23 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a34c298042a03cdf153e30b36f8a874a.pdf b3fc2dcc29c88097dcb212922e0869e2 PDF Text Text Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in Higher Education Oktay Yagiz English Teaching Department Ataturk University Turkey oktayyagiz@hotmail.com Kemalettin YIGITER English Teaching Department Ataturk University Turkey yigiter@atauni.edu.tr Gencay Genc English Language and Literature Cyprus International University ggencay@hotmail.com Abstract: Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses, dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking, learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments. Introduction As a truly international phenomenon English appears overwhelmingly the language of research and publication as well as language of instruction. With this tremendous expansion, there is a parallel growth in the understanding and preparation of non-native English speakers of dissemination of academic knowledge and scholarly findings in higher education. Disciplinary writing for academic achievement is of vital importance (Benfield, 2007; Benfield & Feak, 2006; Coates et al., 2002) and academic writing in English at advanced level is a challenge for both native and nonnative English speakers. University students are inducted into a particular discipline through lectures, discussions, readings; and achievement of their academic performance is most commonly evaluated through their written assignments. However, when these students embark on graduate studies, writing becomes more complex, demanding and challenging. As the number of the universities (68 state and 25 private institutions; YÖK, 2003), is increasing, serious academic expectations and requirements concurrently come to the existence including within the reference of scientific output. However, the debates concerned ostensibly confine to quantity but not quality matters. Most of the above mentioned universities have English language related departments, the educational language of some are 80 �English, and finally almost all of the disciplines require their members to write in English prominently, journal article, book review, thesis and dissertation. It is imperative to write in English, as an example, in that Social Citation Index journals do not enfold Turkish journals. Almost no studies in literature have been focused on Turkish EFL graduate students’ writing processes, writing needs and challenges. To the contribute to this lacking field, this study investigated Turkish graduate students’ English writing approaches and their difficulties that often affect their academic achievement. In particular, this study explores how these students approach their academic requirements and expectations in terms of producing academic text such as research paper, proposal, thesis and dissertation, how they compose these texts, and how they feel about the writing experience. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments, and how Turkish EFL graduate students approach to writing, their strategies and their discursive and affective difficulties and challenges were explored. Background Given that the major language for the dissemination of academic knowledge, and going further, as the very language for the communication of research findings, English plays a crucial role for students, who must gain fluency in the conventions of English language academic discourses to understand their disciplines and to successfully survive in the academia. The growth of English as the leading language for the dissemination of academic knowledge has had a major impact around the world, binding the careers of thousands of scholars to their competence in a foreign language and elevating this competence to a professional imperative. (Hyland & HampLyons, 2002, p.2). This growth has inevitably been at the expense of other languages so that now more than 90 per cent of the journal literature in many scientific domains is printed in English and the most prestigious and cited journals are in English (Hyland, 2006; p. 24). Therefore, for most tertiary level students in many countries, mastering the right English with proficiency in a certain discipline has become a matter of great urgency including the native speakers of English. In fact, there appears little surprise to see this need even among native speakers of English considering the institutions’ expectations as the international norms (Hyland, Hamp-Lyons, 2002). Hinkel (2004) alludes to the power of ability to use language efficiently and accurately stating that no matter the writer has supposedly a remarkable idea there will not be any outcomes if the language is not salient and synthesized in an organized way. With globalization and marketisation of the academy in an increasingly competitive and intermingled world, the number of nonnative English speakers (NNES) students in tertiary institutes has increased not only in developed countries but also in periphery countries. For the last a few years, due to economic growth and social demands, Turkey has witnessed serious debates pertaining to higher education. As the student population has become outnumbered and diverse in the field of EFL/ESL in accordance with different linguistic and educational backgrounds, learning needs of students attract particular attention. In this context, diversity has of considerable importance. Marked challenges reside in this distinctiveness of disciplinary communication for students, in that; such disciplines displaying steady change and development requires students to learn to master so as to succeed (Hyland, 2006). The professional and institutional expectations and requirements of academics are in line with developed English-language-speaking countries sharing the same roles and tasks. Yet, writing an academic paper in English for a non-native speaker of English, undeniably, having some disadvantages will be more difficult and time consuming than a native speaker. Ferguson (2007) asserts that linguistic factors represent a noticeable obstacle to negotiate in academia. Meyer (2008) further emphasized the distinction between non-native English speakers who have spent time in an English-speaking country and/or members of prestigious, internationally known research groups in their home countries, and, on the other hand, being a non-native English speaking academic in a not developed country where English is not used as the native language, or having not a chance work and conduct research under supervision or mentoring of renowned NNES scholars or native English speakers (NES) expatriates, or being NNES scholars who have never left their home country. He, thus, closely correlates both discursive (language related) and non-discursive (non-language related) factors. Bereiter and Scardamalia’s examination of writing process that distinguishes two types of writing that is knowledge telling and knowledge transforming gives more about academic language proficiency (1989). The 81 �Bereiter and Scardamalia model of writing addresses a more psychologically complex type of writing that they called knowledge transforming. It consists of thinking about an issue, obtaining the information needed for definition, analysis and modifying one’s thinking (Hinkel, 2004). This form of writing leads writers to expand their schematic knowledge, and develop new knowledge by processing new information taken for the purpose of writing on a topic. Therefore, advanced cognitive and information-processing tasks entail transforming and demonstrating knowledge in writing place, and it might jeopardize L2 writers’ achievement of writing. At this point, language has always been a matter of significance to scholars no matter they are novice researchers or experienced academics, since it is the basis of consciousness, thinking and interaction. Therefore, the ‘right’ language reveals that a writer is a member of their community towards the audience. The concept of community draws attention to the fact that we use language to communicate with other members of social groups each of whom has own conventions and norms as well as communicate with the world generally. As for the influence of emotions on the ways in which students interpret, approach and experience the new learning tasks, EFL writers’ feelings have significant effect on students’ academic writing. When adult graduate EFL students are required to skillfully and productively write about scientific topics under stressful timed or testing situations negative affective reactions become remarkably observable. Thus, many EFL writers demonstrate enhanced writing anxiety, fear of evaluation, writer’s block, lack of motivation, and writing procrastination. Conversely, these students may display positive emotional reactions such as excitement, enthusiasm, satisfaction when they perform successful writing. Both types of feelings affect students’ cognitive processes in L2 academic writing development. That is why, L2 learners’ emotional mechanism in learning to write academic English, their psychological efforts to cope with the stress of performing to write academically appear to be important. Pomfret and Medford’s assertion , hereby, catches attention: “Academic success is not merely a matter of studying, hard work, and attendance. Emotions can interfere with academic performance. These kinds of impediments are not usually evident to teachers; thus making the process of working with students in the classroom that much more difficult” (2005, p.339). Method Interviews To have a deeper understanding of the participants’ writing strategies and processes in line with describing and interpreting their feelings, perceptions and experiences of these graduate Turkish EFL graduate students while writing academic texts in their own voice, semi-structured interview was used. As a powerful tool to provide insights in educational issues through understanding the approaches and processes of the individual interviews were employed in the current study. Interviewing can take indifferent formats and the most common one appears individual face to face verbal interchange In each interview the participants were posed the questions listed below. Interview Questions What do you attach particular importance in your academic paper? What are your feelings (e.g. motivational problems, anxiety, procrastination, writing apprehension) and beliefs when you are to write an academic text (e.g. conference proposal, research paper or thesis/dissertation?) What are the prominent difficulties and needs considering the academic expectations and requirements in your graduate studies?(publishing, paper presenting, thesis/dissertation writing) What language based points do you have particular difficulties and need to pay extra attention? In addition to the questions, in the course of the conversation, spontaneous follow-up questions relevant to interviewees’ responses also occurred. The questions were in English and they asked them to feel free while speaking. Thus, in some part of the interviews, the interviewees preferred to speak in English. Their responses in L1 were then translated into English. Prior to the each interview their permission were taken and they were given the general nature of the research study. Then each interviewee was asked whether they had any questions or concerns before we got started. Following this procedure, each participant signed a letter of consent to participate in the study All the interviews were tape-recorded, then transcribed and coded categories. During the interviews taking brief notes also helped us with the data analysis. Participants 82 �As for the criteria for selecting participants for interviews, three prominent sets of criteria were set forth: first, all of the interviewees had to pursuing the same academic degree ( i.e. doctoral students), working in the same discipline (i.e. English language teaching and learning) and have had some writing experiences including writing conference proposal, attempting to write research article for publishing (whether their manuscripts hade been published or not was ignored) and writing thesis or dissertation. However, they might be at the different stages of their degree studies. For instance, some of them were in their second year or beyond of doctoral studies, others were either on the verge of finishing or had just finished their doctoral studies. All of them had their master degree having a thesis writing experience. At the very outset of the design of the qualitative phase of the study, though some master students were invited to participate in the interviewing, the further period of the study required to exclude the master students’ participation It was considered that the more experienced they were in writing in the academia, the more they could provide the study with deeper insights as for the writing processes and difficulties. Selecting participants at the similar stages provided the study with relatively fair comparisons and generalizations. Therefore, only doctoral students were included in the interview part of the study. Nevertheless, the gender difference was not taken into consideration for sampling the interviews since the comparing differences or possible language use tendencies and preferences or particular challenges and needs between males and females were not the purpose of the current study. The four general themes that 8 interviewees touched in the study with some extracts are given below, pseudonyms for the participants were only provided. What was the same feature of all interviewees is that none of them have taken academic writing course throughout their tertiary level education. When they were undergraduate students, their writing classes did not include formal academic writing both in L1 and L2. Students’ Remarks about Constructing Their Academic Text Each interviewee was asked how they write academic text according to the disciplinary rules and conventions, and what they mostly attached importance while writing, at both macro and micro levels. Participants initially saw writing as an important tool to produce original ideas, generally emphasized originality and creativity stating that main idea and the topic which might be useful in their field would be the most important feature. They highlighted that even if they, according to them, were not so competent in writing as novice writers, and they may somewhat dislike writing they had to gain the ability to construct new knowledge and show themselves according to the norms of their disciplines. The fundamental compensation towards this demanding and often difficult process is to be able to create new ideas and contribute to their fields. The following extracts from the view of an interviewee exemplifies the relevant idea about the nature scientific writing. Below Matrix (pseudonym) points out: … What is more important to me is the original idea and if the writer’s ideas can contribute to the field. The language related issues are most probably manageable. If your study does not serve to your field and original and inspiring then your graduate studies means nothing, because it is not scientific to me… In accordance with Matrix assumptions, Ufuk’s view attracts attention. Thus she states that “I don’t want to study what others have already studied, at least from their findings I want to do something new and original.” When they insisted on the originality of the topic, the flow of the conversation passed into the integration of writers’ own knowledge and others’ ideas. As mentioned earlier, academic writing consists of thinking about an issue, obtaining the information needed for definition, analysis and modifying one’s thinking. What was significant that the integration of the self knowledge with others’ knowledge was directly connected to the issue of citation rules and the ethical dimension of writing in higher education particularly the concept of plagiarism. All the participants’ agreed on the sensitivity towards plagiarism. The following extract summarizes the common point of view of the interviewees. Serdar: We should as a researcher, we should respect for the others ideas and efforts, and we should cite them… I regard plagiarism as a crime, a serious crime in terms of academic studies. I am quite respectful of others’ thoughts and I do not copy their ideas, I just benefit from their ideas and cite the author… I care about it because it is quite a sensitive topic, you should avoid it… Ufuk: Ethics and giving credit to the studies that I use is also another part that I am highly sensitive about. Yigit: …I want to underline that it is a serious and important issue, unfortunately in our country ethical sensitivity is not given to the students from earlier period, and the current situation is quite bad in the universities, even in higher 83 �education. Also I believe that integration of the ideas only in terms of citation rules is not so simple. It means more than APA guide… However, as for the obtaining this academic literacy in other words, going beyond from knowledge transferring to knowledge transforming, each interviewee indicated that they had never taken explicit instruction or made practice about the motivation of knowledge transforming and citation rules. In the course of the each interviewee they pointed out they had never taken academic writing course, participated or made detailed practice with any experienced academics. In contrast they inevitably try to acquire this necessary ability by their own efforts, without getting any feedback and practice but in their own academic texts, i.e. in their research proposals, research studies or theses/dissertations manuscripts, they could only assess their achievement at the very final stage receiving the response from the advisors, referees or the jury, “it is accepted or rejected”. Thus, Dolphin’s view appears to be important: …While writing, I have many times I examined the articles on my own and tried to replicate what I have seen… Organizational concern is another issue that mostly interviewees underlined. While they want to put forward original ideas and constructing new knowledge, they at the same time tend to pay attention to the organization and unity of the text. Their common concern appears to be building a coherent text. As coherence is the implicit and quite abstract links in a text, they stated that they tend to use transitional devices as much as they can. Ufuk’s statement exemplifies this emphasis: I pay a great deal of attention to the format, coherency and organization. It is really important to me if what I am saying makes sense to the reader, or if the reader can see what I suggest. I also like creating clear links and transitions among my thoughts… But all of the interviewees had agreed on they knew little about logical sequencing or clear progression of the ideas. Thus, in the following extracts Yigit and Alex summarize the common perception: Yigit: We have always read in the books while I was an undergraduate student in writing books and the writing guidebooks now in my graduate studies that I must provide coherence, I should use cohesive devices. But I have never been taught about these concepts and taken some recommendations from professional academics or writers. It has remained at surface level. Still, I am doing my best and paying attention to this issue… Aex: I think there is a close relationship between form and meaning and this relationship is an arbitrary relationship between form and meaning which is inseparable. In our academic studies, to me, we cannot focus on only form or merely meaning. Certainly both of them must be integrated… As for the writing process, most interviewees indicated their approach to revising their texts both directly and implicitly. Besides, the changes that these writers make remain at minor level. When they were asked their revision strategy most of the interviewees, most of them regard revision as having their texts proof read or editing on their own. They generally do not prefer rewriting and revising. The extract from Alex’s transcription illustrates this situation Alex: I believe that a text should be read and read again and at the end of the writing the whole text should be examined more than once but not by yourself, someone else who is known as good in the field. Because you probably miss some points and cannot see your errors. And I make some corrections in the text such as grammatical rules, citation rules or punctuation. Though they believed that revision is an important phase of writing they tend to do it at minor level and this process is largely disliked. Baris’s statement can be attributed to the overall participants’ views about revision: …when I am to finish the work, I don’t like last revisions much… Graduate academic writers’ feelings and their affective difficulties when they write and their needs during their graduate studies. Interviewees’ affective difficulties including motivational problems, anxiety, writing procrastination and their psychological perspectives were explored. At the very outset of the interview Serdar’s assumptions deserve particular attention: I think while writing an academic paper such as proposal, thesis or research article the major problem is motivation. It is one of the biggest issues in the modern world of academia today. The level of your motivation is quite important in our stressful years of graduate studies. For example, I am quite a sensitive person and I am easily affected by any kind of treatment, behavior even eye contact though I work hard and read many books or articles, anything in my field. I sometimes feel that I do not know anything about my field, applied linguistics to say or write. It is a great obstacle for a researcher. It is not totally related to my feelings, emotions my inner world. It is also related to my environment you should be supported by your environment colleagues, advisors and lecturer in order to minimize this obstacle. We, the researchers, should be encouraged and motivated by the others especially our experienced instructors and supervisors… 84 �In the course of the interviews though seemingly they did not want to explicitly state that they were not satisfied with the current advisor-advisee relationship, and the graduate students tend to need more encouragement and guidance by the other academics. Yigit could share his comment about his mood: They always tell us write articles and make them publish, send a proposal to present for the x conference, I expect a good thesis, it should be something and it should not be something. But no one teach us how to be able to write a paper, a proposal or construct a good thesis or dissertation. And sometimes even their expectations turn into lower than they give to us, that is worse, I think. The participants, the graduate students, also mentioned the issue of procrastination. Most of the interviewees tend to procrastinate their writing tasks. The extract taken from Baris’ statement exemplifies writers’ mood that can influence their writing performance: …I cannot use the days or weeks before the presentation of the papers effectively. On the other hand, when I feel that I might not complete my study before the deadline I get over-anxious and it makes me feel sick… Lack of motivation and burden of life appear to be their justification for delaying writing. When they were asked whether they were satisfied with their writing performance, they clearly indicated that they had no self confidence about their product’s desirability. They appeared not to have a perfectionist approach towards what they produced rather they seem to have fear of evaluation, since they have no adequate experiences and have not taken guidance from others. Hasan’s perspective is relevant to fear of evaluation: If I have to be understood by the readers that is in order that my manuscript or thesis could be accepted I have to clear and coherent. The days while we are waiting for an answer and their, for example advisor, referee, committee are really tough. It makes me very nervous. It is our profession I have to be successful. However, one interviewee regarded his anxiety as a positive trait to concentrate on his writing task. He was very pleased with his anxious mood otherwise he thought he could fail in his graduate studies. Along with this, one of the two female participants pointed out that she did not experience high level of anxiety though she said she is not much comfortable since she studies what she is interested in and tries to create new knowledge or findings she feels excited. Discursive Difficulties that Graduate Students Encounter in Writing Process Appropriate use of the core words and the technical terms in academic discourse are good indicators of both professional or novice texts. Almost all of the interviewees centered their concern on the lexical difficulties. They frequently emphasized the mandatory of formal vocabulary use. However, the interviewees’ sensitivity to the formal and appropriate vocabulary and phrase use in their texts does not display direct proportion to correct and appropriate vocabulary use. The major reason of this low performance could be attributed to the answers that posed during the interview about how they tried to maximize the use of formal and appropriate lexical units in their texts were largely based on their personal efforts to learn these conventions focusing on the text from the books and articles they read. For example, their prominent strategy appear to focus on unfamiliar or unknown terms or phrases in an academic text. If these unfamiliar units can attract their attention, they look up a dictionary and learn; finally they try to use these terms and phrases in their own texts at the appropriate places of the discourse. The following statements of the interviewees can be given as examples for their perceptions of academic writing difficulties: Baris: One of the biggest problems is that I often feel that I use similar expressions in different parts of the paper. I also feel that I have to shorten my sentences. Sometimes I cannot be sure if there are good transitions across paragraphs. I feel I cannot express my thoughts directly and briefly enough. I know I have to read more… Yigit: I don’t believe that we write consciously and creatively with the integration of conventions. I think I don’t have serious problems about structure but to able to reach the formality in my text, I haven’t enough experiences and no guidance. Alex: To be able to use the right vocabulary at the right context is much more difficult than grammar. Familiarity with technical and correct vocabulary meanwhile affect their fluency of their text; that is why, their second problematic area in writing appears to be coherence and cohesion based issues. In fact, they have already indicated that they pay considerable attention to provide unity and transition between sentences and paragraphs. The term coherence is basically recognized implicitly and seen as a quite abstract concept, for EFL/ESL writers, it becomes more complicated and difficult. They were all aware that their texts had to be coherent, in other words there must be clear and smooth links between sentences and paragraphs. But they were not sure about how to make their text “well organized” or “logical sequenced”. Their initial strategy to maximize coherence in their text appears to employ cohesive devices, particularly, as observed, the initial elements were conjunctive adverbs (e.g. however, moreover and furthermore), and transition phrases (e.g. in addition, on the other hand and in contrast). 85 �Discussion The in-depth interviews aimed to explore graduate students’ strategies and their major difficulties both affective and discursive while constructing academic texts and thus capture a clearer scene of their experiences and perceptions. The findings of the current study saliently indicated that there is an overall lack of awareness and knowledge abut academic writing and its subtitles. This inadequacy also contributed to the participants’ general feelings of anxiety and lack of achievement in writing outcomes in their own disciplines. The participants’ L1 academic writing experiences seem to be correlated with their English academic English development. As one of the interviewees stated that students wrote essays in Turkish in a style (introductionbody-conclusion) that was rather different than English academic essay that currently they are required to write in their academic lives, and they were not taught any particular academic writing style or genre. The findings of this study supported the Cummin’s (1981) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency theory in the development of adult L2 learners’ academic writing. The results of the research studies can be quite related to current study, especially in terms of how the participants’’ L1 literacy exposure and experience influence the mastery of L2 academic language. Adult EFL/ESL learners’ positive or negative attitudes and approaches towards their native language can influence their attitudes, approach, and motivation while they are writing in a second language. Their attitudes are formed in the early periods of cultural and school experiences; ultimately an adult EFL/ESL student may transfer the attitudes into his/her academic English writing in both positive and negative ways. As Cummin (1981) in Interdependence Hypothesis asserts that “there is a basic cognitive/academic proficiency that is common across languages which allows the transfer of literacy –related skills across languages (cited in Kroll, 1990, p.95). Many Turkish students until embarking on their graduate studies appear not to have learned how to write systematically except being instructed to be grammatically correct and writing in certain number of paragraphs. Graduate students’ lack of awareness in a foreign language, English, can be attributed to the same reason. Given the graduate programs of many institutes do not include or require academic writing course, it will be seen that students know not much about the nature and the critical instruments of academic writing in certain styles and genres. This little schematic knowledge contributes to the assumption that the expectations of academic writing rules and conventions can be met by means of commercial proofreading and rewriting websites, and as two out of eight participants indicated, academic writing conventions are allegedly confined to the mechanical aspects editorial style in any ( e.g. APA and MLA) manual. These findings tend to support the premise which highlights the significance and influence of native language literacy skills in the development of second language writing and academic success. The study’s findings revealed that creating and organizing ideas to write in a text is the common concern of the graduate student writers. As they attach significant attention to create new knowledge they meanwhile confront organizing their ideas in a coherent and well-written way. The participants appeared to be much less worried about expressing their ideas in accurate English. The emphasis on structural accuracy in L1 is seen also in L2 in students’ educational background; therefore they appear to have self confidence to achieve linguistic correctness. To provide the right words in English to express ideas appropriately and accurately is a pervasive difficulty for many EFL/ESL writers due to partly L2 writers’ dependence on the translation of their native language into the English or cultural differences between two languages’ modes of expression. The EFL writers’ lack of English vocabulary in terms of formality, rhetoric and technical aspects is partly due to inadequate opportunity to develop a robust English lexicon through reading and writing activities. Though mastering surface-level aspects of English grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics is of considerable importance, writing at the academic level in a foreign language requires L2 writers to learn to think and write in new ways including knowledge transforming, voice and identity that may be quite unfamiliar and challenging. However, their awareness and experience due to lack of explicit instruction and affective reasons such as low self-confidence. Interviewees’ ethical sensitivity is seen to be quite high, they frequently mentioned the original and creative thought in their writings, In addition while using others’ ideas they highlighted the notion of correct citation. However, it is not clear enough whether their knowledge and experience about transforming others’ ideas and findings can discriminate the paraphrasing and patchwriting. As they have indicated they were not totally sure about the performance and quality of their outcome about using others’ ideas most probably due to lack of practice much about formal writing both in their native and English languages. That is why, originality and citation appear to be regarded merely around the manuals’ citation format. Fear of evaluation and procrastination seem to be the most common emotion among all the participants, particularly when they are anxious about receiving negative reactions to what they have written and under time pressure. The participants’ affective difficulties and negative feelings toward constructing academic text could be 86 �basically attributed to the motivational needs. In fact they indicated that motivation has an important place in their academic studies. However, they generally manifested lack of self confidence and fear of evaluation; 6 of the 8 interviewees exhibited this low self self-confidence at various levels. If they could be supported both explicitly and met their motivational needs in the axis of institution and supervision, they can be expected to achieve the mastery of academic English writing expectations. Among these adult EFL students, the study shows that motivation plays a crucial role in their English academic writing development. The majority of the participants were considerably motivated to learn to write within disciplinary conventions and norms. Although their intrinsic motivation in learning to write academic English appear quite low, they seem to recognize the practical need of learning academic writing for largely extrinsic reasons.. Their comments suggest that they are basically instrumentally motivated to learn to write academic English because of both benefit and mandatory that it eventually gains in their academic careers and they seem not intrinsically interested in learning to write academic English for its own sake. Gender did not reveal different response tendency among the participants, thus the participants ideas and their affective difficulties did not exhibit significant differences. However, what was important that, in line with Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis, the female student indicated that her anxiety affected her positively; in this case she thinks she can be more successful. A general writing challenge that makes all students concerned that putting their thoughts in good rhetoric, appropriate style and coherent way still need to be resolved . However, they seemed to be motivated to learn about academic writing being aware of their lack knowledge and experience. What was another positive result can be they all acknowledge that writing in their academic discipline is crucial for their survival in the academia and are eager to improve them. In this case, it is possible to strengthen their enthusiasm, minimize the current gap and enhance their achievement. Conclusion As English uninterruptedly expands as the leading language for dissemination of academic knowledge, the question of writing effectively and in expected ways causes considerable challenges to students requiring graduates to learn to master and so as to succeed in the academia. Yet, novice writers cannot be taught by only means of cautions and threats, but they should be socialized into disciplinary ways of writing so that they can more easily acquire discipline specific discourse concerned. Especially advisor-advisee relationship attracts serious attention for the graduate student to be able to take part in the community. Supportive attitudes towards the students can strengthen their self-esteem and confidence; moreover, it can help the students internalize their community. At language level, the enhanced awareness of scholarly writing leads novice writers to selections at the appropriate degree and phase. To achieve this awareness, explicit academic writing instruction both in L1 and L2 from early periods of education life should be integrated. More specifically, like the developed countries’ universities do, particularly North American universities, writing centers can assist students and academics about their discursive needs of writing and can encourage their efforts and thus enhance their self-confidence with professional support prior to their the evaluators ( i.e. course instructors, thesis advisors, or article referees). References Benfield, J. R., & Feak, C. (2006). How can authors cope with the burden of English as an international language? Chest, 129, 1728-1730. Benfield, J. R. (2007). Cardiothoracic surgeons divided by a common language. Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 84, 363-364. Bereiter, C.&Scardamalia, M (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In L.Resnick(Ed.), Knowing, Learning and Instruction (pp.361-391). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Coates, R. B., Sturgeon, B., Bohannan, J., & Pasini, E. (2002). Language and publication in cardiovascular research articles. Cardiovascular Research, 53(2), 279-285. Ferguson, G. (2007). The global spread of English, scientific communication and ESP: question of equity, Access and domain loss. IBÉRICA, 13, 7-38. 87 �Hinkel, E. (2004).Teaching Academic ESL writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers. Mahwah, New Jersey. Hyland, K. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002). EAP: issues and directions. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1, (1), 1–12. Hyland, K. (2006). English for Academic Purposes: An Advanced Resource Book. Routledge Taylor&Francis Group, New York. Meyer-Salager, F. (2008). Scientific Publishing in developing countries: Challenges for the future. English for Academic Purposes, 1,( 7), 121-132. Pomfret, M.P.& Medford, J.L. (2005) Affective domain: Journaling. In R. Seidel, K.C. Perencevich, A.L., Kett, From Principles of Learning to Strategies for Instruction. Springer Science+Media Inc. NY, USA. YÖK (2003) Türk Yüksek Öğretiminin Bugünkü Durumu (The Situation of Turkish Higher Education Today) http://www.yok.gov.tr/egitim/raporlar/mart2003/baslik.pdf. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 333 Title A name given to the resource Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in Higher Education Author Author Yagiz, Oktay YIGITER, Kemalettin Genc, Gencay Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses, dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking, learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05bd8d9bf6ed0aa513d6b80b74c8e707.pdf f51c2798275cc295ae67ade62ca34235 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Comparative Analysis of Economic and Social Performances of Transition Economies and the Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina1 Đbrahim Güran YUMUŞAK Asst. Prof., PhD. Kocaeli University Department of Economics iyumusak@kocaeli.edu.tr Mahmut BĐLEN Asst. Prof., PhD. Sakarya University Department of Economics mbilen@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 19891991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (human development, employment, poverty, etc.). This paper tries to analyze the level of human capital for Transition Economies by comparative methods. In order to analyze level of human capital for Transition Economies, we used the human development indexes. Transition economies progress in the transition process has different effects due to internal and external factors. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the nonincome dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Key Words: Human Capital, Human Development, Transition Economies, BosniaHerzegovina Introduction After the collapse of the Soviet, Countries belongs to the Socialist economic system has tried to change the production and trade forms of economy fundamentally from the socialist to open economy. These economies need to structure of property and the consumer and producer of behavior a well for change in the encounter. The countries economic structures defined as transition economy. The countries in the transition process get attention due to several reasons by the researchers. This study tries to analyze the transition characteristic of the economy of the South East European Countries’ human and social development levels, the human and social development and economic development relationship. Therefore, this study aims to compare the transition economies of the human development levels in comparison analysis. In this goal, transition economies of education rate, enrolment ratio, the average life expectancy and people per capita are used to reach human and social development index values of using the for analysis. Thus, the countries’ economic development human capital potential has been determined. Although, income shows economic development levels for countries, income, health and the quality of should be the taken into consideration on the basis of the examination. As we know that The United Nations Development Organization publishes every year in a Human Development index (Human Development INDEX-HDI) since 1990, this index not only shows the qualitative change but also in terms of quality that functions as a scale of an important indicator. This index covers economic performance, human and social development, the education and health indicators. This study proceed as follows: The first section gives the properties of transition economies, features economic performance and the relationship between the human and social development. The second section explains the human capital and the concept of human and social development index. The third section examines the transition economies’ levels in human and Social Development index. 1 This paper based on “The Comperative Analysis of Levels of Human Development Levels of Transition Economies” presented at the Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences Faculty and “The Comperative Analysis of Levels of Human Development of Middle Asia Turkish States And Turkey” II. International Social Scientists Congress, Bishkek, 22-24 October 2008. 414 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1. Transition Economies and Economic-Social Performance Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 1989-1991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (Tridico, 2005:1). After the collapse the bloc's Socialist in 1989, these countries has increased their effort to transforming economic systems. Countries are living this transition process from central plan economy to free market economy economic structures defined as “Transition Economy”. Even though these countries are classified in different group for several criteria, these countries classified as the geographical and their union categorical : Central and Eastern European Countries and the Baltic Countries (The Czech Republic, Poland, Lithuania, and others), South -East European Countries (Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and others) and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and others). 1.1. Economic-Social Performance Transition from central plan economy to free market economy is a tough process and fundamental reforms are required. Institutional structure with the social norms, the institutions which fails powers and values ties between should be transformed (Tridico, 2005:2). This transformation, transition economies the current economic problems increased problem and makes difficult transition. In the early 1990s, Central and Eastern European Countries and the Commonwealth of Independent States member of the countries in economic wreckage, poverty, have increased its income distribution changed and unemployment rates increased. In particular The Former Soviet Union countries of the people living life standards are getting worse. This situation in countries market economy transition process is lame and that it put faith in the adverse effect. New economic order and relations, the establishment of the development of perceptions of people depends on the changing. Transforming economy from the planned economy to the market economy involves many social costs. There are several reasons. These reasons are: there is no social security guarantees in market economy, it does not personal prosperity of the education and health services focus on economic productivity and competition, the budget deficit will decrease social services performed. Even though, the transition economies show different characteristics, they have some similar properties. The properties; some of the state administration with a relatively flexibility at a distance but is strong, public sector to be great, underdeveloped corporate infrastructure, the problem is poverty to be widely (UNDP, 2005a:16). In addition to these, due to the lack of infrastructure crime fed its height is that a bribe with problem also serious fundamental problems with is among them. These problems are important barriers for the development of the market economy. This claims to the contrary the countries in another feature, human capital and social the most important factor in the education of the infrastructure in the field of the very strong. The economy of Transition process the countries of the economic structures and the situations is significantly differ from the. The Baltic countries and among the Balkan countries, there are differences between Turk Republics and the Central European countries. Table 1: Transition Economies and Economic Performances USD Central Eastern Europe – The Baltic Commonwealth of Independent States South Eastern Europe States (CIS) Annual PPP Income Annual PPP Income Annual PPP Income (USD) Growth Rate (USD) Growth Rate (USD) Country Growth Rate Country Country 2005 2005 2005 (1990-2005) (1990-2005) (1990-2005) 3.2 22273 Macedonia -0.1 7200 -0.1 10845 Slovenia Russia 1.9 14494 Romania 1.6 9060 -2.4 6848 Lithuania Ukraine 3.6 13646 Bosnia-Herz. 12.7∗ 2546 2.2 7918 Latvia Belarus 4.2 15478 Bulgaria 1.5 9032 -3.5 2100 Estonia Moldova 4.3 13847 Albania 5.2 5316 0.2 3365 Poland Georgia 1.9 20538 4.4 4945 Czech Rep. Armenia 2.8 15871 2.0 7857 Slovakia Kazakhstan 2.6 13042 … 5016 Croatia Azerbaijan 3.1 17887 -6.8 3838 Hungary Turkmenistan 0.3 2063 Uzbekistan -1.3 1927 Kyrgyzstan -4.0 1356 Tajikistan Source: (UNDP, 2007b:277-80) ∗ Data refer to a period shorter than that specified. 415 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In addition to these differences, economies liberalize and privatization programs differences into account the given the countries that economic performance transit and was successfully programs resuming a limited similarities are observed It is therefore, the country assessments is not based on the individual country, assessments should based on grouped countries. Transition economies economic performances of the assessment is done in particular in Europe the countries involved growth and income per capita indicators compared to others is quite high that acceptable. Central and Eastern European Countries and the Baltic Countries’ per capita of income levels 13000-22000 USD (PPP) while between 1990 and 2005 between the years annual growth rate is between 1.9 - 4.3. In South East European countries per capita of the level of income 5000-9000 USD (PPP) and economic growth rate accept Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania, is quite low. In The Commonwealth of Independent States of the countries in the Russian to those who level of income 8000 USD (the PPP under the) while the average annual performances are growth distributed between -6.8 and 4.4. In this group, economic performances of the Turkish Republics are lowers than the others When we compare the transition economies with countries in low human infrastructure and low economic performance, due to social investments by the socialist regime, the human development level is relatively high. But economic crisis in the early 1990s, due to the low economic performance, human and social development has affected negatively. In particular, The Baltic countries and the Commonwealth of Independent States of death of countries increased rates of, the average life expectancy shortening, education and health investments for the slowdown causes. Kyrgyzstan's income, education and health indicators taken into consideration of the economic crisis effects more open to a trend. Meanwhile, in 1993, per capita in purchasing power 2330 USD decreased to USD 1850 in 1995. The average life expectancy with 67.3 years decreased to 66 years and enrolment ratio decreased from 66 to 63 percent (UNDP, 2000a:87). The indicators of human and social development came to their levels after 2000. From Ancient period’s philosopher to historian’s Ibn el Sina to the many intellectual made various assessments. But, the modern explanation of human development and UNDP Human Development Reports based on Amartya by the endurance work and the people to boost options as the process is defined (UNDP, 2007/8:22-23). A Long and a healthy life, information acquisition and a good standard of living the necessary conditions for the provision of the human and social development concept include four fundamental elements. Table 2: GDP and HDI for Transition Economies (1985-2002) GDP/HDI HDI Reduction GDP Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Reduction Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, BosniaHerzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro GDP Stable GDP Increase HDI Stable Tajikistan, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan HDI Increase Uzbekistan, Belarus, Turkmenistan Albania, Latvia, Croatia, Lithuania, Estonia, Slovakia Slovenia, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary Source: (Tridico, 2005:26-27) These are: people in economic preferences expand, from the point of economic efficiency capable of the event, the people against discrimination and to protect human development potential to use freely and equality of the present time, and the future capabilities offspring safe use of the sustainability was passing by and the capabilities of potential and that these drive development of capability (UNDP, 2007/8:22-24). The relationship between human development and economic performance is the very complex. Economic growth boost mad contribute the human development level. But the economic growth and the humanities would not occur at he same time. It is therefore transition countries’ economic performances and the human development relationship could not be explained for the entire same manner. The Countries economic performances and the human development performances are different. The most important reason is that difficulties order to change economic system and the effort includes social and economic costs. According to a study which covers 1985-2002 a Russia according to the, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro Serbia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan to both the income and the human development of the decline in the while the Albanian, Latvia, Lithuania, Croatia, Estonia and Slovakia humanities and social development levels also defended income levels increased. Tajikistan, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan in the humanities and social development levels stay the same and but the level of income declined (Tridico, 2005:26/27). According to the another study covering the years 1990-1997,16 countries human development levels of declined. The basic reasons for these are the economic recession and plague diseases (HIV/AIDS). The study 416 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo includes Belarus, Bulgaria, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan which have economies recession and human development levels are affected negatively (Mendoza, 2001:101). 1.2. Human Development Human development is about expanding the choices open to people to lead full and valuable lives. First articulated in the 1980’s, the approach provides a means of understanding ant tracking economic and social progress which is rooted in the real-world experiences of ordinary people. A company values of property not only the value of the assets but also the value of the employees’ information and skills level. Thus, the countries development level is not only measured by per capita income of citizens but also the information, knowledge, health level taking into consideration to evaluate. It Therefore, In order to measure and compare developed countries development level, we consider quantitative indicators and qualities indicators. Even though, there are different definitions of human capital represents the combination of ability of labor and individuals. Human capital covers, people information together with the skills, talent, attitude, reliability, commitment to, creativity, to share information at the request, become part of the team in organization to concentrate on goals (Abeysekera, 2004:253) Human capital not only covers knowledge, information and skills but also covers several features. These features are; technical information and talent; Education; Professional qualities of Employees; a community participation in the Professional; development; Entrepreneurship spirit, innovation, progressive, Training programs; racial, religious and competition; equality Flawed equality; employment security; Syndicate operating; number of Employees , properties and effectiveness (Abeysekera, 2004:259). Due to above difficulties to measure human capital and compare countries, we need to find a new a practical way. It is therefore, The United Nations Development Organization (UNDP), measure the development level by education, health and revenue data of the Human Development Index (HDI). This index formation gives information about the development level and human development level. Thus, it is the most important index. Certainly human development have several indicators but difficulties in measuring, the limited, limited number of indicator should be used. Political, cultural and economic freedoms, starting with the human rights of individuals, increase the efficiency and creativity alternatives to provide that contributes too many of the size of the human development based on three dimensions. If only three dimensions taken into consideration under a large number of variables may change the direction of study basic indicators may be ignored. The first dimension of human development index is measured by the long and healthy life, the average life expectancy. Life expectation is an indicator of health and nutrition in connection with a better life. If a country provides health and nutrition in good conditions to individuals, the average life expectancy there will be longer. The infant mortality rate is the most basic health indicator of the average life expectation. In particular, baby death rates are high in countries where the average life expectancy is very low to maintaining. The low rate of infant mortality rate shows high the average life expectation. The second dimension of human development index is information and education. This dimensions the most important and easily calculable indicators and measured. Education rate e be measured with countries in particular the comparisons when it comes to the wrong consequences to open. Enrolment ratio of adults with the rate of literacy is the same but the higher education levels of the different two country's education indicators in this measurement will be the same. But for all the countries and easy to check the education rate to the school and the countries of education level of measuring the indicators show hospitality The first dimension of human development index is necessary resources to have better life. There several difficulties to measure it. Thus, average income levels taken into account. In order to remove disparities between countries, per capita of GDP figures are used and marginal contribution are taken into consideration. Each of the countries, education and health indicators of certain calculations transferring 0 and 1 of value gathered after divide three and thus each country's index is calculated. This calculation, each of the indexes a points improvement in the middle of the same with the human development process marginal of the different effect on possible. For example, 0.1 point increase in the average life index contributes differently on 0.5 or 0.9, but the average will be the same finally. Moreover, in health index, 0.1 points contribute on average for income or education index, this change differently human development index. Despite the fact some difficulties, the human development index shows development level of countries and this still an important index. 1.3. Human Development Index Human capital is the most fundamental element of the economic development for Countries. Physical capital, technological development and natural resources in other such as presence of elements of the system has economic the functioning of the other of the key factors are among the others. But the human capital economic development of basic elements of the one of the as well as the other elements are producing and efficiently in the 417 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo exercise of a positive and of the effects. It is therefore countries human developments and social development of the capital's potential is very important as a factor is considered. In order to have an assessment for Transition Economies’ economic development according to only income levels take into consideration is not very meaningful happening. Because the countries market economy transition process is still ongoing and the level of income citizens’ welfare levels designation may inadequate. It is therefore of income, with levels of economic with the development of an important factor in the human development levels of development is also taken into account. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the non-income dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators (RuminskaZimny; 1997). Table 3: Human Development Index and Transition Economies (2007-8) Country Rank 1 Iceland 27 Slovenia 32 Czech Rep. 36 Hungary 37 Poland 42 Slovakia 43 Lithuania 44 Estonia 45 Latvia 47 Croatia 53 Bulgaria 60 Romania 64 Belarus 66 Bosnia & Hrz. 67 Russian Fed. 68 Albania 69 Macedonia 73 Kazakhstan 76 Ukraine 83 Armenia 96 Georgia 98 Azerbaijan 109 Turkmenistan 111 Moldova 113 Uzbekistan 116 Kyrgyzstan 122 Tajikistan 177 Sierra Leone Developing Count. WORLD Combined gross Adult enrolment Life literacy ratio for GDP per education capita Life expectanc rate y at birth (%) (PPP US$) expectancy Education (%) 2005 2005 2005 2005 index index 81.5 100 95.4 36510 0.941 0.978 77.4 99.7 94.3 22273 0.874 0.974 75.9 100 82.9 20538 0.849 0.936 72.9 100 89.3 17887 0.779 0.958 75.2 100 87.2 13847 0.836 0.952 74.2 100 78.3 15871 0.821 0.921 72.5 99.6 91.4 14494 0.792 0.965 71.2 99.8 92.4 15478 0.770 0.968 72.0 99.7 90.2 13646 0.784 0.961 75.3 98.1 73.5 13042 0.839 0.899 72.7 98.2 81.5 9032 0.795 0.926 71.9 97.3 76.8 9060 0.782 0.905 68.7 99.6 88.7 7918 0.728 0.956 74.5 96.7 69.0 7032 0.825 0.874 65.0 99.4 88.9 10845 0.667 0.956 76.2 98.7 68.6 5316 0.853 0.887 73.8 96.1 70.1 7200 0.814 0.875 65.9 99.5 93.8 7857 0.682 0.973 67.7 99.4 86.5 6848 0.711 0.948 71.7 99.4 70.8 4945 0.779 0.896 70.7 100 76.3 3365 0.761 0.914 67.1 98.8 67.1 5016 0.702 0.882 62.6 98.8 73.0 3838 0.627 0.903 68.4 99.1 69.7 2100 0.724 0.892 66.8 99* 73.8 2063 0.696 0.906 65.6 98.7 77.7 1927 0.676 0.917 66.3 99.5 70.8 1356 0.689 0.896 41.8 34.3 44.6 806 0.280 0.381 66.1 76.7 64.1 5282 0.685 0.725 68.1 78.6 67.8 9543 0.718 0.750 GDP index 0.985 0.902 0.889 0.866 0.823 0.846 0.831 0.842 0.821 0.813 0.752 0.752 0.730 0.710 0.782 0.663 0.714 0.728 0.705 0.651 0.587 0.653 0.609 0.508 0.505 0.494 0.435 0.348 0.662 0.761 GDP per Human capita rank Dev. Index minus HDR rank Value 0.968 4 0.917 4 0.891 2 0.874 2 0.870 11 0.863 -1 0.862 3 0.860 0 0.855 4 0.850 4 0.824 11 0.813 3 0.804 8 0.803 17 0.802 -9 0.801 30 0.801 11 0,794 1 0.788 9 0.775 20 0.755 24 0.746 4 0.713 5 0.708 25 0.702 25 0.696 29 0.673 32 0.336 -5 0.691 0.743 - Sources: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) Transition Economies of the human development index of the indicators and orders are shown in Table. This table shows that during the 2007-2008 index indicators the high value and alignment of the country is Slovenia in 2005. After Slovenia, Central Europe and the Baltic countries follow: Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Croatia. Human development index in the area of Transition Economies are second places: Bulgaria, Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania and Macedonia. The Commonwealth of Independent States group of the transition economies in the last places among the South East Europe in the group of the Transition Economies of the human development their own indicators comparison of their following graphs. According to the human development index, the most high value to Bulgaria the lowest value of the Macedonia. This total of the 5 countries of the human development levels is above threshold level. 418 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo GDP 1 HDI 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 Tajikistan Krgyzstan Moldova Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Georgia Azerbaijan Ukraine Armenia Kazakhstan Albania Macedonia Russia Belarus Bosnia H. Romania Croatia Bulgaria Latvia Estonia Lithuania Poland Slovakia Hungary Czech R. 0,4 Slovenia 0,5 Figure 1: GDP Index and HDI for Transition Economies (2008) Source: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) In general, only countries which experienced an increase in their human development level had a sustained economic growth. Hence it seems to us that, in transition economies, human Development is a sufficient, yet not a necessary, condition for economic growth. This means that there can be economic growth without human development, but if there is human development then there will be economic growth (Tridico, 2005:21). 69 Macedonia 66 Bosnia Hrz. 68 Albania 0,8 60 Romania 0,9 53 Bulgaria 1 53 Bulgaria 60 Romania 66 Bosnia Hrz. 68 Albania 0,7 69 Macedonia 0,6 Figure 2: South Eastern Europe Transition Economies and HDI Rank (2007-8) Source: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) Over the past decade, Romania has been experiencing, like many other countries in transition, a process of transformation that involves changing economic and political systems inherited from the communist era. For all the potential that Romania holds and despite many achievements on the political front, the first decade of transition can be considered one of missed opportunities and great disappointments on the economic and human development fronts. Dismantling the command-and control former socialist state with its social protection system and building the bases of a new market-oriented and democratic system has come at a tremendous cost for the over 22 million Romanians (UNDP, 2000b:19) The Human Development Reports shows that Romania has finally gained a place among the high Human Development Index (HDI) countries by surpassing the 0,800 value of index which makes access to this group. Data for 2004 ranks Romania on the 60th position among 177 countries and data from the National Institute for Statistics shows a further improvement in the HDI for Romania (0.808 in 2005) thanks to improvements in all the three basic components of the index: longevity, education level and standard of living, with the greater increase in the latter one (UNDP, 2007a:5). But, unfortunately Romania still holds the last position within the European Union countries, the lag between Romania and the next country in the HDI ranking (except Bulgaria ranked 54 with a HDI equal to 0.816 in 2004) is 15 places, namely 0.045 HDI points. As it can be seen in the figure below, the evolution of the HDI for the European Union countries is quite uneven. 419 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Between 1995 and 2000 the 10 New European Union member countries registered higher increases in the HDI compared to the 15 European Union countries at that time, but afterwards, between 2000 and 2004, the trend smoothens and the two slopes become very similar. The two newest European Union member countries, Romania and Bulgaria, are far from the EU25 average and also from the ten countries that have acceded in 2004. As for the difference in the HDI between Romania and Bulgaria the latest tendencies are in favor of Romania, as the overall index increased sharper in its case and the distance between the two countries is smaller by every year that passes (UNDP, 2007a:5). 1 EU 15 Average EU 25 Average 0,9 New EU 10 Average EU 27 Average 0,8 Romania Bulgaria 0,7 1990 1995 2000 2004 Figure 3: The Evolution of Human Development Index in EU15, EU25, EU27, and New EU10 (2004), Romania and Bulgaria Source: (UNDP, 2007a:6). Yet, there is a very important aspect that should be mentioned regarding the Human Development Index dynamics for Romania for the period 2000-2004 and that is the significant change in its value (0.027 points increase1) equaled only by Estonia and Lithuania and outrun only by Latvia (0.030 points increase) in the European Union area. This stands for consistent evidence of the important progresses Romania achieved in the area of human development during the last years. Table 4: Human Development Evolution for Selected Countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) Country HDI HDI Evolution 2004 Rank 1990 1995 2002 1990-2000 1995-2005 Hungary 0.807 0.810 0.848 0.027 0.048 38 Croatia 0.806 0.798 0.830 0.017 0.007 48 Bulgaria 0.795 0.784 0.796 -0.011 0.012 56 Romania 0.771 0.759 0.786 0.001 0.017 69 Ukraine 0.798 0.751 0.777 -0.036 0.015 70 Turkey 0.683 0.713 0.751 0.030 0.038 88 Source: (UNDP, 2005b:19) How does the human development profile of Romania fair in comparison to its region and neighbors? According to the 2004 HDR, of the 15 countries from the CEE only 9 can be classified as high human development countries (with a HDI value of over 0.800). These countries are Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovakia, Croatia and Latvia. The other 6 countries, including Romania, can be classified as medium human development countries (with HDI values ranging from 0.788 0.667). There are no countries from the CEE classified as having low human development. If the 15 countries of CEE were ranked according to their 2004 HDI value, Romania would be ranked 14. The HDI of Romania is below the average of the CEE (UNDP, 2005b:18). In addition, Romania has to cover a human development deficit of 0.14 to reach the high human development level. Since 1999, the HDI for Romania has increase average 0.009 per year. In the CEE region, fourteen countries, such countries as, Hungary (0.848), Croatia (0.830) and Bulgaria (0.796) have a higher HDI value than that of Romania (0.786). As can be seen in Table 4, the CEE region shows a diverse pattern of evolution of the HDI. While Hungary and Croatia have increased their HDI value at high rates during the last decade, the gains for other countries, including Romania have been at much slower and lower rates during the same period. Romania's transition impact on its human development profile becomes even clearer, when it is analyzed in the context of the remaining countries that are considered candidates to join the 420 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo EU, (Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey), those that are already part of the EU like Hungary and those countries that in the future may be consider candidates like Croatia, Russia and Ukraine. As can be seen in Table 4 among these countries, Romania would be ranked somewhere in the middle, below Bulgaria and Russia, but on top of Ukraine and Turkey. All of the countries in Table 4 have been pursuing some form of reform policies during the last decade. However, the impact on human development of these processes has been different in all these countries. The HDI value of a country shows the distance that it has to travel to reach the maximum possible value of 1. In this line of analysis and using the values found in Table 4, while Hungary shortfall would be 15%, Romania's would be close to 21% almost twice as much as Turkey. 2. Human Development Index and Bosnia-Herzegovina It was once the proud boast of Bosnians and Herzegovinans that their country, the former Yugoslavia, was the America of Eastern Europe. The positions of Slovenia and to a lesser extend Croatia today may be taken into consideration in this regard. The Human Development Index and the level of GDP, however, now place BiH among the less developed countries of Europe. In fact, they place BiH among the last two or three of whatever comparative group one chooses, be they the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, the CIS or the Stability Pact (UNDP, 2002:99). The state of human development in BiH, thus, gives grounds for concern. Per capita incomes remain low, health indicators are at best static and educational performance shows only weak improvement. Most problematic of all, BiH citizens still face a raft of discriminatory practices which circumscribe access to basic services and weaken the wider democratic process. Year by year BiH is falling behind other countries in Eastern Europe (UNDP, 2005c:13). Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is in ninth position as far as the HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. In terms of the literacy level, the enrolment rate in all three educational levels, and realized GDP/pc (PPPUSD), BiH is below the average of Central and Eastern European countries. BiH is 8.0% more developed than the world’s average in the human development context, 14.1% more developed than the average of countries in the medium human development category and 2.6 times more developed than the country which comes last. In 2004, Norway had the highest HDI in the world within index, 21% higher than that of Bosnia and Herzegovina. BiH’s HDI rank is 62nd out of 177 reporting countries, below Malaysia and above Mauritius (UNDP, 2007c, 177). Within the context of human development, a stable progress has been achieved in BiH since 2002. The calculated human development indices are presented in Table 4, together with analyses of trends for the period 2000-2004. The Human Development Index in 2004 was 0.804. By obtaining this score, BiH has entered the group of countries with high human development, i.e. those with a HDI score of 0.800 and above. However, it must be recognized that the increase in the HDI compared to 2003, when it was 0.793, partly results from a revision of the value of PPP adjustment, which simply reflects the difference between relative prices in BiH and the rest of the world. The increase in PPP has to a large degree contributed to the HDI increase. Nevertheless, it is important to consider that most of the assessment data is based upon special surveys and thus the change is not wholly methodological (UNDP, 2007c, 30). Table 4: HDI Trends for BiH Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000 Life expectancy at birth 73.3 73.0 74.0 74.1 74.3 1.014 Adult literacy rate 85.9 88.9 94.3 96.7 97.1 1.130 Combined enrolment ratio 64.0 67.0 67.3 68.0 69.0 1.078 GDP/pc PPP USD 2875 3949 5970 6250 7230 2515 Life expectancy index 0.805 0.800 0.817 0.818 0.822 1.021 Education index 0.787 0.817 0.853 0.871 0.877 1.114 GDP index 0.560 0.614 0.683 0.690 0.714 1.275 HDI 0.718 0.744 0.784 0.793 0.804 1.120 Source: UNDP, 2007c, p.165. Significant differences between the two Entities remain. The Federation of BiH (FBiH) is 1.5% above the average of BiH as a whole, while RS, with a value of 0.784, and is still under the threshold of countries with high human development. It is also worth emphasizing that there will doubtless be huge variations within FBiH and it therefore cannot be assumed that high human development conditions are predominant throughout its territory. The stability of HDI growth in BiH is also reflected in the fact that BiH’s in 2004 was 12% higher than for 2000 (UNDP, 2007c, 30). 421 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1 Life expectancy index 0,8 Education index 0,6 GDP index 0,4 2000 2001 2002 2003 HDI 2004 Figure 4: HDI Trends for BiH Source: (UNDP, 2007c, 166.) Despite the increase in HDI, in comparison with other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, BĐH’s position remains virtually unchanged. BiH lies in ninth place, just ahead of Macedonia and Albania. In global terms the HDI value would place BiH 62. Yet it is important to recognize this is a national ranking and assumes the placement of other nations does not change (UNDP, 2007c, 31). BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Table 5: HDI and GDI Relation for BiH and the Entities HDI BiH 0.793 2003 FBiH 0.806 RS 0.771 BiH 0.804 2004 FBiH 0.816 RS 0.784 GDI Difference HDI-GDI 0.782 0.011 0.790 0.016 0.765 0.006 0.801 0.003 0.806 0.010 0.779 0.005 Source: (UNDP, 2007c, 172.) The GDI (Gender Development Index) for 2004 was 0.801, which shows an improvement over 2003. But gender inequality is still articulated, especially in education and economic activities. It is important to stress that the difference between HDI and GDI shows significant gender inequality in BiH and both Entities. 0,8 HDI 0,7 GDI 0,6 BiH 2003 FBiH 2003 RS 2003 BiH 2004 FBiH 2004 RS 2004 Figure 5: HDI and GDI Relation Source: UNDP, 2007c, 172. (BiH: Bosnia Herzegovina, FBiH: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, RS: Republica Srpska) In 2004 there was a reduction in the difference between the HDI and GDI, primarily due to the more dynamic growth of GDI. The growth of GDI was influenced by the increase of employment of women, as well as a higher rate of female enrolment at all three educational levels (UNDP, 2007c, 172). 422 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 6: HDI for FBiH Cantons and the RS Canton or RS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sarajevo Neretva West Herzegovina Republica Srpska Central Bosnia Tuzla Zenica Doboj Podrina Posavina Herceg Bosna Una Sana Economic index 0.792 0.718 0.712 0.633 0.600 0.594 0.581 0.569 0.563 0.563 0.548 HDI Variation from State level 0.824 0.800 0.798 0.761 0.760 0.758 0.754 0.750 0.748 0.748 0.743 5.1 % 2.0 % 1.8 % -2.9 % -3.1 % -3.3 % -3.8 % -4.3 % -4.6 % -4.6 % -5.2 % Percentage difference on high HD level (0.800) 3.2 % 0.3 % 0.0 % -4.8 % -5.0 % -5.3 % -5.5 % -6.0 % -6.3 % -6.3 % -6.9 % Source: UNDP, 2005c, 165. The above show a reasonable level of variation with the highest value (Sarajevo) being 5.1 % above the State-level figure and correspondingly the lowest value (Una Sana Canton) is a similar percentage below the State level. More interesting are the relatives the High-Human Development interval which begins at a value of 0.800. This illustrates a distinct break in the data with three regions (Sarajevo plus the Herzegovina cantons) being within the category, and the others all around 5 % below. Indeed, the level of variation outside the higherscoring regions is very much reduced (UNDP 2005c, 165). Conclusion After the collapse of Soviet bloc, these countries have found them in the transition process of the free market economy. All the country's market economy transition process preceded in different ways, these countries area called transition economies. Transition economies has effected in the transition process due to internal and external factors. Transition economies, the Central European Countries and the Baltic countries are on the top for that human development index and South East Europe follow up these countries. Independent States are ranked at the lowest level. In the Independent States, Republics of Turks are lower situated among them. Except, Russia and Slovak, in the Transition Economies according to the GDP, they are the located in the top level. Albania, according to the human development index is ranking 30 steps above the threshold level. For the development of Transition Economies, they should protect their enhancements and foster their progress. This depends on countries’ transition progress to market economy. These countries, many sectors as the education and health are transforming from previous system to market based economy and this gives soma difficulties for the people and new system is face to be failure. Liberalization also comes with social and economic costs for humanities and this bring difficulties to use social potential capital uses. With market economy based on the system and firmly economic stability, countries human capital potential will drive economic developments. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is in ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. From the perspective of almost years of transition, at least three lessons can be learnt. The first lesson is obvious that transition takes time and has high human costs. The second is that growth alone does not eradicate human poverty. And the third is that rethinking the transition strategy is needed based on a concept of human development. References Abeysekera, Indra, James Guthrie (2004), “Human Capital Reporting in a Developing Nation,” The British Accounting Review, Volume: 36. Mendoza, Maria F. Trujillo (2001), The Global Digital Divide: Exploring the Relation between National Core Computing and Network Capacity and Progress in Human Development Over the Last Decade, Tulane University. Ruminska-Zimny, Ewa, (1997) “Human Poverty in Transition Economies: Regional Overview for HDR,” Tridico, Pasquale (2005), “Institutional Change and Human Development in Transition Economies,” EAEPE Conference, Bremen, 10-12 November 2005. UNDP (2000a), Kyrgysztan: National Human Development Report for 2000. 423 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo UNDP (2000b), Team for The Preparation of National Human Development Report Romania 2000, Bucherest. UNDP (2002) Human Development Report 2002: Bosnia-Herzegovina. UNDP (2005a) National Human Development Report, the Influence of Civil Society on the Human Development Process in Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz Republic. UNDP (2005b), The National Human Development Report 2003-2005 Romania. UNDP (2005c) The National Human Development Report 2005-Better Local Governance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. UNDP (2007), National Human Development Report Romania 2007 – Making EU Accession Work for All, Bucherest. UNDP (2007), National Human Development Report Romania. UNDP (2007b), Human Development Report 2007-8, Palgrave Macmillan, NewYork. UNDP, (2007c) Social Inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, National Report. UNDP (2007-8) Uzbekistan, Education in Uzbekistan: Matching Supply and Demand, Tashkent. Yumuşak, Đ.G.- M. Bilen (2008), “The Comparative Analysis of Levels of Human Development of Middle Asia Turkish States And Turkey” II. International Social Scientists Congress, Bishkek, 22-24 October 2008. 424 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 284 Title A name given to the resource The Comparative Analysis of Economic and Social Performances of Transition Economies and the Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina Author Author YUMUSAK, ibrahim Güran BiLEN, Mahmut Abstract A summary of the resource. Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 1989- 1991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (human development, employment, poverty, etc.). This paper tries to analyze the level of human capital for Transition Economies by comparative methods. In order to analyze level of human capital for Transition Economies, we used the human development indexes. Transition economies progress in the transition process has different effects due to internal and external factors. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the nonincome dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b42f50d4606d96204d92abd3096ed9a.pdf 9ec058599384c6403735d9307c30b1ec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Gültekin YILDIZ Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Yasemin ÖZDEMĐR Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Özlem BALABAN Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Abstract: HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Keywords: HRM, HRM in manufacturing sector, HRM in service sector Introduction Human resource management (HRM) discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labor. And also sector (Kaufman, 2007) and market type (Beer et al., 1984) are effective on HR departments structure and HR practices based on functions. There are many HRM models in America and Europe which are descriptive for determining the HRM understanding of an organisation or a country. These models are maps factors that affect the HRM structure in a general manner or and HR functions in a more specific view. The Model of Brewster and Bournois underlines 86 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the importance of sectors effect on HRM practices (Brewster and Bournois, 1991; from Pinnington ve Edwards, 2000: 19). The importance of human in the organizations and the features of the jobs/works are different in different sectors. In manufacturing sector automation and information technologies are used more than service sector. But in service sector the production and consuming are simultaneous, the intensity of labor is high so a structure that is consisted of a face-to-face relationship between the personnel and customers. A production focused management style is dominant in manufacturing sector and in service sector, a customer focused management style is dominat (Gök, 2006). Because of these main differences of sector features and management styles, in two sectors different HRM practices are expected. The Background of HRM Practices in Turkey In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a parallel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). In addition HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances like sector (Andersen, 2000). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. Objective of the Research This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices. Because in the literature it is mentioned that sector is one of the important factors that affect the HRM practices. And also if our hypothesis is true, this can give an opinion to the organisations for realizing their HRM decisions according to sectoral circumstances. Research Methodology According to the objective of this study, the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. General Findings The datas are gained from 62 manufacturing organisations and 63 service sector organisations, totally 125 organisations. In this section, the findings of our research will be indicated. Initially the frequencies about our sample’s features like sector and personnel number will be given in Table 1. Table 1: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Sector) Manufacturing Service Sector N % Sector N Textile 12 19,4 Tourism 29 Construction 13 21,0 Banking 18 Iron and steal 8 12,9 Insurance 12 Automotive 17 27,4 Other 4 Food 11 17,7 Information technologies 1 1,6 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 46,03 28,57 19,04 6,3 100 87 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to literature organisational size is an important factor that affect the HR structure so frequencies about this is like in Table 2. Table 2: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Personnel Number) Manufacturing Service Personnel number N % Personnel number N 1-49 26 41,9 1-49 16 50-99 8 12,9 50-99 4 100-250 5 8,1 100-250 16 More than 250 23 37,1 More than 250 27 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 25,4 6,3 25,4 42,9 100 The personnel number frequencies show that there is similarity and balance in our sample in both sectors. Findings about HR Practices In this part the findings of our research about HR practices will be given in two parts; for manufacturing and for service sector, then will be compared generally. As it is indicated in the previous researches the name of the department related with human resources is called human resources. The distribution of frequencies on the name of the department is in Table 3. Table 3: Distribution of Frequencies on the Name of the Department Manufacturing Service Department name N % Department name N Personnel 16 25,8 Personnel 8 Administrative and financial 6 9,7 Administrative and 6 works financial works Accounting and financing 3 4,8 Human resources Other (Personnel and administrative works, personnel and human resources) TOTAL 32 3 51,6 4,8 Accounting financing Human resources Other 62 100 TOTAL and % 12,7 9,5 4 6,3 40 5 63,5 7,9 63 100 There is similarity in the name of the department related with human resources and in both sectors human resource department is used mostly with great rate. In manufacturing sector, human resources managers/directors (N= 15, 24, 2%) and human resource and financial works managers (N= 14, 22, 6%) are at the position for the responsibility of HR function. And the 93% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and from business administration (N= 31, 50, 0%). And in service sector, human resources manager/director are at the position for the responsibility of HR function with 28, 6%. And the 93, 7% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and 47, 5% of them from business administration. There is also a similarity in the graduation of the people who is responsible of HR department. *From this point it is necessary to indicate that the person who filled the questionnaires could select more than one choice. So the most selected choices are mentioned here and the totals can be more than 100% for each question. As it is mentioned in the theoretical background, there are many internal and external factors that affect HR practices. Here are the findings about these factors; • In manufacturing sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like total quality management (N=44, 70, 9%) and features of the employees (N=36, 58, 0%). • And in service sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like features of the employees (N=47, 74, 6%), strategic management (N= 42, 66, 6%) and the top managers’ management style (N=38, 60, 3%). The ranking of the internal factors that affect the HR practices is different. Features of the employees are the only common factor mentioned above. 88 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • In manufacturing sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 46, 74, 1%) and competition density (N= 42, 67, 7%). And in service sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 54, 85, 5%), competition density (N= 49, 77, 7%) and technology (N=39, 61, 9%). The external factors that affect the HR practices and their ranking of is the same. The findings about HR functions in manufacturing sector can be indicated as below; The necessity of ISO/TSE standards (N= 24; 38, 7 %) and HR/personnel selection (N= 24; 38, 7 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=29; 46, 7 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=55; 88, 7%). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are overtime working (N= 32; 51, 6%) and external employee/HR supply application (N= 31; 50%). Previous applications (N=34; 54, 8%) and personal advices (N= 29; 46, 7%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 31; 50 %) and probation (N= 26; 41, 9%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring previous and latter performances (N= 39; 62, 9%) and previous and latter tests (N=29; 46, 7%). Job evaluation is used for employee selection according to job (N= 30; 48, 3%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=29; 46, 7%). The most important factor that affect the wage level is effective performance appraisal (N= 44; 70, 9%) and the other market wages level (N= 22; 35, 4%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 34; 54, 8%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N= 24; 38, 7%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 42; 67, 7%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 30; 48, 3%), bonus (N= 30; 48, 3 %), cafeteria services and year permission money (N= 27; 43, 5%) are the most common used social aids and services. Performance lowness (N= 42; 67, 7%) and disciplinary (N=40; 64, 5%) are the most common layoff reasons. The findings about HR functions in service sector can be indicated as below; Constituting job descriptions (N= 31; 49, 2 %) and job requirements (N= 31; 49, 2 %), job evaluation (N= 27; 42, 9 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=30; 47, 6 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=56; 88, 9%). The other ones are interview of one person (N= 34; 54, 0 %) and references (N= 33; 52, 4 %). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are external employee/HR supply application (N= 37; 58, 7%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N= 28; 44, 4%). Previous applications (N=38; 60, 3%) and personnel advices (N= 31; 49, 2%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 36; 57, 1 %) and probation (N= 21; 33, 3%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring the usage level of what is learned (N=32; 50, 8%) and pervious latter performances (N= 31; 49, 2%). Job evaluation is used for internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=28; 44, 4%), equal wage principle (N=27; 42, 9%) and also determining education necessity (N= 26; 41, 3). The most important factor that affect the wage level is performance appraisal (N= 37; 58, 7 %) and also market wages level is the effective factor (N= 31; 49, 2%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 28; 44, 4%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N=23; 36, 5%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 38; 60, 3%). The other important factor that affect the wage increase is average market raise (N= 21; 33, 3%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 32; 50, 8%), bonus (N= 25; 39, 7%) and clothing aid (N=22; 34, 9%) are the most common used social aids and services. Disciplinary (N= 46; 73, 0%) and performance lowness (N= 37; 58, 7%) are the most common layoff reasons. As a result we can generally say that; The aims of job analysis in two sectors are different. HR planning time is between 6 months - 1 year and is same in two sectors. Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method in two sectors. 89 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • The employee/ HR supply methods are different in two sectors but the type of external personnel supply resources is the same. • The training methods and the training evaluation methods are the same. • The areas of job evaluation usage in two sectors are different. • The factors that affect the wage level are the same. • The wage systems and the factors that affect the wage increase are the same. • The social aids and services are also the same. • The most common layoff reasons are same in two sectors. The general evaluation of the findings shows that there more similar aspects in HR practices than differences. Conclusion Most of the HR functions and especially HR requirement and selection, training and development, wage management, performance appraisal are nearly used in all organisations and in all sectors. HR functions are affected by organisation culture, structure, organizational size and sector. So it is thought that there is a difference between the HR practices of the organisations in manufacturing and service sector. This study’s findings shows that generally there are similarities in HR functions like HR planning time, HR selection methods, HR supply resources, training methods and evaluation methods, wage management, social aids and layoff reasons. But it must be said that although the methods used in these HR functions are similar, the ranking and the factors that affect the HR practices are different. Also the aims of job analysis, HR supply methods and the areas of job evaluation usage are different. As a result sector makes a difference in some HR practices. But this result can’t be generalized. So many other researches that have bigger samples is required to make general decisions and find the reasons of the differences in HR practices. References Andersen, A. (2000) “2001’e Dogru Insan Kaynakları Arastırması”, Sabah Yayıncılık, Istanbul. Aycan, Z. (2001) “Human Resource Management in Turkey-Current Issues and Future Challenges”, International Journal Of Manpower, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 252-60. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Mills, D.Q. and Walton, R.E. (1984), Managing Human Assets, Free Press, New York. Bingöl, D. (2006) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Arıkan Yayınları, 6. Baskı, Đstanbul. Brewster, C. ve Bournois, F. (1991) “Human Resource Management: A European Perspective”, Personnel Review, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 4-13. Ercek, Mehmet (2006) “HRMization in Turkey: Expanding the Rhetoric-Reality Debate in Space and Time”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 648-672. Gok, Sibel (2006) 21. Yüzyılda Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Beta Basım Dağıtım, Istanbul. Kaynak, Tugrul, Z. Adal and et al., (2000) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Istanbul Universitesi Isletme Fakultesi Isletme Iktisadı Enstitusu Arastırma ve Yardım Vakfı Yayını, No: 7, Istanbul. Kaufman, Bruce E. (2007) “The Development of HRM in Historical and International Perspective”, in The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, edit: Boxall, Peter, John Purcell ve Patrick Wright, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 19-47. Lundy, O. (1994), “From Personnel Management to Strategic Human Resource Management”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 687-720. Pinnington, A. ve T. Edwards (2000) Introduction to Human Resource Management, Oxford University Press, New York. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Uyargil, C. and Ozcelik, O. (2001), “Some Characteristics of the Turkish HR Managers/Professionals and a Comparative Study with Three European Countries (United Kingdom, Germany and Spain)”, Paper Presented At Global HRM Conference, June 19th-22, Barcelona. 90 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 149 Title A name given to the resource Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan ÖZDEMİR, Yasemin BALABAN, Özlem Abstract A summary of the resource. HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d7300c730ac69fde94b8513ba3e5435e.pdf 1d51ac9fb36e24aaf5265b2485dfdfec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Gültekin YILDIZ Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Sakarya University, Turkey yildizg@sakarya.edu.tr Adem BALTACI Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Kırklareli University, Turkey adem.baltaci@kirklareli.edu.tr Abstract: Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Keywords: Performance Appraisal Errors, Leniency and Severity Errors, Collectivist and Individualist Culture. Introduction Performance appraisal whose necessity and benefits have been proved by numerous researchers has been presented as an objective and rational function in business management books and guide books; most of its appraisal methods have been developed basing upon the assumption that the raters will be objective and free from prejudice in their observation and decisions. Otherwise; it does not matter how perfectly and impeccable your system works for the errors will be inevitable during the process since the people who will carry out the appraisal and the ones who will be affected by its results are all human beings. When the complexity of today’s human behavior patterns and the inadequacy of the appraisal systems in encompassing these behavior patterns are considered, it is obvious that performance appraisal errors will play an important role in the theoretical and the practical researches in the forthcoming years. The researchers have made great efforts and developed numerous methods in order to find a method which is free of errors. This effort is displayed evidently by Landy and Farr’s (1980:82) statements: “Mighty efforts have been made to discover the potential effects of various appraisal formats for many years. The alleged hypothesis states that the instrument being used to obtain the information has a substantial importance on the accuracy and expedience of the obtained information.” In fact, one of the reasons of these numerous methods to be able to choose in performance appraisal is the indefinite attempts made by researchers to develop an enduring method against appraisal errors. But, a method which is free of errors has not been developed yet. The prevalence of appraisal errors are stated by Warmke and Billings (1979:124) by following words: “The subjective appraisals made about the employee’s performance are usually get spoiled and corrupted by the errors like halo or leniency.” Another comment made by Spool (1978:853) that supports this view and also states that appraisal errors are everywhere: “The methods based on observation are nearly much more vulnerable against human error margin than almost all other methods.” The importance of the problem resulting from the appraisal errors is also highlighted by Borman (1979:410): “Unfortunately, performance appraisals are nearly inevitably corrupted by appraisal errors (e.g. halo, leniency error) and they probably present in accurate appraisal results of individuals which were obtained during performance appraisal process.” Proved existence of appraisal errors are an obstacle to the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and have a negative effect on organization employees’ beliefs and satisfaction regarding appraisal results. Ilgen 342 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo proved that despite the researches done for years to develop and improve this process, the dissatisfaction about performance appraisals have not decreased. Murphy and Cleveland displayed that performance appraisals are hard core target of criticism and complaints and this dissatisfaction have become a norm in most of the companies (Holbrook, 2002:102). Because performance appraisal results form a basis for management decisions and the dispute among performance appraisal results which arise between the uppers and the inferiors probably cause interpersonal conflicts (Greenberg, 1991:51-60). The employees get satisfied with appraisal results only if their beliefs about their performances, which are high, match with the results. Employees consider that the feedbacks are unfair when their appraisal results are low and especially when they get less positive results than their expectations. As this will be inferred from the explanations given above, typical dependent variable of the performance appraisal researches is the accuracy of the performance measurement and in this context a lot of independent variables (roles, instruments, goals, criteria etc.) have been examined in order to determine their effects. But there is a quite need to examine “the appraisal errors” which are one of the most important factors that have adverse effects on the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and also to research in depth the effects of the context in which these errors took place. In this work, from performance appraisal errors, leniency and severity errors have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist culture. The main purpose of the work is to display how collectivist and individualist values affect the raters’ tendency towards leniency and severity errors. In the framework of this basic purpose, the answers for the following questions are being looked for in this research: 1. How do the collectivist and individualist culture values affect leniency and severity errors? 2. Does the raters’ individualist or collectivist cultural background differentiate their tendency towards errors (leniency and severity)? 3. Can the collectivist and individualist culture values be the explanatory of leniency and severity error? It has been aimed at attaining the goals of this work in the context of these questions. Leniency and severity errors have been theoretically examined in terms of a socio–cultural factor by using secondary data by means of literature study. Culture and Performance Appraisal Errors We can define culture in brief as an integrated system consisting of characteristic behavior models of the members that belong to society (Czinkota et al., 1999:35). In other words, culture consists of perception, believing, evaluation, communication and the shared factors which provide acting among the people who share a language, a historical period, and a geographical region (Triandis, 1996:408). Thereby, it is considered that culture has a strong and continuous impact on individual and corporations in all over the world. Especially starting from 1970s, culture has become a controversial concept in terms of culture, business and management. Until recent years, while it is alleged that management is universal, international culture was being ignored but in the recent years it has been started to investigate about the influences of the intercultural differences on the management and it has been proved basing upon the specific researches that cultures affect the individuals and direct them to different behavior models. It has been observed that the people who live in different cultures react differently against similar subject and conditions. Consequently, this intercultural differentiation is an explanatory of important problems since they affect working methods of the corporations, behavior models of the individuals and management styles (Sargut, 2001:137). One of the problems is the errors made in performance appraisal which provide how effectively the human resources are used in the organizations, most outcomes of which are used in managerial operations and actions. Appraisal errors are judgmental errors which occur while an individual observes and assess the other one (Latham et al., 1975:550-555). What is ideal in performance appraisal is that the appraisal results reflect the accurate, unprejudiced judgments processes. But, as it has been mentioned earlier, since the people are at stake in the appraisal, lots of emotion, needs, attitudes and values involve in the process. Accordingly, it depends on a lot of factors to find out what extend it was created in an unprejudiced way and whether it was really used or not to guide the appraisal. The most important factor among these is the cultural characteristics that the rater possesses. Leniency and Severity Error, Collectivist and Individualist Culture Before starting to discuss how cultural differences of the raters affect their tendency towards leniency and severity errors, it is useful to present the definitions of these errors and what collectivist and individualist culture means in order to be able to understand the case. Leniency error is one of the common errors which are faced in performance appraisals (Ilgen and Feldman, 1983). Leniency error is defined as an error which impels to make higher appraisals compared to other raters and a valid/reliable tendency as to certain raters (Kane et al., 1995:1039). According to another definition, leniency error is the case when the raters unjustly give higher scores, appraisal results. These scores are 343 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo evaluated by the distances of middle point of the scale to other scores or by their range to an accurate score (Saal et al., 1980:413-428). In other words, leniency errors limit the used value range and this causes a statistical decrease in the validity. Just opposite of the leniency error is severity error that this is the case when the rater evaluate the employee’s performances lower than it actually is (Can et al., 1998:167). In other words, it is the case when the rater evaluates and employee or a group of employees lower than they actually are without taking into account their actual success level. This tendency is usually observed among the raters who are inexperienced and not exactly aware of the factors that affect the performance, whose self-confidence is low and also who get low appraisals. Besides that the desire to show themselves as a perfectionist and an exacting manager and high standards in the corporation play role in such appraisals (Bayar, 2002). Collectivism means that people connect tightly to the social environment, the social members’ take care of each other and protect the organization’s members and interests. Individualist means that individuals have loose connections with the social framework and they are responsible for themselves (Hofstede, 1983:79). According to another definition, individualism is the tendency that people only care about their and their families interests (Hudgetts and Luthans, 1993:103). The first main discrepancy between collectivist person and individualist person falls out in the point how these people define themselves. While the collectivist person feels himself dependent on the other members of the group, individualist person displays more independent attitudes. Second discrepancy point falls out in the positioning regarding the goals. While the individualist person’s goals differentiate from the goals of the group that he/she belongs to, collectivist person’s goals make compliance with the goals of the group. While the individualist person determines his/her collectivist behavior according to his/her personal requirements and the rights which he/she perceives, collectivist person acts group norms according to his/her duties and responsibilities. For a collectivist person, having relationships with internal group and other people comes before rationalism. However individualist person makes rational calculations which keep cost and benefit rates in the front (Sargut, 2001:187). Collectivist culture individuals have the features of owning alignment, challenge, conflict avoidance and more compatible behavior models. It seems that individual initiatives are not encouraged and the ideas are determined within the group (Hofstede, 1984). On the contrary individualist cultures are described with their features which accept conflict, consistency and put less emphasis on compliance, individual initiative is expected and individual’s thought expressions are valuable. Therefore, in individualist cultures it is expected to show greater tendency to opinion diversities. Performance Appraisal in Collectivist and Individualist Culture These distinctive features of the societies which have been mentioned above reflect on organizational structures according to dominant culture and accordingly on performance appraisal systems. Here, Hofstede’s individualist and collectivist dimension in the research that he carried out in order to explain how and why the people from different cultures act as they will be expository as to be able to understand the issue better. Forasmuch as some performance appraisal researchers claim that collectivist and individualist dimension is the most important cultural dimension which has an impact on performance appraisal. Because, the person who provides the assessments and feedback affect performance appraisal process in many aspects such as the purpose and content of performance appraisal process (Milliman et al., 1998:157) Hofstede analyzed culture in four dimensions in his study which he carried out on 116,000 employees in 40 countries. These dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and collectivism, masculinity and feminity. Hofstede’s individualism and collectivism dimension corresponds to “the relationship between the individual and collectivism which rifles in a certain society” (Hofstede, 1984:148). To express more explicitly, individualism and collectivism dimension is related to what extent the individuals’ goals and need prevail over the groups that is belonged to goals and needs (Triandis, 1989; Hofstede 1984). Individualist societies care for individuals’ competition over the group’s welfare and individuals define themselves with their own characteristics and success (Fiske et al., 1998). For instance, in such a culture, individuals act according to their personal interests and employee–employers’ relations are generally perceived as a business exchange (Seddon, 1987) and freedom of choice and individual initiative are emphasized. Within this culture, most of the multi–sourced performance appraisal systems have been designed to obtain a comprehensive and objective assessment about the individual’s performance (London and Smither, 1995; Denisi and Kluger; 2000). Usually, individual performance assessments which have been obtained from various sources are valued. As long as feedback performance develops self–confidence and success, individualists attribute value to constructive and critical feedback (Milliman et al., 1998). The importance of personal relations between the subject and raters has been reduced in order to facilitate to provide the critical feedback and performance development. On the other hand, due to the collectivist cultures’ nature, they have shown a tendency not to overrate the role of the individuals in any case. Thus, in performance appraisal, it is focused on group performance rather 344 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo than individual performance of each members of a group. The employees who work in a collectivist culture make an effort to see their own interests above the groups’ interests (Hofstede, 1984) and employers recruit the individuals who take place in their groups and whose behavior overlap with the group behavior (Huo and Von Glinow, 1995). For the collectivists, it is very important to save the appearance (Fiske et al., 1998), to reduce the differences and to maintain the harmony and good relations among the group members. The practices which are individual–based human resource management covers is perceived as a threat to the team spirit since it moves attention from group success to the individuals’ success. The Impact of the Raters’ Collectivist and Individualist Cultural Background on Their Tendency to Make Mistakes about Leniency and Severity It is not too surprising that cultural differences which affect organizational structures appraisal systems also have influences on leniency and severity errors from assessment errors. As mentioned before collectivist cultures care about in–target goals togetherness, cooperation, loyalty and commitment; challenges and disputes among group members are ignored at all costs. Therefore, raters in performance appraisal mostly make lenient assessments; so disputes, resentments, in–group this harmony are being ignored (Milliman et al., 1998). The date obtained from feedback sessions proves that the collectivists tend to ignore the disputes among the employees (Cascio and Bailey, 1995). Within the collectivist cultures, it is more important to ensure compliance with others, to gain a sense of belonging than reflecting a positive personal image which could disrupt the group harmony (Korsgoard et al., 2004:874). To ignore these problems in order not to distort the image may cause the appraisals regarding employee performance to be more lenient and inaccurate. The researchers have revealed in a research that the Malaysians whose individualism is low avoid giving negative feedback and Chinese managers make leniency errors in the appraisals they perform (Chow, 1998; Seddon, 1987). As a support to this, in a research carried out in Republic of China, in which 982 couples who work in 9 different institutions in leader and subordinate positions have been used as subjects, the appraisals regarding performance that individuals carried out on their own are compared to the appraisals regarding inferior performance that were performed by supervisors. Results indicate that Chinese employees assessed their own performance less tolerant than their supervisors. These results contrast with the performance appraisal results which American employees typically do about themselves and are more lenient compared to their inspectors (Farh et al., 1991:129). These results coincide with the results of Hofstede’s (1997). Hofstede has found out in his study that the employees who belong to Republic of China are the most collectivist and American employees are the most individualist. Leniency error which arises among American employees is compatible with view that the individualist appraisers have the impulse to see/perceive themselves as positive as possible. This view rooted in a profound way in western, individualist tradition which emphasizes individual achievement, personal competence and self-respect. Exaggerated personal perceptions accord with individualist cultures; and don’t accord with collectivist cultures which promote interpersonal harmony a interdependence, solidarity and group harmony (Farh et al., 1991:131). The Effects of Psychological Process on Leniency and Severity Errors To display the psychological processes regarding the appraisers who have different cultures can lead to some different results as to performance appraisals. Thus, individualists focus on their own uniqueness, to achieve their goals, their internal reference forms, self ego (Oyserman et al., 2002). This case potentially drives them to do harsher assessments on other people’s behaviors models. The collectivists think that self-ego may easily be affected by static social environment (Triandis, 2001). For collectivists, happiness implies control and self-restraint in emotional and behavioral expressions. Thus it will be possible to maintain relations away from dispute. Contrary to the judgments of collectivists, the question of causality and attributions are based on social context in which social boundaries and behaviors take place. Collectivists’ focus on the case and context (on the attitudes and behaviors of, in other words, on the content and characteristics of cases compared to individualists) in which a behavior is being fulfilled can be a disadvantage to obtain accurate performance appraisals. Collectivists have higher chances to make leniency error to maintain in-group harmony, because they want to ensure the group to attain its goals and to maintain its happiness. Furthermore, the group members’ behaviors can be interpreted in the context of social boundaries (Oyserman et al., 2002). As a result, determined for collectivists rationalism means the importance of determined fixed and static group relations in which the exchange is based on the principles of equality and generosity. While explaining the research results, Smith (2004) claims that in-group harmony in collectivist societies will encourage the individuals to do more tolerant assessments which include consent/acceptance. 345 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In individualist cultures, it is not a big problem for individualists (compared to the collectivists) not to give negative feedback for the fear of creating conflict among the employees. On the contrary, it is a priority to express the attitudes and opinions in an honest way. In addition, individualists may tend to present harsh appraisal results; because task performance and development are more important than the goal of maintaining compatible relations among the employees. According to them, if the old relationships are quite troublesome, new relationships can be easily established. According to the individualists, the relations are perceived as the facilitator factors which serve to obtain their own interests. This makes the appraisal differences between the individualists and collectivist to be noticed easily. Cultural Differences between the Rater and Ratees Another case which the culture can have a significant impact on appraisal behavior is the case when the rater and ratees have different cultural backgrounds. For example, since the labor force is culturally more different, this situation may occur often in North American institutions. In these cases, since the rater is not aware of the behavior models within the ratee’s culture, the accuracy of the appraisals decrease (Triandis and Brislin, 1984:1006-1017). For instance, an individualist rater may not be focusing on the contributions of the ratee to the group he/she belongs to and may not care his/her team work skills. On the contrary, a rater with a collectivist perspective may put more emphasis on the roles of the ratees in the team, the contributions they make for the achievement of the team’s goals and he/she may pay less attention to their individual performance. As a result, these cultural misunderstandings may cause to be fallen in leniency error in one and severity error in another. Motivation Approaches of the Raters Another issue that must be dealt with here is the relationship between severity error and motivation in the context of individualism and collectivism. Researchers offered explanations on the effect of motivation behind the appraisers’ lenient and severe appraisals. Accordingly, it’s possible that managers can make different appraisal regarding the employees’ motivation according to their individualist and collectivist cultural background. Increasing number of studies suggest that North Americans for whom individualist values are dominant within the context of business, are less aware of their colleagues’ socio-emotional expressions (Sanchez-Burks, 2002). Although the recent intercultural surveys which have been carried out indicate that people constantly say that the money is a factor that satisfies least their needs (Sheldon et al., 2001) an intercultural research which was carried out by Morris and his friends about global company the idea that North Americans bring a “Market Orientation” to their interpersonal relationships, in other words, they evaluate their relationships according to their interests (Morris et al., 2000:97-123). As a support to this research, Miller claims that Western individualism puts a greater emphasis on the role of external factors about the others’ behaviors and has a common belief about “self–interest norm” (Miller, 1999:1053-1060). Self–interest norm defends that if any economic interests exist, even if in the cases which employees believe that they are internally motivated, external factors would be more effective. However, within the collectivist cultural contexts that self–interest norm is less determinant, it is expected that managers potentially will pay more attention to the internal factors that motivate the employees. When the managers’ who belong to collectivist culture compared to the individualists, their employees will be assessed in the most useful way for the groups. Therefore, if the high appraisal results will mean more employee satisfaction and more compatible relations, the managers will make lenient errors depending on high assessments. In accordance with this, according to Morris and his friends’ findings, unlike North American employees who have individualist values, Spanish employees have demonstrated a proximity orientation (having a high emotional commitment with his work–mates) and Chinese employees have demonstrated a family orientation (a self–sacrifice orientation for group) (Morris et al., 2000:97123). As a result, in the collectivist cultures, even if the low assessment results are deserved, the motivation decrease among the people at the point of performance development (Longenecker et al., 1987), the raters’ tendency to maintain positive relationships with the subjects (Murphy and Cleveland, 1995) may cause them to fall in leniency error. As it will be understood from the researches, in the performance appraisal, the raters’ cultural differences will influence their tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. An effective performance appraisal system will only be possible with the creation of a system which offers valid and reliable results that are free of errors. In the establishment of such a system, the need for not ignoring cultural differences among the raters, determination of the socio–cultural factors in the error analysis play a critical role. 346 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion Performance appraisal has become available in all areas of industry in today’s business life and it has become an application which has a strategic competition advantage in the globally severe competitive conditions. In a survey made by Locher and Teel, it has been observed that 89 % of the companies that participated in the survey placed their performance appraisals on a regular basis (Locher and Tell, 1977). Bass and Barrett argued that all institutions have a method regarding employee’s performance appraisal that they carry out secretly or explicitly (Bass and Barrett, 1981:259). Despite the increasing popularity of performance appraisal, there is a need to do a further examination as to socio- cultural factors on appraisal errors which affect negatively the performance appraisal activities. The research indicates that there is a need to do a very good analysis of social and cultural factors in order to be able to explain the variability of leniency and severity errors are judicial errors which the raters do during the appraisal process. So it is a result of distorted judicial process that here raters’ tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. To determine the intercultural differences in the context of leniency and severity errors is very important both as a reflection of cultural differences on independent dimension and also as to intercultural research methodology and the inferences in terms of emic/ethic features. An aspect of the methodology will be emic when it is associated with a culture, in other words, only when it moves in a certain way in a culture. If it works in a similar way in many cultures then it is considered to be independent from culture and it is called ethic. When seen from this perspective, our study was to reveal an emic reality. What this reality is that raters’ cultural differences affect their tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. References Bass, B. M. ve G. V. Barrett (1981), People, Work And Organizations, Allyn And Bacon Inc., Boston, s.259. Bayar, B. (2002), “Performans Değerlendirme Sürecinde Yaşanan Sorunlar ve Direnç”, http://www.insankaynaklari.com/cn/ContentBody.asp?BodyID=17, 20.02.2006 Borman, W. C. (1979), “Format And Training Effects On Rating Accuracy And Rater Errors”, Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, s.410. Can, H., A. Akgün ve Ş. Kavuncubaşı (1998), Kamu Ve Özel Kesimde Personel Yönetimi, 3. Baskı, Siyasal Kitabevi, Ankara, s.167. Cascio, W. F. ve E. Bailey (1995), “International Human Resource Management: The State Of Research And Practice”, Shenkar, O., Global Perspectives Of Human Resource Management içinde, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Chow, K. W. (1998), “The Management Of Chinese Cadre Resources: The Politics Of Performance Appraisal (1949-84)”, International Review Of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 54. Czinkota, M. R., I. A. Ronkainen ve M. H. Moffet (1999), International Business, The Dryden Press, Orlando, s.35. Denisi, A. S. ve A. N. Kluger (2000), “Feedback Effectiveness: Can 360 degree appraisals be improved?”, Academy Of Management Executive, Vol. 14, No. 1. Farh, J., G. H. Dobbins ve B. Cheng (1991), “Cultural Relativity In Action: A Comparison Of Self Ratings Made By Chinese And U.S. Workers”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44, s.129,131. Fiske, A. P., S. Kitayama, H. R. Markus ve R. E. Nisbett (1998), The Cultural Matrix Of Social Psychology, McGraw Hill, New York. Greenberg, J. (1991), “Using Explanations To Manage Impressions Of Performance Appraisal Fairness”, Employee Responsibilities And Rights Journal, Vol. 4, s.51-60. Hofstede, G. (1983), “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practises And Theories”, Journal Of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, s.79. Hofstede, G. (1984), Culture’s Consequences: International Differences In Work-Related Values, Abridged Ed., Sage, Beverly Hills. Hofstede, G. (1997), Cultures and Organizations Sofware of the Mind, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Newyork. Holbrook, R. L. (2002), “Contact Points and Flash Points:Conceptualizing The Use Of Justice Mechanisms In The Performance Appraisal Interview”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 12, s.102. Hudgetts, R. M., ve F. Luthans (1993), International Management, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, s.103. Huo, Y. P. ve M. A. Von Glinow (1995), “On Transplanting Human Resource Practices To China: A Culture-Driven Approach”, International Journal Of Manpower, Vol. 16, No. 9. 347 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ilgen, D. R. ve J. M. Feldman (1983), “Performance Appraisal: A Process Focus”, Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 5. Kane, J. S., J. H. Bernardin, P. Villanova ve J. Peyrefitte (1995), “Stability Of Rater Leniency: Three Studies”, Academy Of Management Jourmal, Vol. 38, No. 4, s.1039. Korsgaard, A. M., B. M. Meglino ve S. W. Lester (2004), “The Effect Of Other Orientation On Self-Supervisor Rating Aggreement”, Journal Of Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 25, s.874. Landy, F. ve J. Farr (1980), “Performance Rating”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 87, No. 1, s.82. Latham, G. P., E. D. Pursell ve D. L. Dossett (1975), “Training Managers To Minimize Rating Errors In The Observation Of Behaviour”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 60, No. 5, s.550-555. Locher, A. H. ve K. S. Teel (1977), “Performance Appraisal - A Survey Of Current Practices”, Personnel Journal, Vol. 56, No. 5. London, M. ve J. W. Smither (1995), “Can Multi-Source Feedback Change Perceptions Of Goal Accomplishment, SelfEvaluations, And Performance-Related Outcomes? Theory-Based Applications And Directions For Research”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 48. Longenecker, C. O., H. P. Sims ve D. A. Gioia (1987), “Behind The Mask: The Politics Of Employee Apraisal”, The Academy Of Management Executive, Vol. 1. Miller, D. T. (1999), “The Norm Of Self-Interest”, American Psychologist, Vol. 54, s.1053-1060. Milliman, J., S. Nason, E. Gallagher, P. Huo, M. A.Von Glinow ve K. B. Lowe (1998), “The Impact Of National Culture On Human Resource Management Practices: The Case Of Performance Appraisal”, Advances In International Comparative Management, Vol. 12. Morris, M. W., J. M. Podolny ve S. Ariel (2000), “Culture, Norms And Obligations: Cross-national Differences In Patterns Of Interpersonal Norms And Felt Obligations Toward Coworkers”, Wosinska W., D. Barrett, R. Cialdini, ve J. Reykowski, The Practice Of Social Influence In Multiple Cultures içinde, Lawrence Erlbaum, NJ, s.97-123. Murphy, K. R. ve J. N. Cleveland (1995), Understanding Performance Appraisal Social Organizational And Goal-Based Perspectives, Sage Publishing, USA. Oyserman, D., H. M. Coon ve M. Kemmelmeier (2002), “Rethinking Individualism And Collectivism: Evaluation Of Theoretical Assumptions And Meta-Analysis”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 128. Saal, F. E., R. G. Downey ve M. A. Lahey (1980), “Rating The Ratings: Assesings The Psyhometric Quality Of Rating Data”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, No. 2, s.413-428. Sanchez-Burks, J. (2002), “Protestant Relational Ideology And (In)attention To Relational Cues In Work Settings”, Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, Vol. 83. Sargut, S. (2001), Kültürlerarası Farklılaşma ve Yönetim, 2. Baskı, Đmge Kitabevi, Ankara, s.137,187. Seddon, J. (1987), “Assumptions, Culture And Performance Appraisal”, Journal Of Management Development, Vol. 6. Sheldon, K. M., A. J. Elliot, Y. Kim ve T. Kasser (2001), “What Is Satisfying About Satisfying Events? Testing 10 Candidate Psycholgical Needs”, Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, Vol. 80. Smith, P. B. (2004), “Acquiescent Response Bias As An Aspect of Cultural Communication Style”, Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 1. Spool, M. D. (1978), “Training Programs For Observers Of Behavior: A Review”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 31, s.853. Triandis, H. C. (1989), “The self And Social Behaviour In Differing Cultural Contexts”, Pyschological Review, Vol. 96, No. 3. Triandis, H. C. (1996), “The Pysychological Measurement Of Cultural Syndromes”, American Psychologist, Vol. 51, No. 4, s.408. Triandis, H. C. (2001), “Individualism-Collectivism And Personality”, Journal Of Personality, Vol. 69, No. 6. Triandis, H. C. ve R. W. Brislin (1984), “Cross-Cultural Psychology”, American Psychologist, Vol. 39, s.1006-1017. Warmke, D. L. ve R. S. Billings (1979), “Comparison Of Training Methods For Improving The Psychometric Quality Of Experimental And Administrative Performance Rating”, Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, s.124. 348 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 247 Title A name given to the resource Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BALTACI, Adem Abstract A summary of the resource. Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c9b63a2a9a3361a98945d03e9dd337c.pdf 593e6c5546dfd7600144da25cd03cb8a PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkish Financial Reporting System and Capital Markets’ Regulations Feyyaz YILDIZ Assist.Prof.Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Department of Business Administration, Turkey Cemal ELĐTAŞ Assoc.Prof.Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Department of Business Administration, Turkey celitas@aku.edu.tr Mustafa ÜÇ Res. Assist., Afyon Kocatepe University, Department of Business Administration, Turkey Abstract: Accounting is a knowledge system which records, classifies and summarizes the economic activities of the companies. In this turn accounting has very close links with many social economic factors that shapes an accounting system in a coıuntry. The aim of this paper gives information about contemporary Turkish accounting system and its relation with capital markets’ regulations. Also, this paper reviews current literature on accounting standard setting issues and the last developments in Turkey since 1923. It should be addressed that, there’s no capital markets and bourses before 1980s in Turkey. After this date significant changes has lived both in economy and accounting system in axis of capital markets and candidacy process of European Union. Also this situation brought out theoretical debate on the change of current accounting system from continental Europe to Anglo-Saxon system. 1. Introduction Accounting is referred as a language of business (Mueller et al. 1991). Accounting is not independent discipline. Accounting is shaped by the environment in which it operates. Just as nations different histories, values, and political and economic systems, they also have different patterns of financial accounting development. Accounting is not identical in all countries. This diversity is the result of business environment in the related country. It is interesting to note, too, that when countries’ business environments are similar, their financial accounting systems also tend to be similar (Mueller et al. 1991). In the phase of literature review, we saw that some external and internal factors affect the accounting development in a country. We can point out the factors under these titles which Mueller referred to them (Mueller et al.1991; Çürük, 2001). • Relationship between business and the provider(s) of capital. • Political and economic ties with other countries. • Legal system. • Levels of inflation. • Size and complexity of business enterprises, sophistication of management and the financial community, and general levels of education. Variables mentioned above bring about to develop a country’s accounting system. After a certain time, some nation’s accounting systems begin to resemble each others. And this process concludes the clusters. In accounting literature has got two main accounting clusters (Mueller et al., 2001; Volmer et.al. 2007). They are; British-American (Anglo-American) Model is cited investor-oriented and Continental (Continental European) Model is cited creditor- oriented. The accounting in Turkey has been formed in the line with creditor-oriented,Continental European model. Nevertheless Join Stock companies have got peculiar regulations and we cannot say that only Continental European Accounting regime could have been influenced on preparing and putting forward these regulations (Çürük, 2001). Also it will be beneficial to remind that, in Turkey, official capital markets grew in 1980’s. After the enactment of Capital Market Law (CML) in 1981(Sümer, 1999). Despite the fact that Turkish companies have started to issue securities (mainly shares and bonds) in the 1970s, considerable developments in the securities market in Turkey have been experienced following the years that the CML was enacted. Increase in share issue, particularly following the years that the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) started operation was notable. ISE started operation in 1986 with 40 registered companies and now there are 349 registered companies in ISE as the date of 2009/15.04 (imkb.gov.tr). From the legal system 154 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo perspective, all companies listed on the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) are registered with the Capital Market Board (CMB). Capital Market Board is an institution which entitled by the Capital Market Law. Capital Market Board fulfill the duties and exercise authority which given by the CML (Capital Market Law, Act,17,22). After the introduction, the paper is organized as; following chapter two gives information about regulations in accounting. In the third chapter the new accounting standard setters and their standards will be place after 1980s. Turkey’s prospective European Union (EU) membership and its influence on the accounting is in chapter four. The paper will conclude with chapter five. 2. Accounting Regulations In Turkey In Turkey, all joint stock companies with more than 250 shareholders or which offer their securities to public including all companies listed on the ISE have been required to be registered with CMB. As far as financial reporting is concerned, there is no specific regulation that addresses the listed companies only. Companies listed on ISE, like those companies unlisted but registered with the CMB, are required to their financial reports in accordance with CMB’s regulations (CML.Act;11 and Çürük, 2001). There was no specific regulation or accounting standards that addresses merely the accounting of the private-sector in Turkey until early 1980’s. Turkey, however, has experienced a major breakthrough in the area of accounting and financial reporting since then. The main recent developments that have had direct impact on disclosure practices of Turkish companies have been the financial reporting regulations that were introduced by the Capital Market Board (CMB) in the 1980s and the Ministry of Finance (MF) in the 1990s. In this point, one can say that, before the 1980-1990 period, there is not a differentiation like that listed and unlisted companies in Turkey. Therefore all companies’ accounting practises were carrying out with the same regulations in Turkey until 1980’s. What were these same regulations? These are; Turkish Commercial Code and Turkish Tax Laws. Republic of Turkey’s first Commercial Code is date 1926 and no: 865 code. This code is referred to German resources and brought two important renewals. First renewal was about the joint stock companies’ regulations in the code and second renewal was concerning about obligatory keeping books by companies. This code could not develop accounting practices as expected from business enviroments. Because, state owned joint stock companies’s accounting regulations preserved code’s influence (Turmob, 1998). New Turkish Commercial Code was enacted in 1956. The Commercial Code (TCC) No. 6762 of 1956, which is still in force, was prepared by a committee headed by German Professor Hirsch. TCC No. 6762, is broadly divided into two books. The first books address general principles of commercial trading, including requirements for bookkeeping and the second book addresses commercial partnerships and companies, including limited liability and joint stock companies (Çürük, 2001). Essentially, TCC has shortcomings on the accounting regulations. For instance, it does not take in to consideration “depreciation”. TCC also leave all companies free to choose their amortization methods (Bektöre et.al,2008). On the other side, taxation plays very important role in the formulation and application of accounting in Turkey. Therefore tax laws which issued 1950’s should be noted here. These are: The Income Tax Law (No: 193), the Corporate Tax Law (No: 5422 It’s superseded in 2006also new Corporate Tax Law Enacted in June 2006) and the Tax Procedure Law (Law No: 213). Still listed companies in Turkey prepares two different financial reports first is the in the compliance with CML and Capital Market Board’s regulations and second is that compliant with Tax laws and Ministry of Finance’s regulations. 3. New Accounting Standard Setters And Their Standards In this part, we will try to examine formation and development of accounting standards and their functions for the listed companies after the 1980s up to now. As we specified that the prior parts of this paper, 1980s were very important years for the both listed companies and the development of accounting in Turkey. Two major events occurred in those years. Firstly In 1981 the Capital Market Law (CML) was issued and with respect to this law Capital Market Board (CMB) established. Another major event was, establishing of Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) in 1986. Approximately after two years of its establishment, Capital Market Board, issued its first regulation about accounting and financial reporting. The name of this communiqué is “Standard Financial Statements and Reports” which was introduced in 1983. Also CMB issued a “General Standard Accounts Chart” as a supplement for the companies in 1987. In CMB’s first communiqué involved in; uniformity in the accounting, general accepted accounting principles, financial statements formats and footnotes. (Gökdeniz, 1996:42). The CMB’s first regulation in accounting and financial reporting; Communiqué No. VIII/2 remained in force till 1989. Capital Market Board amended and developed its previous communiqués. As a result, CMB enacted Communiqué No. XI/1. With the respect to enactment of Communiqué No.XI/1, CMB’s previous 155 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo communiqués concerned with accounting and financial reporting were superseded. Also this communiqué shows the compliance with European Fourth Directive (Gökdeniz, 1996). The aim of the Communiqué XI/1 summarized in the Article 1, is to establish principles and rules for the preparation, presentation and publication of financial statements and reports that apply companies controlled by Capital Market Board. “Principles and rules” refer to fundamental accounting concepts, valuation and measurement rules to be used in the preparation of the financial statements and reports. The financial statements stated in Art.1, on the other hand, include a balance sheet, and income statement, cash and fund flow statements, a statement of costs of goods sold and profit distribution statements and reports comprising the annual report and the audit board’s report, as specified in Arts. 2 and 53 of the Communiqué (Çürük, 2001). In the present day, for the listed companies one can say that the most important regulation of Capital Market Board is “Communiqué XI/25”. The exact name of communiqué is “The Communiqué about Accounting Standards in the Capital Market”. This Communiqué is consist of 727 articles and it encompasses each of 33 International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). IFRS take places in the communiqué were showed by a table as a appendix that enclosed this paper. Communiqué XI/25 was introduced by CMB in 2003. But the Communiqué enacted compulsory in 01/01/2005, however, companies willing to carrying out the Communiqué has released free since 31/12/2003. The aim of the Communiqué specifies on Art.1 is to indicate that, accounting principles and rules for the preparation and presentation of financial statements which will be drawn up by the companies. This additional official aim which indicated in the Communiqué, As the President of Capital Market Board Dr. Cansızlar specified that, with the globalization of the capital markets and especially European Union (EU) begin to come to force to the listed companies to prepare their consolidated financial statements as IFRS, that has accelerated of preparation and enactment of Communiqué XI/25 (Ankara SMMM Odası, 2004). In the other hand, after 1990s two accounting standard setters were established in Turkey. First established standard setter was Turkey Accounting and Auditing Standards Board (TMUDESK). TMUDESK has been established with the supporting of Union of Chambers of Certified Public Accountants of Turkey (TURMOB) in 1994. TMUDESK has brought together 60 members who are accounting experts for each related sector in the country. The purpose of TMUDESK is; to indicate the essences of preparation of the financial statements and to fulfill the uniformity in accounting principles for all business enterprises in Turkey. Also the Board worked about determining the Auditance standards. Board paid attention on issuing standard, in compliance with international accounting standards. Therefore the Board were sending reports to International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) concerning with its works in the end of year. In 2001, Board issued 19 accounting standards (Türmob and Tmudesk, 2001). The standards of TMUDESK only had recommedation feature so it caused lacking of support of law and it was resulted with the weakening the influence of TMUDESK (Turmob, 1998:54). In Turkey the real breakthrough in the subject of standard setter is that the establishment of Turkish Accounting Standards Board (TASB). TASB was established with a amendement into Capital Market Law in 2002. TASB is consist of 9 members who are experts in the field of accounting and finance. TASB has got autonomous budget and self-administration. The main mission of TASB is; to determine and publish national accounting standards which will provide adoption and development of national accounting principles and will be applied for public interest for the financial statements have to be, adequate of need, true, reliable, balanced, comparable, understandable in the presentation of audited financial statements. In 2005, TASB and International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation (IASCF) signed a copyright agreement. As the provisions of this agreement, TASB accepts IASCF’s official translation procedure in the process of preparing the standard. Therefore TASB aimed to general acceptance and validity of its standards all over the world (tmsk annual report 2005). The standards were introduced by TASB was named as Turkey Financial Reporting Standard (TFRS) or Turkey Accounting Standard (TAS). The TFRS and/or TAS determined by TASB are classified with the principles of related IFRS or IAS. TASB issued 7 TFRS and 29 TAS up to now. 4. The Relationship Between Prospective Turkey’s EU Membership And Accounting Applications Primary relations between Turkey and EU began with the Ankara Agreement in 1963. It established an association between European Economic Community (EEC) and Turkey. The basic objectives of this association includes the continuous and balanced strengthening of trade and economic relations and the establishment of a customs union in three phases as well as the free movement of workers between parties. The real breakthrough in the relationships between Turkey and the EU came with the decision taken by the Helsinki European Council on 10-11 December 1999. It declared Turkey as the thirteenth candidate states. Compliance with the Copenhagen political criteria was similarly emphasized as a prerequisite for the opening of accession negotiations. From the early 2000s Turkey has made noticeable progress towards the meeting 156 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Copenhagen political criteria owing to reforms like that the New Civil Code. The convergence in many fields with EU was sustained in Turkey (Fişne, 2003). In the side of accounting and finance of this convergence, we can look at Dr.Çürük’s research as a sample. A part of his research is interested in the relationship between Turkish listed companies’ accounting requirements with practices and European Union Fourth Directive (EUFD). In the research, he used the CMB Communiqué and financial statements of the listed companies over the period 1986-1995. He aimed to test the impacts of the EUFD on disclosure requirements and practices in Turkey. Findings of this research indicates that; there is a strong association between the level of emphasis placed on the main disclosure issues in the text of the CMB Communiqué and that in the text of the EUFD and a high level of conformity between the disclosure required by the CMB Communiqué and the EUFD. Even he specified that CMB’s Communiqué is the direct translation of the EUFD. Also he specified that Turkish companies paid increasingly more attention to the disclosure of information required by the EUFD than to the disclosure information not required by the EUFD, particularly following the enactment of CMB Communiqué (Çürük, 2001). As we mentioned in part 3, for the listed companies in Turkey, the most important regulation is “Communiqué XI/25” which issued by CMB. Also this Communiqué is almost direct translation of IFRS. European Parliament and Commission’s requirement (2002) about to adopt International Accounting Standards (IAS) for the listed companies which prepare consolidated financial statements and Communiqué XI/25 in Turkey, point out International Accounting Standards. In this point as far as Turkey adopt the IAS will converge with EU’s requirements on accounting and financial reporting in a certain degree. Also there is a project for convergence of regulation’ institutions in candidate countries with the institutions of member countries. The name of this project is “twinning project”. This project’s framework is to match a candidate country’s regulation institution with a member’s one. In this point Capital Market Board has been matched with German regulation institution BaFin (spk.gov.tr). 5. Conclusion This paper reviews current literature on accounting standard setting and the last developments focused with capital market’s regulations in Turkey. We should address that, there’s no capital markets and bourses before 1980s in Turkey. In those years only accounting standards are commercial code and tax laws. Turkey’s accounting and financial reporting requirements and practices were closed and limited as well as economic activities in the country. In all its aspects, accounting and financial reporting were under the influence of Continental European accounting regime. With the rapid change in economy in 1980s, capital markets gained legality. With the regulations of Capital Market Board, listed companies began to give account of their investors. Now the process of change in accounting and financial reporting began to tend to Anglo-Saxon accounting regime. Especially in lately 1990s and early 2000s first of all institutions established that are only deal with accounting standards. These institutions mainly referred International Accounting Standards (IFRS). While authorities issue standards, also they think to achieve convergence with European Union’s accounting regulations. Especially Turkey Accounting Standard Board (TASB) will has full legal enforcement over the both listed and unlisted companies. Because Turkish Commercial Code draft that is expected to come to force in 2009 or 2010, point out that all companies will comply with TASB’s standards. In this point, recent developments in the accounting and financial reporting indicates that; Turkey adopted IFRS and current constituents of accounting are being tested with IFRS. The accounting constituents which don’t comply with IFRS will be left. References Ankara SMMM Odası (2004) Sermaye Piyasasında Muhasebe Standartları Yayın No: 31, Ankara. 5-7 Bektöre, S., Benligiray, Y., Erdoğan, N., (2008), Dönem Sonu Muhasebe Đşlemleri, Nisan Kitabevi, Eskişehir.107 Çürük, T. (2001) An Analysis of Factors Influencing Accounting Diclosure in Turkey ISE Publications , Tasarım Matb. Đstanbul. 20, 131, 144, 153, 160, 331-336. Fişne, M. (2003) Political Conditions For Being A European State AKU Publications No: 51 Afyon. 99-102 Gökdeniz, Ü. (1996) Muhasebe Standartları Alfa Basın Yayın, Đstanbul. 42. Mueller, G. Gernon, H. Meek, G. (1991) Accounting: An International Perpective Irwin, Second Edition, Boston. 1-16. Sümer, A.,(1999), Türk Sermaye Piyasası Hukuku ve Seçilmiş Mevzuat, Alfa Yayınları, Đstanbul. 3 157 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo TMUDESK (2001) Türkiye Muhasebe Standartları 2001 Turmob yayınları No: 166, Tmudesk Seri No: 5, Ankara. 3 Turmob, Aysan, M vd. (1998) Muhasebe Tarihi Türmob Yayınları No:51, Ankara. 19. Volmer Bp, Werner RJ, Zimmermann J. New Governance Modes of for Germany’s Financial Reporting System: Another Retreat of The Nation State? Socio-Economic Review 2007:5.443 Internet Resources www.spk.gov.tr www.tmsk.org.tr (for annual report) 3-12 Laws Capital Market Law, No:2499 with The Amendment Law No: 3794. Appendix The International Financial Reporting Standards which take place in Communiqué XI/25 (In the Order to the Communiqué) IFRS NO IFRS 1 IFRS 34 IFRS 7 IFRS 18 IFRS 2 IFRS 16 IFRS 38 IFRS 36 IFRS 32 IFRS 39 IFRS 22 IFRS 27 IFRS 28 IFRS 31 IFRS 21 IFRS 29 IFRS 33 IFRS 10 IFRS 37 IFRS 8 IFRS 17 IFRS 24 IFRS 14 IFRS 30 IFRS 11 IFRS 35 IFRS 20 IFRS 40 IFRS 12 TITLE OF IFRS Presentation of Financial Statements Interim financial Reporting Cash Flow Statement Revenue Inventories Property, Plant and Equipment Intangible Assets Impairment of Assets Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement Business Combinations Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Investment in Subsidiaries Accounting for Investments in Associates Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures The Effects of Changes in Foreign exchange Rates Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies Earnings Per Share Events After The Balance Sheet Date Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets Net Profit or Loss for the Period Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies Leases Related Party Disclosures Segment Reporting Disclosure in the Financial Statements of Banks and Similar Financial Institutions Construction Contracts Discontinuing Operations Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance Investment Property Income Taxes IFRS 19 IFRS 26 IFRS 41 Employee Benefits Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans Agriculture Source: Ankara SMMM Odası (2004) p: 350. 158 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 160 Title A name given to the resource Turkish Financial Reporting System and Capital Markets’ Regulations Author Author YILDIZ, Feyyaz ELİTAŞ, Cemal ÜÇ, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Accounting is a knowledge system which records, classifies and summarizes the economic activities of the companies. In this turn accounting has very close links with many social economic factors that shapes an accounting system in a coıuntry. The aim of this paper gives information about contemporary Turkish accounting system and its relation with capital markets’ regulations. Also, this paper reviews current literature on accounting standard setting issues and the last developments in Turkey since 1923. It should be addressed that, there’s no capital markets and bourses before 1980s in Turkey. After this date significant changes has lived both in economy and accounting system in axis of capital markets and candidacy process of European Union. Also this situation brought out theoretical debate on the change of current accounting system from continental Europe to Anglo-Saxon system Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a93ea8c4fd4201549992e127417f99ac.pdf f9cebc21cb29e1bb7941b4b56f1a6e7f PDF Text Text Teaching Religion in a Secular Society Ali Murat YEL Fatih University, Department of Sociology Istanbul, Turkey 1. The Study of Religion in the Classical Period of Islam Religion has been a social reality since the earliest known history of human societies. It is an undeniable fact that man acquires everything in order to survive in this world from the society, in which he is born, raised in and lives his life. The needs for his survival do not only consist of material necessities; he also needs some metaphysical supports. The mechanisms that help man to endure in this world are generally called religions. In fact, systems of values and beliefs are the major component of a society’s culture. Belief systems overlap significantly with the other aspects of culture, for example, these systems may affect the cultural significance of rain, or even a recreational pursuit like playing polo. Religions affect virtually every learned behaviour; therefore, they enjoy a central part of the larger cultural systems in which they exist. Since people learn culture, civilisations throughout history and geographical areas generated their own institutions of learning. There may of course exist some similarities and differences among such institutions because of local traditions, customs, and people’s daily needs, all of which might have required a specific discipline in order to solve their everyday problems such as fiqh (Islamic law), or tasavvuf (Sufism). In the case of the various Islamic societies, the term madhab, which could be translated as “school”, in fact referred to “sect” or “rite” of the people who followed a specific teaching. As in the world of Christianity in the Middle Ages, religion played a very important role in the world of Islam as well. The role of the Islamic religion has been so central in the lives of ordinary Muslims that learning a science for them usually meant learning the tenets and rituals of their religion. Unlike Western legal systems, the shari’ah (the codification of God’s law) does not differentiate between religious and social matters, and it concerns itself with every aspect of social, political, economic and cultural lives of its followers. The idea of studying religion scientifically apart from philosophy, and especially apart from theology, became widespread in the West with F. Max Müller’s pioneering Buddhism studies (1880) in the second half of the 19th century. However, this did not mean that in the West there was no interest in religion and religious phenomena previously. In fact, religion had been one of the prime subjects that had occupied the minds of Western men since the ancient Greeks and many ideas and arguments had been produced about religious phenomena since then. Despite the fact that the investigation of the phenomenon of religion from historical, sociological, psychological, and phenomenological perspective and comparative religious researches appeared very late, humankind could not stay away from this innate phenomenon since its beginning. Thinking about religion and making interpretations of it, as well as of religious events, started in the Islamic world already during the revelation of the Qur’an. First of all, the Qur’an makes it very clear that there is not just one religion; there are religions. Therefore, the Qur’an makes a distinction between the Muslims and others in general; for example, “Thou shalt not find any people who believe in God and the Last Day who are loving to anyone who opposes God and His Messenger, not though they were their fathers or their sons or their brothers, or their clan” (58:22). Even during this initial period of Islam, there appeared works evaluating the terms religion (al-din) and the (real) religion (ad-din al-hakk) in addition to works about the religions of people of the book. The word used in Arabic for religion is din, “obviously related to the Hebrew and Aramaic word meaning law. In both Judaism and Islam, religion and law, though not identical, largely overlap” (Lewis, 1984:12). Of course, Islam is a din among other dins but it needed to define itself as different from others. It did so by differentiating its believers from the followers of other religions. Islam is defined in the Qur’an “against Christianity by verses rejecting the incarnation and the trinity, against Judaism by passages abandoning some of the Jewish dietary laws. Far more important than the rejection of Christianity and Judaism, however, was the rejection of paganism – the main enemy against which the Prophet fought and from which he won the main body of his converts” (ibid.). As a result of this overall rejection of paganism the Qur’an gave a superior position to Christianity and Judaism as against idol-worshippers. Therefore, according to the Qur’an at least three kinds of religions in the world: Islam, the religion per se, other revealed religions, and paganism. This three-partite classification is obvious in the Qur’anic verse as the pagans are excluded 129 �from the mercy of God: “Those who believe [i.e., the Muslims], and those who profess Judaism, and the Christians and the Sabeans, those who believe in God and the Last Day and act righteously, shall have their reward with their Lord; there shall be no fear in them, neither shall they grieve” (2:62). It is perfectly reasonable that the Muslims should inquire about the categories of religions mentioned in the Qur’an. The most important reason why works about religious subject matter and other religions came into being at an early stage is the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, which offered reflections on the term “religion” and on its fundamental characteristics. Secondly, the abundant information on the prevailing religions of other peoples who were living at the time in the Arabian peninsula contributed in a great deal as well. In several places, the Qur’an mentions the Jews and Christians in the Arabian Peninsula, as well as the Sabeans1 and Magians2 who lived nearby. It also speaks about the pagan religion of Mecca and the religion of Hunafa’ (pl. of Hanif, monotheists). These were the Arabic-speaking monotheist people, living in that area, who believed in one God with the concept of many lesser gods that included his daughters, Allat (the goddess), Manat, and Uzzah3. The Muslims made researches about the members of the religions that they encountered in their everyday lives and debated with them according to the information that the Qur’an had offered them. However, these researches were confined to the religions mentioned in the Qur’an, only. Later on, as a result of the expansion through conquests, the Muslims encountered many religions other than their own. In the new circumstances, in which they had to live together with adherents to other faiths, they felt obliged embark on new researches about these religions. The works of the Muslims on other religions were generally of the nature of responding the criticisms coming from these religions and trying to show the superiority of Islam. At other times, these works stressed incoherencies in and invalidity of these religions. Therefore, almost all of them were written in an apologetic nature. The works of Raddiya (Refutation, polemics) are the best examples of this genre. Thus, Raddiyas against Christians4, Jews, Magians, Dualists, and pagans came into being. The best example of these works is the book of the Andalusian scholar Abu Muhammad Ali b. Ahmed Ibn Hazm (d. 456/1063) entitled Kitab al-fasl fi‘l-milal wa al-ahwa’ wa al-nihal (Book on the other religions and sects and denominations within them). This book contains some critical evaluations of the Jewish and Christian sacred texts. In addition to the al-Fasl of Ibn Hazm, there were other scholarly and more objective works, such as Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani’s (d.547/1153) al-Milal wa al-Nihal (Beirut: Dar al-Maarifa, 1961; Book of Religions and Sects)5 and Abu al-Raihan Muhammad b. Ahmed al-Biruni’s (d. 478/1048) famous work known as 1 The Qur’an mentions quite favourably a group known as the Sabeans, who were by the second century identified with various star-worshipping but still vaguely monotheistic sects in Mesopotamia. The Sabeans are tolerated in Islamic law, although they are less privileged than the Jews and Christians, a position reflected in the ruling in Shari‘a that a Muslim may not marry their women or eat their meat. 2 The Magian (the name is taken from the wise men or wonder-workers of the Middle East, the magi) is a person who believes there is one God (Ahura Mazda “the Knowing Lord”) whose Good Spirit is constantly opposed to the spirit of evil. This belief is also known as Zoroastrianism, which encompassed geographically the Persian plateau, the Arabian peninsula, the fertile crescent down into Egypt and well up into the Anatolian peninsula where East meets West. The rise of the religions--the Judaic, the Christian, and the Islamic--were in the Magian environment with its down to earth views of a contained sky vault or firmament. Heaven as an actual place somewhere in the universe, could even be transposed as a paradise garden such as Eden in an arid landscape on earth. 3 During the later period in Mecca, and above all, in Medina, the word 'hanif' is usually employed in reference to Abraham, where the Qur'an’s author emphasizes the point that, 'Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but a 'Hanif', a Muslim, one who did not belong to the idol-worshippers.'(3:60, 2:129). Since Abraham is thus represented as a 'Hanif', but was neither a Jew nor a Christian, Muhammad must have viewed him (as he did not have the Torah nor Gospel) as a man who had followed the above mentioned God-given disposition, and had cut himself free of the worship of idols. The Christians and Jews therefore, had no right to claim Abraham as their own, as he acted according to natural instinct, requiring neither the Torah nor Gospel to submit himself truly to God. 'Hanif' thus means for Muhammad, as indicated (in the majority of uses) one who is not of the idolworshippers, yet is neither a Jew nor a Christian, attaching himself to one of these religious communities. 4 As an example of a detailed study on the polemics written by Muslims against Christianity please see Aydın 1989. 5 This work was translated into English -I believe with a wrong title- as Muslim Sects and Divisions, (tr. by A. Z. Kazi and J. G. Flynn, London: Kegan Paul International, 1984) 130 �Tahqiq-i Hindi1. The former work was devoted to the comparative study of religions in general while the latter had a specific religion namely, Hinduism as its subject matter. In the introduction of this book al-Biruni complains that “while the Muslims had been able to produce fairly objective works on such religions as Judaism and Christianity, they had been unable to do so with regard to Hinduism and that, therefore he was going to attempt the task” (Rahman 1979:4). The Muslim authors dealing with religions and religious phenomena generally adopted the classification and the fundamental concepts of the Qur’an and then they considered other religions according to these terms. The Qur’an first of all defines the purpose of creation as belief in Allah and living a life in this world according to His will; it then classifies humankind into two groups in accordance with their willingness to accept this responsibility: as believers and non-believers. The terms Mu’min (believer) or Muslim (a person who surrenders to the will of God) are used to describe those who had accepted the message of the Qur’an and the term Kafir is used for those who did not obey the religion of Islam. The groups that are defined as Kafirs and who remain outside the religion of Islam are further divided into several sub-groups such as Jews and Christians who make up the ahl al-kitab (people of the book), pagans, Magians, and Sabeans (their status is a little ambiguous since, they were also reckoned among the ahl al-kitab by some scholars). According to the accepted dogma of Islam, all religions that were revealed to the prophets are the same in essence and all have the same divine origin. This religion, which was sent by Allah through His prophets to mankind, is called the (real) Religion (ad-Din al-Hakk) or the religion of Allah; the last version of this religion which was revealed to the prophet Muhammad is again called as Islam and it is accepted that the religion which was propagated by other prophets earlier is the same as Islam. The Muslims who considered religion from this point of view regarded religions other than Islam as false and corrupted. Their evaluations of them were mainly based on this understanding. Their religious investigations in earlier times in general adopted this view and consequently these religions, which were regarded as false or corrupt, were criticised. In the meantime, however, there were many other works on the essence and necessity of religion and other religions in an impartial and scientific way. Philosophy of Religion, which constitutes an essential part of the Sciences of Religion, was also dealt with intense care under the disciplines of Kalam (Theology) and Sufism. 2. The place of the discipline of History of Religions in the educational institutions throughout Turkish history 1 Tahqiq ma li al-Hind min ma’kula makbula fi al-akl aw marzula, (Hydarabad: Daira al-Maarif al-Nizamiyya, 1958). This book was translated into English and edited by Edward C. Sachau as Alberuni’s India, (Delhi: Chand & Co., 1964), for an excellent evaluation of the work of al-Biruni please see; Arvind 1991, Embree 1971, and Lawrence 1976. 131 �During the formation and progressive periods of the Ottoman state the discipline of the History of Religions was not to be found in the curricula of the madrasas (schools), of course, as these institutions were the basic and perhaps the most advanced teaching organisations throughout the Empire, there is no need to mention the fact that in other parts of the country or schools the subject was not taught. The works on the History of Religions that came into being in 19th-century Europe had a considerable effect in the Ottoman state and consequently the program of the Darulfunun Edebiyat Fakultesi (Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature) contained a class of Tarih-i Umumi ve Ilm-i Esatiri’lEvvelin (lit., General History and Science of the Religions of Earlier Peoples, “Mythology”) in 1874. There were some attempts, especially during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839), to reform the education system of the country after the Western style. After the death of Mahmud II his son Abdulmecid (18231861) became the sultan. He was a modernist sultan and gave importance to education as well. He demanded to be brought some brilliant students from all over the country to the Darul Maarif (a high quality private school that was established in order to prepare students for the Darulfünun) in Istanbul. These students, upon their completion of their studies were also sent to Paris to carry out their education. Reshid Pasha (1800-1858), for example, was his grand vizier who had a great impact on him about the Westernisation of the country. Ali Pasha (1815-1871) was also another grand vizier during the reigns of Abdulmecid and Abdulaziz,. Like Reshid Pasha he was also sent to several European countries as an ambassador. This post enabled him to compare the education systems of these countries and the Ottoman one. He was also of the opinion that the children of the religious minorities should be mixed with Muslim students in the schools lest Greek and Bulgarian subjects have hostile feelings towards Turks. Since the education of the Greeks children in Greece and the education of the Bulgarian pupils in Russia would make them see the Turks as their enemies, naturally, such activities should be avoided; as a result, he suggested to open a new school (the Galatasaray Sultanisi – Galatasaray High School) for these children (Akyüz 1985:165-66). Although the decision was made in 1846 to set up a Darulfunun, the opening of this university was as late as 18631. According to the 1863 Act of Maarifi-i Umumiyye (general education) the university was to have three departments, namely, Hikmet ve Edebiyat (Philosophy and Literature), Ilm-i Hukuk (Science of Law) and Ulum-i Tabiiyye ve Riyaziyye (Natural and Mathematical Sciences). After the proclamation of the Second Parliamentary Monarchy (1908), there was a course unit of Tarih-i Din-i Islam ve Tarih-i Edyan (History of Islam and History of Religions) at the Faculty of Theology in 1911. The madrasas of Istanbul were brought together under a new institution of Daru’l-Hilafetu’l-Aliyye in accord with the Act of Islah-i Medaris (Reformation of the Schools, 2 September 1914; Akyüz, 1985:263) and the Faculty of Theology was restructured as the Madrasatu’l-Mutehassisin (School of Experts) and at its department of Kalam, Sufism, Philosophy, and a course of Tarih-i Edyan ve Mezahib (History of Religions and Sects) were taught. Again, according to the Act of October 1917, the Madrasatu’l-Mutehassisin was transformed into Madrasa-i Suleymaniyye (School of Suleiman) as a superior institution above the Daru’l-Hilafetu’l-Aliyye and at the Department of Philosophy and Theology (Hikmet ve Kelam) the course of Tarih-i Edyan ve Din-i Islam (History of Religions and Islamic Religion) was taught. In the Republic era, that is, after 1923 under the effects of the 1924 Act of Unification of Instruction (Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu) Madrasa-i Suleymaniyye took the name of Ilahiyat Fakultesi (Faculty of Divinity) and at this department the courses of Felsefe-i Din (Philosophy of Religion), Turk Tarih-i Dinisi (History of Turkish Religion) and Tarih-i Edyan (History of Religions) became available. The Faculty of Theology was closed down in 1933 and a new institution was opened the same year; at the Institute of Islamic Research (Islam Tedkikleri Enstitusu) two courses were taught: Türk Dinleri ve Mezhepleri Tarihi (History of Turkish Religions and Sects) and Umumi Dinler Tarihi (General History of Religions). Three years later, in 1936 the Institute of Islamic Research was abolished and in 1949 the Faculty of Divinity was opened in Ankara. At this faculty, at the Higher Institutes of Islam (Yuksek Islam Enstitutusu), which was opened after 1959, and at the high schools of Imam Hatip (Imam-Preacher), which provided students for the higher education, there existed courses of History of Religions. In contemporary Turkey at the faculties of theology and imam-hatip high schools, History of Religions is taught. It was Ahmed Midhat Efendi (1844-1912) who taught the course of History of Religions for the first time at the Department of Sciences of Sharia in the Daru’l-Funun-i Osmani (Ottoman University). He also wrote a book entitled Tarih-i Edyan (History of Religions, Daru’l-Hilafe, 1328/1911). There was, of course, some information on the history of prophets and religious history in the history books (like the books of Kisas-i Enbiya - Stories of Prophets), nonetheless; the work of Ahmed Midhat Efendi (Mudafaya Mukabele ve Mukabeleye Mudafa, [Replication to Defence and Defence against Replication], Istanbul: Tercuman-ı 1 For a detailed history of the University, please see Ayni 1995. 132 �Hakikat, 1883) was very different in terms of the subjects it dealt. In it, Ahmed Midhat Efendi stresses the importance of religious geography and he explains the significance of religion and theories of history of religion. He also investigates religions of Mongolia, America, Egypt, Greece, Germany, China, Japan, Iran and India. If this book is examined thoroughly, it would be obvious that Ahmed Midhat Efendi follows closely the book Manuel d’Histoire des Religions (Paris: Librarie Armand Colin, 1904) of Chastepie de la Saussaye. After Ahmed Midhat Efendi there were some other authors who wrote books on history of religions, such as Mahmud Esad Seydisehri (Tarih-i Edyan, Istanbul, 1912) and M. Şemseddin Gunaltay (Tarih-i Edyan, Istanbul, 1919). The book of M. Şemseddin Gunaltay deals with subjects such as the Science of Religion, History of Religions, Philosophy of Religions, the origin of the Science of Religion, its historical developments and its current situation in the Islamic world, the essence and classification of religion, the origin of the concept of religion, primitive religions and finally, Chinese and Japanese religions. Georges Dumézil taught the classes of Tarih-i Edyan at the Faculty of Divinity between the years 1924 and 1927. In the next six years (1927-1933) Hilmi Omer Budda gave these classes there. It was Fuat Koprulu who gave the classes of Turk Tarih-i Dinisi (History of Turkish Religion; Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1985) and Mehmet Emin taught Philosophy of Religion at the same faculty. At the Institute of Islamic Research which was run between the years 1933 and 1936 Omer Hilmi Budda gave these classes. Hilmi Omer Budda published his book entitled Dinler Tarihi (History of Religions) in 1935. This work dealt only with the religions of India, China, and Japan, and the section on Buddhism extensively relied on Hermann Oldenberg’s book Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die Anfange des Buddhismus1. After a blank period, that is, the prohibition of religious teaching in Turkish Republic between the years 1936 and 1949, Omer Hilmi Budda taught History of Religions in the Faculty of Divinity until 1952, which was opened in Ankara again in 1949. In the next two years Mehmet Karasan gave these classes and from 1954 to 1959 they were given by Annemarie Schimmel (Dinler Tarihine Giriş, [Introduction to History of Religions]). After 1959 they were given by Kemal Balkan and the teacher of many contemporary lecturers of History of Religions in Turkey, Hikmet Tanyu. There are 22 faculties of theology in modern Turkey and the experts of this discipline give the classes of History of Religions. The researches that have been made in Turkey so far, have been mainly pursued in the following fields: 1- The works of the Muslims (such as Ibn Hazm, Makdisi, Abu al-Meali, Razi, etc.) on History of Religions (for example, Belenköylü 1991 and Gürbüzer 1990); 2- Investigations into some specific phenomena in certain religions (for example, the institution of Sabbath and the belief in the Afterlife in Christianity, see Gürkan 1994, Paçacı 1989 and Atasagun 1989); 3- A comparative investigation of a phenomenon in various religions (for example, Adam, repentance, grace, angel, pilgrimage, etc. in divine religions; see Adam 1989, Cenan 1994, Yüce 1975 and Erbaş 1992); 4- Works on sects or denominations (for example, Unitarianism, Church of Chalcedony or Suryanism (Syrian Orthodox Church), etc.; see Çelik 1985, Albayrak 1995 and Bilge 1990); 5- The ancient tribes that were mentioned in the Qur’an like Ad and Sodom (for example, Yıldız 1989); 6- Works on the refutations of other religions (for example the Refutation of Tabari against Christianity; see Coşar 1985 and Güler 1989); 7- The religions of minorities in modern Turkey (for example, the Jews of Istanbul or the Protestant churches in Istanbul; see Alkoç 1997 and Lekesiz 1983); 8- Interreligious relationships (such as the theme of dialogue and the relations between Islam and Judaism; see Yılmaz 1995 and Ceran 1992); 9- Certain religions or religious concepts from an Islamic point of view (for example, Jesus, Moses or Judaism; see Akdemir 1992, İlbay 1990, Kutluay 1964 and Tezokur 1992); 10- Works on the sacred texts of other religions (for example, Vedas, Torah, Bible, etc.; see Demirci 1988); 11- Works on the Turkish world (for example, beliefs of various Turkish tribes, etc.; see Albayrak, Ali 1995 and Özdemir 1977). As can be seen from the above-mentioned works contemporary researches on History of Religions in Turkey have the following objectives: 1 This book has recently been translated into English by Shrotti (1991). 133 �a- They aim at unearthing the cultural heritage and its evaluation. b- Some works have a specific purpose of understanding various religious groups. c- There are also other works that try to give accurate information about other religions to the Turkish public in a world that becomes smaller every day. d- Some other studies try to define the nature of interreligious relations throughout history. In sum, all these attempts should be considered in the light of the significance of religion in future. It should also be mentioned that there are other researches and investigations in the subfields of religious sciences such as Sociology of Religion and Psychology of Religion. These works have become increasingly sophisticated since the 1950s. Ziya Gokalp, a follower and a representative of the school of Emile Durkheim in Turkey made the first studies in sociology. Gokalp, at the beginning, believed that Islam would have a positive effect on the progress of the Muslim societies and it would help these societies to adopt modern institutions (cf. Gokalp 1917). However, he changed this attitude on religion and its functions in society later and in the end religion became just one of the elements of social life and culture. Religion, according to him, was now reduced into some rituals and activities of religious groups or at most, it is one of many other institutions of social life. Gokalp, like Durkheim before him, distinguishes between two sets of phenomena; sacred and profane. For him, there are two kinds of rituals in Islam, namely, negative rituals and positive rituals. Negative rituals are individualistic rituals such as fasting, almsgiving (zakah), avoiding gossip and praying alone. The aim of these rituals are making the individual a good citizen, who loves his/her country (yurtsever). If these rituals are performed publicly, like praying the Jum’a (Friday) prayer or pilgrimage, then, these rituals would become reference points for the harmony in society (Gokalp 1917b). The ideas and beliefs of Ziya Gokalp played a very important role in the formation of the Republic and the consequent revolutions as modernisation was understood in terms of modernisation in religion. In other words, the attempts to create a new Turkish identity -independent of Ottoman or Muslim identities- were mainly based on the assumption that if and when religious knowledge is transformed from Arabic to Turkish then Turkish nation would be freed from the ummah (an entity that assumes all the Muslims in the world are just one nation). Apart from the fact that Ziya Gokalp was the most important figure in Turkish sociology, the reason why he was so influential in Turkish politics could be explained by his personal relationships with the current political figures. As that circle of friends came to power his ideas gained a source of legislation. Later, the researches in this field took Turkish history and Islam as their subjects, especially under the supervision of and guidance of the works by H. Ziya Ulken (1979) and Sabri Ulgener (1981). The writings of Mumtaz Turhan (1951) and Nurettin Topçu (1970) in the 1950s are especially noteworthy. M. Turhan investigates social changes in the social life, the fundamental problems of the system of education and the question of Westernisation in both theoretical and practical levels; while N. Topçu stresses the function and role of religion in a changing social structure. Ali Fuat Basgil (1962) and Osman Turan (1964) wrote about the relationship between religion and state which is a hot topic of discussion since the beginning of the Republic. The works of Serif Mardin (1969) and Niyazi Berkes (1973) investigate the socio-cultural structure of modern Turkey, specifically trying to define its religio-social and historical background in the light of the concept of modernisation. The studies in the field of the psychology of religion, have a relatively recent past. Bedii Ziya Egemen (1952 and 1965) was the first academic who did some researches in this field in Turkey. Since it is a new discipline most of the work in psychology of religion are concentrated on the developmental psychology. 3. Some Considerations and Comments on the Teaching of Religion in the Republican Era The Turkish Republic, which was founded on Ottoman soil, defined its ultimate purpose as reaching the same level of contemporary civilisation; in other words, when the Ottomans felt humiliated against their Western opponents in almost every field from military to politics, they decided to make their country modernised. In order to reach this very well-defined objective it was stressed that the society should be Westernised immediately. One of the elements of Westernisation was that religion, as in the Western society should be excluded from public and political life altogether. For the supporters of such a belief, religion should be understood as exclusively an individual relationship between man and God. Therefore, first of all the institution of Khalifate was disestablished on 3 March 1924 and with two new bills the state ministries of Sharia and foundations (Şer’iyye ve Evkaf Nezareti) were abolished. The Religious Affairs and Foundations were not ministries any more, but began to be administered by two presidencies under the prime minister. All matters related to education were monopolised by the state and the madrasas were closed down. The religious courts were abolished. All of these developments were the first steps of secularisation in the country. 134 �The tekkes (religious lodges) and similar institutions were also abolished. Religious dress was prohibited in 1925. In the next year, the Swiss Civil Code became the civil code of Turkey. This movement reflected a wholly secular world-view. The second article of the Constitution, which proclaimed “the religion of the state is Islam”, was abolished in 10 April 1928. The principle of secularisation was inserted into the Constitution in 1937. As Serif Mardin points out Ataturk took the movement of Westernisation under his patronage since he associated it with the contemporary civilisation. In other words, he just continued to execute existing attempts towards Westernisation (Mardin 1956). Although we are against the generalisations as they make the social reality appear to be analysed in simple terms but in order to elaborate our argument about the transformation of the Turkish society from Ottoman to Turkish Republic we feel compelled to resort to some generalisations. Simply, Islam was the main reference point in regulating the Ottoman society. Daily life was interpreted through the Islamic framework. The Ottomans believed that their world supremacy proved that the religion of the state was right and there was no reason why this belief system should not continue as it was. However, when the Ottoman state fell behind the Western powers in the 19th century, the officials of the state felt to imitate the West, either through a reformation or changing the status of their religion in the society. In fact, with the change in the superior status of the Ottoman state the social relations had changed as well. There was no harmony between religious life and profane life; as a result which the country was occupied by the positivist sciences and ideas. Religion in the Islamic civilisation represents the ultimate organisational factor; that is, it is the most important force to regulate daily life. Therefore, it is understandable that teaching or learning religion is an indispensable part of a Muslim’s life. In the theocratic regimes religion was taught all students in the general curricula of schools but if and when a regime becomes more secular, then religion becomes just another subject among many other classes taught in the school. That is the reason why we are proposing a distinction between religious teaching and teaching religion. As in the case of Turkey, the transformation of the country from a more religious regime to a secular one, had an enormous effect on the teaching of religion. In the Republican era, with the attempts of Westernisation, which usually means secularisation, religious teaching had lost its importance, and even from time to time it was abolished altogether. Later attempts to restore religious education could not go further than to place a unit of “Religious Culture and Knowledge of Morality – Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi” in state schools’ curriculum. References Adam, Baki 1989. Dinlerde Hac İbadeti Üzerine bir Araştırma, (An Investigation on the Ritual of Pilgrimage in Religions), unpublished PhD thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Albayrak, Ali 1995. Cengiz Aytmatov’un eserlerinde eski Türk dini inançlarının tesbiti ve değerlendirilmesi, (An investigation of the old Turkish beliefs in the works of Cengiz Aytmatov), unpublished PhD thesis, erciyes University, Kayseri. Albayrak, Kadir 1995. Keldani Kilisesi, (The Church of Chalcedony), unpublished MA thesis, Erciyes University, Kayseri. Alkoç, Mustafa 1997. Günümüzde Istanbul’daki Protestan Kiliseleri, (The Protestant Churches in Istanbul Today), unpublished MA thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul. Akdemir, Salih 1992. Hıristiyan Kaynaklara ve Kur’an-ı Kerim’e göre Hz. İsa, (Jesus according to Christian Sources and the Qur’an), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Akyüz, Yahya 1985. Türk Eğitim Tarihi, Başlangıçtan 1985’e, Ankara: Ankara University Press. Arvind, Sharma 1991. Karma and rebirth in Alberuni’s India, Asian Philosophy, vol. I, issue 1, pp. 77-91. Atasagun, Galip 1989. Hristiyanlıkta Dünyanın Sonu ve Ahiret Kavramı, (The End of World and the Concept of Afterlife in Christianity), unpublished MA thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Aydın, Mehmet 1989. Müslümanların Hıristiyanlığa Karşı Yazdığı Reddiyeler ve Tartışma Konuları, Konya: Selçuk University Press. Ayni, Mehmet Ali 1995. Daru’l-Fünun Tarihi, (ed. by Metin Hasırcı), Istanbul: Pınar Yayınları. Başgil, A. Fuat 1962. Din ve Laiklik, Istanbul. 135 �Belenköylü, Ramazan 1991. İbn Hazm, Biruni ve Şehristani’nin Tenasüh İnancı Hakkındaki Görüşleri, (Ibn Hazm, al-Biruni and al-Shahristani’s Views on the Belief of Incarnation), unpublished PhD thesis, 9 Eylül University, Izmir. Berkes, Niyazi 1973. Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma, Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi. Bilge, Yakup 1990. Süryanilerin Kökeni ve Türkiyeli Süryaniler, (The Roots of Syrian Orthodox Church and its Turkish Members), unpublished PhD thesis, Istanbul University, Istanbul. Cenan, Süleyman 1994. Hristiyanlık ve İslam İlahiyatında Ahiret İnancı, (The Belief in Afterlife in the Theologies of Christianity and Islam), unpublished PhD thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Ceran, A. Şeref 1992. XIII. Asırda Anadolu Selçuklularında Müslim, Gayr-i Müslim Münasebetleri, (The Muslim and nonMuslim Relationships in the Anatolian Saljuk State in the 13th Century), unpublished PhD thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Coşar, Ramazan 1985. Taberi Tarihinde Yahudilikle İlgili Kısımların İncelenmesi, (An Investigation of the Parts of the Tarih alTabari that are Related to Judaism), unpublished MA thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Çelik, Mehmet 1985. Süryani Kadim Kilisesi, Doğuşu ve Gelişmesi, (Syrian Old Orthodox Church: Its Birth and Development), unpublished PhD thesis, Ataturk University, Erzurum. Demirci, Kürşat 1988. Vedalar ve Doktrini, (Vedas and their Doctrine), unpublished PhD thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul. Egemen, B. Ziya 1952. Din Psikolojisi: Saha, Kaynak ve Metot Üzerine Bir Deneme, Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. ------------- 1965. Terbiye İlminin Problemleri ve Terbiye Felsefesi, Ankara: Ankara University Basımevi. Embree, Ainslie T. 1971. Alberuni’s India, New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Erbaş, Ali 1992. İlahi Dinlerde Melek İnancı, (The Belief of Angel in Revealed religions), unpublished MA thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul. Gokalp, Ziya 1917. İctimai Mezhepler ve İctimaiyyat, Yeni Mecmua, issue 26, p. 501-3. --------------- 1917b. İslam İctimaiyyatı: Dinin İctimai Hizmetleri III, Müsbet Ayinler, İslam Mecmuası, issue 37 (24 September 1331). Güler, Bayram 1989. Taberi Tefsirinde Ehl-i Kitaba Yapılan Atıfların Tevrat ile Mukayesesi, (A Comparison of the References of Tabari about Ahl al-Kitab with the Torah), unpublished MA thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir. Gürbüzer, Ibrahim 1990. İbn Hazm’a göre Dinler ve İnanç Sistemleri, (Religions and Belief Systems according to Ibn Hazm), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Gürkan, Salime 1994. Yahudilikte Şabbat (Sebt): Kökeni, İlgili İnanç ve Uygulamalar, (Sabbath in Judaism: Its Roots, Related Belief and Practises), unpublished MA thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul. İlbay, Şakir 1990. Kur’an ve Tevrat’ta Hz. Musa ve Yahudilik, (Moses and Judaism in the Qur’an and Torah), unpublished PhD thesis, Atatürk University, Erzurum. Kutluay, Yaşar 1964. İslam Mezhepleri ile Yahudi Mezhepler ve Mukayeseleri, (Islamic Sects and Judaic Sects and their Comparison), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Lawrence, Bruce B. 1976. Shahrastani on the Indian Religions, The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. Lekesiz Bedrettin 1983. Ermeni Kilisesi Sakramentleri (Ayinleri), (The Sacraments of the Armenian Church), unpublished MA thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Lewis, Bernard 1984. The Jews of Islam, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Mardin, Serif 1956. Atatürk ve İnkılaplar Münasebetiyle, in Forum, vol. 6, issue 64 (15 November 1956), p. 10-11. -------------- 1969. Din ve İdeoloji, Ankara: Ankara Üniversity Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları. Müller, F. Max 1880. The Sacred Books of the East, Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Oldenberg, Hermann 1991. The Doctrine of the Upanisads and the Early Buddhism, translated by Shridhar B. Shrotri, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 136 �Özdemir, Mehmet 1977. Eski Türklerde Şamanlıkla İlgili İnançlar ve İncelemeler, (Shamanistic Beliefs among the Ancient Turks), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Paçacı Mehmet 1989. Kur’an’da ve Kitab-ı Mukaddes’te Ahiret İnancı, (The Belief of Afterlife in the Qur’an and Bible), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. Rahman, Fazlur 1979 [1966]. Islam, second edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sachau, Edward C. (tr. & ed.), 1964. Alberuni's India: An account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, etc., Vol. I & II, Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Schimmel, Annamarie 1955. Dinler Tarihine Giriş, Ankara: Ankara University, Faculty of Divinity Press. al-Shahrastani, Abd al-Karim (tr. & ed. A. Z. Kazi and J. G. Flynn) 1984. Muslim Sects and Divisions, London: Kegan Paul International. Tezokur, M. Hadi 1992. Yahudilikte İbadet ve İnanç Esasları, (Rituals and Beliefs in Judaism), unpublished MA thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Topçu, Nurettin 1970. Din Eğitimi, Hareket Dergisi, vol. 5, issue 55. Turan, Osman 1964. Türkiye’de Manevi Buhran: Din ve Laiklik, Ankara. Turhan, Mümtaz 1951. Kültür Değişmeleri, Istanbul: Istanbul University Yayınları. Ülgener, F. Sabri 1981. İktisadi Çözülmenin Ahlak ve Zihniyet Dünyası, Istanbul: Der Yayınları. Ülken, Hilmi Ziya 1979. Türkiye’de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, Istanbul: Ülken Yayınları. Yıldız, Muharrem, 1989. Kitab-ı Mukaddes ve Kur’an-ı Kerim Açısından Ad, Semud ve Lut Kavimleri, (The Tribes of Ad, Sodom and Lot from the Perspective of Bible and Qoran), unpublished MA thesis, Selçuk University, Konya. Yılmaz, Hüseyin 1995. Kur’an’da Müslim ve Gayr-i Müslim Münasebetleri, (The Relationship between Muslims and nonMuslims in the Qur’an), unpublished PhD thesis, Atatürk University, Erzurum. Yüce, Jale 1975. İlahi Dinlerde Melek, (The Concept of Angel in Revealed Religions), unpublished PhD thesis, Ankara University, Ankara. 137 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 351 Title A name given to the resource Teaching Religion in a Secular Society Author Author YEL, Ali Murat Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/283fa0cbc4cae3e65699fe6f2e66136a.pdf 0253c93f340c2825b27922d88d0fc4b6 PDF Text Text Sustainable Development as a Course: Social Service Applications M. Ruhat YAŞAR Education Faculty, Kilis 7 Aralık University, Turkey. e-mail: ruhat@hotmail.com Ömer AYTAÇ Sociology Department, Fırat University, Turkey. e-mail: oaytac75@hotmail.com Abstract: This study includes a general analysis of the “Social Service Applications” course, which became part of the curriculum of Education Faculties in 2006-2007 in Turkey within the context of sustainable development. A holistic perspective that takes socio-cultural elements into account instead of a deterministic view which stresses only the economic factors is very important in sustainable development. Enhancing knowledge and policies must be shared in a cooperative way, as improvement of social life is very important for sustainable development. Therefore, the objectives and contents of the afore mentioned course is in line with the aim of utilizing human resources within the context of social problems, which is very important in social development. This approach which enhances the development of social life necessitates a new cooperation that will secure cooperation between universities and society. “Social Service Applications” course is, therefore, an important opportunity within the context of sustainable development. In this study, it is verified that university students who are conditioned not to take responsibility without being given homework get used to taking responsibility within the context of the course. The study also comprises evaluations of what can be done to make the course more useful and efficient, as well as its role in sustainable development. The study discusses the coordination between the university, civil society and public management in the applicability of the course, as well. Introduction Along with developments that have occurred in the international system since the 1990s, the growthcentered development approach has begun to change. Politically, the end of the Cold War, the East Europe's disengagement, a growing struggle for national independence, energy wars, ethnic turmoil, poverty, population movements, lack of education and deterioration of ecological balance brought about the sustainability problem, and thus, the orthodox economy that take man as the tool of development and the unmanned management have begun to be questioned. Today man is face to face with risks he produced himself rather than natural risks. Moreover, it is known that these risks will not be limited to only one nation or region, because the fact that the world is an integrated whole has been understood better. According to a United Nations’ Report (2001) it is estimated that the world’s population will rise to 9.3 billion in 2050. Even this fact alone can lead to serious chaos in relation with basic needs such as environment, health, and nutrition, as well as social and political issues. According to the same projection, there is a high probability that in 2025, 48 countries will suffer from water scarcity and dozens of countries will be inflicted with poverty, hunger, terrorism and conflicts (Şenyüz, 2001). 85 years ago, B. Russell assumed that industrialization will bring abundance to the present generation, poverty to the second generation and famine to the third generation unless preventive measures are not taken. In modern world, where defense expenses and money paid for weapons reach tremendous levels, idealogies that are built on the idea that resources are scarce have no meaning. Probably the most lethal weapon is the idea that resources are insufficient, because human beings have been in a merciless struggle against each other and the nature over the issue of utilizing the resources since the industrial revolution, and thus have begun to threaten the future of humanity. Factors such as two world wars in the 20th Century, the cold war period, industrialization, unfair distribution of income, poverty, population growth have destroyed the natural and social environment rapidly. Social and environmental problems obscure the issue of what is rational and what is irrational. Hence, the end of wealth state, Chernobyl disaster and the collapse of the Berlin Wall are actually seen as signs of ambiguous rationality/irrationality. The search for sustainable development has drawn a great deal of attention due to the risks these indicators point to. Risk society alludes to evident ambiguity, dread created by illusion about borders and the world’s farewell to order (Bech, 1999: 9). Today, a new era has begun, in which security has replaced values such as 49 �equality and freedom and impulse of ‘fear’ in societies with a cast system (Bech, 1992: 49). According to Baudrillard, these general feelings of insecurity are the price of being a consumption society. In fact, his insecurity and fear is not in vain. From this perspective, first of all, it is necessary to rethink the question whether environment is part of the economy or vica versa. Method In this study, first a literature survey on sustainable development was conducted and later the relationship between sustainable development, civil society, and education was probed. It also includes an account of the discussions among specialists at a worshop in Mersin, Turkey over the issue of the “Social Service Applications Course”. Later, a focus group study was implemented within the context of the course and as part of this study leaders of the six groups formed earlier were asked to express their feelings and experiences concerning the course activities. The discussions were tape-recorded. In this qualitative study, the problems they encountered and their suggestions to solve the problems, their views about the course, their impressions of the host-institution, were evaluated. The focus group study took about four hours, and each participant talked for about 45 minutes. However, the speeches were not in the form of monologues, but rather conversations. The discussions and evaluations that took place in the focus group study were summarized and were included in the present study in the form of brief items. Sustainable Development Today, most countries argue for the best ways of development on the one hand and are face to face with a new concept, sustainable development, which criticizes present development perspective, on the other. The term ‘sustainable development’, which came around in 1970s, means programming the present and future in a way that addresses the needs of future generations by building a balance between human beings and nature and without exhausting natural resources. In this sense, sustainable development is a modernization style that is reflected in the aphorism that “the world is entrusted to us by our grandchildren”. The term ‘sustainable development’, which stands for the permanence of a quantitative and qualitative development, has also been defined as “addressing today’s needs without making a concession on future generations’ opportunity to meet their own needs.” (T.Ç.V., 1987: 31-67); (OECD, 2001). Although the term seems to emphasize the importance of environmental protection, it comprises topics such as improving life quality, immigration, population explosion, as well as social problems such as urbanization, health problems and poverty (TÜBİTAK, 2002: 3). For instance, at the Johannesburg Conference in 2002, issues such as fighting poverty, planning the utilization of natural resources in global action against poverty, and the relationship between poverty and the environment were discussed (UNDESA, 2003: 4). Human-environment interaction takes place in essence upon the basis of values that determine the basic codes of human behavior. As culture is the damage inflicted on the nature on the one hand and a process of adaptation to natural environment on the other, improvement of culture and social behavior is very important for sustainable development. But, this is too difficult to be performed by modern culture. According to D. Bell, economization is the principle of modern social structure. That is, it means directing resources towards the targets of the least cost and highest profit. That is why there is a serious crisis in cultural tendencies in most countries today. Economization attaches importance to rationality, whereas new cultural movements stress antirational behavioral models. Bell thinks that this fact is the historical crisis of modern societies and it affects the society deeply (Belek, 1997: 154-155). In his Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, Bell asserts that the modernist culture destroys the values of daily life and natural life. He argues that this atmosphere has incited hedonistic motives that do not comply with the professional disciplines in the society. Moreover, the modernist culture is in completely opposition to the moral bases of objectivist and rationalist life perspective. Besides, there are contradictions between sustainable development and not only ideologies but also national interests. Such elements reflect the tendency to spoil the ecosystem. The risk concept, which implies possible hazards in the ecological, social and cultural structure, is closely related to sustainable development. Risk entails threats that are efficiently estimated by taking future possibilities into account. The fact that risks pertain to modern societies rather than traditional ones is closely related to rational thinking and the need to determine the future (Yıldırım, 2000: 78-83). Ambiguity and unaccountability that occurred as a result of the extreme rationalism is an important criterion of a transition from industrial society to the risk society. Modern capitalism differs from all previous systems with this conduct towards future and risks the future in its gain-loss estimation. The relationship between modernization and risk is hidden in the dynamism of risk, which leads to change and brings the society into action. This process which forms the notion of growth is thought to be an important cause of both environmental and social instability. According to Baudrillard, the current capitalist system 50 �declines while expanding and at this point where it survives as its own parasite it consumes its own essence as it reproduces itself (Baudrillard, 1997: 35-36). In the next 50 years, the world’s income is expected to increase by 3 % and this increase means that the world’s annual gross product will quadruple. Such increase in income and gross national product may lead to constraints on environmental and social structures unless consumption and production models are changed. Taken with fast population growth, the consumption pressure on natural resources will reach alarmingly high levels. This trend of increasing consumption (both public and private) will not only further increase consumption in transportation, tourism, energy and commodities, but also result in the disposal of more harmful waste. Therefore, it is very important to adopt consumption and production models that will secure sustainability of natural resources. However, it is a fact that the patterns of sustainable consumption which is one of the most important factors of sustainable development is not covered in the social studies books. So, it is useful to insert into the curriculum the subjects such as the patterns of children’s and adults’ expenditures. In this curriculum, it is very important to teach the values related to thriftyness and economizing. It might be argued that the capitalist rationalism, which does not care about future, uses the concept of sustainable development to overcome the current crisis (Minibaş, 2001). Hence, while taking into account the role given to education in sustainable development we have to contend that the logic producing this concept is the same as the logic that produces problems sustainable development. In this sense, we must underline not only the problems, but also the causes of problems and this consumer mentality in all course books from primary schools to university. So, it is the time to adopt values that care about the sustainability of life rather than the development that is based on excessive consumption; because, as Einstein said, "we cannot solve problems by residing in the logic that produced those problems”. However, determining these values is not enough for sustainable development. What is more important is how to get students and the society to assimilate these values and behaviors. Thus, the main objective of education is to address the question of how to transfer these values. Sustainable Development and Education As sustainable development is based on an environment, economy and society-based knowledge, education and sustainability are inevitably linked to each other. Education is the key institution for a sustainable future. Actullay, many problems evaluated as part of sustainable development are based on ignorance. Today, population growth and poverty are two examples for such problems. So indeed, poverty and population growth account for natural and social problems. Rapid population growth and increasing needs cause the depletion of environmental resources. Population and poverty decreases environmental sensitivity. Problems regarding this issue are related to people's behavior and attitudes, so individuals have to be educated from cognitive, affective and behavioral perspectives. Beyond technology and capital, sustainable development, necessitates a community's social and mental transformation, flexibility, self-reliance and entrepreneurship, creativity and problem solving skills. Therefore, the roots of development phenomenon lie in education, organization self discipline and self-confidence of individuals and the habit of cooperation, rather than economics, because development cannot be created by grafting operations of a handful of elite groups. This, in turn, requires a process that includes the education, organization and discipline of the community. Therefore, it was deemed to be important to have students gain awareness of a sustainable society within the framework of education for sustainable development, and decisions made for this purpose on various platforms began to take effect in time globally. Creating the necessary infrastructure to reach information and recognizing the value of education has been the most important issue in this process. In a report published after a meeting in Founex, Switzerland in 1971, it is asserted that environmental problems are not related only to industrialized countries, but that poverty and under-development are also effective in environmental issues in the world (Karbuz, 2002: 9). This result, which created the sustainable development approach, caused many developing countries to join 'People and the Environment' conference held in Stockholm in 1972. The term 'development not excluding the environment’ which was first coined by Secretary General Mauricoe Strong at the Stockholm Environment Conference in 1972, envisages a development strategy that aims at fair utilization from local resources. This term further expanded with Cocoyos Declaration in 1974 and contained helping people in their education and organization activities so that they can enjoy the resources in the economic system (Keleş and Hamamcı, 1993: 139). The 1972 Stockholm Conference on Environment and People is an important stage showing that the environment-related issues are also related to politics and ideology (Keleş, 1992: 152). The environmental education gained a global dimension at the "United Nations Conference on Human Environment" in Stockholm in 1972, and with the impact of this conference, in 1975 a survey was carried out about “Evaluation of Resources for Environmental Education” in 136 countries that were UNESCO Environment Agency members (UNESCO, 1975). The survey showed that environmental education practices were very poor, and 51 �therefore, the International Environmental Education Program (IEEP) was founded in cooperation with UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) with the aim of resolving these limitations. In 1977, the first Intergovernmental Environmental Education Conference was held in Tbilisi in cooperation with UNESCO and UNEP, and ministers of various countries participated in the conference. The declaration and recommendations of Tbilisi Conference were a turning point in terms of giving environmental education due attention in national curriculums. The documents created at this conference specified the broad context of environmental education at national and international levels, as well as its characteristics, goals and teaching principles (UNESCO, 1977). At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the IEEP was commissioned to bring a “sustainable development dimension” to education (UNCED, 1992). Education for sustainable development was discussed for the first time at Rio Conference 1992 (Agenda 21, Section 36) under the heading "Encouraging teaching, public awareness and education”, and in 1997 the United Nations organized a conference titled "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability” in Thessalonilci (UNESCO, 1997). After this conference, the United Nations Economic Council for Europe (UNECE), defined education for sustainable development in a document titled "Vision of Education Strategy for Sustainable Development" as follows: "Sustainable development for the education develops and strengthens individuals’, groups’, communities’, institutions’ and countries’ capacity to make assessments and choices in favor of sustainable development. Changing perspectives of individuals, it makes the world more secure, healthier and more prosperous, and increases people's quality of life. Education for sustainable development may provide more opportunities for discovery of new visions and concepts and new methods/tools that are necessary for the development of critical thinking and more awareness." As is seen in the above statement, four important issues come to the fore, which are the restructuring of education, development of human resources, social awareness and the development of quality of life. In this context, while a 'problem-based' approach was developed in Stockholm, an integrated approach sustainable economic growth and development of human resources was adopted in Rio (Füsunoğlu, 1997: 15). Taking these targets into account, achieving sustainable development does not seem to be possible through traditional education system (Hungerford and Peyton: 1994); Hungerford and Volk: 1994). In Turkey, environmental problems were addressed in a separate section for the first time in the 3rd Five-Year Development Program. The issue was handled in detail 6th Five-Year Development Program, and was evaluated as a whole within environmental, economic, health, educational and social context. Indeed, in 1991 the Ministry of Environment was established with the same concerns, and environmental education has been given in educational institutions since 1992 (Aydoğdu and Gezer, 2006: 215). However, it is difficult to say that environmental, economic, cultural and social values, on which sustainable development is based, are included in the syllabuses of higher education institutions as much as the process of re-regulation elementary education system. It is difficult to say that this topic draws due attention in higher education except for certain areas. For instance, within the context of a program designed to train environmental engineers was started at the undergraduate-level, but a program such as “environmental science teaching” has not been launched yet. However, the increasing rates of literacy and rising educational levels are not sufficient for countries to become sustainable societies in terms of development. One of the biggest reasons for this fact is the educated people’s alienation to the society and the environment especially in Turkey. It is very strange that this problem has not been resolved yet despite the fact that formal education has an institutional history of approximately 150 years in Turkey. Adequate steps have not been taken to solve this problem, which is expressed in the gap between students and the school itself; that is, between schools and social problems despite the fact that this is often expressed (Ergun, 1987: 88-89). The same problem caused teachers to stay away from social problems for a long time and, therefore, brought about the expectation that candidate teachers would also disregard social problems. Although this social alienation expectation was because of the roles of neutrality, efficiency and change, this situation, in which political worries were the main determinant, has prevented teachers from taking social responsibility (Tezcan, 1984: 323324). Some conflicts and revolutions in Turkey led teachers, as well as other officers to stay away from society prevented them from being interested in social problems, participating in charitable organizations. It is not possible to activate the sensitivity and large-scale participation necessary for sustainable development in this atmosphere, effects of which are currently continuing. As a result, it is not realistic to expect students who have been taught to believe that "if there is no homework, there is no responsibility" to develop social responsibility and bring proposals for the solution of problems. From this perspective, students should be allowed to observe problems and be close to related areas and groups so as to develop their social and environmental awareness. In this sense, just as swimming cannot be taught by telling, social awareness cannot be gained by telling. From this perspective, "Social Service Applications" course should be seen as a responsibility projects and it should be given due importance. 52 �Besides this, it is a serious mistake to believe that it is sufficient to educate only those who have access to school, for education provides people with knowledge, skills and perspectives throughout their life. Transfer of information acquired in education for sustainable development to the society by students is very important in the implementation of acquired information and occurrence of behavior change. There seems to be a habit of providing information to the public about this issue from time to time or only after instances of danger. As there is a tendency in non-formal education towards enabling people to get a profession according to general preferences, environmental education seems like as a secondary problem (Aydoğdu and Gezer, 2006: 220). Moreover, solutions to the problems cannot be found right away, since there is no co-operation between official institutions and voluntary organizations regarding this issue. Civil Society and Sustainable Development The problems caused by growth-centered approach to development and the necessity of sustainable development thought led to reevaluation of the role of nongovernmental organizations in the process of development. Indeed, in contemporary democracies the political participation does not mean only voting, but also people’s participation to the execution with various nongovernmental organizations and audition of the process. Moreover, functions of nongovernmental organizations in modern society are becoming more important, because the risk society is a self-critical society. The OECD has highlighted the importance of a good participant management; that is governance, so as for policies to be consistent with realization of sustainable development objectives (OECD: 2002a). This insistence is not in vain, because even in places with the worst practice of democracy the existence of a more efficient structure in tackling environmental issues has been observed, compared to authoritarian regimes. As sustainable development is closely related with democracy, the impact power of civil society should not be ignored. Today, corruption, poverty and environmental disasters in many parts of the world are known to be closely related with nondemocratic structures (Sen, 1997). Therefore, to strengthen democracy and reduce problems the Civil Society Development Program was started by the EU, and thus civil society initiatives were supported. One of the most important reasons is functions of non-governmental organizations such as their participation in the management, problem-solving abilities, supervision, and molding public opinion. Active, conscious individuals and volunteering are important elements of the sustainability of development, for initiatives in the public sphere are the basis of democracy, which is also the basis of citizenship. Therefore, today many of the international funding institutions have set as the primary principle of their agenda to increase local capacities, and help people to solve their own problems (Çakmak, 2002: 33-35). As development is a social phenomenon, it is indispensable to consider institutions that form the social structure as an integrated structure to make development sustainable. This situation necessitates an approach that activates economic, cultural, educational, political and psychological factors together, instead of an approach with a single-cause determination in a comprehensive phenomenon like development, which means the change in social system (Tezcan, 1991: 198). Taking the comprehensiveness of these factors into account, there is a need for a holistic approach, in which not only decision-makers’ but also everyone’s participation and support is provided. In this sense, educating people on various topics and making them voluntary parts of the change program, for goals with both social and environmental content, is only possible through civil society. Today, it is claimed that these organizations can be faster and more efficient than the state in the development and implementation of policies due to their prevalence, representative power, and flexible, open and small-scale structures. However, today non-governmental organizations have serious problems both in quantity and quality. For example, it is known that civil society organizations are deprived of qualified staff and research, analysis and implementation tools. Project studies, which are popular nowadays, cannot be carried out without qualified volunteers even if financial resources are provided, for consensus building, project preparation, implementation and reporting require as a tedious work. Although problems concerning civil society differ from region to region, we can easily say that there is a similar situation throughout the country. According to data reflected in “World Values Survey 1999", the rate of NGO membership in Turkey is 7.8%. Parallel to low rates of participation in civil society in Turkey, the rate of citizens volunteering for charity activities is also very low. According to the same research data, the rate of people who volunteer for charities in Turkey is only 1.5%. However, it should be specified that professional chambers and trade unions, membership of which is not voluntary, are included in these rates (Bikmen and Maydanoğlu, 2006: 44-47). However, according to the World Values Survey in 1991 71% of people in the United States 38% in France, 64% in Canada, 52% in England and 67% in West Germany were members of a voluntary organization (Fukuyama, 2000: 188). 53 �Education for sustainable development refers to people’s effort for a sustainable living and development knowledge, skills, and the social values needed for increasing democratic participation and supporting sustainable behavior. Some actions are recommended so that Turkey can achieve its long-term environmental goals; the need for intensifying information and sensitivity is highlighted and adoption of European Union's environmental standards and regulations is envisaged (T.Ç.V. 2001: 99). Prior actions proposed for increasing the level of information and sensitivity are addressed on axis of informing groups, consciousness raising education and civil society. Yet, the main elements that need to be active in creating awareness and information, that is, non-governmental organizations are quite inadequate in quality and quantity in terms of human resources. The fact that civil society cannot extend to the masses creates weaknesses in terms of protecting democracy and life spaces against governments (Çakmak, 2002: 3). Although there is a lot to do in these institutions, the volunteers working in such places run out of energy due to insufficient number of volunteers, and this brings about negative consequences such as becoming professional or losing their efficiency (Çakmak, 2002: 19). In this sense, we believe that with "Social Service Applications" course university students will reduce NGOs’ professionalization risk in the process by supporting them with their voluntary work. Most non-governmental organizations are in need of professional staff today and this has a cost, yet we do not believe that these organizations cannot contribute to the solution of problems by developing appropriate ideas without professional people. Such institutions, which have a dialectical relationship between public and private spheres, are known to have the capability to create a power/synergy that operates in society from below upwards. But, this cannot happen if NGOs do not get the support of society. Social Service Applications Course It is known that education is an essential element of society with its social, economic and cultural functions. The function of education cannot be denounced in improving individuals according to the needs of society, addressing the needs in the light of contemporary developments, and providing solutions. Realizing most environmental and social problem in a rapidly changing world and developing appropriate strategies in related issues necessitate a flexible, responsive, participatory understanding of man and education. Such an understanding requires cooperation and responsibility of different people from all classes of the society in the subtle way from education to democracy. The “Social Service Applications” course might be an important means of accomplishing this goal. Social Service Applications might play an important role in reducing problems and helping the underprivileged in Turkey, where the principle of social state has not sufficiently developed yet. The expectation that this course, which is taught at education faculties, will put candidate teachers into action about development and environment issues is actually parallel to traditional roles set earlier for teachers.1 As it is known, nearly half a century ago, teachers were expected to serve as leaders in many issues such as development, poverty reduction, adult education, citizenship education, health problems, leisure-time activities, and being a model for young people in Western Europe and Turkey (Tezcan 1984: 323). It has often been stressed in related works that the mission of modernizing Turkey enabled professional groups of the one-party era to identify themselves with the government (Bora, 2000). However, this idea was found to be unrealistic and due to increased change and professionalism, teachers are, nowadays, expected to provide guidance in such issues instead of serving as leaders. From this perspective, with this course students can be expected to develop awareness for social and environmental problems and guide the society various problems. Rapid changes parallel to industrialization have created the need for teacher candidates to be acquainted with what happens in the world adjust themselves accordingly. The need to set a balance between school pedagogy and social pedagogy is an issue of importance in industrial society today. Because of increasing leisure time and the positive impact of the wealth of outside school experience, teachers should also be active in non-educational activities. As education is the process of producing solutions to problems in accordance with social needs and needs of the age, the "Social Service Applications" course should be considered as multifaceted for sustainable development. Besides, applied courses, in which students act with the information they acquire and the group 1 Ministry of Aducation, too, joined the efforts to endow teachers with the mission of leadership. One of the most interesting events was the translation, publication and free distribution of “Beyaz Zambaklar Ülkesinde” to teachers in 1928. The novel is by Russian author, Grigori Petrof and sketches the life of an idealist teacher (See, Yahya Akyüz. Türkiye’de Ögretmenlerin Toplumsal Degişmedeki Etkileri, Ankara: Dogan Basımevi, 1978.). 54 �dynamics, are seen as an important chance in not only the changes in behavior but also the changes in attitudes and feelings. Another dimension of this issue is that there are a lot of young people who have great ideas but no opportunity to realize their ideas. So, this course may be chance for young people. As sustainable development is ultimately a project of change, no change project can be successful unless supported by educational institutions. According to Toffler, education should be oriented towards future and young people should develop plans for the future by understanding the direction and pace of social change (Ergun, 1994: 248). Toffler asserts that as the pace of change increases, it may become more difficult for people to build relations with each other and therefore they have to struggle with problems. In this sense, the course is considered to be an important means of sustainable development with its feature that prepares the ground for this. As is known, material changes are accepted more rapidly, while spiritual/mental elements take longer time to be adopted. This cultural lag, which has created problems in terms of sustainable development, can be eliminated by effective sharing of information. Max Weber states that education creates certain personalities according to varying social structure and economy. In this context, Weber implies that the aim of educating "cultured people" in the old bureaucratic structure will be replaced by the aim to educate the "expert people" in industrial society (Tezcan, 1997: 254-255). But in the current global age, the “expert people” model does not suffice and the "responsible people" model is needed, which can educate people sensitive to environmental problems. The "Social Service Applications" course, which was prepared by Board of Higher Education within the framework of the Higher Education Council Law No. 2547, became part of the revised syllabus of education faculties, which has been implemented since the 2006-2007 school year. The course is taught in the 6th term of all education faculties as 1 theory hour and 2 application hours, which makes 3 credits. The University Council describes the work related to this course as follows: Students will identify current problems of society and develop projects to produce solutions in this course, which is obligatory for all teacher training programs. Also within the scope of this course, students will be encouraged to participate in events such as panel discussions, conferences, congresses, symposia as viewers, speakers or organizers. Students’ success in these studies will evaluated as part of the "Social Service Application Course" (Coşkun, 2008: 3). In this sense, it is important to know the guidelines identified in the workshops. The workshops identified the following principles (Tezbaşaran, 2006: 4-6) : 1)In the Social Service and Applications course and in the defined activities of the course, it is aimed to provide teacher candidates with social sensitivity and awareness, cooperation, solidarity, effective communication and selfassessment skills, social responsibility and self-confidence. 3)Activities defined in the Social Service Applications projects should be original and different from the activities defined in the programs. 4)Activities defined in the Social Service Applications projects should enhance scientific, critical and creative thinking in the target audience, and should motivate them and make them curious for reading, learning, research, analysis. The goals here show that the candidate teachers are projected as a development element that tries to bring solutions to problems rather than a technician teacher who has been designed to do what he/she is told to do. In this course, although it is aimed to develop candidate teachers’ co-operation, awareness, personal development, communication, and self-enhancements skills, it is also aimed to produce benefits for society. Through the course, candidate teachers are expected to socialize, become integrated with the society, and consequently play their role of social leadership (although criticized today). Besides being aware of social problems, they are also expected to take responsibility to solve various problems and get emotional and behavioral accomplishments related to their profession. Implementation of the Course With regard to this course, participants at the Mersin workshop discussed whether this course was aimed at removing certain shortcomings that are in responsibility of public administration or it was an awareness creating process in which students will actively participate. Moreover, it was observed that there were different ideas as to whether this course should be compulsory as it is now or elective. Those who thought that the course should be elective argued that a compulsory course would disrupt the voluntary character which formed the implementation philosophy of the course and that this would adversely affect individuals’ tendency to do voluntary work. Those who were against its being elective contended that especially because of military revolutions people shun from civil 55 �associations, foundations and social service organizations and that there would not be sufficient participation if the course was elective. Additionally, some other suggestions about how to apply this course were put forward as follows (Tezbaşaran, 2006): 1)Not limiting the social service applications to only one term, starting the activities in the first year, and designing each activity with a "project-based" approach 2)Creating "Social Service Applications Project Pools" and sharing the proposed projects with other faculties by publishing them on the internet 3)Monitoring of realized projects and award the best project in project festivals It was recommended at the workshop that new students should be informed about this course each year and that course-related activities and projects should be announced, thus encouraging students to attend activities and projects starting from their first year at school. It is stated that the course will be completed with the evaluation of various activities the students have attended with their own preference in a 3-year period (6 semesters). As the activities students participate in this process will be documented in the personal files approved by the advisor or coordinator, monitoring and evaluation projects will be accomplished without any problem. However, current organization is insufficient for realizing all these suggestions. For example, as noted above, it is uncertain who will monitor students’ activities to be carried out until the 6th semester and how. Therefore, the first thing to be done about this is to create a unit about this course and employ a group of two or three social scientists who are familiar with social problems and applications such as sociologists, psychologists, social service professionals and anthropologists in this unit. The course may provide important contributions to sustainable development goals if such a unit takes the responsibility for issues such as the general organization of the course, identification of project areas, creation of the project pool, announcement of projects at certain times, and budgeting. Otherwise this course cannot be carried out effectively and productively under the coordination of faculty members who have to teach for 20-25 hours per week as is the case in current applications. Such a coordination that will be undertaken for a low tuition and abandoned with such worries from time to time cannot be effective in neither the preparation of original projects and guidance nor the creation of a project pool, monitoring and evaluating applications. Concerning social service, the contribution of faculty members can only be effective during the implementation of the project, predetermined or organized with students by “Social Service Applications Course” Coordinators. During this implementation faculty members can guide them in the process of monitoring and evaluation of activities and provide the project unit with some ideas about problems and other original projects. Otherwise, the school year will be over before identifying what project should be done and how and organizing the activities. Besides, while coordinating the "Social Service Applications" course the type of projects that can be done should be discussed in detail with Governorate, Municipality and related Civil Society Institutions and necessary permissions must be taken and organizations must be made in advance so as to minimize the potential risks for students’ activities. Otherwise, getting permission from related institutions every time and doing the same things over and over again for organization will lead to serious loss of time. In this process, students may be directed to public institutions as well as civil society organizations in order to participate in their projects. However, some projects produced by students may be related to groups that these institutions serve and therefore it may be necessary for them to cooperate with such institutions. However, cooperation with local government is needed to identify relevant non-governmental organizations beforehand because of the risk that some student might be directed towards illegal groups. So as to do all these, serious organization with universities, civil society and local government is needed. In this organization, significant synergy can be attained for sustainable development if local governments can cooperate to facilitate the activities and reduce the risks and if civil society organizations can cooperate to decide what to do about what subjects. At the faculty of education the following activities were done within the framework of the Social Service Application Course: 1)Education support for those who cannot read and write 2)Preparing secondary school students for national examinations 3)Organizing muzical entertainment programs on behalf of the poor 4)Blood donation campaign 56 �5)Teaching grown-ups how to read and write 6)Reporting the problems of the city to authorities 7)Planting trees and environmental design 8)Collecting books for schools in villages In the focus group study, participants expressed that the activities were beneficial for both themselves and the target groups. They also expressed that participating in various social activities at different institutions was very useful for themselves in terms of their professional and personal development in general. However, they also asserted that the course was a real opportunity for the target groups with special needs; that they felt insufficient or unefficient in certain cases and that they were distressed in such cases. The focus group study revealed that especially the students who were interested in problematic target groups encountered with problems and felt helpless in some situations. So, they must be guided and directed towards activities that they can do easily. Some of students’ problems concerning the implementation of the course are as follows: Difficulties concerning the supervision of students High amount of expenses concerning activities Disagreement between students about working together Misconduct by some students during the sharing of responsibilities Not considering the course as a real course and disreagard towards it by teaching staff Difficulties in evaluating students’ success or performance in the course Excess of reports about the course and tedius formalities Indifference and authoritarian conduct towards students at the host institutions Boring nature of some activities for students Abuse of students during the activities from time to time Insufficiency of students’ qulifications related some specific activities Delays resulting from the identification of activities Host institutions’ disregard for some of the activities Inadequacy of the place where the activies are planned to take place Discrepancy between the program of students’ department and that of the host institution Concerning the implementation of this course at Faculty of Education, Kilis 7 Aralık University, I observed that students do not perceive this lesson as a normal course and that they had positive views about it. Two important factors seem to be effective in this. First, because the course is based on activities proposed by students and implemented in a social environment generally outside the university setting, it is perceived differently. Moreover, students are active rather than being passive in this course. Also, as they do the planning themselves when arranging the activities, they act within a more flexible and freer atmosphere. Besides, as this course contains a sense of expressing themselves, participation, collaboration, product creation, solidarity, and competition with other groups, group dynamics allow them to receive more satisfaction this course. This course, which entails learning by doing or learning through experience, may provide a significant contribution in terms of emotional wellbeing. However, personal characteristics of coordinators will be the determining factor in this. The project format of the course will have important cognitive contributions during the preparation and reporting of the activities such as planning and self-discipline. However, implementing the course in a fashion similar to other courses, assigning students to do very difficult projects and making them struggle with too many formalities in the preparation and reporting process will result in serious consequences. In this sense, there is a need for an atmosphere in which the course is planned in a completely student-centered way and the students are told what to do only in the manner of guidance. In this sense, the method of handling the course will be more decisive on the perception of the course, rather than it is being defined in the curriculum as compulsory or elective. However, defining it as an elective course in the curriculum will be more appropriate to the voluntary nature of it in general. The fact that the spirit of volunteering is essential for this course requires such a quality on behalf of teaching staff that can create such an atmosphere, and therefore, carrying out the course only for course tuition will not be fruitful. Results and Evaluation Industrial revolution which takes an important place in the history of civilization has turned into a process in which environmental resources are destroyed in an irreversible manner as a result of humankind’s quest for establishing control over the nature. Population growth, distribution of commodities among individuals, and unemployment have been the most important problems the humanity have had to face in the last two hundred years. 57 �However, as the environmental dimension of these three problems is ignored, even in optimum processes where these problems are thought to be overcome, economic growth has been found to unsustainable. As the sustainability of economic growth, which is the basic paradigm of our age, is not considered, social and environmental impoverishment is increasing. Determining economic growth only with the increase in the level of gross national income means not understanding what development sustainability is. Negative experiences undergone so far have brought about a new debate in which the whole capitalistic system is questioned together with the positivistmaterialist paradigm. Although the concept of sustainable development, which came into use in such an atmosphere, is evaluated as a step taken within the system itself, the discussions it has are important for the future of humanity. Sustainable development, which consists the planning of social, economic and natural resources in a supporting and holistic manner, requires a broad participation which cannot be addressed with only state policies, limited efforts of law makers or civil society members. Today we cannot expect the state to deal with every problem and solve them with the decisions it makes. Rapidly changing nature of modern society and the complex nature of the needs and problems it has brought necessitates lifelong learning, sensitivity and responsibility. Nevertheless, it is a fact that people cannot cope alone with social problems. The advantages provided by group dynamics to cope with such problems increases the importance of civil society institutions and reveal the need to support these institutions. As the voluntary service of qualified staff is the most important part of this support, university students’ familiarity with these institutions and working for them for a while will be an important start and these institutions will gain a significant vision and dynamism with their participation. A culture of civil society has not developed enough in Turkey due to historical, political and cultural reasons. It is known that civil society institutions are not effective enough and are unable to realize their goals mainly because of financial reasons and many other reasons. One of the most important reasons behind the fact that civil initiatives are inadequate in their intervention to problems is that they are deprived of qualified human resources and participant individuals. As these institutions lack human resources, they experience serious difficulties in project development and implementation. Indeed, today many projects with social, economic, cultural contents and supported by the EU are known to have not been implemented because of insufficient human resources. This difficulty can be overcome with "Social Service Applications" course, because the topic, purpose and procedures of this course are suitable for a project-based work. It can be said that this will help civil society organizations especially in their project applications concerning overseas funds. To give a simple example, foreign language requirement during the project preparation and reporting process is a cause of worries for many civil society organizations. However, students at foreign language departments can help civil society organizations in this regard. With the "Social Service Applications" course, which will be implemented at universities, there will be a higher probability that not only young people but also lecturers and professors will be more interested in social problems and provide more contribution to solve the problems. Faculty members’ guidance to students especially in identification and implementation of activities within the framework of this course will produce effective results because of ensuring expert participation in social problems. So, this course can be applied as a instrument of active politics. But for this, it is needed the coordination between university and other institutions such as civil and formel establishments. An organizing of office related to tihs course helps realizing the this coordination and activities. Sustainable development, which has many economic, social and environmental dimensions, requires a collective struggle which includes not only governmental agencies or businesses but also various groups. Therefore, for a sustainable world, democratization of management and conscious participation of citizens in the management is needed. A conscious society will support the state to accomplish its sustainable development objectives easier and quicker, because society’s being aware of the goals of sustainability makes it easy to achieve sustainability goals in terms of knowledge and skills. As in all over the world, in Turkey, too, there is a need for citizens with sufficient information and environmental awareness and human power that can provide guidance in the application of sustainability plans. However, this is really difficult to achieve. That is to say, asking people to participate in the solution of problems does not guarantee their participation. In this respect, the education system should devise ways encouraging and guiding participation. We can argue that the Social Service Application Course has a format which serves this aim but, ıf this course isn’t paid attention to as ıt should be, it is misused, easily. If this course is misused or this organization is not done competently, this fact destroyes volunteerness, deeply. Because of various reasons, young people in Turkish society are quite insufficient in terms of developing awareness to problems, participating in civil society, and working in cooperation with others. From this perspective, it can easily be presumed that university students are more important for the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the society compared to other groups, and that they can take responsibilities in sustainable development, which has many sub-headings such as environmental, economic and social problems. However, especially in developing countries, where literacy rate is very low, it is difficult to do this without participatory training programs that will 58 �reach audiences outside the formal education to mobilize and incite awareness and consciousness in them. From this perspective, there is no other large group as acceptable as university students in terms of their energy, participation, qualifications and organization. In this sense, it is believed "Social Service Applications" course will provide an important function. Within the framework of this course, adult individuals can be informed and made conscious about environmental, cultural, economic and social issues with various educational programs (vocational training, service training, etc.). Otherwise, carrying out these programs at a limited level is not suitable to the logic of sustainable development, which requires broad participation, because the desired results cannot be derived without spreading this type of program to the society and securing a wide range of participation. The most important difference of this course from other courses is the fact that it is suitable for group work and that provides individual and group satisfaction. If this course, which is very convenient to the cultural background of Turkish society (e.g. imece, the spirit of collective labor) in terms of social assistance and expectations of group dynamics, can be organized well, it can be maintained that universities will become significant units for sustainable development. Of course neither this course, nor students can be perceived as saviors of heroes. But with efficient implementation of this course, thousands of students will go down from the grandstand like audience to touch on problematic issues and contribute to the efforts of finding solutions to society's different problems. Thinking that with this course thousands of students at faculties will take action on various topics with the aim of social service, we are face to face with a huge group of people who wait to be organized and informed. These huge groups can contribute actively to the solution of many problems assailing sustainable development and become experienced volunteers, experts or workers for many issues related to their background later in life. From this perspective, "Social Service Applications", which can be considered as a kind of social internship, can function as a response to expectations concerning university-industry cooperation in social life. References Akyüz, Yahya (1978). Türkiye’de Ögretmenlerin Toplumsal Degişmedeki Etkileri. Ankara: Dogan Yayıncılık. Ali, Çakmak (2002). Projeler, Projecilik ve Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları. İstanbul: T.E.T. Tarih Vakfı Yayınları. UNESCO (1975). Assessment of Resources for Environmental Education: Needs and Priorities for Member States. Aydoğdu, Mustafa ve Kudret Gezer (2006). Çevre Bilimi. Ankara: Anı Yayınları. Baudrillard, J. (1997). Tüketim Toplumu. Trans.: H. Deliceçaylı; F. Keskin, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bech, Ulrich (1999). Siyasallığın İcadı, Trans.: N. Ülner. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Beck, Ulrich (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage. Bikmen, Filiz ve Zeynep Maydanoğlu (2006). Türkiye’de Sivil Toplum: Bir Değişim Projesi, Uluslar arası Sivil Toplum Endeksi Projesi Türkiye Raporu. TÜSEV Yayınları. Bora, Tanıl (2000). “Türkiye’de Meslek Kuruluşları: Kamu, Sivil ve Milli’nin Muglak Kesişim Alanı”. Türkiye’de Sivil Toplum ve Milliyetçilik, Eds.: Stefanos Yerasimos, Günter Seufert ve Nuray Mert, Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Ergun, Doğan (1987). Sosyoloji ve Eğitim. Ankara: V Yayınları. Ergun, Mustafa (1994). Eğitim Sosyolojisine Giriş. 5th Edition. Ankara: Ocak Yayınları. Fisunoğlu, Mahir (1997). “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma ve Ekonomi”. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Uygulanması. Ankara: T.Ç.V Yayınları. Fukuyama, Francis (2000). Büyük Çözülme. Trans.: Z. Avcı, A. Aydemir. İstanbul: Sabah Yayınevi. Hasan, Coşkun (2008). Topluma Hizmet Uyuglamaları. Ankara: Anı Yayınları. Hungerford, H.R., Volk, T.L. and Ramsey, J.M. (1994). "A Prototype environmental Education Curriculum for the Middle School", Environmental Education Series (29), UNESCO-UNEP. IEEP. 59 �Hungerford, HR, Peyton, R.B. (1994). "Procedures for Developing an Environmental Education Curriculum", Environmental Education Series (22), UNESCO-UNEP-IEEP. UNESCO-UNEP (1977). Intergovemmenta1 Conference on Environınental Education, Tbilisi. UNESCO (1997). International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability, "Final Report". Thessalonilci. Keleş, Ruşen ve Can Hamamcı (1993). Çevrebilim. Ankara: İmge Kitapevi. Keleş, Ruşen (1992). ‘Çevre ve Siyaset’. İnsan Çevre Toplum. İmge Yayını No: 46. Minibaş, Türkel (2001). “Çok Taraflı Yatırım Anlaşması ve Dünya Ticaret Örgütü (WTO). İktisadın Dama Taşları, İ.Ü. İktisat Fakültesi Mezunlar Cemiyeti, Sayı: 1. OECD (2002). Improving Policy Coherence and Integration for Sustainable Development A Checklist. OECD (2001). Strategies for Sustainable Development-Practical Guidance for Development Cooperation. Sen, Amartya (1983). "Development: Which Way Now?" Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, Vol. 93(372), pages: 74262, December. Şenyüz, Hanife (2001). “Dünya Tükeniyor”. Radikal Gazetesi. 05. 11. 2001. Sohbet, Karbuz (2002). ‘Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Zaman Yolculuğu’. İktisat (Year: 17, 198), pp. 9-27. Tezbaşaran, A. Ata & et al (2006). Topluma Hizmet Uygulamaları Yönergesi, Mersin. Tezcan, Mahmut (1984). Eğitim Sosyolojisi. 3 th Edition. Ankara: Çağ Matbaası. Tezcan, Mahmut (1997). Eğitim Sosyolojisi. 7 th Edition. Ankara: Çağ Matbaası. Tezcan, Mahmut (1991). Kültürel Antropoloji. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. TUBITAK (2002). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma için Bilgi ve İletişim Çalıştayı. Ankara: TÜBİTAK- MAMESÇAE Yayını. Türkiye Çevre Sorunları Vakfı (2002). Ortak Gelecegimiz Dünya Çevre Ve Kalkınma Komisyonu Raporu. 3 th Edition. Ankara: Türkiye Çevre Sorunları Vakfı Yayını. Türkiye Çevre Vakfı (2001). AB’de ve Türkiye’de Çevre Mevzuatı. Ankara: TÇV Yayını. UN-DESA (2003). Governance for World Summit Sustainable Development Implementation in Countries with Economies in Transition Workshop Report, Istanbul: United Nations. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development- UNCED (1992). Rio de Janerio. United Nations (1972). Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm. Values and Development, Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1984; 1997. Yıldırım, Engin (2000). “Küreselleşme, Refah Devleti ve Risk Toplumu”. Küreselleşmenin İnsani Yüzü. Edt.: V. Bozkurt. İstanbul: Alfa. 60 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 322 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development as a Course: Social Service Applications Author Author YAŞAR, M. Ruhat AYTAÇ, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. This study includes a general analysis of the “Social Service Applications” course, which became part of the curriculum of Education Faculties in 2006-2007 in Turkey within the context of sustainable development. A holistic perspective that takes socio-cultural elements into account instead of a deterministic view which stresses only the economic factors is very important in sustainable development. Enhancing knowledge and policies must be shared in a cooperative way, as improvement of social life is very important for sustainable development. Therefore, the objectives and contents of the afore mentioned course is in line with the aim of utilizing human resources within the context of social problems, which is very important in social development. This approach which enhances the development of social life necessitates a new cooperation that will secure cooperation between universities and society. “Social Service Applications” course is, therefore, an important opportunity within the context of sustainable development. In this study, it is verified that university students who are conditioned not to take responsibility without being given homework get used to taking responsibility within the context of the course. The study also comprises evaluations of what can be done to make the course more useful and efficient, as well as its role in sustainable development. The study discusses the coordination between the university, civil society and public management in the applicability of the course, as well. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bf747f13a79dcf657d81abb3609bbb8b.pdf ccd3e67783f49cb9edf01b154dec15d0 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Crisis: Consequences and Solution Possibilities Arif YAVUZ Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics, Turkey dr.arif @ turk.net Abstract: In this paper, the reasons and solutions of the 2008 global economic crisis are discussed. In the first part, a comparision of 2008 global crisis with 1929 economic crisis, the effects of each and also the differences are explained. The champions and the losers of the current crisis are interpretted. Also, the estimated duration and the expected end time of the crisis are discussed. In the second part, the effects of the crisis to the Global Economy and to some of the countries are stated. The expected effects can be summarised as, “losing of confidence in global market”, “having negative prospects”, “decreasing of the foreign trade”, “shrinking of the national incomes” ,“shrinking of demand and consumption”, “increasing of unemployment”. In the last part, some solutions for negative effects of global crisis are offered. A world economic story is stated and suggested a new International Money Currency. Restrictions for the virtual Money is recommended and also some new rules on international trade and international finance system are offered. Keywords: global economic crisis, effects of 2008 global crisis, 2008 global crisis, solutions of 2008 crisis Definition and Reasons for The Global Crisis This conference paper has three parts: how does global crisis arise and what conditions do it develop until today. Second, it will be discussed consequences of global crisis. Lastly, solution possibilities will be offered for global crisis. 1 –Is the 2008 Crisis, a global or local one? To understand how global crisis arises, first, we should comprehend is the crisis global or local? In light of information in the last 3-4 months it is possible to say that the crisis we are living is a global one. This crisis is diffferent then that of the 2001 and 1994 Turkish, 1996 Asian and 2000 Latin American crisis. These crisis were regional. The crisis we live in today is global, that is it affects the whole world. 2– A comparison of the 2008 and 1929 world crisis If we think about the 1929 crisis, it was the first world wide crisis. The crisis of today, unfortunately, could be considered a second world crisis. Since 200-300 hundred years ago or in the 1700’s, society was agricultural, and there was no possibility of the creation of global crisis. Because what we know today as being factory production and means of transportation did not exist then. Society solely existed on the sustinance of their agricultural means. However, by the end of the 1700’s and the beginning of the 1800’s with the introduction of the industrial era, with the invention of the Steam machine by James Watt, there arose a drastic structural change in society. Society began to evolve from agricultural to industrial. At the same time, economic points of view were also beginning to move to a more Classical economic perspective. In a liberal economy Classical economists advised that “people should be, and people should pass”. This was based on the famous idea of the invisible hand. Or that economy, inevitably, has the mechanisms to adjust itself, and that any type of intervention would ultimately destroy this mechanisms function. As a result the commencement of mass production and the industrial revolution lead to the typic standard of factories producing as much product as possible because the same economists thought that “every supply created its own demand”. This development and thought came from England. In turn, this idea also passed to Europe and America. However, this theory did not develop as Classic Economists had desired. Due to mass production in factories a substantial amount of stock piled up and as a result many factories were forced into bankruptcy. This was the main reason for the 1929 crisis. In short, the 1929 crisis was industry based, the cause of mass production and insufficient demand. In this period the crisis caused in the industrial sector resulted in a crisis in the financial sector. Bankrupt factory shares had lost their value in the stock exchange. The reason for this was the parallel processing of an industrial and a financial deficit. The profit from 251 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production made during the Industrial deficit was used to pay for for the principal and interest in the of loans in the financial system. There was a break down of economic claims in the frame of the 1929 crisis’s general economic offers and claims regulations. There needed to a balance in supply and demand. The drastic and sudden imbalance of this system was the cause of the crisis. In order to understand the type of crisis we are in today we need to understand the structure of our society. Although today, many countries are recognized as being industrial, America and Europe are no longer considered as such but are refered to as technological societies. Since America and Europe are the culprits of today’s crisis we need to further explore their infrastructures. America and Europe have completed an industrial period and as a post industrial society have progressed to an information or technological population. As a result America’s financial crisis has influenced related societies. Therefore, information regarding America’s financial market directly influences the markets of countries like England and France. Thus, the crisis of today is not an industrial but a financial crisis. This crisis, using the fundamentals of finance, still maintains the imbalance of supply and demand. Because money as a fundamental by-product of finance has caused the instability of this supply and demand relationship. More specifically either there has been a high or low demand of money. There has been contradictory points of view on this topic. Some experts in this area claim that the crisis is caused by the abundance of money while others claim it is a result of a scarcity of money. According to our opinion this crisis has been the result of the abandunce of monetary funds. 3 – Has the 1929 Crisis been more influential than the one of 2008? When compared to the 1929 crisis, it could be said that the one of today is significantly more influential because globalization is much more wide spread. The ending of the 1929 crisis, took approximately 4-5 years. The crisis of today, because it is so major and wide spread, will be much more influential than the one of 1929. 4 – Causes of the 2008 Crisis The crisis of today is caused by the wealth of money. Thus a wealth of money does not necessarily translate into a wealth of physical money but a great quantity of virtual money. 4.1- A Story of a World Economy This topic could be further explored in the form of an exemplary story: lets imagine that ten people live on a planet. These ten people each offer a service or product. On of them labours in agriculture or grows and sells fruit and vegetables. The second person labours in the production of raising animals for the sale of milk, meat and cheese. Another is responsible for the production of textiles. Yet another produces vehicles and another for the construction and sale of homes and buildings. In short, all, except the tenth person, is responsible for the production of some goods or service. The tenth person produces nothing. This person has a machine, and when he presses buttons on this machine he produces a product stamped on paper used for exchange purposes. When he gives this paper to the car maker he gets a car. When he gives some of this paper to the agriculturist or the grower of fruit and vegetables, he gets produce. These nine people with the paper they have recieved use it amongst themselves to exchange their products. This story could directly relate to the situation of today. This story is called “Ekmel Theory”. The pressing of money must be based on some regulation as it was before. However, in 1971 with the abolish of the Bretton- Woods system everything had changed. 4.2- The 1944 Bretton Woods System In 1944, there was a small town in the US named Bretton Woods. An international money system was accepted there. According to this system the US was pressed money depending on the US gold reserves. In this system, 1 ounce of gold was equal to $35 or 1 US dollar was equal to 0,88867 grams of gold. International trade was handled by the US dollar that was pressed depending on gold reserves of the US. If there was demand on gold the US would provide it. This system was active in 1944, however, in 1971 was abolished. Today, there is no requirement for the US to press money depending on gold reserves. The system was basically abolished because of the dependance on gold reserves and press money was blocking the development of world economies and international trade. Thus, this rule was cancelled. Any country could press any amount money, however, international trade did not have the same acceptability or values. Today, there are two accepted money currencies: the Euro and the American Dollar. Other country currencies are not valid in purchasing goods or services in international trade (Seyidoğlu, 2003). 252 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4.3- Industrial or Financial, an Abundance or Shortage of Money? Our global crisis is a financial wealth of money crisis. There exists groups who control or own the world financial market. These groups are wide spread in America and Europe and could be called the proprietors of globalization. The proprietors of globalization, although in reality consisting of many groups, could be categorized into two factual groups. The proprietors of globalziation played with all their worldly assets and then exerted these valued assets beyond all highest expectation. 4.4- All assets were played with as if in the stock exchange and within 5-6 years their values increased 2-6 Fold Since Stock shares represent the value of a company, a company must increase its “real” value. Although sometimes the increase in value of stocks is not dependant on “real” gains. This type of increase is a speculative one. A company, for example, with a realistic growth of 10% to 30% could hold stocks that represent the company may have increased in value five fold. The same type of specualtions have been made in stocks of petroleum, iron, and copper. For example, a barrel of petroleum within 5-6 years (2003-2008) has increased from 25 US$ to 150 US$ (Đncekara, 2009). In the same time a ton of iron has increased from 300 US$ to 1500 US$. A ton of copper has increased from 25 US$ to 150 US$ (Tuduk, 2008). In the same manner real estate property value in the US has risen from 8 trillion US$ to 20 trillion US$ (Tarhan,2008). If these prices had risen in terms of an inflation it should only increase 30-40% because in European countries inflation rates could be 2-4%, in America 3-4% and other developed countries are observed at a steady 5%. Within 5-6 years of this type of inflation a 30% increase would be the possible outcome. In light of this information petroleum, copper and iron or real estate do not reflect true gains. However, these abnormal gains were not problematic in those days. 4.5- Instruments of derivatives: Two to the third = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 Two to the fifth = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32 The aforementioned abnormal increase rates has not been with actual currencies but with virtual money. As a result, these gains have been a devlopment based on derivative instruments. As known the derivative instrument is a financial instrument that does not increase money volume arithmetically but geometrically. This instrument frequently used in America has commenced and caused the wide spread global financial crisis because these instruments (generally used in corporate equity and mortgage based documents)are sold and bought in the global financial pool. These instruments have been observed in the large financial market transactions of investment corporations, hedge funds, and retirement funds. However, the development of the basis of the instrument, or real value, has been observed to be significantly different than the instrument itself. For example, a home built with a mortgage of 100,000 US$ has lost its relationship with the application of the instrument, the paperwork that represents the 100,000 US$ home has risen to 300,000 US$ with the buy and sell procedures within the financial sector. International accreditors like Fitch, Moodies, and S&P exist to evaluate the aforementioned procedures within markets and their pools. These accreditor firms have noted investments with AA and AAA scores. This way, investments have been known to increase. Also, insurance companies like AIG have been known to insure these investments and instruments. This way the return of money is also insured. Another important issue is the lack of audit or inspection. As a result the crisis of today has arised within the loss of real instrumental value and the existence of accreditor and insurance companies. 4.6 - The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 The Glass-Steagall Act was enacted in 1933 USA. With the act came the prohibition of bank transactions within the stock exchange and the use of derivative instruments. However, it’s interesting that this act was dismissed in 1999 and banks were permitted to transact within the stock exchange and were allowed to issue derivative instruments (Yıldıray, 2009) . The crisis of today commenced with the Lehmann Brothers’ September 2007 claim to bankruptcy. The announcement of the Lehmann Brothers’ bankruptcy, exclaimed exageration, and was the symbol of a company that went through and failed in an unreal market. After the Lehmann Brothers many investment companies,insurance companies and corporation giants like GM were left in difficult situations. For example, in a short time, the value of GM went down from 20 billion US dolars to just 1,8 billion US (Anatolia Agency, 2008). 253 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo For this reason, the crisis of today, is not just a mortgage or investment crisis, but in general a financial crisis that is affecting the globe. For example, the Foreign Minister of Quwait, in the recent past, has claimed the loss of 2.5 trillion US dolars in Gulf countries (i.e. Quwait, Dubai, and Katar) exemplifying the magnitude of the dimensions and spread of the crisis. 5 – Champions and Losers of the Crisis (4 Groups) Another valuable question, whether or not this crisis arose on its own or if it was knowledgably controlled? And who are the champions or losers in this crisis? There are three possibilities. The first, is if the crisis has arisen on its own in an uncontrolled environment? Then the global market has lost as a whole. The second, the crisis was under control and one of the aforementioned markets won and the other lost, respectively. The third possibility is that the crisis was controlled and both markets prospered. In this crisis the winners and losers could go into two groups. The first champions are the ones who franchised the money press because with the fall of the financial markets came the weakness of the real sector, the industrial and service sector and other real assests. For example, petroleum at a rate of 150 US$ quickly falling to 40 US$ stands at a currency rate of 55 US$. At the same rate, a Turkish home valued at 500,000 TL has fallen to 250,000 TL. For this reason, those who own a money press could benefit from worldly assets, and can take advantage of offers when costs go down. The second group of winners are those who own a vault and a desk or those who still use cash. All asset prices fall and when the once valued 20 billion US GM falls to 1,8 billion US, it becomes possible to own. The first of the losers are factory, corporation, and holding owners. Their losses are in proportion to their business. In other words, big corporation owners’ losses are greater than those of smaller corporations. For example, Forbis’s World’s richest people list consisting of Husnu Ozyegin, a rich Turkish Businessman, was no coincident. Because right before the crisis he was the owner of Finans Bank. Just before the crisis he sold it for 2.7 million US dolars and while he held the money, fresh in his hands, the crisis began. The second group of losers are those who hold investments. Those who hold shares in American government, corporation or investment bank stocks would be considered disadvantaged since it is unknown what or whether or not they will pay or get paid. 6 – What is the duration of the Crisis? Has it hit rock bottom ? How long the crisis will last and when it will hit rock bottom are important questions to ask. It will end eventually. When it has hit rock bottom it could bounce back in three ways. Either in a V- shape, a U- shape or a W- shape with the later two possibilities it could end for good. Three possibilities are in question. The first option, if the two global market actors have won and they are in gain (have profit), the crisis will last 1-2 years, hit rock bottom in 2009 and bounce back in a V-shape. The second possibility, if the two global market actors, one winning and the other losing, the crisis will last 3-4 years hitting rock bottom in 2009-2010 and will come back in a U-shape. The third option, is if the global market actors are both in the red then the crisis could last 510 years hit rock bottom in 2015 return in a W-shape and possibly cause war. The world by the end of 2007 and in Turkey since October of 2008 has recorded global economic information on a a daily basis. With this information we have composed a global crisis journal. If we were to look at this journal we would see that upto mid April of 2009 we have recieved only negative news reports. However, with the bad news upto mid April we have recieved few but good reports after this date. In our opinion, not only in Turkey but in the world the crisis has not ended but has come closer. The bottom of the well and the end of the tunnel are visible. With positive good news, alongside the wide spread (bad) news like the bankruptcy of corporations, joining of corporations, and the sale of corporations, we will hit the bottom of the crisis. 254 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Shape V 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Figure 1: Shape V Shape U 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Figure 2: Shape U 255 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Shape W 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Figure 3: Shape W Consequences of the Crisis 1- Security Problems in the Market The first consequence of the crisis is the issue of security and trust. With the initiation of the crisis the entire world suffers from a lack of trust and security. At the moment individuals have a difficult time trusting each other. For example, banks have no trust corporations they do not give out loans. In the same frame no one relies on checks. People do not trust each other. As a result trust in global terms is at a loss. 2- Negative expectations The second consequence of the crisis is the negative affect on expectations. Individuals choice to not consume products has a negative effect on the economy. As a result prices of goods have gone down. Moreover, it may be said that we could be faced with a deflation. 3 – Consequences around the globe The third consequence could arise among countries. Developed countires are foreseen to be more influenced in comparison to developing or non-developed countries. For example, the US, the UK, France, and Germany, will be the most influenced countries while Turkey is seen as a country that will be less affected by the crisis. Thus, Nigeria, Sudan and similar countries will be less influenced. The reason behind this is that their integration in the world economy is less, compared to the others. The fourth consequence of the crisis is in countries where export is more than imported products which would have a negative effect on the economy. Countries where export is greater than import will suffer with the weakening of global trade. For example, countries like Japan, China, and Germany. The most disadvantaged are especially Japan and China where their economies are dependant on export. Another effect of the crisis is in regard to global national profit of 60 trillion US$ has decreased to 30-40 trillion US$. 4 – Effects on Turkey Because this global financial crisis has its roots in America and Europe the arise of the crisis in our country should not be the fault of the governement. The responsibility of our government takes place after the fact. In other words, the government has the responsibility to take care while in crisis. As a result, our government is not at blame for the crisis however, if the crisis has had negative effects the government should be questioned. If there are consequences and negative outcomes as a result of the crisis then the government should be held responsible and could it could be said that they were not capable of directing the country. This crisis is considered to be a world financial crisis. When global financial sectors crash, banks and then industrial sectors begin to go bankrupt. This situation did in not take place in Turkey but has taken on an 256 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo interesting twist. In Turkey no bank goes bankrupt, but in 2008 every bank has made a profit and to say that that there is a financial crisis would be false. However, there is an industrial and real sector crisis. In comparison to the world crisis, Turkey’s prosperous financial sector demonstrates an awkward turn of events in the industrial and real sectors. The reason for this is financial cuts and the existence of foreign banks not giving loans. As a result the prime minister stated that the crisis would be mild over the country and not allow it to break down, but the crisis has more than skimmed over the industrial sector. The difference between the world crisis and the one in Turkey is based on the holding of funds from the financial to the industrial and business sectors. However, because the industrial sector has lost profit and unemployment has gone up the financial sector will soon negatively be affected as well. The low flexibility of essential products such as bread and rice will not be much affected by the crisis. However, sectors that produce furniture, computers, and automobiles, products with high flexibility, will be influenced. To say that the crisis will be mild in the industrial and business sectors is an over statement. The high quantity of foreign banks in Turkey is the internal cause of our crisis. Moreover, the 2001 crisis, in terms of Turkish banking systems, had positive outcomes. However, because of the abnormal number of foreign banks in Turkey, a normally disadvantageous crisis has become much more. Solution Suggestions Solution suggestions could be grouped into 3: 1. what the world needs to do 2. what Turkey needs to do, 3. what corporations need to do, 1- What the world should do I would like to tell a economic story. First we should accept that the crisis arised because of fictional money concept, not real cash money. Therefore, fictional money should be eliminated. The USA achieved that in 1933 and 1934 with precautionary measures. However, in 1999, to produce virtual money those precautionary measures legal acts abolished, thus the crisis was unavoidable. For this reason the development of virtual money and ties to derivative instruments have been forbidden. Another problematic point is that the world trade is done in Euros and US funds. The use of specific currencies gives those countries undeserved distinction and authority. For example, America can press its own currency as it wishes and in return buy goods and services from the whole world. In the same way, those countries involved in world trade prefer to use US dolars. For this reason, the system is rotten and has been observed to fail. Therefore, a central world bank should be established or the United Nations should establish a currency that can be used worldwide. In other words, there should be an international currency used worldwide. For this to be realized, every country’s contribution to the world national profit should be considered. For example, the contribution of the US to the world national profit is 14 trillion US. Turkey’s contribution is 700 million US. Every country does not contribute equally the currency profit is based on an individual basis. Thus, the whole world’s contribution and control over one currency would provide a trustworthy monetary system, thus, soon there will be more insight into this area. There is postive feedback on this topic. For example, the most recent G-20 meeting in Russia claimed such an offer. In the same concern, China also made similar requests. The first commentary on these requests was made by the US because it would be hazardous to its own wealth. 2-What Turkey Should Do In summary Turkey should use precautionary measures. The ending of the crisis should be foreseen. To reach this goal, consumption must be re-originated because of the reduced demand caused by unemployment and negative expectations. Reduced consumption and demand causes no sales or production by factories. Therefore, they dismiss employees. Unemployed individuals induce a reduction on consumption and demand. This is a vicious circle that should be eliminated. The worldwide economy gets diminished. Economic graphs demonstrate a decrease of profits. Urgently, Turkey should take precautionary measures. Turkey should convert its own economic graphics into a V or U-shape. Turkey must be one of the first countries that should do this. There are three steps; first, the crisis has ended the campaign by the media. It must furnish a secure enviroment and positive expectations into markets. Due to negative expectations those who have money do not spend it. The second is to increase the money supply. It has to be handled with foreign funds or with the pressing of money by a central bank. With the increase of money supply, real sector must be supported. This will increase production and investment. Moreover, an increase of money supply would increase demand and consumption. 257 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A third step is for the government to cut taxes and make compulsory levy cuts or payment should be delayed. Consequently, money will still be in the market, indirectly, and the money supply will increase. Here we should be careful about liquid deficit. If, there is no secure environment and positive expectations in markets, liquid afflux will cause deficiency. If liquidity increases through foreign funds, the Turkish Lira will gain value. With the central bank pressing money inflation will arise. To eliminate these risks, national products should be produced and consumed. In other words, importance should be given to national goods and industry not foreign goods. How we are going to do that. 3- What Corporations Should Do 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. They have to guess the rock botoom of the crisis. And they have to rearrange their budgets. Their budgets should be based on a six month period not one year. They have to reduce credit loans. They have to give more importance to their equity capital. It means they could be lessen. They have to produce and sell products that are in demand and whose flexibility is less than others. Expenses should be reduced in a quick manner because earnings and revenue will decrease. They have to find new customers and markets. They have to organize campaigns in order to increase demands and consumption of consumers. They have to increase efficiency of the work place and labour forces. Functional flexibility should be increased. References: Anatolia Agency. (11 Kasım 2008). Đncekara, A. (2009). Küresel Kriz ve Türkiye Ekonomisi. Đstanbul. Seyidoğlu, H. (2003). Uluslar arası Đktisat. Gizem Can Yayınları, Đstanbul. Tahran, V. (2008). Global Kriz ve Türkiye. Tisk Sosyal Politika Toplantıları, Đstanbul, 5 Kasım 2008. Tuduk, M. ( 2008). Referans Gazetesi, 12 Aralık 2008. Yıldıray Y. (2009). Mortgage Krizi. Đstanbul. 258 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 212 Title A name given to the resource Global Crisis: Consequences and Solution Possibilities Author Author YAVUZ, Arif Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper, the reasons and solutions of the 2008 global economic crisis are discussed. In the first part, a comparision of 2008 global crisis with 1929 economic crisis, the effects of each and also the differences are explained. The champions and the losers of the current crisis are interpretted. Also, the estimated duration and the expected end time of the crisis are discussed. In the second part, the effects of the crisis to the Global Economy and to some of the countries are stated. The expected effects can be summarised as, “losing of confidence in global market”, “having negative prospects”, “decreasing of the foreign trade”, “shrinking of the national incomes” ,“shrinking of demand and consumption”, “increasing of unemployment”. In the last part, some solutions for negative effects of global crisis are offered. A world economic story is stated and suggested a new International Money Currency. Restrictions for the virtual Money is recommended and also some new rules on international trade and international finance system are offered. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9dc28d4344e910882b65781aaa222425.pdf 74f3c726ee4fc27378ca55a6a7f16ec8 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Information Security for Sustainable Development Halit Vural International Burch University Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina hvural@ibu.edu.ba Nejdet Dogru International Burch University Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ndogru@ibu.edu.ba Abdulhamit Subasi International University of Sarajevo Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina asubasi@ius.edu.ba Abstract: With the advent of electronic commerce (e-commerce), business became dependent on information systems in a new manner. Consequently information security turned out to be more and more important for data-protection. In opposed to previous systems, the changing requirements for security must be solely filled by new policies and risk analysis. Security requirements can be defined with the help of investigations in the business environment. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) is a rising discipline which includes applications, mobile devices and wireless networks. Besides the majority of existing ecommerce applications can be adapted to run in a wireless environment. M-commerce also involves many more new applications such as, mobile financial services, user and location specific mobile advertising, mobile inventory management. Therefore, most of the mcommerce research should focus on applications, and security issues. To supply these demands, we need to understand the necessary security requirements for every kind of implementation. The aim of this work is to describe an approach for the importance of the information security for sustainable development. Keywords: Information Security, e-commerce, m-commerce, e-government, wireless networks, Sustainable Development, survivability. 1. Introduction In recent years, lots of organizations have become deeply dependent on information processing systems. The concluding stage of dependence was reached with the development of e-commerce (Zuccato 2004). This dependency has generated a need for protecting computer systems by means of information systems security. Security requirements ought to be used to describe what kind of security level an information system needs (Gerber 2000).Integrating sustainabilityinto development of business,investmentisthe main strategy of current governmental issues. New government guidelines require that the regions combine the advancing together strategy into a single integrated regional framework. That requires information systems to be used widely. Organizations have been benefiting from information processing systems becoming more and more dependent on it with the introduction of e-commerce in last few years. The use of information technologies has raised the demand for protection of organization's data and business. Therefore,information system security has become an essential part of electronic environmentlike e-education, e-government,e-commerce etc. The aim of advances in Information technologiesisto improve life standards, share information, make socialrelationships stronger, and help organizations remain competitive inthe electronic environment (Zuccato 2004). E-government is one of areas which information system security has an enormous importance. E-government uses information technologies in public administration to help citizens access to governmentalinformation, citizen services, businesses and government agencies. It always need to be improved to provide better services and easier ways for participating in democratic institutions and processes like voting. Therefore, information security becomes main responsibility for e-government where security properties of 360 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo availability, confidentiality,integrity, accountability and information assurance must be fulfilled (Joshi 2001). A successful and secure e- government will earn confidence and trust of all users (citizens, businesses, organizations, government). Although it is getting easier to develop online government implementations, security issues are getting bigger with the increasing citizen mobility. By enabling government services to be accessible anytime anywhere is also another challenge to avoid intrudersto damage or exploitthe system (Dridi 2001). E-com merce is another area where financial information is exchanged and should be protected. There are notable advances on development of e-commerce applications. Most of the e-comm erce applications have being modified to be used in mobile environment. Mobile-commerce (m-commerce) also initiated new researches on mobile applications, devices, and middleware and wireless networks. New applications have been created to be used only in mobile environment (Varshney 2002). Some of mobile commerce applications are mobile advertising, mobile inventory management, product locating, mobile shopping, mobile auction, and wireless data center (Varshney 2002). The aim of this work is to describe an approach for the importance of the information security for sustainable development. Our main approach is to emphasize security requirements for e-commerce, mcommerce, e-government and e-banking (Mallov 2002). 2. The Need for a Secure Information System An important issue in information systems is dependability and security. Organizations need secure transmission of a document between two parties over network. For wide area networks,such as Internet,flow of private data has a considerable risk to be stolen. That risk affects the trust on information systems. Business organizations need a secure framework to enlargetheirinvestments. And governmentlay itsapplications on trust of the security of citizens’information. Development of every organization is dependent on information security. Security of system for businessis not onlyto enablethem to take advantage of new market opportunities but also to protect their assets. They need to develop confidence and trust in the electronic world to continue their activities worldwide. Security concerns can be divided into concerns about access control, and concerns about information and transaction security. These schemes arethe basis of several electronic payment and procurement systems, as presented in the following sections. 2.1. E-Com merce Applications E-com merce server provides sell-side (auction, catalogue), buy-side (catalogue, bid), customer service (customer management, collaboration, and so on), security (access control and authorization), and integration (application middleware) functionality components. Various types of applications and technological devices were developed to support those activities. One of the devices to store digital signatures, fingerprints etc. is smartcards. Smartcards can be programmed to work on multiple applications. They have additional built-in computing capability. Besides, there are supporting systems for transmission of data between two parties. Secured Socket Layer (SSL) is a protocol that handles authentication and encryption for Internet message transmission. The protocol is built into web browsers and operating systems that enables the use of Internet shopping, Internet banking and vice versa. For credit card payments over the Internet, another protocol as Secured Electronic Transaction (SET) is widely used. That protocol uses digital certificates to authenticate transactions. Cybercash is another scheme that ties customer to a particular machine containing wallet and proprietary software. The payment method can be creditcard, digitalcoins or direct debit. Creditcards are useful with secure communications technologies such as SSL. And the smart card readers will accelerate their use on the Internet. For business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce electronic coins and electronic cheques need to be promoted. Another key issue to consideris how to maintain financialtransaction records for all partiesinvolved in electronic payments. The issues related to present and future payment methods are complex and itis stilltoo early to know how business willaccept and adaptto new electronic payment methods (Greenfield 2000). 2.2. M-com merce Applications M-com merce is a rising discipline involving applications, mobile devices, middleware, and wireless networks. Most of existing e-commerce applications can be adapted to run in wireless environment. Contrary to e-commerce applications that generally run on fixed network infrastructure, m-commerce applications may not getsuch dependabilityfrom the existing wirelessinfrastructure. The m-com merce applications consist of mobile financial applications, mobile inventory management, shopping, mobile auction, and wireless data centre (Varshney 2002). If we look into a basic m-com merce transaction and discuss how different m-com merce 361 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo transactions may be affected by different security vulnerabilities. In addition to security issues related to ecommerce,there are more security concerns related to m-com merce applications (Alisha 2002). 2.3. E-Government Applications A rapid technological evolution is seen in governmental applications. Therefore thatrapid change is not a problem free. E-government is the use of IT in public administration and services for citizens, business companies, and governmental agencies. Security of information systems used is the main concern of that applications. The system has to fulfil the fundamental security properties such as availability, confidentiality, integrity, and accountability and information assurance (Joshi 2001). Thus, a new framework foridentifying and organizing the security requirementsthose are common to allinformation systems that have been utilized forthe development of an integrated on-line e-government platform, are required (Lambrinoudakis 2003). 2.4. E-Learning Applications In addition to the development, management and offering of on-line courses, the system supports administrative tasks like registration, payments, certification, etc. During the system setup phase,itis expected to ensure that the system must specify the access privileges for all types of users. During the authentication phase, the suitable mechanisms must be engaged for authenticating the identification of all registered users. During the offering the service phase,the integrity and confidentiality ofthe material provided to and submitted by the students must be ensured. In addition, the proof of origin, submission, delivery and receipt, whenever transactions between students and trainers occur, must be maintained. Moreover,alogging mechanism should be utilized (Lambrinoudakis 2003). 2.5. E-Voting Applications E-voting supportsthetransmission of a number oftypes of election proceduresthrough the Internet. All eligible voters can thus participate in the election. The authentication of voter and election organiser identification is a requirement prior to any type of relations of the user with the system. Even though state officials, will generally be trusted,they must be authenticated before accessing the system and alltheir actions must be logged. During offering the service phasein which eligible voter can select a ballot and cast her/his vote, there are plentiful essential security requirements (Ikonomopoulos 2002). Some indicative ones are anonymity, confidentiality, integrity, no one can vote twice, etc. The last system phase which refers to the storage of the ballots cast and the calculation of the election tally should be available only after the election process has finished and its aim is to validate votes and determine the total number of votes each candidate has received. Throughout tallying the integrity must be ensured such that the participation and active involvement of party representatives, while logging of all actions is necessary. Afterthe tallying process the votes and other relevant evidence must be stored in a secure way. As a result security issue is also important for e-voting applications (Lambrinoudakis 2003). 3. Security technology for Sustainable Development As we discussed inthe previous section, security must be considered carefully when designing Internetbased systems. Any application must have a security policy, appropriate security mechanisms forits application area and monitoring and auditing mechanisms to examine the system in a secure functionality. Security concerns can be divided into two categories: concerns about access control, and concerns about information and transaction security. Access control mechanisms such as passwords, encrypted smart cards, biometrics and firewalls certify that only legitimate users and applications get access to information resources such as user accounts, files and databases. Information and transaction security schemes such as secret key encryption and public key encryption are used to ensure the privacy, integrity and confidentiality of business transactions and messages. This design isthe foundation of numerous electronic payment systems. Different number of practical measures improves security concerns. Firewalls and proxy servers can block undesirable attempt to access the internal systems. Strong authentication mechanisms supply system access only to legitimate users. Access control mechanisms grant users rights to access only the resources and applications they need to do their work. Careful planning and administration of a secure network can diminish the risks of attacks.Defending againstthe unfamiliar attacks is not possible, butthe risk can be mitigated with good system design (Greenfield 2000). Cryptography isthe mostimportanttechnique which transforms digitalinformation from one format to another based on the value of a number, known as the encryption key. The encryption process is a scrambled 362 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo version of the message that the recipient can then decrypt, by using either the original key (symmetric encryption) or a different, but related, key (asymmetric encryption). The latter one is known as public key cryptography,relating a pair of keys, one private and one public.Information encrypted using the public key can only be retrieved using the corresponding private key. Furthermore, public and private keys can be used to create and verify “digital signatures”. Digital signature is appended to messages to authenticate the message and the sender. In an internet application, a robust public key infrastructure (PKI) is needed to make possible secured and trusted transactions. As a result, this will provide information security framework for sustainable development to generate, store and manage keys and digital certificates, security policies for cryptographic systems used (Greenfield 2000). 4. Conclusions It has turn out to be obvious that security on the Internet is indeed inadequate for sustainable development.Inthis paper, we presented variousinformation security requirementsfor sustainable development. In particular, we discussed the dependability of infrastructure for different e-applications. Due to the open and unconstrained nature of the Internet, staying ahead of hackers is becoming harder if not impossible. If the Internetisto actually be successful as a medium for e-applications,the security-relatedissues must be addressed. Even if variety oftechniques have been discussed to present protection and increase security on the Internet,the techniques are ad hoc fixes and resolve only a small portion of a wide spectrum of Internetsecurity problems. In addition, many ofthese fixes can be subvertedthrough security holesin other system programs. A solution to the security problem may liein a result of currenttechniques, butthis may lead to downgrading of quality of service. Conceivably a change in the approaches -applications are written- and in the structure of the Internet are required. References Dridi, F. & Pernul, G. & Unger, V. (2001). Security for the electronic government. Proceedings of the European Conference on E-Government, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland September. Gerber M & von Solms R. (2000). From risk analysis to security requirements. Comput Secur;20(7):577e84. Greenfield, Paul & Maheshwari, Piyush & Brebner, Paul & Gorton, Ian. (2000). E-commerce security. Australian National Electronic Authentication Council (NEAC) report. August 2000. Ikonomopoulos, S. & Lambrinoudakis, C. & Gritzalis, D. & Kokolakis, S. & Vassiliou, K.. (2002) Functional requirements for a secure electronic voting system. Proceedings of the IFIP TC11 17th International Conference on Information Security, Egypt, Cairo (2002) 507–520. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6TYP-483442H-3-C&_cdi=5... Joshi, J. & Ghafoor, A. & Aref, W.G. & Spafford, E.H. (2001)., Digital Government Security Infrastructure Design Challenges. IEEEComputer34(2). Lambrinoudakis, C. & Gritzalis, S. & Dridi, F. & Pernul, G. (2003). Security Requirements For e-Government Services: A Methodological Approach For Developing A Common PKI-Based Security Policy. Computer Communications, Vol. 26, No. 16, pp. 1873-1883, Elsevier Malloy, Alisha D. & Varshney, Upkar & Snow, Andrew P. (2002). Supporting mobile commerce applications using dependable wireless networks, Mobile Networks and Applications. v.7 n.3, p.225-234, June 2002 Varshney, U. & Vetter, R.. (2002). Mobile commerce: Framework, applications and networking support. Mobile Networks and Applications 7 185–198. Zuccato, Albin. (2004). Holistic Security Requirement Engineering For Electronic Commerce. Computers & Security 23(1): 63-76. 363 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 506 Title A name given to the resource Information Security for Sustainable Development Author Author Vural, Halit Dogru, Nejdet Subasi, Abdulhamit Abstract A summary of the resource. With the advent of electronic commerce (e-commerce), business became dependent on information systems in a new manner. Consequently information security turned out to be more and more important for data-protection. In opposed to previous systems, the changing requirements for security must be solely filled by new policies and risk analysis. Security requirements can be defined with the help of investigations in the business environment. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) is a rising discipline which includes applications, mobile devices and wireless networks. Besides the majority of existing ecommerce applications can be adapted to run in a wireless environment. M-commerce also involves many more new applications such as, mobile financial services, user and location specific mobile advertising, mobile inventory management. Therefore, most of the mcommerce research should focus on applications, and security issues. To supply these demands, we need to understand the necessary security requirements for every kind of implementation. The aim of this work is to describe an approach for the importance of the information security for sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08bbd058ced577a0b3b3c0a0c80c95bf.pdf 8c12034d842969d798377577513c7284 PDF Text Text Strategies to Reduce Cost & Improve Environmental Performance in Lean & Green Apparel Supply Chains V G Venkatesh Pearl Academy of Fashion Chennai campus,India venkatesh@chennai.pearlacademy.com Introduction Business Organizations are completely changing their strategies of how they manage their supply chains. Strict norms, Dominance in the supply chains have been turned outto be the alliance with the relationships with the upstream as well asthe downstream partners. As part of thelean supply chains,itis veryimperative to check the non-value added activities in the entire process as well as to increase the profitability. The other element which has been talked for few years in the industry is “Greening” of supply chains or Green Supply Chain Practices which are ruling across the various industries. Supply Chain managers of the industries are finding it very difficult to balance both the economic & environmental performance in the Fashion Industry. In recent years,the focus has gone into the environmental management principlesfor allthe membersinthe Supply Chain to orienttowards sustainability by combining principles across other elements such as productrecovery,reverse logistics and re-manufacturing. Business performers have adopted different strategies that focus on internal operations including the environmental management system as well as accounting systems. Research has been initiated on the various phases on the supply chains including, Purchasing, Manufacturing and Distribution with material handling at Stores to identify the possible ways of improvement on the Environmental performances. This paper will discuss the various strategies adopted by the industries to increase their lean & green performances with respectto apparel supply chains and the to propose some fundamental changes in the Supply chain especially material handling with the less environmentalimpact. The paper will discuss best practicesin material & product handling to have Green & Lean inthe apparel supply chains, which finally reduce the Carbon foot print ofthe materials. The present status of apparel supply chain is not aiming for Lean & Green. It is having the multiple contacts. Continuous improvements are aimed atthe different angle to reduce the wastes and more sustainable in giving lessimpact on the environmentalfront. 409 �Need of the Green & Lean Apparel Supply Chain practices: Green & lean Supply chains are modelled and designed to reduce both the costs and wastes. Each industry is working on the increase its productivity at the same time to use the resources effectively through Green & lean Supply Chain practices. By adopting the Green & lean practices,the companies can exhibittheir competitiveness by creating good practices with sustainable approaches. Many Companies just concentrate on the reduction of wastages atthe same time, they failto identify the increase in the cost concurrently due to the practices taken into the supply chains. In the other sense,they failto identify the environmental burdens in the supply chains. It results into the extended supply chains incorporating immediate and eventual environmental effects. GSC M – Green Supply Chain Management practicestogether with eco-design and Green Purchasing,is the need of the hour for all the Business organizations to show their environmental performance. Apparel Supply chain is one of the Supply chains where the complexity rises with respect to lean & Green. Due to the shift in the business, for apparel players itis challenging for them to keep their supply chain both as “lean & Green”. Mainly itfocuses on following strategies: • • To analyse & reduce the Carbon Foot Printin all phases ofApparel Supply To have a sustainable material handling in the supply chain to minimize the wastages The use of environmental management practices has a huge impact on Operations policy. The practices adopted can be on the following areas: • Production Planning & Purchasing : The introduction of careful environmental targets often requires high attention of product structure. (materials such a fabric manufacturing and trims etc., Components etc.,) • In the production, introduction of “cleaner” technologies ie the equipment and plant with a reduced impact on the state of naturalresources • In Logistics,the effective attention needs to be given on the green productinnovations with the re-cycling options. Very minimal effort and studies have gone into the analysis of environmental performance measurement with respectto Green Manufacturing Strategies. Factors for the Green Supply Chain strategy : The internal factors for Company’s strategic attitude heavily depend upon managerial environmental awareness. Every professionals should have • Ethical objective. • May consider the environment as a means of achieving competitive advantage. The introduction of green product development program or incorporation of green competencies in the day to day managerial performances. • Compliance with the current environmentalregulations. • May take efforttoimprove the environmental performance. External Variables : • • Green movements and regulators Company’s relationships with other supply chain value partners. Some of the Green Supply Chain Strategies: Pro-Active Green Strategy : It starts with the integration of relationships between a company and its vendors or suppliers. This has been integrated at the design phase itself and also to handle the returns management. This will be clearly established strategic relationship. MAS Holdings, a renowned apparel manufacturing organization in Sri Lanka has established the strategic partnership with its partners. It is considered to be the highly professional and advanced in thatindustry. Responsive Strategy: The Company is adjusting its internal set up according to the environmental consequences it is facing. It is highly predominant in the Indian conditions as companies, go for the readjustments according to internal working climate available. Reactive Strategy: Market –oriented only, it is determined according to the companies, external 410 �conditions. Unresponsive behaviour ; W here environmental conditions are not adopted into the operating strategies. Small firms with the financiallimitations are having the problem in pursuing the green supply chain initiatives. The environmental performance of Apparel supply Chain can be increased or analysed by the following areas : • • • • • Sourcing & Procurement Policies Product Planning Production/Manufacturing Technologies Logistics Human Resources Management Some of the Cost saving possibilities & avenues discussed for Apparel Chains are : Procurement - Itis highly advantageous to develop the Co-operative relationships with suppliers to design new environmentally friendly product. The companies change the purchasing parameters to make the recycling programs easier. This way it would easy for us to correctthe mistakes and be able to concentrate on the benefiton the both. The CPFR (Collaborative planning) model adopted by WalMart can be extended on the Product Planning : Some pro-active firms,they plan the samples with new green strategies that can be fully recycled. This is having the huge relationship between the product developers and other organizational units such as production to arrange forthe production. Production/manufacturing : companies in apparel supply chains are highly on the developmental path. They are adopting the strategy to minimize their manufacturing cost. Some of the videos will be discussed in the presentation.They have taken so much of effortto reduce their manufacturing cost and it would be a recycling based initiatives. For this they focussed on to minimize the toxic materials of environmental concern to be used in the production and allthe professionals who are involved in the production are highly aware of the environmental issues on that. Companies also took initiatives to reduce energy consumption by using the other sources of energy and reducing the operational wastes. This is were lean manufacturing strategies have been applied in the industry. Logistics : A change in the Operating procedures will help to boostthe Corporate image by adopting the environmental friendly transport systems. This would enrich the green image of the organization and also the Lean manufacturing and JIT principles are highly applied resulting from the transportation systems. Logistics are highly aimed now a days with the Green approach. Some of the strategiesin Green (Apparel) Manufacturing : • • • W aste Management, Clean Technology, Energy Use and Green Belts Good waste management has heightened the environmental consciousness of all associates. operations. This naturally extends to working with like-minded business partners to ensure continuity of our constantly monitored and improved clean technology agenda. All Manufacturers follow a strict policy of wastewatertreatmentthatreturns clean watertothe environment. Less Material Wastage: Forthe Green Manufacturing raw materialthat are preferred are generally eco-friendly. For E.g. organic cotton is eco friendly product, but lot of textile manufacturers do not produce fabric with the organic cotton. Hence manufacturers make garment with these kind of fabric and they make the best utilization of it. Less Chemical Usage & Managing Water Usage Suppose thatthe fabric printing process requires high use of water and resultsin high volumes of water discharge. wastewater treatment plants, should be complied with environmental regulatory authorities. Chemical pre-treatment of raw waste water controlsthe performance parameters of (Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and pH levels with samples analysed monthly by the regulatory authorities. These eco-efficient plants ensure that all their chemicals and dyes meet global standards and so, compatible with company environmental policy. In garment manufacturing unit chemicals are mostly used in washing and dyeing unit. Hence chemicals used here should be more organic and eco friendly. 411 �• For E.g. eco-friendly dyes, azo dyes, etc… A mong the series of measures to reduce water consumption are recycling, a rain water harvesting system thatthe factory can use each day, and the introduction of a tertiary filtration system and disinfection which allows water to be reused for toilet flushing and gardening Less Energy Usage & Energy Efficiency Initiative In garment manufacturing unit a lot of energy is spent on stem iron, boilers,thread sucking machine, etc… a lot of energy is consumed in converting the water into stem rather than electric boilers solar boilers could be used to save electricity. Some of the Energy saving strategies from the ApparelFactories are : The energy initiative was worked through the Central Energy Management and cascaded to different factories inside one organization. Measures implemented across the factories consisted of using more efficient lighting and air conditioning, better management of air compressors and pneumatic systems and monthly flue gas analysis. Sophisticated new air-conditioning systems should be introduced and the ducting redesigned for greater efficiency. Special prismatic material can be used for skylights in the roof allows only the passage of solar light without the accompanying heat Sophisticated new light emitting diodes (LEDs) should be used as task lights provide light to the sewing machines at needle point,supplementing the naturallight provided by the skylights. High bay lights are to be used only on cloudy or rainy days. The factory’s steam boilers and steam distribution systems have should be been redesigned for greater efficiency. Transportation within the premises is by electric vehiclesto eliminate use offossilfuelinsidethe plant. An advanced intelligent building management system controlsrelative humidity and carbon dioxide levelstoimprove comfortlevels for all Associatesinthe factory. • Hazardous Waste Disposal Environmental Protection License from the respective authorities, encourage the 3R strategy (Reuse, Recycle, Rework), while attempting to reduce the waste generated by its processes, monitors noise levels, ambient air quality, temperatures and treated waste water to ensure standards compliance and eliminate discharge oftoxic gases. The factory should achieve zero solid waste disposal by recycling or reusing 100 per cent of the solid waste it produces. Even canteen wastes can be composted and it contributesto biogas generation. The green areasinthe gardens willincrease substantially to provide all occupants with a better view of green area, and two indoor should be introduced to the plant with the largestfloor area. • Companies move from traditional end-of-pipe controlto new technologies. • End-Of-Life Management • Waste source reduction on the spot. • Recycling • Virgin Materials are recycled Integrated Clean Technology, Waste Management, Energy Management and Environmental Conservation are the operations on the basis of a strong belief that sustainable industrial development can drive its ultimate goal of being a completely green business concern. All this adds up to lower operating costs and a better planet for all. Lean is Clean. Clean is green, and green is “the new black” that willshow up on your P&L. Importance of costsin the Supply Chains: Material handling decisions will have impact on the company performance including operating costs, Investment options, Product quality and have the huge impact on the meeting the delivery schedules also. Itis normal tendency the material handling costs with respect to the environmental benefits are overlooked. This overlooked costs have a greater version of impact on the environmental burdens and also but it’s a obstacle to improve the financial performance. Apparel supply chain professionals do not attack the concerns of environments with an allaround analysis due tothe structure oftraditional cost-accounting systems. The Product Cost traditionally includes the raw material and labour costs, and the over heads include the Plant operations cost, wages and other Maintenance costs. The Position of environmental costsis always a paradox in the apparel supply chain. Traditional environmental cost accounting system allocatesthe cost along allthe products even the particular product has less problem on the ecological point of view. But in the Improved allocation, we would like to apportion the coststo the particular product which has the environmentalimpact. This would help us to design the apparel supply chain better as they help us to analyse the both upstream & downstream processes 412 �which can be fine tuned drastically. For eg : Considering the possibility of re-cycling of materials,the product design stage itself,it would be betterto startthe material handling. The cost hierarchy identified in the Supply chains are: 1. Conventional costs – which include materialand other expensesthat can be allocated tothe product or process 2. Potentially Hidden – These are intangible costs that are identified as the benefits obtained by the firms and wont be abletotraceitthe responsible products or processes.eg inthe Apparelindustries are : Producttraining course benefits 3. Contingent costs : Future event costs. The potential costs on the future benefits on the apparel supply chains. Such as making it as green factory by reducing the electricity consumption and also Compliance costs, which can attractthe buyer afterthe implementation. 4. Relationship Category : Costsrelated to subjective prepositions ofthe firm’s stake holders. The Managerial aspects of cost savings in the Apparel Supply Chain are : The Decision making frame work also is based on the best practices ofthe companiesthathave initiated and implemented environmental accounting systems. Cost Identification Determine Chances Calculate benefits Decide and Implement & Monitor Cost Identification: Review needs to happen atthe systematiclevelto determine the occurrence of environmental costs. This step will help the professionals who are participating in the supply chain can analyse each and every process and itsrelevant cost withthe environmentalimpact. Some ofthe areas ; • Materiallosses during production • Raw material • Shiftinthe change ofthe Suppliers • Internal recycling costs Determine the Chances/Opportunities: Identification ofthe several new areas and the potentialchanges are evaluated to determine which changes will likely yield significant cost savings and reduce environmental impacts. It is much helpful to identify the potential changes which can be evaluated during this phase. • Appropriatetechnology • Involvement ofthe workforce • Conduct an Activity based costing analysis • Information gathering – Production records for material usage rates, Operator training, Maintenance logs, Utility bills, Facility blue prints etc., • Interviews • Supplier analysis • Successes of exemplar Companies 413 �• Best practicesin the industry Calculate Benefits: Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of costs needs to be done with more depth. This would be supplemented with the present method analysis and with the proposed alternatives with their benefits. • How much isthe material used and forlandfilled ? • Hazardous materials used in the Processing? • Total costs Due to overtime,lowered efficiency and quality defects etc., • How much will employee satisfaction be improved by switching from a hazardous materials During the Review of EOQ model also,two environmental considerations being done. Materialloses and waste disposal has been included. Q = 2DS/HC In this, H- isthe holding costwhich will be revised to include the disposal costs also. Item cost(C) – cost ofinventory ($/unit) Annual Demand (D) Set up costs (S) Holding costs (H) Item cost(C) EOQ Conventional 80,000 Pcs $ 100 10 % $ 6/pc 5164 pcs Revised 80,000 Pcs $ 100 15 % ( +5 % for Disposal) $6+ $ 2 (Disposal cost) 4216 pcs With this approach the company also reduce the environmental burdens and decreasethe overallcosts associated with waste disposals. Decide, Implement and Monitor: • Team approach and Consultancy • Trade off analysis needs to be implemented • Establish the group forthe implementation • Provide appropriatetraining • Computerized environment Once the decisions are made, the final challenge is implementing the change. Cross functional analysis is the right step in the apparel supply chain. Many companies have practiced the same. Conclusion Apparel Supply chain professionals can improve both financial and environmental performance of their systems through the above strategic applications. This paper gives the broader paradigm on the different approaches given by the professionals that can be applied to the apparel field successfully. The trend of maintaining the good eco efficiency, Conservation of scarce resource, avoidance of toxic products in the Green and Lean manufacturing is highly appreciated. The no of factories have started implementing the strategies with an strong aim to reduce the pollution at the source and this process would have started at the earliest stage of product planning itself. The cost controlling strategies are the main elements in Environmental accounting methods which can be highly usefultoincrease the benefitsof the stakeholder. 414 �References Cooper (1994), “Product durability and Competitive advantage”, the Third Business Strategy and the environment conference, 15-16 September, Nottingham Freeman, Harry, (1995) “Industrial Pollution Prevention Handbook, , Mc Graw Hill, NY. Chapter 47, pp 777-789 Porter, M and Van der Line, C. (1995), “ Green and Competitive ending the stale mate” , Harvard Business Review, SeptOct, pp 120-34 Robert B Pojasek, (1998), “Activity Based Costing for EHS Improvement,” (1998) Pollution prevention Review, winter, pp 111-120 Srivastava (1995), “The role of corporations in achieving the Ecological sustainability”, Academy of Management Review, Vol.20 pp 930-60 415 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 520 Title A name given to the resource Strategies to Reduce Cost & Improve Environmental Performance in Lean & Green Apparel Supply Chains Author Author Venkatesh, V G Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)