23 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f42327e017949000f93b2382bcf855d0.pdf 47988eb1a5c13995d2931fa8f858a481 PDF Text Text ALEVİ-BEKTAŞİLİĞİN İNANÇ VE KÜLTÜR AKTARIMINDA OZAN’IN ROLÜ VE GÜNÜMÜZDE OZAN Ali Rıza Özuygun1 Mehmet Dinç2 Özet Aşıklık/Zakirlik/Ozanlık, Alevi-Bektaşi inancında en önemli figürlerden biridir. Zakir, ibadetin yapıldığı Cem evinde, Hz Muhammed, Hz Ali ve Hacı Bektaşi Veli’nin temsilcisi konumunda Post’a oturur. Cem’i yöneten dedenin yanı başındadır. Cem’in olabilmesi için gerekli olan 12 hizmetten birisini Zâkir yapar. Dede, Cem’i Zâkirle birlikte yönetir. AleviBektaşilerin “telli Kur’an” olarak kutsal bir mertebe verdikleri bağlama/saz Zâkir’e emanettir. Aşık/Zakir/Ozanlar Alevi-Bektaşi inanç, kültür, yaşayış tarzı ve öğretilerine ait kuşaktan kuşağa edindikleri bilgi birikimlerini saz ve sözle gelecek nesillere aktarırlar. Bu aktarım sürecinde kendi yorumlarını da katarlar, fakat genel çizgi ve öz’ün dışına çıkmazlar. Mevcudiyetini devam ettirme gayreti içerisinde olan bu gelenek, şehirleşme ve göçle birlikte bazı sorunlar yaşamaktadır. Gelenek, günümüz şartlarına uygun bir aktarım modeli arayışı içerisindedir. Sözlü kültür geleneğine sahip Alevilik Bektaşilik inancının yaşatılması ve aktarımında, şehirleşme ve göç sürecine bağlı ortaya çıkan problemlerin neler olduğu ele alınacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Alevi-Bektaşilik, Ozan/Zakir/Aşık, Kültür Aktarımı Abstract Asik/Zakir/Ozan (minstrelsy) is one of the most important figure in the belief of AleviBektasi.Zakir takes the nearest seat next to Dede who is known to be the representative of the Prophet Mohammed,Ali and Hadji Bektasi Veli.Dede directs the Cem ceremony with Zakir and Zakir makes one of the 12 services which is necessary to complete the Cem.'Saz' (which is called 'Stringed Quran'and holy for Alevi-Bektasi people) is relic to Zakir.Using 'saz' and 'words', Asik/Zakirler/Ozanlar(poet) passe their knowledge they've acquired from their culture,life style and belief to the future generations without departing from the. Although having some problems causing by urbanization and migration,this tradition endeavors to maintain its presence without being deformed. Keywords: Alavism, Bektashi Order, Minstrelsy, Poet, culture transmisson 1 2 Doç. Dr. International Burch University, Eğitim Fakültesi, TDE Bölümü, Öğretim Üyesi International Burch University, Eğitim Fakültesi, TDE Bölümü, Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi �Giriş Her kültür, kendi varlığını ve taşıdığı birikimleri nesillerine aktarma gayreti içerisindedir. Bazı kültürler yazılı edebiyatı bazıları ise sözlü edebiyatı daha yoğun kullanarak bunu yaparlar. Toplulukların yaşayış tarzı bu farklılıkta belirleyici rol oynamıştır. Yüzyıllar boyu göçebe hayat tarzını benimsemiş Türk boylarında daha çok sözlü kültür hakimdir. Yerleşik hayata geçtikten sonra da bu özelliğini yitirmemiştir. Alevi-Bektaşi inanışında da yazılı kaynakların fazla olmamasından dolayı, özellikle dede-babalar ve Aşık/Ozan/Zakirler aracılığı ile bu inanış sözlü edebiyat vasıtası ile aktarılmıştır. Alevi kelimesinin sözlük anlamı; Ali’ye mensup, Ali taraftarı, Ali’yi seven, tevhide inanan, Muhammed Mustafa’yı peygamber olarak kabul eden ve Ehl-i Beyt’i seven, İslam’ın tasavvufi bir yönüdür. Alevilik İslam’dır. Alevilik ilke olarak, Hakk-Muhammed-Ali yolunu benimser. Bu yol; Kırklar meclisinde olgunlaşan, On iki İmamlarla devam eden, İmam Cafer-i Sadık’ın akıl ölçüsünü rehber alan, Horasan Erenlerinin himmetleriyle Anadolu’ya gelen Hazreti Pir ve ulu ozanlarımızın nefesleriyle haya bulan inancın adıdır. Alevi dedelerinin Alevilik tanımı aktaran İlyas üzüm. (Üzüm,2009 s7) Sözlü kültürün kendine has, dilden dile nesilde nesile aktarım yönü olduğu gibi, Aşıklık/Zakirlik/Ozanlık, de usta çırak ilişkisi içerisinde kuşaktan kuşağa aktarılır. Bu vesile ile kültürel birikimin tamamı yeni nesillere aktarılmış olur. Dolaysıyla, böyle bir silsilede meydana gelecek bir aksama, kültür ve inanç kodlarının, nesillere aktarılmasına engel olacak ve inanışta farklılaşmalara sebebiyet verecektir. Şehirleşme ve göçle birlikte, Alevi toplumunun, kendisini bir arada tutan musahiplik kurumuna, dede ve ozanlara uzak kalması sebebiyle sosyal kontrol giderek etkisini yitirmeye başlamıştır. Yazılı kaynakların yeterli derecede olmaması da kültürel birikimlere erişimi sınırlandırmış ve geçmişten günümüze bozulmadan aktarılan bu birikimler son dönemde değişim göstermeye başlamıştır. Alevi Bektaşi inancına sahip olan insanlar, dedeyi, Hz Muhammed, Hz Ali, Hacı Bektaşi Veli’nin varisi olarak görür ve ona hürmet ederler. Zakirlere de bu geleneğin sürdürülmesinde etkin rol oynadiklari için hürmet gösterirler.. “Alevi-Bektaşi kültüründe bugüne kadar gelen âşıklardan Yedi Kutuplar adı verilen Pîr Sultan Abdal, Kul Himmet, Hatayî, Yemîni, Virâni, Teslim Abdal ve Nesimî’nin kutsal sayıldığı görülür” (Atlı, 2005 s27-28) Yedi Ulu Ozan zakirlik geleneğinin en önemli isimleridir. Deyişlerde Hak-Muhammed-Ali , On iki imam, Ehli Beyt, kerbela, İmam Hüseyin ve Hacı Bektaşi Veli gibi konular işlenir. Deyişlerde “şah beyit” denen eseri yazan kişinin mahlasının geçtiği bölüme geldiğinde el göğse götürülür, yedi ulu ozandan birisi ise sonra işaret parmağı dudağa götürülüp niyaz istenir. AŞIK/ZAKİR/OZAN Aşık, gerçek anlamda gönlünü Hakk sevgisi ile dolduran ve bunu, yani gönül dilini özgün deyişlerle dile getiren kimsedir. Buyruğa göre aşık, Hakk’ı öven ve Hakk’ın buyruklarını yerine getiren kimse demektir. Hakk’a uymayan aşığın sözüne itibar edilmez. Asırlar boyunca Anadolu’da Alevi Bektaşi geleneğinde yüzlerce aşık yetiştirmiş, bunlar Hakka gönül dünyalarına yansıyan ifadelerle terennüm etmişlerdir. (buyruk, s.24) (Tiryaki 2013 s101) Aşık Alevi cemlerinde deyiş okuyan kişidir. Tanrıyı, kendinde görme aşamasında olan, seven gönül veren. Halk, Hak ozanı, aydınlatıcı, sanatçı, şair, sevdalı, gönlünü halka/ Hakk’a veren kişi. Alevilere ve Alevi dervişlerine aşıklarına daha önceleri: Selçuklu ve Osmanlı döneminde "Işık taifesi’ ‘ışık toplumu, dervişleri’ "ışık" denmiştir. Nitekim rehber, pir mürşit kavramları da aynı anlama gelmektedir. (DABF 2008 s78) �Zakir sözlükte zikreden kişi demektir. Buyruğa göre Zakir 90bin Hakk sözünü içinde gezdiren kimsedir. Zakir, bağlamanın telleri ile aşıkların söylediği tevhid, duvaz imam, deyiş ve nefesleri tüm canlarla paylaşan kimsedir. Zakir parmakları ile bağlamanın tellerine dokunurken aynı zamanda gönlündeki Hakk sözlerini harekete geçirir. Zakir deyişleri sadece dili ile değil gönlüyle de okuyan kimse demektir. Zakir, yerde gökte zikir sırasında bir bakıma tabiptir. Arıdır, temizdir. Her bağlama çalan Zakir olmaz. Zakir olabilmek için söylenen deyişlerin gönül telleriyle çalınabilmesi gerekir. (Buyruk s.31) (Tiryaki 2013 s102) On iki hizmetten oluşan cemde en başta dede/pir/baba bulunur. İkinci sırada ise Zâkir(ler) bulunur. Hem dede hem de Zâkir Alevi-Bektaşi edebiyatının yaratıcısı, aktarıcısıdır. Böylece dede ve Zâkir, bu edebiyatın ve müziğin yaşamını/sürekliliğini/ canlılığını ve korunmasını sağlarlar. Cemlerde ayeti/nefesi ya dede ya Zâkir ya da her ikisi seslendirirler. Bir çalgıyla seslendirilen nefesler, cemin etkili ya da coşkulu olmasının en önemli unsurudur (Clarke 1998: 259, Taşgın 2002: 31). Alevi-Bektaşi Kültüründe Saz/Bağlamanın yeri Alevi-Bektaşi inancında sözlü edebiyat, kültür ve inanç aktarımında başrolde olduğu için sözlü edebiyat aktarıcılarının en büyük yardımcısı, olmazsa olmazı Saz/Bağlamadır. Kur’an ayetleri, hadisler, kahramanlık öyküleri, edep, erkan, yol ile alakalı tüm birikimler bağlamanın telleri ile gönül dilinden gönül kulağına aktarılmıştır. “Anadolu Alevîleri sazın kutsallığı inancını İslami yapı içinde de yaşattılar. Saz, Alevî evlerinde baş köşede bulunmaktadır. Saz çalınacaksa, göğsünden üç kez öpülüp başa götürüldükten sonra çalınmaya başlanır. Birine verilecekse yine aynı şey yapılır. Bugün Alevîler saza “Telli Kur’an” demektedirler”. (Zelyut, 1992:167-168). “Telli Kur’an olarak bilinen bağlama ile Hünkar’ın âşıkları, bizi, bizim dilimizle irşat etti. Şah Hatayi, Pir Sultan Abdal, Kul Himmet ,Virani ve Abdal gibi Zakirler, Hacı Bektaş Veli düşüncesini sözün ulaşabileceği en üst estetik ölçülerle bugünlere aktardı” (Özüdoğru,2011 s12) Yedi ulu ozandan biri olan “Sah Hatayi” mahlası ile yazan Sah İsmail’de aşağıdaki dizelerle bunu açıkça ifade etmiştir. Zakir’in zikri saz ile Kuran okur avaz ile Mümin Müslim niyaz ile Zakirlere haber olsun (Kaptan) Kültür Aktarımında Ozan/Zakir/Aşıklar Aşık/Zakir/Ozanlar, Alevi-Bektaşi inancını, kültürünü ve temel öğretilerini okudukları deyiş, nefes ve duvaz imamlarla nesilden nesile aktaran en önemli kanal olmuşlardır. İnanç, edeb, erkan, yol, ibadet ve toplumun tüm benliğine işlemiş, Kerbela gibi önemli olayları da farklı ağız ve söyleşilerle tekrar tekrar anlatarak zihinlerde ve kalplerde sıcak kalmasını sağlamışlardır. Alevi Bektaşi kültürünün günümüze ulamasında en büyük pay sahiplerinden birisi de ozanlardır. Alevi- Bektaşi inancında ve öğretisinde, söz üreticileri ve yaratıcıları, konuşan Kur’an olan ozanlardır. Ozanlar, bu inancın, değerlerini ortaya koyan, var olan değerleri geleceğe taşıyan ve o değerleri halka yayan bilge insanlardır. Ozanlar, konuşan, duyan, gören, algılayan, sezen, betimleyen vs. bir kültür insanıdırlar. Alevilikte ozan, olmazsa olmazdır. Bağlama, ozanı �konuşturan dilidir. Bağlama ve ozan, bir bütündür ve Alevilik, inanç ritüellerini, ozanın sözü ve bağlamasıyla gerçekleştirir. Aleviliğin en büyük kaynağı, ozanların söylemlerinde ve dizelerinde gizlidir. Alevilik konusunda kaynak arayanlar, ozanlara başvursunlar. Onların sözleri ve dizeleri, başka kaynaklara gerek duymadan, bu konuda yeterince bilgi verecek konumdadır. (Zaman, 2013 s78). Alevi kültüründe sözlü edebiyatın bir yansıması olarak ozanlar ve dedeler, topluluğun belleğidir ve işini icra ederken topluluktan uzakta değil, bizzat topluluğun karşısında ve topluluğun denetimine açık vaziyettedir. Bu açıdan ele alındığında Alevi aidiyetine hitap ettiği ölçüde sözün önemli bir özelliği de bu türden toplumsal hafıza sistemlerinde saklanabilir olmasıdır. (Okan, 2004,S68)Aşıklar, söz ve halleri ile insan-ı kamilliğe kadar giden yolda “öncü” olmuşlardır. (Eğri, 2013 s83) Deyiş, Nefes ve Duvaz-imamlarla kültür aktarımı Duvazlar, Nefesler, Deyişler veya Gulbanklarda Hak-Muhammed-Ali, Ehli Beyt ve yolundan gidenlerin öğretileri, edeb, erkan, yol, ahlak, ibadet gibi konular işlenmiş. Nihai olarak insan-i Kamil olma yolunda topluma yol gösterici olmuştur. Hz, Ali, Hz Fatima, Hz Hasan, gibi Ehl-i beyt ve On iki imam için methiyeler yazılmıştır, bunlar ozan/Aşık/Zakir tarafından dilden dile günümüze kadar aktarılmış, Alevi-Bektaşi inancında rol-model olan şahsiyetler hafızalara kazınmıştır. “Nefeslerde işlenen konular, Alevi- Bektaşi inancının çerçevesini de belirler niteliktedir. Yoğun olarak, Tanrı sevgisi, tasavvuftaki vahdet-i vücut kavramı; Hz. Muhammed, Hz. Ali ve On İki İ̇mam’a övgüler yani sıra başka Alevi- Bektaşi uluları için; örneğin Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli ve insani iyiye, güzele götürme yolları anlatılır. Bu bakımdan Hz. Muhammed için söylenen na’atlara ve Hz. Ali için söylenen methiyelere de nefes denilir” (Turan, 2009: 434). Deyişlerin Alevi- Bektaşi kültürünün en önemli aktarıcısı ve iletişim şekli olduğunu, bunların Alevi birlik ilişkisinde, söz söyleme, söylenen sözü dinleme, onları tekrarlama, yeniden oluşturma ve ortak geçmişe bağlanma şeklindeki en önemli öğrenme yöntemi olarak kabul edildiğini ifade eder. Âşıklar tarafından bağımsız olarak yaratılmış̧ deyişler dışında, özellikle Cem töreni sırasında seslendirilen, belirli anlam ve görevleri olan deyişlerin, On İki Hizmet deyişi, çerağ uyandırma deyişi, niyazlaşma deyişi, semah deyişi gibi isimler aldığı görülür.(Demir, 2009 s21) Duvâzların temel şahsiyeti Hz. Ali’dir. Ozanlar Hz. Ali’nin yiğitliği cesareti ve velâyetine vurgu yapmışlardır. Aynı zamanda, On İki İmam’ın Hz. Ali’yle bilendiği ve her imama Hz. Ali gibi bakıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. İmamların Hz. Ali soyundan gelmesi bu durumu oluşturan temel etkendir.(iyiyol,2013,s21) Ozanlar, çoğunlukla Hz. Fatima için Türk halk kültüründe de yaygın olarak görülen “Fatima Ana” ifadesini kullanırlar Âdem de kubbe-i cennet içinde Fatma Ana’yı gördüm ziynet içinde Bir hutbe on iki âyet içinde Hutbe-i duvâzda imam yazıldı. (Arslanoglu, (1997 s51) Örneğin, ozanlar Hz. Hasan’ın zehirlenerek şehit edilmesine sıkça telmih yapmışlardır. Zehirlenme olayı çoğunlukla, “Ağ̆u verme” şeklinde ifade edilmiştir. Duvâzlarda Hz. Hasan’ın zehirlenmesi ile Hz. Hüseyin’in Kerbelâ’da şehadetinin bir arada ifade edilmesine sıkça rastlanmaktadır. �Şah Hasan’a ağu verdi Mûaviye Mu’min olan Ehl-i Beyt-i tanıya Kerbelâ’da İ̇mam Hüseyn hani ya Zâhır Batıncümlesine bir geldi. Kul Hasan (Ergün, 1946a: 74). (İyiyol, 2013 s23) Cem’de Zakir Cem içerisinde saz ve söz birliktedir. Alevilerin büyük saygı ve sevgi beslediği yol ulularının ve yola ilişkin kuralların işlendiği Şah Hatayı, Pir Sultan ve Kul Himmet gibi ozanların deyişleri Dede veya Zakir/aşık tarafından saz eşliğinde söylenir. Saz/söz, Alevilerce “telli Kuran” olarak adlandırılır. Sözlü geleneğin hakim olduğu bu topluluklar, yola ilişkin bilgi gereksinmelerini, kitaplardan veya belli eğitim kurumlarından değil, saz ve söz birlikteliğinin ön planda olduğu bilgili büyükler ve pirlerden sağlamaktadırlar. (ACAR, 2008, s43) Cem Töreni, “On İki Hizmet” denilen ve mutlaka yerine getirilmesi gereken işleri kapsayan bir kurallar bütününe göre işler. 1. Mürşid, Hacı Bektaş̧'i temsil eder. 2. Rehber, sulûk edecek, Tarikate girecek olanlara yardımla görevlidir. 3. Zâkır (Sazandar ozan). Saz çalar ve nefesleri okur. Bir ya da daha çok Zâkır bulunabilir. 4. Farraş (Süpürgeci), Selmân-i Pâk'i (Selmân-i Fârsi’yi) temsil eder. Yeri, Kırklar Bezmi'nde Selmân-i Fârsî'nin aldığı yeri karşılamaktadır. Bu hizmete Selmân hizmeti adı da verilir. 5. Çırağ̆ci (Delilci), mumlara bakmakla görevli olan, 6. Pervane (Pazvand, Kapıcı), Yabancıların Meydan'a girişlerini önlemek ve giriş̧ kapısını gözlemekle görevli olan, 7. Gözcü (Gözetici), Törenin konulmuş̧ düzene göre akışından sorumlu olan görevli. Öbürleri arasında, içkinin fazla kaçırılmasından da sorumlu olmalıdır. 8. Sofradar (Sofracı), Yemeklerden sorumlu olan, 9. Meydancı, temizlikçi. 10.Şaka (Doliicu), Hüseyn'in ve yoldaşlarının şehadeti anılırken içilen suyu 11.Îbrikçi (îbrikdar), ceme katılanların ellerine gülsuyu dökmekle görevli bulunan, dağıtmakla görevli olan, 12.İ̇zinci (Ayakçı), Ayakkabıları kaldırmak ve koymakla görevli olan kişi. Bu On İki Hizmet şunlardır (Melikoff, 1999 s262) Günümüzde, büyük kentlere taşınmış̧ olan cem evlerinin, köylerdeki fonksiyonunu birebir yerine getirdiği söylenemez. Cem evleri kentlerde bir takım değişikliklere uğramıştır. Öncelikle cem evleri sabit bir mekân olarak yapılmıştır. Bazı cemler düğün salonlarında yapılmakta, ceme katılanlar ise sandalyede misafir gibi oturmaktadırlar. Köylerdeki cemleri referans alan katılımcılar için bu mekân değişimi, dinî tatmin için olumsuz bir durumdur. Ayrıca, Muharrem ayının sonunda yapılan Aşure cemleri de bireyin dinî duygularını tatminden ziyade, dernek ve vakıfların gövde gösterisi görünümündedir. Saha çalışmamız esnasında, Muharrem ayının sonunda kapalı spor salonlarında beş̧-on bin kişinin katıldığı Asure cemleri organize edilmiştir. Bu cemlerde, Alevîler dinî bir katılımcıdan çok izleyici topluluğu görünümünde idiler. F. Bozkurt’a göre, kentlerde yeniden kurulan cem evleri, cem töreninin ruhuna uygun düzenlenmelidir. Cem, katılanları izleyici durumundan kurtarıp, bizzat katılabildiği rol alabildiği bir tören durumuna getirilmelidir (Bozkurt, 2000: 147). Türkler İslamiyet’e yeni girdiklerinde, ilahiler ve şiirler okuyan, Allah rızası için halka iyiliklerde bulunup onlara dünya ve ahiret saadeti yollarını gösteren dervişleri, eski inançlarındaki kutsal kabul ettikleri ozanlara benzeterek sevgiyle kabul etmişler, onlara �bağlanmışlardır. Böylece, eski ozanların yerini, ata ve baba ünvanlı dervişler almıştır. Nitekim Hazreti Peygamberin sahabelerinden sayılan Arslan Baba ile Korkut Ata ve Çoban Ata bu dervişlerdendir.( Koprulu, 1991 s19) Belli düşüncelere bağlı olan Alevi-Bektaşi şiirinde yer alan konular: Ali sevgisi, Kerbela olayından duyulan derin üzüntü, inanç katılığını yerme, bu katılığa karşı çıkıp direnme, içinde yaşanılan dünyaya bağlanma, şeriatın acımasızlığını yerme, alaya alma, içkinin etkinliği, On İki İ̇mam’a duyulan saygı, yeryüzünde süregiden düzensizlik, eğrilik, doğruluktan kaçış̧, erdemsizlik, anlamsız yasaklar, mutluluk kutluluk özlemi gibi konulardır (Eyüboğlu, 1991 s34) Seyit yöre çalışmasında, Alevi- Bektaşi kültüründeki şiir ve musikinin ana özelliğinin edebî, dinsel ve kültürel temelli formlar olması ve bunların deyiş̧, nefes, nâ’t, mî’raclama, tevhîd ve mersiye olduğunu ifade eder. Alevi-Bektaşi kültürünün edebî ve müziksel eserlerinin , 13. yüzyıldan 20. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar oluşturulduğu, o tarihten günümüze kadar çoğunlukla var olan eserlerin tekrarlandığı söyler. Yani çok fazla yeni eserin ortay çıkmadığı, sonradan yazılan eserlerin ise, sosyal, siyasi ve güncel konulara değindiği veya popülerlik içinde olduğu ifade eder. (Yöre 2011 s220) İnanç, İbadet ve Ahlak eğitiminde Ozan/Zakir/Aşıkların rolü İnanç, İbadet ve Ahlak eğitiminde de Ozan/Zakir/Aşık çok önemli rol üstlenmiştir. Prof. Dr. Osman Eğri Alevi-Bektaşi inanışında bu üç eğitimi alanını velayetnameler, erkannameler, buyruklarda, icazetnamelerde nefes ve şiirlerde incelemiştir. Aşık/Zakir/Ozanlar, AleviBektaşilikteki İnanç, İbadet ve Ahlak eğitimini günümüze ulaştırmıştır. Yedi ulu ozan, Yunus Emre gibi aşıklar kendi üslupları ile bunu aktarmışlardır. Örneğin Yunus Emre Tevhid inancını aşağıdaki dizelerle aktarmış. “Bektaşi şairlerinin çoğu, tekke ve dergah hayatını bizzat yaşayarak yakından tanıyan kimselerdir. Dervişlerin olgunlaşma süreçlerindeki engelleri, ve imkânları her gün, her saat gözlemlemektedirler. Bu gözlemler çoğu zaman onlarca yıl almaktadır ve pratik değeri bulunmaktadır. Aşıklıktan dervişlik konumuna yükselmiş olan Bektaşi şairleri, bu tecrübe ve birikimlerini nefes ve şiirlerine aynen yansıtmışlardır.” (Eğri 2013 s212) Yağar karları eriten Akar suları kurutan Topraktan Adem yaratan Ol süphanallah değil mi? Yunus emre divanı s. 152 Yedi ulu ozandan biri olan Yemini Hazreti peygambere Cebrail’in vahiy getirdiğini şu beyitlerde ifade etmektedir. Bu beyitlerle birlikte Yemini, Allah, Peygamber ve Meleklere imanı da vurgulanmış. Meğer Cebrail ol dem hazır oldu Ki Hakk’dan Ahmed’e vahy geldi Eriştirdi Rasul’e Hak şelamını Ne emrolduysa arz etti tamamın (Ozen, s52) Seyyid nesimiye göre “edeb”e aykırı olan kötü huy ve davranışlar, “insan”a yakışmamaktadır. Allah insanın yüzünü “edeb”le yaratmıştır. Fatiha Süresi’nin anlamı edeb’tir. �Edebdir vech-i insanda müşavver Aceb kudret aceb nu-u mütahher Edebdir mani-i seb-i mesanı Salat ansız dürüst olmaz mukarrer (Kürkçüoğlu 1973)(Eğri, 2013 s217) Aşık/Zakir/Ozanlar, saz ve sözleriyle Ahlak ve Edep eğitiminde de bulunmuşlar. “İnsanların kibirlenip böbürlenmelerinin ahireti unutup iyilik yapmayı ihmal etmelerinin en büyük sebebi olarak; makam, mansib, mal, mülk ve şöhret gösterilmiştir. Seyyid Nizamoğlu, talip ve dervişleri, bu tür geçici heveslere kapılmaktan sakındırmakta için şu dörtlükleri söylemiştir”. Manasip devlet deyu yelme Atlaslar giyip kurulma Aç gözünü gafil olma Çehennem’den bir koz imiş Dünyayı yiğip ni’dersin Onu sonu bırakıp gidersin Seninle bile gidecek Beş altı arşın bez imiş (Özmen 1995) (Eğri, 2013 s218) Günümüzde Aşıklık/Zakirlik/Ozanlık, müessesinin durumu Aşıklık kurumu günümüzde geleneksel çizgisini devam ettirdiği gibi, kentli ve eğitimli olan gençler bağlamaya ilgi duymakla beraber, cem ve muhabbet ortamında yetişmedikleri için aşıklığın getirdiği üslup ve edep noktasında tam temsil etmedikleri gözlenmiştir. (Dedekarginoglu, 2010 say56) Köyden kente göçle büyük şehirlerde köy ve kent kültürü iç içe yaşamaya başlamıştır. Köyden şehre gelip büyük şehirlerde tutunma uğraşı veren insanların sıkıntıları, ikilemleri, âşığın şiirine konu olarak âşıklık geleneğinin konuları yeni bir boyut kazanmaya başladı. Ortaya kentte yaşayan, kent ortamında halkın kaynağından yararlanan, geleneğe yeni açılımlar sağlayan yeni bir âşık tipi ortaya çıkmıştır. Günümüz âşıkları günümüzde gelenekten kopmaya başladılar (Artun, 1996:11-25) Alevi-Bektaşi inanç ve kültürüne özgü olarak varlığını sürdüren ve müzik eşliğinde seslendirilen unsurlardan biri de bazı şiir formlarıdır. Bu formlar, öncelikle şiir olmasından dolayı, çalışmalarda sadece edebiyat alanı içerisinde incelenmiş̧ olsa da, Alevi- Bektaşi inanç ve kültürünü güçlü bir araç olarak temsil eden (representatıon) müzik, aynı zamanda bu şiir formlarını da var eder. Alevi- Bektaşi kültürünün müziksel eserleri, günümüzde konser salonu gibi birçok mekânda, geleneksel otantisitesi dışında popüler bağlamda bir gösteri olarak da sunulur. Yani, aslında inançlarını kendi içinde yaşamaları bağlamında daha kapalı olan AleviBektaşi geleneğinin müziksel görünümü, inanç uygulamasının dışında, popüler bir temsiliyet olarak da ortaya çıkar. (Yöre, 2011 s220) Bektaşi şiiri, başlangıcından günümüze kadar belli bir çizgi üzerinde yürümüş, kendine özgü niteliklerini korumuştur. Yaklaşık yedi yüzyıllık bir dönemi kapsayan bu şiirin yazılı kaynaklara göre, dört yüzün üzerinde ozanı vardır”. (Eyüboğlu, 2000 s551) Günümüz şartlarında Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, yetişmesi �Usta-çırak ilişkisi içerisinde, muhabbet ve cem ortamlarında yetişen Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, şehirleşme ve göçle birlikte uygun ortam oluşturmaları en büyük sorunu teşkil ediyor. Babası Aşık Büryanı gibi kendisi de günümüzdeki en önemli Alevi ozanlarından birisi olan, “Unesco tarafından 2010 yılında yaşayan insan hazinesi ödülüne” layık görülen Dertli Divani nasıl yetiştiğini “Gözümü açtım, 5-6 yaşlarımdan itibaren babamın dizinin dibinde muhabbet ortamlarında Arif, Kamil, Aşık, Sadıkların içinde yetiştim. Çocukluğumda hatırlıyorum gece 1’lere kadar muhabbetler olurdu, Seyit Nesimi, Pir Sultan Abdal, Hünkar Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli, Fuzuli, Yunus Emre gibi Ulular ve Pirlerin deyişleri, nefesleri icra edilir, ne anlama geldiği ve batını anlamları muhabbet konusu yapılırdı. Çocuk yaşta çok fazla bir şey anlamadığımı sanırdım ama hepsi kulağımda küpe olarak kaldı, bilinç altıma yetişti. Erişkin çağa geldiğimde ne kadar şanslı olduğumu sonradan fark ettim. Babam, 27 yaşımdayken hakka yürüdü, o döneme kadar ne aldıysam babamdan aldım. Sonrasında tabi Hacı Bektaş dergahı Postnişini, “devri daim olsun” Feyzullah Ulusoy ve Veliyettin Ulusoy pirimizden dergah adabında bilgiler edindim ve kendim ne katabildim kendimi ne kadar geliştirebildiysem” ifadeleriyle özetliyor.13-19 Kasım 2015, Zaman France Dertli divani, günümüzde Alevi-Bektaşi kültürünün eskiye oranla kendi inanç ve kültür özelliklerini koruma noktasında geleneksel yöntemlerden uzak kaldığı görmüş, bu sebeple yeni bir yöntem geliştirmiş. Farklı ülke ve şehirlerde yasayan Alevi-Bektaşi gençler için kültürü bulundukları mekana taşıyor. Özellikle Avrupa’da kurduğu Mekteb-i İrfan okullarıyla bu kültürün yaşatmaya çalışıyor. Divani “Son 3 yılda Fransa’da 5 noktada, Türkiye’de 2 noktada, Belçika ve Hollanda’da 2 noktada olmak üzere toplamda 14 muhabbet grubu oluştu bu gruplarda 30-40 kişilik gençlerle birikimlerimi paylaşmaya çalışıyorum. Kısacası mektep, okul, irfan, ilim Alevi-Bektaşi- Kızılbaş inancı ve inandığımız değerlerle ilgili bildiklerimizi ve yaşamımızı aktarmamız konusunda bu muhabbeti yapmaya çalışıyoruz” ifadeleriyle günümüz şartlarında kültürün devamı için bir yöntem geliştirmiş olduğunu görüyoruz. Sonuç Alevi-Bektaşi inancının geçmişten günümüze kültür ve inanç aktarımını yoğun olarak sözlü edebiyat üzerinden aktardığını gözlemliyoruz. Din, ibadet, ahlak, edeb, erkan, yol ve yaşayışa dair birikim ve üretilenler sözlü edebiyat üzerinden nesillere aktarılıyor. Sözlü edebiyat aktarında en büyük görevi dedelerle birlikte Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, yapıyor. Saz/Bağlama da bu inanışın aktarılmasında Aşık/Zakir/Ozan’ın, en büyük yardımcısı, olmazsa olmazı durumunda hatta Alevi-Bektaşi toplumunda kutsiyet atfedilmiş. Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, ustaçırak ilişkisi içerisinde daha çok kırsal veya küçük yerleşim alanlarında yetişme imkanı buluyorlar. Alevi-Bektaşi toplumun şehirleşmesi ve göçle birlikte birliktelik ve sosyal kontrol azalmış, dede ve Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, toplum üzerinde etkisi azalmıştır. Aşık/Zakir/Ozanların, yetişme ve ortamında sınırlandığı için inanış ve kültür aktarımında problemler yaşanmaktadır. Kültür veya inanışın nesillere aktarımı için günümüzde ferdi olarak bazı çıkış yolları aransa da soruna henüz çaplı ve yeterli çözüm bulunamamıştır. �Kaynakça ACAR Feramuz, (2008); Danimarka Alevi Bektaşi inanç esasları, DABF bağlı kurul, 43.sayfa ARSLANOĞLU, İbrahim. (1997) İstanbul; Kul Himmet,: Ekin Yayınları. 51. Sayfa ARTUN Erman 1996, KKTC “Adanalı Âşıkların Şiirlerinde Kıbrıs Barış̧ Harekatı”, Kıbrıs Araştırmaları Dergisi, C.2, Sayı.4, ATLI, Ahmet (2005) Ankara Türk Din Musikisinde Bektaşi Nefeslerinin Yeri, Yayımlanmamış̧ Yüksek Lisans Tezi A. Ü. Sosyal Bil Enstitüsü DABF (2008) Danimarka: Alevi Bektaşi inanç esasları DABF bağlı kurul. DEDEKARGINOĞLU Hüseyin 2010 Dünkü ve Bugünkü Alevilik Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektaş Veli Araştırma Dergisi 56 DEMİ̇R, Sevgi (2009) İstanbul; Cem Evlerinde Cem Erkâni, Ritüeller ve Müzikal Formasyonlar Üzerine Analitik Karşılaştırma, Yayımlanmamış̧ Yüksek Lisans Tezi,. İ̇. U. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. EGRI Osman (Ocak 2013) İstanbul ; Alevi Bektaşi yolu, Hak Muhammed, Ali, Ufuk yayınları, sayfa 8 EGRI Osman (Ocak 2013) İstanbul ; Alevi Bektaşi yolu, Hak Muhammed, Ali, Ufuk yayınları, sayfa 212 EYÜBOĞLU, İ̇smet Zeki. (1991). İstanbul Alevi Bektaşi Edebiyatı. İ34.sayfa EYUBOGLU İsmet Zeki 2000, İstanbul Bütün yönleriyle Bektaşilik, s551 IYIYOL Fatih (2013) 24.sayfa ) (ALEVÎ-BEKTAŞ̧Î GELENEĞ̆İNDE DUVÂZLAR-DUVÂZİMAMLAR IYIYOL, Fatih (2013) Alevi Bektaşi geleneğinde Duvaz İmam,Uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, cilt 6 sayı 27 Sayfa 21 KOPRULU Fuad, 1991 Ankara; Türk Edebiyatında İlk Mutasavvıflar, Ankara, s. 19. KUL Hasan (Ergün, 1946a: 74). duvaz Bektaş̧ı Şairleri ve Nefesleri İ-II, İ̇stanbul: Maarif Kitaphanesi KURKCUOGLU, Kemal Edip, 1973 İstanbul; (Seyyid nesimi divanından seçmeler M.E.B YayınlarıMELIKOF İrene 1999 İstanbul, Efsaneden Geleceğe Hacı Bektaş, Cumhuriyet Kitapları OKAN, Murat (2004) Ankara; Türkiye’de Alevilik (Antropolojik Bir Yaklaşım), İmge Kitabevi, s 68 OZUDOGRU, Özgür Savaş (2011) Alevilik Araştırma Dergisi 1.sayı. Uluslararası hakemli bilimsel akademik süreli yayın OZEN İsmail, 1995 Ankara Alevi Bektaşi şiirleri antolojisi ç2 s.52-100 Saypa Yayın Dağıtım OZEN İsmail, Alevi Bektaşi şiirleri antolojisi ç2 s.52-100 YEMINI Faziletname, REMZI kaptan 23. Sayfa (Alevi duaları gülbanklar, TAŞ̧GIN, Ahmet (Temmuz- Ağustos 2002): “Ayet ‘ten Nefese: Alevi -Bektaşi Edebiyatında Dönüşüm”, Yol Dergisi, 18, 28-43. TIRYAKI, Recep (2013) İstanbul: 100 Soruda Alevilik Bektaşilik? Şahı Meradan yayınları TURAN, Metin, ( Ocak 2009) Ankara Alevi ve Bektaşi Kültüründe Aşıklar ve Nefesler” UZUM, İlyas (2009) İstanbul Tarihsel ve Kültürel Boyutlarıyla Alevilik. İslam Araştırmalar Merkezi yay. S 7 YORE Seyit 2011 Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektaşi Veli Araştırma Dergisi sayı 60, sayfa 220 ZAMAN Suleyman (Eylül 2013) Alevilik Temel Dersleri Cilt 1/ 78.sayfa ZAMAN France 13-19 Kasım 2015 Sayfa 9 ZELYUT, Rıza. (1990) İstanbul, Hacı Bektaş̧ Veli, Hürriyet Ofset Matbaacılık ve Gazetecilik A. S. Görüşmeler Dertli divani: (2010 yılında Unesco tarafından “yasayan İnsan Hazinesi” ödülüne layık görülen Alevi-Bektaşi Ozanı) Kasım 2015 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3597 Title A name given to the resource ALEVİ-BEKTAŞİLİĞİN İNANÇ VE KÜLTÜR AKTARIMINDA OZAN’IN ROLÜ VE GÜNÜMÜZDE OZAN Author Author ÖZUYGUN, Ali Rıza Dinç, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Aşıklık/Zakirlik/Ozanlık, Alevi-Bektaşi inancında en önemli figürlerden biridir. Zakir, ibadetin yapıldığı Cem evinde, Hz Muhammed, Hz Ali ve Hacı Bektaşi Veli’nin temsilcisi konumunda Post’a oturur. Cem’i yöneten dedenin yanı başındadır. Cem’in olabilmesi için gerekli olan 12 hizmetten birisini Zâkir yapar. Dede, Cem’i Zâkirle birlikte yönetir. Alevi-Bektaşilerin “telli Kur’an” olarak kutsal bir mertebe verdikleri bağlama/saz Zâkir’e emanettir. Aşık/Zakir/Ozanlar Alevi-Bektaşi inanç, kültür, yaşayış tarzı ve öğretilerine ait kuşaktan kuşağa edindikleri bilgi birikimlerini saz ve sözle gelecek nesillere aktarırlar. Bu aktarım sürecinde kendi yorumlarını da katarlar, fakat genel çizgi ve öz’ün dışına çıkmazlar. Mevcudiyetini devam ettirme gayreti içerisinde olan bu gelenek, şehirleşme ve göçle birlikte bazı sorunlar yaşamaktadır. Gelenek, günümüz şartlarına uygun bir aktarım modeli arayışı içerisindedir. Sözlü kültür geleneğine sahip Alevilik Bektaşilik inancının yaşatılması ve aktarımında, şehirleşme ve göç sürecine bağlı ortaya çıkan problemlerin neler olduğu ele alınacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Alevi-Bektaşilik, Ozan/Zakir/Aşık, Kültür Aktarımı Abstract Asik/Zakir/Ozan (minstrelsy) is one of the most important figure in the belief of Alevi-Bektasi.Zakir takes the nearest seat next to Dede who is known to be the representative of the Prophet Mohammed,Ali and Hadji Bektasi Veli.Dede directs the Cem ceremony with Zakir and Zakir makes one of the 12 services which is necessary to complete the Cem.'Saz' (which is called 'Stringed Quran'and holy for Alevi-Bektasi people) is relic to Zakir.Using 'saz' and 'words', Asik/Zakirler/Ozanlar(poet) passe their knowledge they've acquired from their culture,life style and belief to the future generations without departing from the. Although having some problems causing by urbanization and migration,this tradition endeavors to maintain its presence without being deformed. Keywords: Alavism, Bektashi Order, Minstrelsy, Poet, culture transmisson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PI Oriental languages and literatures Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1033 Title A name given to the resource Alienated Characters in Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises Author Author Toker , Alpaslan Abstract A summary of the resource. The term ‘alienation’ continues to be a central concept summarizing salient facets of life in contemporary societies in spite of the obscurities, even contradictions that encompass it. This phenomenon has acquired an important role in philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology, theology, literature and economy after the works of Hegel and Marx. For many American citizens, the years instantly following World War I were indicated by outrage, disillusionment and resentment. After the First World War, survivors of this era were termed the Lost Generation. This essay tries to provide valid explanations to the term “alienation” and pursue the traces of alienation in Ernest Hemingway’s novel The Sun Also Rises. All of the major characters in Hemingway’s novel experience distinct and numerous stages of alienation, seeking a sense of community and recognition Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/09873a002bc6ab4331c4d67e4e7dc6d1.docx 91bcad15f025847dd14c117c6e6f6d48 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5d143a4c86f5e82720b9fe32e16cbd8d.pdf c3f67f0a7915a1815e53773808169f1d PDF Text Text Aliya İzzetbegoviç’i Türk Basınında Okumak Seçil Özay Marmara University/ Istanbul, Turkey Key words:Aliya İzzetbegoviç, War of Bosnia Herzegovina, Turkish Press, Yugoslavia, Discourse Analysis ABSTRACT Yugoslavya’nın dağılmasının ardından Bosna-Hersek’in bağımsızlığı ve yeniden inşası aşamasında Aliya İzzetbegoviç, önemli bir siyasi aktör olarak öne çıkmaktadır. İzzetbegoviç, 1992-1995 yılları arasında süren Müslüman Boşnaklar başta olmak üzere bölgede yaşayan tüm dini ve etknik grupların olumsuz etkilendiği iç savaş sırasında ve sonrasında Bosna Hersek’te birleştirici bir etki yaratarak Müslüman nüfusun bölgede varlığını korumasına ve sürdürmesine katkı sağlamıştır. Bu katkı Osmanlı Devleti’nin ortak mirası dolayısıyla Türkiye ile kurulan ilişkiler açısından da önem arzetmektedir. İlgili dönemde Bosna’da yaşanan “dram” ve Aliya İzzetbegoviç, Türk kamuoyu tarafından da takip edilmiştir. Çalışmada Türk basınında Aliya İzzet Begoviç ile ilgili yazılar incelenerek nasıl bir söylem oluşturulduğu tartışılacaktır. Bu amaçla ilgili dönemde tirajı yüksek kitle gazetesi olan Hürriyet, milli ve muhafazakar bir yayın çizgisine sahip Türkiye ve sol eğilimli Cumhuriyet gazetelerinde konuyla ilgili haber ve yorumlarla Türk kamuoyunda yaratılan Aliya İzzetbegoviç algısı sorgulanacaktır. Aliya İzzetbegoviç’in 1991 yılında Cumhurbaşkanı seçilmesinin ardından savaşın sonunda 1996 seçimlerine kadar geçen altı yıllık sürede söz konusu gazetelerdeki içerikler söylem analizi yöntemiyle değerlendirilerek Türk kamuoyunda yaratılan Aliya izzetbegoviç algısı ortaya konmaya çalışılacaktır. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1909 Title A name given to the resource Aliya İzzetbegoviç’i Türk Basınında Okumak Author Author OZAY, Secil Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:Aliya İzzetbegoviç, War of Bosnia Herzegovina, Turkish Press, Yugoslavia, Discourse Analysis ABSTRACT Yugoslavya’nın dağılmasının ardından Bosna-Hersek’in bağımsızlığı ve yeniden inşası aşamasında Aliya İzzetbegoviç, önemli bir siyasi aktör olarak öne çıkmaktadır. İzzetbegoviç, 1992-1995 yılları arasında süren Müslüman Boşnaklar başta olmak üzere bölgede yaşayan tüm dini ve etknik grupların olumsuz etkilendiği iç savaş sırasında ve sonrasında Bosna Hersek’te birleştirici bir etki yaratarak Müslüman nüfusun bölgede varlığını korumasına ve sürdürmesine katkı sağlamıştır. Bu katkı Osmanlı Devleti’nin ortak mirası dolayısıyla Türkiye ile kurulan ilişkiler açısından da önem arzetmektedir. İlgili dönemde Bosna’da yaşanan “dram” ve Aliya İzzetbegoviç, Türk kamuoyu tarafından da takip edilmiştir. Çalışmada Türk basınında Aliya İzzet Begoviç ile ilgili yazılar incelenerek nasıl bir söylem oluşturulduğu tartışılacaktır. Bu amaçla ilgili dönemde tirajı yüksek kitle gazetesi olan Hürriyet, milli ve muhafazakar bir yayın çizgisine sahip Türkiye ve sol eğilimli Cumhuriyet gazetelerinde konuyla ilgili haber ve yorumlarla Türk kamuoyunda yaratılan Aliya İzzetbegoviç algısı sorgulanacaktır. Aliya İzzetbegoviç’in 1991 yılında Cumhurbaşkanı seçilmesinin ardından savaşın sonunda 1996 seçimlerine kadar geçen altı yıllık sürede söz konusu gazetelerdeki içerikler söylem analizi yöntemiyle değerlendirilerek Türk kamuoyunda yaratılan Aliya izzetbegoviç algısı ortaya konmaya çalışılacaktır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/07509a29216bd066fe5c7c0731b52c7a.docx 9dacb81cdf9c2c27aecb091257cba642 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc7bf7faa0320bcdfa9ff66aac2556dc.pdf 7a4c10869b752a21aa78e7d75fcc9d7b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Almanya’da İki Dilli Yetişen Türk Çocuklarının Türkçe Konuşma Becerisinin Gelişiminde Karşılaştıkları Sorunlar Author Author Sakinur Okuyan Abstract A summary of the resource. Almanya’da yaşayan Türk kökenli ailelerin 3. ve 4. kuşak yeni nesil çocuklarının çoğu ana dili Türkçede iletişim sorunları yaşamaktadır. Dil becerisini geliştiremeyen bireyler kendilerini o dilde iyi ifade edemedikleri için karşı tarafa da tam olarak ne anlatmak istediklerini iletememektedir. Araştırma Almanya'da yaşayan, çift dilli yetişen ve ana dili Türkçe olan ilkokul ve ortaokul çağındaki Türk çocuklarının ders içerisinde, hazırlıksız konuşma esnasında, en çok yaptıkları konuşma hatalarını belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda çocukların konuşma hataları ayrıntılı olarak tespit edilmiş ve hataların düzeltilmesi için çözüm önerileri sunulmuştur. Türkçe konuşmada sorun yaşayan bu öğrenciler Almanca-Türkçe karışımı bir dil kullanmaktadırlar. Veriler nitel araştırma kapsamında gözlem yoluyla elde edilmiştir. Almanya’nın Kuzey-Ren-Vestfalya eyaletine bağlı, dokuz şehirden oluşan Ennepe-Ruhr bölgesinin 5 farklı okulunda seçmeli olarak Türkçe dersi alan 159 çift dilli öğrencinin ders esnasında Türkçe konuşma becerileri gözlemlenmiş ve yaptıkları konuşma hataları gramer kategorilerine göre sınıflandırılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler içerik ve betimsel analiz ile değerlendirilmiş ve yorumlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak bu öğrencilerin kendilerini Türk dilinde doğru ifade edemedikleri tespit edilmiş, karma bir dil kullandıkları gözlemlenmiş ve Almanca bilmeyen Türk bireylerle iletişim sorunları yaşadıkları tespit edilmiştir. English translation: Most of the 3’rd and 4’th new generation children of Turkish origin families living in Germany have communication problems speaking their main language which is Turkish. Individuals who can’t develop their language skills can’t convey exactly what they want to convey to the other party because they can’t express themselves well in that language. In a research, the speech errors of these children who lived in Germany and grew up bilingual were examined in detail and solutions were presented to correct these errors. These students, who have problems in speaking Turkish, use a language where Turkish and German is mixed. The data were obtained through observation within the scope of qualitative research. The Turkish speaking skills of 159 bilingual students who took Turkish courses optionally in 5 different schools in the Ennepe-Ruhr region, which consists of nine cities in the German state of North-Rhine-Westphalia, were observed during the lesson and their speech errors were classified to grammatical categories. The data obtained were evaluated and interpreted by content and descriptive analysis. It was determined that these students couldn’t express themselves correctly in Turkish, it was observed that they used a mixed language, and it was determined that they had communication problems with people who dont speak German. Keywords Keywords. Almanca-Türkçe, Ana Dili Eğitimi, Çift Dillilik, Konuşma Becerisi, Türk Kökenli Çocuklar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 22.09.2022 Language A language of the resource English language Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1002 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Assessment for Exceptional Potential Model Author Author Ali, Shamim Abstract A summary of the resource. Assessment and Evaluation are important teaching techniques .It has been touched upon by some practitioners, researchers and educators recently. It secures important place in ESL class. Although the teachers face number of challenges to modify their teaching methods of assessment otherwise to introduce and develop new approaches is not an easy task. It has long term benefits for both teachers and students the current study is a combination of different research methods carried out in language class with the aim of illuminating language learners’ perspectives and reflections on assessment and to create exceptional potential model of competency. Portfolios are the most important aspect of the alternative assessment. It is a great academic tool. Portfolio-based assessment examines various pieces of writing. Which have been written over time under different conditions ,sometimes in the form of essay ,articles ,and letter writing rather than a single essay written in the final exam with the constraint of time . In order to increase the credibility and validity of the results, the data was collected through different sources including the in-depth semi-structured interview protocols, observations, and survey. The results significantly indicated that students found this method more challenging, vibrant, and motivating than the conventional and routine assessment method. The findings also showed that alternative assessment method also enhanced academic excellence as well as their autonomy, self-confidence and critical language awareness. The majority of the ESL learners endorsed the employment of alternative assessment in their class .These learners started performing, creating or producing good piece of writing with the help of self assessment and peers assessment as far as measuring the outcomes. At the same time it is good for those ESL teachers who are dedicated to creating meaningful, adaptable. And effective assessment experiences for ESL learners Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a9214caaecffcc978240d24432b3b6f9.docx 3b1d3ead67809194baa82d5eadfbacfd https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9b68c2207b1706c55f4e7b9c0d815578.pdf 7de196593b45600e4af3243b4c75bbd3 PDF Text Text Alternative Assessment Tools in ELT Ilke Buyukduman Istanbul Sehir University/ Istanbul, Turkey Key words:alternative assessment, constructive testing tools, non-traditional testing, performance based testing ABSTRACT There are tests to measure the end-points of any teaching program. Assessment is an inevitable and integral part of teaching and learning process because it is the way teachers monitor student language learning development over time. However, due to the increasing emphasis on teaching the four skills and in an integrated way, testing is also evolving to be more constructivistic. Testing started to focus more on assessing learner’s ability to convey messages in written and oral form. Tests have become more similar to life. Such tests that are more similar to life situations could be regarded as “alternative assessment”, “non-traditional assessment” or “performance based assessment”. Alternative assessment has become an umbrella term for any type of test rather than standardized, high stakes exams. This paper presentation will briefly share alternative, constructive testing techniques with the audience, and provide some concrete samples from the presenter’s current work place: Istanbul Sehir University, School of Languages. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1750 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Assessment Tools in ELT Author Author BUYUKDUMAN, Ilke Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:alternative assessment, constructive testing tools, non-traditional testing, performance based testing ABSTRACT There are tests to measure the end-points of any teaching program. Assessment is an inevitable and integral part of teaching and learning process because it is the way teachers monitor student language learning development over time. However, due to the increasing emphasis on teaching the four skills and in an integrated way, testing is also evolving to be more constructivistic. Testing started to focus more on assessing learner’s ability to convey messages in written and oral form. Tests have become more similar to life. Such tests that are more similar to life situations could be regarded as “alternative assessment”, “non-traditional assessment” or “performance based assessment”. Alternative assessment has become an umbrella term for any type of test rather than standardized, high stakes exams. This paper presentation will briefly share alternative, constructive testing techniques with the audience, and provide some concrete samples from the presenter’s current work place: Istanbul Sehir University, School of Languages. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/192b583b95e01d4a51d53e26f3411eea.pdf df567e0b405ac9cfc88563f29273eeda PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Ali Cüneyt ÇETĠN University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY ccetin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Orhan ADIGÜZEL University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Abstract: This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand-sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Introduction Home is a necessity for human life and owning a good home is an aspiration of everyone. People fulfill this need by building a home on their own, purchasing it or renting it from others. Payment for conventional home mortgage normally takes a good chunk of one‘s monthly income. Conventional home mortgages are interest-based. Alternative financial practices for house financing arise from the Islamic contracts. Alternative methods of finance for home do not involve interest. In an alternative house financing contract, the property should be owned by the bank or the financial institution. In practice, this means that a financial institution would buy a property at a certain price (exactly like any other buyer or trader). When the bank becomes a complete owner of this property, it would then be resold at a higher price to any client who would like to buy this specific property. This prospective buyer shows his or her interest by submitting a documented or written promise to the bank assuring that he will re-purchase the property. There is no interest at all because the price is not changeable. Whatever happens after the sale agreement nothing will justify any increase of the cost of the house. There is no room for any speculation to take place in the light of any possible monthly interest rate change. Everything completely relies on the agreed price in the contract, whether payment will be after five years or twenty. The bank deal with properties as an original owner and sell the houses directly to the clients based on instalments or some other mode of the alternative mortgage (Dwaikat, 2008). Some financial institutions have introduced a number of modes for home ownership, the dominant of which are the cost plus sale (CPS) contract and the diminishing partnership and lease (DPL) contracts. The CPS is the popular concept in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei whereas the DPL is widely practiced in the Middle East, United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 5–6). 59 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The objective of this paper is to make theoretical analyses between the CPS and the DPL contracts. For the benefit of the interested readers, managers and customers of participation banks, the paper also provides some examples for the DPL contract. Alternative House Financing Models As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several alternative modes are currently in existence, the dominant among which are; – Cost plus sale (Murabaha5) – Leasing to rent (Ijara): – Lease to own (Ijara wa Iqtina‘a 6) – Diminishing partnership and lease model (the Musharakah Mutanaqisah Partnership) Controversy about alternative home financing practices can arise when the translation is made from Arabic to English. For this reason, British government departments use the same words for different concepts: Ijara (FSA, 2006, p. 3) (leasing to rent), Ijara wa Iqtina‘a (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9) (lease to own). The Cost Plus Sale (CPS) Cost plus sales (CPS) similar to a buyer‘s credit (see, Jackson, 2004, p. 26; UNCTAD, 2006, p. 12). Cost plus sale is a contract between the customer and the financial institution that entitles the institution to purchase the goods and sell them again to the customer on deferred instalments without the need to have an interest–bearing loan (Hassan, 2007, p. 4–5). Here, it could be said that when the banks undertake the transactions according to CPS contracts, they actually play the role of traders (Akhtar, 2005, p. 26). The process of this contract starts when the customer requests a tangible asset from a supplier, the financial institution sells it, and then the customer pays the money to the institution on a deferred sale basis with a mark- up reflecting the institution‘s profit, which is called a cost-profit (Segrado, 2005, p. 10). It means that this contract is a sale transaction. A specified profit margin goes to the institution by special agreement whereby the institution funds the purchasing operation for the benefit of the customer, but in an indirect way, through buying the goods then selling them again to the customer, who should return the money within an agreed time limit, in instalments or in a lump sum. Any risk connected to the goods bought by the institution should remain its responsibility until they are delivered to the customer. This method of financing used to be one of the most important tools used extensively by participation banks for funding commodity trade by acquisition of long-term assets. In other words, the financial institution (bank) gives the client a commodity loan, the value of which will be returned to the bank at a cost to the bank plus a mark up (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). There are some conditions for a correct cost plus sale contract: – The bank (the seller) keeps the ownership rights of the commodity from the time of negotiation until the end of the contract. – The bank should give the client the exact cost of the commodity, and define the sum of profit in advance. That must be added together and quoted to the client as a final price (Abdelhamid, 2005, p. 37). – The contract with all its transactions must be free from interest. – Any defect in the goods to be sold must be disclosed by the bank (the seller) (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). Cost plus sale is one of the best known forms of alternative finance; it is also applicable to financing commercial transactions which require liquid short- term instruments, and it can also be used for long-term investments (Lovells, 2004). In a CPS contract, the client is certain about all the details of the contract, the original price and the mark-up that should be paid back to the bank, in addition to the clarity of the deferred instalments, without any future changes. This means the client is not concerned about many other details, especially in connection with a fluctuating rate of interest influenced by very changeable market prices. The client can pay all the money back at any point without any kind of restriction or redemption fee being charged. He can pay higher instalments than the instalments agreed on, but of course not lower. This point is a very important difference between the CPS and conventional mortgage (Khanfar, 2009, p. 9). The CPS is basically a sale contract which provides the buyer the benefit of a deferred payment, whereby the deferred price of the sale object carries an additional profit. The commodity exchanged is ―delivered‖ immediately but the sale price (with profit) is paid in instalments, over a long period. The current CPS home 5 Literally, this means a profitable sale and is also called the al-Bay’ Bithaman Ajil meaning deferred payment sale (Thomas, 2001, p. 5). 6 The words mean ―leasing and acquisition‖ and it is variably called ―leasing ending in ownership‖ (Thomas, 2001, p. 8). 60 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo financing, instead of charging the customer interest, financiers charge a profit derived through a buy-and-sell contract, but the profit rate is dependent on the market interest rate due to arbitrage activities. Therefore, while the CPS is practiced in some countries, it is, nonetheless, converging to the conventional mode where the computational formulas are similar to the conventional and where the profit rate tracks the market interest rate. The current difference between the fixed-rate CPS and the conventional mode is that once the profit rate is fixed in the CPS, say at 7% per annum, it will remain the same for the entire duration of financing. This, in fact, causes problems for the financiers as it is difficult to estimate accurately the cost of funds and hence the appropriate profit rate over long periods like 20 years, due to the volatility of economic conditions. This encourages customers to refinance their home from CPS to conventional during low interest periods and vice versa (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 4–5). The CPS Home Purchase plan is based on the principle of trading or buying and selling goods at a profit Investment Banking Unit contracts with the vendor and pays the deposit required when the contracts are exchanged. The sale price from Investment Banking Unit to the client is the price paid by Investment Banking Unit to the vendor, plus the return Investment Banking Unit pays its investors, plus administrative expenses and a profit margin. The property after sale to the; buyer is registered in the buyers name and the buyer repays Investment Banking Unit fixed monthly installments. The key features of CPS are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 7): – Clients identify the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller of the property in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will buy the property, and immediately sell it to the client at a higher price. This is calculated depending on the property value, payment terms (up to 15 years) and the amount of the first payment. – When purchased, the property is registered in client‘s name. The sale between client and the bank is recorded in the CPS Contract. – Clients first payment to the bank is made on the day of completion and is client‘s initial contribution is a minimum of 20% of the purchase price. In a CPS based mortgage; firstly, customer find a property requests the bank to purchase it to sell it to him at cost plus a declared profit, and then the bank purchases the property directly and sells it to on the basis of a fixed mark-up-profit, finally, the customer agrees to pay the price in agreed upon easy installments. Example of a CPS Financing Assume that a customer wishes to buy a houses priced at €200, 000. The customer puts a down-payment of 10 percent, i.e. €20, 000 and finances the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180, 000 using the CPS method. Also assume that the Annual Profit Rate (APR) charged by the bank is 10 percent per annum and the duration of financing is for 20 years. The bank would first buy the house for €180, 000 and then sell the house to the customer at a profit, with deferred payments over the 20-year period. The monthly payment for the above financing is €1,737.047, payable for 240 months which adds up to €416, 889.35 in total. The difference between this figure and the original financing of €180,000 which equals €236, 889.35 is the total profit for the bank from this transaction. The profit of €236, 889.35 is capitalized upfront in the CPS mode, unlike under the conventional mortgage, where the interest due is not recognized until the elapse of time. One important difference of the CPS compared with the DPL and the conventional mortgage is that of the balance of financing remaining before the expiry of the duration of financing. For our example, the CPS balance after 10 years (i.e. after 120 payments) is the total of the remaining 120 payments, i.e. €208, 444.80 whereas under conventional mortgage, this amount would represent the total interest paid for the loan over the 20-year period. The bank, however, may give some rebate for the early repayment, but the amount of rebate is determined at the discretion of the bank. Note that even after ten years of repayment, the balance under the CPS mode can even exceed the original financing of €180,00014 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). While both the bank and the conventional bank create the original principal amounts through fractional reserve banking system (i.e. loans given out do not really reduce the deposits of the depositors), a customer owes more money in the alternative mode than the conventional mode at any time thereafter until the ‗loan‘ is settled. This fact alone is very attractive for even the conventional bankers to provide alternative mode financing (See Meera, 2004). 7 Computed using the standard formula for present value of annuities (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). 61 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Lease Lease is proving to be most popular method of house finance. This is because it is more flexible than cost plus sale if the client wishes to pay bank early or if the client wish to make additional, ‗lump sum‘ payments. The key features of lease are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 9): – The client identifies the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will then sell the property to the client as detailed in an agreement titled ‗Promise to Purchase‘ The purchase price between The Investment Banking Unit and client is the same price as the original purchase. – At the same time Client will enter into a lease with The Investment Banking Unit which details client rights to occupy the property. – The client pays The Investment Banking Unit monthly payment which is calculated so that part is applied towards the purchase of the property from The Investment Banking Unit and part of it is rent. – The payments are fixed every 12 months, April to April. At the beginning of April each year, The Investment Banking Unit will reassess the rent and payments are likely to vary. – Client may purchase the property from The Investment Banking Unit at any time by paying the bank the balance of the purchase price. Two versions of the leasing house are “lease to own” and “diminishing partnership and lease” model. Lease to own (LTO) model: The key features of LTO model are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8): – Bank buys the property from the vendor. – Customer enters into two contracts; Promise to purchase contract and Lease contract – In the promise to purchase contract, clients purchase the property from the bank for the original purchase price spread over T years. – In the lease contract, the lease contract deals with occupancy prior to completion of the purchase. – Each monthly payment consists of rent and contribution to profit. – The amount of the rent may be set annually and is normally aligned to the return required buy the banks investors. The LTO is a mode in which the financial institution buys the house and the customer repays the money back in monthly instalments according to an agreed period in advance. During this arrangement, the client pays an agreed rent to the financial institution for occupying the house (Wilson, 2007, p. 10). Some of the writers refer to this mode as Lease-Purchase. The Diminishing Partnership and lease (DPL) model: DPL is a form of partnership in which one of the partner promises to buy the equity share of the other partner gradually until the title to the equity is completely transferred to him. Under DPL arrangement agreement is required; verbal or written; capital is contributed by both parties in cash or in kind; profit is shared as per agreement while loss is shared according to share in equity; cost of repair and maintenance, insurance etc are shared by both parties; one partner (financial institution) leases his share in asset to other (client) for a consideration. Contract of buying and selling of equity units between partners cannot be stipulated in diminishing partnership contract; price of units to be sold /purchased is fair value or else as agreed between parties but face value of units cannot be stipulated (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 4). Under this contract, the parties agree in advance that one of them will own the shared asset gradually by paying the value of the other party‘s shares until the complete cost of transferring the title to the buyer is paid. In the case of the mortgage contract, the bank and the customer agree to enter into a partnership to share the same property but under two contracts: Leasing to rent contract and partnership with a period defined in advance. Here the client pays two kinds of instalments, one as a rent for the bank‘s share, the other to increase the client‘s share in the ownership, which diminishes the share of the bank until the client owns all the property at the end of the defined period (OICU–IOSCO, 2004, p. 11). The DPL contract is based on two portions to the contract. First, the customer enters into a partnership under the concept of joint ownership agreement with the bank. Customer pays, for example, 10% as the initial share to co-own the house whilst the bank provides for the balance of 90%. The customer will then gradually redeem the financier‘s 90% share at an agreed portion periodically until the house is fully owned by the customer. Second, the bank leases its share (90%) in the house ownership to the customer under the concept of lease, i.e. by charging rent; and the customer agrees to pay the rental to the bank for using its share of the property. The periodic rental amounts will be jointly shared between the customer and the bank according to the percentage share holding at the particular 62 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo times which keeps changing as the customer redeems the financier‘s share. The customer‘s share ratio would increase after each rental payment due to the periodic redemption until eventually fully owned by the customer (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 8–9). The key features of DPL model are the financier and the client to participate in the joint ownership of a property and the share of financier is divided into a number of units. The client can purchase those units periodically (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8). Example of a DPL Financing Consider the same example as for the CPS concept where a customer wishes to buy a house priced at €200,000. Let‘s assume again that the customer pays 10 percent of the price, i.e. €20,000, the financier puts the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180,000 and that the average rental for similar homes in the locality is agreed upon between the two parties to be €1,000 per month. In addition, the customer wishes to add another €289.58 monthly 8 in order to redeem the financier‘s share in 20 years. This gives the total monthly payment as €1,289.58. Table 1 below provides the schedule for the DPL contract: Mon th Monthl y Rent (€) A Monthl y Redemp tion B (€) Total Paymen t Customer‘ s ratio C=A+B (€) 0 1 2 3 4 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 289.58 289.58 289.58 289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 D 0.10000 0.10195 0.10391 0.10587 0.10785 5 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 6 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 Total = €309, 499.20 IRR = 6% Rental Division Custom Financi er er E F Customer‘ s Equity Financier‘ s Equity H (€) 180,000 179,610.4 179,218.9 178,825.4 178,430.0 Financie r‘s Cashflo w 100.00 101.95 * 103.91* * 105.87 900.00 898.05 896.09 894.13 G (€) 20,000.00 20,389.58 20,781.11 21,174.59 21,570.05 0.10984 107.85 892.15 21,967.48 178,032.5 1,289.58 0.11183 . . . . 1.00000 109.84 . . . . 993.59 890.16 . . . . 6.41 22,366.89 . . . . 200,000 177,633.1 . . . . 0 1,289.58 . . . . 1,289.58 (180,000 (€) )1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,000 Rental Distribution i.e. E-2 (Customer‘s) = 20,389.58 X = € 101.95*; F – 2 (Bank‘s) € 898.05 200,000 G-1 Customer‘s Equity = € 20,000 + € 289.58 + € 100 H-1 Bank‘s Equity = € 200,000 – € 20,389.60 = € 20,389.58 = € 179,610.40 Table 1. Payments Schedule for DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 10) Notice that while the amount to be paid monthly was €1737.04 under the CPS concept, the monthly amount needed under DPL is only €1, 289.58. Therefore, the customer saves €447.46 monthly but acquires the home also in 20 years. Indeed, if the customer pays €1, 737.04 for the DPL mode as in the CPS, then the customer can own the home in 12 years 3 months, i.e. saving about 8 years of monthly payments. Table 2 below provides a comparison for financing the home using the conventional, CPS and DPL methods. 8 Mathematical derivations for DPL are used to obtain this amount of €289.58 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005: 24-27). 63 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Price of house = €200,000 Customer puts = €20,000 Financier provide = €180,000 Monthly Rental = €1,000 APR = 10% APR = 10% APR = 6 % Monthly payment Total Payment in 20 years Total Interest/ Profit to Bank APR Balance after 10 years Conventional Loan 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 CPS DPL 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 1289.58 309,499.20 129,499.20 10% 131,443.76 10% 208,444.68 6% 116,156.56 Table 2. Comparison between Conventional Loan, CPS and DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 11) From Table 2, it is obvious that so long the annual percentage rates (APRs) are the same the total interest in the conventional equals the total profit in the CPS. But when customer wants to settle the financing earlier, say after 10 years, the loan balance under the CPS is always higher than under the conventional loan. The balance under the conventional is much lower because here the balance is the present value of the remaining 120 payments whereas under the CPS it is simply the monthly payment times 120 (i.e. under CPS the total profit for the twenty years is capitalized upfront). Nonetheless, the bank may give a rebate for early settlement which is decided at its discretion. Nevertheless, the total payments and loan balances are lowest in the DPL among the three financing methods. The mathematical derivation for DPL in the Appendix shows that the return to the DPL is solely determined by the rental rate, which in this case is 0.5% per month (accordingly the APR is 6%) 9. Interestingly, this return to the financier is neither determined by the initial capital provided by the financier nor the duration of the contract which is usual under debt financing. The return is solely but determined by the rental alone as a percentage of the house price. Such as the case, financiers of DPL would be tempted to finance only homes with high rental rates, whereas it would be in the interest of the customers to negotiate for low rentals. If, in our example, the rental rate for the DPL equals an APR of 10 percent (i.e. where the rental is €1, 666.67 per month) then, indeed, the ‗amortization‘ schedule for all the three methods will be the same (though they differ conceptually). But one important difference would still remain, i.e. the balance of financing before expiry of the contract. The balance under the conventional loan and DPL would be the same while the balance under CPS would still be higher. This is because the conventional and diminishing partnership and lease methods follow a diminishing balance schedule. Therefore, the balance under conventional and DPL can never exceed the financiers original contribution, but under the CPS it can 10 (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 10–12). The Differences between the CPS and the DPL Contracts In summary, the main differences between the joint ownership DPL and debt-type CPS financing are as follows (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 17–18): – There are two separate contracts under the DPL method. The first is a partnership where the client is a partner and the second one is a rental which involves the leasing of the property. The CPS, on the contrary, follows the cost plus concept of buying and selling of property. – Under CPS, the selling price of the house does not reflect the market value since the mark-up for the deferred payment is quite substantial. On the contrary, the value of the house under DPL always reflects the market price and the rental is determined by the market rental values. – The return to the CPS is based on a fixed selling price (that uses the prevailing interest rate as the benchmark). But under DPL, the financer need not be tied to a fixed profit rate throughout the financing tenor. This is because the rental rate can be revised periodically to reflect current market conditions. Indeed, as argued earlier, the rental can be tied to some economic variables like Rental Index, House Price Index etc. 9 The annual percentage rate (APR) in the DPL is determined by the rental rate, i.e. the annual rent divided by the original price of the house. In the example, it is (€1,000 x 12)/200,000 x 100% = 6% (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 24-27). 10 As in the above example where after 10 years of payments, the balance under CPS is €208,444.68 which exceeds the original amount of €180,000. 64 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo – The financier can manage the liquidity risks better as rental payments can be adjusted at the end of each subcontract period. This is not possible under the 17current fixed-rate CPS as the profit rate is a constant throughout the entire tenor of financing. – Even compared with a floating-rate CPS, the DPL still differs in the balance of financing at any point in time before the end of the contract. Under DPL the balance can never be larger than the original price/finance of the house. Rebates for early redemption under CPS cannot be specifically stated in the contract. – The DPL is a more flexible financing structure than the CPS as the customer can own the property earlier by redeeming faster the principal sum of the financier, without the need to compute rebates as in CPS. – In the event of payment defaults, the penalty charges under CPS can be challenged, while under DPL, defaults will cause the equity of financier to remain constant and therefore entitled to higher rental portions when payments made later. – Currently many customers opine that the CPS is similar to the conventional loan with some ―disadvantages‖ for the customer particularly for early redemptions. The DPL is accepted internationally whereas the CPS is recognized predominantly in the east, i.e. in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei etc. Conventional and Alternative Home Financing Models Comparison In the case of basic home financing, alternative products under the CPS structure, which is deferred payment sale, might offer more competitive deals than conventional banking. In comparing the two models, an ordinary conventional housing loan is based on debtor-creditor relationship and the interest rate charged is based on a certain percentage above the base lending rate over loan period. Fluctuation in the base lending rate will affect total loan cost. Simultaneously, arrears in conventional loans are normally capitalized. However, under the CPS scheme, a seller-buyer relationship is established and the selling price is fixed upfront. The sale price is then repaid in installments, with the amount remaining fixed throughout the financing period. This eliminates the customer‘s interest rate risk and furthermore, arrears will not be capitalized. The CPS scheme eliminates additional or hidden costs that will change the price of the property purchased — providing clients with a better value-for-money option compared to conventional home financing (Islamic Finance, 2008, p. 34). Under conventional financial system, interest is charged which is determined on the basis of demand and supply of the capital while under alternative financial system rent of the property is charged, determined through demand and supply of real asset. As conventional banks do not own the underlying asset, hence sharing of risk and reward of property is not required while alternative housing finance institutions (AHFIs) are co owner of the property and share risk and rewards attached with ownership. Return for conventional home financing model starts from the date of loan extension facility which is not the case in AHFIs. Under DPL model return is due when the property is ready for use either through acquisition or through construction. Conventional banks are not required to share any loss occurred to the underlying property while AHFIs being co owner will share any damage occurred to the house. Conventional banks will continuously receive the installments (containing interest & principal) even if property is not use able and needs some repair. During the repair period AHFIs cannot receive the rent. Return of conventional banks is fixed as interest while AHFIs will receive rentals as well as shares any appreciation (depreciation) (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 6). 65 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CONVENTIONAL HOME FINANCE The lender advances funds to the borrower and charges [interest] for the use of their money. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before 65 birthdays. Most of the lender has no lower limit to the property value. Up to 125% of the property value. Life insurance and building are mandatory in most cases. Lender never owns the property. Payment term up to 40 years. Income Multiples Up to 5 times primary annual income sole applicant. Arrangement fee usually up to £500. ALTERNATIVE HOME FINANCING Based on trade (cost plus sale) and leasing, alternative home financing models are interest free. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before retirement age. Minimum property value £50,000. Up to 80% of the property value There is no compulsory life and building insurance are required. The bank puts itself in the position of owner of the property. Higher risks. Cost plus sale up to 15 years minimum 5 years Lease up to 25 years minimum 7.5 years Cost plus sale 2.5 times primary annual income Lease 3 times primary annual income sole applicant Arrangement fee of 0.75% of the property value less the first payment. Table 3. A Comparison between Conventional and Alternative Home Financing (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 12) For example the price is £ 100,000.00 the banks require 10% deposit if the bank agrees to give a 30-year mortgage of £90,000, at an annual interest rate of 8%, the monthly payments would be £660.39. Each payment will consist partly of interest due and partly the repayment of principal. The buyer will make 360 monthly payments, which add up to a total of £237,740.40 paid to the bank accruing £147,740.40 interest to the bank. Payment Number 1 2 3 …. 120 …. 240 …. 359 360 Total Monthly Payment £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 Interest £ 660.00 £ 599.60 £ 599.19 Principal £ 60.39 £ 60.79 £ 61.20 Balance after Payment £ 89,939.61 £ 89,878.82 £ 89,817.62 £ 660.39 £ 527.13 £133.16 £ 78,951.84 £ 660.39 £ 384.83 £ 295.56 £ 54,428.98 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 237,740.40 £ 8.70 £ 7.30 £ 147,740.40 £ 651.69 £ 653.09 £90,000.00 £ 653.09 £ 0.00 Table 4. Amortization schedule for a 30 year conventional housing finance at 8% interest: £ 90,000 principal (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 13) Just as in the conventional arrangement, the coop bank will require some down payment. That will be client initial equity share. Let‘s assume client make the same down payment of 10 %, or £10,000. The coop bank puts up the remaining £90,000. Now client and the bank are co-owners. If client occupy the house, client will be required to pay rent to the owners. But client are also allowed to increase his/her ownership share at any time by making additional payments to the coop bank, in effect, buying out the bank‘s interest in the house. As client do so, his/her proportionate share increases while the coop bank‘s share decreases and the distribution of the rent payments will change accordingly. Let‘s compare this arrangement with the conventional mortgage in the example given above. The big question, of course, is what is a fair amount for the monthly rent? It might be reasonable to assume that it is equal to the monthly payments client would have made under the conventional mortgage arrangement, in this case, £660.39. At the outset, 66 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo client will receive 10% of that rent as his/her ownership share and the bank will receive 90 percent, Let also assume that client apply his/her share of the rental payments to increasing his/her share of the ownership. Payment Number 1 2 3 … 24 …. 120 … 240 … 359 360 Total Payment Amount £ 660.39 660.39 660.39 Client Share £ 60.04 60.48 66.91 Bank‘s Share £ 594.35 593.91 593.48 Client Equity £ 10,066.04 10,132.52 10,199.43 Client Equity % 10.07 10.13 10.20 Bank‘s Equity £ 89,933.96 89,867.48 89,800.57 Bank Equity % 89.93 89.87 89.80 660.39 76.83 583.56 11,711.34 11.71 88,288.66 88.29 660.39 144.54 515.85 22,030.94 22.03 77,969.06 77.97 660.39 318.43 341.96 48,536.24 48.54 51,463.76 51.46 660.39 660.39 231,018.30 652.52 538.63 7.87 3.56 99,461.37 100,000.00 99.46 100.00 538.63 0.00 0.54 0.00 Note: (With Rent Equal to Conventional 8%, 30 Year Monthly Payment Owner‘s share applied to repurchase: No additional principal Payments Table 5. Diminishing Partnership and Lease Model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 15) Table 5 is an abridged amortization table which shows the respective returns to client and the coop bank. Under this arrangement, client will own 100% of the property after making the 350th payment. Client will have paid total rent of £231,018.30. The bank‘s total share will have been £141,018.30. This is a saving of more than £6,000.00 or 4.1% over the amount of interest paid on the conventional home finance. The Practices of Alternative House Financing In the World Alternative house financing models in Germany are equity based diminishing partnership and lease (DPL), debt based DPL, CPS and adjusting CPS. Ansar Finance, Manchester operates equity based DPL concept. Equity based mode is no debt, but possibly longer purchasing period and less prone to asset price bubbles. Debt based modes could have identical cash flow. In CPS, if the sale is void, so is the financing – one contract; contrary to credit to be repaid because fraud is only with property not with loan. There is no penalty interest if default is due to difficulties (Kennedy and Gassner, 2009: 5–9). The practices of alternative house financing have been fortunate in getting legal obstacles removed so that they are applicable under English law. This has been intended to facilitate the needs of consumers so that they can have an alternative mortgage with equal safeguards to those available under existing FSA mortgage regulation. The British government confirmed its positive standpoint by releasing the necessary regulations which allowed the Islamic mortgagees to be treated in the same way as the mortgagees of conventional mortgage modes (Solé, 2007, p. 17). Based on that, the alternative mode of mortgage has become more available and more widely accessible (Russell, 2004, p. 13). The Islamic Investment Banking Unit of the United Bank of Kuwait (UBK) in London has been offering alternative house financing since 1997. The products are CPS Home Purchase Plan11 and Lease Home Purchase Plan12. Al Baraka Bank‘s the operations were similar to DPL model. The bank and its client would sign a contract to purchase the house jointly, the ownership share being determined by the financial contribution of each of the parties. The bank would expect a fixed predetermined profit for the period of the mortgage. The client makes either monthly or quarterly repayments over a 10-20 year period, which covered the advance plus profit share. There was some 11 12 This program is named Manzil Murabaha. This program is named Manzil Ijara. 67 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo debate if the profit share could be calculated in relation to the market value of the property, but this was rejected as frequent revaluation of the property would be expensive and administratively complicated. Furthermore, given the fluctuating prices in the London property market, there would be considerable risk for the bank (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 6–9). The British government has realised the significance of the growth of alternative types of finance in the UK, especially the mortgage. Some writers consider that the cancellation of double stamp duty has supported the promotion of the Islamic market mortgage expansion (Alam, 2004, p. 2). Besides that the government also permitted the mode of lease to own to be used for asset finance, as well as the CPS; the latter became included in the definition of a regulated mortgage and is now covered by FSA mortgage regulation. This also happened with the mode of the diminishing partnership when the government included this mode as part of the concept of alternative finance arrangements instead of standard loans within the Finance Act 2006 (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9).Co-operative Housing Corporation, Canada uses the LTO model. MSI housing Fund Houston, Texas [USA] applies the DPL model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003). Participation Banks in Turkey Participation banks are an indispensable and complementary element of the financial system in Turkey. They operate under the Banking Act, regulated and supervised by the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency– BDDK (Büyükdeniz, 2006). Participation banks provide not only classical banking activities but also some more, as leasing, insurance, barter in financial sector. Participation banks perform almost all operations of classical banks in various methods, without any confliction on their principals. The objective of this typical banking is to bring in, the idle capital of interest sensitive people in to national economy, under the interest free banking principals. While performing classical banking operations, not interest but profit-loss participation investment method made this banking type to be called as interest free banking in literature. These institutions perform almost all banking services in different methods. Nevertheless, they do not do such operations depending to interest. This creates a complementary issue between banks and participation banks. Besides, they are such institute which increases the financial deepening and diversification (Özulucan and Deran, 2009, p. 85). Turkish Participation Banks’s Home Financing Methods Turkish participation banks‘s home financing methods are decreasing installments model, real estate consumer price index leasing model and home loan. Decreasing installments model in home financing is based on applying different monthly profit rate for every year during financing. Monthly profit rate is same for each twelve months. Next years‘ monthly profit rate will be less than that of previous years‘. At the beginning of home financing, the monthly profit rates are already determined. The monthly profit rates to be apply are (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr); 120 months installments 60 months installments 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year 5th Year 6th Year 7th Year 8th Year 9th Year 10th Year Annual Cost Ratio 1.19% 1.15% 1.14% 1.05% 1.04% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 0.79% 0.74% 13.46% 1.04% 0.99% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 12.61% Table 6. Decreasing installments model For each 12 months installments, monthly profit rates shown above are applied. Unlike other fixed price installment term Turkish Lira leasing transactions, a consumer price indexed real estate leasing product is a new leasing product where leasing installments can be indexed to inflation through the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rate announced by the Turkish Statistical Institute on the 3rd day of every month and vary according to economic conditions. Thanks to this payment system, with the increase in installments indexed to CPI, not changing throughout the year, and installments up to 10 years, in an environment of falling inflation client will be able to own a home as if client was paying rent. In fact, under this payment system, with the change in the 68 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CPI index for the past year, client will be able to calculate his/her installments for the following year (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr). Home loan is a transaction where the Bank purchases the real property required by the customer and then resells it thereto by adding a profit according to the required term. Home loan includes (http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans); – Discounted Home Finance: With discounted home finance, customer can reduce the profit share on his/her loan and thus greatly reduces his/her monthly installment payments by paying an amount in 1% to 10% of his/her loan at the beginning. – Home Finance with increasing installments: If customer wishes to pay his/her installments at lower amounts at the beginning and then increases them gradually. – Home Finance with decreasing installments: If customer wishes to reduce, his/her installment amounts in the next period and then pays a higher installment at the start – Flexible Payment Home Finance: Under Flexible Payment Home Finance, customer can make regular extra payments at every 3, 6 or 12 months at his/her option or lower his/her monthly installment by adding an interim payment to any month of his/her choice. – Deferrable Home Finance: With Deferrable Home Finance, customer can defer his/her loan up to 3 months from the start of its term and starts his/her payments in the next period. Therefore, customer can more easily meet other costs of his/her house during such deferment period. Conclusion A home is basic necessity, it consumes a large chunk of peoples‘ income for long periods. In the present interest-based system, owning a home is increasingly becoming burdensome. Mortgages are one of the significant causes of bankruptcies. While price of homes keep rising, the mortgage duration also keep rising, till two-generation mortgages are even being talked about. The practices of alternative housing finance are concerned with issues of sustainable rather than efficiency. These practices focus on the necessity of sharing risk in a fair and stable society, and upon problems of exploitation in markets where power is asymmetric, this is the real interest issue. In this study, the case analyses shows that the principles differences between alternative and conventional housing finance is that the former is equity based and the latter is debit based. In an alternative home financing situation, both the bank and the client share ownership [equity] and therefore share the risk of equity ownership. In conventional banking, the client owns all the equity and the banks loan to the client is secured on the value of the property. The essence of alternative house finance system is sharing; sharing of risks and rewards by both parties. Alternative housing finance is unique and unmatched with traditional mortgages. Internal rate of return cannot be determined in advance. It is true DPL, which demands the sharing of risk and reward by both partners. Under alternative home finance, financier is earning more as compare to conventional banking (in case of appreciation) but after capacity building of customer, while under conventional financial system return is fixed which put the client in trouble in early years and prosperity in following years if property value appraises and vice versa. This paper made a comparative analysis between the CPS and DPL contracts as means for home ownership. This paper attempted to argue in favour of the DPL as a better alternative to the conventional mortgage and the CPS. The CPS is a contract that is based on a buy-and-sell principle while the diminishing partnership consists of a partnership contract and a rental contract where the equity of the financier follows a diminishing balance method. The paper concludes that the DPL has several advantages over the CPS for the customer. It can be made to avoid interest totally and can reduce the cost of homes and the duration of financing. The balance of finance, at any point in time, never exceeds the original price of the asset, unlike under the CPS where it can. When a home is purchased from a developer and financed using the present conventional or CPS, the customer would end up paying about four times the original cost (both the developer and the bank are assumed to make a gross 100 percent mark-up). This, undoubtedly, can burden particularly the low income group. DPL allows people to own homes with limited initial capital. In doing so, it promotes the welfare of the people. The DPL is less attractive to the banker compared to the CPS. For that matter, a viable avenue to implement the DPL is through a cooperative setting. When implemented through cooperatives, the DPL can also provide an investment avenue for members while substantially reducing the price of house and the duration of financing. The concept has a positive impact on the economy and reduces inflation as no additional money is created in the system compared to debt-financing, as currently done under the fractional reserve banking system. 69 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The DPL is just and fair compared to the conventional loan and the CPS as there is no interest charge or ‗advanced‘ profit involved in the DPL contract. It is purely based on rental payments of property and the redeeming of the financier‘s shares. As a benchmark, the paper suggested the use of a Rental Index or House Price Index in determining the rental to be charged for each specified rental contract period. The DPL concept is a viable alternative to the conventional floating rate financing since the rental rate can be adjusted if there are fluctuations in the economy. 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Meera, A.K.M. (2002). The Islamic Gold Dinar. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. 70 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Meera, A.K.M. (2004). The Theft of Nations. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. OICU–IOSCO (2004). Islamic Capital Market, Fact Finding Report. Report of the Islamic capital market task force of the international organization of securities commissions. Özulucan, A. & Deran, A. (2009). The Comparison of Participation Banking and Traditional Banking on the Perspective of Banking Services and Accounting Applications. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 6 (11), 85–108. Russell, JG. (2004). Jeffrey Green Russell‘s Guide to Islamic Home Finance, London. Segrado, C. (2005). Islamic microfinance and socially responsible investments, Case study, Microfinance at the University, University of Torino, Torino. Serlah, A. (2002). ―Special Report for Client Sofraslan‖, Loon Gandree Grecht Sanwalte, Glossary of Islamic Banking Terminology, Solé, J. (2007). Introducing Islamic Banks into. Conventional Banking Systems. Monetary and Capital Markets Department, IMF Working Paper. Thomas, A. (2001). Methods of Islamic Home Finance in the United States. The American Journal of Islamic Finance, 1–14. Tlemsani,I., & Matthews, R. (2003). Ethical Banking Islamic House Financing in The United Kingdom: A Comparative Study, Centre for International Business Policy, Kingston Business School. UNCTAD, (2006). Islamic Finance and Structured Finance Techniques: Where The Twain Can Meet. UNCTAD Secretariat. Wilson, R. (2007). Islamic Finance in Europe, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Florence. http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr/en/BireyselBankacilik_TuketiciKredisi_TaksitliKonut.aspx http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans https://www.ubl.com.pk/ameen/pdf/Glossary_Islamic_Banking.pdf/10/6/2007. p. 6, 2007, (accessed 15 March 2009). 71 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 175 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Author Author ÇETİN, Ali Cüneyt ADIGÜZEL, Orhan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand- sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/357136780068f9bf25fbf91a4877d95a.pdf e1d310e3101c44f1581d48fc10cec07f PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alternative Manufacturing Technique in Glass Industry for Devoloping Countries: Fused Glass , “Zumrut Art Of Glass Model” and Its Applicability in Bosnia Herzegovina Economy Mesut ALBENĠ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey mesut@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Muhlis CAN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Hakkâri University, Turkey muhliscan@hakkari.edu.tr Abstract: Tourism industry plays an important role in the sustainable devolopment process of the countries. Giftware (souvenir,craft) sector also forms one of the important elements of tourism revenues.. However, finding same types of the products in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, the contributions of new production techniques in glass industry, to which increasement of the export by taking the advantage of niche market and reducement of the unemployement, are examined for tourism oriented souvenir industry. The "Glass Fusion Technique" is discussed in order to concretize the purpose of this study with ―Zumrut Art of Glass‖ model and the possibilty of application into Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Keywords: Tourism, Souvenir, Gift, Craft, Fused Glass Introduction There are some sectors, playing important roles for not only devoloped countires but also devoloping ones; such as textile industry, glass industry, otomobile industry, tourism sector. However, for all, tourism is a common vehicle for all economies. Tourism is a rapidly developing global industry and has great economic significance for the economy (Gunce, 2003). It is increasing at annual growth rate between %4 - %7 (Turner & Reisinger, 2001). Table 1: International Tourist Arrivals and International Tourism Receipts Source between 1990-2008 Source: World Tourism Organization 661 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo International tourist arrivals have continued to grow steadily from 25 million in 1950 to 684 millon in 2000, and they have reached 922 millon in 2008. Tourism has been becoming one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world (World Tourism Organization, 2009). Tourism has been one of the major international trade categories. For example, the overall export income generated by international tourism including passengers transport reached US $ 1.1 trillion in 2008,or US $ 3 billion a day. World‘s Export of commericial services consist of 30% from tourism and overall export goods and services 6% consist of tourism. Globally, as an export category, after fuels, chemicals and automotive products tourism ranks fourth. For many developing countries, tourism is one of the main income source and the number one export category, providing much needed employment and opportunities for development(World Tourism Organization, 2009). Table-2: International Tourist Arrivals by ( Sub) region Source: World Tourism Organization As it can be seen from the figure, Europe has %53,1 share from all international arrivals with 489,4 million people in 2008. However, Bosnia has just 212.749 international tourist arrivals in the same year (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, 2009) which is equal to ‰4 from Europe tourist arrivals. According to UNWTO‘s Tourism 2020 Vision reports, international arrivals are expected to reach nearly 1.6 billion by the year 2020. The total tourist arrivals by regions shows that, tourism will grow and the top three receiving regions will be Europe (717million tourists), East Asia (397 million) and the Americas (282 million) (World Tourism Organization, 2009). 662 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 3: Forecasting of International Tourist Arrivals Between 2010-2020 Source : World Tourism Organization The Effect of Tourism on Economy Tourism does not only affect the countries in one way. It has also positive effects on the devolopment of the physical, social, cultural and economic environment of a country(Gunce, 2003). Tourism has positive effects on economy in different ways. According to the United Nations foreign exchange earnings, the contribution to government revenues, the generation of employment, the stimulation of infrastructure investment and the contribution to local economies are some of them (Torrent, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme). Tourism contributes to the worldwide gross domestic products nearly 5%, also it contributes to employment directlyindirectly and it is estimated 6-7% of the overall number of jobs which are provided by tourism ( World Tourism Organization, 2009). For developing countries, where tourism is a key economic sector, the importance of tourism tends to be higher for economy (World Tourism Organization, 2009). There are some activities which are relavant to the tourism and have impacts on the economy in positive way during the journey. One of them is shopping. The Importance of Shopping During a Journey Shopping might be the most universal activities, despite the fact that it is seldom considered as a primary reason for travel (Turner & Reisinger, 2001). Whether international or domestic tourism , for both, the second most important expenditure item is shopping after accommodation ( Turner & Reisinger, 2001). For a tourist, a tour can not be a complete traveling experience without shopping ( Hudman & Hawking,1989). Shopping is a common and preferred tourist activity in different locations, and for today‘s travelers, tourism and shopping are integrated to each other. Shopping activities include especially souvenir, because tourists need to bring home something tangible to concretize and preserve their memories for their trips (Gordon, 1986). Souvenirs are related to tourism as commercially produced and purchased object to remind the purchaser of the experience (Swanson & Horridge, 2006). Souvenir products also include craft products which are called craft souvenir. What effects tourists when they decide to buy souvenirs? Turner and Reisinger (2001) found three important product characteristics for tourists purchasing cultural products: value (range, quality), product display characteristics (color, display, packaging, size), and uniqueness (memory of the trip). The ease of cleaning, care, and packing were of particular importance for travelers to reach the decision of craft buying (Hair et al.,1998). Through crafts, tourists generally prefer the products which are valuable work of the hand. According to UNESCO report (2007), there is a wrong impression that tourists prefer industrialized goods rather than handmade products. Especially nowadays, mass-produced polyester products which seem very simple, are sold everywhere. Also textile crafts can be found in every destination. Finding same types of the products in many countries around the world signals that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. 663 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, we would like to emphasize on advantage of the craft sector for devoloping countries. As generally devoloping countries has labour intensive sectors. For production of craft, sector also needs cheap labour force. According to UNESCO report ( 2007) the economic characteristics of the craft sectors are: - The handicrafts sector requires minimum expenditure and infrastructure to establish as it is a home-based industry. Therefore it can create jobs with minimum cost. - In general this sector uses raw materials which are avaliable locally. - Product adaptation is less expensive than investing in energy, machinery or technology becasue inputs required can easily be provided. The Worldwide Situation of Craft Sector Handicrafts have been devoloping without specific political stratetegies and they directly depend on demand gererated by tourism industry ( UNESCO, 2007). According to report released by UNESCO (2007) the national accounts do not fully include handicraft activities. However, handicrafts are always parts of the culture of a nation and represent a key component of socio-economic life. Many countries face to some difficulties in collecting data about craft sector because there is an important lack of data on the craft sectors. In some industrialized countries, craft sector plays an important role in their economy. For example in Italy, 24% of national enterprises belong to the crafts sector in which 1/5 private sector workers are employed. In Italian total Gross Domestic Products (GDP) ,craft exports share is %17. Morever in devoloping countries craft sector has a great importance in economy. In Colombia, crafts production represents income of approximately US$ 400 million in a year and brings in a monthly income to the workers between US$ 140 to 510. Crafts exports (not include sales to tourists) approximately amount to US$ 40 million per year. Two-thousand shops and 400 bulk and export trading companies, where 800,000 people are employed, affected by this important tourism market. Tunisia is another example. Craft sector is employing 300.000 people (%11 of the active population) of whom are working 4 hours a day on a part time-time basis. Their production contribute to Gross Domestic Income an avarage of %3,8 and provide US$ 2,400 income per household (an average of 5 members). In Morocco, Ministry of Tourism measure the volume of the these sector at %19 of total GDP. Morocco export handcraft products approximately valued US$ 63 million. Nowadays, there is a problem in souvenir industry. Finding same types of the products ( for example: textile products: t-shirts, carpet, cheap polyeserin products) , in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, we would like to introduce an innovation in craft, souvenir and giftware. Our main method is Fused Glass Tecnique that is used in Turkey for touristic craft and souvenir industry. Not only for just giftware, it can also be applicated in Tableware, Decoration, Kitchenware, Hotel Products, Electirical Equipments etc. So, this new tecnique affects different sectors in not only domestic markets but also export markets. Fused Glass and “Zumrut Art Of Glass” Model What is fused (fusing) glass? It is a process of joining pieces of glass by melting them together and the main aim of fusing is to produce a solid glass sheet from individual pieces of glass which are arrange beside or on the top of one another by melting together in a kiln (Eberle, 1997). History of Zumrut Art of Glass Zumrut Art of Glass was established in 1981. The company entered the glass sector with decorative items by using the tecniques which are popular during that time: stained glass and sand blasting. In 1997, the company decided to produce new products by using unique tecnique which was not avaliable in Turkey. It brought fused (fusing) glass tecnique to Turkey. The company also desired to enter the giftware, souvenir sector by means of this unique tecnique. After preparing the consept products and marketing, they got a lot of orders from touristic places. In 2002, the company participated giftware fair which was in Germany and this date was the starting of entrance to the foreign markets. In 2005, the company invested to the water jet CNC machine for putting the limits away for designs. After this investment, all the designs have been prepared in computers with benefiting from the technology. 664 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In 2006, to satisfy the customers‘ request, the drop tecnique which gives opportunity to produce locational and promotional products was applied into the production. Product Consept Zumrut Art of Glass product consept consist of Giftware, Tableware, Souvenir, Tea and Coffee Sets, Sugar Plates, Candle Holders, Magnets, Key Rings, Clocks, Picture Frames, Glass Tables, Plate Sets, Fruit Bowls, Self Service plates, Tea-Coffee Trays, Vases, Ashtrays, Chandeliers, Door Glasses, Glass Sinks, Mirror Frames, Bowls, Dinner Sets. Employment Situation There are 900 sales points, which are located generally in touristic places, of the company and it has 10 own exhibition centers. Zumrut Art of Glass is employing directly 25 workers in manufacturing department, 20 persons in exhibition centers as salesperson position,10 staff in different departments. Also company is employing 150 persons indirectly. Production Process The production steps are made up: 1-) Flat glasses are provided firstly as plates in different thicknesses for products of which their production is carried out by utilizing fusion glass melting tecnology. 2-) The necessary glass cutting processes are performed according to design and pattern of the product that will be produced. While the glass patterns are cut manually in the cutting workshop, the design cutting is carried out in Water Jet CNC bench. The water jet machine is able to cut all kinds of materials as two dimentional by operating in the CNC machines‘ principle. The cutting carried out with water is able to see thinner details and carried out milimetric cuttings in comparison to other tecnologies. 3-) The pattern and design glasses that have been got together in the production department are then placed into molds in the fusion glass furnaces after the necessary staining are done and the furnaces are made ready in order to perform thermal processing. All the Works taht have been carried out in the production are hand made and all the staining is carried out between two glasses. After 800 C thermal processing is applied, since the fusion glass furnace is kept for cooling, tension of the glass product has been taken and it is more resisting in comparison to normal flat glass. 4-) For souvenir industry, plastic drop process is applied into the products . Plastic drop is poured on photographs by labeling the which are demanded with the drop label tecnique and the photographs has been protected between the label and the drop. All kind of design, figure and logo are able to be applied on the glass with this tecnique. Domestic and Foreign Market Situation Of Zumrut Art of Glass Domestic market has 60% share and foreign market has 40% in total. Many of products which are manufactured in fused (fusing) glass tecnique are sold in Antalya, Fethiye, Bodrum, Marmaris, Kusadasi, Izmir, Ankara, Ġstanbul in Turkey with different points. The companys‘ exports markets consists of 15% of USA, 75% of EU and %10 others. 2 million pieces of products are manufactured and sold in both foreign and domestic market every year. The most popular products are magnets which are very easy to pack and hold, sugar plates which reflect the culture of the location, tea sets with different figures, mini vase and wall decoration gifts. Discussion 665 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Devoloping countries, especially nowadays, try to continue their development process with different methods. Some of them are transfering capital from agricultural to industrial production, some of them are try to increase earnings from different industry. However, there is a hard competitiveness in all industry for all countries and this creates a hard situation for devoloping ones. That means developing countries should find new methods which can be a competitive to continue their development process by using their rich and cheap labour force. Tourism is very important tool for development. Some of governments advertise their countries with different methods to increase the number of tourist arrivals. Some of them organize festivals, some of them give advertisements to TV programs to introduce their countries nature, the places for sight-seeing etc. Bosnia should also use methods to introduce its unique nature, touristic opportunies and historical background. Whether there is a little increasement in tourist arrivals, Bosnia Herzegovina with the share ‰4 from total from Europe that has %53,1 share from all international arrivals with 489,4 million tourists, Bosnian government should implement some policies to increase the share in the Europe. According to forecasting reports shows that tourist arrivals will continue to grow in Europe. In the light of this information, Bosnia can increase and take advantage of tourism sector if the government apply important policies into tourism industry for sustainable devolopment. Account deficit, unemployment and low income level constitue important economic problems in Bosnia. 1.708.000 persons are in the working age population and 226.000 persons are unemployed ( Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, 2009 ). Tourism oriented invesments to fusing glass tecniques in souvenir industry will not only help decrease of unemployement, but also contribute to increase of the export with its geographical advantages. Bosnia Herzegovina, which is located in the middle of Europe where the estimated tourist arrival number will be 717 million in 2020, can use the advantage of minumun cost investment into the craft industry, which will affect whole economy like a chain not only with retail shopping but also with export trade. References Eberle, B. (1997). Creative Glass Tecniques (pp. 15). Lark Books A division of Sterling Publishing Co. Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, (2009), Statistical Yearbook 2009. Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://www.fzs.ba/Statisticki%20godisnjak%202009.pdf Gordon, B. (1986). The souvenir: messenger of the extraordinary. Journal of Popular Culture, 20, 135–146. Gunce, E. (2003). Tourism and local attitudes in Girne, Northern Cyprus. Cities, 20(3), 181-195 Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hudman, L. E., & Hawkins, D. E. (1989). Tourism in contemporary society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Swanson, K. K., & Horridge, P.E. (2006). Travel motivations as souvenir purchase indicators. Tourism Management, 27, 671-683 Torrent, R. R.-I-., (2008). Sustainable development in tourism municipalities: The role of public goods. Tourism Management, 29, 883-897 Turner, L. W., & Reisinger, Y. (2001). Shopping satisfaction for domestic tourist. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 8, 15-27 UNESCO, (2007). Handicrafts and Employment Generation for the Poorest Youth and Women (pp. 03-50) . Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156772e.pdf United Nations Environment Programme, http:// www.unep.org World Tourism Organization. (2009). Tourism Highlights. Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://unwto.org/facts/eng/highlights.htm 666 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 258 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Manufacturing Technique in Glass Industry for Devoloping Countries: Fused Glass , “Zumrut Art Of Glass Model” and Its Applicability in Bosnia Herzegovina Economy Author Author ALBENİ, Mesut CAN, Muhlis Abstract A summary of the resource. Tourism industry plays an important role in the sustainable devolopment process of the countries. Giftware (souvenir,craft) sector also forms one of the important elements of tourism revenues.. However, finding same types of the products in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, the contributions of new production techniques in glass industry, to which increasement of the export by taking the advantage of niche market and reducement of the unemployement, are examined for tourism oriented souvenir industry. The "Glass Fusion Technique" is discussed in order to concretize the purpose of this study with ―Zumrut Art of Glass‖ model and the possibilty of application into Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c51a3ee43e40e2da92c234a1f36f73d0.pdf e1d310e3101c44f1581d48fc10cec07f PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alternative Manufacturing Technique in Glass Industry for Devoloping Countries: Fused Glass , “Zumrut Art Of Glass Model” and Its Applicability in Bosnia Herzegovina Economy Mesut ALBENĠ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey mesut@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Muhlis CAN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Hakkâri University, Turkey muhliscan@hakkari.edu.tr Abstract: Tourism industry plays an important role in the sustainable devolopment process of the countries. Giftware (souvenir,craft) sector also forms one of the important elements of tourism revenues.. However, finding same types of the products in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, the contributions of new production techniques in glass industry, to which increasement of the export by taking the advantage of niche market and reducement of the unemployement, are examined for tourism oriented souvenir industry. The "Glass Fusion Technique" is discussed in order to concretize the purpose of this study with ―Zumrut Art of Glass‖ model and the possibilty of application into Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Keywords: Tourism, Souvenir, Gift, Craft, Fused Glass Introduction There are some sectors, playing important roles for not only devoloped countires but also devoloping ones; such as textile industry, glass industry, otomobile industry, tourism sector. However, for all, tourism is a common vehicle for all economies. Tourism is a rapidly developing global industry and has great economic significance for the economy (Gunce, 2003). It is increasing at annual growth rate between %4 - %7 (Turner & Reisinger, 2001). Table 1: International Tourist Arrivals and International Tourism Receipts Source between 1990-2008 Source: World Tourism Organization 661 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo International tourist arrivals have continued to grow steadily from 25 million in 1950 to 684 millon in 2000, and they have reached 922 millon in 2008. Tourism has been becoming one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world (World Tourism Organization, 2009). Tourism has been one of the major international trade categories. For example, the overall export income generated by international tourism including passengers transport reached US $ 1.1 trillion in 2008,or US $ 3 billion a day. World‘s Export of commericial services consist of 30% from tourism and overall export goods and services 6% consist of tourism. Globally, as an export category, after fuels, chemicals and automotive products tourism ranks fourth. For many developing countries, tourism is one of the main income source and the number one export category, providing much needed employment and opportunities for development(World Tourism Organization, 2009). Table-2: International Tourist Arrivals by ( Sub) region Source: World Tourism Organization As it can be seen from the figure, Europe has %53,1 share from all international arrivals with 489,4 million people in 2008. However, Bosnia has just 212.749 international tourist arrivals in the same year (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, 2009) which is equal to ‰4 from Europe tourist arrivals. According to UNWTO‘s Tourism 2020 Vision reports, international arrivals are expected to reach nearly 1.6 billion by the year 2020. The total tourist arrivals by regions shows that, tourism will grow and the top three receiving regions will be Europe (717million tourists), East Asia (397 million) and the Americas (282 million) (World Tourism Organization, 2009). 662 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 3: Forecasting of International Tourist Arrivals Between 2010-2020 Source : World Tourism Organization The Effect of Tourism on Economy Tourism does not only affect the countries in one way. It has also positive effects on the devolopment of the physical, social, cultural and economic environment of a country(Gunce, 2003). Tourism has positive effects on economy in different ways. According to the United Nations foreign exchange earnings, the contribution to government revenues, the generation of employment, the stimulation of infrastructure investment and the contribution to local economies are some of them (Torrent, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme). Tourism contributes to the worldwide gross domestic products nearly 5%, also it contributes to employment directlyindirectly and it is estimated 6-7% of the overall number of jobs which are provided by tourism ( World Tourism Organization, 2009). For developing countries, where tourism is a key economic sector, the importance of tourism tends to be higher for economy (World Tourism Organization, 2009). There are some activities which are relavant to the tourism and have impacts on the economy in positive way during the journey. One of them is shopping. The Importance of Shopping During a Journey Shopping might be the most universal activities, despite the fact that it is seldom considered as a primary reason for travel (Turner & Reisinger, 2001). Whether international or domestic tourism , for both, the second most important expenditure item is shopping after accommodation ( Turner & Reisinger, 2001). For a tourist, a tour can not be a complete traveling experience without shopping ( Hudman & Hawking,1989). Shopping is a common and preferred tourist activity in different locations, and for today‘s travelers, tourism and shopping are integrated to each other. Shopping activities include especially souvenir, because tourists need to bring home something tangible to concretize and preserve their memories for their trips (Gordon, 1986). Souvenirs are related to tourism as commercially produced and purchased object to remind the purchaser of the experience (Swanson & Horridge, 2006). Souvenir products also include craft products which are called craft souvenir. What effects tourists when they decide to buy souvenirs? Turner and Reisinger (2001) found three important product characteristics for tourists purchasing cultural products: value (range, quality), product display characteristics (color, display, packaging, size), and uniqueness (memory of the trip). The ease of cleaning, care, and packing were of particular importance for travelers to reach the decision of craft buying (Hair et al.,1998). Through crafts, tourists generally prefer the products which are valuable work of the hand. According to UNESCO report (2007), there is a wrong impression that tourists prefer industrialized goods rather than handmade products. Especially nowadays, mass-produced polyester products which seem very simple, are sold everywhere. Also textile crafts can be found in every destination. Finding same types of the products in many countries around the world signals that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. 663 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, we would like to emphasize on advantage of the craft sector for devoloping countries. As generally devoloping countries has labour intensive sectors. For production of craft, sector also needs cheap labour force. According to UNESCO report ( 2007) the economic characteristics of the craft sectors are: - The handicrafts sector requires minimum expenditure and infrastructure to establish as it is a home-based industry. Therefore it can create jobs with minimum cost. - In general this sector uses raw materials which are avaliable locally. - Product adaptation is less expensive than investing in energy, machinery or technology becasue inputs required can easily be provided. The Worldwide Situation of Craft Sector Handicrafts have been devoloping without specific political stratetegies and they directly depend on demand gererated by tourism industry ( UNESCO, 2007). According to report released by UNESCO (2007) the national accounts do not fully include handicraft activities. However, handicrafts are always parts of the culture of a nation and represent a key component of socio-economic life. Many countries face to some difficulties in collecting data about craft sector because there is an important lack of data on the craft sectors. In some industrialized countries, craft sector plays an important role in their economy. For example in Italy, 24% of national enterprises belong to the crafts sector in which 1/5 private sector workers are employed. In Italian total Gross Domestic Products (GDP) ,craft exports share is %17. Morever in devoloping countries craft sector has a great importance in economy. In Colombia, crafts production represents income of approximately US$ 400 million in a year and brings in a monthly income to the workers between US$ 140 to 510. Crafts exports (not include sales to tourists) approximately amount to US$ 40 million per year. Two-thousand shops and 400 bulk and export trading companies, where 800,000 people are employed, affected by this important tourism market. Tunisia is another example. Craft sector is employing 300.000 people (%11 of the active population) of whom are working 4 hours a day on a part time-time basis. Their production contribute to Gross Domestic Income an avarage of %3,8 and provide US$ 2,400 income per household (an average of 5 members). In Morocco, Ministry of Tourism measure the volume of the these sector at %19 of total GDP. Morocco export handcraft products approximately valued US$ 63 million. Nowadays, there is a problem in souvenir industry. Finding same types of the products ( for example: textile products: t-shirts, carpet, cheap polyeserin products) , in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, we would like to introduce an innovation in craft, souvenir and giftware. Our main method is Fused Glass Tecnique that is used in Turkey for touristic craft and souvenir industry. Not only for just giftware, it can also be applicated in Tableware, Decoration, Kitchenware, Hotel Products, Electirical Equipments etc. So, this new tecnique affects different sectors in not only domestic markets but also export markets. Fused Glass and “Zumrut Art Of Glass” Model What is fused (fusing) glass? It is a process of joining pieces of glass by melting them together and the main aim of fusing is to produce a solid glass sheet from individual pieces of glass which are arrange beside or on the top of one another by melting together in a kiln (Eberle, 1997). History of Zumrut Art of Glass Zumrut Art of Glass was established in 1981. The company entered the glass sector with decorative items by using the tecniques which are popular during that time: stained glass and sand blasting. In 1997, the company decided to produce new products by using unique tecnique which was not avaliable in Turkey. It brought fused (fusing) glass tecnique to Turkey. The company also desired to enter the giftware, souvenir sector by means of this unique tecnique. After preparing the consept products and marketing, they got a lot of orders from touristic places. In 2002, the company participated giftware fair which was in Germany and this date was the starting of entrance to the foreign markets. In 2005, the company invested to the water jet CNC machine for putting the limits away for designs. After this investment, all the designs have been prepared in computers with benefiting from the technology. 664 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In 2006, to satisfy the customers‘ request, the drop tecnique which gives opportunity to produce locational and promotional products was applied into the production. Product Consept Zumrut Art of Glass product consept consist of Giftware, Tableware, Souvenir, Tea and Coffee Sets, Sugar Plates, Candle Holders, Magnets, Key Rings, Clocks, Picture Frames, Glass Tables, Plate Sets, Fruit Bowls, Self Service plates, Tea-Coffee Trays, Vases, Ashtrays, Chandeliers, Door Glasses, Glass Sinks, Mirror Frames, Bowls, Dinner Sets. Employment Situation There are 900 sales points, which are located generally in touristic places, of the company and it has 10 own exhibition centers. Zumrut Art of Glass is employing directly 25 workers in manufacturing department, 20 persons in exhibition centers as salesperson position,10 staff in different departments. Also company is employing 150 persons indirectly. Production Process The production steps are made up: 1-) Flat glasses are provided firstly as plates in different thicknesses for products of which their production is carried out by utilizing fusion glass melting tecnology. 2-) The necessary glass cutting processes are performed according to design and pattern of the product that will be produced. While the glass patterns are cut manually in the cutting workshop, the design cutting is carried out in Water Jet CNC bench. The water jet machine is able to cut all kinds of materials as two dimentional by operating in the CNC machines‘ principle. The cutting carried out with water is able to see thinner details and carried out milimetric cuttings in comparison to other tecnologies. 3-) The pattern and design glasses that have been got together in the production department are then placed into molds in the fusion glass furnaces after the necessary staining are done and the furnaces are made ready in order to perform thermal processing. All the Works taht have been carried out in the production are hand made and all the staining is carried out between two glasses. After 800 C thermal processing is applied, since the fusion glass furnace is kept for cooling, tension of the glass product has been taken and it is more resisting in comparison to normal flat glass. 4-) For souvenir industry, plastic drop process is applied into the products . Plastic drop is poured on photographs by labeling the which are demanded with the drop label tecnique and the photographs has been protected between the label and the drop. All kind of design, figure and logo are able to be applied on the glass with this tecnique. Domestic and Foreign Market Situation Of Zumrut Art of Glass Domestic market has 60% share and foreign market has 40% in total. Many of products which are manufactured in fused (fusing) glass tecnique are sold in Antalya, Fethiye, Bodrum, Marmaris, Kusadasi, Izmir, Ankara, Ġstanbul in Turkey with different points. The companys‘ exports markets consists of 15% of USA, 75% of EU and %10 others. 2 million pieces of products are manufactured and sold in both foreign and domestic market every year. The most popular products are magnets which are very easy to pack and hold, sugar plates which reflect the culture of the location, tea sets with different figures, mini vase and wall decoration gifts. Discussion 665 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Devoloping countries, especially nowadays, try to continue their development process with different methods. Some of them are transfering capital from agricultural to industrial production, some of them are try to increase earnings from different industry. However, there is a hard competitiveness in all industry for all countries and this creates a hard situation for devoloping ones. That means developing countries should find new methods which can be a competitive to continue their development process by using their rich and cheap labour force. Tourism is very important tool for development. Some of governments advertise their countries with different methods to increase the number of tourist arrivals. Some of them organize festivals, some of them give advertisements to TV programs to introduce their countries nature, the places for sight-seeing etc. Bosnia should also use methods to introduce its unique nature, touristic opportunies and historical background. Whether there is a little increasement in tourist arrivals, Bosnia Herzegovina with the share ‰4 from total from Europe that has %53,1 share from all international arrivals with 489,4 million tourists, Bosnian government should implement some policies to increase the share in the Europe. According to forecasting reports shows that tourist arrivals will continue to grow in Europe. In the light of this information, Bosnia can increase and take advantage of tourism sector if the government apply important policies into tourism industry for sustainable devolopment. Account deficit, unemployment and low income level constitue important economic problems in Bosnia. 1.708.000 persons are in the working age population and 226.000 persons are unemployed ( Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, 2009 ). Tourism oriented invesments to fusing glass tecniques in souvenir industry will not only help decrease of unemployement, but also contribute to increase of the export with its geographical advantages. Bosnia Herzegovina, which is located in the middle of Europe where the estimated tourist arrival number will be 717 million in 2020, can use the advantage of minumun cost investment into the craft industry, which will affect whole economy like a chain not only with retail shopping but also with export trade. References Eberle, B. (1997). Creative Glass Tecniques (pp. 15). Lark Books A division of Sterling Publishing Co. Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federal Office Of Statistics, (2009), Statistical Yearbook 2009. Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://www.fzs.ba/Statisticki%20godisnjak%202009.pdf Gordon, B. (1986). The souvenir: messenger of the extraordinary. Journal of Popular Culture, 20, 135–146. Gunce, E. (2003). Tourism and local attitudes in Girne, Northern Cyprus. Cities, 20(3), 181-195 Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hudman, L. E., & Hawkins, D. E. (1989). Tourism in contemporary society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Swanson, K. K., & Horridge, P.E. (2006). Travel motivations as souvenir purchase indicators. Tourism Management, 27, 671-683 Torrent, R. R.-I-., (2008). Sustainable development in tourism municipalities: The role of public goods. Tourism Management, 29, 883-897 Turner, L. W., & Reisinger, Y. (2001). Shopping satisfaction for domestic tourist. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 8, 15-27 UNESCO, (2007). Handicrafts and Employment Generation for the Poorest Youth and Women (pp. 03-50) . Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156772e.pdf United Nations Environment Programme, http:// www.unep.org World Tourism Organization. (2009). Tourism Highlights. Retrieved on April 6, 2010 from http://unwto.org/facts/eng/highlights.htm 666 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 306 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Manufacturing Technique in Glass Industry for Devoloping Countries: Fused Glass , “Zumrut Art Of Glass Model” and Its Applicability in Bosnia Herzegovina Economy Author Author ALBENİ, Mesut CAN, Muhlis Abstract A summary of the resource. Tourism industry plays an important role in the sustainable devolopment process of the countries. Giftware (souvenir,craft) sector also forms one of the important elements of tourism revenues.. However, finding same types of the products in many countries around the world is the signal that the sale of goods loose their competitivines and so, some innovations are needed. In this study, the contributions of new production techniques in glass industry, to which increasement of the export by taking the advantage of niche market and reducement of the unemployement, are examined for tourism oriented souvenir industry. The "Glass Fusion Technique" is discussed in order to concretize the purpose of this study with ―Zumrut Art of Glass‖ model and the possibilty of application into Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b4ae4ab91c7c0ff32aa04f18a1dc2e09.pdf 02ae83fccd0afcca85ee5c5cc5265e95 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ambiguity in Foreign Language Acquisition and Role of Language Aptitude Alma JeftiĤ Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences International University of Sarajevo ajeftic@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of cognitive theories important for foreign language acquisition and to emphasize the role of language aptitude for foreign language comprehension. Language comprehension is a specific example of the perceptual processes, and the same principles that emerge in perception also play important role in language. Ambiguity resolution is a key component of language comprehension, and it is similar to ambiguity in perceptual processes. According to CANAL-FT cognitive theory of foreign language acquisition, one of the central abilities required for foreign language acquisition is the ability to cope with novelty and ambiguity. This ability will be explained as a part of the experiential aspect of intelligence, based on Sternberg‘s triarchic theory of human intelligence. Novel tasks or situations serve as good measures of intellectual ability and more intelligent individuals move from consciously learning in a novel situation to automating the new learning. Applied to classroom environment, this theory predicts that language aptitude is kind of information processing and developing expertize, rather than an entity fixed at birth. Language aptitude training should increase language performance and lead to ambiguity resolution. Key Words: language acquisition, ambiguity resolution, CANAL-FT, triarchic theory, language aptitude training Introduction The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of cognitive theories important for foreign language acquisition and to emphasize the role of language aptitude for foreign language comprehension. Also, the purpose and importance of statistical language mechanisms will be concidered through analysis of contemporary researches. Language comprehension is a specific example of the perceptual processes, and the same principles that emerge in perception also play important role in language. Ambiguity resolution is a key component of language comprehension, and it is similar to ambiguity in perceptual processes. According to CANAL-FT cognitive theory of foreign language acquisition, one of the central abilities required for foreign language acquisition is the ability to cope with novelty and ambiguity. This ability will be explained as a part of the experiential aspect of intelligence, based on Sternberg‘s triarchic theory of human intelligence. Novel tasks or situations serve as good measures of intellectual ability and more intelligent individuals move from consciously learning in a novel situation to automating the new learning. Applied to classroom environment, this theory predicts that language aptitude is kind of information processing and developing expertize, rather than an entity fixed at birth. Language aptitude training should increase language performance and lead to ambiguity resolution. The constrained statistical learning framework suggests that learning is central to language acquisition, and that the specific nature of language learning explains similarities across languages. The crucial point is that learning is constrained and learners are not open-minded, and calculate some statistics more readily than others. Human learning mechanisms, such as statistical mechanisms, may themselves have played a prominent role in shaping the structure of human languages. Method of the Study This study is designed in qualitative research approach in which literature review method has been chosen. The main reason why this method has been chosen is that the overview of contemporary theories should be provided as well as the results of recent researches on language acquisition. Moreover, this study does not 91 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo attempt to generalize the results but aims to obtain deeper understanding of cognitive theories of foreign language acquisition and its application to classroom environment. Findings and Discussion Language Comprehension as Perceptual Process According to Galasso, acquisition is a sub-conscious process identical in all important ways to the process children use in acquiring their first language, while Learning is a conscious process that results in knowing about language (Galasso, 2002). The theories regarding second language acquisition are quite debatable, especially because of the distinction that has been drawn by Stephen Krashen in respect to the difference between second language acquisition and learning (Krashen, 1982). Thus, second language acquisition is the process by which children unconsciously acquire their native language, while learning stands for the ―conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them‖ (Krashen, 1982, 69). First theory about second language learning states that the principles of the Universal Grammar count only during the critical period, after which other learning mechanisms, not specific to first language acquisition, operate in the process of second language learning (Krashen, 1982). A second theory proposes that second language is acquired on the same universal innate principles that govern first language acquisition, which is why we may find the same stages of development, although the second language grammar is not completely acquired due to nonlinguistic factors that influence it (Krashen, 1982). Language comprehension is a specific case of percpetual processes, since the similar stages that occur in perception also occur in language. Perceptual system resolves the ambiguities inherent in a two-dimensional representation by making assumption about the way objects in the world usually look (Willingham, 2007, 68). Top-down and bottom-up processes, present in preception, also play a certain role in language processing. Also, McGurk's effect, as well as categorical perceptions demonstrates connection between perceptual and language processing. McGurk effect is showing that both visual and auditory information are used in phoneme perception, whilst categorical perception refers to the fact that people do not perceive slight variations in how phonemes are pronounced (Willingham, 2007, 507). Phonemes can vary along certain dimensions with no costs in their perceivability. Given the close relationship between second language acquisition and other areas of inquiry, there are numerous approaches from which to examine second language data, each of which brings to the study of second language acquisition its own goals, its own data-collection methods, and its own analytic tools (Gass, 1994). Therefore, second language acquisition is truly an interdisciplinary field. Ambiguity Resolution and CANAL-FT Since psychologists have observed that people vary in their ability to learn foreign language, they have tried to formulate theories and design tests of foreign language learning abilities (Grigorenko et al, 2000). Tests can help psychologists and educators know to whom to devote what levels and what kinds of resources, be able to predict success in language learning instruction, and be able to compare actual achievement with the achievement one might expect on the basis of foreign language learning ability (Grigorenko et al, 2000). There are several tests that are used to measure foreign language learning ability: - Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT; Carroll & Sapon, 1958) – measures phonetic cooding ability, grammatical sensitivity, memory, and inductive language learning; - Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB, Pimsleur, 1966) – measures the ability to infer language structure from artificial language stimuli; - Army Language Aptitude Test (ALAT, Horne, 1971) – predicts learner success, particularly in learning to speak and read Westen Indo-European languages; - Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB, Petersen & Al-Haik, 1976) - measures the ability to infer language structure from artificial language stimuli; 92 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - VORD (Parry & Child, 1990) – tests the ability to cope with grammar systems similar to that of Turkic languages. These tests have been generally effective in predicting foreign language abilities and success. But, when foreign language aptitude and intelligence tests are used together as predictors of foreign language learning success, results always reveal significant correlations between the two kinds of tests (Gardner & Lambert, 1965; Weche, Edwards & Wells, 1982). The hypothesis that intelligence and aptitude might play a different roles in foreign language learning has been investigated within longitudinal framework (Lett & O‘Mara, 1990; Skehan, 1989). The Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language Test represents the possible instantiation of a cognitive theory of foreign language acquisition that stresses the role of coping with novelty in such acquisition (Grigorenko et al, 2000). The CANAL-F theory holds that one of the central abilities required for foreign language acquisition is the ability to cope with novelty and ambiguity which is a part of the experiential aspect of intelligence described by the triarchic theory of human intelligence (Sternberg, 1985, 1988, 1997). Novelty and Ambiguity in Sternberg‘s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Sternberg‘s triarchic theory of intelligence includes three facets or subtheories: analytical (componential), creative (experiential) and practical (contextual) (Sternberg, 1985). Creative or experiential dimension examines how people approach new and unfamiliar tasks. This is also insightful dimension to a person‘s intelligence. It can be further divided into two categories: novelty (how a person reacts with a first exposure to a new scenario), and automatization (how a person handels repeated tasks, or practice) (Sternberg, 1987). In its application to foreign language learning, several knowledge acquisition processes specifying CANAL-F theory are Present: - selective encoding – how to distinguish between more and less relevant information; - accidental encoding – how to encode secondary or background information: - selective comparison – how to determine the relevance of old information for current tasks; - selective transfer – how to apply decoded or inferred rules to new contexts and tasks; - selective combination – how to synthetize the disparate pieces of information that have been collected via selective and accidental encoding and modify the learner‘s existing schemata. (Grigorenko et al, 2000) In foreign learning, the abovementioned five knowledge acquisition processes operate at four levels: - the lexical level deals with one‘s learning, understanding and use of words; - the morphological level deals woth the words‘ structures and derivations; - the semantic level deals with one‘s understanding and use of the meaning of the words; - the syntactic level deals with one‘s learning, understanding and use of the grammatical principles. (Grigorenko et al, 2000) These four levels of knowledge acquisition operates in two models of input and output: visual and oral mode. The former predominates in reading and writing, while the letter is involved in listening and speaking. CANAL-F theory suggests that language aptitude is based on expertize in certain kinds of information processing that, like any other kind of expertize, can be developed (Sternberg, 1988). Therefore, language aptitude is a form of developing expertizes rather than an entity fixed at birth (Grigorenko et al, 2000). On the ground of that, language aptitude training should increase language performance and lead to ambiguity resolution. Mechanisms of Statistical Language Learning Can learning-oriented theories also account for the existence of language universals? The constrained statistical learning framework suggests that learning is central to language acquisition, and that the specific 93 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo nature of language learning explains similarities across languages. The crucial point is that learning is constrained and learners are not open-minded, and calculate some statistics more readily than others. Of particular interest are those constraints on learning that correspond to cross-linguistic similarities (Newport & Aslin, 2000). According to this framework, the similarities across languages are indeed nonaccidental, as suggested by the Chomskian framework, but they are not the result of innate linguistic knowledge. Instead, human languages have been shaped by human learning mechanisms (Saffran, 2003). If human languages have been shaped by constraints on human learning mechanisms, it seems likely that these mechanisms and their constraints were not tailored solely for language acquisition. Instead, learning in nonlinguistic domains should be similarly constrained. Learning mechanisms not specifically designed for language learning might have shaped the structure of human languages. Results of Saffran's study suggests that human language learners posses powerful statistical learning capacities (Saffran 2003). By investigating how infants weight statistical cues relative to other cues to word segmentation early in life scientists have found ways in which statistical learning may help infans to determine the relevance of the many cues inherent in language input, as well as to discover how infants in bilingual environments cope with multiple sets of statistics. Researches disagree about when learning is best described as statistically based as opposed to rule based, and about whether learning can still be concidered statistical when the input to learning is abstract (Saffran, 2002). Although the answer to this question remains unknown, it is possible that a combination of inherent constraints on the types of patterns acquired by learners, and the use of output from one level of learning as input to the next, may help to explain why something so complex is mastered readily by the human mind (Saffran, 2003). Therefore, human learning mechanisms may themselves have played a prominent role in shaping the structure of human languages. Conclusions and Recommendations In this study, the clear overview of current cognitive theories as well as ability measures of foreign language ability was provided. There is no clear distinction on which test is the most applicable, since it depends on the purpose of each research. The main contribution of this paper is that it provides an overview of contemporary ideas on foreign language learning mechanisms with regard to psychological methods. Novelty resolution as one of the concepts of Sternberg‘s experiential facet plays a big role in foreign language acquisition. The main reccommendations of this papert for further analysis include the impact of language aptitude on language acquisition and use of different leraning methods, especcially statistical language learning mechanisms. According to Chomsky, children are able to learn the superficial grammar of a particular language because all intelligible languages are founded on a deep structure of grammatical rules that are universal and that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. Therefore, stages in the acquisition of a native language can be measured by the increasing complexity and originality of a child‘s utterances. People learning a second language pass through some of the same stages, including overgeneralization, as do children learning their native language. But, people rarely become as fluent in a second language as in their native tongue. Most traditional methods for second language acquisition involve some systematic approach to the analysis of grammar as well as to the memorization of vocabulary. The cognitive approach described in this paper emphasizes extemporaneous conversation, immersion, aptitude growth and development, intelligence and techniques intended to stimulate the environment in which most people acquire their native language as children. 94 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Galasso, J. (2002). Interference in second language learning: A review of fundamental difference hypothesis, Northridge: California State University. Gardner, R.C. &Lambert, W.E. (1965). Language aptitude, intelligence and second-language achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 191-199. Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (1994). Second language acquisition: An introductory course, Hillsdale, New Yersey, Hove and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Grigorenko, E.L., Sternber, R.J. & Ehrman, M.E. (200). A theory-based approach to the measurement of foreign language ability: the Canal-F Theory and Test. The Modern Journal, No. 3, Vol. 84, 390-405. Krashen, S. (1982). Second language acquisition and second language learning, South California: Pergamon Press Inc. Lett, J.A. & O‘Marra, F.E. (1990). Predictors of success in an intensive foreign language learning context: correlates of language learning at the Defence Language Institute Foreign Language Center. In T. Parry & C.W. Stansfield (Eds.), Language Aptitude Reconcidered (222-260), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Saffran, J.R. (2002). Constraints on statistical language learning. Journal on Memory and Language, 47, 172196. Saffran, J.R. (2003). Statistical language learning: mechanism and constraints. Current Directions in Psychological Science, No. 4, Vol. 12, 110-114. Skehan, P. (1990). The relationship between native and foreign language learning ability: Educational and linguistic factors. In H. Dechert (Ed.), Current trends in European second language acquisition research (83106), Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human abilities, New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned in context. In M. McKeown (Ed), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (89-105), Hillsdale, NY: Erlbaum. Sternberg, R.J. (1988). The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence, New York: Viking. Wesche, M., Edwards, H. & Wells, W. (1982). Foreign language aptitude and intelligence. Applied Psycholiguistics, 3, 127-140. Willingham, D. (2007). Cognition the Thinking Animal, (third edition), London: Pearson Edition. 95 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 17 Title A name given to the resource Ambiguity in Foreign Language Acquisition and Role of Language Aptitude Author Author Jeftić, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of cognitive theories important for foreign language acquisition and to emphasize the role of language aptitude for foreign language comprehension. Language comprehension is a specific example of the perceptual processes, and the same principles that emerge in perception also play important role in language. Ambiguity resolution is a key component of language comprehension, and it is similar to ambiguity in perceptual processes. According to CANAL-FT cognitive theory of foreign language acquisition, one of the central abilities required for foreign language acquisition is the ability to cope with novelty and ambiguity. This ability will be explained as a part of the experiential aspect of intelligence, based on Sternberg‘s triarchic theory of human intelligence. Novel tasks or situations serve as good measures of intellectual ability and more intelligent individuals move from consciously learning in a novel situation to automating the new learning. Applied to classroom environment, this theory predicts that language aptitude is kind of information processing and developing expertize, rather than an entity fixed at birth. Language aptitude training should increase language performance and lead to ambiguity resolution. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics