupan život određenih osoba, jasno je koliko se ozbiljno mora pristupiti ovom problemu. U statusnim stvarima razlika se prvenstveno ogleda u tome da je u Federaciji Bosne i Hercegovine i Brčko distriktu propisana mogućnost sticanja poslovne sposobnosti i za maloljetnu osobu, stariju od 16 godina koja je postala roditelj, u vanparičnom postupku na prijedlog maloljetne osobe. U nasljednim odnosima takođe postoji niz razlika, a posebno se ističe različit krug zakonskih nasljednika, mogućnost nasljeđivanja vanbračnog partnera i oblik testamenta. Osnovni težišni kontakt koji se koristi kod privatnopravnih odnosa sa međuentitetskim elementom je prebivalište.
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Social Sciences Research Center
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2016
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
K Law (General)
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Title
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Robin Lakoff Revisited – Male and Female Humor in Academic Settings
Author
Author
Sivric, Marijana
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Females have traditionally been characterized as unable to produce, or even appreciate, humor. Although there were numerous studies on female humor within different scientific disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, etc., Robin Lakoff’s paper was among most significant ones:“…women can't tell jokes - they are bound to ruin the punchline, they mix up the order of things and so on. Moreover, they don't 'get' jokes. In short, women have no sense of humor.” (Lakoff, 1975:56) In the early gender and humor studies, the problem was that researchers did not rely on spontaneous joking, but on controlled public sphere, which was in the domain of males. With general advancement in language and gender research, the attitudes on gender humor have changed. Humor has been related to women’s conversational styles (supportive and collaborative) as opposed to male conversational styles (referring to status and competition). Some newer studies have tried to look at this topic from a more feminist perspective – the main task in male life is to impress the opposite sex, they accept women as the audience, but not as rivals. Within our Language and Gender course, we have tried to investigate the issue of gender humor in the academic setting. Some of the questions to be answered are gender differences in initiating and responding to humorous situations as well as cross-cultural dimension of humor.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/81b732983dd9d58dba6770d09351e731.pdf
c92c508d3b32725d325a58a22a76f41c
PDF Text
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Role and Importance of CRM
in Global Competitive Environment
M. Nurettin ALABAY
Turgut Özal University
Economics and Business Administrative Science Faculty
Business Department, Ankara, Turkey
nalabay@gmail.com
Abstract: Information and communication technologies (ICT) which has flourished due to
spread of microchip technologies during 1970s, created internet which interconnects entire
world and eliminates the classical understanding during 1990s. The fact that electronic trade
and several other transactions could be performed through internet which developed as a
result of widespread use of internet, created a global economy. The knowledge in the global
economy, left behind the production factors which are known as labor, capital, natural
resources and entrepreneurship, has become a standalone production factor. The developed
information technologies caused human-oriented approaches to flourish and production
processes to restructure. With the emergence of customer-oriented approaches, the production
process has become "discovering what the customer wants and produce that thus makes
profit by satisfying the customer in this fashion". Marketing function within the enterprise
became a leading factor even more than the production process and marketing position has
become the function of all employees of the enterprise. The enterprises which fail to satisfy
their customers, have become weaker economically and cannot survive. As a result, while
developed information and communication technologies enabled globalization, the customer
has become the most important element in the global economy and those enterprises which
can sell whatever they produce, have been replaced by those enterprises who produce and sell
whatever the customer wants and competition has been increased leading to global
competition which influence entire world. The enterprises which have been deprived of
competitive power through the classical marketing mix (product, price, distribution,
promotion) now have a tendency towards customer relationship management (CRM). CRM is
now used as a new name of the marketing.
Introduction
Rapid advancement and development in knowledge and communication technologies (ICT) are the most
distinctive characteristics of the significant development, which has been fulfilled during the last decade of the 20th
century, in the civilization history. This rapid advancement and development, being experienced, have changed the
construction methods of commerce and businesses, affected the economical and social life profoundly and caused
some concepts and templates to be questioned. The developments in ICT are also one of the most significant factors,
lying behind the spread of the phenomenon of globalization.
Today, not the fullest extent of the effects that would be created by the innovations in the knowledge and
communication technologies and by the usage of these technologies, has been revealed. As Drucker (1995) states, the
age we live in is an age of transition in every field. Knowledge and communication technologies shall be able to
provide incredibly significant economic and social benefits. New technologies help increase the effectiveness of the
economy, create new business opportunities, spread the technical advancements and ideas more easily, establish the
simultaneous communication between the people and institutions in different countries and regions. Together with
globalization, technological developments have found a usage area in every area and some definite effects occured
in every sector. Definite effects and advantages of information technologies are available in all sectors, which use
customer satisfaction as base (Drucker, 1995).
By this way, the role which is imposed on the mass medium is being included in new development-reconstruction
theories as the innovations, which constitute the source of the basic element and growth that determine the change of
technology, by being given to the technology (BaĢaran, 2005).
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In the light of these developments, the statement of information society, which is entitled by population
scientists like A. Toffler, is based on the effects to be made by ICT on the whole social structure, as well.
Developments in technology have contributed to the development of globalization. The apprehension of
quality products and increasing customer satisfaction, which emerged as a result of the development of
technology by the businesses of the whole world, thrusted the inter-enterprise competition to the forefront. The
accomodation of the businesses to the new global conditions is called global competition (Elibol, 2005:155).
Since the whole world has become a market for the customer together with the increase of both technology
and globalization, the expectations of the customers increased and concordantly, customer-based concept became
dominant in marketing. At the end of this process, on the other hand, marketing emerged as a new conception under
the name of the customer relations management. This new conception is the new name of marketing now.
Factors that Play a Role in Change
Beginning with the development of technology and continuing with globalization, the factors of the change
could be organized as follows:
Developing Knowledge and Communication Technologies
Developing Global Economy
Increasing Global Competition
Developing Conception of Marketing
Developing Human-Based Processes
Developing Customer-Based Approaches and New Conception of Marketing: Customer Relations
Management (CRM)
Developing Knowledge and Communication Technologies
The development of human capital (intellectual capital), which is described as qualified (intellectual) labor
force, together with the increase of the knowledge in terms of economy, established the ground for the rise of new
concepts and values like “knowledge economy”, “new economy”, “digital economy”. Rapid and extensive
development in information technologies affected the economic and social life profoundly. Gathering the potential
producers, suppliers, users and consumers together on the web carried the economic communication and activities
into the electronical environment.
Knowledge economy and B2B, which emerged as a new e-business method in this economy, also known as
from company to company e-commerce model, are among the most significant factors.. In this context, they enabled
the integration into the global economy and the rise of the obligations to make changes in the strategies, directed at
having a share from the extending global commerce size, from the aspect of the affects, that would be actualised by
BIT on the whole global economy due to its general features that affect the structures outside of their own areas and
also from the aspect of the developing and underdeveloped countries together with the new operation style of the
global economy (Kıyan, 2008).
Knowledge shall become much more important in the future. Some evaluations related to the future
economy are already being made. Rottberg and Erickson (2005) state that in transition from the current economy to
the future economy; intelligence, which is acquired through processing the knowledge, shall come into prominence
instead of knowledge. Because knowledge is a value. Intelligence, on the other hand, has power.
Through benefitting from the opportunities of knowledge and communication technology, preventing the
elimination of the information which often repeat in conventional documents and preventing the bureaucracy /
officialism, simplifying the distribution of goods, it is seen that competition and employment move towards new
goods with high value added tax and continuous service types and the employment, which increases by this way,
enables economic prosperity and growth.
Compiling, analysing the knowledge at the right time and through right methods and using the human and
capital sources by leaning on these knowledge without wasting, providing the chance of ―enlightenment on the
instant‖ for the individual / organization with an increasing quality and effectiveness on the face of new
developments, increase the efficiency in sourcing.
Rapid developments in information technologies have caused our age to be described as the information
age. Rapid technological advancements cause significant changes in the micro and macro economic basis. The basic
characteristics of this knowledge and communication-based new economy could be organized as follows (Tan and
Uijttenbroek, 1997):
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1) Continuously accelerating technological developments,
2) Intense activities of increasing information and knowledge,
3) Entering into the shortening market and shortening of the periods of product/service life cycle,
4) Globalization of the markets,
5) Dimming of the differences between the industry branches.
In the publication, prepared by the New Zealand government, which is called Knowledge Economy, the
most impressive characteristic of the knowledge technologies (knowledge and communication technologies) is that
their technological abilities continuously increase, whereas their expenditures continuously decrease. Three rules,
expressing this relation, have been set forth.
1) Moore Rule: The speed of a microchip doubles in every 18 months without a price increase.
2) Gilder Rule: The total tape extensity of communication systems rises threefold in every 12 months
without the change of the unit price.
3) Metcalfe Rule: The value of a communication network is proportional with the number of nodes in the
network. Therefore, while the value of being connected to a network increases exponentially, the price
per user remains constant; it even decreases.
In a study, which takes place in one of the most prominent B2B sites of the world, alibaba.com, the
advantages to be acquired by enterprises through B2B model could be organized as follows:
An increase in the sale and profit proportions,
Competition superiority in the internal market,
Taking share from the global markets,
Increase in the market diversity,
Decrease in per-piece costs,
Removal of time limit in terms of requirements,
Opportunity in terms of company growth,
Chance of acquiring new knowledge and experience.
In this structure, which developed in a more different way than conventional commerce, some remarkable
declines are observed in the expenditures of some goods and services; while new jobs are constituted, some of them
loses their significance; customer satisfaction is brought to the forefront and transparency of the market, on the other
hand, strenghtens the constitution of the open market for now. In parallel with these developments, globalization of
the competition forces the enterprises to make more investments in knowledge, intellectual staff and knowledge
technologies. Because, the most important conditions of competing are constituted in the basis of the knowledge.
Spread of electronic commerce affects areas like international commerce, employment, education, culture and social
life; rapid innovations, which are almost impossible to estimate, emerge.
Development and fall of information technologies provide the enterprises the opportunity to be able to do
business on global level. Today, where the computer technologies and internet usage increase, electronic commerce
can address to the global market more easily, therefore, market potential could be greater compared to conventional
commerce.
The basic parameter of the condition that knowledge and knowledge technology terms the era we live in, is
the fact that knowledge is the source of prosperity. The investments, which are made in knowledge and knowledge
technologies provide positive effects for the growth of the countries in the long term.
Spread and fall of the internet bring a significant time and expenditure possession in providing the valuable
information, which are difficult to acquire. The fact that internet is more rapid and cheap compared to other mass
medium, increases the opportunities for the enterprises of developing countries to acquire competitive environments
more easily.
The increase of the strength and efficiency in the resource distribution by electronic commerce could also be
provided through the decline of production costs. It is observed that electronic commerce has a cost- diminishing
effect in the commercial relationships of the enterprises with customers and other enterprises.
Developments in knowledge and communication technologies increase the significance of services sector in
the economic structure and they reveal structural changes in labour-markets. As a result of this change, some
developments in favor of knowledge and communication technologies and services sector occur, while reductions in
other employment areas may arise.
On the other hand, the development of electronic commerce causes the increase of the need for qualified
labour force with a higher education in the field of knowledge and communication technologies. The enterprises,
which perform operations such as introduction, distribution and inventory tracking in the electronic environment, can
easily meet the consumer requirements thanks to the flexibility of the virtual environment.
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Developing Global Economy
The correlative connection between knowledge and communication technologies is frequently
emphasized. Knowledge and communication technologies have enabled globalization by increasing the
communication speed and decreasing the expenditure, providing a much more rapid and cheap integration,
facilitating the distribution through territorialising many products and activities with the help of integrated
networks. Through establishing direct and rapid communication connections, knowledge and
communication technologies decreased the economic distances, acquired possession from the time which
is required for the coordination of the activities of the business world, declined the conversion
expenditures and made the financial markets active for 24 hours in the size of countries and continents. In
brief, knowledge and communication technologies is a strong factor that functions in favor of the
integration of the world economy.
The increase of the technological developments made the whole world a single market. Today, the
globalization, which establishes strong and correlative connections between individual economies and
societies and consequently, which makes psychological and economical distances and differences between
the societies meaningless, is a concept, which describes the new tendencies, that emerged during the last
quarter of the twentieth century within the world economy. In a much more special context, it is a concept,
required for international dependence and international cooperation.
Knowledge and communication technologies depict its effect on the growth through different channels
because of its multi-dimensional nature:
1.
Total production increases through producing new products and services (such as
computer equipment, digital equipment, magnetic card machines and applications, fax
machines, mobile phones, satellite broadcastings and new financial services). New
business opportunities occur rapidly in these sectors.
2.
Efficiency increases through new methods, that find field of application in the
production processes such as electronic commerce and computer-aided robots. Within
this context, knowledge and communication technologies could be accepted as a
significant production factor, which contributes to the growth of the total production
factors together with unqualified labour force, physical capital, human capital and land.
3.
Economic efficiency increases through internet sales, digital advertisement, crossborder production, new marketing, organization and management techniques.
The number of the new products and services, which is executed in connection with knowledge
and communication technologies, geometrically increased in the last decade.
Increasing Global Competition
Together with the increase of the market size, the elements of competition change and enterprises have to
recheck their competition strategies. Sometimes, a cooperation with opponent companies may be compulsory and
sometimes the companies, which carry on their activities in different sectors could become opponents in the virtual
environment. The fact that entering into electronic commerce market has a low cost, strengthens the possibility of
coming across with new opponents at any moment.
As the competition increases, marketing CEOs continue to reveal new human requirements through
developing more aggressive methods. There is no way of competing with product, price, distribution and promotion
tools, known as marketing composite, any more. Therefore, the rate of meeting the human requirements by new
pursuits and products in a better way, the quality of products, customer-based approaches shall gradually increase.
Competition has increased the numbers of market segments, as well, and nich marketing, which addresses to very
attentive features, is developing since classical market segment methods could no longer respond.
Increasing competition changed the marketing process, as well as the organizational structure. Beginning
with the determination of the customer necessities, marketing changed as producing the most convenient product for
the customer requirements and presenting them to the customer and by this way, acquiring profit. On the other hand,
together with embedded marketing understanding, marketing became the task of everyone in the enterprise. Kotler
stated as, ―marketing is a too large subject to be left only to the marketing department‖ (Kotler, 2000).
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Since enterprises go into a cutthroat competition in the whole world market in order to find demand for the
increasing amount of production and supply of product variety, global competition emerged. Today, where
expanding into international markets have become easy, and even the direct investments have come to the levels of
convenience in the home country, the global competition has increased. While country borders are not considered as
a problem in production and marketing, it is seen that in which country the product is produced is no longer
considered to be significant. Because on condition that what the future scientists have already stated comes out right,
China, where 25% of today‘s production is made, shall become a country on which 50% of the economy of the world
countries would be dependent, in 2025.
Concerning this subject, the following information are included in Global Trends 2025:A Transformed
World (2008):
Economy giants of Asia – China and India – are going back to their positions prior to two centuries, when
they produced respectively 30% and 15% of the world prosperity. For the first time since the 18th century, China and
India have been determined as the countries, providing the greatest contribution to the economic growth worldwide.
It is possible that these two countries overpass the GSMH of other economies, except of USA and Japan, until 2025,
however they shall keep dropping behind for years, from the aspect of the income per capita.
Changing Marketing concept
As a result of the development of technology and global developments, enterprises had to change their
organizational structures and marketing became the most important function through getting ahead of production. By
this way, production systems started to begin with marketing, rather than production.
Some changes occurred in the marketing concept through the development of the consumer market, which changes
with the increase on the educational levels of the consumers, technology and globalization. This new marketing
concept has more different characteristics than that of ―Conventional Marketing‖.
Changes in the marketing developed depending upon the development of technology, globalization and the
increase of the educational level of the consumer. Depending on this change, the description, composite and role of
marketing and the organizational structure of the enterprise changed, as well. In the period of change, relation
marketing developed, the customer was placed in the centre of the enterprise, the concepts of value-producing and
value-transmitting developed and market-directedness became the basis (Varinli, 2006).
The changes could be organized as follows:
Supply became much greater than demand,
Very significant developments occured in marketing, particularly during the period after 1990s,
Determining the customer requirements and necessities in the target market, providing satisfaction
started through manufacturing in a convenient way for it and presenting it to them,
Every unit of the enterprise started to function coordinately (embedded marketing), marketing became
the task of all employees of the enterprise,
Profitability, directed at the consumer in the long term, became the target,
Since the competition was too intense, the search for innovation increased each day,
Value-based marketing concept developed,
Market-oriented management and the marketing concept started to dominate.
According to this change, some significant changes in the marketing composite occured, as well, and the
marketing composite, which is known as 4Ps, started to be described as Customer, Cost, Convenience,
Communication –known as 4Cs- instead of Product, Price, Place and Promotion (Kotler, 1998:92).
Marketing concept changed after the conventional marketing and many new marketing techniques were
developed. Modern marketing, social marketing, green marketing, guerilla marketing, post-modern marketing, oneto-one marketing, customer-oriented marketing, value-based marketing, etc. could be given as examples to them.
Developing Human-Oriented Processes
Human-oriented approaches, that place humans at the centre and dignify them, affect all the enterprises
increasingly day by day. Human-oriented approaches have become even stronger together with the development of
globalization and technology, increase of the educational levels of the people, fall of transportation and
communication and the spread of the total quality management processes.
Today, the performances of the people are constantly becoming easy through the sense of ―everything is
for humans‖ in the human-oriented approaches.
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Human-oriented approaches provide a brand new ground, that would gain the advantage of a sustainable
competition in the enterprises. Human-oriented approaches replace the product or process technologies, marketing or
advertisement strategies, which have the authorities of conventional competition, and the advantages, dependent on
the capital power. Comparing with the conventional factors that constitute a competition advantage, it is much harder
to be able to imitate or copy the human-oriented competition elements. For instance, every enterprise imitates the
products or business secrets of a famous enterprise. However, it is very difficult to imitate the culture of an
organization, which is based on human-oriented approaches (Schneider and Benjamin; 1993; p. 42).
While human-oriented approaches in the enterprises primarily aim to constitute an organization culture with
employees, who are considered as internal customers, a customer-oriented approach is adopted for the external
customers. Customer-oriented approaches constituted an alliance of systems, such as customer-oriented marketing,
relation marketing and Customer Relations Management, which gradually develops.
Developing Customer-Oriented Approaches and the New Sense of Marketing: Customer
Relations Management (CRM)
Knowing the requirements and necessities and even the expectations of the customers is very significant in
terms of the path to be followed during the acquirement of the customer satisfaction. Today, the enterprises support
the standards, such as ISO 9000:2000, ISO 9000:2001 and ISO 10002, aimed at developing the quality, in order to
provide customer satisfaction. In this case, good practice of enterprises by concentrating on the issue of customerorientation becomes compulsory (Kağnıcıoğlu, 2002).
The concept of customer relations management is a result of today‘s sense of marketing. The competition
power of enterprises has always required being different. Since differentiations, acquired through technological
innovations are not long standing today, it shall not be possible to go to the customers of the enterprises with a
unique sale proposal in the long term. Therefore, customer relations are depicted as one of the most important ways
of differentiation. The continuing relations, devotions and gradually increasing purchase behaviors of the customers
are the values to protect the enterprises under strong competition conditions (Demir and Kırdar, 2006).
Customer Relations Management could be accepted as an application of one-to-one and relational
marketing, which takes the knowledge about what customers state about their expectations from the product and
knowledge, collected by the enterprises concerning their customers as base and which responds to the customer
personally (Ryals and Pane, 2001: 4).
Although the main reason that requires the materialization of Customer Relations Management applications
is competition, it also is a need of the respect and importance, given to the human, together with the increase it
provides in the service quality of the customer relations management (TaĢpınar, 2005: 19).
Customer is the most important information source in the Customer Relations Management. It is
compulsory for the business process, which includes producing and presenting product or service, to concentrate on
the values, perceived by the customer in today‘s competition environment (Goldman, et al., 1996).
Customer Relations Management (CRM) is the life prescription of enterprises today, where competition
with the elements of marketing composite have become difficult, global competition has increased, technology and
internet have spread, human values have come into prominence and expectations have increased.
Conclusion
Due to mass production, which started with industrial revolution, and the fact that sale became harder than
production and the increase of global competition during the 21st century, marketing started to be forced. While
things to be produced can not be found since everything is already produced now, marketing has started to be forced
although the movements are made in accordance with considering every way as lawful. Why did this happen this
way? What has changed since the 19th century until today?
ICT, knowledge and communication technologies developed, became cheaper and spread,
Internet technologies developed, became cheaper and spread,
Web systems developed and became cheaper, systems like B2B spread,
Other end of the world became accessible through e-commerce,
Global enterprises, functioning for 24 hours, were established,
Total knowledge in the world increased, and access to the knowledge (communication) became
easy,
Knowledge became strategic,
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The importance of knowledge and knowledge-concentrated sectors increased,
Global economy developed,
The number of products became greater than before, supply was much greater than demand,
Competition increased excessively,
Fields of competition decreased,
Competition case of the enterprises was removed together with marketing composite,
Search for competition continues in new fields,
Market segments increased, very attentive Market segments were constituted,
Human-oriented processes started to come into prominence, everything started to be made for
humans,
Transportation and communication increased and became cheaper,
Automatic Recognition and Data Collection (ARDC) systems developed and spread,
Customers became traceable at any moment,
Data mining developed, spread and became cheaper,
Marketing systems developed,
New marketing techniques were developed,
Organizational structures of the enterprises changed,
Marketing became the most significant function in enterprise, through getting ahead of even the
production,
Production systems started to begin with marketing, rather than production,
Customer-oriented production and marketing approaches developed,
Customer Relations Management (CRM) was developed,
Marketing became=CRM
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Role and Importance of CRM in Global Competitive Environment
Author
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ALABAY, M. Nurettin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) which has flourished due to spread of microchip technologies during 1970s, created internet which interconnects entire world and eliminates the classical understanding during 1990s. The fact that electronic trade and several other transactions could be performed through internet which developed as a result of widespread use of internet, created a global economy. The knowledge in the global economy, left behind the production factors which are known as labor, capital, natural resources and entrepreneurship, has become a standalone production factor. The developed information technologies caused human-oriented approaches to flourish and production processes to restructure. With the emergence of customer-oriented approaches, the production process has become "discovering what the customer wants and produce that thus makes profit by satisfying the customer in this fashion". Marketing function within the enterprise became a leading factor even more than the production process and marketing position has become the function of all employees of the enterprise. The enterprises which fail to satisfy their customers, have become weaker economically and cannot survive. As a result, while developed information and communication technologies enabled globalization, the customer has become the most important element in the global economy and those enterprises which can sell whatever they produce, have been replaced by those enterprises who produce and sell whatever the customer wants and competition has been increased leading to global competition which influence entire world. The enterprises which have been deprived of competitive power through the classical marketing mix (product, price, distribution, promotion) now have a tendency towards customer relationship management (CRM). CRM is now used as a new name of the marketing. Introduction
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2010-06
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5c14c98c8128a84a61eff8176f78cd04.pdf
b37d187e1597476284c808f8e93062aa
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ROLE OF FINTECH IN FINANCIAL INCLUSION OF SMALL & MEDIUM
ENTERPRISES (SME) IN INDIA
Author
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Pooja Gupta
Abstract
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Fintech is the application of technology in financial services, combining techniques such as hardware, software, and cloud with a financial platform like Banks, NBFCs, wealth management firms etc. The traditional banking system is going through a digital transformation with the help of these Fintech companies. These companies are acting as game changer by designing innovative digital platforms, with the common end goal of enhancing financial inclusion of SMEs. Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are the engine that drives the economy and contributes to the GDP in India. These entities do not have access to easy finance due to issues like lack of collateral and credit history. Traditional financial institutions adopt a cautious process when make small-unsecured loans and moreover they prefer loans only against collateral. So there is a greater need for adequate financial support for small and medium enterprises. However, Banks are partnering with FinTech firms and are taking the entire process online to reduce the transaction cost and turnaround time. They are looking for alternative sources of data to measure the creditworthiness of SMEs. This has led to the emergence of a new sector known as alternative lending, which is essentially an online platform for lenders (retail or institutional) to lend directly to borrowers (individual or corporate). While traditional organizations evaluate balance sheets, P&L statements and other documents of the business, Fintech platforms use AI and advanced machine learning algorithms to rate the SME’s creditworthiness. Fintech platforms lay specific importance to digital data available in an ecosystem like bank transactions, cash flow, and importance is given to company ratings from credit reporting agencies. This research paper talks about how the fintech firms are contributing towards the financial inclusion of SMEs by introducing them with various financial products and a digital lending platform. It looks at the opportunities available to the Fintech sector as well as the challenges faced by them. It is a qualitative study based on an open questionnaire format. The study further looks at the specific needs of the SME sector regarding financing and how Fintech companies are bridging the gap of financing for these SMEs.
Keywords
Keywords.
Fintech, Technology, SME, Lending Platform
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ROLE OF GOOD GOVERNANCE AND LOCAL ASSETS IN DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AREAS IN FEDERATION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Author
Author
TANDIR, Natasa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the most rural countries in Europe with around 61% of population living in predominantly rural areas. The characteristics of rural areas in BH are similar to the ones in other countries but are also specific in relation to the overall country development, natural resources and mentality of the people (social and human capital). The aim of the study is to investigate the reasons for the differences in economic performance, in particular, to investigate the role of tangible and less tangible factors influencing development outcomes, and to show how people in rural areas perceive the role of local governance, as influential, as mediating or without significant contribution to their development level. The basis of the designed theoretical model is drawn primarily from completed research projects conducted in European Union. Model assumes that the different economic performance of rural areas is the result, in part at least, of five locally available capitals: (1) natural capital; (2) built capital; (3) human capital; (4) social capital; and (5) cultural capital. In order to ensure the significance of this research and contribution to the field, the framework takes into consideration effective governance as having an important role in development of rural areas. To include this driver into the model it evaluates governance through defined principles of good governance found in the literature. This study represents a cross-sectional study which used both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Target population were residents in 72 municipalities classified as rural. In total 521 questionnaires were used in the analysis. The conducted method of analysis that was used was structural equation modelling. The results showed that only natural and human capital have statistically significant influence on development of rural areas. Related to institutional capital or good local governance there is no direct influence on the development, however some kind of contribution exists through other capitals. This research could present, along with other studies and sector analysis, useful base for constructive discussions on direct and long lasting measurements for improving rural development in our country in consistent, systematic and strategic way. Keywords: rural development, capitals, good governance, structural equation modelling
Date
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2016
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Thesis
NonPeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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24e75db673287ee63af9ba8a801880bb
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ROLE OF JADID REPRESENTATIVES
IN THE FORMATION OF PRESENT UZBEK LITERAL LANGUAGE NORMS
Inomjon Azimov
Nizami Tashkent State Pedagogical University, Uzbekistan
Article History:
Submitted: 13.06.2015
Accepted: 25.06.2015
Abstract:
Language is the mirror of a nation. All changes occurring in the life of a nation,
undoubtedly, find their reflection in language. In this regard, patriots and eminent figures of a
nation have always considered language as good means of self-apprehension, elevation of its
greatness and glory, reservation and reiteration of spirituality during hard times. Particularly
during the first quarter of the XX century, known in history as the National Renaissance,
academicians and scholars paid a lot of attention to language as they believed it was
engendering national spirituality and elevation of national ideology in people. They
considered language to be an invaluable pearl which indicates the existence of a nation. In
this regard, in the view of development of our own language, we have accumulated all the
facilities and initiated elaboration of rules of Uzbek language.
1. Introduction
From the history of our science it is known that Uzbek linguistics till the 30s of the
past century, with its scientific-theoretical, practical-stylistic features, and social-cultural
contradictions is one of the actual issues subject to studying. Particular aspects of Uzbek
linguistics of that period are not studied much. Till our Independence an opinion that Uzbek
linguistics have started forming in the 40s prevailed, while Uzbek linguistics of the 20s and
30s was not considered at all. Whereas, during the initial period following the October
revolution scholars such as Fitrat, Shokirjon Rahimiy, Qayum Ramazon, Elbek, Gozi Olim
Yunusov, and others have contributed much to the development of Uzbek linguistics.
Due to various disputes among academicians in regards to a variety of views towards
language orthography, education of mother language in schools was in poor condition.
There was a shortage of school manuals – ABCs and other books, while available ones did
not correspond to requirements. There was not any scientific research on the rules of Uzbek
�language and there was not any manual on Uzbek Language Grammar. The following is a
quote by Hoji Muin in the article on “Til masalasi” (Issue of language) in the 29th issue of
1918 of “Mehnatkashlar ovushi” (Voice of labour): “We cannot blame present scholar and
interpreter friends for not knowing Turkic rules, they are unplumbed in this regard. As none
of them and us have not studied in particular school. Education of language rules is usually
given at specialized schools, but such schools are not yet opened in our Turkistan. And
education of morphology and syntax of Turkic language has not yet started in new schools.
Our Turkic language is still a un-researched language and there is not any single Tractate on
its morphology and syntax. Our preceptor friends are not aware of language rules in detail,
which is evident from the books and school manuals written by them [1,92].
At that time the grammar of Turkic language was taught in the majority of Jadid
schools. Fitrat ruled that our schools and letters remain under Ottoman influence. In his
speech at Qurultay (Council) of Language and Orthography in 1921 mentions that the
majority of hours given to teaching/learning of mother language in the courses opened at
Tashkent are presented in Ottomanic; in the First Teachers’ Courses opened in Samarqand
there is no inherence of mother language at all; decision of Education Council Session of
1918 and Teachers’ Qurultay of the past year stipulates education of mother language during
initial three years only, then after general Turkish language (Ottoman Turkish language) is
to be taught; disputes of teachers attending the course of Uzbek language taught under
Ottoman Turkic Sheikh Vosifiy’s izofai lamiya, izofay bayoniya, izofai tashbehiya from
“Qavoyidi lisoni usmoniy” elevated from Arabic language - all of these insulting and
showcasing disrespect towards our language [2, 234-135].
Of course, there were objective and subjective reasons for this condition. First of all,
there was a shortage of skilled teachers. Vadud Mahmud, a Uzbek scholar, writes the
following: “If so, there is not any single school we can indicate; upbringing is so important
for us – education establishments are in worst conditions; notwithstanding amount of
educated people in the faculty, faculties are disgusting. We do not have any establishment
preparing any teacher in adjusted system. At worst, we do not have any single magazine
leading proper education and upbringing. Frankly speaking, we don’t have anything with
proper background” [3, 115].
He mentions that schools are being closed for the reason that majority of teachers,
who studied at Teachers’ Course, are not educated enough, with no particular goal, working
just to let time pass and teaching almost nothing to children. He says that if situation
remains same, illiteracy will continue further: “We have reverted back to past condition this
�year! I.e., how we were before revolution, we are in worse condition now. 5-6 teachers left
the country and busy with other work. Thus, we degraded again” [3, 113].
Secondly, shortage of manuals for schools of new style. Hoji Muin writes the
following in this regard: “If one reason for this is absence of books, another would be
teachers’ methods, which are totally away from education. Initially few teachers had to
implement tartarian books into their schools and some of them - translation of TurkicTartarian works for teaching kids. Even, due to absence of books, teahers had no option
except teaching with such old books as “Chor Kitob”, “Mantiq ut-tayr”, “Huja Hofiz” and
Navoi’s works. [1, 141-142].
“Usuli savtiya” by Ismoilbey Gaspirali successfully implemented in express
education of children in Bahchisaray was approved by Central Asia Jadids. Manuals taught
in traditional “Usuli hijo” in the region were replaced with “usuli savtiya” in new schools.
Advantage of this method in practice was quickly noticed and was well appreciated by
common. Row of special ABCs were created for teaching in such method. [4, 336].
Y.Abdullaev and A.Nurmonov in their researches mention about such ABCs made
during that period [4,5]. А.Nurmonov evaluates Saidrasul Saidazizov’s “Ustodi avval” and
Munavvar qori Abdurashidkhonov’s “Adabi avval” as initial and complicated examples of
Uzbek alphabet as well as closely speaks on Saidrasul Saidazizov’s manual. Y.Abdullaev
mentions creation of dozens of ABCs till 1917, but abovementioned two works being the
most complicated ones. [4, 336].
This is why the most important challenge of Uzbek intelligence was elaboration of
Uzbek language rules and execution of scientific researches as “till there is no any scientific
research – none of these will remain further” [2, 141].
For this reason it was important to deeply analyze nuncupative and scriptural sources
of our nation, to mutually compare, make scientific conclusions and, by this means, to
elaborate rules of Uzbek language: “Let us scientifically clarify number of sounds in our
language. Let us shout that our language is exemplary and rich; we have struggled and
overwhelmed those saying “This language is rude, let us take one of literal dialects of Turkic
language”. Hence, we have not yet arranged sign rules of our language. We have to provide
“singleness” of our symbols and elaborate concrete rules of our language for the benefit of
our writers. First of all we ourselves should know these rules.
Pure shape of our language we shall grab from the language of our people residing in
tribal. There are dostons (rune), ashula (song), matal (proverb) and lapar (cuplet) which
always represented native dialect of tribal people. All of this has to be put down carefully;
�hence there are works of aristocratic poets scripted within public. There are ancient
historical documents as “Qutadgu biling”, “Hibatul haqoiq”, “Devoni lugatiti turk”,
“Muqaddimatul adab”. Let us meticulously examine all of these; compare to each other,
coincide and avail precise and solid results. Efforts and results availed in this regard and
shape – would be scientific. And there won’t be anyone commenting the same” [2, 141142].
But implementation of this work, firstly, was very complicated. Secondly, it was
work that few scholars could afford to do. These were duties subject to joint implementation
by all nation scholars: “It is obvious this work is to be inconvenient. It can not be done by
one person. Challenges faced in this path will fall onto all recently appeared young writers.
We all are obliged to give basis, to dedicate contemprorary cultural essence to new Uzbek
literature” [2, 142].
Scientific Council under Turkistan Education Commissariat disputes in this regard.
During the First Council attended by Russian professors as Е.D.Polivanov, D.Shmidt,
S.Falyev, Kazakh, Tartarian and few Uzbek scholars such as А.Boytursinov, А.Sa’diy,
N.Hakim, who were invited from various educational establishments. They listened lectures
by Professor S.Falev on Morphology and Orthography of Kazakh dialects prepared by
A.Boytursinov, Kazakh linguist; during Second Council they listened E.D.Polivanov’s
lecture on “Basics in formation of morphology and orthography of Turkic languages”; at
Third Council - “Basics in studying and formation of rules of Turkic languages” by А.
Sa’diy.
According to A. Sa’diy, two issues caused disputes during the Council, which were:
“1. Is it possible to follow, take example and refer to languages of other groups
during structurizing rules of Turkic languages?
2. Is it expedient to form logical morphology and orthography to the nature of Turkic
languages? Either uniform logical morphology and orthography?”
Е. D. Polivanov in his lecture underlines his opinion in usefulness of comparison
with Russian language either reference to Russian morphology and orthography during
formation of morphlogy and orthography of Uzbek language, showcasing similarities and
analogy of two languages. А. Sa’diy would totally reject this opinion and note that Uzbek
and Russian languages are totally different. He mentions that Uzbek grammar differs from
morphology and orthography of Russian and Arabic languages and mentions origination of
totally different morphology and orthography. He also mentions that the grammar is
measured narrowly against Turkic languages, appearing as headless, cut-off, not applicable
�for implementation in lingual aspect as unworthy clothing; in this regard impossibility of
analysis of words. As written by him, professors invited for formation of Uzbek language
Grammar did not speak Uzbek, Turkic or Tartarian languages, and there were translators
involved for them. Elbek’s article on “Discussion on rules of Turkic languages” was written
in relation to the Council held, which includes scholar’s critics on those professors not
knowing any single kalima (word) in Uzbek language, but came to form its grammar, and
also mentions that formation of rules of Uzbek language is for those familiar with its overall
spirit and speaking this language [6, 18].
But the elevation of the Uzbek language to the level of literal language, and its
convertion into a literal one was a challenge at that time. As there were Farsi-Tadjik
traditions in imaginative literature, Arab traditions in scientific literature continuing,
opinions on elevation of “populace” Uzbek language onto the level of literal one were
virtually nonexistent. Secondly, reference to Ottoman Turkic language in literature was very
tough. Vadud Mahmud writes in this regards: “If we count Uzbek as a derivation of chigatay
poets dialect, we shall encounter two different dialect”.
Some would say it is dialect of Eastern Turkic either Chigatay, this is our main
dialect which was written by Navoi, Bobur, Fazliy. Others may be western Turkic either
Turkic dialects, which is known for us due to famous lyric poet Fuzuliy. Quby poets
followed this. It is considered not strange for us with the importance of first dialect of these
two being our language, whereas second one with the reading lovely” [3, 59].
Thirdly, as mentioned by Fitrat, there were many elements of Tartarian words mixed
in official language. This is why the majority of scholars could not believe Uzbek language
to become a literal language due to mixture of elements of many languages in it.
In such complicated conditions, the nation’s scholars lead by Fitrat struggled for
development and independency of Uzbek language, wishing for an “independent language
in Turkic group and science written in this language” This is why it was a must-to-do for
any Uzbek writer to elaborate Uzbek versions of words derived from other languages,
attempts in searching Uzbek (Turkic) versions of scientific revelations, to remain versions
which could not be replaced, but to moderate them under rules of Uzbek language.
Role of members of “Chigatoy gurungi” (Dialect of Chigatay) lead by Fitrat in
notification of signs of Uzbek language was irreplaceable. They have put forward the
following tasks:
“- there is complete, great, artistic literature of our language. Constancy of our
language is not in its Arabism, but in itself. We should reveal this;
�- in order to develop our literature, we need to utilize everlasting heritage of our
poets and achieve general basics of developed dialects and languages;
- rules of our language to be written not from Tartarian either Ottoman books, but
to be taken from our own language. This is why there is a need to collect all the
words spoken by common, gather all the fairy tales, proverbs, couplets being a
public literature;
- since literature is scriptural science, to form and elaborate writing rules and
signs”. [2, 135].
Members of “Chigator gurungi” have made a goal to create new Uzbek national
literature, literal language, science and culture. They wished to elevate new literature and
literal language, being a progency of chigatay literature, to renew its popularity as during
Navoi’s age, to be a sample literature and sample literal language for other Turkic
languages.
2. Conclusion
Due to our Independence we are able to study works of victimized scholars. Few
problems of Uzbek linguistics, the linguistic heritage of Jadid representatives, lexis of their
works, literal language style was studied by scholars as А.Nurmonov, S.Zufarov,
Y.Abdullaev, К.Nazarov, А.Madaminov, М.Valihonov and М.Qurbonova. Moreover, their
role in formation of stylistic norms of our language, serious analysis of their scrupulous work
in this regard is very vital.
A detailed study of scientific-imaginative heritage of nations’ patriots - who
sacrificed a lot on the way to national independency, struggled for the development of our
language, contributed much to the development of Uzbek’s literal language - to have justified
and impartial evaluation of their service in the development of Uzbek linguistics is one of the
main tasks encountered by our linguists.
References:
Hoji Muin. Selected works. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2010.
Fitrat Abdurauf. Selected works, Chapter IV. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2006.
Vadud Mahmud. Selected works. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2007.
A.Nurmonov. Selected works, 3-chapter. 3rd Chapter.-Т.: Academnashr, 2012.
Y.Abdullaev. Birinchi Uzbek alifbosi (First Uzbek alphabet) // Uzbekiston adabiyti va san’ati
(Literature and Arts of Uzbekistan, February 6, 1991.
�Sh.Bobomurodova. Uzbek tilshunosigi rivojida Elbekning roli (Role of Elbek in development
of Uzbek linguistics: Dissertation for the Cand.Sc. (Phil.). –Т., 2002.
�
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Title
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ROLE OF JADID REPRESENTATIVES IN THE FORMATION OF PRESENT UZBEK LITERAL LANGUAGE NORMS
Author
Author
Azimov, Inomjon
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Language is the mirror of a nation. All changes occurring in the life of a nation, undoubtedly, find their reflection in language. In this regard, patriots and eminent figures of a nation have always considered language as good means of self-apprehension, elevation of its greatness and glory, reservation and reiteration of spirituality during hard times. Particularly during the first quarter of the XX century, known in history as the National Renaissance, academicians and scholars paid a lot of attention to language as they believed it was engendering national spirituality and elevation of national ideology in people. They considered language to be an invaluable pearl which indicates the existence of a nation. In this regard, in the view of development of our own language, we have accumulated all the facilities and initiated elaboration of rules of Uzbek language.
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-07
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics