224 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a521998d386a8bb488f9b1f11da72e45.docx b0416340daecc25456879101dcfa8b29 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9f80fc83dedf71d34535d39bdab3ead5.pdf fa545b803bd8ee20ae15fab042f7f276 PDF Text Text RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS (RAS) AND THE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION Ramazan Serezli Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey Muhammet Altunok Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey Erkan Can Tunceli University, Tunceli, Turkey ABSTRACT In order to meet the protein needs of the rapidly growing world population, cultivation of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions have been inevitable, so that consisted of aquaculture industry. Initially, starting with the natural environment and improvement of regulation of aquaculture, the use of modern devices nowadays are fully controlled manner. At this point, water uses and closed or recirculating aquaculture production systems (RAS) in order to avoid the risks of the disease was established. Naturally in the human activities and the production of products or wastes released into the environment is composed of a team. Here's recirculated aquaculture system discussed in this context, water discharge into receiving water discharge and release it in terms of environmental pollution and ecological balance, the most important point to be aware of. In this study, recirculating aquaculture systems are discussed and interacts with the environment has been examined. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2099 Title A name given to the resource RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS (RAS) AND THE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION Author Author SEREZLI, Ramazan ALTUNOK, Muhammet CAN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. In order to meet the protein needs of the rapidly growing world population, cultivation of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions have been inevitable, so that consisted of aquaculture industry. Initially, starting with the natural environment and improvement of regulation of aquaculture, the use of modern devices nowadays are fully controlled manner. At this point, water uses and closed or recirculating aquaculture production systems (RAS) in order to avoid the risks of the disease was established. Naturally in the human activities and the production of products or wastes released into the environment is composed of a team. Here's recirculated aquaculture system discussed in this context, water discharge into receiving water discharge and release it in terms of environmental pollution and ecological balance, the most important point to be aware of. In this study, recirculating aquaculture systems are discussed and interacts with the environment has been examined. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2681bbb3cd83356e90e4aba0deaae042.pdf 018237549ef606811f81d632873466a0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Recommendation Engine on IPTV Author Author Vedad Njuhović, Samed Jukić Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) platforms are becoming one of the most popular entertainment multimedia services which are used to serve movies, tv-series and other video and audio attractive content using the Internet Protocol. VoD (Video on Demand) is the most popular multimedia IPTV service, which provides content without the need for the old traditional way of using video playback devices. Except that it is necessary to have high-quality VoD content, IPTV platforms must provide the best end-user experience. Moreover, it is imperative to provide new features to attract new customers and keep the existing ones. We confirmed the efficacy of this classifier thru simple trial and error. When we searched for movies that have sequels, our engine recommended those sequels. Since Cosine Similarity Classifier considers multiple factors, such as actor, genre, year, etc. Even if the movie does not have prequels or sequels this algorithm was able to provide us with movies that share other common characteristics. Keywords Keywords. IPTV, engine, unicast, broadcast, multicast, python, CSS, HTML, JS. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021326 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Language A language of the resource English language Type The nature or genre of the resource Original research https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44e5438708f202d692fc67d3ee00f37a.pdf 3db89713ff2cf00b1fab0f47e747e494 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Ali COŞKUN Assistant Professor in Department of Management Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr Erkan ILGÜN Senior Teaching Assistant in Department of Management International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina eilguen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 19921995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Keywords: Banking Sector, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Foreign Direct Investment. Introduction After the iron curtain collapsed many centrally planned economies, divided in those south East European (SEE1) and Central Eastern Europe (CEE) replaced the previous social system of centrally planned economy to a non-socialist society with a liberalized economy. These low-income countries use economic liberalization as their main engine of growth. Among transition economies SEE are relatively less developed and structurally lagging behind the CEE. The region of the aforementioned region experienced a different way of reconstruction and development path. Bosnia and Herzegovina lagged behind the relatively developed republics of former Yugoslavia like Croatia, Slovenia, and Serbia. In this paper we give an overview about the banking sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) analyzing in particular the developments from 2000 to 2008. 1. Economic Overview 1.1. From Yugoslavia to Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina: Historical Background For centuries powers have collided in this region. With the dissolution of the communist regime in the late 1980s national feelings comes up especially in Serbia. Attempts to save the Yugoslav Federation were made, but as opinions diverge widely about a common future among the national leaders in the new countries Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia entailed to the collapse of the former Yugoslav Federation. Consequently the new established states disintegrated it from the centrifugal. While Croatia and Slovenia was declaring independence in 1991, paramilitary origins from Serbia occupied several 1 According to EBRD Office for South East Europe, SEE is as defined Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo. (EBRD, 2009). 52 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina towns killing civil Bosniaks1 and Croats. Thousands of people died in this clash of ethnic groups, as well a lot of the population seeks for refugees. As a consequence Bosnia and Herzegovina was faced with serious humanitarian and social problems. The conflict lasted 1992-1995 until the Dayton Peace Agreement2 was signed in Paris in December 1995 between the counterparts (Malcolm, 2002). For mobilizing international support for the Agreement a Peace Implementation Conference was held in London on December 8-9, 1995 which resulted in the foundation of the Peace Implementation Council (PIC). The PIC comprises 55 countries and agencies that assist the peace process in diverse ways (PIC, 2006) So the regional political situation were 'sealed' and post-war endeavors began to overcome the existing problems in the financial and economic structure, legislation and administration as well. The prime point in the Dayton Agreement is that a multiethnic society has to be lived in a divided country with two entities but jointly guided by a central government. With a rotating and collective three-member presidency Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is being ruled. The state of BIH is the central authority. Although recognized as a parliamentary democracy it is governed by the international community under tutorship of the Office of High Representative for BIH, which was established as a condition of the Dayton Agreement. The High Representative (OHR) is charged with observing the implementation of the Dayton agreement and coordination of the activities of international organization and intervenes in situations of unwillingness of the main parties to cooperate (e.g. the new flag design) or to take economic reform seriously. (OHR, 2009) With one confederation, two entities, ten cantons in the Federation, five administrative areas in the Serb Republic, a special Brcko district, plus municipalities and local government unit presents a very complex political system in the world which conceals meaningful barriers and bureaucratic hurdles that will need to overcome to succeed (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 424). Under the supervision of the United Nations both entities and the district handles on the defined conditions of the Dayton peace Agreement separately whereas in fiscal issues, these entities are autonomous. That means 'the duplication of many domestic policy functions and weakens incentives for cooperation' (Cuc, 2005) which suggests the conclusion that interethnic trust will be undermined so that it makes difficult to agree on the decisions needed to take the country forward (OHR, 2008). All of the countries had, plain-spoken, consummately differences in starting positions at the beginning of the transnational process of the former Yugoslav countries. In 1990, BIH has also started a wide-reaching process of reconstruction and development of its political, economic, social and legal systems as an independent (apart from extensive international aid) country and capable of sustainable development beginning with economic liberalization and implementation of market-oriented reforms for pursuing long-term growth. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 418) The integration to the world economy took place under extremely complicating circumstances for Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH). First of all it had been thinking about economic restructuring and renovation. In general, economies in the Balkan region are ordinary classified as late starters. That is why their performance is described as not very stable when compared to those of Central European countries. During the communist period, through decades, enterprises and industrial plants were largely focused toward the satisfaction of wants of the ex-Yugoslavia market. Heavy industry was mainly centered in BIH. As the least developed country in the region there were efforts in BIH in the early 1990s to minimize the affect of heavy industry on the economy and develop therefore light industries such as for example consumer goods, finance, electronics. Devastations of the existing infrastructure decreases GDP per capita during the war period. With the adopting and implementation of the Mid-term Development Strategy (PRSP) BIH was being encouraged to preserve macroeconomic stability with significant growth rates boot in GDP and industrial production. Because of destroying all economic capacity3 during the ethnical conflict period, BIH was forced to follow another development path. In contrast to other transition economies where institutional transition has progressed further, a highly vexing regulatory environment in BIH has occurred inconvenient situations for investors and further success of the transition process. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425-426) As a result complex and difficult structures which are often changing brings out that BIH has the following serious deficiencies: inefficient public sector, obstacles for business4, high current account deficit5, and complex government, fragmented policymaking inadequate coordination between the state and entities, democracy, widespread corruption and a fractured labor market which are in need of improvement. Red tape occurs with respect to independent administrative areas which are Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska and Brcko6. Different rules within the country exists (Klamert, 2008: 4-7). In spite of this claims, “....Bosnia 1 Bosniak refers to Muslims live in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 sets the bases for the establishing of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and its economic recovery. 3 The post-war role of manufacturing and industry in GDP fell by virtually 90% of lost output, declining of Gross Domestic Product, workforce lost their jobs. 4 E.g. no central tax administration exists 5 Which will in turn lead to a further increase in the current-account deficit 6 The entities are to a large extent independent as for legislation and there is no real deferral legal system. 2 53 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and Herzegovina are moving ahead with the implementation of their respective Interim Agreements and have made progress in important reform areas.” (Europa Press Releases 2009) 1.2. Economic Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Last Decade Selected economic indicators for BIH between 2000 and 2008 presented in Table 1 reveals a strong post-war recovery. Continued growth in industrial production over the past years can be seen. Inflation rate stabilized at EU levels. Economic growth in BIH has been impressive with GDP. The economy should remain strong in 2008 as a result of domestic demand with consumption and investment substantially supported by foreign aid flows. Nominal GDP in 2008 was about 12 billion Euros. In 2008, average real GDP growth rate was around 7.0%. GDP per capita reached EUR 3,648 in 2008. International trade has been a major source of economic growth. Unemployment is soaring with approximately 25%. Large and widening current account deficits are not surprising for transition economies. One of the key imbalances in the economy of BIH is its high trade deficit which is ultimately leading to a significant current account deficit in the balance of payments. The trade deficit rise remarkable for countries like BIH given that they are being swift integrated with the economies of the European Union. Encourages foreign investment have been remained. The significant increase in foreign direct investments (FDI) could be the most important instrument in financing of the overall balance of payments. Efforts to attract foreign investment lead to the development of the State Foreign Investment Policy and the successful reform of the banking system as well as the customs reform. Table 1. General Economic Indicators of Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: FIPA – Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009), Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sixth Edition, February 2009, Sarajevo, p.10 BIH is still an importing country. Main trading partner for BIH is the EU with a participation of approximately 50% beside Croatia, Turkey, Serbia and the USA. BIH holds a Free Trade Agreement with Central European Countries (CEFTA). But so far, BIH also has free trade agreements with Turkey, as well as preferential export regimes with e.g. the European Union, USA, Japan, Norway, New Zealand, and Russia. In 2007 trade amounted totally 10,141,783 (in thousand Euro) and in 2008; 11,758,560 (in thousand Euro). Consumer borrowing and growth in real wages boosts private consumption in 2007. The “golden age” of BIH was achieved during the 1970-1980 period, which culminated in the Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games in 1984 (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425). As a middle-income country BIH reach 67% of GDP in the service sector, 22 54 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo % in industry, and 10 % in agriculture (World Bank, 2009). In 2008 BIH reached GDP per capita: amounted by 3,648 Euro. First steps regarding privatization were undertaken under the leadership of the U.S. Agency for International Development in 1997 while the Framework Law for Privatization of Companies and Banks was enacted in 1998. As in most fields the Federation and the Serb Republic have here also their own privatization laws, which complicate the ongoing process of development. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 428) In spite of encountering obstacles, both post-communist and postwar periods, BIH has rendered an enormous development in post-conflict reconstruction transform its economic structure, It has the willingness to be more integrated in the international environment. 1.3. Efforts to Integrate with the European Union Developments in terms of international integration depend largely by their achievement of EU integration. Forcing reforms in the judicial system is one of the primary preconditions for further support by the EU. The Stabilization and Association Progress (SAP) is the EU´s framework for the Western Balkan countries regarding pre-accession issues. It achieves a secure and fast transition to a liberalized economy, approach to a eventual EU accession as well as stress of regional cooperation. The first step towards to assist them in adopting and implementing of EU standards a membership with the EU for BIH represents the Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA), initialed in the end of 2007, after approving by the Council of the European Union and signed in 2008. Moreover, the EU assists the country under the 2007 IPA (instrument for preaccession assistance). The first step in the EU integration process has been started with establishing the Consultative Task Force in 1998 which was redefined in 2006 to “Reform Process Monitoring”. (Weyerstrass, 2008: 395) In fulfilling economic criteria for being a Membership of European Union BIH is virtually capable to do it (Efendic and Medjedovic, 2006). 1.4. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Bosnia and Herzegovina The last year evidence is given for significant effort to open its economy to foreign investments. For foreign investors relevant laws in BIH are the Law on the Policy for Foreign Direct Investments and the Guidelines on the Registration of FDI. Commensurate with the economic theory foreign investors want to take advantage of yielding a higher return who is taking a risk abroad in a capital-scarce country. However, doing business in BIH is burdensome for out coming investors with respect to nontransparent business regulations, obstacles in administrative procedures as well as weak judicial structures (Petricevic and Danis 2007: 430-431). In BIH and in the other SEE countries at all, the total amount of FDI inflows is relatively quite low and volatile and is not prevalent affected by traditional factors of FDI attraction1. It depends to a large extent on (completing) the privatization process. (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 73) Greatest (historical) interest gains CEE countries from its immediate neighbors. Regarding the data it is apparently that the service sector in BIH absorbs more FDI than the manufacturing sector. With the increasing inflow of foreign capital into the banking sector, quality of services provided increase, overall sector’s efficiency continue to increase. (Babić-Hodović and Burić, 2005: 1429) Reforming the business environment in BIH is also high on the Worlds Bank’s agenda. The IMF also pursues assistance for BIH. Leading multinational corporations, among others Coca-Cola, IBM, Microsoft, Procter & Gamble can be quoted, seeks investments opportunities in BIH in the last years. With the actively operation in BIH of international companies domestic companies could benefit on this way from knowledge spillovers especially in management as well as profits from technology transfers. On the other side there may be a more tightly integration of local firms in the world market. So the role of FDI in this context is straightforward. The more increase investment activities in BIH from abroad is available the more positively contribution to the growth rate of the economy is possible according to the theory. When the foreign direct investment in BIH divided by sectors between May 1994 and December 2008, the largest FDI flow was in manufacturing with the 35% of the total FDI inflows. Banking follows it by 22%, and then telecommunication comes with 14%, and trade with 11% (FIPA, 2009: 16) The cumulative volume of FDI attracted to BIH had experienced a considerable amount, extensively in the banking sector after 1995. Though they have been active in promoting FDI they haven’t been as successful as countries like Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria which were the main attractors of FDI in the last years in this region. Since May 1994 to December 2008, the most investment was made by companies from Austria 27.1 %, Serbia 15.6%, Croatia 11.7%, Slovenia 11.4%, Switzerland 6.8%, Germany 5.5%, Russia 5%, The Netherlands 1 The efficiency of institutions is one of the essentially factor (Bénassy-Quéré et al. 2005). This comprises of tax systems, the ease of starting up a company, lack of corruption, law of contract, transparency, safeguarding of property rights and efficiency of justice (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 82-83). 55 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.5%, Italy 2.1%, USA 1.9%, Turkey 1.3%, and other countries 9.1%. Investments in telecommunication, transportation, tourism, and services record constant growth. In the manufacturing sector the participation is 35% in total investment (FIPA, 2009: 15-16). Net foreign direct investment inflows recorded in the balance of payments during last 13 years for selected SEE and CEE Countries are given in Table 2. As the government is committed to meet the EU set of criteria strengthen the business environment for foreign investors in Table 2 it is shown evolving of FDI inflows. While several neighboring countries are making substantial progress towards a functioning market economy compared to the most developed Eastern European countries BIH is lagging behind in the context of attracting foreign investors. However, in terms of volume the inflow of foreign investments has been considerably increased in BIH during the past years. Additional boost to FDI inflows comes from EU candidature. With this assertiveness Bulgaria and Romania and some other Central and South Eastern Countries commended a phase of significant privatization in the last few years. Table 2. Foreign direct investment (net inflows recorded in the balance of payments) -in USD million Selected SEE and CEE Countries Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (Est.) 97 42 45 51 143 207 135 178 344 283 325 651 880 710 0 0 100 90 146 119 266 382 708 579 2.023 1.200 Bulgaria 138 507 537 802 998 803 876 2.070 2.879 4.005 7.583 11.433 8.472 Croatia 466 348 842 1.392 1.105 1.398 552 1.927 732 1.551 3.212 4.644 4.098 1.280 1.259 3.575 6.220 4.942 5.474 8.282 1.814 3.941 11.630 4.598 7.930 5.500 30 128 32 175 441 105 117 322 94 424 700 612 3.335 3.715 Czech Republic FYR Macedonia Hungary 11 3.070 3.060 2.151 3.573 2.722 479 3.405 5.586 3.640 2.197 4.763 Moldova 23 78 75 38 127 102 132 71 146 199 223 481 679 Montenegro na na na na na 10 84 44 63 482 585 717 783 4.445 4.863 6.049 7.239 9.327 5.804 3.901 4.284 11.761 6.951 10.727 17.976 12.951 415 1.267 2.079 1.025 1.051 1.154 1.080 2.156 6.368 6.587 10.957 9.818 11.000 1656 1.681 119 10.753 6.800 20.000 Poland Romania Russia 1.492 1.102 -463 216 -72 -1.769 1.662 0 740 113 112 50 165 475 1.365 966 1.550 4.264 2.195 2.487 Slovak Republic 199 84 374 701 1.897 1.520 4.130 1.913 3.052 2.279 4.178 2.881 3.156 Slovenia 167 303 221 59 71 226 1.508 -174 281 -67 -215 -353 280 Turkey 612 554 573 138 112 2.854 957 1.252 2.005 Serbia 8.967 19.065 19.940 15.400 Source: EBRD (2006) Transition report 2006: Finance in transition, http://www.ebrd.com/pubs/econo/6813.htm, accessed 15.04.2009. 2. Banking System in Bosnia and Herzegovina The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. After privatization process of state owned banks entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. Deposit growth raised significantly during the currency conversion to the Euro in late 2001.The banking system in Bosnia-Herzegovina will continue to evolve and consolidate. 2.1. Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Central Bank of BIH was founded under the Dayton Peace Agreement and started its work as a federal-level institution on August 11, 1997. It is headed by the Governing Council of the Central Bank acting, by law, as an independent central financial institution. Article 7 of the BIH Constitution (Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Accords) arranged the structure of the central bank. the “Law on the Central Bank” was adopted in June 1997. (Tesche, 2000: 319) The Central Bank of BIH is the only monetary authority in the country. Formulating, adopting as well as controlling the monetary policy of BIH are the main objectives of the CB and operates some kind of a Currency Board Arrangement as designated in the CB law and in the Dayton Peace Agreement. Both “fixed exchange rate” and “rule-based approach to monetary policy” (CEFBIH, 2004; Kovačevič, 2003: 59-60) 56 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Thus the Central Bank cannot use monetary policy to lean against rising demand1. It has few monetary policy tools at its disposal. The new country-wide currency Convertible Mark (Konvertiblina Marka, KM) was introduced in June 1998 and replaces the three different currencies in use in the different parts of BIH. It was formerly pegged to the German Mark. In 2001 the peg was changed to the Euro at a rate of 1 KM = € 0.51129. Inflation has been relatively low in the federation after the introduction of the KM, as would be expected in a currency board system: “There is no other type of monetary policy, other than the adoption of the DEM as the currency of BIH, that could have given a country like BIH a stable and trusted currency and low inflation this quickly.” (Kovačevič, 2003: 60). An institution, the Fiscal Council, has been established is responsible for coordination of fiscal policy. 2.2. Supervision Agencies From the end 1990s on new modern banking laws were issued. Within an institutional-based guidance of the banking sector, the regulation and supervising is distinguished from the systematic as in the European countries, in which, in BIH, the monitoring and observing authority is assigned to the Banking Agency of the Federation of BIH (FBA BIH), the Banking Agency of the Republic Srpska (BARS) and partly, the Deposit Insurance Agency of BIH (DIA). The Federation Banking Agency started functioning in 1997. The Federation Banking Agency is responsible for bank licensing and supervision. The National Bank of Republic Srpska has been converted to the Banking Agency of the RS in mid-1998 after enabling legislation was passed in March 1998 (Teseche, 2000: 319-321). In 1998 two laws were passed to set up bank privatization: the “Law on the Privatization of Banks” and the “Law on Opening Balance Sheets for Enterprises and Banks”. Supervisory agencies both in the FBA BIH and the BARS conducting banking supervision in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are each governed by individual entity-level legislation. Both are authorized to grant and revoke licenses and measures banks. The CBBH coordinates the activities of the two entity agencies. Basically the FBA BIH and the BARS, among both, and also between these and the DIA exists a cooperate agreement. To effectively implement the Basel principles the banking supervision agencies got a great deal of technical assistance (IMF, 2006: 28). Deposit Insurance Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (DIA) is established by the “Law on Deposit Insurance in Banks of Bosnia and Herzegovina” in 2002. DIA is an independent, non-profit, legal entity with full authority under the Law of the State. Head Office of the DIA is located in Banja Luka, and there is one Branch Office in Sarajevo and Banja Luka. Agency has its own regulations “and is also characterized by established policies and procedures of deposit insurance, the amount of indirect deposit and the existence of ex ante financing; disbursement of insured deposits is financed mainly by the deposit insurance institution)...”A bank can join the deposit insurance system, i.e. become a member of this program, if it meets the preconditions prescribed by the Law on Banks, holds a license from one of the entity-level banking agencies and is at least 90 per cent privately owned.” (Željko, 2008: 34)2 In 2009 there are 25 banks which are signed the Contract on Deposit Insurance (DIA, 2009) 2.3. Commercial Banks According to the Law on Banks the commercial banks in BIH are enabled for banking activities and operations. Overall, the main share of assets in BIH is today privately owned. Foreign-owned banks have been the main drivers of credit growth. The list of the commercial banks operating in the Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 is given in Table 3. Center offices of the 19 banks in the list are in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while center offices of the 10 of them are in RS. 1 2 Instead BH must use fiscal and income policies. For a more detailed insight, see Murph 2006 57 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3. Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Name of the BANK ABS banka d.d. Sarajevo BOR banka Sarajevo Bosna bank international d.d. Sarajevo FIMA banka dd Sarajevo Hypo Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank d.d. Mostar Intesa Sanpaolo Banka d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina Investiciono-komercijalna banka dd Zenica Komercijalno-investiciona banka dd V.Kladuša NLB Tuzlanska banka dd, Tuzla Postbank BH d.d. Sarajevo Privredna banka Sarajevo d.d. Sarajevo ProCredit Bank Sarajevo Raiffeisen Bank dd BiH Razvojna banka Federacije BiH Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia dd Sarajevo UniCredit Bank d.d. Union banka d.d. Sarajevo Vakufska banka d.d. Sarajevo Volksbank BH dd Balkan Investment Bank AD Banja Luka Bobar banka ad Bijeljina EEFC Bank, a.d. Banja Luka Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank a.d. Banja Luka Komercijalna banka AD Banja Luka NLB Razvojna banka Nova banka ad Banja Luka Pavlović International Bank a.d. Unicredit Bank a.d. Banja Luka Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka Center Office Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Zenica Velika Kladuša Tuzla Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Banja Luka Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Slobomir Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Official Website http://www.absbanka.ba http://www.borbanka.ba http://www.bbi.ba http://www.fimabanka.ba http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.intesasanpaolobanka.ba http://www.ikbze.com.ba http://www.kib-banka.com.ba http://www.nlbtuzlanskabanka.ba http://www.postbankbh.ba http://www.pbs.ba http://www.procreditbank.ba http://www.raiffeisenbank.ba http://www.ibf-bih.ba http://www.ziraatbosnia.com http://www.unicreditbank.ba http://www.unionbank.ba http://www.vakuba.ba http://www.volksbank.ba http://www.bib.ba http://www.bobarbanka.com http://www.iefkbanka.com http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.kombank-bl.com http://www.nlbrazvojnabanka.com http://www.novabanka.com http://www.pavlovic-banka.com http://www.novablbanka.com http://www.volksbank-bl.ba Commercial banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina provide more than 10.000 jobs for residents of BIH. Number of employees of the BIH banks is increasing nearly 10 percent each year. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina both in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and RS are given in Table 4. Table 4. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina BANKS 1 ABS Banka dd Sarajevo 2 BOR Banka dd Sarajevo 3 Bosna Bank International dd Sarajevo 4 FIMA Banka dd Sarajevo 5 Hercegovacka Banka dd Mostar 6 HVB Central Profit Banka dd Sarajevo 7 Hypo Alpe Adria Bank dd Mostar 8 Intesa Sanpaolo Banka dd bih 9 Investicijska Banka fbih Sarajevo 10 Investiciono Komercijalna Banka dd Zenica 11 Komercijalno Investiciona Banka dd Velika Kladuša 12 LT Gospodarska Banka Banka dd Sarajevo 13 NLB Tuzlanska Banka dd Tuzla 14 Poštanska Banka dd Sarajevo 15 Privredna Banka dd Sarajevo 16 Procredit Bank dd Sarajevo 17 Raiffeisen Bank BH dd Sarajevo 18 Turkish Ziraat Bank dd Sarajevo 19 Una Banka dd Bihać 58 2006 297 40 104 58 98 476 492 233 84 163 66 196 479 63 170 595 1.348 108 61 2007 326 42 145 101 93 465 550 479 104 154 65 2008 367 46 173 148 89 472 97 163 831 1.543 129 59 493 118 166 884 1.721 150 59 620 509 177 67 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 20 Uni Credit Banka BH dd Mostar 840 840 1.406 21 Union Banka dd Sarajevo 175 179 176 22 Vakufska Banka dd Sarajevo 175 184 197 23 Volksbank BH dd Sarajevo 285 340 358 Na 24. Nova Banjalucka banka a.d. B. Luka 521 523 Na 25. Hypo Alpe Adria Bank a.d. B. Luka 510 528 Na 26. Bobar banka a.d. Bijeljina 149 152 Na 27. NLB Razvojna banka a.d. B. Luka 497 506 Na 28. Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka 234 237 Na 29. Balkan Investment Bank a.d. B.Luka 159 162 Na 30. Pavlović International Bank a. Slobomir 205 208 Na 31. Nova banka a.d. Banja Luka 462 481 Na 32. Komercijalna banka a.d. Banja Luka 99 106 Na 33. IEFK banka a.d. Banja Luka 13 22 TOTAL Na 10.210 10.849 Source: Banking Agency of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) and Banking Agency of the Republica Sirpska (2008) 3. Developments in the Banking Sector The reform program about banking system was also of increasingly interest in the former Social Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which aimed implementing of necessities for development. But with the beginning of the ethnical conflict in former Yugoslavia many reforms couldn’t never implemented. In the former Yugoslavia the banking system was pretty centralized. Additionally it was dominated by a number of socially-state-owned banks apart from small private banks. (Tesche, 2000) After war damage and highly influences through policies set forth by international (financial) organizations, (e.g. IMF, EBRD, The World Bank, EU, etc.) the banking sector in BIH gains the opportunity to restructure themselves in order to render regular banking services in accordance with free market conditions since 1997 with the building up the Central Bank in BIH. In compliance with the institutional framework it is aimed to reach a long-term political, security and economic stability. Decisions were made to a bank-based financial system, which underlines the predominance of banks in financial intermediation. (Sevic, 2000a, Sevic, 2000b). Reforms in the banking sector have so far produced best results. It has realized a sizable progress due to accelerated privatization and liberalization of the banking sector among all the sectors in BIH, with significant confidence in banks, improvements in terms of extending credits to businesses and households and presented one of the fundaments of economic development of the country (PRSP, 2004: 92-93). Besides, it is wide-range accepted that state ownership is in comparison to private ownership less efficient and foreign-originated banks are most efficient of all (Bonin et.al, 2008; Fries and Taci, 2005; Weill, 2003). Investments from quality banks especially from Austria, Italy, Turkey, Germany and Slovenia BIH have one of the most advanced financial sectors in the region. In the framework of the institutions-building process and the restructuring of the State Banks, foreign investors allowed entering the banking sector by buying important shares in the state-owned banks when these were “ready” for privatization and often not meeting the minimum requirements of financial soundness (Babić-Hodović and Tesche, 2006). Main foreign investors in the banking sector of BIH are shown in Table 5. In general, the financial system in BIH is dominated by the banking sector while the nonbank financial sector is not so much developed. Rapidly increasing of internet banking in developed countries has not the same insight in BIH due to various factors. Progress in e-banking needs to be done in this country. (BasheskaGjorgjieska et.al, 2006) The consolidation process of the banking sector came mainly on the back of foreign direct investments through the acquisition of private - or already privatized - banks. Privatization of the banking sector is almost completed. 90% is private capital, of which 77% is foreign private capital, while 13% is local private capital. There are 29 commercial banks operating in BIH in 2009. A strong concentration of capital among several large banks is noticeable so a few banks holds a large amount of the total capital. Out of the total number of commercial banks, 25 are included in the state deposit insurance scheme. Investment in banking sector in period 1994-2008 amounts 1.2 billion Euros and represents 22% of total investment in BIH. BIH has been given “B2” credit rating with the stable outlook by Moody’s Agency (May 17, 2006) Standard & Poor's Rating Services assigned 'B+' credit rating with stable outlook to Bosnia and Herzegovina. (December 22, 2008) (FIPA 2009: 22) 59 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5. Main Foreign Investors in the Banking Sector * BH Bank Country Investor Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Austria Raiffeisen International Bank Hold., AG Austria Millenia Beteiligungsverwaltungs GmbH Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Croatia Zagrebačka Banka d.d. "UniCredit Bank" d.d. Austria Bank Austria Cred. Mostar USA Internat. Fin.Corp. Italy Unicredito It. S.p.a. Spain Transmadrid "Bosna Bank International" d.d. Sarajevo UAE Dubai Islamic Bank Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank "Volksbank BH" d.d. Sarajevo Austria Ostereichiche Volksbank. AD "Volksbank" Banja Luka Austria Volksbank Int. AG "BBI Leasing Real Estate" d.o.o. Sarajevo Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank UAE Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank. "NLB Razvojna banka" a.d. Slovenia Nova Ljubljanska Banka Banja Luka Germany LHB Inter. H. Bank Serbia Vojvoñanska banka "CBS Bank" d.d. Germany LHB Inter. Hand. AG Frankfurt Sarajevo Slovenia Banka Domžale "Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia" d.d. Turkey T.C. Ziraat Bankasi Sarajevo "IEFK Banka" A.D. Banja Luka Russia Istočno Evropska Fin. Korporacija i drugi * The banks which also invested in BIH can be quoted as: - Komercijalna Banka a.d. Beograd, Serbia; - Poteza Adriatic BV Amsterdam, The Netherland; - Ukio Bank Invest Grupe, Litvania; - Istočno Evropska Finansijska Korporacija, Russia; - Steiermarkische Bank und Sparkasse AG Graz, Austria. "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" d.d. Mostar Raiffeisen BANK d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" AD Banja Luka 163.854 5.068 78.228 29.079 6.831 3.900 136 25.920 21.600 21.531 18.374 21.245 12.171 2.611 11.789 15.114 Amount (thousand KM) 183.000 168.922 120.837 118.174 47.520 47.000 42.471 39.905 36.028 26.993 25.000 20.000 Structural changes in the banking system, adoption of modern principles of evolving the banking industry leads to a bank-based financial system in BIH (Željko, 2008: 28). The banking system is dominated by large foreign banks, which have been the main source of credit growth in BIH, and has improved the soundness of the financial system. As a consequence these altered the nature of risks of financial stability. This means that no longer a traditional risk in banking slovenly crisis is assumed but rather the risk to the sustainability of foreign exchange reserves increasing from the potential for capital flow volatility. (IMF, 2006: 11-12, 28) The following list1 is taken from the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relation BIH, for the period May 1994- December 2008. It shows the foreign Investors in the Banking sector which registered investment in amounts higher than 20 million KM. In last 12 years there is a significant increase in both deposits and loans of the commercial banks in BIH. Total deposits in Commercial banks' accounts was only 1.382,4 million KM in 1997, while it is 12.013,2 million KM which is 769 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the increasing confidence in the BIH financial sector. Total loans given by the commercial banks was only 2.439,6 million KM in 1997, while it is 14.561,1 million KM which is 497 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the financial support of the financial sector to the development of the BIH economy and households (Table 6). The balance sheet volume of the commercial banks in BIH is also has been continually increased during last 12 years. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina are given in Table 7. Total assets of the commercial banks was only 3.336,9 million KM in 1997, while it is 21.040,9 million KM which is 530 % more than the amont in 1997. 1 The lists were kindly provided by Dušanka Brkić (FIPA) 60 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 6. Total Deposits and Loans of Commercial banks (of million KM) DEPOSITS Time and Demand saving Deposits deposits 784,1 598,3 983,8 678,7 1.107,7 712,1 1.385,8 568,0 2.061,5 1.209,3 2.293,8 1.430,5 2.553,8 1.812,3 3.121,7 2.456,8 3.876,1 3.000,1 4.942,2 3.896,7 6.025,8 6.112,9 5.480,5 6.532,7 Year / month 1997 / 12 1998 / 12 1999 / 12 2000 / 12 2001 / 12 2002 / 12 2003 / 12 2004 / 12 2005 / 12 2006 / 12 2007 / 12 2008 / 12 LOANS Total deposits 1.382,4 1.662,5 1.819,9 1.953,7 3.270,7 3.724,3 4.366,0 5.578,5 6.876,3 8.838,9 12.138,7 12.013,2 Year / ShortLong-term month term loans loans 1997 / 12 956,7 1.482,9 1998 / 12 1.028,2 1.892,6 1999 / 12 852,3 1.928,9 2000 / 12 878,3 2.138,6 2001 / 12 913,3 2.425,7 2002 / 12 1.097,8 3.183,3 2003 / 12 1.233,5 3.888,0 2004 / 12 1.576,2 4.350,9 2005 / 12 1.837,0 5.707,1 2006 / 12 2.218,1 7.089,8 2007 / 12 2.752,2 9.211,4 2008 / 12 3.714,0 10.847,1 Total loans 2.439,6 2.920,8 2.781,2 3.017,0 3.339,0 4.281,1 5.121,5 5.927,1 7.544,2 9.308,0 11.963,6 14.561,1 Table 7. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina (in million KM) Month Year ASSETS Reserves Foreign Assets Claims on General Government Claims on NonFinancial Enterprises Claims on Private Sector Total 1997 12. 239,5 657,8 133,8 2.171,0 134,8 3.336,9 1998 12. 207,6 604,6 113,0 2.546,8 260,9 3.733,0 1999 12. 274,7 848,4 36,7 2.467,2 277,2 3.904,3 2000 12. 287,4 960,7 33,8 2.584,4 398,7 4.265,0 2001 12. 871,9 1.364,0 32,9 2.601,8 704,3 5.574,9 2002 12. 595,2 1.468,7 60,7 2.714,7 1.505,8 6.345,0 2003 12. 1.004,6 1.561,9 45,6 3.037,6 2.038,3 7.688,0 2004 12. 1.566,6 1.906,1 45,6 3.181,9 2.699,6 9.399,8 2005 12. 2.233,9 2.096,6 50,1 3.955,9 3.538,2 11.874,6 2006 12. 3.061,9 2.328,6 68,4 4.760,0 4.479,5 14.698,5 2007 12. 4.022,3 3.533,9 127,6 5.974,4 5.861,6 19.519,8 2008 12. 3.392,9 3.086,9 264,3 7.440,4 6.856,3 21.040,9 Deposits of Central Governm ent Other Demand Deposits in Domestic Currency Other Demand Deposits in Foreign Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Domestic Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Foreign Currency Month Year LIABILITIES Bonds Foreign Liabilities Capital Accounts Other Total 1997 12. 233,6 139,2 448,5 9,6 363,3 14,2 1.513,8 1.043,4 -428,5 3.336,9 1998 12. 222,2 147,5 637,9 8,0 467,0 10,6 1.605,8 1.310,9 -676,8 3.733,0 1999 12. 170,1 584,6 465,5 22,4 577,3 8,7 1.519,3 1.257,0 -700,6 3.904,3 2000 12. 143,2 749,9 554,5 77,9 428,2 4,4 1.577,1 1.096,2 -366,4 4.265,0 2001 12. 277,5 1.016,2 928,5 140,9 907,7 0,1 1.526,5 1.118,8 -341,2 5.574,9 2002 12. 390,3 1.270,3 817,1 272,2 974,4 0,1 1.793,7 1.213,6 -386,6 6.345,0 2003 12. 473,1 1.510,3 818,3 461,9 1.102,5 0,0 2.437,0 1.305,4 -420,4 7.688,0 2004 12. 419,4 1.862,9 988,1 703,4 1.604,6 0,0 2.651,1 1.472,1 -301,8 9.399,8 2005 12. 533,4 2.370,5 1.154,8 818,1 1.999,4 0,0 3.559,3 1.712,5 -273,4 11.874,6 2006 12. 755,1 3.081,9 1.358,8 1.098,8 2.544,4 0,0 4.032,8 2.071,8 -245,1 14.698,5 2007 12. 2.086,5 3.962,3 1.459,3 1.517,4 3.113,2 0,0 5.114,5 2.530,0 -263,4 19.519,8 2008 12. 1.546,7 3.684,9 1.511,6 1.799,5 3.470,6 12,9 6.307,8 3.004,5 -297,5 21.040,9 Source: Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) 61 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Beside all these developments, an ever increasing number of newly created private banks could be seen over the years. It is a fact, that a lot of foreign investors perceive the Balkan region as a surrounding with high risks for investment. Not only due to fragile political situation, but also from weaken law enforcement agencies. With increasing political stability it can be given good signals to foreign investors. Furthermore the privatization process can be regarded as the main important institutional possible course of action that can happen to the transitional baking sector in BIH to improve the performance within this branch. It is noteworthy that international reserves have been boosted substantially in the banking sector. But overall the banking system in BIH are not internationally competitive: “Despite constantly increasing participation of foreign banks and other financial institutions in the national banking systems, it is still necessary to persuade foreign investors that the current, constantly improving overall social situation will most likely be sustained in the future, and that they have to opt for long-term operation in the country.” (Sevic, 2000b: 279) Today the banks are significant players in the Bosnian financial system. Several empirical studies proved the positive relationship between financial sector developments and economic growth (e.g. Alfaro et al., 2003; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2008; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2009) References Alfaro, L.; Chanda, A.; Kalemli-Ozcan, S.; Sayek, S. (2003). FDI Spillovers, Financial Markets, and Economic Development, IMF Working Paper, Working Paper No. 03/186: 1-33. Babić – Hodović, V.; Mehić, E.; Agić, E. (2009). Influence of Quantitative and Qualitative Factors of Banking Sector Development on Economic Growth in South East European Countries, in: Interdisciplinary Management Research, vol. 5, pages 683-693 Babić-Hodović, V.; Burić, M. (2005). The Impact of Direct Foreign Investment on Quality of Services and the Development of Banking Sector of Transitional Economies – Bosnia and Herzegovina case, 6th International Conference “Enterprise in Transition” Split, Croatia, May 26-18th. Babić-Hodović, V.; Mehić,E.; Agić, E.; Resić, E. (2008). Influence of quantitative and qualitative factors of banking sector development on economic growth in CEE countries, 4th International Conference “Transitional Challenges of EU Integration and Globalization” – ICES 2008, October 9-10, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Babić-Hodović, V.; Tesche, J (2006). 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BIH Medium Term Development Strategy 2004, Bosnia and Herzegovina Council of Ministries BIH, Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations Office of the BIH Coordination For Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (Prsp), 2004-2007, Sarajevo. Sevic, Z. (2000 a). “Problems of Institutional 'Design in Economic Development: Economic Structure and Financial System Concepts Revisited”, Nase gospodarstvo Our Economy 46(4): 467-486. Sevic, Z. (2000 b). “Banking Reform in south East European Transitional Economies: An Overview”, Moct-Most (3-4): 271-283. Škuflić, L.; Botrić, V. (2006), “Foreign Direct Investment in Southeast European Countries, The Role of the Service Sector”, Eastern European Review 44 (5): 72-90. Tesche, J. (2000), “Bosnia and Hercegovina: the post-Dayton economy and financial system”, MOCT-MOST (3-4): 311324. The World Bank (2009). Country Brief 2009, http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/countries/ecaext/bosniaherzextn/ 0,,menuPK:362036~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:362026,00.html#econ, accessed 19.05.2009. Weill, Laurent (2003): “Banking Efficiency in Transition Economies: The Role of Foreign Ownership”, Economics of Transition (11): 569-592. Weyerstrass, K. (2008). “Bosnia and Herzegovina's EU Integration Process and Economic Policy Making in the EU”, Zbornik radova (28): 393-408. Željko P. (2008): Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Banking System, http://www.globalmarketbriefings.com/, February 2008, accessed 19.05.2009. 63 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 138 Title A name given to the resource Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author COSKUN, Ali ILGÜN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 1992- 1995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9c9a90faac7a7ff53267a3ca9f6287b7.pdf 999bb23ed87936930dd5742b6a2d42e2 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Reconstruction of the Turkish Public Administration in the Process of European Union: Systems of Accountability Ertuğrul Acartürk Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey eracar@hotmail.com Osman Bayrı Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey osmanbayri@sdu.edu.tr The aim of the research: increasing globalization and regional integration movements in recent years have made more significant Turkey's membership to European Union. Turkey that is trying to adapt the European Union acquirements from the economic, political, legal and administrative points has to be reconstructing its public administration. Accordingly, systems of accountability that is effective in the public administrations of the European Union Countries have to be effective in Turkish public administration, too. In this study, it is aimed to determine what sort of changes has to be made in order to adapt European Union acquirements through analyzing the present systems of accountability in Turkish public administration. In the study, at first, literature review is made in accordance with accountability of Turkish and the European Union countries public administrations. After that, data is collected in accordance with the functions of the systems of accountability in local administrations through observations and interviews. Finally, the knowledge is obtained from literature review is analyzed together with the collected data about the systems of accountability in Turkish public administration. The necessary changes that have to be made are explained, emphasizing the different aspects of present systems of accountability in Turkish public administration from the EU acquirements. In conceptual sense, accountability cannot be seen only able to give accounts, obligation of giving accounts, responsibility of giving accounts as a single way of administration, auditing and control but also it is evaluated as a double way and reciprocal systems, including obtaining accounts, demanding accounts, able to attain information and transparency. In the point of application, it is argued issues of the degree of applications in order to adapt EU acquirements, development of the administrative and technical structure of the public institutions, training of public workers, increasing the satisfaction of public service beneficiaries, so on. Keywords: European Union, Turkish Public Administration, Accountability. 110 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8c51df0a54ffc449e1bd64b3ba669a47.docx e40d6aa3ea04797ecfc5dc6814ea0e1b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c961d2c677bb2e7e5ec0fad02ca0ed5.pdf eacba3760fc6818cdff5f304bbe1be90 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Restructuring of Turkish Public Administration in the European Union Process: Accountability System Ertugrul Acarturk Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey eracar@hotmail.com Osman Bayri Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey Abstract Contemporary public administration mentality aims at ensuring the active participation of the public in audit process, and establishing an effective and democratic audit mechanism. Allowing the participation of public in audit, accountability stipulates that politicians and bureaucrats account before the public and/or the representatives of the public, and the public calls officials to account. Based on the contemporary interpretations, it is seen that accountability is not regarded as a one-way audit and control instrument involving “obligation to give account” alone. On the contrary, it is considered a bidirectional and mutual process of administration, audit, and control. Thus, accountability can be described as a mutual process involving the responsibility, capacity, and ability to cast account, give account, and make an explanation, and the right, power, and capability to call to account, reach the information and transparency, and request an explanation . This study provides a general examination of the meaning, importance, and necessity of accountability in the changing public administration thoughts and practices. Specifically, the study analyzes and evaluates the role of accountability in terms of the present condition and future of the Turkish public administration. The rationality and legitimacy of public decisions, the effective, efficient and economic use of public resources, the prevention of corruption, and transparency are the main subjects covered in analyses and evaluations here. Keywords: Accountability, Public Administration, Transparency, Responsibility Introduction Contemporary public administration mentality suggests that the public should participate in government and affect decision-making processes. Likewise, according to the contemporary audit mentality, the most effective and democratic audit is the one allowing the participation of people in audit directly or through their representatives. The main factor bringing this to life is accountability. Accountability refers to an environment where individuals and organizations not only account before other individuals and organizations, but also call them to account. For example, from the perspective of public administration, accountability involves the capability of government to account before the public in regard to the decisions and the actions they take, and the opportunity of the public to call relevant individuals and organizations to account. The concept of accountability includes both accounting and 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo calling to account. To achieve an environment of accountability, it is essential that a highly democratic administrative mentality is established, and the actions of government take place in a transparent and visible structure allowing the participation of the public. Contemporary public administration approves the participation of the public in government. Those who use public resources and authorities must be able to give the account of their actions and activities. The Conceptual Framework of Accountability Accountability is one of the fundamental instruments that can enable an effective, efficient, and economic use of public resources. It is not easy to provide a clear and understandable definition of accountability because it bears a shapeless and changeable nature, and has different meanings in different disciplines. For example, in political sciences, the thought of accountability is based on the belief that human beings are prone to make a mistake, and those who are governed should be protected against the arbitrary behaviors of those who govern. In addition, the fact that accountability bears different meanings depending on different disciplines has led to the development of various approaches and concepts in the literature about the concept of accountability. For example, Sinclair (1995; 221) observed some of the meanings of accountability appearing in different disciplines as follows: While auditors discuss accountability as a financial and numerical subject, political scientists regard it as a political necessity. Philosophers deal with accountability as a sub-field of morals (ethics). Legists consider accountability a series of structural regulations. Accountability is often confused with the concept of responsibility because of the common features these two concepts have. Broodbent (1988) distinguishes being responsible for something from accounting before someone. While accountability refers to the visibility of actions whereby relevant people and organizations account and call to account, responsibility does not require making an explanation about the actions taken (Bayri, 2000; 104-105.) In sociology and psychology, accountability is defined as the capacity of accounting, making an explanation, and giving a reason (Munro, 1996). According to Garfinkel (1967; 33), accountability is the ability and capacity of casting accounts and giving account continuously. Giddens (1984), Garfinkel (1967), and Roberts & Scapens define accountability as requesting and giving reasons for actions. To Baland & Schultze (1996), accountability involves both explaining how the actions take place and balancing and figuring the competing necessities. All in all, accountability can be defined as the capacity, ability, and desire of providing and learning reasons, information, and accounts about the actions taken (Bayri, 2000; 107). It is stated by many authors that accountability is a comprehensive, complicated, and multi-directional concept that is difficult to follow. According to Acar, there are four main reasons for the description of accountability in this way. The first one is that the discussions and studies on this subject show parallelism and are intermingled with discussions on many subjects including democracy, legitimacy, participation of the public in government, ethics, responsibility, leadership, political and organizational control, and reforms. The second one is that, one has to harmonize the expectations and evaluations concerning accountability and the expectations and values about effectiveness and efficiency in administration, which sometimes have the same degree of importance, and 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo has to achieve both together. The third one is the gradually increasing gap between the traditional concepts relating to traditional accountability and the chaos that surrounds organizations due to increased in-house, inter-institutional, and international cooperation and association. Moreover, traditionally, the issue of accountability has been considered and evaluated differently in the contexts of public, private, and nonprofit organizations. All these factors cause accountability to have a complicated and slippery structure (Acar, 2001; 27-29). Despite such complicated nature, studies in the literature on accountability generally ask the below-mentioned five questions in order to comprehend any accountability system: -Who should accountability? -Accountable to whom? -Accountable for what? -Accountable how? -Accountable with what consequences? In a well-functioning accountability system, these questions must be answered clearly and consistently with one another (Acar, 2001; 36-59). Two mutual key features of accountability: (1) reaching the information and transparency, or calling to account, or harmonizing accounts, or audit; and (2) casting accounts, accounting, reviewing behaviors, or providing evaluative judgments. Within the context of this mutuality, accountability is not only the capacity and ability of casting accounts and giving account, but also the ability to call to account. In this respect, accountability refers to not only the manner of explaining information, but also a mutual and continuous process of calling to account and giving account in socio-economic, political interaction, and dependency relations (Bayri, 2000; 107). Accountability relations, which have such a complicated and shapeless nature, can be understood within a more comprehensive framework instead of seeking the help of only formal accountability systems such as budgeting, accounting, and planning. Abstract and non-personal control and accountability instruments such as planning, budgeting, and accounting should be evaluated within a broader framework of accountability (Bayri, 2000; 6-8). The indicators of an effectively functioning accountability system can be mentioned as follows: -Clarity in tasks and responsibilities, -Clarity in performance expectations, -Balance between expectations and capacities, -Credibility of reporting, -Acceptability of revisions and corrections. 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Each one of these principles reflects a different feature of effective accountability. All of the above-mentioned principles collectively create the accountability mentality that can respond more easily to the new developments and service performance manners in the field of public administration (Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 120). The Principles Creating a Successful Accountability Environment In the “Public Administration Basic Law Draft” prepared in Turkey in 2003, the aim was stated to be creating a participatory, transparent, and accountable public administration based on human rights and freedoms, and providing public services in a fair, rapid, quality, effective, and efficient fashion. The most important principles influencing the concept of accountability are the participation of the public in government (participation), transparency, responsibility, and subsidiarity. Some others can be added to these principles, too. 1 Participation Accountability is a system allowing the participation of people in government. Thus, the achievement of local democracy and national democracy across the country allows accountability. Accountability may enable the authorities and resources to be distributed among governments more effectively by preventing the grasp of authority just one body as the public effectively calls to account relevant individuals and organizations. A strong and democratic local government has the opportunity to make viable decisions concerning local services, find resources to implement these decisions, create internal organizational structure, and govern it freely. It is possible to say that people in a local selfgovernment become influential in government and participate in government by using the mechanisms of democratic and legal audit, lobbying, and participation. To achieve local democracy, people have to participate in government and inspect the decisions and actions concerning them besides the existence of local autonomy. If mechanisms for the participation of the public in government and the public relations units and systems of local governments have been established and are operated well, elected local bodies can detect the primary needs of their countrymen more easily and precisely than the central government, and provide relevant services to the local community rapidly and effectively. More autonomy does not guarantee better services in the local systems where participation and public relations halt. In such a case, the despotic and arbitrary decisions and actions of strong local governments that are autonomous, but do not take into account the demands of their countrymen and are not inspected and directed sufficiently may be as disturbing and annoying as those of the excessively powerful and strict centralized administrations. In today’s Turkey, approximately 15% of public expenditures are made by local governments while the rest is at the disposal of centralized administration. In the Western world, this is fifty-fifty between centralized administration and local governments. In the countries where virtually democratic local governments are dominant, majority of taxes are collected by these governments. Local budgets composed of local taxes are followed by local communities. This order brings about self-control. In this way, waste is prevented. 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo People follow what they give, and they reap what they sow. They are both authorized and responsible. This is the essence of the system. Statism does not involve self-control. All people demand everything from centralized administration, and lay the entire burden on the state (Yazıcıoğlu, 2000). 2 Transparency One of the most important features of accountability is that it provides visibility and transparency regarding social issues, economic matters, political interest, and political conflict that involve human relations and interactions. However, formal accountability systems provide a selected transparency in such human relations and interactions. Indeed, the formal accountability systems may prevent the emergence of multiple visibility, meaning, rationality, mutual interaction, and dialog by ignoring daily accountability practices and providing quite narrowly and technically selected visibility and rationality. In public administration, transparency and accountability are two phenomena that interact with one another. In other words, an effective accountability system is needed for ensuring transparency in administration, and transparency in administration is a must for a wellfunctioning accountability system(Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 122). Transparency and accountability are two important concepts about local responsibility. In fact, these two concepts are of great importance for ensuring the trust of both the centralized administration and the local community in the local government and the local authority leading it. Local governments are open to the inspection of people to the extent that they are transparent. Transparency improves the trust in these governments. What is more, responsibility relationship (and accountability) between the local community and the local government becomes more apparent(Ulusoy, 2000;135). 3 Financial and Political Responsibilities Another important accountability principle is responsibility. This responsibility may be administrative, financial, and political. In democratic systems, people expect to call to account those who are assigned to use public resources about how they use such resources. Thus, all administrators and officials elected or appointed to ensure the use of public funds in the most rational manner possible have the first degree responsibility. It is essential that every elected and appointed administrator who makes decisions on the use of public resources gives account in regard to his/her administration. Public inspection stands as an important link in this chain of accountability: It strengthens accountability by extending it towards both the upper level, that is the elected or appointed members procuring the resources, and the exterior, that is consumers, aid recipients, tax payers, and the entire community as a result(Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 113). It is an important democratic principle that the public institutions that provide service to the public bear responsibility towards the people who demand service, and the service is prepared under the control of the public. Those who accede by appointment take into 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo account the preferences of their superiors in the use of resources rather than the demands of the public because hierarchical relations are dominant and the subordinates who want to ensure their future lives make an attempt to endear themselves to their superiors and earn their trusts. Those who come into office by election are accountable to the public. The satisfaction of people with the services provided influences their preferences in the subsequent elections (Aytaç, 1994; 74). There are still debates about who will be held responsible in the accountability process (e.g. institutions [organizations] vs. administrators and other public officials). Public opinion mostly suggests that it is not the institutions (organizations), but the persons who have to account. Administrators have to account on behalf of their institutions (organizations). 4 Subsidiarity In the first years of the Republic of Turkey (1923), a special attention was paid to the offering of public services at local level. Likewise, such services were financed at local level through the support of the centralized administration. However, some services were centralized in the course of time. The centralization of services brought along the centralization of resources, too. In recent years, the principle of subsidiarity has been featured. Certain progresses have been made in this respect. The principle of subsidiarity appears in state – citizen relations as well as the relations between different public levels. First of all, this principle involves the action priority of private space against public space. That is to say, if a task can be fulfilled through private enterprise, the state should give priority to private sector in this matter and be able to limit protection measures when required. This principle involves the action priority of any public level that is closer to citizens within the framework of the constitutional law (Özel, 2000; 28). The principal of subsidiarity in service involves giving priority not always to the administrations at upper levels, but to the administrations at lower levels provided that such administrations have adequate authorities. It is essential that regions and local governments fulfill all of the tasks which they are obliged to provide at such levels by themselves. It is expected to prevent centralization and improve the decision-making authorities of local units in this way (Keleş, 1999; 33). European Charter of Local Self-Government clearly treats the principle of subsidiarity. The first paragraph of the 3rd article of the charter saying, “Local self-government denotes the right and the ability of local authorities, within the limits of the law, to regulate and manage a substantial share of public affairs under their own responsibility and in the interests of the local population.” expresses and supports this principle obviously (Keleş, 1999; 34). The implementation of this principle by the European Union firstly means that member countries will maintain their scopes of power and authority against Brussels. Furthermore, 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo it suggests that member countries should be organized within themselves in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity. Here, the intention is to strengthen the regional and local authorities of member states against their own states (Ayman Güler, 2000; 26). This principle strengthens local self-government. It makes a considerable contribution to the improvement of financial autonomy and the consciousness for calling to account. Taxpaying local community calls to account for each cent they give. However, if municipalities do not find their resources themselves, but transfer these resources from the centralized administration, people who do not pay money out of their pockets may not feel the need to call relevant bodies and people to account about where and how the resources are used. Where and how local authorities earn their incomes is of great importance for financial autonomy. The supply of the financial resources by the centralized administration rather than from the local community prevents achieving the desired effectiveness in the sensitivity of countrymen to local authorities, sense of responsibility, participation, the improvement of citizenship consciousness, and the democratic inspection of expenditures and service production of municipalities by citizens TÜSİAD; 30). Audit Mentality in Turkey The concept of “accountability” in the countries implementing contemporary audit is replaced by “responsibility” and “financial responsibility” in Turkey. Turkish public financial management is grounded on the responsibility of officers such as government accountants and tax assessors for the trueness and lawfulness of the documents prepared by them rather than the administrative responsibilities of the top executives of public institutions and organizations having decision-making authorities. In other words, the administrative responsibility of government accountants and tax assessors is essential. This responsibility is also a legal and personal responsibility. Responsibility does not occur by itself. It is determined by a judgment delivered as a result of the examination of accounts by the Court of Accounts. Despite such heavy responsibility of government accountants, top executives are not responsible for the decisions and actions they take as a principle (Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 130-131). The sense of responsibility in Turkey does not suggest that the administrators who use public resources account before the public – the real owner of these resources. Traditionally, those funds which belong to state treasury are consigned to particular officers (government accountants) to be spent for specific purposes. The public funds are regarded to be belonging to the state treasury, but not as money collected from citizens in consignment to be spent for particular purposes. In this regard, the concept of money consigned by the public to the state in developed countries is replaced by the concept of money consigned by the state to its government accountants in Turkey. Therefore, the accountability of the public administration before citizens is replaced by the accountability of government accountants before the state. In parallel with this sense of accountability, audit mentality in Turkey does not have a critical, advising informative and confirmatory 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo nature, but is based on the principle of punishing those officials who misuse public property funds(Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 131). In US practices, it is essential that the information is reliable and is shared with the public timely so that accountability can be achieved and people can call relevant individuals and organizations to account. Thus, the financial statements approved by independent audit are still regarded as a scoreboard for the sake of the realization of accountability. On the other hand, the fulfillment of fiscal accountability does not mean the fulfillment of performance accountability (Arın, Kesmez and Gören, 2000; 113). In local governments, it is expected and should be preferred that centralized control is limited, and the best audit is conducted by tax payers, that is, local community. Taxing power granted to local governments is inspected by the community in the best way. Tax payers follow whether the collected tax revenues are used properly and whether services are provided in a quality and effective fashion. If the elected local administrators do not spend the collected tax revenues for good purposes and do not provide services effectively, they are punished by the electors in the following election where they would be put out of action. By this means, local taxation ensures the participation of the local community in governments besides an effective public inspection(Elazar, 1997; 35). In Turkey, municipalities are not authorized for taxation. However, they are authorized for collecting some taxes (real estate tax in particular) and user charges. These resources make up just a small part of the municipal revenues. If municipal activities were carried out just through the subvention coming from the centralized administration without the contribution of local community, the public could remain insensitive to municipal expenditures. Conclusion and Recommendations Accountability is not a fixed term. It is not understood in the same way in different cultures and countries. Not the same value is attached on it in such different cultures and countries. In addition, the way the phenomenon of accountability is defined and understood is closely related to such factors as the ideology, motives, and language of the time one lives in. In this sense, the instruments and strategies to be employed for achieving accountability may vary by organizations, sectors, countries, and periods(Acar, 2001; 177). In democratic regimes, accountability is a highly important phenomenon in that it involves turning to the public and accounting before the public in public administration, and allows the public to call to account relevant individuals and organizations. In real terms, democracy includes sharing government with the public, and accounting before the public. The sine qua none of self-government and the participation of the public in government is that the public has the right to request information from and call to account the politicians whom they elect democratically and the appointed administrators (bureaucrats) who stand as the representatives of politicians in regard to how they use the public resources and the tasks consigned to them. Moreover, it is a must of democracy and contemporary 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo administrative mentality that politicians and bureaucrats always take into account the public and account before the public. Accountability is a system allowing the participation of the public in government. Thus, the achievement of local democracy and national democracy across the country allows accountability. Accountability may enable the authorities and resources to be distributed among administrations more effectively by preventing the grasp of authority just by one body as the public effectively calls to account relevant individuals and organizations. Public financing system should be grounded on responsibility. Those who provide public services should obtain the resources necessary for financing such services from those who enjoy the services. Those who are authorized for spending money should be responsible for finding resources, too. In this way, public activities may be inspected effectively. It is of vital importance for preventing corruption that the public participates in government, the ability of the public to call to account is improved, the legislation is accommodated for that, and the government has accountability awareness. An environment is created for accountability for both who govern and who are governed if a country has a democratic structure and citizens have democratic identities. The center has grown excessively in Turkey. The transfer of the burden on the center to periphery may help to solve occlusions in the system. The borders of the principle of separation of powers are not very clear in Turkey, which negatively affects the functioning of system and encourages a kind of feudal structure. It is very difficult, though not impossible, to call to account and determine the people who are responsible for accounting in an environment where the scopes of tasks of public institutions and organizations have not been set clearly, several institutions are assigned for the same service, and inter-institutional transitions are frequently experienced in the fulfillment of tasks. To solve this problem, the scopes of tasks and responsibilities of public institutions and organizations should be defined clearly. In this respect, it can be said that a clear distribution of tasks and resources is one of the basic requirements for creating an accountable public administration. In the Turkish public administration, the basic principles of accountability can be described as Participation, Transparency, Financial Responsibility, and Subsidiarity. More principled can be added here. To achieve a well-functioning accountability in Turkey, the following points should be taken into account: 1- Visibility and transparency should be ensured in public accounts. 2- It is essential for accountability that parties can deliver their complaints and launch investigations for responsible people. In this regard, an environment may be created for questioning decisions and actions by requesting investigations about authorities. 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 3- Complaints may decrease if decision-making processes are approximated to the public and a transparent and participatory way is adopted in actions. Transparency, participation, and evaluation may minimize the need for complaint mechanisms. References Ahmet Ulusoy, (2000). Yerel Yönetimler v e Vergilendirme Yetkisi ((Local Governments and Power of Taxation), Vergi Sorunları Dergisi, Sayı: 45, Ekim, ss.130-142. Birgül Ayman Güler (2000). Yerel Yönetimleri Güçlendirmek mi? Adem-i Merkeziyetçilik mi? (Strengthening Local Authorities or Decentralization?”, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, Cilt: 9, Sayı: 2, ss.14-29. Daniel J.Elazar, (1997). ABD’de Anayasal Açıdan Yerinden Yönetim ve Yönetimler Arası İlişkiler”, Yirmibirinci Yüzyıla Yaklaşırken Merkezi ve Yerel Yönetim İlişkileri, Uluslararası Konferans, Manisa: 03-04 Aralık 1997, TBD, KAV ve Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Yayını, Ankara, ss.28-34. Fethi Aytac, (1994). Merkezi İdareden Mahalli İdarelere Devredilecek Hizmetler, TBD, KAV ve MİEAGM Yayını, Ankara. MehmetÖzel, (2000). Kamu Yönetiminde Yeni Bir Örgütlenme İlkesi: Yerellik (Subsidiaritaet)”, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, Cilt: 9, Sayı: 3, Temmuz, ss.25-43. MuhittinAcar, (2001). Accountability in Public-Private Partnerships, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, University of Southern California. Osman Bayri, (2000). A Theory of Patronage in Accountability: A Discourse on Turkish Modernisation and Socio-economic Accountability with Special Reference to the Case of Pension Funds, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Manchester Metropolitan University. RecepYazıcıoğlu, (2000). Devletin Ekonomi İçindeki Ağırlığı ve Yerinden Yönetim, The Influence of State in Economy & Decentralization, www.erzincan.gov.tr. RuşenKeleş, (1999). Avrupa’nın Bütünleşmesi ve Yerel Yönetimler, TBD ve KAV Yayını, Ankara. Tülay Arin, (2000). Necdet KESMEZ ve İhsan GÖREN, Parlamento ve Sayıştay Denetimi (Parliamentary and Court of Accounts Inspection), İstanbul: TESEV Yayınları:16. Tüsiad, (1992). Yerel Yönetimler: Sorunlar ve Çözümler (Report on Local Administrations, Problems, and Solutions), Hazırlayan: Selçuk Yalçındağ (Prepared by Selçuk Yalçındağ), Yayın No: TÜSİAD-T/92-5-152, İstanbul. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1548 Title A name given to the resource Reconstruction of the Turkish Public Administration in the Process of European Union: Systems of Accountability Author Author ACARTURK, Ertugrul BAYRI, Osman Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the research: increasing globalization and regional integration movements in recent years have made more significant Turkey's membership to European Union. Turkey that is trying to adapt the European Union acquirements from the economic, political, legal and administrative points has to be reconstructing its public administration. Accordingly, systems of accountability that is effective in the public administrations of the European Union Countries have to be effective in Turkish public administration, too. In this study, it is aimed to determine what sort of changes has to be made in order to adapt European Union acquirements through analyzing the present systems of accountability in Turkish public administration. In the study, at first, literature review is made in accordance with accountability of Turkish and the European Union countries public administrations. After that, data is collected in accordance with the functions of the systems of accountability in local administrations through observations and interviews. Finally, the knowledge is obtained from literature review is analyzed together with the collected data about the systems of accountability in Turkish public administration. The necessary changes that have to be made are explained, emphasizing the different aspects of present systems of accountability in Turkish public administration from the EU acquirements. In conceptual sense, accountability cannot be seen only able to give accounts, obligation of giving accounts, responsibility of giving accounts as a single way of administration, auditing and control but also it is evaluated as a double way and reciprocal systems, including obtaining accounts, demanding accounts, able to attain information and transparency. In the point of application, it is argued issues of the degree of applications in order to adapt EU acquirements, development of the administrative and technical structure of the public institutions, training of public workers, increasing the satisfaction of public service beneficiaries, so on. Keywords: European Union, Turkish Public Administration, Accountability. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05c800e1459ff623860b45ce94aacb5d.pdf 0fb9fb2c141e7ef2bada80a35cec817b PDF Text Text Recovery of Boric Acid From Colemanite Waste by Sulfuric Acid Leaching and Crystallization Salih Ugur Bayca University of Celal Bayar, Soma Vocational School, Soma, 45500 Manisa, Turkey. salihbayca@gmail.com Abstract: The Balikesir -Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations to produce colemanite ore. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to prepare colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Each passing day increases the amount of this waste stored since it is not using in the industry. In this study, recovery of boric acid from colemanite waste by sulfuric acid leaching and crystallization process was investigated. Colemanite waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions. The experiments of leaching parameters were solid/liquid ratio, stirring speed, acid concentration, and reaction temperature. The most significant parameters were found in the leaching. The optimum leaching conditions were determined by these parameters. The filtered leach solutions were studied by using crystallization to obtain high purity boric acid. For this purpose, the influence of crystallization time was affected on purity of boric acid. The effects of reaction time on the particle size of gypsum were investigated. The results showed that high purity boric acid crystals were obtained using colemanite waste. Keywords: Boric acid; Colemanite waste; Leaching: Crystallization; Sulphuric acid. Introduction Boric acid is used as a product in the industry. It is also used as a raw material to produce boron compounds. Boric acid has triclinic crystal structure and its chemical composition is H3BO3 containing 56.3% B2O3 (Jansen, 1999). Turkey uses colemanite concentrate to produce boric acid in sulfuric acid solutions at Bandirma (capacity 85,000 t/yr) and at Emet (capacity 100,000 t/yr). Boron minerals colemanite, ulexite, and tincal are commercially produced in large amounts with colemanite ore produced in open mines in Bigadic, Balikesir province (Turkey). Colemanite is a calcium borate mineral (theoretically, 50.8% B2O3) with monoclinic crystal structure and a chemical composition of Ca2B6O11.5H2O. The colemanite process is carried out in ore preparation facilities near the ore mines in Bigadic. Colemanite is enriched via processes such as crushing, wetting in water, washing in a thumbling, sieving, triage and classification, produced for sale as concentrated colemanite in different grain sizes and chemical compositions. A major portion of the produced concentrated colemanite is exported (Bayca, 2009). Recently, experimental studies on the colemanite leaching have been investigated by researchers. Alkan and Dogan (2004 CEP) were investigated dissolution kinetics of colemanite in oxalic acid solutions they found that the dissolution rate increased with decreasing particle size and increasing temperature, but it was not affected by stirring speed. Cavus and Kuslu (2005) studied dissolution of colemanite in citric acid solutions. They reported that the dissolution rate increases with increasing temperature, and decreases with decreasing particle size and solid/liquid ratio. Kurtbas et al. (2006) investigated dissolution of Colemanite in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Both Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Gas and Boric Acid. They found that the conversion rate increased as the particle size and solid-to-liquid ratio each decreased and the temperature increased; however, the effect of stirring speed was very minimal. Taylan et al. (2007) investigated effects of ultrasound on the reaction step of boric acid production process from colemanite. They found that the dissolution rate increases, as expected, with decreasing particle size in both absence and presence of ultrasound. It was found that ultrasound enhances the dissolution of colemanite in aqueous solutions containing boric acid and sulfuric acid after 1 h. Ultrasound decreases the particle size of gypsum probably due to the increasing of primary and secondary nucleation rates as well as the breakage of the crystals by ultrasonic effect. Ekinci et al. (2007) studied that optimization and modeling of boric acid extraction from colemanite in water saturated with carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide 793 �gases. They reported that the optimum conditions were found to be as follows: reaction temperature, 41 °C; solid-to-liquid ratio, 0.0685 g/mL; mean particle size, 0.2835 mm; stirring speed, 266 rpm; reaction time, 7 min. The calculated boric acid extraction efficiency from colemanite ore was approximately 99.9% under the optimum conditions. Gur (2007) investigated Dissolution mechanism of colemanite in sulphuric acid solutions. He found that the analysis of the experimental data shows that increasing H3O+ acid concentration increased the dissolution rate, but increasing SO4−2 concentration reduced dissolution rate because of the precipitation of a solid film of CaSO4 and CaSO4·H2O. Tunc et al (2007) studied dissolution of colemanite in (NH4)2SO4 solutions. they found that the conversion rate was increased by decreasing particle size and solid to liquid ratio, by increasing ammonium sulfate concentration and temperature. Bulutcu et al. (2008) investigated Impurity control in the production of boric acid from colemanite in the presence of propionic acid. They determined that increasing the ratio of propionic acid in the acid mixtures leads to increase the reaction time, but to decrease the soluble impurity level in strong boric acid solution. Gur and Alkan (2008) studied leaching kinetics of colemanite in perchloric acid solutions. they reported that the dissolution rate of colemanite was found to increase with decreasing particle size and solid to liquid ratio, with increasing reaction temperature and acid concentration, while it was not affected by stirring speed. The colemanite waste contains high amounts of boron. Therefore, colemanite waste can not be discharged into any river. In the Bigadic Process Plant, colemanite waste is pumped to waste dams. Although the supernatant water is used as water in the process, all dams are almost full. New tailing dams must be constructed for waste. However, these regions are agricultural areas. Therefore, a solution should be found this waste problem. The aim of present study is to investigate the leaching of colemanite waste in sulphuric acid solutions, to find the optimum conditions of the leaching process, to find the most effect parameters of leaching rate, to find the optimum conditions of completely separation of gypsum by crystallization from leach solution, to obtain high purity boric acid crystals from the waste, to reduce environmental damage of the waste and to increase economic value of colemanite waste. Materials and methods Materials The waste sample used in the experiments in this study was obtained from Eti Mine Bigadic Boron Works (Balikesir, Turkey). The Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to produce colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Samples were taken from the first waste dam. This waste contains between 5 – 15 % solid. The sample is mainly comprised of colemanite and small amounts of quartz and calcite. This waste was dried at atmospheric conditions. The dried samples were sieved to determine particle size, and the results are given in Figure 1. This original particle size in the waste was used in the leaching experiments. Sulfuric acid, d-mannitol, sodium hydroxide, methyl red and phenolphthalein reagents were of analytical grade. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the sample was carried out on a Shimadzu with Cu Kα radiation, and the results are given in Figure 2. The chemical analysis results from XRF of the colemanite process waste (except B2O3) are given in Table 1. Methods Leaching Figure 3 is a flow chart of the processes used for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. The leaching experiments were carried out in a 500-mL three-necked glass reactor at atmospheric pressure. A mechanical stirrer with a digital display was used to agitate the solution. The heating or cooling of the reactor was carried out with a bath. A programmable refrigerated bath/circulator was used to keep the reaction medium at a constant temperature. The initial leaching conditions was selected as 0.25 mol/L H2SO4, solid to liquid ratio of 3 %, stirring speed of 300 rpm, at 30oC. In the dissolution process, 100 mL of sulfuric acid solution was placed into the reactor, and the stirring was started. After the desired reaction temperature was reached, a given amount of dried waste was added to the solution. 794 �Crystallization The leach solution was filtered by filter paper without any change in temperature. Two phases, which were solid residue and leach liquor, were obtained by filtration. The leach liquor was crystallized by a programmable refrigerated circulator with cooling process at 35 oC. The crystals were centrifuging for separating of solids and the supernatant was discarded. The solids, crystals, were drying at 40 oC for obtaining of boric acid crystals. The dried crystals of liquid phase were analyzed by XRD (Rigaku D/Max-2200/PC). The image of dried crystal boric acid was analyzed by an SEM (JSM–6060 JEOL). Each experiment was repeated at least twice. The amount of B2O3 in the filtrate leach liquid was determined by a volumetric method (Scott, 1963), and the experimental parameters used in the dissolution processes are given in Table.2. Results and discussion Effects of parameters on leaching The tests were carried out at 3 – 10 % range with a stirring speed of 300 rpm and acid concentration of 0.25 mol/L at 30oC. Figure 4 shows that the slowest leaching rate was obtained at 10% solid/liquid ratio. The leaching rate decreases with increasing solid/liquid ratio. This may be attributed to the fact that an increase in the amount of solids in the suspension corresponds to declining the amounts of reagents. The experiments were performed at 300 – 700 rpm stirring speed range with a solid/liquid ratio of 5% and acid concentration of 0.25 mol/L at 30oC. As seen in Figure 5, the leaching rate was not affected by stirring speed. This may be attributed to the fact that the dissolution of colemanite waste was a chemical reaction controlled rather than diffusion controlled mass transfer. Similar results were found for colemanite in oxalic acid solutions (Alkan and Dogan, 2004) and for colemanite in SO2-saturated water (Ozmetin et al., 1996). All subsequent tests were performed at stirring speeds of 500 rpm that was used only to homogenize the solution for heat transfer. The influence of acid concentration on dissolution rate of colemanite waste is investigated at 30oC, stirring speed of 500 rpm and with a solid/liquid ratio of 6%. As seen in Figure 5, the maximum leaching rate was observed at 1.0 mol/L acid concentration. The extraction yield slowly increases as acid concentration increases from 0.25 to 1.0 mol/L and then decreases as acid concentration increases from 1.0 to 2.0 mol/L. This may be attributed to the fact that the more boric acid forms with increasing acid concentration. This occurred boric acid film on the particle inhibits diffusion rate of sulphuric acid into particle surface. Several studies showed similar results using colemanite dissolved in acetic acid solutions (Alkan and Dogan, 2004), oxalic acid solutions (Ozmetin et al., 1996) and using tincal in oxalic acid solutions (Abali et al., 2006). The experiments were carried out at different temperatures between 30 and 70oC. The influence of temperature on the dissolution rate of waste was investigated at a sulfuric acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L with a solid-to-liquid ratio of 5%, and stirring speed of 500 rpm. It was shown that the leaching rate increases with increasing temperature, which is expected from the exponential dependence of the rate constant in the Arrhenius equation. As seen in Figure 7, the maximum leaching rate was obtained at 70oC. Characterization of the leaching solid residuals In this study, the optimum conditions of waste leaching in sulfuric acid solutions were found to be: solid-toliquid ratio of 5%, stirring speed of 500 rpm, acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L and temperature of 70 oC. The waste was leached with sulfuric acid solutions at the optimum conditions. The leaching solid residue was dried at ambient temperature. The solid-phase XRD patterns are shown in Figure 8. The XRD patterns indicate diffraction peaks of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). This result is in agreement with equations (6) and (7). 2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) + 6H2O (6) CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) + H2O 6H3BO3(aq) + 2(CaSO4.2H2O(s)) (7) CaSO4.2H2O(s) + CO2(g) Colemanite and sulfuric acid reaction equation (6) resulted in calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) products. Furthermore, equation (7), calcite (CaCO3) and sulfuric acid reaction resulted in calcium sulfate dihydrate. Crystallization 795 �The liquid phase was crystallized in water bath medium at a temperature of 35oC to obtain boric acid crystals. The liquid phase was not dried at ambient temperature due to hygroscopic gypsum. Instead, the liquid phase was dried in an oven at 110oC for XRD analysis. As seen in Figure 9, anhydride (gypsum) and boric acid were observed in the XRD analysis. As the solid phase was dried at 110oC, the crystal water evaporated from gypsum which became anhydrous because of its low dehydration temperature. A leaching solution containing gypsum and boron oxide was obtained from the leaching of waste. Gypsum must be completely separated from the leaching solution to obtain pure boric acid crystals. Leaching time is the dissolution time for the boron oxide. However, this time also serves as the crystallization time for gypsum. Boron oxide in the waste water can be completely dissolved in a leaching time of 30 minutes. A crystallization time of 30 minutes for gypsum was insufficient as gypsum remained in the solution after filtering. Gypsum crystals did not pass through the filter after crystallization of 120 minutes. Hence, the solution passing through the filter was sufficiently pure. Pure boric acid crystals were obtained by crystallization out of this solution. Taylan et al., (2007) reported that the size of gypsum crystals increases with time due to crystal growth. The waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions at the aforementioned the optimum conditions for 120 minutes. The leachant solutions were filtered, and the liquid phase was crystallized at 35oC. The obtained crystals were dried at ambient temperature due to the low dehydration temperature of boric acid, and the crystallized liquid phase was analyzed by XRD (Rigaku D/Max-2200/PC). Figure 10 shows the XRD patterns of the crystals. Only boric acid (H3BO3) peaks were observed with XRD analysis. The result of XRD is in agreement with equation (3). Colemanite and sulfuric acid reaction equation (3) resulted in boric acid. 2Ca2+(aq)+ 6H3BO3(aq) + 2H2O) 2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O(s) + H3O+(aq) (3) An SEM (JSM–6060 JEOL) image of crystal boric acid is given in Figure 11. The boric acid crystals, which have a triclinic structure, can be observed in the SEM images. The XRD and SEM analyses show that pure boric acid crystals can be produced using colemanite waste. Conclusions The leaching of colemanite waste in sulfuric acid solutions was studied in a batch reactor. The results showed that the leaching rate increases with increasing reaction temperature and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio. The most important parameter on the leaching rate was found to be the reaction temperature while the least important parameter on the leaching rate was found to be the stirring speed. The optimum conditions were found to be a solid-to-liquid ratio of 5%, a stirring speed of 500 rpm, acid concentration of 1 mol/L and temperature of 70oC. Maximum boron oxide extraction efficiency is 99.99%. The leaching solution containing gypsum and boron oxide was obtained from the leaching of waste. Gypsum must be completely separated from the leaching solution to obtain pure boric acid crystals. Leaching time is the dissolution time for the boron oxide. However, this time also serves as the crystallization time for gypsum. Therefore, leaching time should be at least 2 hours. The XRD and SEM analyses show that pure boric acid crystals can be produced using colemanite waste. Boric acid has a great deal of utility as a raw material in various industries. Moreover, boric acid has been sold commercially as an expensive product with a price of $800/t. The highest boric acid purity crystals were obtained from colemanite waste. These results suggest that commercial boric acid can be produced by using colemanite waste. Thus, environmental problems from tailing dams will be reduced and waste will gain an economic value. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Eti Mine Works General Management for the XRD and XRF analysis. References A. Gur, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 24 (2007) 588 – 591. A.N. Bulutcu C.O. Ertekin, M.B. Kuskay Celikoyan, Chemical Engineering and Processing 47 (2008) 2270–2274. 796 �Abali, Y., Bayca, S.U., Mistincik, E., 2006, Chemical Engineering Journal, 123, 25–30. Abdusselam Kurtbas, M. Muhtar Kocakerim, Özkan Küçük, and Ahmet Yartaşı, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 45 (2006) 1857–1862. Alkan, M., Dogan, M., 2004b, Chemical Engineering and Processing, 43: 867–872. Bayca, Salih Ugur, 2009, Journal of Ceramic Processing Research, No. 2, 10: 162–166. Cavus, F., Kuslu, S., 2005, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 44, 8164–8170. Gur A, Alkan M. E. journal of chemical engineering of japan 41 (2008) 354-360. Jansen, L. H., 1999, Boron Compounds, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol.4, John Wiley & Sons, p. 377. Mehmet Tunc, Mehmet Muhtar Kocakerim, Ozkan Kucuk, and Mehmet Aluz, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 24 (2007) 55 – 59. Ozmetin, C., Kocakerim, M.M., Yapici, S., Yartasi, A., 1996, Ind. Eng. Chem Res., 35: 2355–2359. Scott, W. W., 1963, Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis, D. Van Nostrand, New York. Taylan, N., Gurbuz, H., Bulutcu, A. N., 2007, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 14: 633 – 638. Zafer Ekinci, Enes Sayan, Ayse Vildan Bese, Osman Nuri Ata, Int. J. Miner. Process. 82 (2007) 187–194. Oxides Waste, % SiO2 7.27 Al2O3 0.28 Fe2O3 0.11 B 2O 3 40.72 CaO 23.03 MgO 3.14 Na2O 0.05 Table 1. Chemical analysis of the studied tailings List of Figures Figure 1. Cumulative undersize of colemanite waste. Figure 2. X-ray diffraction analysis of waste. Figure 3. Process flow chart for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. Figure 4. Effect of solid liquid ratio on leaching of waste. Figure 5. Effect of stirring speed on leaching of waste. Figure 6. Effect of acid concentration on leaching of waste. Figure 7. Effect of reaction temperature on leaching of waste. Figure 8. X-ray diffraction analysis of leaching solid residue Figure 9. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase. Figure 10. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase for 120 min. Figure 11. SEM images of crystal boric acid. 797 SrO 1.18 LOI 23.80 �100 Cumulative undersize, % 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Particle size, µm Figure 1. Cumulative undersize of colemanite waste Figure 2. X-ray diffraction analysis of waste. 798 �Colemanite Waste (% 5 – 15 Solid) from tailing dams Atmospheric Leaching Waste Gypsum Solid residue H2SO4 Filtration Leach liquor Crystallization By cooling Figure 3. Process flow chart for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. Water Centrifuging Solids Drying Boric Acid Crystals 799 Water �100 90 Leaching rate of B2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Solid-to-liquid ratio, % Figure 2. Effect of solid-to-liquid on leaching of waste. 100 90 Leaching rate of B2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Stirring speed, rpm Figure 3. Effect of stirring speed on leaching of waste. 800 550 600 650 �100 90 Leaching rate of B 2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Acid concentration, mol/L 2 2.5 Figure 4. Effect of acid concentration on leaching of waste. 100 Leaching rate of B2O3, % 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 o Temperature, C Figure 5. Effect of reaction temperature on leaching of waste. 801 70 80 �Figure 8. X-ray diffraction analysis of leaching solid residue (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 30 minutes). Figure 9. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase. 802 �(acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 30 minutes). 60000 A A: Sassolite - H3 BO3 Intensity (Counts) 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Two-Theta (degrees) Figure 10. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase for 120 min. (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 120 minutes). a) 803 �b) Figure 11. SEM images of crystal boric acid a) x1000 and b) x2500 (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 120 minutes). 804 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 630 Title A name given to the resource Recovery of Boric Acid From Colemanite Waste by Sulfuric Acid Leaching and Crystallization Author Author Bayca, Salih Ugur Abstract A summary of the resource. The Balikesir -Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations to produce colemanite ore. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to prepare colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Each passing day increases the amount of this waste stored since it is not using in the industry. In this study, recovery of boric acid from colemanite waste by sulfuric acid leaching and crystallization process was investigated. Colemanite waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions. The experiments of leaching parameters were solid/liquid ratio, stirring speed, acid concentration, and reaction temperature. The most significant parameters were found in the leaching. The optimum leaching conditions were determined by these parameters. The filtered leach solutions were studied by using crystallization to obtain high purity boric acid. For this purpose, the influence of crystallization time was affected on purity of boric acid. The effects of reaction time on the particle size of gypsum were investigated. The results showed that high purity boric acid crystals were obtained using colemanite waste. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b90f6f607a54ff0199ad02591ec59c84.pdf e4088b239661c333ffd684f40c47a48c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Redefining Teaching Approach for Learning Communicative English. Dr. Somali Gupta Professor of English Govt. V.Y.T.PG Autonomous College Durg. Chhattisgarh,India somaligupta@gmail.com Introduction Speaking is more than merely talking. It involves thinking, imagination, sensitiveness in listening and understanding. The communication process is completed only when the speaker gets a response by word, look, gesture, or even silence. This enables the speaker to judge the attitude of the listener and the degree of success or failure of the communication. The entire body is used in speaking. It uses the audible code – the sounds used by the speaker, and the visible code – the movements or gestures of the face, arms and other parts of the body that are used for emphasis. The primary function of the speech is to influence others. Generally, language learning proceeds, from hearing and speaking to reading and writing. But in the case of second/ foreign language acquisition, this order is often violated. In India, especially with regard to English, learners begin with writing and reading and come to speech only towards the end of their learning. Very little curriculum time is given to teaching oral skills. It is therefore not unusual to find a large number of English users, who are fairly proficient in reading and writing , but cannot speak well. The confusion in the order of learning also seems responsible to a certain extent for errors in the performance of second language users. This paper is based on the project that I had done in order to understand and develop an approach that would help the L2 learners acquire English language competence. (Students from the tribal or backward areas of Chhattisgarh(India) are usually intimidated by the thought of learning English which according to them is the language of the elite.) This project was based on qualitative analysis and was sponsored by the UGC. Theories used for Classroom Approach and Curriculum Designing 1) Humanistic Teaching Approach for EFL. This approach is based on Daniel Goleman‘s (1995) research on Emotional Intelligence (EQ); why it can matter more than IQ. Recently it has been noted that students who don‘t fair well in their examinations, also fair badly socially. There are also cases of very intelligent students who become social ‗outcasts‘. This is what Goleman terms as emotional illiteracy. The cost of this type of illiteracy is very high – could be paid with lives (pp 265-274). Besides teaching language, the Affective Teaching Approach also includes (in Goleman‘s term) ‗Schooling the Emotions‘. Goleman states ―the healthiest way to teach children is by motivating them from inside rather than by threat or promise or reward. We should use kids‘ positive states to draw them into learning in the domains where they can develop competencies‖ (pp 106-107). The chapter ‗Managing with heart‘ proves that emotional intelligence is cost-effective for any type of business including language education. There are many benefits for teacher as managers if they have the basic skills of emotional competence. Redefining Humanistic Approach The humanistic approaches were first introduced in the late sixties and early seventies. This requires an orientation towards ‗holistic‘ education, which aims to promote growth in intrapersonal awareness and interpersonal sharing as well as intellectual development (Legutke & Thomas, 1991:36). This can be interpreted as teaching with affection, developing a leaner‘s inner personality and selfconfidence, interpersonal skills, as well as his intellectual skills, all at once. One of the most cited early works on humanism is Moskowitz (1978) book, Caring and Sharing in the Foreign language Classroom. Her two major emphases are related to this paper: Firstly, ―humanistic education takes into consideration that learning is affected by how students feel about themselves‖ (p. 12). It ―is concerned with educating the whole person - intellectual and the emotional dimensions‖ (p. 1136 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 11). Secondly each individual is unique and to be ‗self-actualising‘ is to function to one‘s fullest capacity. Quoting Stevick‘s (1975) work, Legutke & Thomas (1991) note the four forms of alienation that are possibly responsible for failure in modern language teaching; 1)the alienation of learners from the material, 2)from themselves 3)from the class and 4)from the teacher. This alienation is also the educational starting point of postponements of humanistic approach and the hidden agenda of many resource books offering communicative tasks (p.36). the topic of hidden agenda will be further explored in the section of this paper on Exploring Affective Teaching Approach. With heavy schedules in set curricula for schools, most teachers are reluctant to undertake heavier burdens by including emotional literacy as another subject to be taught. This is not necessary so. According to Goleman, the idea is to blend lessons on feelings and relationship with other subjects. ―Emotional lessons can emerge naturally into these subjects and infiltrate into the very fabric of school life. In fact these lessons should essentially be ―an invisible emotional and social competence course‖ (p. 312). This approach equates incidental learning in grammar. This incidental learning is achieved with appropriate selection of teaching materials (for example reading passages for teaching emotional and social skills) and (re)training of teachers to discipline students who misbehave (explaining their mistake instead of reprimanding). Affective Environment for Effective Teaching (Role of Teachers) The success of any EFL program depends on many factors. These include the sound curricular, the different methodology or approaches, the management and the environment. However, a review of recent literature indicates insufficient discussion on environment as one of the crucial factors for effective learning of ESL to take place. Nunan (1995) agrees that ―the context and environment of learning as well as the management of language classrooms, are relatively under-presented in the literature on language teaching methodology‖ (p.7). For the purpose of this paper environment is defined as the conducive, holistic atmosphere incorporating all the variables under the three categories of physical, mental and spiritual environment involved during the language learning process. After receiving a few studies, Cray and Currie (1996), include one characteristic that teachers should have which is rather similar to the environment factor discussed in this paper. Besides having knowledge in pedagogical content, instructional practice, critical thinking skills and problem solving abilities, a language teacher should also possess the ability to handle nonpedagogical factors including social and personal complexities. Studies have shown that in the 1990‘s the role of teachers of English as a second or foreign language has developed from merely as teachers‘ into autonomous experts with the knowledge, experience and intuitions to make informed decisions about what should happen in their classrooms. Since then it has been realized that ‗language classrooms are complex settings, composed of both pedagogical elements, and that teachers must be prepared to deal with their uniqueness‘ (pg. 113). To do that, teachers need to be well equipped with knowledge of the factors involved in order to be able to create the conducive, affective environment for effective language learning. One such environment is within a learner-centered curriculum. Nunan (1988) believes that a curriculum that specifies planning equals teaching rquals learning is naive. Research suggests that the equation is much more complex than this (pg.1) due to the obvious mismatch between the traditional curriculum and the demands of the classroom, Nunan embarks on researching a learner-centered curriculum. In this curriculum, while one major aim or sets of aims will relate to the development of learining skills. Such aims may include the following:  To provide learners with efficient learning strategies.  To assist learners identify their own preferred ways of learning  To develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum  To encourage learners to set their own objectives  To encourage learners to adopt realistic goals and time frames  To develop learners‘ skills in self-evaluation. Teachers who try to achieve some if not all of the above aims are on their way to setting the conducive environment for their students to learn the language. Some teachers assume that in a learner-centered classroom, teachers may loose their authority. This assumption is unfounded as pointed out by Widdowson (1987): The increase in learner-centered activity and collaborative work in the classroom does not mean that the teacher becomes less authoritative. He or she to continue the enabling conditions for learning, has still to monitor and guide process (p. 87) 1137 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo It is clear that a learner-centered curriculum paves the way for Affective Teaching. This is not easy, as there is an official curriculum with a set of learning objectives that teachers need to adhere to. But Nunan (1988) points out that this can be solved by looking at techniques and procedures for negotiation and procedures. He quotes Brindly (1984) saying it does not mean ―teachers should give leaners everything that they want- evidence from teachers suggests that some sort of compromise is usually possible, but only after there has been discussion concerning what both parties believe and want (p 6). Exploring Affective Teaching Approach Confluent Education, a pedagogic vehicle for humanistic thinking, is not a new education movement (Brown (1971), Rivers (1983). However, Legutke & Thomas‘ (1991) model for this type of education will be the starting point in this section. This model illustrates the overlapping of the cognitive and the affective domains of the learners. Therefore, teachers should maximize on both the learners‘ IQ and EQ. With their intelligence, the learners should be provided with awareness of not only language education but also other types of education so as to activate their ability to respond and inculcate responsibility (in their learning), thus moduling a well-rounded person, intellectually and emotionally. Based on patterns in Confluent Education and Goleman‘s theory of ‗ Schooling the Emotions‘, a model for affective teaching approach incorporating the hidden curriculum was created. Teachers can get the learners to be spontaneous in their learning and to be intrinsically motivated by making the learners understand what they are learning and what they are learning it for. As the focus has now shifted to the learners, understanding the factors affecting language learning is crucial. These factors under the two catagories are presented in Figure 2. The line separates the intrinsic from the extrinsic factors. A lot of research has been done on how these factors affect language learning. Wenden (1987) cites a few studies to show the importance of affective factors, the influence of social factors (EQ), and the importance of cognitive abilities (IQ) in the language learning process. Carrel, prince & Astika (1996) also cite recent studies that show the success of second language education caused by affective, motivational, personality and demographic factors. Lightbrown & Spada (1999) believe that learners have certain characteristics, which lead to more or less successful language learning. By understanding the characteristics of a ‗good language learner‘, teachers are able to help the learners deal with their weaknesses. Research on factors affecting language learning can be done using specific measurements, tests, surveys, questionnaire or observations. The present study explores the Affective Teaching approach using questionnaires and observations, plus as analysis of the students‘ profile, and the study also takes into consideration almost all the factors affecting language learning included in figure 2. Task Based Curricular Design Language instructors and curriculum designers have two broad catagories of syllabuses available to choose from. The first, the synthetic syllabus, segments the target language into discrete linguistic items, such as points of grammar, lexical items, or functions. Users of this type of syllabus assume that learners will be capable of re-synthesizing these discrete pieces of language into coherent whole which can then be effectively utilized in communicative situations (White, 1988). The second type, the analytical syllabus, is a non-interventionist, experimental approach which aims to immerse learners in real-life communication. It provides learners with samples of the target language which are organised in terms of the purposes for which people use language. In this case, the assumption is that the learners‘ analytic abilities will be equal to the task of coming to accurate conclusions about grammatical and lexical usage, since relatively little may be explicitly explained about the formal aspects of the language. Analytical syllabuses generally represent the educational value system espoused by progressivism, which stresses the growth and self-realization of the individual (White, 1988). This is a problem-posing type of education which emphasizes dialog between learners and teachers and between the learners themselves. The purpose of the dialogue is to stimulate new ideas, opinions, and perceptions rather than simply exchange them or regurgitate what others have said. White (1988) lists the most salient characteristics of analytic syllabus as follows: (a) they are primarily concerned with how materials are learned (processes oriented); (b) some degree of negotiation between learners and teachers occurs; (c) the content is fundamentally defined as what the subject means to the learner and what the leaner brings to the subject in terms of knowledge and interest; (d) assessment is partially decided based on the learners‘ own criteria of success, and; (e) the instructional situation is far more co-operative than in more traditional, teacher-fronted classrooms. 1138 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This last point has been referred to as maximizing learning opportunities (Kumaravadivelu, 1994) and is an essential aspect of what has been termed a learner-centered curriculum. Classroom discourse should be a cooperative venture in which discourse is created through the joint efforts of both the learners and instructor. One type of analytic syllabus is the task-based syllabus (Crookes & Long, 1992). In addition to the above characteristics of analytic syllabuses, task-based syllabuses are largely derived from what is known about second language acquisition (SLA). For instance, SLA research supports a focus on form which uses pedagogic tasks to draw learners‘ attention to particular aspects of the language code which is naturally embedded in the tasks (Long & Robinson, 1988). The inclusion of some type of instruction on the formal aspects of the target language can be found in most recent formulations of task-based language instruction (e.g, Skehan, 1988; Willis, 1996). Tasks also provide input to learners and opportunities for meaningful language acquisition (Swain, 1995). Opportunities for production may force students to pay close attention to form and to the relationship between form and meaning. It is assumed that this combination of contextualized, meaningful input and output will engage learners‘ general cognitive processing capacities through which they will process and reshape the input. In other words, tasks will likely create a rich linguistic environment capable of activating the learners‘ intuitive heuristics (Kumaravadivelu, 1994), which are natural cognitive processes used both consciously and unconsciously for developing the somewhat separate rules systems that underlie language comprehension and production. In addition, form-function relationships, which are a critical aspect of SLA (MacWhinney, 1997), should be more readily perceived by the learners because of the highly contextualised and communicative nature of the tasks provided by a task-based syllabus. The Project: Student-Generated Action Research In this section I would like to briefly describe an extended task-based project which was implemented The project, which I have called student-generated action research, required the entire twelve week semester to complete. However, as a part of the same course the learners were also engaged in other activities that were a part of direct approach to teaching speaking. In this approach, learners are explicitly instructed in some of the specific microskills, strategies and processes which are involved in conversation. These include phrases and strategies for turn-taking, interrupting, expressing agreement or disagreement, summarizing what another person has said and checking whether you have been understood. The knowledge of these ‗formulaic frameworks‘ (Widdowson, 1989, pg. 135) form an essential part of communicative competence of native speakers of a language and act as usual linguistic knowledge which the learners can make use of as they use of as they move through the project. In brief, the project requires the learners to work in groups of two to four persons and to choose a topic which they are interested in finding out more about. The general objectives of the project are to:  Provide learners the opportunity to use English for authentic purposes for an extended period of time.  Provide intrinsically motivating activities which take advantage of the learners‘ desire to improve their listening and speaking proficiency.  Allow learners to take responsibility for their own English education by giving them the primary responsibility for topic structure and present data which they collect.  Reinforce learners‘ ability to form grammatically and pragmatically collect questions;  Enhance the learner‘s presentation skills.  Demonstrate to students that the use of English can further enhance their own education and development, and;  Provide opportunities for learners to work closely together with a partner or in a small group for an extended period. The following is a more detailed look at how the project unfolds throughout the course of a semester. Fundamental Problems with Tasks Skehan (1988) lists five major problems which exist where task-based language teaching is concerned. First, although early empirical indications strongly support the use of task as an effective way to conceptualize language teaching, the amount of research is still insufficient. More worrisome is the fact that o task based program has been implemented and subjected to rigorous evaluation. Until this has been accomplished and any positive results replicated, the use of task-based courses will be open to doubts and criticisms. Moreover, assessing task-difficulty and sequencing tasks is problematic. Our understanding of many potential factors influencing task difficulty is quite limited; thus, teachers 1139 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo must generally fall back on their intuitions about how well their particular learners can deal with specific tasks. Third, little is known about task ‗finiteness‘. For instance, if examined carefully, a task such as the creation of a questionnaire is composed of a large number of ‗microtasks‘ which must be successfully accomplished in order to complete the larger task. There is probably no clearer explanation of this than in the work of Anderson and his colleagues in the area of production rules (e.g., Anderson, 1993; Anderson & Lebiere, 1988). They have shown how one relatively ―simple‖ task, such as an addition problem, can only be complete if a large number of more basic production rules are known and accurately applied. When the task is the communicative use of language, the situation is far more complex. Skehan (1988) claims that task-based language teaching may be too structured and preplanned and so slow down the rate of acquisition. However, this did not appear to be a problem with the learners in this program. Only further research on task-based teaching will provide answers to this question. Frame work: In the first stage of the survey 60 students were chosen who had to fill up a personal data questionnaire dealing with there Background, Education, Hobbies, Friends, Influences in life, Dreams and Vision.A work shop was the held in which the students shared the same data amongst the group This workshop also helped me to understand how these students tend to avoid learning the language while wanting to learn the language too because of the belief that it is an elitist language. In the second stage a Motivation Workshop was organized for the students in which they were also required to understand their own personal needs. A lecture on Neuro- linguistic programming to understand blocks, was also delivered. Often another group of students were involved in the workshop to draw a comparative analysis and a result. While the first primary group of students came from the backward classes or the rural areas the second group of students belonged to the urban area or from a reasonably affluent background, whose parents were also educated. In another workshop, the students were allowed to interact with the students of other colleges which led to a strong database of the variety of problems that the students had that came in the way of their communication skills (communication not only in English but also in Hindi.) This was followed by another workshop on ‗Attitudes‘. The next stage of the project involved the development of the four basic skills (Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking) in the students that are imperative in language learning. Simultaneously grammar and phonetics were also taught. The students were also made aware of the various theories in language learning. In the activities that involved the development of Speaking Skills the Passive vocabulary of the students was also revived. Other activities like group discussions, role- playing, dramatics, debates were used as alternative methods to teach the skills. Error analysis involved a major part of the process as it helped to develop a clearer understanding of the mistakes that were being committed by the students and also by the teachers in playing their roles. Fluency and accuracy remained the focus of the tasks. A workshop on Body Language (Non verbal communication) was also organized. Role of the teacher in the classroom was also studied. Reasons for negative participation in the given classrooms were also studied. Motivation Motivation is the power which makes a learner struggle to achieve his goal. Human capabilities depend on the extent of motivation. The effect of motivation and its variables upon performance, are manifold. The manner and extent of these affects change in accordance with the task and situation. That is, difference in motivation may account for difference in performance of a learner. ―Motivation‖ is derived from the Latin word ‗movere‘ which means ‗to move‘ and it has been seen as a process which activates and directs behaviour (Young 1961). For Bigge (1971), motivation is when a person develops a state of tension resulting from an unsatisfied need. Most psychologists and applied linguists (Corder, 1973; Gardner 1979 and Gardner & Lambert, 1972) agree that motivation plays a very important role in language learning. Gardner (1979: 198) would expect motivation ―to play a direct role in the formal training situation because it would serve to keep the student in the programme, influence his perception of the training situation, and serve as the basis for many reinforcements which might be obtained in the classroom.‖ Thus the survey of literature on motivation leads us to conclude that definitions are mainly based on three main components in a learning situation. These are : ‗goals‘ of the learner towards learning, ‗needs‘ of the learner and ‗drive‘ of the learners towards a language. 1140 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Motivation is individual. That is, every learner has his/her own motives and means to learn in accordance with their ability and goals. There are four types of motivation which can be relevant to language learning. They are ‗integrate vs. instructional‘ motivation and ‗extrinsic vs. instinct‘ motivation. Gardner and Lambert can be considered the pioneers of language learning motivation studies. In their earliest studies (1959) two distinctive types of motivation, namely integrative and instrumental were classified. Integrative Motivation: Integrative motivation is a willingness to become a member of another ethno-linguistic group. In other words, it refers to learning the language the target community in order to be integrated into the culture of that community. Instrumental Motivation: Instrumental motivation is the result of external need. They define instrumental motivation as a desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages through the knowledge of a second or foreign language. Learners who are instrumentally motivated hope to derive benefits from knowing the other language such as getting a better job or position. However, one can argue that the relative importance of an integrative- instrumental dichotomy will largely depend on the context in which a language is learned. An instrumental motivation can be effective, in particular, in situations where the target language is used as an international means of communication. Research in the tribal areas of Chhattisgarh indicated that the learners from these regions learn English for its utilitarian value. It needs to be pointed out that positive orientation does not take the form of integrative motivation. In these regions English language is only contacted indirectly through the textbooks. Therefore, the situation is unlikely to initiate any desire for group integration. In order to adapt the learning process to appeal to the learners, we usually tend to rely on two main types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation consists f three components such viz. stimuli, response and reward. The source of this type of motivation comes from outside the learner, who mostly performs a certain task in order to get a reward,(e.g. pass the test), or to avoid punishment (e.g. failure). Unlike extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation is related to the learner‘s initiative to do a task (e.g. understanding something) for its own sake. However, the social context in which the language is learned determines the attitude of the learners‘ social status in a second or foreign language. In relation to the first language, economic, political and social factors are likely to influence motivation to learn a second or foreign language. When the socio-linguistic status of a group, is lower than that of a target language group, instrumental motivation is likely to be a pre- requisite for economic advancement. We can therefore say that individual learner factors are influenced by the social context and these have to be borne in mind while interpreting learners‘ behaviour. Since motivation is individual, the teacher, for example, needs to try to understand what kind of motivation his/her learners are intrinsically motivated by. The teacher is expected to find ways or techniques which address the intrinsic motivation. Further, each learner has his/her own way of handling tasks or learning process. Therefore, the teacher has to understand the student‘s ability, and his way of dealing with learning tasks. To conclude, the teacher can sometimes be the only source of motivation, essentially in those situations where the learner‘s experience largely depends on their teacher. In other cases, ambition also acts as a prime motivation. Methodology Group Work Group work has been found especially conductive in the development of oral skills. Research has given us the 2/3 formula which shows that in a 40 minute class with a strength of 40 students per class a learner gets less than a minute to participate in the speaking activity. Group work provides a framework whereby a learner can have the maximum participation. In a teacheroriented class, the amount of language practice each learner gets, is much less than in a class where the learners work in groups. 1141 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Group work gives an opportunity to learners to speak in small groups, at times with their friends and this reduces the hesitation and embarrassment which a shy learner may feel. Besides helping learners to get rid of their inhibitions, it also builds up a sense of closeness, owing to the physical proximity and the tight structure of the groups. Learners feel more motivated, have a sense of belonging, which spurs them on a particular direction. It helps in establishing a sense of personal rapport. Communication is better when the physical distance between individuals is reduced. Visuals and other materials used in the classrooms are then easy to share within the group. Students are also able to interact as a group with other groups. This helps in building healthy rivalry. The time limit or inter-group competition spurs each group to move ahead. It provides an opportunity for peer teaching. Students are more likely to learn from each other than from the teacher. Mistakes get corrected in a healthy cooperative atmosphere. Important features of interaction skills such as turn-taking, adjusting to one‘s speech to what the other person knows and wants to hear also gets practiced. Group work allows the teacher to move out of the constraints of the role and act as a manager, facilitator and guide. As teachers of second language, our main concern is not to impart knowledge and information to the children about the language, but to develop their ability to use their language for a variety of communicative purposes. In order to achieve this end we must  Appreciate the specific needs of our learners.  Plan suitable oral activities in English based on the needs of the students  Monitor and modify these activities to ensure that these activities are effective.  Understand the various roles that a teacher can play (manager/facilitator/ guide) to enhance the student‘s oral skills. Group Discussion: Group discussion was practiced with the dual purpose. 1) To enable the students to freely participate and exchange views.2) Practice it as an alternative methodology for classroom teaching. Group discussion was held both before and after reading texts. It was also held after the topic was declared a day before. It was found that the students were more participative if the discussion was held after the reading of the texts or if the topic was declared a day before. It gave the less confident learners support in terms of content. The teacher‘s role became that of an observer, manager and a facilitator. Correction of grammar and other remedial measures were taken later and the discussion was allowed a free flow. Sometimes the dominating students were facilitated to allow the slow learners to participate. The discussions were rounded off by summarizing the group‘s ideas through reporting or other methods like drawing posters etc. Feedback was given to each student on his/her participation by the teacher. An oral activity which is well planned, organized, executed efficiently, timed correctly with a feedback and a follow up session, gives the learners a sense of achievement. The other activities which met with a lot of enthusiasm from the students were Class Debate and Role Playing. Learning to Speak In the case of learning to speak one‘s mother tongue the child‘s experiences provide the basis from which meaning and therefore language develops. At the same time what other people around the child say to the child also plays an important part in stimulating the child‘s actions and setting value on them. The child‘s language is extended by the parent‘s responses to her statements and questions. Adults tend to use words so freely and easily that they teach them to the child at almost every opportunity. They encourage the child to say the word aloud, correcting her when she says the word incorrectly or applies it to the wrong object, and rewarding her when she uses the word or symbol correctly. During recent years a body of evidence has grown which seems to indicate that the way in which the child learns to use language is dependent upon early experiences in the home. Differences in the way children use language, thus stem from the experiences in the social environment in their homes. Although the ability to imitate sounds plays a tremendous part in the child‘s ability to acquire vocabulary and structure and for her utterances, learning to use language is clearly much more complex than being able to imitate sounds. Imitation is not enough to explain how a child gains meaning and gains the adult‘s way of using language. Most adult‘s seem to help the child intuitively as they talk, sometimes simplifying what they say to accommodate the child‘s immaturity, and sometimes speaking as they would do to an adult or older child. Often they take what the child has said and repeat a corrected version, which sometimes the child will repeat immediately. In this way it seems the child gains the experience she 1142 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo needs for distinguishing the more ambiguous aspects of structure in talk. The young child goes through two phases in learning to speak. The first stage is the Passive Stage in which the child comes to understand much of what is said to her but makes little use of the language herself; the second stage is an Active Stage in which the child begins to use words and word groups. Mother tongue acquisition Linguists have observed how children acquire their mother tongue so that the insight gained could be used in teaching of the second language. They found three important facts which gave a new trend to language teaching. First: Children start comprehending the language much before they start speaking it. Second: Children start begin by repeating individual words and then short sentences, but this was a mere mechanical reproduction. Third: Children form a grammar of their own which explains how they graduate from mere repetition to construction of yet unheard sentences of their own. The fact emerged that there was to be a gestation period between learning and passive(listening, understanding and reading) and active skills(speaking and writing). But students, most of the time are expected to learn all the skills simultaneously. This becomes difficult for the slow learners. Use of mother tongue in the classroom There has been an ongoing debate about whether the learners or the teachers should be allowed to mix or switch codes for teaching and learning English (L-2). Those who are of the opinion that other tongue has no place in an English classroom are advocates of the Direct Method. According to this theory, a constant exposure to the target language enables the learners to pick it up in due course, just as a child picks up the mother tongue. The use of mother tongue by the teacher minimizes this exposure, depriving the learner of a total submersion in the target language. It is also argued that if the learner is denied the option to speak in the mother tongue, the compulsion to communicate will act as a motivation to use English. It is also claimed that this compulsion and constant exposure will act as a spur to help the learners think in English which is the ultimate test in language proficiency. Failure of the Direct Method The students who were chosen for this workshop were from the backward classes and rural areas and hence their medium of instruction was Hindi. English was not their language of communication. The direct method is based on the presumption of a maximum exposure to the target language, it must be understood that these students get only 2 hours of exposure at the college since there is no English in the home environment. Keeping in mind the fact that most of these students have minimal exposure to the language outside the classroom and some of whose motivation to learn it does not go beyond passing the examinations, what seems to be the requirement of the day is a time saving method which puts the students at ease and also instills some confidence in them. This confidence will, in turn act as a motivation for further learning. It was found that judicious use of the mother tongue both by the students and the teachers, proved to be fruitful. Since dependence on mother tongue seemed to be inevitable a methodology to use it to an advantage was developed. It was observed that teachers who are firm believers of keeping the mother tongue out of the classroom seem to generate a sense of awe amongst the students who are very weak in English. They were seen as unapproachable and the prospect of learning English from them appeared daunting. Today the knowledge of English has acquired a status symbol in India and those who cannot speak it suffer from a sense of inferiority. Under such circumstances when the teacher does not hesitate to mix codes or to switch them when required, the students get a sense of security and start feeling comfortable. The mother tongue becomes the common ground and the English and the English teacher stops being intimidating. This goes a long way in bridging the gap between the teacher and the taught. Purpose , Design and Activities of a Bilingual Classroom As discussed earlier the students of Chhattisgarh have a definite mindset in learning English. Their primary aim to learn the language was as follows:      Talking with others. Giving information to others. Telling others how you feel. Persuading others. Dealing through words in special situations. 1143 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     Telling things that interest others such as stories, shared experiences. Making formal or impromptu speeches. Getting ideas across, out loud. Classroom Design: The classroom was designed to provide opportunities for oral expression to the second language (L-2) learners so as to enable them to:  Increase their vocabulary and ability to use the language.  Be articulate when speaking, i.e. speaking coherently and in complete sentences.  Become fluent in expressing their feelings and opinions.  Improve listening skills.  Listen to different points of view and value the opinion of others.  Develop confidence in the use of the language.  Learn the social skills needed for group interaction.  Enhance their ability to communicate with a variety of audiences.  Reinforce grammatical structures, intonation, and pronunciation, through actual usage. Domains It is customary to divide human activity into several domains. All these domains when put together, account for most of the things that an average human being does or is expected to do. The students were keen to learn English as a second language to be able to use it all the following domains.  Family  Neighbourhood  School  Trade and Commerce  Government and administration.  Work-place  Atmosphere of the Classroom The possibilities for using spoken language in the classroom is immense. There are opportunities for spontaneous, unplanned discussions, verbal sharing recitation. Often informal talk between students is very constructive if it can be given a focus. What is important is that a student should feel completely relaxed. Hence the classroom atmosphere should be completely nonthreatening. Individual differences in students were respected. It was seen that they should not be compared to each other. As a practice shy students were not forced to speak in front of the whole class but were gradually made to practice ‗speaking‘ in small groups and then move on to large groups.                    Activities in the Classroom The following activities were designed and practiced in the classroom. Games emphasizing the use of different parts of speech. Spotting the odd words from a group of words. Using synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, suffixes and prefixes. Learning to figure out the meanings of words from context. Making friends with new words. Becoming aware of idiomatic expressions. Using literature to clear diction and introduce new words and phrases. Sentence building games.(Each student adds on a word till the sentence is complete) Build stories. Picture Reading. Create images with words. Problem solving and working on puzzles so that they discuss with each other. Teaching each other. Finding information about each other based on a format. Giving and following directions. Improvisations and role-plays based on some clues and stimulus. Question and answer sessions based on a text. Show and Tell. Identifying Passive Vocabulary. 1144 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Improving Articulation and areas that need focus were then put to greater practice. Approaches Used in Classroom Teaching Humanistic Approach & Task based approach 1. Humanistic Approach: History and Theory The Humanistic approach tends to see language learning as a process which engages the whole person and not just the intellect. It takes into account the emotional and spiritual needs of an individual too. The philosophy behind such an approach can be briefly described as follows: The ideal world should consist of ‗ autonomous, creative and emotionally secure people‘(Brumfit 1982) and education should and can assist in the creation of such a world. Stevick classifies the important characteristics of humanism. Feelings: Include both personal, emotional and esthetic appreciation. This aspect of humanism tends to reject whatever makes people feel bad, or whatever destroys or forbids esthetic enjoyment. Social Relations: This side of humanism encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever tends to reduce them. Intellect : Includes knowledge, reason, and understanding. This aspect fights against whatever interferes with the free exercises of mind, and is suspicious of anything that cannot be tested intellectually. Self Actualisation: This is quest for full realization of one‘s own deepest true qualities. This aspect believes that since conformity leads to enslavement, the pursuit of uniqueness brings about liberation. In the humanistic approach the following principles are considered important: a) the development of human values b) growth of self-awareness and in the understanding of others c) sensitivity to human feelings and emotions d) active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place. The two methods that reflect the philosophy of the humanistic approach in the fullest measure are:   The Silent Way. Community Language Learning. The Silent Way: This methodology was evolved by Caleb Gattegno in 1960 which was based on the tenet, ‗teaching must be subordinate to learning.‘ In the Silent Way, the teacher is almost silent: the learners do all the talking. The Pedagogic Principles      The teacher builds on what the learners already know. S/he follows the ‗known to unknown‘ principle. Language is learnt through the basic building blocks of sounds, as sound is a common characteristics of all languages. The teacher‘s silence encourages peer interaction and group co-operation. Language learning is done best in a non-threatening atmosphere. The teacher is a silent ‗engineer‘ in the class, and so the learners do not feel threatened. Learner errors are dealt through self-monitoring and peer-correction. No disapproval is indicated by the teacher. 1145 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Community Language Learning: Community language learning was developed by Charles Curran. He developed a counselinglearning approach, that is, the teacher was more a ‗counsellor‘ than a figure of authority and a judge of right and wrong. Curran discovered that adults often feel threatened in new learning situations: one. because they are coming into contact with something unfamiliar; and two, because they are afraid of appearing foolish. To counter this, the teacher must become a counselor; a person who not only knows the target language , but one who also understands the struggle learners face while learning something new. By understanding, he can help them to overcome their fears and work more positively towards learning a new language. CLL takes place in groups ( large or small). These groups form the community. This method lays emphasis on the learner‘s personal feelings while learning a foreign language.       The Pedagogic Principles: The most important principle the CLL is based on is the principle of security. A learner learns when s/he feels secure. To achieve this: The teacher-counselor, who is the knower remains outside the circle of learners. The teacher- counselor does not approve or disapprove of a learner‘s performance. The teacher –counselor uses the mother tongue learners to explain or translate, as they feel more secure when they understand everything. A community feeling is fostered so that trust is built up and the threat of a new learning situation is reduced. The other important principles are: The learning initiative must be with the learners for effective learning. Language is for communication. So, much of the materials for learning is authentic: what the learners say and record. The focus gradually shifts froth aspects of grammar and phonetics to actual sharing of ideas, beliefs, opinions, wants and desires. Task Based Approach 1. The Structural –Oral –Situational Approach This approach was used as an alternative to the direct method of teaching English in the classroom. 1.i) History In 1939, the University of Michigan established the first English Language institute in the USA. The primary aim of the Institute was to train teachers of English to teach English as a foreign language or as a second language. Charles Fries who was the director of the institute, was trained in structural linguistics and he applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. According to Fries , grammar or the structure was the starting point of teaching language. The structure of the language was identified with its basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The language was taught by intensive oral drilling of the basic sentence patterns. Systematic attention was paid to pronunciation. Teaching techniques concentrated on repetition of a pattern a number of times so that the learner became perfect in the use of pattern. Systematic courses and materials were developed based on important patterns to teach English as a second language. While the structural approach developed by linguists at and other universities was gaining ground, the applied linguists and methodologists of Britain were developing the oral approach to teaching English as a second language. The two traditions developed independently. Two prominent linguists in this movement were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. They developed a more scientific foundation for the oral approach than was seen in the direct method, and by 1950s the oral approach was accepted British approach to English language teaching. Situational Approach (Hornby) suggests that any language item, whether it be a structure or a word, should not be presented in isolation. It has to be introduced and practiced in a context, situationally. 1146 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Theory & Background The S-O-S approach is the presentation and practice of carefully selected and graded grammatical structures of English in effective meaningful situations, initially through speech and later through reading and writing. Language is viewed as structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types. Structures of teaching items are selected and graded by language teaching experts and methodologists. For the purpose of grading structures the following criteria are taken into account:  Whether the items are frequently used by the users of the language.  Whether the items are useful for the purposes of learning the language.  Whether the items can be easily taught and learnt.  Which items can be grouped together for the purpose of teaching. Similarly, the vocabulary items are also selected and graded. The S-O-S approach is based on the following principles:  Language is primarily speech.  A language is a set of habits.  By using situations the use of the mother tongue can be avoided. The characteristics of the S-O-S approach can be summarized as follows:  Speech is the basis of language teaching- new language items and vocabulary items are presented orally before they are presented in the written form.  The language items which are commonly used by native speakers in their day to day language are selected for teaching.  The items are also graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teachability.  The language items thus selected are presented and practiced in meaningful situations.  Vocabulary items are selected with reference to the General Service List.  Reading and Writing are based on items which have already been introduced and practiced orally. Methodology & Practice: Drills: Call- word Technique- Substitution: In this drill the teacher writes a pattern on the blackboard. Learners are asked to read it a few times and once they have mastered the pattern, the teacher calls words to be substituted in the right places in the sentence. For example: The book is on the table. Teacher: Floor Learner: The book is on the floor. Teacher: Bench. Learner: The book is on the bench. Incremental Drills: In this drill learners are asked to add a word/words to a sentences given by the teacher. The teacher supplies the word/words to be added. It is as given: Teacher: I saw him. Learner: I saw him. Teacher: Yesterday. Learner: I saw him yesterday. Teacher: at ten Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten. Teacher: in the morning Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. 1147 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Backward Chaining Technique: This technique is useful when someone is not able to repeat long a sentence. In this drill words or phrases from the end of a sentence are taken and repeated. The movement is from the end to the beginning. For example: Teacher: in the morning Learner: in the morning. Teacher: at ten in the morning Learner: at ten in the morning. Teacher: yesterday Learner: yesterday at ten in the morning. Teacher: saw him Learner: saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. Teacher: I Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. Completion In this the students were given a part of a sentence and asked to complete the sentence by adding a meaningful part or clause. 1. He worked so hard ………………………..(first class). 2. If you drive fast ………………………(accident). 3. Unless you know the skill…………………. (well). 4. If he had known my address………………(not miss). Transformation In this technique the learners were required to change a statement into a question, an affirmative statement into a negative statement, active into passive sentence. 1. This is a table. (statement) Is this a table? (question) 2. We shall play a game. (affirmative) We shall not play a game. (negative) 3. I drew this picture. (active) This picture was drawn by me. (passive) 1148 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Combining sentences or parts of a sentence In this technique, two sentences are given and learners are asked to combine them. Teaching Listening There are two major reasons for teaching listening. The first is called Listening for Perception .In this the learner is given practice in identifying the different sounds, sound combinations, stress and intonation patterns of the English language. The second is called Listening for Comprehension. In this the learner is given practice in developing listening for understanding by using listening materials and conducting listening activities which take into account the real life needs of the learner. Listening for perception: Listening for perception is practiced more at the primary level where learners are being introduces to the language. The focus of the listening activity is aural perception. Comprehension is of secondary importance. The listening exercises do not use visuals so that the learners concentrate on the sound of words or intonation patterns. The learner has to rely on his/her ear to repeat these sounds. The methodology involves repetition of short, discrete items. The teacher demonstrates the sounds which she wishes to teach while learners are encouraged to imitate and identify them using drill and choral repetition. Listening for comprehension: In this, the listening material is based on a particular context and the learner is given practice in specific areas of listening which are related to his/her needs. The learner is most often expected to make short, quick responses as a part of the listening exercises. Learners usually find these activities challenging, as effective listening activities have an element of game playing or problem solving built into them. Listening Tasks The listening tasks are effective if the learners have a well designed, interesting and carefully graded activity to complete. Some of the tasks are to express agreement or disagreement, take notes, make a picture or a diagram according to the instructions or answer questions. Listening tasks can be of two types a. Extensive listening b. Intensive listening. Extensive Listening: During Extensive listening the learner listens to an interesting story , radio programme or anecdote. The listening material may be lengthy. The learner listens for pleasure and is not expected to complete a worksheet or task. Extensive listening may take place anywhere. Intensive Listening: During intensive Listening the learner listens very carefully. E.g. while listening to directions. Such listening material is short and has a special a special worksheet designed on it. There is some amount of challenge so that the learner feels motivated to complete the task. It is through the completion of this task that the learner gets practice in specific listening skills. The Three Phases of a Listening Class. There are three phases of a listening class. But a great deal of planning goes in before that. The size of the class, the arrangement of the furniture, availability of the cassettes and recorder have to be taken care in advance. The Pre-Listening Phase: In this phase the teacher sets up the activity which gives the learner a purpose for listening. A quick look at the listening exercise helps the learner to understand the context and what s/he to listen 1149 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo for. Clarification of doubts is done by the teacher. The pre–listening activity is a very short phase. At times the learner may be asked to predict what they will hear. The While – Listening Phase: During this phase the learner completes the task based on listening material. S/he concentrates on the listening activity rather than worry about grammar or reading. The learners are encouraged to gather as much information as they can from the passage while listening. If they fill the information later it becomes a memory task and not a listening one. The focus of the task is on the message of the listening task. The Post – Listening Phase: This activity occurs after the learners have completed their listening activity. The information or completed chart which has been filled during the While –listening phase can now be used for integrating with other skills. E.g. exchange of information to fill missing information Listening activities practiced in the classroom. Dictation. Listening and following a route. Listening to a sports commentary. Listening to instructions and marking a ground plan. Evaluation      Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis This chapter deals with the role of errors in language learning. A workshop was organized to Understand why learners of a second language make mistakes Become familiar with different views about the nature and causes of second language (L-2) learner‘s mistakes Get an insight into the role contrastive analysis in error prediction Appreciate the radically different approach to such mistakes that error analysis proposes, and Understand the notion of inter-language. Theory: All learners make mistakes. As someone has said: ― You can‘t learn without goofing.‖ One fumbles, goofs and makes mistakes but if one perseveres with his/her learning efforts under proper guidance, one is able to overcome or correct his mistakes. When this happens you are said to have learnt something. Learning a language also involves making mistakes or errors. This is true even when one is learning one‘s mother tongue(L-1). The child as it grows up, goes through a long process of making mistakes and correcting them till he/she reaches a stage when we can say that s/he has learnt his/her mother tongue. That being so it is not surprising that those learning a second language often make mistakes. However, the errors committed by the learners of a second language present a rather more complex and interesting case because these L-2 learners have already learnt another language, i.e. their mother tongue. Linguists and language teachers have always been interested in finding out why L2 learners make mistakes. Teachers are primarily concerned in correcting such mistakes and making sure that their pupils do not repeat or persist with such mistakes. But it is easy to correct or remedy something if we know the cause or reason behind it. Contrastive analysis and error analysis present two different views about such mistakes and provide radically different explanations for them. Why do language learners make mistakes? Around the 1950‘s behaviourst psychology was in vogue and had tremendous impact on the linguistic thinking of that time(popularly referred to as structural linguistics). According to this thinking, language was thought of as a system consisting of subsystems i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax and symentics.Learning a language ws considered a matter of forming habits, that is the system of language could be learnt by habit formation, through imitation, constant practice and reinforcement by way of appreciation or approval by parents and teachers. Imitation practice and reinforcement finally led to a stage at which the language habits became fixed of automatic. 1150 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Imitation-----Practice -------Reinforcement. This way of thinking has very interesting implications for second language learning. The L-2 learner is, by implication, one who has already learned a set of habits relating to the system of her/his L-1. Now, when this learner starts learning a second language L-2 s/he has to learn a fresh set of habits pertaining to the system of the second language. The structuralist- behaviourist belief was that since a new system had to be learned (L-2), the system that had already been learned(L-1) , would interfere and create difficulties. I other words since each language represents a unique system, there are bound to be differences between the systems of L-1 & L-2. For the structuralist , therefore, those features of the system of L-2 which were different or dissimilar to the features of the system of L-1 were responsible for the learner‘s errors or mistakes. This phenomenon was often referred to as the ‗interference‘ or ‗transfer‘ which means that the second language learners tend to carry over certain features of their L-1 into the second language they are engaged in learning. When there is similarity between the features of the two languages there is no learning problem, but when there is a mis-match or dissimilarity, errors arise. The second view about second language learner‘s mistakes is based on the fundamental tenets of cognitive psychology and the transformational –generative or the post structural thinking in linguistics. This view consider language a thinking process rather than a set of habits. It follows therefore that language learning ( mother tongue or second language) can best be seen as a process of problemsolving in which the learner, faced with the data(language) tries to make sense of that data. The learner forms hypotheses about the language system that s/he is learning. S/he generalizes on the basis of these hypotheses and forms rules.Some generalizations may turn out right , and others wrong. But these errors do not represent a failure to learn a new set of habits or to modify an earlier set of habits. Rather, they represent the creativity of the learner and give us valuable clues to the way his mind in working. Code-Mixing During the oral practices it was observed that the students and much used to code mixing. Code mixing is a generous smattering of the lexicon of one language while talking in another.For example, ―Mera personal opinion yeh hai ki kyon ki humein matri bhasha nehi aati hum English words use karte hain.‖ Or it could be the mixing of two codes or two languages while speaking. For example, ―She is maroing gup.‖ In these sentences English verb inflection –ing is added to a Hindi verb. Code-Switching Code- Switching refers to the practice of alternating between two languages, that is, uttering some sentences in one language then switching over to another. Mother tongue Interference Mother tongue interference happens when there is literal translation of the mother tongue into English. While code-mixing and code switching are not considered aberrations because they are used by those who have a working knowledge of the two languages they mix, mother tongue interference falls in the area of errors. This phenomena occurs when the users superimpose the mother tongue on to the second language. Observations : (Code-Mixing , Code- Switching and Mother Tongue Interference) It is usually noted that code mixing and code switching is usually practiced by are bilinguals or multilinguals i.e. they are proficient in the two languages they mix. In the given classroom it was observed that code mixing was practiced by those students who were proficient in their mother tongue Hindi (L-1) and not in English (L-2). The code mixing was done in order to express with fluency. Code- Switching was seen to be practiced by only those students who were proficient in both the languages. Mother Tongue Interference was visible in both the learners in the initial stage and the in students who were reasonably proficient users of the second language. CONCLUSION Result of the workshop The tasks given to the students during the workshop and as a follow-up included speaking on current topics, any incident of the past, any past experience and translations. The results led to the following hypothesis 1151 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo         Language learning implies making assumptions about the structure of the language-its phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Based on these assumptions the learners formulated hypotheses about the structure of English. Each time the students spoke they were testing out their hypotheses. The incorrect hypotheses gave clues about the assumptions they were making about the structure of English. This (errors) helped the teacher to gear her teaching to correct the wrong assumptions and enable the students to move closer to the structure and system of English language. It was also found that the errors were also due to the failure of the students to learn a new set of habits. It was feared that the errors if allowed to continue, will become set habits. Most of the errors were caused by interference whereby features of L-1 were carried over or transferred into the L-2 by the learner. Positive reinforcements gave better results. Conclusion Language learning is a very dynamic phenomenon. Success and the lack of it in this exercise can be influenced in many ways and by many factors, motivation and attitude being two of them. Many people have learnt second /foreign languages successfully, in-spite of all kinds of deficiencies, because they had a very positive attitude and they were highly motivated to learn the language. In the absence of the right attitude and the right motivation, even the best of everything else cannot ensure success. Amongst the students who participated in the workshops it was found that attitude and motivation were of the positive kind in the case of first language acquisition, whereas it was not always so in the case of second language acquisition. It was found that the students were guided by both instrumental and integrative motivation. One always seemed to be leading to the other. All the classroom work was done in three stages :pre task- the students were briefed about the task/ teaching that was to follow. task-the students participated in the task by themselves or attended the class. post task(feedback) the students shared their experience of the task with other members. The socio-cultural background was taken into account while designing the tasks, and also in the classrooms. All the three approaches- s-o-s, direct and humanistic had an impact on the students. The students from the tribal areas responded to the sos (drills). The students from the urban areas responded better to the humanistic approach. They eventually were comfortable in a non-threatening environment once they had enough practice through the drilling method. To be able to communicate in English the students from backward areas needed constant motivation, drilling practice guided by the teacher and oral practice in a non threatening atmosphere facilitated by the teacher in the role of a facilitator. References Baugh Albert C. A History of English Language, Routledge London 2000 Brown , G and G.Yule, 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bryne, Donn. Teaching Oral English.Longman Group.UK limited 1991. Bygate, Martin, 1987. Speaking.Oxford: Oxford University Press Carrel,PL., M.S.Prince and G.G. Astika, 1996, Personality Types and Language Learning in an EFL Context, Language Learning Volume 46: Carter , R(ed) The Spoken Language Routledge 1982. Chomsky, N. 1959. Review of B.F. Skinner, Verbal Behaviour, 1957. Language 35, 1959 Clark, H.1977 Psychology and Language. An Introducion to Psycholinguistics. New York1988 Corder, S. 1975. Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language Acquisition.Language teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts 8. Cray, E. & P. Currie 1996 Linking Adult Learners with the Education of L2 Teachers, TESOL Quarterly Vol.30:1 1152 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Crookes, G.,& Long, M.(1992).Three Approaches to Task Based Syllabus Design.TESOL Quarterly, 26,27-56 Cross and Carney, Teaching English in High Schools, Macmillian , New York 1996 Goleman , D. 1995, Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books : New York Johansson , S.1975. The Uses of Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis. English Language Teaching. Jones , K (1984.) Simulations in English Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Kippal,F, (1984 )Keep Talking: Communicative Fluency Activities for Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Kudchedkar, S (ed) Readings in English Language Teaching in India. Kumaravadivelu, B.(1994) The Postmethod Condition: Emerging Strategies for Second/ Foreign Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27-48 Long, M., & Robinson,P(1998). Focus on Form: Theory Research and Practice. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Legutke, M. & H. Thomas (1991), Process and Experience in the Language Classroom, Longman Inc., New York. Lightbrown, P. & Spada, N. (1999), Critical Thinking, May field Publishing Company: California Mac Whinney, B. (1997) Second Language acquisition and the Competition Model.Tutorials in Bilingualism(pp113-114)Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Morgan, Edith L and Dr. James M Jasper.(1985) Developing Speaking Skills. Good Apple Inc. Moskowitz, G. (1978.) Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: A Sourcebook on Humanistic Techniques. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Nunan, D. (1988) The Learner Centered Curriculum, Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Nunan, D, (1989). Designing Talks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge :Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D,( 1995) Language Teaching Methodology, Phonex ELT: Hertfordshire Pattison , P.(1987 )Developing Communication Skills. Cambridge.Cambridge University Press. Raman Meenakshi,(ed.)(1998) English Language Teaching Atlantic, Publishers and distributors, New Delhi. Rivers , W.(1983) Communicating Naturally in a Foreign Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rost Michael,(1994) Introducing Listening. Penguin English Applied Linguistics, ed. Roland Carter , Penguin Rost Michael ,(1990) Listening in Language Learning, London Longman. Skehan,P.(1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford University Press: Oxford Stevik, E.W.(1991), Humanism in Language Teaching, Oxford University Press: Oxford, Swain M.(1995) Three functions of Output in Second Language Learning, Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983. Underwood, M,(1989) Teaching Listening: Longman London Wenden, A. & J. Rubin, (1987), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, Prentice Hall Int: UK White R.(1988). The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management, Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. Widdowson, H. 1987,The Roles of Teacher and Learner, ELT Journal, Vol.4 Williams Mary Young(1987) Let‘em Talk. Dale Seymour Publications. 1153 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 593 Title A name given to the resource Redefining Teaching Approach for Learning Communicative English Author Author Gupta, Somali Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3410 Title A name given to the resource REDUCING ORAL APPREHENSION IN LIBYAN EFL CONTEXT USING SCHEMA THEORY: AN INPUT FOR LANGUAGE SKILLS COURSE ENHANCEMENT Author Author H. Malonzo, Edgar Abstract A summary of the resource. Building contacts with people is not always a rewarding experience that may lower one’s self esteem leading to anxiety. This anxiety results in communication apprehension which McCroskey (1984) defined as the individual's level of anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. Several studies have justified the occurrences of communication apprehension. However, none has been conducted in the Libyan EFL context, or at least in the locale of this study. This paper focused on identifying the students' level of oral apprehension and seeks to describe students' oral apprehension towards the following contexts: group discussion, meetings, dyads, and public speaking. Using the PRCA, it was found out that both male (69.24%) and female (74.36%) respondents were moderately apprehensive. Moreover, it can be said that there is no significant relationship existing between gender and apprehension. A deeper understanding of its causes was elicited through the participants’ schemata. Through a semi-structured interview, public speaking activities were found to be the main source of apprehension because these expose the students to the opposite sex. Findings from these procedures may be used in enhancing the Language Skills courses in the university that may reduce students’ oral apprehension. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8007c40a88b8dad51fe2603435c0503d.pdf 8778dd842454fafdef97f9fa707fc7e2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reengineering: Necessary Aspect of Sustainability for Organizational Development Şermin ŞENTURAN Dr., Professor at International University of Sarajevo Faculty of Economics and Business Administration (FEBA) Bosnia and Herzegovina ssenturan@ius.edu.ba Samir HUSĐĆ MA, Postgraduate Student at International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina samirhusic@gmail.com Abstract: Most of the managers believe that they have had all the debates they need to have and that the industry will continue to exist as it has for many years. But the industry is continuously deregulated, and the business must be reconfigured in this deregulated environment? There is always a fear of unknown but organizations must evaluate their needs for changing fundamentals of the business. Companies, even those with cultures receptive to process innovation, should not expect to achieve major change without making major commitments. Successful reengineering process relies on a wide range of skills. To effect needed change, organizations must somehow mobilize sufficient technological, human and organizational, political, and process expertise with the requisite enablers. This necessarily involves assigning some of their best people, or, if the firm lacks the needed skills or methods internally, employing external consultants, to design and implement new processes. Business orientation that combines process improvement and process innovation efforts is unique and uniquely relevant to current business management. It is in keeping with cultural leanings toward innovation and incorporates the rigor and measurement orientation found in the quality approaches of many successful firms. Keywords: reengineering, bosnia, process reengineering, revolution, innovation Introduction Many managers, especially those in relatively successful businesses, naturally tend to keep using the same old process and technology. They believe that they have had all the debates they need to have and that the industry will continue to exist as it has for many years. But what will they do, for instance, if they suddenly find out that their business is potentially unsustainable, and the business must be reconfigured to maintain the economic development? Perhaps these managers have been around the old industry simply too long to be able or willing to imagine that new configuration. Sustainable development expect from business leaders to use resources with aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. United Nations’ “Agenda 21” emphasizes the need to change from old sector-centered ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes (Agenda 21, 1992). This is where reengineering the business comes in, changing the fundamentals of the business. A truly reengineered business finds out how to do more with less. But there is a fear of the unknown and its potential threats, its inevitable risks. Some managers are prevented from seeing the future because they are blinded by the sun of their current success and they cannot see the wall that they are driving right into. Also, many people suffer from a kind of subliminal denial of the future because to face it would be too traumatic (Champy, 2006, pp. xixii). They are unable to implement personal responsibility and to develop mechanisms to protect the environment. Companies, even those with cultures receptive to process innovation, should not expect to achieve major change without making major commitments. Successful reengineering process relies on a wide range of skills. To effect needed change, organizations must somehow mobilize sufficient technological, human and organizational, political, and process expertise with the requisite enablers. This necessarily involves assigning some of their best people, or, if the firm lacks the needed skills or methods internally, employing external 236 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo consultants, to design and implement new processes. Absence of skills is as much a reason for caution as an unreceptive culture. Consequently, process innovation must itself be viewed as a process, not a project. If initial efforts are successful, companies will move on to redesign other processes, a prospect that stretches to decades. Absence of such long-term orientation is often decried in contemporary business; process innovation is one more reason it cannot continue (Davenport, 1993). This work will comparatively explore these basic issues and approaches of most influential researchers in field of business process reengineering, with specific focus on controversial issues and failures in this process. History In 1990, Michael Hammer, a former professor of computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), published an article in the Harvard Business Review, in which he claimed that the major challenge for managers is to obliterate non-value adding work, rather than using technology for automating it (Hammer, 1990). This statement implicitly accused managers of using information technology for automating existing processes rather than using it as an enabler for making non-value adding work obsolete. A similar idea was advocated by Thomas H. Davenport and J. Short in 1990 (Davenport, 1990), the same year as Hammer published his paper. This idea, to unbiased review a company’s business processes, was rapidly adopted by a huge number of firms, which were striving for renewed competitiveness, which they had lost due to the market entrance of foreign competitors, their inability to satisfy customer needs, and their insufficient cost structure. Even well established management thinkers, such as Peter Drucker and Tom Peters, were accepting and advocating business process reengineering (BPR) as a new tool for re-achieving success in a dynamic world. During the following years, a fast growing number of publications, books as well as journal articles, was dedicated to BPR, and many consulting firms embarked on this trend and developed BPR methods. Despite critiques, reengineering was adopted at an accelerating pace and by 1993, as many as 65% of the Fortune 500 companies claimed to either have initiated reengineering efforts, or to have plans to do so. This trend was fueled by the fast adoption of BPR by the consulting industry, but also by the study Made in America, conducted by MIT, that showed how companies in many US industries had lagged behind their foreign counterparts in terms of competitiveness, time-to-market and productivity (Industry Week, 1994). Definitions Different definitions of business process reengineering can be found. We will focus here on most influential ones. "... The fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service, and speed." (Hammer M. a., 1993) Reengineering "encompasses the envisioning of new work strategies, the actual process design activity, and the implementation of the change in all its complex technological, human, and organizational dimensions."(Davenport, 1990). Additionally, Davenport points out the major difference between BPR and other approaches to organization development (OD), especially the continuous improvement or TQM movement, when he states: "Today firms must seek not fractional, but multiplicative levels of improvement – 10x rather than 10%." Finally, Johansson provide a description of BPR relative to other process-oriented views, such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Just-in-time (JIT), and state: "Business Process Reengineering, although a close relative, seeks radical rather than merely continuous improvement. It escalates the efforts of JIT and TQM to make process orientation a strategic tool and a core competence of the organization. BPR concentrates on core business processes, and uses the specific techniques within the JIT and TQM ”toolboxes” as enablers, while broadening the process vision." (Johansson, 1993). In order to achieve the major improvements BPR is seeking for, the change of structural organizational variables, and other ways of managing and performing work is often considered as being insufficient. For being able to reap the achievable benefits fully, the use of information technology (IT) is conceived as a major contributing factor. While IT traditionally has been used for supporting the existing business functions, it now plays a role as enabler of new organizational forms, and patterns of collaboration within and between organizations. Business strategy is the primary driver of BPR initiatives and the other dimensions are governed by strategy's encompassing role. The organization dimension reflects the structural elements of the company, such as hierarchical levels, the composition of organizational units, and the distribution of work between them. Technology is concerned with the use of computer systems and other forms of communication technology in the business. In BPR, information technology is generally considered as playing a role as enabler of new forms of 237 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo organizing and collaborating, rather than supporting existing business functions. The people / human resources dimension deals with aspects such as education, training, motivation and reward systems. The concept of business processes - interrelated activities aiming at creating a value added output to a customer - is the basic underlying idea of BPR. These processes are characterized by a number of attributes: Process ownership, customer focus, value adding, and cross-functionality. (Business process reengineering, 2000). Methodology Although the labels and steps differ slightly, the early methodologies that were rooted in IT-centric BPR solutions share many of the same basic principles and elements. The following outline is one such model, based on the Process Reengineering Life Cycle (Guha, 1993). 1. Envision new processes 1. Secure management support 2. Identify reengineering opportunities 3. Identify enabling technologies 4. Align with corporate strategy 2. Initiating change 1. Set up reengineering team 2. Outline performance goals 3. Process diagnosis 1. Describe existing processes 2. Uncover pathologies in existing processes 4. Process redesign 1. Develop alternative process scenarios 2. Develop new process design 3. Design HR architecture 4. Select IT platform 5. Develop overall blueprint and gather feedback 5. Reconstruction 1. Develop/install IT solution 2. Establish process changes 6. Process monitoring 1. Performance measurement, including time, quality, cost, IT performance 2. Link to continuous improvement -> Loop-back to diagnosis One critical issue is: Who will lead the reengineering process? Experience shows that most professionals and managers are not completely qualified to lead and implement revolutionary process redesign. The MIS professional typically has too little training in process design and analysis and is likely to see things from the perspective of technology, not of added value to the customer. Senior executive leadership and guidance are essential to reengineering efforts, but who will actually devise and implement revolutionary process designs? Most companies have little or no experience envisioning and putting into practice radical changes in how they work. Operating managers, for example, know how to execute and control existing processes, not explode them. Most have never been encouraged to "think out of the box." Manufacturing and process engineers are trained to improve processes, not to abandon them and start over. Everyone involved will require extensive training and development. Some prediction for the distant future is that CIO will stand for Chief Innovation Officer, the catalyst of reengineering. (Miller, 1991) The Role of Information Technology Information technology (IT) was in the past an essential part of the reengineering concept. It is considered by some as a foremost enabler for new forms of functioning and collaborating within an organization and across organizational borders. Early BPR literature identified several so called disruptive technologies that were supposed to challenge traditional wisdom about how work should be performed. (Hammer M. a., 1993) • Shared databases, making information available at many places • Expert systems, allowing generalists to perform specialist tasks • Telecommunication networks, allowing organizations to be centralized and decentralized at the same time • Decision-support tools, allowing decision-making to be a part of everybody's job 238 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Wireless data communication and portable computers, allowing field personnel to work office independent • Interactive videodisk, to get in immediate contact with potential buyers • Automatic identification and tracking, allowing things to tell where they are, instead of requiring to be found • High performance computing, allowing on-the-fly planning and revisioning In the mid 1990s, especially workflow management systems were considered as a significant contributor to improved process efficiency. Also ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) vendors, such as SAP, JD Edwards, Oracle, PeopleSoft, positioned their solutions as vehicles for business process redesign and improvement. (Business process reengineering, 2000) High-Tech Forces of Reengineering Regarding high-tech forces used in change process, the most interesting view of what is likely to be part of our lives as we make our individual and corporate ways through the twenty-first century. Most researchers agree on one overall key point that has been at times somewhat controversial, that is, that science and technology will continue to have enormous impacts on all of us and these impacts, in the main, are almost always positive. To the extent that there are negative consequences, we tend to recognize that, and wish to mitigate such consequences. However, it is also clear that we are determined to try to minimize these potential negatives through systematic programs and year-by-year expenditures of money. What we are not prepared to do is to give up the benefits of the technological advances. It is fair to assume that this attitude will prevail in the twenty-first century as well. There are five high-tech forces that make reengineering necessary and applicable today (Eisner, 2000, pp. 43-48): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The information age. It is a fact that the twenty-first century will represent the complete blossoming of the information age. Those with the right information, and the ability to do something constructive with it, will handle the power and increase the wealth. Information will allow enterprises to do what they do even better, and also to create completely new enterprises, in terms of both products and services. Increased bandwidth and reduced cost characterize the information age, and even information have a hierarchical structure as knowledge engineering and management threaten to become a form of just plain information. Speed and responsiveness. This is in a very real sense a necessary companion to the information age. As we build the infrastructure and capabilities that will be part of the information age, increased bandwidth will allow increased speed. The demand for this speed will follow on the heels of the technology push, meaning that people and businesses will wish to pay real money for the speed and responsiveness that such a capability is able to provide. As information finds it way to the right people more quickly, there will be pressure for the executives in business to speed up their operations in order to provide what their customers want in a more responsive manner, and make their decisions more quickly, which will be supported by having the right information available at the right time. Competition. The fact that people and companies will have and utilize the capability to move with increasing speed in the marketplace leads to extremely strong competition. If every business, in effect, sees more powerful competition coming globally, out of necessity this will have a most profound effect on the business itself. All companies that rely on information must be working as hard as they know how to make sure they remain at the leading edge. All these new enterprises, in the aggregate, pose a threat to the established companies in that a new very soon replaces the old one in a world in which market share can be reversed in very short periods of time. And these new companies heat up the competitive environment so that nothing is safe or sacred. New work patterns and environments. We are interested in new work patterns and environments, within individual’s migration path of the business enterprise of the twenty-first century. What type of work pattern and environment are we likely to find as we move into that future world and work our way through it? We can see at least three new work patterns emerging: Working highly irregular hours, often at home or at remote locations; working with new application that will bring fame and fortune; A confusion of plenty, that gives new ways of developing software as well as new ways to fail to integrate them. Loyalties and leverage. The world is changing and double-sided loyalties were shattered. Top management, not in the habit of firing themselves, looked around for ways to cut costs as profits were eroding or negative. The answer became a national pastime in which the euphemism was “right-sizing”. After all, the layoffs proved how responsible and effective the executives were. Loyalties were seriously 239 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo eroding. Trust was dissipating and disappearing. If the workers were ultimately only pawns in the game, then constant movement for the best deal was to be a kind of response. Mandates or edicts issued by upper management that predetermine the technical approach or schedule, cost, and performance considerations without sufficient project team input or concurrence are frequently seen to cause reengineering failure. More often project schedules, costs, and deliverables are dictated by top management decisions. Software is a difficult business, and especially where one is dealing with legacy systems that may have poorly developed components and poor documentation. While top management does need to make decisions on the allocation of scarce resources, it is tempting for them to also determine specific deliverables and timetables. However, detailed planning of schedules and milestones can only be accurately determined through careful study of the technical parameters of a system, based on an understanding of the system, historical data, and knowledge of the specific skills of the staff. When top management prescribes these details with little data, the results are usually disastrous. (Bergey, 1999, p. 24) Why Reengineering Fails Inspired with contemporary management trends, many companies tried to make themselves a significantly better competitor. All of them tried to make a fundamental change in how their business is conducted, and many of them tried to apply reengineering, so they can cope with more challenging market surroundings. However, many of them either failed, either have been in between, or in most cases obvious lack of success were distressing. The media usually point out the high rate of failure to three factors: the resistance of employees to change, inadequate leadership by senior management, and unrealistic expectations about reengineering results. (Kiely, 1995) Many lessons have been learned through analysis of these failures. Some very general reasons could be drawn, and one is disrespect of process phases. Process phases are usually involving a considerable length of time, and skipping some phases makes only illusion of speed and never produces rewarding result. Following are some specific reasons why reengineering fails (Kotter, 1995): 1) Not Establishing a Great Enough Sense of Urgency. The first step in reacting to revenue drop or declining trends in company is very important, because its success directly depends on motivation of individuals or groups who are crucial wheels of change. Although it sounds easy comparing with further steps in process, most companies fail in this phase. Sometimes executives underestimate how hard it can be to drive people out of their comfort zone, or they lack patience, or they worry that employees will be defensive, or that morale will drop, or they fear to be blamed for creating a crisis. To be successful in this phase, urgency rate must be very high, and it must be established in most of company’s management. Some executives created a crisis, by making large accounting loss or going public with terrible results, so the sense of urgency becomes higher. However, although sometimes crisis atmosphere promotes reengineering success, experts believe that crisis create fear and panic which drives out optimism. (Kiely, 1995, p. 15) 2) Not Creating a Powerful Enough Guiding Coalition. Major renewal programs often start with just one or two people. In cases of successful transformation efforts, the leadership coalition grows and grows over time. Major change is impossible unless the head of the organization is an active supporter. In the most successful cases, the coalition is always pretty powerful- in terms of titles, information and expertise, reputations and relationships. Sometimes they expect the team to be led by a staff executive from human resources, quality, or strategic planning instead of a key line manager. No matter how capable or dedicated the staff head, groups without strong line leadership never achieve the power that is required. One deep research of 30 companies reengineering process show that first precondition for failure was allowing wrong manager to sponsor the project. (Kiely, 1995, p. 15) But whenever some minimum mass is not achieved early in the effort, nothing much worthwhile happens. Companies that fail in phase two usually underestimate the difficulties of producing change and thus the importance of a powerful guiding coalition. Sooner or later, the opposition gathers itself together and stops the change. 3) Lacking a Vision. In successful transformation effort, the guiding coalition must develop a picture of the future that is relatively easy to communicate and appeals to customers, stockholders, and employees. A vision always goes beyond the numbers that are typically found in five-year plans. A vision says something that helps clarify the direction in which an organization needs to move. Without a sensible vision, a transformation effort can easily dissolve into a list of confusing and incompatible projects that can take the organization in the wrong direction or nowhere at all. In failed transformations, you often find plenty of plans and directives and programs, but no vision. Not surprisingly, the employees in such cases are confused or alienated. A rule for sharing a vision: if you 240 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo can't communicate the vision to someone in five minutes or less, and get a reaction that signifies both understanding and interest, you are not yet done with this phase of the transformation process. 4) Undercommunicating the Vision by a Factor of Ten. Having used about .0001% of the yearly intracompany communication, the group is startled that few people seem to understand the new approach. Transformation is impossible unless vast majority of people are willing to help, often to the point of making short-term sacrifices. Employees will not make sacrifices unless they believe that useful change is possible. Without credible communication, and a lot of it, the hearts and minds of the troops are never captured. Executives who communicate well incorporate messages into their hour-byhour activities. They take ritualistic and tedious quarterly management meetings and turn them into exciting discussions of the transformation. 5) Not Removing Obstacles to the New Vision. Too often, an employee understands the new vision and wants to help make it happen. But an elephant appears to be blocking the path. In some cases, the elephant is in the person's head, and the challenge is to convince the individual that no external obstacle exists. But in most cases, the blockers are very real. The change effort ground to a halt because the officer in charge of the company's largest division was allowed to undermine most of the new initiatives. Perhaps worst of all are bosses who refuse to change and who make demands that are inconsistent with the overall effort. The other officers did virtually nothing to stop the one blocker. If the blocker is a person, it is important that he or she be treated fairly and in a way that is consistent with the new vision. 6) Not Systematically Planning For and Creating Short-Term Wins. Real transformation takes time, and a renewal effort risks losing momentum if there are no short-term goals to meet and celebrate. Without short-term wins, too many people give up or actively join the ranks of those people who have been resisting change. In a successful transformation, managers actively look for ways to obtain clear performance improvements, establish goals in the yearly planning system, achieve the objectives, and reward the people involved with recognition, promotions, and even money. 7) Declaring Victory Tab Soon. After a few years of hard work, managers may be tempted to declare victory with the first clear performance improvement. While celebrating a win is fine, declaring the war won can be catastrophic. Instead of declaring victory, leaders of successful efforts use the credibility afforded by short-term wins to tackle even bigger problems. They pay great attention to who is promoted, who is hired, and how people are developed. They include new reengineering projects that are even bigger in scope than the initial ones. They understand that renewal efforts take not months but years. 8) Not Anchoring Changes in the Corporation's Culture. Finally, change sticks when it becomes "the way we do things around here," when it seeps into the bloodstream of the corporate body. Two factors are particularly important in institutionalizing change in corporate culture. The first is a conscious attempt to show people how the new approaches, behaviors, and attitudes have helped improve performance. Helping people see the right connections requires communication. Time was spent at every major management meeting to discuss why performance was increasing. The second factor is taking sufficient time to make sure that the next generation of top management really does personify the new approach. One bad succession decision at the top of an organization can undermine a decade of hard work. The champion for change was the retiring executive, and although his successor was not a resistor, he was not a change champion. There are still more mistakes that people make, but these eight are the big ones. In reality, even successful change efforts are messy and full of surprises. But just as a relatively simple vision is needed to guide people through a major change, so a vision of the change process can reduce the error rate. And fewer errors can spell the difference between success and failure. (Kotter, 1995) Conclusion Reengineering is a new and desirable approach to transforming organizations and improving sustainable economic development requirements. The radical improvement of business process performance through the use of innovative tools and work designs has roots in the quality movement and other approaches to operational betterment of business activities. Although the quality movement has developed the notion of processes and process improvement to a high degree, its orientation is to incremental rather than radical change, and it does not address enablers of change. Business orientation that combines process improvement and process innovation efforts is unique and uniquely relevant to sustainable development. It is in keeping with cultural leanings toward innovation and incorporates the rigor and measurement orientation found in the quality approaches of many successful firms. But because improvement and innovation are quite different, it is important to know which is pursued in a particular instance. 241 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reengineering, although difficult to achieve because of the radical nature of the organizational change involved, is a highly tempting approach to business transformation. It can be undertaken at relatively low cost, and the design, if not the implementation, of new processes can be completed in a matter of months. For these reasons, many firms in the developed countries in all industries, are embarking upon major process innovation initiatives. Reengineering is particularly challenging if the short-term sacrifices include job losses. Such consequences are sometimes not seen as proper way for achieving economic sustainability. Gaining understanding and support is tough when downsizing is a part of the vision. For this reason, successful visions usually include new growth possibilities and the commitment to treat fairly anyone who is laid off. The only constraint is that the actions fit within the broad parameters of the overall vision. The more people involved, the better the outcome. Reengineering is a particular way of using our minds, a way of radical experimentalism, of invention and reinvention, constantly checked by the realities of the bottom line. References Agenda 21 (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de Janeiro on June 14, 1992. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm Bergey, J. S. (1999). Why Reengineering Projects Fail. Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute. Business process reengineering. (2000, http://www.adi.pt/docs/innoregio_BPR-en.pdf January). Retrieved December 14, 2008. ADI Business process trends. Retrieved December 14, 2008, from: http://www.bptrends.com/ Champy, J. (2006). Reengineering Management: The Mandate for New Leadership. Collins Business. Davenport, T. &. (1990, Summer). The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign. Sloan Management Review , pp 11-27. Davenport, Thomas H. (1993). Process Innovation : Reengineering Work Through Information Technology. Harvard Business School Press. Hammer, M. (1990, Jul/Aug). Reengineering Work: Don’t automate, obliterate. Harvard Business Review , pp 104-112. Hammer, M., & Champy, J. (1993). Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution. Industry Week (1994), De-engineering the corporation, Industry Week article, 4/18/94 Kiely, T. (1995). Managing change: why reengineering projects fail. Harvard Business Review , Vol. 73 (No.2). Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review , Vol. 73 (Issue 2). Merrifield, R., Calhoun, J., & Stevens, D. (2008). The Next Revolution in Productivity. Harvard Business Review , 74. Miller, J. G. (1991). Reengineering work: who will do it? Harvard Business Review , Vol. 69 ( Issue 1). Guha, S., Kettinger, W.J. & Teng, T.C. (1993). Business Process Reengineering: Building a Comprehensive Methodology. Information Systems Management, Summer 1993. Eisner, H. (2000). Reengineering yourself and your company: from engineer to manager to leader. Artech House, London. Johansson, Henry J. (1993). Business Process Reengineering: BreakPoint Strategies for Market Dominance. John Wiley & Sons. 242 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 207 Title A name given to the resource Reengineering: Necessary Aspect of Sustainability for Organizational Development Author Author SENTURAN, Sermin HUSiĆ, Samir Abstract A summary of the resource. Most of the managers believe that they have had all the debates they need to have and that the industry will continue to exist as it has for many years. But the industry is continuously deregulated, and the business must be reconfigured in this deregulated environment? There is always a fear of unknown but organizations must evaluate their needs for changing fundamentals of the business. Companies, even those with cultures receptive to process innovation, should not expect to achieve major change without making major commitments. Successful reengineering process relies on a wide range of skills. To effect needed change, organizations must somehow mobilize sufficient technological, human and organizational, political, and process expertise with the requisite enablers. This necessarily involves assigning some of their best people, or, if the firm lacks the needed skills or methods internally, employing external consultants, to design and implement new processes. Business orientation that combines process improvement and process innovation efforts is unique and uniquely relevant to current business management. It is in keeping with cultural leanings toward innovation and incorporates the rigor and measurement orientation found in the quality approaches of many successful firms. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f5e0431dd21b9944b5f35a1d884e1253.docx fd929fa3f78ffcfe7bcd42b86bf9ce5f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3626 Title A name given to the resource Referendum kao oblik neposrednog učešća građana u vlasti i mogućnosti njegove zloupotrebe Author Author Čizmić, Mirsad Abstract A summary of the resource. Sažetak: Neposredna demokratija predstavlja učešće građana u procesima donošenja odluka od interesa za cjelokupnu društvenu zajednicu. Na taj način se najneposrednije ostvaruje volja naroda, jer rađani u cijelosti učestvuju u vršenju vlasti. Dakle, neposredna demokratija predstavlja takav oblik političke participacije građana, u kojem građani neposredno učestvuju u odlučivanju o nekom važnom pitanju u svojoj državi. Kao najpoznatiji primjeri neposredne demokratije u svijetu su prije svega referenduma, zatim zbor građana, narodna inicijativa i pravo peticije. Neki teoretičari poput Kostadinov, B. i Barić, S. smatraju da referendum kao oblik neposrednog učešća građana u vlasti, ne odražava uvijek stvarnu volju naroda, nego volju određene populacije. Zašto je to tako, vidjet ćemo u nastavku rada kroz analizu određenih slučajeva. Nadalje, iako je referendumsko odlučivanje često poželjno, jer referendumske odluke predstavljaju neposrednu volju građana, zanemaruje se činjenica da one ipak često dovode do diskriminacije određenih populacija u datoj državi, a tu se prije svega misli na manjinske skupine (skupine homoseksualne orijentacije, nacionalne manjine i slično). Pored navedenog, osnovna bit referenduma jeste da se dođe do odluke kao izbora, a ne put do nje, jer na referendumu nema mogućnosti raspravljanja o referendumskom pitanju, nema mogućnosti pribavljanja novih informacija o datom pitanju, nema mogućnosti alternative, što dovodi kasnije do problema u implementaciji referendumske odluke. Dakle, ovo su samo neka od pitanja o kojima će se raspravljati u ovom radu. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Social Sciences Research Center Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b1a3f525b270bddea9f3da9f6ad6f2fe.docx 47fdfaf08ab16977789a3f3d137b93ca https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/057c9927d5250d9f260e4d278c58b63e.pdf 00def5beaba6b642243e0330cd6bd738 PDF Text Text REFİK HALİD KARAY’IN ANA DİLİMİZ HAKKINDAKİ GÖRÜŞLERİ Ayşe YILMAZ BALKAN İstanbul Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Çağdaş Türk Lehçeleri ve Edebiyatları Bölümü, İstanbul / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Refik Halid, ana dil, tenkit, sadeleşme, mizah. ÖZET Refik Halid Karay Türkçeyi en iyi kullanan yazarlarımızdan biridir. Onun bu hususiyeti eserlerine de yansımış, yazar, ana dil hakkındaki tenkitlerini gerek roman ve hikâyeleri, gerekse hatıra, kronik ve mizah yazıları vasıtasıyla okuyucularına aktarmıştır. Bu çalışmada; Refik Halid’in Türkçenin yanlış kullanımı, dilde sadeleşme ve yeni sözcükler türetme gibi ana dilimizin geleceğini ilgilendiren mevzular hakkındaki görüşleri iki bölüm halinde incelenmiştir. Yazının birinci bölümünde yazarın romanlardaki tenkitleri dile getirilmiş, ikinci bölümde ise hatıra, kronik ve mizah yazılarındaki tenkitleri ele alınmıştır. Refik Halid gibi dili tüm zenginlikleriyle ele alan bir yazarın görüşleri pek tabii ki dikkate değerdir. Bu çalışma da bunu ortaya koymak amacıyla kaleme alınmıştır. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2225 Title A name given to the resource REFİK HALİD KARAY’IN ANA DİLİMİZ HAKKINDAKİ GÖRÜŞLERİ Author Author YILMAZ BALKAN, Ayşe Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Refik Halid, ana dil, tenkit, sadeleşme, mizah. ÖZET Refik Halid Karay Türkçeyi en iyi kullanan yazarlarımızdan biridir. Onun bu hususiyeti eserlerine de yansımış, yazar, ana dil hakkındaki tenkitlerini gerek roman ve hikâyeleri, gerekse hatıra, kronik ve mizah yazıları vasıtasıyla okuyucularına aktarmıştır. Bu çalışmada; Refik Halid’in Türkçenin yanlış kullanımı, dilde sadeleşme ve yeni sözcükler türetme gibi ana dilimizin geleceğini ilgilendiren mevzular hakkındaki görüşleri iki bölüm halinde incelenmiştir. Yazının birinci bölümünde yazarın romanlardaki tenkitleri dile getirilmiş, ikinci bölümde ise hatıra, kronik ve mizah yazılarındaki tenkitleri ele alınmıştır. Refik Halid gibi dili tüm zenginlikleriyle ele alan bir yazarın görüşleri pek tabii ki dikkate değerdir. Bu çalışma da bunu ortaya koymak amacıyla kaleme alınmıştır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548