222 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c91f0c7eb4c25c44efb93b1215302dc1.pdf 11fd7f01ac78fa3f60095d139353018c PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina nedret.becirovic@stu.ibu.edu.ba ismailbejtovic@hotmail.com jasmin.kevric@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords – cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. 1. Introduction Considering growing electrical energy consumption in the residential sector [1] and Global Warming it is noticeable that energy consumption for cooling will surpass energy consumption for heating in the foreseeable future. Heating and cooling load are two very important parameters in the efficient building design. These two parameters are closely related to the materials that the building is made of, so construction decisions made early on have a great impact on the final result. There has been a considerable body of research [2] on this field and on this dataset but with no focus on the cooling load itself. Various software for simulation of energy consumption has been used over the years often in conjunction with architectural design. Accuracy of the simulation varies often across from one software package to another [3]. Therefore this work is envisaged as an addition to the existing software solutions. It is often the case that building parameters are compared separately with cooling and heating load, and simple correlation has been sought [4]. Multiple regression analysis was very popular for prediction of energy consumption until it was proven that a simple Neural Network is much better than Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with a large database [5]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 For architects it is very important to single out and rank parameters that have the strongest impact since normality assumptions do not hold for very complicated problems. For example, glazing areas will have minimal impact on the cooling load. Surface area and overall height are parameters with strongest impact. This work is done in hope it will help future architects, energy advisors for building smart buildings and generally in the field of energy efficiency. Further studies could help with choosing suitable materials for the construction. 2. Data This study is based on UCI database made, non-gaussian dataset made by a CAD software Ecotect. Dataset represents 12 different building forms, where each form is composed of 18 building blocks of the same volume (3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5), and houses have also the same volume, which is 771.75 m3, but different height and surface area. Materials used in these 18 blocks are all contemporary and with best U-values which are well defined for walls, floors etc with variations in glazing area and orientation [2]. With twelve building forms and three glazing area variations with five glazing area distributions each, and for four orientations, (12x3x5x4) 720 building samples. 12 building types are considered without glazing but with four sides of orientation (4x12). In all it gives 768 different building types. [2] Since parameters are identified which have the strongest impact a new dataset can be constructed where some parameters can be locked in value and others can be varied. Data-mining is the identification of the parameter which has the greatest influence of the result. Statistical tools will be used tools but also inputs from builders, architects, masons etc. will give great value to the study. They can also provide knowledge of feasibility of building parameters. How much a particular building feature costs in the real world. This is a well understood, relatively large dataset with 786 buildings each having 8 parameters. This is not a skewed dataset, so this dataset is not treated as such, meaning that data were not sifted through. Some light pruning, or trimming of data is an essential part of the random and best first search methods. Data are though skewed in another way. Dataset is non-gaussian, and it is of great importance to find any bias that may have influenced the dataset using classical statistical analysis which visually gives an outlying parameter. There were not any parameters which should be given more or less weight in the neural network model. Finding a dataset of real buildings or extracting data from buildings with a great cooling load was �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 also a goal for this work. Glazing area did not have much importance in this data set for finding cooling load. New modern types of materials are changing the paradigm of the builders' philosophy and focus of this work changed back on the study of the virtual buildings i.e. our dataset. It would be best to actively follow the research on the field, particularly if there has been a report on a construction of the buildings based on research using this or a similar dataset. Dataset has been normed, quantified and classified in a very understandable and logical way by Xifara-Tsanas, (see Table 1). Table 1. Mathematical representation of the input and output variables to facilitate the presentation of the subsequent analysis and results. Mathematical Name Number of possible values x1 Relative compactnes 12 x2 Surface area 12 x3 Wall area 7 x4 Roof area 4 x5 Overall height 2 x6 Orientation 4 x7 Glazing area 4 x8 Glazing area distribution 6 y2 Cooling load 636 representation 3. Methods Classical statistical tools like histograms and scatter plots are firstly applied to dataset. Seeing the data on the graph is a great help in understanding the data. It gives the idea in which direction study has to go. Improving a model can take two different directions: make the model simpler or add complexity. Making a simpler model involves feature reduction, pruning branches and removing learners from an ensemble. Adding complexity means fine-tuning involving model-combination or adding more data sources [6]. Out of many software tools, WEKA is chosen because it is easy to use and it is easily accessible. Searching for the best computer intelligence method that is suitable for artificial dataset was the first step. Which algorithm to use is to be based on dataset form and trial and error method. Getting a good result from the start with a random forest method gave indication in which direction to go. For the analysis of the available data set, five different regression algorithms were used: �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 • Linear Regression • Random Forest • REPTree • SMOreg • Multilayer Perceptron These algorithms are recommended for these types of datasets [7]. Regression analysis was helpful to model the relationship between dependent variables (cooling load) and independent variables (8 attributes in our dataset), and because a class from a data set (cooling load) has a large number of different instances. Cross validation was used with ten folds, to get insight of how the model will behave to an unknown dataset. All of the above algorithms are regression algorithms, with the same goal, but working in different ways. Linear regression models are linear predictor functions whose model parameters are estimated from the data. Linear regression models are often fitted using the least square approach, but they may be fitted in many other ways [8]. Random forest is an ensemble method, which creates multitude of decision trees, and gives as output mean prediction of individual trees. This algorithm applies bootstrap aggregating, or bagging, to its tree learners. Compared to decision tree random forest tends to provide more accurate classification of a feature, because of the decreased bias and variance. The more decision trees are chosen the more computational power is required [9]. Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree) is a fast decision tree learner, which creates multiple trees in different iterations and selects the best one from all created trees. REPTree builds regression tree information gain and prunes it using reduced-error pruning. For numeric attributes it sorts values only once [10]. SMOreg uses a support vector machine for regression. RegSMOImproved for SMOreg are used to learn parameters, but many other algorithms can be used, like Platt’s SMO [11]. Multilayer perceptron is a class of feedforward artificial neural networks. It consists of at least three layers of nodes: an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. It is by far the most popular architecture because of its structural flexibility, good representational capabilities, and the availability of a large number of training algorithms [12]. Feature selection is a key part of the applied machine learning process, just as model selection is. Feature selection should be considered as a part of the model selection process. If not, bias can inadvertently be introduced into models and it results in overfitting. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Feature selection must be included within the inner-loop when using accuracy estimation methods such as cross-validation. This means that feature selection is performed on the prepared fold right before the model is trained [7]. Dataset used in this work is small both in number of features and samples and it does not suffer from the “curse of dimensionality” [13] p.4. Feature selection and feature extraction methods are not recommended for this type of datasets with a small number of features [13] but extracting the information about which variables are most important, is important in this type of study. Choosing this particular approach is a type of rudimentary data mining. Four attribute evaluators and two search methods combinations are used: • CfsSubsetEval and BestFirst • ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker • ClassifierSubsetEval and BestFirst • CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker CfsSubsetEval creates subsets of attributes, where predictive ability of each feature and level of redundancy is considered. Features need to be highly correlated with class and low intercorrelation. Best first search method is used with CfsSubsetEval. ClassifierAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by using a user-specified classifier. For example if we use linear regression on our dataset, linear regression needs to be chosen for the classifier attribute evaluator. Ranker search method is used with classifier attribute evaluators. Classifiersubseteval evaluates attribute subsets on training data or a separate hold out testing set. Same as classifier attribute evaluator it uses classifier to estimate how good are subsets. Bestfirst search method is used with ClassifierSubsetEval. CorrelationAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by measuring the correlation between it and the class. Each value of an attribute is treated as an indicator. Ranker method is used with CorrelationAttributeEval. Best-first search method searches the space of attribute subsets by greedy hill-climbing augmented with a backtracking facility. Bestfirst may start with the empty set of attributes and search forward, or start with the full set of attributes and search backward, or start at any point and search in both directions. Ranker search method ranks attributes by their individual evaluations, where it is used with attribute evaluators. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 4. Results and Discussion Classical statistical tools like probability distribution were used firstly in order to get the sense of the data. Table 2 represents the attribute subset evaluator used on random forests. Random forests with Classifier Subset Evaluator and Best First search method gave the best results for all the combinations. Best First search method is a heuristic or informed search; it evaluates the second step before taking the first. Then it chooses which way to go. For this combination of methods only attribute nr.2 (Surface Area), is not considered. Since the volume of the buildings is fixed it is logical that surface area has a little variation and therefore a little impact on the result. Table 2. Results for combination of random forest and search methods Random Forest Attribute Correlation Mean Root Relative Root Relative Selected Evaluator and Coefficient Absolute Mean Absolute Squared Error Attribute Error Squared Error 1.4319 2.2692 16.6687 Search Method CfsSubSetEval 0.9711 and BestFirst Classifier s 23.8241% 3, 5, 6, 7 17.1345% 1, 2, 3, 4, % 0.9582 1.0079 1.6320 AttributeEval and 11.7324 % 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker Classifier 0.959 2.0323 2.6933 AttributeEval and 23.3581 28.2775% 1, 2, 4, 5 17.0046% 1, 3, 4, 5, % Ranker ClassifierSubsetE 0.9854 0.9967 1.6196 val and BestFirst CorrelationAttrib 11.6030 % 0.9852 1.0079 1.6320 uteEval and 11.7324 6, 7, 8 17.1345% % 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker CorrelationAttrib 0.9841 uteEval and 1.0859 1.6904 12.6408 17.7479% 5, 1, 3, 7 % Ranker Relationship between the volume of a built form and the surface area of its enclosure is called compactness. Roundness is a similar feature. R. Buckminster Fuller, engineer and an architect claimed that round houses have best energy efficiency, and an attempt to extract this feature has been made, but with no results. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Surface area, attribute nr.2, directly shows compactness of the building and by similarity, roundness. Classifier attribute evaluators removed this feature and gave the best correlation coefficient meaning that compactness has no impact on cooling load. Usage of geometric compactness for such evaluative purposes is criticized on multiple grounds. It does not capture the specific morphology of the building shape, disregards transparent blocks of the structure and does not correlate with orientation att. nr. 6 [14]. High correlation coefficient with all attributes included, except for surface area finally pointed that compactness does not affect thermal load. Our model gave similar results using the same dataset as Tsanas and Xifara [2] with slightly better correlation coefficient which is shown in Table 3 for classifier attribute evaluator and ranker, in Table 4 for correlation attribute evaluator and ranker. Table 3. Ranking of attributes according to attribute evaluator and ranker ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x1 Relative compactnes 6.8134 x2 Surface area 6.8134 x4 Roof area 5.5105 x5 Overall height 5.2827 x3 Wall area 2.3935 x7 Glazing area 0.1718 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0306 Table 4. Ranking attributes according to correlation attribute evaluator and ranker CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x5 Overall height 0.8958 x1 Relative compactnes 0.6343 x3 Wall area 0.4271 x7 Glazing area 0.2075 �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0505 x6 Orientation 0.0143 x2 Surface area -0.673 x4 Roof area -0.8625 Further study is to be done with different variations of cross folds with above-mentioned algorithms. Results would be standing stronger if another dataset to test our algorithm was available. “K-nearest neighbor” algorithm gave poor results. It is a “data sensitive” algorithm, vulnerable when faced with large amounts of data. Different datasets would be a great boost to this work to test methods against them. Parameter tuning is an iterative process, and Weka makes it easy to use it, without need to understand how parameters work. Especially, when dealing with feature selection, bias can be inadvertently introduced into models as it can give unforeseen consequences, mostly overfitting [7] [15]. Numerical values calculated by software simulations, lies very closely to previous results. Close values as compared to similar studies on the same dataset is a characteristic of the machine learning scientific field and using different methods and coming to the same results is an achievement [16]. 6. Conclusion Results of the previous study were repeated [17], and further work was done with examining cooling load resulting in slightly better correlation coefficient than in article with high scientific impact [2]. Trial and error are at the core of machine learning. Choosing right algorithms is a trade-off between speed, accuracy, and complexity. Starting with simple combinations and then adding complexity is the core of dealing with machine learning while constantly having in mind what type of data is dealt with. Empirical study gives answers to what algorithm to use or what parameters to choose. Knowing beforehand what method will work best is almost impossible. Constantly iterating different combinations of similar methods with systematic workflow and using Weka is a way forward. New and easy accessible software packages makes it easier to spot and exploit new research areas, which previously were inaccessible due to low computing capability. REFERENCES �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 [1] Y-T. Chen, “The Factors Affecting Electricity Consumption and Sector – A Case of Taiwan”, 2017. [2] A. Tsanas, A. Xifara, “Accurate quantitative estimation of energy performance of residential building using statistical machine learning tools”, Science Direct, 2012, p 9. [3] A. Yezioro, “An applied artificial intelligence approach towards assessing building performance simulation tools”, Energy and Buildings, 2007, p 40. [4] T. Catalina, J. Virgone, “Cooling energy demand evaluation by means of regression models”. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference Enhanced Building Operations, New York City 2011, pp 6. [5] D. Datta, S. A. Tassou, D. Marriot, “Application of Neural Networks for the Prediction of the Energy Consumption”, 1997. [6] Mathworks, “Mastering Machine Learning: A Steb-by-Step Guide with MATLAB.” Available at: https://www.mathworks.com/campaigns/offers/mastering-machine-learning-withmatlab.confirmation.html?ab_test=b_version. [7] J. Brownlee, “Machine Learning Mastery With Weka”, Wellington: Jason Brownlee 2019. [8] X. Yan, X. Su, “Linear Regression Analysis: Theory and Computing”, World Scientific, 2009. [9] D. Natingga, “Data Science Algorithms in a Week”, 2017. [10] S. Kalmegh, “Analysis of WEKA Data Mining Algorithm REPTree, Simple Cart and RandomTree for Classification of Indian News.”, IJISET- International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology, 2015, Vol. 2 Issue 2. [11] S. K. Shevade, “Improvements to the SMO Algorithm for SVM Regression”, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 2000, vol. 11, no. 5-6. [12] P. Thomas, M. C. Suhner, “A new Multilayer Perceptron Pruning Algorithm for Classification and Regression Applications”, Neural Processing Letters, Springer Verlag, 2015, p 31. [13] M. S. Raza, U. Qamar, “Understanding and Using Rough Set Based Feature Selection – Concepts, Techniques and Applications”, Springer, 2017. [14] W. Pessenlehner, A. Mahdavi, “Building Morphology, Transparence and Energy Performance”, Eight International IBPSA Conference, Netherlands, Eindhoven, 2003. [15] M. Kosinski, Y. Wang, “Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2018. [16] J. Christian, “Statistician: Machine Learning Is Causing A Crisis in Science”, Available: https://futurism.com/machine-learning-crisis-science. [17] A. Bajek, A. Hasandić, “Energy Efficiency of the buildings.” Sarajevo: International Burch University 2017. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Author Author Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić Abstract A summary of the resource. Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords Keywords. cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021315 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e4bc501fb64bd81ce39913735223a1c.pdf 6d56c35b29faee3357ea0083e621d28d PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Abderrazak DHAOUI Department of Econometrics and Management University of Sousse, Faculty of Law Economics and Political Sciences, Tunisia abderrazak.dhaoui@fsegs.rnu.tn Fathi JOUINI Department of Econometrics and Management University of Sousse, Faculty of Law Economics and Political Sciences,Tunisia fathi.jouini@fdseps.rnu.tn Abstr ct This study seeks to explain the management entrenchment by investment of free cash flow (FCF) in research and development (R&D), debt, market structure (internal or external), the multinational nature of firms and the characteristics of the board of directors using a sample of 128 groups of French companies listed on the SBF250 between 2003 and 2008. The results show that investment in R&D helps the managers to enhance their authority with respect to the shareholders. The multinational nature of the firm exerts a significant effect on the entrenchment strategy. Manager replaces the internal capital market to the outside market to avoid scrutiny by creditors. We also find an insignificant effect exerted by the debt on the management entrenchment. Finally, we find the absence of a significant relationship between management entrenchment, as measured by discretionary accruals and seniority of the officers, and the characteristics of the board of directors. Keywords: Management entrenchment, R&D, internal market capital, governance mechanisms. Jel odes: G32, M14 Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 5 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Introduction The management entrenchment is a deliberated behavior realized by the manager considered as more informed actor which consists of serving own interests at the expense of the shareholders as less informed actors. It takes different forms. The first consists of influencing the accounting results by increasing or decreasing them according to individual needs. The second consists of increasing the specific investment to let the information asymmetry between shareholders and managers more complex, which helps these later to maintain their stations long term. The agency theory (Fama, 1980; Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Jensen and Murphy, 1990) examines this subject on the level of the agency conflicts characterizing the relationships between managers, shareholders and creditors. It insists on several control systems limiting the differences of opinions and interests. The confrontation of this theory to the entrenchment one explains why some control systems are ineffective when managers serve their own interests at the expense of shareholders. This is to say that the integration of the entrenchment theory hypotheses contributes to determine the limits of the mechanisms of control exerted on the managers to incite them to act in the interest of their principal (Alexandre and Paquerot, 2000). The analysis of the control systems exerted to influence the management behavior is essential to the comprehension of the organization’s function and its performance (Alexandre and Paquerot, 2000). However, in spite of the importance of studies realized within the framework of the independent firms, this topic remains, according to our knowledge, little explored within the framework of the companies of group such as the particular case of the multinational companies having a strong internationalized activities. The aim of this study is to identify and analyze the factors, being able to reinforce or to attenuate the discretionary behavior of the managers in order to discover the differences or the similarities of the behaviors of the managers in multinational and domestic companies as regards the entrenchment target. To reach this objective, we try to confront various theories to argue the entrenchment strategies. The diversity of ideas developed in theoretical and empirical studies shows the absence of agreement on the matter. It leads to question on the strategy and trajectories of entrenchment and on the effectiveness of the control systems imposed on the managers. Accordingly, the central question of our research: 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Up to what point can the entrenchment systems influence the effectiveness of the control imposed on the managers? To bring answers to this question, we try to investigate the managers’ discretionary behavior of 128 multinational and domestic French firms over the 2003-2009 period to identify the influences which they had to undergo by the mechanisms of control. This paper is organized as follows: in the first section we present the management entrenchment strategy and the factors influencing positively or negatively the opportunist behavior. We present in the second section the methodology and the estimated model. Results are presented and discussed in the third section. Finally, the fourth section is devoted to the conclusion. Entrenchment strategy and influences of the control systems imposed on the managers Trajectories of the management entrenchment The concept of entrenchment was developed by Shleifer and Vishny (1989). It is a strategy which focuses on the directors to increase their own utilities in their organization by increasing their private expenditure and/or the cost of their replacement. Profiting from a situation of entrenchment, the manager may, likely, decide according to his situation to benefit from his capacity in pecuniary or different other form. He can also increase his capacity to be maintained in the station longest possible or to transmit his capacity to a successor whom will have chosen (Paquerot and Chapuis, 2003). For these reasons, he develops various strategies. S/He uses the resources of his organization to invest in specific activities which increase the firm’s risk and generate a significant informational asymmetry. Accordingly, s/he increases his capacity and different advantages s/ he perceives such as the good remuneration and the security of his job (Alexandre and Paquerot 2000). Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 7 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Compared to the whole of the firm’s partners, the managers have a better access to the specific information. This latter constitutes an essential resource for the organization. It represents for the controllers a source of power (Pfeffer 1881, 1882, Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). However, the strategic state of the managers enables them to control the access to the information and to restrict its availability for the other actors in the organization. Their investment and finance policies depend on the nature of their objectives. They act in increasing the informational asymmetry towards the controllers to increase their discretionary behavior. To spur their opportunism by preparing a suitable land, they maintain various transactions with the subsidiaries such as specific investments (transactions in physical flow) or use their internal capital market (ICM) (transactions in financial flows) by transferring internal resources between the parent companies and their subsidiaries or between the subsidies themselves to finance specific and (geographically) diversified investments. These strategies help them to limit the access of the other actors in the firm to the information. This indicates that the innovation and the decentralization constitute a means to avoid the control exerted by the shareholders and other stakeholders. Stiglitz and Edlin (1992) explain how the managers can benefit from the informational asymmetry to restrict the shareholders’ control and to dissuade potential directors to postulate for the firm management. The investment policy constitutes, in this way, a notable entrenchment tool. According to Alexandre and Paquerot (2000) the increase in firm risks through a particular investment policy in the specific sectors but wellknown to the managers can eliminate potential competitors’ teams without necessary skills to a good management of the firm. The aim of the strategies adopted by the managers is to increase their discretionary behavior “using the means at their disposal, i.e. their human skills but also the firm’s assets, to neutralize the control systems and to increase the dependence of the stakeholders towards the resources which they control” (Alexandre and Paquerot, 2000; p. 9). They can also increase the informational asymmetry towards the stakeholders by investing in assets they have good know-how. This makes information more complex to apprehend for the stakeholders and the potential directors. Thus, it would be beneficial for the manager to increase the dependence of the shareholders to them in order to increase their discretionary behavior (Shleifer and Vishny, 1989; Morck, Shleifer and Vishny, 1990). They make specific transactions with the subsidies and decentralize the specific investments even this can be against the objective of maximization of the shareholders wealth. 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 The management entrenchment becomes easier once the informational asymmetry between shareholders and managers increases. Thus, the latter find advantages in investing in assets raising their discretionary. Innovation and decentralization constitute strategic tools helping managers to increase their informational asymmetry towards the shareholders. Particularly, the decentralization of the specific investment makes more difficult the control of the managers’ behavior. Geographical, linguistic and cultural disparities induce – at least - two effects: the increase in the cost of information and the decrease of their pertinence and quality. Moreover, the R&D includes large part of tacit knowledge (Grant, 1996a and b; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1997). Thus, it would be so difficult to transfer this information, which constrains the shareholders to exert their control on the managers. These investment policies (innovation and decentralization) decrease the effectiveness of the control exerted on the managers. The comprehension of their effects on the effectiveness of the modes of control and consequently on managerial behavior can be given starting from the confrontation of the contributions of the entrenchment and the agency theories. H1a: The increase in R&D facilitates the management entrenchment. H1b : The decentralization of the specific investments reinforces the managerial discretionary behavior. The managers use the free cash-flows to finance the R&D programs. This financial mode allows them to avoid the debt finance which constitutes an effective system of control. In this sense, Jensen (1986) supposes that managers can increase their wealth at the expense of the shareholders by investing the free cash-flow in specific assets and limiting their distribution as dividend. In the same idea, the entrenchment theory (Shleifer and Vishny, 1989), argues that the managers invest these funds in specific investments to increase their compensation and their private expenditure since they are related to the increase in the firm size. Thus, they take advantages using the free cash-flows to avoid the control exerted by the external market and to increase discretionary behavior in making decisions, which enables them to increase their authority towards the shareholders. Indeed, investment on the free cash-flows even in non-profitable projects increases the firm size over its optimal limit. This gives the manager more ability to increase the value of assets under their control and to constrain the control exerted by the shareholders. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 9 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Taking the predictions of the agency theory as a starting point, several studies suppose, in opposition to the pecking order theory of Myers (1984), which excessive use of internal financing is due to the agency conflicts between the managers and the creditors. Seeking to limit external control, the managers prefer internal finance compared to the debt. This helps them to protect information relating to the strategies of development of their organizations (Gertner, Robert, Scharfstein and Stein, 1994). It reinforces, also, their discretionary power and limits the control exerted by the creditors. In the absence of a bank control, the managers can make decisions serving their own interests. They benefit from the stability of the cash-flows to increase their investment in R&D. The decentralization of these investments offers them additional possibilities to improve their wealth at the expense of the shareholders. It reinforces informational asymmetry between managers and shareholders by increasing the knowledge dispersion which induces several difficulties to evaluate present and future value of the firm. H2: The presence of free-cash-flows helps manager to invest in R&D in entrenchment targets While many existing studies report that diversified firms can rely on internal capital markets that enable them to pool and reallocate corporate resources more efficiently than external market (Williamson 1975), several recent studies challenge these findings. Anxious to increase informational asymmetries towards the shareholders, the managers invest in R&D and diversify them. They benefit from the presence of the internal capital market (ICM) to transfer the financial resources from the subsidiary with excess financial resources to those having important investments in R&D. Thus, the ICM helps managers to finance the specific investments, which consequently support their entrenchment. It constitutes a fundamental financing instrument for risky investments which are rationed on the external market. Its presence reinforces the managers’ opportunism and decreases the shareholders gain. Accordingly, the transfer of resources to the subsidiary with high R&D, through the ICM is considered as induced by the objective of maximization of the managers’ wealth at the expense of the shareholders (Jian and Wong, 2003; Liu and Lu, 2004; Thomas, Herrmann and Inoue, 2004; Chang, 2003; Friedman, Johnson and Mitton, 2003). The managers can, particularly, make special transfer of resources serving their own needs (Jian and Wong, 2003 and Thomas et al., 2004). They manage to divert the firm resources to specific projects offering them more independence on the share- 10 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 holders and other external controllers using internal transfers of capital between parent companies and their subsidiaries and/or between the subsidiaries themselves (Chang, 2003; Friedman et al., 2003; Liu and Lu, 2004). This transfer of resources to the specific and geographically diversified investments helps managers to paralyze the control systems by increasing the informational asymmetry within the organization. This asymmetry contributes largely to affect the effectiveness of the control systems and prevents the controllers from applying a sanction. H3: Managers substitute their internal capital market to external market in order to avoid the control system. The agency relationship: conflict of interest which incites to develop different mechanisms of control The financial theory supposes that various modes of control can be used to force the managers to manage the firm in accordance with shareholders’ interests. The shareholders’ structure, the composition of the board of directors, the presence of institutional investors, the incentive compensation, the debt… constitute direct or indirect control systems influencing the managers’ behavior. Thus, the shareholders concentration and/or the presence of financial or institutional shareholders are supposed to have a positive influence on the firm performance. In the same way, the presence of certain administrators (financial or institutional), the part of capital held by the member of the board of directors and the recourse to external administrators more independent and more qualified than the internal ones should exert an effective control on the managers (Alexandre and Paquerot 2000). At the same, the use of debt and incentive compensation can dissuade the manager to manage the firm so as to improve its performance because they must pay future engagements towards their creditors and they have to improve their remuneration since it is indexed on the performance. However, in opposition to the agency theory which proposes various mechanisms to control the managers and to incite them to make decision improving the firm profitability, the entrenchment theory relativizes the role of these mechanisms. It supposes that they will not always be sufficient to limit the opportunistic behaviors of the managerial teams (Alexandre and Paquerot, 2000). Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 11 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Thus, the potential investors find in the development of the agency theory a whole of control systems allowing, on one hand, to discipline the managers and on the other hand, to incite them to manage the firm in accordance with their principal interests. In this design, the board of directors constitutes, according to the agency theory, the principal internal mechanism of control. The board of directors presents a specific influence on the other control systems exerted on the managers and has a significant disciplinary role dissuading the managers to act in the shareholders interest. This conception was supported theoretically by Hermalin and Weisbach (2003). They announce that the board of directors contributes to reduce the agency conflicts between the shareholders and the managers. This prediction is confirmed recently by Lefort and Urzua (2008). These authors confirm the fact that the board of directors plays a pivotal role in the management control. It constitutes a principal mechanism of control which seems to reduce the agency costs between the shareholders and the managers. Particularly three significant dimensions of the board of directors are frequently discussed in previous theoretical and empirical studies. The first is related to the size of the board (Jensen, 1993; Yermack, 1996). A big size increases the effectiveness of the control exerted by the board of directors because in such case there is high possibility to be composed by more experiments and competent members. However, the difficulties in coordinating the individual contributions, the conflicts at the time of the decision-making and the difficulties in maintaining good relations between the members as well as the high costs of communications between them seem to reduce these advantages and the effectiveness of the control exerted by the board on the managers (Lipton and Lorsh, 1992; Jensen, 1993). H4a : The larger the size of board of directors, the higher the effect on the managers’ activities. Moreover, the entrenchment theory insists particularly on a pivotal dimension: the independence of the administrators to the managers (Alexandre and Paquerot, 2000). According to Weisbach (1988) and Rosenstein and Wyatt (1997) internal administrators have more capacity to be opposed to the most contestable decisions that make the managers than it is the case of internal administrators. Their presence increases the shareholders wealth rather than reinforce the management entrenchment (Cotter, Shivdasani and Zenner, 1997; Black, Jang, and Him, 2006). 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Dahya, Dimitrov and McConnell. (2008) investigated the effectiveness of the control exerted by the board of directors. Using a panel of 799 companies in 22 countries, they conclude that the independence of the board of directors ensures an effective control on the managers. Kor and Misangyi (2008) confirmed the same result using a sample of 78 firms over the 1990-1995 period and by Lefort and Urzua (2008) using a sample of 160 Chilean Companies. More recently, several studies such as Lin, Ma and Su (2009) and Lau, Sinnadurai and Wright (2009) have confirmed the same results that independence of the boards of directors improves the effectiveness of the controls of the managers. Particularly, Chen, Dyball and Wright. (2009) confirmed this relationship using a sample of 101 Australian firms and conclude that external administrators have more capacity to control the manager when compared to internal ones. H4b : The presence of external administrators reinforces the effectiveness of the board of directors The distinction between the function of chief executive officer (COE) and the chairman of the board of directors constitutes the third dimension is considered as very important. Few studies support the idea that the duality of functions improves the firm performance (Godard and Schatt, 2000). They consider that duality facilitates the management and avoid divergence in making decisions and strategies. It leads consequently, a higher performance (Godard, 1998). Oppositely, several studies consider that duality limits the separation of the functions of decision and control. It plays against the principle of independence of the board of directors through the manager influences (Mizruchi, 1983; Patton and Baker, 1987; Daily and Dalton, 1993). However, the separation of both the function of CEO and chairman of the board limits the capacity of the manager to influence the control exerted by the administrators (Beasley and Salterio, 2001). Thus, the separation of the two functions seems to limit the discretionary behavior of the manager and to ensure the effectiveness control exerted by the board of directors (Jensen, 1993). H4c: The separation of both the function of CEO and chairman of the board of directors improves the effectiveness of the board of directors. Regarding the influence of institutional investors, schools of thought seem to be opposed. The first, represented by the holding of the agency theory, confirms the Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 13 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI hypothesis of institutional investors controllers. They contribute effectively to the control of the managers (Brickley, Lease and Smith, 1988; Barclay and Holderness, 1991; Bethel and Liebeskind, 1993; McConnell and Servaes, 1990; Mallette and Fowler (1992); Chaganti and Damanpour, 1991; Agrawal and Mandelker, 1992; like Bathala, Moon, and Rao, 1994). The importance of capital they hold gives them more authority toward the managers (Brickley and al, 1988; Pound, 1992). It incites them, in addition, to invest in manager control because they will not have the capacity to liquidate their situation easily. This control helps them to avoid the losses associated to the managers’ discretionary they can support. Moreover, the importance and the diversity of investments they carry out give them the advantage of easy access to information, which facilitated their control of managers. In this line, Alexandre and Paquerot (2000; p. 15) suppose that “the resources they hold help them to exert their control at a weaker cost than the other stakeholders. In fact, the nature of their activities and the importance of investments they carry out allow them a better access to information, which implies simultaneously a better knowledge on the performance of the companies of the sector, abundant information on the environment, a better knowledge of the management market… Moreover, they have particular skills to analyze available information about the firm and its environment. These various advantages enable them to exert their control at a weaker cost compared to individual shareholders “. The second current of thought, represented by the holding of the [Les tenants de la théorie] entrenchment theory, supports the hypothesis of institutional investors serving the managers interests. Pound (1988), Wruck (1989), Shivdasani (1993) and Slovin and Sushka (1993) argue that institutional investors have the capacity to collaborate with managers at the expense of the ordinary shareholders. Their presence limits, consequently, the effectiveness of the other mechanisms of control (Neumann and Voetmann, 1998) and encourages the management entrenchment. In fact, they can act as speculative shareholders and privilege the short-term return on the long-term (Ben M’Barek, 2003; Coffee, 1991; Stapledon, 1996; Bushee, 2001). Having such qualities, they find more advantages in collaborating with the managers rather than in investing in their control. This increases their own wealth on the shirt-term level even at the expense of the other shareholders. H5 : Institutional investors contribute to an effective control on the managers In addition, the use of the stock-options as incentive compensation is considered by the financial theory intended to incite the managers to invest in the more profitable 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 projects (Baber, Janakiraman and Kang, 1996; Kole, 1997; Hutchinson and Gul, 2004). They are intended to solve the agency conflicts by indexing the managers’ compensation on the firm performance (Caby and Hirigoyen, 2005). Thus, several studies show that the stock-options play a pivotal role in aligning the managers’ interests on those of the shareholders which reduce significantly the agency conflicts (Core and Guay, 2001; Hartzell and Starks, 2003; Yermack, 1995; Mehran, 1995; Palia, 2001). They reduce the divergence of interests between the shareholders and the managers and incite these later to make more profitable decisions. Taking the agency theory as a starting point, these studies consider that incentive compensation contributes to align the managers’ interests on those of the shareholders. It influences positively the performance since it incites the managers to make more profitable decisions (Jensen and Murphy, 1990; Murphy, 1986; Hall and Liebman, 1998). Oppositely, several studies support the predictions of the entrenchment theory and reject the assumption that incentive compensation reduces the conflicts of interest between managers and shareholders. According to Chen, Steiner and Whyte (2006) and Sullivan and Spong (2007), the stock-option can induce more risk for the shareholders on the long-term and can cause damages to their wealth. In fact, the managers try to increase the value of the stocks they hold in order to improve their compensation. This incites them to manipulate the accounting results to enhance them or to smooth their volatility in order to influence the way the potential investors perceive the future profitability and risk of the firm. This masks the real profitability and affects the firm growth since the shareholders make their decisions using bad information about accounting results. They can invest in projects increasing the failure risk or reject others more profitable considering bad information about the performance and the risk of their company. Oppositely, the managers take advantages of these manipulations when the firm profitability is low and their remuneration is based on stock-options. The increase on the firm value at a shirt-term improves their remuneration even if it affects negatively the firm value at a long-term. H6 : The remuneration by stock-options serves to align the interests of the mangers on those of the shareholders. The debt is considered in the financial literature as an external mechanism being able to dissuade the managers to make decisions maximizing the firm value (Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Jensen 1986; Denis and Denis, 1995). It contributes to reduce the Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 15 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI free cash-flows problem (Jensen, 1986) since the managers are asked to pay their engagement towards their bank which limits their discretionary power (Stulz, 1990). In fact, the creditors accept to finance only profitable projects to guarantee the refunding of their debt. They refuse, consequently, to finance specific investments since their value decreases in case of financial distress (Nekhili and Poincelot, 2000). The debt incites, therefore, the managers to invest in more profitable projects in order to avoid the disciplinary effect of the external market. However, the managers can use their investment policy to influence the capacity of the creditors to evaluate the profitability and the risk of their projects. They invest in R&D in diversified subsidiaries in order to increase informational asymmetry. In such situation, the creditors encounter serious difficulties to obtain necessary information to evaluate the profitability and risk of the investment and to control the managers. H 7: The debt exerts a significant disciplinary effect on the managers Methodology and results Sample Our sample includes 128 French firms with dimensions to index SBF 250. Since they present an atypical financial operation or that their economic operation is difficult to conceive in the reason of insufficiency of available data, certain companies such as banks, the insurance companies… are withdrawn from the initial sample. Firms are classified in multinationals and domestics. To distinguish between them, we refer to two criteria used in Doukas and Pantzalis (2003). A firm is defined as multinational when this firm reports foreign assets and foreign sales ratios of 10% or more. On the other hand, the firm is defined as domestic firm only if it reports any foreign assets and foreign sales. Using this classification rule, two groups of companies are identified: the first includes 56 domestic firms and the second includes 72 multinational firms. 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 The financial and managerial data are collected using annual reports. Collected data covers the 2003-2009 period. Our final sample consists of 128 groups over a period of 7 years (896 observations). The use of the panel data give the advantage to benefit from the both, individual and temporal dimension of the available information. Model The aim of this section is to present the relation between the management entrenchment, the investment strategies and the governance. The model giving these relationships is shown below: ENTRit =+ α 0 α1R & Dit + α 2 DECit + α 3CFit + α 4 ICM it + α 5 NADM it + α 6 EXTADit + α 7 SEPARATit + α 8 INSTITit + α 9 STOKOPit + α10 DEBTit + α11SIZEit + α12 INTit + ε it with ENTRit : the management entrenchment measured by both the discretionary accruals and the seniority of the managers of the firm i in the year t, NADMit: size of the board of directors of the firm i in the year t measured by the number of administrators, EXTADit: Independence of the board of directors measured by the number of external administrators divided by the number of all the administrators, SEPARATit: Boolean variable having the value 1 if there is separation of the function of chief executive officer and chairman of the board of directors of the firm i in the year t, and 0 otherwise, INSTITit: Boolean variable having the value 1 if there is presence of institutional investors holding more than 5% of assets of the firm i in the year t, and 0 otherwise, STOKOPit: Boolean variable having the value 1 if firm i use the stock-option as incentive compensation in the year t, and 0 otherwise, DEBTit: the debt used by the firm i in the year t measured by the financial debt divide by the total liabilities, Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 17 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI R&Dit: the R&D expenditures divided by the total net sales, DECit: Boolean variable having the value 1 if there is R&D decentralization in the firm i in the year t, and 0 otherwise, CF it: The current cash-flows are used as a indicator of the capacity of the firm to generate future cash-flows. The selected cash-flows correspond to the result before depreciation, expenses and taxes, ICMit : internal capital market measured by the volume of transactions between headquarters and their subsidiaries or between subsidiaries themselves, INTit : Boolean variable having the value 1 if the firm i is a multinational company, and 0 otherwise, SIZEit : the firm size measured by the logarithm of total assets, εit : the error term. Results and discussion The estimation of multiple regression models requires the absence of multicolinearity between the independent variables. This problem refers to a situation in which two or more explanatory variables are highly correlated. A problem of bi-variable multicolinearity arises when two independent variables are strongly correlated. Kervin (1992) estimates that a serious problem of multicolinearity arises starting from a limit of 0,7. Table 1 presents the Pearson correlation between exogenous variables appearing in our model. 18 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Table 1: Pearson correlation between independent variables size Dec Mic ebt int size 1.00 Dec 0.35 1.00 Mic -0.10 0.12 1.00 0.20 -0.15 0.00 1.00 int -0.40 -0.67 -0.04 0.18 1.00 ebt f tkopt nstit R& f -0.13 0.16 0.21 -0.28 -0.14 1.00 tkopt 0.15 0.14 0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0.05 1.00 nstit 0.21 0.44 0.06 -0.06 -0.36 0.10 0.01 1.00 R& -0.01 0.34 0.17 -0.10 -0.17 0.36 0.08 0.25 1.00 a ext a 0.02 0.10 -0.02 -0.03 -0.09 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.09 1.00 ext 0.02 0.03 0.03 -0.03 -0.01 0.02 0.07 0.05 -0.03 0.07 1.00 sepa at -0.00 0.04 -0.00 -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 -0.01 -0.01 0.01 0.11 0.08 sepa at 1.00 Results in table 1 indicate that all correlation coefficients are lower than 0,7. Consequently, we conclude the absence of bi-variable multi-colinearity. In addition, the sample combines both individual and time series data. This seems generate a risk of homogeneity on the sample which leads to bad estimators using the MCO regression. This requires some tests to identify if there is a presence of individual effects in the data and to specify in such case whether it is a fixed or a random effect. Two tests are used. The first is the test of presence of individual effect. The result is an “F-Statistic”. There is individual effect if the “p-value” is lower than the significance level (here: 10%). The second is the “Hausman” test. This later specifies the type of effect. The result is a “Chi-2” statistic which indicates that there is a random effect if the “p-value” is higher than 10% and a fixed effect otherwise. The results of the two tests are presented in table 2. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 19 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Table 2: Homogeneity and Hausman tests Models Model 1: ccruals Model 2: eniority of the manager Homogeneity (127, 752) 5.90 5.78 Hausman test Estimation Method rob > chi2(12) rob>chi2 0.0000 18.23 0.1090 GL 0.0000 19.72 0.0727 Within Results in table 2 indicate that all «p-value» of the statistics “F” are lower than 10%. Thus, we reject the hypothesis of homogeneity of the data. Moreover the Hausman test indicates for the first model (Accruals) the effectiveness of the random effect estimator. However, the estimator gives bad results if there is a strongly correlation between the errors and the explanatory variables. For this reason, it would be better to use the GLS estimator. Oppositely, the results of the “Hausman” test indicates for the second model (seniority of the manager) the effectiveness of the within operator. Table 3 presents the results of the multi-variable estimate regression for entrenchment measured by both the accruals and the seniority of the managers. Table 3: Multi-variable estimation regression result Variables endogenous ccruals (GL ) Variables exogenous oef. . R&D D M DM D R U D _cons z-statistic 0.1689 0.1091 0.6690 0.0725 -0.0008 0.0035 -0.0189 -0.4872 -0.2170 -0.0108 -0.0008 -0.0369 0.7440 Wald chi2(12) rob > chi2 Log likelihood umber of obs umber of groups bs per group: seniority of the manager (W H ) oef. . z-statistic 1.75** 0.2415 6.33*** 0.0455 31.15*** 0.6526 4.40*** 0.0424 -0.54 0.0008 0.13 -0.0340 -1.62 -0.0016 -7.23*** -0.4945 -2.45** -0.4224 -0.71 0.0038 -0.07 0.0313 -10.99*** -0.0408 14.12*** 0.8160 1499.46 R-sq: within 0.0000 (12,806) 316.5322 rob > 892 umber of obs 128 umber of groups min = 6 avg = 6.97 max = 7 bs per group: 2.29** 2.53** 26.82*** 2.09** 0.57 -1.20 -0.13 -5.63*** -5.68*** 0.24 2.45** -9.64*** 13.18*** 0.5922 97.55 0.0000 892 128 min = 6 avg = 6.95 max = 7 Significant at the level:: (***) 1% ; (**) 5% and (*) 10%. 20 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Results in table 3 indicate a positive influence of the R&D on the management entrenchment. The specific investment helps managers to improve their own returns at the expense of the shareholders and to maintain their position at long-term. They invest in R&D to escape from the control through the increase of informational asymmetry. The specificity of these investments is that they are in dependency to the managers’ private knowledge and competence. They influence, consequently, their presence in the firm at the long-term. In addition, managers may profit from the increase on R&D associate to this investment to influence the effectiveness of the control they supported by limiting the capacity of the controllers to specific information. This gives them more authority towards the shareholders and the other stakeholders. The financial intermediaries have generally different means to dissuade the managers. They have easy access to private information which offers them more authority towards the manager. Consequently, they exert an effective control. However, the managers influence the quality of the control using their investment strategy. They increase their investment in R&D to avoid the debt finance since creditors refuse to finance specific investment. In fact, there are intangible assets which can’t serve as guarantee in case of financial distress. They, also, increase the firm risk and help managers to transfer incomes from creditors to shareholders. Managers profit from this situation of less debt finance to serve their own interests at the expense of the shareholders. Giving that they are less controlled they increase their private expenditures in specific assets allowing them to be in the firm at a long-term. These results seem to confirm the prediction of Nekhili and Poincelot (2000) considering that the R&D, as risky and intangible investments, cannot be easily financed by debts. Taken together these arguments allow us to confirm our first hypothesis according to which the R&D reinforces the management entrenchment. Given that the R&D considered separately influences positively the management entrenchment, his decentralization reinforces the opportunist behavior since it generates several problem of informational asymmetry. Results in table 3, indicate a positive and significant impact of the decentralization of the R&D on both the accruals and the seniority of the managers. Managers decentralize their specific investment to decrease the effectiveness of the control. They increase the difficulty to access to private information serving to a good control because the external environment constitutes a major resource of uncertainty. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 21 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI Thus, innovation and decentralization constitute essential factors encouraging the emergence of the favorable conditions for the management entrenchment. Indeed, diversification increases organizational complexity which affects negatively the quality of available information. This indicates that innovation and diversification help manager to maximize their own interests at the expense of the development of the firm. They increase, particularly, the informational opacity which enhance the authority of the managers towards the shareholders and others controllers. Particularly, decentralization leads to more uncertainty by increasing the cultural and linguistics distance between the actors. Environmental uncertainty influences the control system and helps managers to make decisions serving their entrenchment. These arguments seem to confirm our hypothesis H1b according to which the decentralization of R&D reinforces the management entrenchment. We notice, in addition, a positive influence of the internal finance on both the accruals and the seniority of the managers. This seems to confirm our second hypothesis and the predictions of the theory of free cash-flows developed by Jensen (1986). That is to say that managers use the excess of internal resources to finance specific investment serving their own interests at the expense of the shareholders. They invest in intangible assets even they are non profitable in order to increase their discretionary behavior. The R&D generates serious problems of informational asymmetry between shareholders and managers and helps these later to entrench largely in the firm. The dependence of these investments on the managers’ knowledge and competences helps them to be maintained in their station at a long-term and/or to maximize their private expenditure. Internal finance is used by managers to avoid the disciplinary effect of the debt. This indicates a positive relationship between the internal resources and the management entrenchment. The excess in cash-flows helps managers to finance specific investment generally constrained on the external market. This helps them to increase informational asymmetry by investing in specific assets and to avoid the control of external market. We also note that the presence of the ICM reinforces the opportunistic behavior of the managers. It presents a positive impact on management entrenchment. In fact, the managers substitute their internal market to the external market in order to avoid the control exerted by this later. Secondly, the flexibility of transaction within 22 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 the ICM helps them to transfer the excess of financial resources from subsidiaries with less investment in R&D to those with high investment in order to enhance their opportunistic behavior. In other words, the internal finance of the risky investment by ICM allows the managers to improve enhance their gain at the expense of the shareholders. This result seems to be in contradiction with the prediction of Williamson (1975) according to which the IMC serves to finance the well profitable projects and to exert a significant control on the managers. Taken together, these arguments allow us to confirm the third hypothesis according to which the managers prefer the ICM to the external market in order to increase their discretionary behavior by investing in specific investment and eliminating the control of the debt. We note, Moreover, a negative relationship between the management entrenchment and the presence of institutional investors. These later, exert by comparison to their individual competitors, more effective control on the managers. They have necessary skills allowing them a better evaluation ex ante of risk and return associated to new investments and to ensure an effective control ex post on the managers. In fact, given the importance of assets they hold, the institutional investors are incited to invest in the control of the manager instead of liquidating their portfolio of assets because the sale of the blocks of stocks affects negatively their value. The high assets they hold give them, also, more authority towards the managers. These later have to manage the firm so as to improve its performance in order to avoid the possibility of massive sale of assets held by the institutional investors. In fact, the massive sale of assets decreases the stock price and affects negatively the firm performance what reduces, significantly, the managers’ gain particularly if their compensation is based on the performance. This confirms our hypothesis H 5 according to which the presence of institutional investors exerts an effective control on the managers. We note, in addition, a negative relation between the management entrenchment and the incentive compensation. This result is in accordance with our sixth hypothesis. The stock-option as incentive compensation serves to align the interest of the managers on that of their principal (shareholders). It decreases the agency conflict between shareholders and managers and incites the later to manage the firm to improve the performance. These results confirm the predictions of Caby and Hirigoyen (2005), Core and Guay (2001), Hartzell and Starks (2003) and Palia (2001). Incentive compensation constitutes, in fact, a very significant tool Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 23 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI serving to resolve the agency conflicts by punishing the deviating behavior of the managers. The shareholders are the first victims of the discretionary behaviors of the managers. Since they have not necessary skills to control the managers, the shareholders choose to align their compensation to the performance. In fact, the stock-options incite the managers to invest in more profitable and less risky project what improve the firm performance and consequently their own gain since their compensation is indexed on the performance. Results in table 3 indicate, oppositely, a non-significant relationship between the debt and the management entrenchment measured by both the discretionary accruals and the seniority of the managers. The creditors have, naturally, several means to discipline the managers. They have an easier access to private information enabling them to better control the manager. Moreover, the obligation of refunding of the debt and the interests is supposed to reduce the manager autonomy compared to the shareholders. In particular, the creditors agree to finance only profitable projects to guarantee the refunding of their debt at the date of payment. They require fixed assets as guarantees and refuse to finance the R&D investments since they are in major part intangible. Their net value asset (NVA) is very weak even null in the event of discontinuity of the business. Consequently, the creditors incur high risk when they finance these investments. Moreover, the increase in the expenditure in R&D helps the manager to increase the risk of the activity and to ensure a transfer of wealth from the creditors to the shareholders. Thus, to avoid the debt and to neutralize its disciplinary effect, the managers try to increase their investments in R&D. They also decentralize these investments to increase informational asymmetry and to incite the creditors to refuse the financing of their organizations. This strategy influences the effectiveness of the control exerted by the debt on the manager. For these reasons, the debt constitutes only marginally part in the financing of the R&D. The decentralization of these investments reinforces informational asymmetry and pushes the creditors to minimize the debt amounts. Taken together, these arguments seem to explain why the debt exerts a significant disciplinary effect on the managers. We note, moreover, the absence of a significant relation between the management entrenchment and the characteristics of the board of directors. Several arguments 24 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 can be proposed to interpret this result. Firstly, the increase in the investments in R&D restricts the access of the administrators to information and gives the managers more authority vis-à-vis the shareholders. Secondly, the high number of administrators can generate conflicts and poses a problem of coordination and several difficulties to maintain good relations between the members, which affect the quality of the control exerted by the board of directors on the managers. This leads to reject the hypotheses H4a, H4b and H4c, according to which the characteristics of the board of directors (size, independence and separation of the functions of CEO and chairman) exert an effective control on the managers. We also note a positive relationship between the multinational character of the firm and the management entrenchment as measured by the seniority of the managers. However, the impact of the multinational character on the accruals is non-significant. The leaders diversify their investment to benefit from uncertainties characterizing the external environment of their organization. The investments which they maintain abroad are difficult to control because of the cultural differences and the linguistic difficulties that may face the controllers. Moreover, the costs of transfer of knowledge increase the difficulty to access to information about foreign activities. This seems to reinforce the capacity of the managers with respect to these actors and to increase their discretionary behavior. Conclusion This study examines the effectiveness of the control system imposed on the managers by confronting the assumptions of the theories of the agency, the incentives, and the management entrenchment. The effectiveness of the control systems seems to be influenced by the deviating behavior of the managers. Their statute offers them the capacity to make decisions affecting the shareholders wealth and the effectiveness of the control exerted by these later. The innovation and the (geographically) diversification help them to influence the quality of the control exerted by the board of directors and the financial intermediaries. The investment of the additional resources in R&D in geographically diversified units increases the investment risks and the informational asymmetry toward the partners of the company. It increases, consequently, the discretionary of the manager at the expense of the shareholders and prepares to a favorable ground to their opportunistic behavior. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 25 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fathi JOUINI However, the institutional investors have necessary competences to exert a more effective control on the managers. The diversity of the investments they carry out helps them to evaluate more efficiency the position and to ensure a more effective control. The alignment of the compensation to the performance may solve the agency problems between shareholders and managers. It incites the later to make decisions which do not affect the shareholders wealth and which create more value. References Agrawal, A. and Mandelker, G. (1992). Shark Repellents and the Role of Institutional Investors in Corporate Governance. Managerial and decisions economics, 13, 15-22. Alexandre, H. and Paquérot, M. (2000). 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(1995). Do Corporation Award CEO Stock Options Effectively?. Journal of Financial Economics, 39, 237-269. Yermack, D. (1996). Higher market valuation of companies with a small board of directors. Journal of Financial Economics, 40 (2), 185-211. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1062 Title A name given to the resource R&D Investment, Governance and Management Entrenchment in French Companies Listed in SBF250 Author Author DHAOUI, Abderrazak JOUINI, Fathi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study seeks to explain the management entrenchment by investment of free cash flow (FCF) in research and development (R&D), debt, market structure (internal or external), the multinational nature of firms and the characteristics of the board of directors using a sample of 128 groups of French companies listed on the SBF250 between 2003 and 2008. The results show that investment in R&D helps the managers to enhance their authority with respect to the shareholders. The multinational nature of the firm exerts a significant effect on the entrenchment strategy. Manager replaces the internal capital market to the outside market to avoid scrutiny by creditors. We also find an insignificant effect exerted by the debt on the management entrenchment. Finally, we find the absence of a significant relationship between management entrenchment, as measured by discretionary accruals and seniority of the officers, and the characteristics of the board of directors. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/401b23bacba31f81475f84599cd1b40d.pdf dec8fc753e1cab41462a8cafb8aed7cd Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Radesso: Connecting Clients and Specialists Platform Author Author Andrei Baranov Abstract A summary of the resource. Radesso is a location-aware job-seeking platform that enables clients to publish on-site or online orders and allows workers to discover, filter, and apply to them with high geographic precision. The platform addresses the persistent struggle of finding a suitable specialist “for any life scenario” within a single environment by combining modern web UX with a rigorously engineered geospatial backend. The front end is built with React and Leaflet (Leaflet.draw over OpenStreetMap tiles), allowing workers to define one or more work areas by drawing circles, rectangles, and polygons. On the server, a NestJS, TypeORM, PostgreSQL/PostGIS stack normalizes incoming GeoJSON to SRID 4326 (WGS84) and consolidates all shapes into a canonical MultiPolygon with GiST indexing for efficient spatial queries [1]. Security is managed through a production-grade authentication subsystem, including OTP email verification, Google OAuth, and short-lived JWT access tokens (RS256/ES256) carrying a kid header mapped to a database Keystore and Signing Key tables. Refresh tokens are device-scoped, hashed, and rotated on use, while a public JWKS route exposes verification keys for third-party consumers. Role-scoped access is enforced via modular guards, with session-based authentication planned for first-party web sessions. The matching system blends relevance and fairness by combining distance containment, price fit, category/competency match, listing freshness, and Bayesian worker rating into a configurable score. The query builder pre-filters by geometry and competencies before ranking, targeting sub-500 ms feed latency under spatial indexing. A focused test suite with Jest unit tests validates token/key rotation, keystore lifecycle, query-builder filters, and geospatial utilities. Operational deployment is packaged for Dokploy (API, database, secrets) with optional Tailscale access, while OpenAPI/Swagger documentation ensures discoverability. Radesso contributes a cohesive blueprint—and a working core—for a localized job-seeking platform where workers proactively seek orders. The near-term roadmap includes reviews and appeals, enhanced admin moderation, and telemetry, positioning Radesso to evolve into a trusted, geospatially precise hub for local work. Keywords Keywords. Nest, PostgresQL, PostGIS, JWKS, React, Leaflet, job-seeking platform job-seeking platform sdp Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 923 Title A name given to the resource Raising Cultural Awareness: Comparative Study of Cultural and Traditional Elements of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Mirela, Vasic Abstract A summary of the resource. In language teaching, culture becomes the very core of language teaching. The teaching of culture has been mostly based on topics clearly identified in curricula and, further on, in the textbooks. Cultural awareness as such arises out of the language material being studied, but it is also identified and treated as a regular characteristic of the language lesson. Today, both foreign and national English language textbooks are used by English teachers in elementary schools. But, according to the Curriculum for English of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, each textbook for English language teaching at the elementary school level must consist of 30% of authentic cultural and traditional elements of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Those elements are methodologically incorporated in the textbooks in forms of reading comprehension texts, literary texts, poetry, quizzes and other language activities and exercises. The forms are constructed to develop linguistic and cultural awareness in the community in which they are produced. They can give the learners valuable insight into their own, Bosnian culture as well as to the language and form used to express that culture in English language. However, the purpose is not to, consequently, limit the knowledge and awareness of the English speaking countries’ cultures. On the contrary, they are constructed to noticeably reflect and emphasise the cultural diversities of those countries. This paper provides a comparative study of specifically constructed texts and language activities in different English language textbooks at elementary school level that reflects the culture and tradition of Bosnia and Herzegovina treated alongside with the same ones of English speaking countries. Its aim is to compare methodologies that different authors and co-authors have applied in order to fulfil the requirements of the above mentioned Curriculum. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77ed4800380fcd1890989eb81598b342.pdf 967da2fc7262e9996e4ee1499a51dbcc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Michał B. Paradowski Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw m.b.paradowski@uw.edu.pl Abstract: Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Key Words: pragmatic fluency, interface model, explication, awareness-raising, pragmatic transfer Like nature, the L1 creeps back in, however many times you throw it out with a pitch fork. (Cook, 2001: 405) Introduction It is an empirically supported psychological fact that learning invariably progresses by relating new information to the already familiar, relying on existing knowledge to facilitate new learning (e.g. Kielhôfer, 1994; that is why we learn in terms of prototypes, and that is why the uptake and use of linguistic features are highly correlated with their input frequencies; N. Ellis, 2010; see also Bowerman, 2008; Kittredge & Dell, 2008; Taylor, 2008); the inherent comparative expectations evident in the very question ―What does it look like?‖ From very early on, our brain organises our experienced and incoming information into categories (Vosniadou, 2008); the more narrow and restricted the cataloguing, the more effectual it seems to be (since broader categories make it easier to overshoot the mark; Bowerman, 2005). Meaning is constructed when the brain perceives relationships, relevant or consequential connections motivating it to focus and activate prior knowledge (Caine & Caine, 1994: 4). The very essence of learning lies not just in taking in new knowledge, but in integrating it with the already known knowledge structures, and subsequently—with time—extending it to new situations, refining its range of application, and employing it in appropriate ways. Constructing meaning involves the cognitive skills of: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ focusing; predicting; inferring connections; organizing information; generalizing; analyzing; sorting relevant and irrelevant information; evaluating; and labeling. (Jackson, 2002: 4) 910 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Even a cursory analysis of the nature of these skills and strategies will reveal that crucial to all is the ability to draw upon prior knowledge. This general truth has been incorporated in Chapter 5.1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages under the label of savoir apprendre—the ability to learn, knowledge how to learn effectively—which is recognized as part of the general (i.e. not limited to the linguistic domain only) competences of a language learner/user: In its most general sense, savoir-apprendre is the ability to observe and participate in new experiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary. (CoE, 2001: 106) This transfer of general skills is, of course, no CEF discovery. As we will learn from Coe et al. (1983), for instance, in late 1970s and early 1980s skills and strategies used when performing a listening, speaking, reading or writing activity were frequently taught through specific materials, where the students were encouraged to recognize that they already possessed skills in their L1 which they could transfer into the TL (Keddle, 2004: 45). By the same token, learners who are already bi-/multilingual are more aware of the learning and communication strategies which they had developed over time, and are able to apply these to yet another language. The familiar in FLL We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language… Language is not simply a reporting device for experience but a defining framework for it. (Benjamin Lee Whorf, 1936; cf. also 1940/56: 212) Thus, new knowledge is internalised by integrating it with the already available. The familiarity is equally vital in the process of foreign language learning (FLL). Here the familiar is, of course, the students‘ mother tongue, which is why—whether they are ordered or forbidden—they will inevitably try to explain a new L2 item to themselves and make sense of it in NL terms and comparing it with their L1, making a conscious (even if unarticulated) link to the L1, as well as fall back on translation (especially at the earlier stages of proficiency). The L2 is always mediated by the L1, a base language which the learner strives to transform, rearticulate, reformulate (Filatova, 2010), and a clear vestige of concepts from the L1 remains even in advanced L2 users (Verspoor, 2008; Lowie, Verspoor & Seton, 2010). FL learners invariably attempt to incorporate the new language in the framework of the known one; they seek a safe passage from the TL to their mother tongue. These attempts are instinctive and made irrespective of the classroom methodology employed; learners compare languages with or without being instructed to do so, as proven by experiments from various disciplines (cf. e.g. Williams & Hammarberg, 1998; Franceschini et al. 2003; de Bot, 2004). Drawing on the learner‘s L1 (or another mastered tongue) and showing comparisons and contrasts between the languages mirrors, facilitates and accelerates the processes which occur independently in his/her mind. If our learners had no benefit of having been raised in a multilingual environment, the teacher should be obliged to make them at least partially conscious of their L 1 competence through metalinguistic awareness-raising. The role of pedagogic intervention is unquestionable, as transfer of operations from the L1 to the FL usually requires correction and clarification (cf. A. A. Leontiev, 1981): the transition [from operations in the mother tongue to these used in the foreign tongue] is not automatic, and the learner will not immediately or without effort come up with the foreign equivalent to the utterance in the mother tongue, remember the rules, and successively apply them. (op. cit.: 27) Yet, paradoxically, where most teachers are more than content when their students display the ability to transfer skills or extend strategies taught to new contexts, this has seemed not to concern language instructors, with late 20th-century ELT methodology discouraging the use of the L1 in the classroom. The overwhelming majority of language course books and grammar reference materials on the market (with a few notable exceptions where contrastive grammar boxes are present) provide English-language explanations and totally ignore the relations holding between the students‘ L1 and the TL. Such mainly Euro- or Amerocentric books moulded in the generic approach are, using James‘ (1980: 24) term, ―universally valid [but] for purely commercial reasons.‖ Many students—and teachers as well—are not fully aware of the common properties of the TL and their L1, which could be beneficially put to use in the teaching and learning process. A truly pedagogical grammar should be contrastive (especially with linguistically homogeneous FL groups in mind). This entails that competence in the FL should be built by exploiting the common ground. As Singleton (2005) observed, even with the Audiolingual Method, where no occasions were provided for making semantic-associative links between L2 and L1 words, such links were undoubtedly forged anyway. This links with the observation made by Wolff (2005) that learners can only comprehend items which they can assimilate with the knowledge structures already available. Noticing Having mentioned the role of conscious processes in the internalisation of a FL one cannot but revert to the notion of noticing. In a detailed diary study of Robert Schmidt‘s (1990) 22-week stay in Brazil and his acquisition of 911 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Brazilian Portuguese over that period, the author reported his conviction that he usually noticed—and subsequently began to acquire—forms in out-of-class input only after they had been taught. Schmidt and Frota (1986) substantiate the hypothesis that in order to acquire communicative aspects of linguistic competence, the learner‘s attention must first be directed to them, causing noticing. Their (1986: 310) ―notice the gap‖ premise posits two kinds of noticing that are necessary for uptake of novel linguistic forms to occur: 1. 2. in order for the input to become intake, learners must attend to the linguistic forms and features therein; 303 in order to make progress, learners must notice the ―gap‖ between their output (their developing IL) and the input (the TL system; op. cit.: 311; Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 388); what has also been called ―matching‖ (Klein, 1986: 62) or ―cognitive comparison‖ (Ellis, 1995: 90).304 Rephrased by Lewis (1993: 154), the ―process of acquisition is best aided by making students aware of features of the target language, and, in due course, of how their production of the target language differs from its norms.‖ This important point gains validation from Sajavaara‘s (1981: 115) remark that at the onset of SLA, the learner‘s perceptual (―cue detection‖) mechanisms are tuned to the phenomena and processes available in his/her L 1, and not to picking up relevant TL features! Thus, the learner will tend to hear the TL utterances in terms of categories and structures of his/her NL, and substitute its elements for the target ones.305 This belief was reiterated by White‘s (2000: 137) assertion that the L1 functioning as an active filter may prevent aspects of L2 input from being noticed (and hence lead to fossilisation) – thus presenting an L1-mediated UG access perspective which, under this view, is practically tantamount to ―no access‖306 (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). Noticing requires the allocation of focal attention and rehearsal in short-term memory (Robinson, 1997: 225); hence, detection alone without conscious registration is not conducive to learning (Schmidt, 1993; 1994: 17). Language tasks designed with the aim of promoting noticing should make the learner devote some attention to form, and facilitate comparisons between IL output and TL models. Reformulation, where students‘ flawed performance is weighed against a well-formed exemplar and where they obtain the chance to draw conclusions and learn from the comparison is very suitable here (Piechurska-Kuciel, 1999: 18). The dictogloss, where the learners reconstruct a previously heard (or read) text is another useful task, as it helps them attend to and recognise linguistic problems (Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 373). Conscious attention also plays a role in the acquisition of TL pragmatics. Arguing that a connectionist framework is a suitable representation for such noncategorical knowledge Schmidt (1993) makes the case that conscious attention (explicit learning) is necessary to establish connections and acquire pragmatic competence in the L2, with mere exposure to pragmatically significant experience inconducive to learning. Thus, the learner should not only have a knowledge of the linguistic resources available for realising particular communicative intentions and pragmatic effects, but also knowledge of their appropriate socio-contextual use. Concentrating on foreign language learning All the aforementioned factors are particularly consequential in FL learning, where the environment differs substantially from that in SLA, rendering direct evidence inevitable. Firstly, with a limited attention span, learners happen not to pay too much heed to what is going on in the classroom, and even if they do, they focus on the 303 This is why Ellis (1989: 305) uses the term ―explicit instruction‖ interchangeably with ―external manipulation of the input‖. Widdowson (1978: 13; 1979) distinguished two kinds of rules: reference rules, in absentio, knowledge of the FL (imposed by the teacher) to which reference can be made when required, constituting the learner‘s linguistic competence, and expression rules, in presentio, assumed by the learner to be the norm in a given situation, which determines what the learner actually does with the language and allows him/her to generate linguistic behaviour meeting the communicative needs even without sufficient linguistic competence (Krzeszowski, 1977/81: 75). Consequently, with a constant deficit of reference rules, ―a learner‘s errors are evidence of success and not of failure [because it is] the consequence of success in developing context rules‖ (i.e., IL; Widdowson, 1979: 190). 305 A similar hypothesis is now being entertained in explaining the difficulty of acquiring native-like pronunciation: it is conceivable that once the child becomes accustomed to a certain range of phonemes, his/her ―mental phonetic perception grid‖ becomes filled, not allowing new forms to enter and seeking their closest retrievable equivalent for substitution. 306 Since resorting to L1 mechanisms is less costly than preserving and accessing UG once the mother tongue has been established, and in most cases it is practically impossible to determine which of the two is at play during SLA (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). 304 912 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo propositional content of the utterance rather than form (VanPatten‘s Primacy of Meaning Principle; 2004: 18) and fail to retain the structure. This is our universal propensity: we listen to language predominantly to understand the message, paying little attention to the precise wording; in Wilberg‘s (1987) words, ―we eat the sweet but discard the wrapper.‖ Secondly, while in an immersion situation learners have ample opportunity and occasions for out-of-school interaction with NSs and repeated and varied exposure to a very robust linguistic environment and will, hopefully, ultimately absorb a lot (which is why Krashen dubs natural settings ―acquisition-rich environments‖), this is not readily available in the conventional classroom (educational settings constituting an ―acquisition-poor environment‖), not least because the time factor does not allow sufficient exposure. And, thirdly, indirect linguistic evidence need not necessarily be 100% well-formed. There is one more reason why I concentrate on language learning. The critical/sensitive period hypothesis claims that after puberty a language cannot be acquired naturally. At the same time, adolescent and adult learners are already holders of a ―driving licence‖307 in one language—their NL—and will have some assumptions and expectations concerning the highway code of the TL (Łukasiewicz, 2006: 8). If we agree with Schachter that Universal Grammar only controls core linguistic competence and that the bulk of language data, ―up to two thirds of the contents of the pedagogical grammar‖ cannot fall within its scope (1996: 72), it follows that the overwhelming peripheral idiosyncrasy of language—whether in L1A, SLA, or FLL—simply has to be swotted anyway, irrespective of the age of the learner. After prolonged debate, recent research has positively settled that while teaching should not be limited to formal instruction, formal instruction should not be excluded from the language syllabus either. Without full access to UG and prolonged access to indirect positive evidence, the grammatical system of a FL will never be internalised without the compensatory remedy of formal instruction, a ―catalyser‖ in the words of Maria Dakowska (p.c., March 12 2007). The Language Interface Model ―Well,‖ said Owl, ―the customary procedure in such cases is as follows.‖ ―What does Crustimoney Proseedcake mean?‖ said Pooh. ―For I am a Bear of Very Little Brain, and long words Bother me.‖ ―It means the Thing to Do.‖ ―As long as it means that, I don‘t mind,‖ said Pooh humbly. —Alan Alexander Milne Winnie-the-Pooh (1926: Ch. 4: In Which Eeyore Loses A Tail and Pooh Finds One) This is not, however, the end of the story. The basic reason why we look for familiar orientation points and similarities when in a new situation is our natural need for safety. We feel more comfortable and at ease at home, in our district and city, than at a new venue, even though the latter may be objectively better-appointed, more attractive and safer, just because in the former we could take more things for granted that would bother us elsewhere. This is also why the target language should literally be taught in the framework of the learner‘s L1 – as in the Language Interface Model (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a), which proves appreciably more successful than other approaches, with the results and enhanced retention preserved long after the instruction period has ended. The method bases on the model of pedagogical grammar charted in Gozdawa-Gołębiowski (op. cit.: 201–9; 2003b), with a couple of minor modifications and expansions on my part. What is so new here? The model builds upon the long-known Contrastive Analysis, but in a novel, eclectic fashion, by forging an interface between the learner‘s L1 and the TL, supplemented with an explication of the underlying grammatical system, thus leading to an enhanced understanding of the ―how‘s‖ and ―why‘s‖ of the material to be mastered. But let us first delineate the modus procedendi step by step: 1. The method usually commences by initial exposure (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a: 196ff; 2003b: passim; James, 1994: 210; 1998: 261) of new language material in a natural context, accompanied by its direct translational equivalent, but without aiming at structural decomposition. Preferably—for the learner to pay 307 This knowledge of language, including some awareness of deep structure phenomena, may be called—extending Rusiecki‘s (1980) term beyond the realm of vocabulary—latent bilingualism. The learning difficulty would then be seen as lying in discovering the idiosyncratic rules whereby the L2 relates DS to SS and the phonetic representations (Zybert, 1999: 24). 913 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo attention to the relevant grammatical information given the limited capacity to process information—the context should be a short sentence, as such are easier to process than discourse (Wong, 2004: 38–42); 2. Imprinting – the same invariant sequence of words will be exposed to the learner a few more times at reasonable intervals until TL-NL meaning equivalence has been established; for instance, moving from the sentence to a passage or connected discourse (as recommended by Wong, ibid.) into which the language point has been written. The new structure is intended for holistic (gestalt) processing and easy recall; 3. Explication of how the rules of a given grammar area operate in the learners‘ steady-state L1: examining, demonstrating, and bringing to the surface relevant facts and rules in the source language that are only subconsciously known to the learners, thus leading to L1 awareness.308 That is, the learner is introduced to rules and particulars s/he intuitively knows and subconsciously applies in performance, but which s/he may have never consciously pondered upon. More attention here is being paid to higher-order rules of use than lowerorder rules of formation. Thus, the first major step is getting the learners to observe and notice patterns in their NL. This finds support e.g. in Gabryś-Barker‘s (2005) evidence that source language proficiency is influential on L2 development. Things that have once been explicated have the preponderance of not becoming obliterated and can be recalled as the need arises. This has one more advantage: we can explicate only those L1 items that are relevant to the L2, disregarding ones that may cause confusion. We should also bear in mind the fact that learners often cope with structures that are totally different from their equivalents in the students‘ native language precisely because they are so unexpected and ―bizarre‖ and stick in the memory, which can thus further enhance retention. 4. A passage is subsequently made to the explanation of relevant L2 regularities – something more novel this time, being the target proper of the instruction. Since the learners are already au fait with some representative exemplars of the construction in question, the anxiety before having to master some new principles is reduced appreciably, with the reassuring feeling of a déjà vu (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 126) or déjà entendu. What happens now is raising the learners‘ consciousness of FL features—accumulating insight into what the learners do not yet know in the FL, without necessarily directly instilling the rules (Rutherford, 1987; James, 1998: 260)—revealing the underlying TL pattern and offering a rule, but without losing sight of the L 1 principle, showing parallels between both languages. New knowledge representations are not assimilated and stored in an isolated area of the brain, but will always be related (by neural circuits or other means) to areas storing some other information – for instance, implicit L1 knowledge that has become explicated (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 123). This is necessary for making the new knowledge structures available for effective and efficient recall. Unlike in isolated item-leaning, the NL and TL facts are presented as systemically and systematically related (op. cit.: 126). Language-awareness tasks sensitize the learner to language phenomena which are present in both his/her L1 and the TL, but whose overt realization in the two languages may differ. Learners discover whether the L1 rules are operative in the L2 and vice versa (cf. Fraser‘s (2008) point that teachers expect modelling to work, while imitation without prior comparing and contrasting is by no means simple, and Paradowski‘s (2007) concise overview of comparative linguistics rationale).309 The teacher‘s task is to demonstrate to the learners through comparative analysis that they already know something which they have so far regarded as mysterious. This eases the burden and is greatly facilitative in lowering the affective filter – a factor not to be disregarded. It is essential to note at this point that at the two stages—especially at early levels of proficiency or where the subject-matter is complicated or would require the introduction of complex taxonomy otherwise—in order to maximize efficiency the explanations had preferably be formulated in the mother tongue of the learners ―as a more accessible and cost-effective alternative to the sometimes lengthy and difficult target-language explanation‖ (Ur, 1996: 17; cf. also e.g. Wilen et al. 2004, or Temple et al. 2005). Using the learner‘s L1 to provide examples and clarify explanation saves time, makes the input more comprehensible than might be possible with the ―sink-or-swim English-only approach‖ (Temple et al. 2005: 498), and relieves frustration caused by not understanding classroom instruction presented in the TL only (Balosa, 2006). Humans are limited capacity processors – when learning to drive a car, we will not be taking a turn at a busy crossroads, glancing in the rear-view mirror, keeping a 308 Language awareness means sensitisation of the learner to the functioning of a mastered language, ―an ability to contemplate metacognitively a language over which one has therefore developed a coherent and relatively stable set of intuitions: ‗ implicit knowledge that has become explicit‘‖ (James, 1994: 209; emph. added). 309 The use of mother-tongue exercises is also recommended to vividly help students realise that what works in their mother tongue may not work in the L2. 914 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo conversation going, operating the CD player, and applying mascara (the fairer sex) all at the same time, 310 unless our destination is massacre. When introducing a new concept or piece of information about the language system, care should be taken not to rock the boat too much, to ensure that the learners concentrate on the content of the rule, rather than direct all intellectual effort at painstakingly deciphering its metalinguistic wording. As a rule it is more important for the learners to understand a concept or grammar point than it is for it to be explained exclusively in the TL. A FL learner will—even at very advanced stages—still think in the L1 when performing more and less complex mental operations, such as e.g. mathematical calculations (only 23% of the full-time first-year students at the Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw who were asked by the author in an anonymous questionnaire in which language they perform simple addition, subtraction or multiplication tasks when abroad, indicated English). Similarly, many errors had better be discussed in the L1. 5. Once the relevant material has been explained, an interface—a contact area between the two language systems—is forged, usually consisting in modifying the L1 rule to accommodate relevant L2 data (GozdawaGołębiowski, 2003a: 206). This has already been advocated by Leontiev, though surprisingly the implications of the relevant passage have gone unnoticed in the literature and praxis: As teachers, our task is to ―get rid‖ of the intermediate stage as quickly as possible and to bring the psychological structure of the utterance in the foreign tongue as close as possible to that which operates in the mother tongue. This means providing the student expediently with a system of operations which will not only correspond to the real psychological structure of the speech act, and will be easy to convert and put into effect, but will also ensure maximum support from the habits for the construction of utterances in the mother tongue. … The learner should not so much be acquainted with the rules of translation from the mother tongue to the foreign one … as, more importantly, with the rules governing the transition from the speech operations of the mother tongue to those of the foreign one. (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 27; emph. added) The Language Interface Model meets this postulate successfully, allowing the language learner to link new language items with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., placing it within his/her Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1934/1962), taken to denote ―the layer of skill or knowledge… just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of coping‖ (Williams & Burden, 1997: 40); ―the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers‖ (Vygotsky, 1934/1978: 86), thus somewhat reminiscent of Krashen‘s ―i + 1‖ axiom. The rationale can be lucidly represented in the following manner: ZPD selfregulation Figure 2: The Zone of Proximal Development The inner circle of self-regulation denotes the learner‘s independent mental capabilities, e.g. strategic behaviours engaged in by learners with the aim of helping them to guide and monitor their actions when confronted with difficulty in performing a task. Beyond this area lie activities which can only be performed with external assistance. In the case of language learning, a new item can be internalized when the learner is able to connect it with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., when it lies within the person‘s idiosyncratic ZPD; any goal beyond is inaccessible (van Lier, 1996: 190–1). Naturally, with the aid of pedagogical intervention, or scaffolding, the learner‘s command and comprehension of the FL system gradually expands, s/he can carry out tasks at higher levels without the guidance of the teacher, slowly approximating to the TL system. Thus, pedagogic intervention ought to be tailored to the learner‘s needs; a postulate which logically connects with the cognitive mediation theory of Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein (Feuerstein et al. 1980), which takes the role of the mediator (teacher) to be the key factor in the process of learning, placing him/her between the learner and the material. His/her role is to select, 310 Attention may be freed up to focus on these other matters while weaving through the traffic ―non impediti ratione congitatonis‖ [unencumbered by the thought process; as goes the motto of radio show Car Talk aired from Cambridge, MA] only once the routine has been automatised. 915 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sequence, pace, frame, highlight, compare, interpret, review, break down, synthesize and present stimuli in a way most apt to facilitate optimal learning, making them both accessible and meaningful; to diagnose the learning potential and then provide support in transforming it into performance (Salo, 2006). This includes taking into account the learner‘s current knowledge and past experiences311 (which also implies the mother tongue!). Subsequent carefully monitored practice first expects the learner to apply the FL rules to L1 (!) examples. Precisely that: foreign rules are to be applied to mother-tongue texts. Focusing on the meaning and form at the same time overcomes the problem mentioned by Niżegorodcew (2005) that form-oriented input (principally morphosyntactic, as lexical and phonological feedback are typically perceived correctly; Gass, 2008) is unsuccessful if not interpreted as such (see also Gass‘ (op. cit.) observation that feedback may fail to be accurately perceived, going over the learners‘ heads); the shift of focus to the linguistic code simultaneously results in a deeper semantic processing of the message‘s content (Heine, 2008). This may look like building the L2 on the L1—which, to a certain extent, it is—but the mother tongue only acts as foundations upon which the construction proper is mounted, which with time become invisible, but remain present at all times. 6. Only then does the teaching move to more traditionally sanctioned TL exercises, but even then in a progressive, transitional fashion: the first assignments being translational equivalents of the L1 examples (in order to preserve the familiarity appeal), subsequently moving on to entirely novel ones, where the learner tackles the tasks without the aid of a déjà vu – as in real-life contexts. Thus, the tasks are sequenced by escalation of their cognitive complexity on the resource-dispersing dimension (i.e. by increasing the performative/procedural demands) from simpler ones, whose aim is to stabilise the new elements of the IL system, to pushed output, conjectured by Robinson‘s (2001, 2005, 2010) Multiple Resources Attentional Model and his extension of Cromer‘s (1974) Cognition Hypothesis to promote control and automatisation of the learner‘s existing L2 resources by directing his/her attention to aspects of the language, thereby leading to enhanced retention. 312 The resulting L1:L2 merger is expected to become automatised and—with sufficient frequency of use— proceduralised, thus conducive to accuracy-cum-fluency and compensating for the lack of native intuitions (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: passim). Additionally, such gradation of task complexity has been proven to diminish output processing anxiety (Robinson, 2010). The aim of this competence expansion stage, effected through the wisely constructed meaning-focused tasks, is making the learners collapse their already conscious knowledge of the FL system with their already explicit representations of their subconscious L1 competence and integrate the rules, ultimately expecting submersion and subconscious absorption thereof, bringing about multicompetence effects and allowing for the obliteration of the rules governing the structure of the utterance from the learner‘s conscious mind (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 23). This is consistent with James‘ (1998: 263) observation that ―explanation is, in effect, comparative description: quite simply EA [error analysis].‖ Although formula memorization poses a lighter learning burden, rule internalization is undeniably more successful. Additionally, reflection about the best way to translate conceptual content into an adequate linguistic form in the problem-solving tasks promotes a deeper semantic processing of content, as it carries the potential of consideration of the semantic relationships between the concepts, an effect intensified by switching to the FL (Heine, 2008), as in this last stage of the LIM. 311 The teacher‘s task is, therefore, also to identify how to tap into the strengths within each learner‘s repertoire as well as the weaknesses. In the Feuersteinian approach emphasis thus shifts from product to process, where developing learning strategies assumes at least as crucial importance as the subject knowledge itself, with the goal of the qualitative teacher-learner interactions to equip the latter with skills and strategies strengthening his/her personal motivation and competence to learn, thereby helping him/her move along the continuum ―from dependence on the mediator to independence from the mediator‖ (Levine, 2001: 4), when the learner has internalised the strategies taught and can apply them to contexts outside of the instructional content. Mediation can thus be seen as promoting learner autonomy, assisting him/her in the acquisition process (Williams & Burden, 1997: 67–8). 312 Basing on findings of air traffic communication studies, Robinson (p.c., March 11, 13, 2008) theorizes that gradual increase of the cognitive demands of tasks will push learners to greater accuracy and complexity in L2 production also in situations when a car driver communicates with his/her pilot over route directions. However, there are three qualitative differences between the two situations. Primo, owing to an aircraft‘s cruising speed, decisions taken on board must be made in fractions of the time available on the road, where you can slow down or even pull over (which only choppers and the Mig-21 can do in the air, and even then for but three seconds). Secundo, an airline pilot has to take the vertical dimension into account, a coordinate largely irrelevant on the ground (even in F1 racing). Tertio, the fatal risks involved in a false manoeuvre are much higher in the air, with meagre cha nces of survival. Consequently, the former situation is in itself inherently more complex, therefore requiring precision of expression as repetition and reformulation may be costly; cf. the well-known case of the Spanish passenger plane nearly shot down when the pilot‘s announcement ―Fire on board‖ was understood by the air traffic control as ―Three men on board‖, or the 2006 air crash on the Canary Islands owing to miscomprehension of the term ―at take-off‖. 916 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Results Winwood Reade is good upon the subject,‖ said Holmes. ―He remarks that, while the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any one man will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain constant. So says the statistician. —Sir Arthur Conan Doyle The Sign of the Four (1890: Ch. 10. The End of the Islander) The findings of a prolonged controlled classroom experiment indicate enhanced performance and retention in experimental population taught via the Language Interface Model over control groups even in a deferred post-test, 2 to 5 months after the instruction in the grammar areas taught was over (Paradowski, 2007: 149–200). The testing tools covered six distinct areas of English grammar, both structural and lexical in nature: articles, relative pronouns and adverbs, ―reported speech‖, preparatory ―there‖ vs. ―it‖, ―as‖ vs. ―like‖, and conditional structures (four of these, sc. articles, relativisation patterns, word order in reported questions, and existential constructions, are aspects which feature on Odlin‘s (2005) list of points whose presence or absence in the NL of the learner impinges on the success of SLA). Where raw final test data are concerned, only one CTR group failed to yield results which would be significantly below the performance of the EXP group. With the analysis shifting to analyse progress counterbalanced against a pre-test baseline, all the results prove significant. It thus seems that overall the Language Interface Method does perform its task satisfactorily, even though not many students from the treatment population declared independent attempts at metalingual reflection. Even if the effectiveness is not necessarily supreme in all areas of grammar, it is, at least, rarely significantly inferior to other methods (enjoying an average advantage of 13.1 per cent for the EXP UP progress and 21.38 per cent for the admittedly patchier EXP ADV data), and the participants‘ performance was maintained several months following the treatment; facts not to be ignored by language teachers and methodologists alike. The method seems particularly suited to teaching traditional systemic areas requiring manipulation of form (such as ―reported speech‖ and conditionals), although it also proceeds fairly well where the task merely demands the insertion of a lexical item (expletives, relativizers, and ―as‖ vs. ―like‖). One area where amelioration is clearly needed is the procedure for enhancing learners‘ awareness of the article system.313 The essential benefit of the LIM is that the results of the instruction hold when the learners have ceased receiving it for some time – a long-term pedagogical goal certainly more desirable, commendable and far-reaching than just short-term retention displayed in an immediate follow-up test. Importantly, the method turns out to be particularly successful for less-advanced learners as, despite strong correspondence between the participants‘ initial and final proficiency (r = .5356 for EXP UP and .6281 for EXP ADV), progress correlated negatively with the initial proficiency in both groups (r = -0.3907 and -0.4235, correspondingly)! Thus—barring articles—LIM appears to be more effective in helping FL learners master the relevant properties of English than other approaches. The model‘s potential Now this is not the end. This is not, even, the beginning of the end. —Winston Spencer-Churchill‘s (1942, Nov 10) speech given at Lord Mayor‘s Luncheon, Mansion House, London, in response to the Allied victory over the German Afrika Korps at the Second Battle of El Alamein The model can successfully be implemented in other fields of FL communicative competence. Thus for instance in a course on L2 writing conventions, discourse organization, structure of information and information packaging, the learners could first experimentally be taught the principles and asked to apply these in their mother tongue—say, a guided composition or two—before struggling with composing a FL text, which will probably provide several other challenges than just requiring to remember the principles that were mentioned during one or two classes at most. If the learners manage to successfully apply L2 strategies in L1 texts, thus becoming better trained in learning to ―think‖ in the way preferred in the target language, success lies within reach. By such differences I mean for instance, in terms of clause combining, the preference for coordination in English contrasted against more intensive use of subordination devices found in French, as pointed out by Chuquet and Paillard (1987), or the English preference for non-finite clauses vs. tensed ones in French, mentioned by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). 313 The findings might suggest that inasmuch as articles need to be employed in nearly every utterance, each speaker‘s idiosyncratic usage is so entrenched that it is resilient to change (the variation between the initial and final measure—per group— rarely exceeded 5 per cent in a test containing 122 gaps). It is also conceivable that where the rules of grammar may seem ephemeral, intangible or conflicting—as it may seem in many instances of article usage—participants‘ performance becomes erratic and not quite reflecting their competence. Alternatively, the weaker results over this one area of grammar might act ually validate the LIM showing that it is most effective where you have something to transfer from (rather than a functional category nonexistent in the learners‘ L1; Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c. 2007). 917 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Similarly, if not more importantly, a crucial part of expertise in ELF is ―pragmatic fluency‖ (House, 2006). The importance of developing pragmatic competence—the ability to employ TL resources in an appropriate way for particular contexts—has been ascertained in current models of communicative competence. The suggestion that contrastive analysis include a pragmalinguistic dimension is by no means new – cf. e.g. Gleason (1968), Hartmann (1977), Sajavaara (1977/81a), or Riley (1979/81). House (1997) argues that the notion of TL awareness be extended beyond aspects of the linguistic system to the communicative use of the language in context. She calls forth several enjoyable examples from both authentic interaction and role-plays between native speakers of English and German to demonstrate how not only words and idioms, but also lengthier formally analogical constructions can turn out to be deceptive faux amis, leading to inadvertent misunderstanding and irritation on the part of the interlocutor (2003:129-130). She thus emphasises the necessity of the acquisition of linguistically and culturally contrastive knowledge, of knowledge about the diversity of languages in general, and the worth of multilingualism and multiculturalism, so emphatically promoted especially in the CEF ideology. If communicative behaviour—e.g. Grice‘s (1967) conversational maxims or Lakoff‘s (1976) rules of politeness—were of universal nature across different languages (as assumed by critics of the Communicative Approach in late 1970s, cf. e.g. Mùller 1977), the universality of communicative skills and the possibility of their transfer from the L1 would void any discussion of the benefits or necessity of awareness in FLL. Yet, a succession of research studies in the last three decades indicate that communicative norms, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in certain, describable ways (House 1997:70). Thus, for instance, Brown and Lewinson‘s (1987) claims to the universality of their model of politeness quickly drew flak, especially from researchers dealing with non-western languages and cultures (e.g. Watts et al. 1992; Ide et al. 1992), who demonstrated that e.g. AngloSaxon and Japanese norms of politeness differ so profoundly that in no way can universality be invoked: the Japanese being characterised by the obligatory choice of a linguistic indicator and so-called ‗discernment‘, through which the speaker is obliged by certain social conventions to use ‗polite‘ speech, while Anglo-Saxon speakers are free in their choice of linguistic means. Further examples of this sort abound; e.g. a French compliment is never followed by an expression of thanks (a ‗Merci beaucoup‘ might sooner be interpreted as an ironic commentary; Riley 1979/81:122). Also Leech‘s (1983) Politeness Maxims cannot be taken as universal communicative principles, as demonstrated by Thomas‘ (1995) numerous examples of their culture-specific realisations. For instance the Tact Maxim, though central to western concepts of politeness in that certain speech acts such as requests or summons are customarily emasculated by a proposal of ‗optionality‘, this is not so in e.g. Chinese (Spencer-Oatey 1992). Several differences were proven even between so closely related languages and cultures as English and German, e.g. concerning the Agreement Maxim and indirectness in the realisation of various illocutionary acts (cf. e.g. House 1996a, House & Kasper 1981, 1987). Even within one language, interactive behaviour may clearly differ: Riley (1979/81:135) contends that it is the case with meetings, business negotiations, telephone calls, causal encounters and other situations on either side of the English Channel. All these and several other studies quoted in House (1997:71f.) provide evidence that norms of politeness, communicative styles and preferences vary depending on language and culture. It is therefore de rigueur for learning FL in use and for the development of communicative competence to recognise that these norms form an essential component and as such should be explicitly taught. Crucially, in Schmidt and Frota‘s (1986) ‗notice the gap‘ principle, it is not merely the linguistic forms that require attention, but also—simultaneously—the relevant contextual factors (functions) and pragmatic principles (context) regulating the application of these forms in a certain cultural macrocontext. This channelled attention brings the contextualised and regularly used forms to awareness. Schmidt (1993:31) hypothesises a close connection between noticing what is in the input—the linguistic form and its broadened context—and the corresponding intentional learning (where consciousness as ‗intentionality‘ plays a role). Thus, necessary for the acquisition of L2 pragmatic factors is directed attention to the linguistic form, its functional meaning, and the relevant contextual factors. For a thorough learning and retention of these, the learner‘s attention should be consciously directed at certain pragmatic phenomena in the input and s/he should try and analyse their meaning for deeper linguistic and conceptual generalisations. Schmidt (op. cit.:36) emphasises that FL realisations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learners, insofar as the relevant contextual factors that require attention are not self-evident (are ‗non-salient‘), or are ignored because they so inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena314. It may thus happen that the FL learner will pass years without directing his/her attention at the important pragmatic factors and realising the pragmatic differences between the L1 and the TL. Contrary to what Schmidt (ibid.) proposes, House (1997:82) argues that the fact this is not so during the acquisition of the mother tongue, when children together with lexico-grammatical competence pari passu acquire communicative competence, cannot be explained away by the positioning of a ‗Pragmatic Acquisition Device‘, whose strength weakens with age to become inert after a critical period, but it stands in direct connection with the continual effort on the part of the parents and other caretakers to explicitly teach this communicative competence. If, however, one did 314 Although consider for instance the shift from rejecting to accepting compliments, visible among young Poles (probably as yet another aspect of globalisation). 918 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo assume the existence of such a ‗PAD‘ and of an early and sustained contact with the target language and culture as a precondition for acquiring native pragmatic competence (many studies document the non-native pragmatic behaviour of advanced language learners), this would at least show that positing a NS norm for post-pubescent learners again misses the point (House & Kasper 2000:115). While mere transfer of knowledge and skills from the L1 does not warrant development of appropriate communicative competence in the L2, handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom has been proven to be conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. Thus, House calls for promoting communicative awareness, i.e. knowledge of communicative act, comprising not just the so-called ‗acts of speech‘ (e.g. apologising), but also the weaving of these acts into the whole discourse (1997:68). Equally important is the fact that this is what learners themselves appreciate. An experiment carried out by House and Kasper (1981), in which a communicative course was run in two versions, an ‗explicit‘ one raising awareness of the communicative phenomena that were being imparted, and an ‗implicit‘ one, without the benefit of metalanguage or directed attention, only increased input and practice in a wider range of scenarios, revealed that only the former corresponded with the advanced adult FL learners‘ expectations. Also Tateyama et al.‘s (1997) study of learners of Japanese confirms the hypothesis: the groups taught explicitly performed overall better, and the participants of both (explicitly and implicitly taught) declared unequivocal preference for the explicit teaching method, where forms, functions and distribution of language routines is brought to consciousness. In a longitudinal, 14-week study of two university groups in a communicative course House (1996b) investigated whether ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (appropriacy and fluency in the realisation of communicative acts) can be achieved in the FL classroom through mere provision of input coupled with intensive and extensive practice opportunities (including teacher correction; implicit course variant), or whether additional, explicit, consciousness/awareness-raising conveyance of language routines (oral explanation and detailed handouts on their form, function and distribution) and the use of metalanguage in conjunction with input and TL practice leads to improved results. An important factor in the explicit variant of the course is a contrastive juxtaposition of the norms of interaction in the L1 and the TL (cf. e.g. House 1996a, 1997). The explicitly, metapragmatically taught group superseded the other in the use of opening gambits in that they could realised a repertoire of speech acts that was richer, more varied, norm-sanctioned and interpersonally effective (i.e. referring to the interlocutor), while the group taught implicitly displayed a visible orientation at the content of the message, and less consideration of their interlocutor. However, when it came to responsive expressions, both groups displayed similar deficits (unconventional, non-customary expressions and unexpected, non-normative, minimalist ‗impolite‘ expressions). House (1997:78-80) puts forward three plausible hypotheses which can account for this lack of attestable impact of metapragmatic awareness on the improvement of responsive behavior of the learners in everyday interaction: 1. 2. 3. Through the Auto-Input Hypothesis (Sharwood-Smith 1988), which posits that raising awareness of one‘s own output is conducive to competence expansion in the FL (those learners who were regularly invited to confront their own output with metapragmatic explanations eventually displayed improved ‗pragmatic fluency‘); The underrepresentation of interpersonally focused routines in the realisation of gambits and discourse strategies could be explained through pragmatic transfer from the learners‘ L1 (German). Although pragmatic transfer occurred in routine usage of both groups, it was less pronounced in the explicit one, whose classes included the promotion of analysis and contrastive juxtaposition of the use of the routines in the L 1 and the TL. Thus, pragmatic transfer can be counteracted and reduced through directed attention at and awareness of L 2-specific routines, also in the conviction of the students themselves (House 1996b); Through cognitive overload during responding. Môhle (1994) proposed that the biggest problem for advanced adult L2 learners in the development of communicative competence and the acquisition of representations in the mental lexicon is not the representation of pragmatic and discoursal knowledge in the first place, but deficits in procedural knowledge. Thus, the deficits in response routines evidenced by House‘s learners could be accounted for by the lack of ‗control of processing‘ on their part, in the sense of Bialystok‘s (1993), i.e. underdeveloped control strategies, with whose help input must be efficiently processed and knowledge representations summoned. Such strategies are of utmost importance for the achievement of communicative competence: the provision of metapragmatic knowledge alone is insufficient; the acquisition of procedural know-how and the availability of ‗executive mechanisms‘ must come in as a prerequisite for spontaneous, ready-to-use FL communicative competence in the form of a corresponding procedural representation of means of speech. Still, the study indicated that consciousness (as ‗attention‘, ‗awareness‘, and ‗control‘) plays a judicious and beneficial role in the development of pragmatically appropriate and fluent communication in the FL, and that the provision of metapragmatic information and the raising of awareness of pragmatic and discoursal phenomena is 919 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo essential as counterpoise to transfer from the L1, as a means of acquiring a differentiated, interpersonally potent repertoire of linguistic routines, and of promoting ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (House 1997:80-81). It seems insufficient to expose FL learners to sociolinguistically appropriate varied input and to trust that pragmatic and discoursal knowledge will develop by and of itself. FL learners do not activate universally pragmatic competence or even positive L1 transfer, if these have not been taught reaching their attention and awareness. For the transmission of such knowledge a classroom setting is, according to House (op. cit.:81f.) very well suited. The importance of this area of language also gains support from other authors. In an empirical study Bardovi-Harlig and Dôrnyei (1997), for instance, reveal the difference between the role of the thus far largely neglected awareness-raising of pragmatic-discoural phenomena in the learning of ESL and EFL. Rather than these, in the latter setting, teachers and students were more cognizant of grammatical phenomena, and they evaluated grammar mistakes as more severe, which was the opposite in the case of ESL. The authors thus emphasise that, especially in the EFL context, ―awareness raising and noticing activities should supplement the introduction of pragmatically relevant input and structured L2 learning‖ (op. cit.:27). Even though this may be more difficult to implement in linguistically heterogeneous classes, with the increasing importance of ‗intercultural competence‘ House insists on bringing learners‘ awareness of linguistic and cultural similarities and differences, differences in value systems, mentalities, communicative preferences and conventions to the foreground of FL teaching. Her examples demonstrate that even in so closely related languages as English and German, the communicative styles differ markedly – to what extent would that have to be between typologically distant languages, with totally different cultural traditions to boot (2003:131)? Thus, the awareness of pragmatic and discourse phenomena in FLL should include an understanding of the contrasts and similarities in these areas between the TL and the L1 (L2, Ln…). Pragmatic competence would yield perfectly to the languageinterface rationale; an appropriate research project is being prepared in this regard. If the learners transfer pragmatic patterns anyway, let us enable them to transfer ones which will be appropriate. Moreover, research proves that the provision of explicit pragmatic information is only beneficial when it is not merely based on unreliable NS intuitions, but on the results of contrastive-pragmatic research (cf. e.g. House 1994, 1995, 1997), especially as comparison of course and authentic dialogues revealed frequently discomfittingly gross discrepancies (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991), thus once again reinforcing the contrastive rationale. Of beneficial influence on the development of communicative competence is the combination of intensive communicative practice with explicit awareness-raising, e.g. observation tasks wherein the learner‘s attention is directed at specific characteristic communicative features of interactional FL behaviour (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991; Rose 1997), especially at the pragmatic contrasts between linguistic behaviour in the L1 and the TL (House 1997:82f.). What is important, House (ibid.) emphasises, is that the pragmatic norms should merely be brought to the learners‘ awareness so that—if they so wish for themselves—they know when and how they contravene them in given circumstances, and can predict the repercussions and sanctions of such deviations; not necessarily accept and adopt these NS norms. Through awareness-raising learners should in no way be expected to become ―like the L2 NS‖; rather, they should be empowered to actively indicate their distance or proximity (consciously create their own ―sphere of interculturality,‖ Kramsch 1993), and to form their subjective decisions concerning what is appropriate for them, so that they are not forced into—as Harder (1980) aptly called them—adapted crippled ―reduced personalities,‖ desperately attempting to be like indigenous native speakers to whom they will never belong. Thus, rather than adaptation and convergence with the NS norm, the FL learner had better be conceived as someone inbetween. Such a move away from the dominating (and frustrating) norm, advocated in the previous chapter of this dissertation, is easier to effect when the learner is aware of it (House 1997:83). In this way, communicative awareness helps the learner be more efficient cognitively, more flexible socially, and more enriching personally (ibid.). 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Burden (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, Sarah & Bjôrn Hammarberg (1998) Language switches in L3 production: implications for a polyglot speaking model. Applied Linguistics 19/3: 295–333. Wolff, Dieter (2005, May 20) Integrating language and content in the classroom: the added value of CLIL. plenary paper delivered at the XVII International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition, Szczyrk. Wong, Wynne (2004) The nature of processing instruction. In VanPatten, Bill (Ed.) Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 33–63. Zybert, Jerzy (1999) Errors in Foreign Language Learning. The Case of Polish Learners of English. Warsaw: Institute of English Studies. 929 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 556 Title A name given to the resource Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Author Author Paradowski, Michał B. Abstract A summary of the resource. Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/de189359ae0a3b6b196fd90c0d9292d9.pdf 4fff8885d0e79749c91f53ad913480aa PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Ranking the Strategies of Human Resource Management During Economic Crisis Period Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Emrah Önder İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey emrah@İstanbul.edu.tr Altan Doğan İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey altandogan@gmail.com Choosing a right action in economic crisis period is a kind of multi-criteria decision making problem for human resource management. The aim of this study was to determine the precedence order of these human resource management activities including recruitment, reducing workforce, terminating contracts before they are due, stopping renewing labor contracts, outsourcing business in order to reduce workforce, using more casual workers, increasing the use of flexible working hours, freezing recruitment, expanding workforce, cutting training budget, reducing support for self-initiated study , reducing off-the-job training for middle managers, reducing off-the-job training for low managers, reducing offthe-job training for other employees, reducing on-the-job training, increasing training budget, increasing off-the-job training for middle managers, increasing off-the-job training for low managers, increasing offthe-job training for other employees, increasing on-the-job training, reducing individual performance goals, conducting appraisals more often, conducting appraisals less often, stopping conducting appraisals, rewards and compensation, freezing pay increments, increasing pay increments, reducing base pay rate, increasing base pay rate, reducing performancebased pay rate, increasing performance-based pay rate, reducing fringe benefits, reducing superannuation contributions, restructuring working hours by means of training, hiring part-time employees, freezing the wages and stopping performance-related payment, etc. The survey participants were the human resource management professionals and academicians. In analyzing the data, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) methodology was used. AHP was developed in the 1970s by Thomas Saaty is a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methodology. It has been used extensively for analyzing complex decisions. The approach 96 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo can be used to help decision-makers for prioritizing alternatives and determining the optimal alternative using pair-wise comparison judgments. AHP is a effective decision making method especially when subjectivity exists and it is very suitable to solve problems where the decision criteria can be organized in a hierarchical way into sub-criteria. The findings of previous studies about human resource management activities in economic crisis time were first identified by literature review. Human resource managers/experts expressed or defined a ranking for the attributes in terms of importance/weights. Each human resource expert is asked to fill ‘‘checked mark’’ in the 9-point scale evaluation table. The AHP allows group decision making. One of the main advantages of the AHP method is the simple structure. This paper analyzes the possible actions taken by Human Resources managers that are facing the economic crisis. Keywords: Human Resource Management, Economic Crisis, Analytic Hierarchy Process, Multi Criteria Decision Making, Ranking Strategies 97 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1547 Title A name given to the resource Ranking the Strategies of Human Resource Management During Economic Crisis Period Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Author Author ONDER, Emrah DOGAN, Altan Abstract A summary of the resource. Choosing a right action in economic crisis period is a kind of multi-criteria decision making problem for human resource management. The aim of this study was to determine the precedence order of these human resource management activities including recruitment, reducing workforce, terminating contracts before they are due, stopping renewing labor contracts, outsourcing business in order to reduce workforce, using more casual workers, increasing the use of flexible working hours, freezing recruitment, expanding workforce, cutting training budget, reducing support for self-initiated study , reducing off-the-job training for middle managers, reducing off-the-job training for low managers, reducing offthe- job training for other employees, reducing on-the-job training, increasing training budget, increasing off-the-job training for middle managers, increasing off-the-job training for low managers, increasing offthe- job training for other employees, increasing on-the-job training, reducing individual performance goals, conducting appraisals more often, conducting appraisals less often, stopping conducting appraisals, rewards and compensation, freezing pay increments, increasing pay increments, reducing base pay rate, increasing base pay rate, reducing performancebased pay rate, increasing performance-based pay rate, reducing fringe benefits, reducing superannuation contributions, restructuring working hours by means of training, hiring part-time employees, freezing the wages and stopping performance-related payment, etc. The survey participants were the human resource management professionals and academicians. In analyzing the data, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) methodology was used. AHP was developed in the 1970s by Thomas Saaty is a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methodology. It has been used extensively for analyzing complex decisions. The approach can be used to help decision-makers for prioritizing alternatives and determining the optimal alternative using pair-wise comparison judgments. AHP is a effective decision making method especially when subjectivity exists and it is very suitable to solve problems where the decision criteria can be organized in a hierarchical way into sub-criteria. The findings of previous studies about human resource management activities in economic crisis time were first identified by literature review. Human resource managers/experts expressed or defined a ranking for the attributes in terms of importance/weights. Each human resource expert is asked to fill ‘‘checked mark’’ in the 9-point scale evaluation table. The AHP allows group decision making. One of the main advantages of the AHP method is the simple structure. This paper analyzes the possible actions taken by Human Resources managers that are facing the economic crisis. Keywords: Human Resource Management, Economic Crisis, Analytic Hierarchy Process, Multi Criteria Decision Making, Ranking Strategies Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/28ab52fc0371300d970be239dea6c7bc.pdf 3a78b76c8deab17f9eb860d878b519dc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Ph.D Etrabe GUL QAFQAZ UNĠVERSĠTY PEDAGOGY FACULTY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLĠSH LANGUAGE AND LĠTERATURE etrabegulus@hotmail.com Azerbaijan / Baki The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Key Words: Rasul Rza, innovator, Azerbaijani literature, blank verse, elements of poetry One of the outstanding poets of the 20th century - Rasul Rza(1910-1981) infused a fresh spirit into the modern Azerbaijani poetry thus winning the repute as an innovative poet. The poet began publishing his works from 1927. His first poems were published in newspapers and magazines (―The Young Worker‖, ―Hujum‖, ―Revolution and Culture‖, etc.). In the late 1920s-1930s he wrote about the International struggle against fascism and colonialism. In the early 30s of the 20th century he wrote the anti-fascist poems ―The Women‖, ―Chinar‖, ―Germany‖, ―Madrid‖, etc. He got responsive on the Soviet-Germany war of 1941- 45 years by the books of poems and stories: ―Immortal Heroes‖, ―Rage and Love‖. From the 50s philosophic grounds prevailed in Rasul Rza‘s creative palette. Rasul Rza who is distinguished for his distinctive poetic realm, peculiar way of expression in the enrichment of our modern poetry, thus bringing a new breath to this poetry, stands in the most successful line of the world poetry owing to his blank verses. It should also be noted that the trend of ―blank verse‖ which triggered a number of constructive debates appeared through the program of updating the national poetry, raising it to the level of modern culture of literary thought. ―In the second half of the 1920s the blank verse found its reflection mostly in Mikayil Rafili‘s works. M.Rafili associated the blank verse with the confirmation of a new idea, a new individual, and characterized it as quite a new poetic form harmonizing with time‖ (10, 106-107). Rasul Rza‘s wide-ranging realm of poetry has an impact of lyrics with a plot. The great poet‘s poems perfect both for their content and from the literary point of view as well as his poems which seem relatively ordinary can arouse very gentle feelings in their readers. For, being a personality 451 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo with gentle, tender feelings by nature, R. Rza liked traveling to far away countries. He had been to the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, and put down what he had seen. Thus appeared his various, interesting poems related to France, Algeria, Iraq. From this point of view, his poem ―The White Elephant‖ is interesting and characteristic. The first lines of the poem do not draw attention, but reading further one experiences a painful feeling in the heart. The tears of wistfulness shed from the eyes of a rare white elephant imprisoned in a cage shake the hearts. The poet, who describes the agonies of a caged life and imprisonment in the example of an elephant, also expresses in simple words, but very gently, at the same time philosophically the advantages of a day‘s freedom over the life behind iron bars for a hundred years. This literary piece of the poet was translated into English by Margaret Wettlin. A brief extract can give you an idea of the poem: I first saw him one hot noon in Ragoon alone white elephant in an iron cage of many colors and close-set bars. His eyes were black stars in a milky sky. He might have been any age. He looked at me as if suddenly he would begin to cry… Elephants are long lived, they say. Poor white elephant Why should you live to old age in this many – coloured, close-barred cage? Poor white elephant! Poor white elephant! (7, 46) In this small piece of his poetry Rasul Rza rings a march of uprising against those who suppress freedom and try to keep it within iron cages in the example of the rare elephant that once used to live a free life, but now is imprisoned. What is the sense of living such a long life in the cage? - he says. Rasul Rza, whose poems were published in Canada several times, has earned the love of the Anglophones, and his poems have been estimated as the most valuable example of modern world poetry. It is obvious from the articles related to those poems published in 1965 that the readers in Canada and the USA loved them judging from the way Dyson Carter, the editor-in-chief of the journal ―Northern neighbours‖, not very fond of poetry in general, described Rasul Rza‘s poetry as the outcome of a sincere and pleasant impression. As noted by the researcher N.Akhundov, ―the press of the Western hemisphere estimates R.Rza‘s poems as a new discovery, a strong literary and aesthetic means expressing artfully the feelings and emotions of modern people on an international scale‖ (6, 75). Rasul Rza‘s works were translated in Albania, Cuba, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and tens of other foreign countries, and the journal ―Tulu‖ printed by the Information Agency in the city of Karachi presented the translation of some of his poems as well as some information about his literary heritage. All this is the reflection of an extreme love to this great man of literature with rich and multi-colored literary creativity not only within our country but also beyond its boundaries. While one reason for such a strong interest in R.Rza‘s poetry is connected with the deep humanism of his creative activity, the other important reason is in his search of a system of forms and new characters reflecting the development of modern world more realistically and righteously (3, 220). For Rasul Rza‘s poetry is the achievement of the man of art who completely meets the standards of modern period, serves the enrichment of people‘s mode of thinking, and creates a new school. The Canadian people received Rasul Rza‘s poems with great love and excitement. This feeling and excitement is obvious even from the letter sent to our poet. According to the Canadian journal ―Northern Neighbours‖ published in English, Rasul Rza‘s poetry leans against the outstanding man of art with deep philosophic thinking who creates a literary chronicle and poetic map of life‖ (2, 47). It would be considered no exaggeration, if we call the Earth, the humanity as the main subject of R.Rza‘s poetry. The humanity‘s joy, sorrow, challenges, wishes, and beliefs make the poet think deeply. Freedom – the humanity‘s belief of light, love of life, last hope – is the exclamation mark of R.Rza‘s poetry. As a poet perceiving, realizing the essence of life developments profoundly and capable of transforming the important political events of the period into the materials of poetry courageously, R.Rza has reflected all this in his Oriental poetic series more vividly. According to Arif Abdullazadeh, who analyses and estimates R.Rza‘s creative activity stage by stage, ―Great universal senses and patriotic feelings put together in a small poem acquire great importance in R.Rza‘s creative activity. In this very sense , he enjoys quite an independent position in the Azerbaijani poetry‖ (3, 117). Rasul Rza‘s poetic realm with a very wide circle of themes is always concerned, is always alarmed. 452 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Rasul Rza‘s poetry is a rich and profound poetic sample with its own structural peculiarities, form and shape, alongside with its completeness of content and idea, progressive philosophic spirit, artistic expression and poeticism of thought‖ (1, 195). Rasul Rza was an extremely sensitive and touchy poet. In his lines he succeeded to create the picture once created by the most famous artists. Hence the poetic power of Rasul Rza who created his magnificent works in the form of blank verse and developed in this form of poetry, (one can dare say) who was able to express in an artistic and polished way what no other poet managed to say in our contemporary poetry, who succeeded to see and describe in a heavenly inspiration things unimaginable and hard to be noticed. Many of our poets have tried this form of poetry; however Rasul Rza‘s peak remains unattained yet. It is not a mere coincidence that the outstanding critic A.Nazim considered the blank verse as a literary phenomenon possessing the potentials of expressing the content of the period, when summarizing its peculiarities, ideational direction, aesthetic sources and providing its true definition (4, 6-7). As R.Rza‘s creative activity is targeted at realizing the world with its entirety and grasping it with its rich colors and shades, the roots of his poetry are nourished by the wonders of the world. Above all, it is a human being that makes him think. It is the love to man that throws light upon every line of his poetry. Hence the main purpose of his creative activity. According to the poet, who wishes for everyone to have their soul‘s eye in his poem ―The Third Eye‖, having a pair of eyes is a means for people to see very ordinary things. The real eye is the soul‘s eye. The absence of the soul‘s eye means ―deprivation from everything, being blind in soul, losing emotions and thoughts, losing the existence‖ (9, 133). Great man of art Rasul Rza is a philosophic poet, a powerful poet, who always makes one think, sometimes hides his idea in covert senses artistically and induces his reader to read him repeatedly in order to understand him. When speaking about the philosophic nature in Rasul Rza‘s creative activity, one remembers the series ―The Colours‖. Since Rasul Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖ is the peak of intellectual poetry in the Azerbaijani literature. He shows not only the poetic image of colours but also their social and political colour. The colours created by Rasul Rza in his poetry are absolutely impossible on canvas. No matter how talented the artist may be, he can‘t manage it. Every line in ―The Colours‖ carries some poetic function. It would be very appropriate to consider an extract from the poem: White, black, yellow, green, red, All of them are connected in some experiment. One of them reminds us of our longing, One of our trouble, another of our wish. Each of them hides some meaning, Each of them has some reason for its colour… . Or another extract from the poem ―Turquoise‖: The pain of love left in memories. The charm of the sea. The light of the lamp with a green lampshade that falls into a blue wall. The longing of a poor girl's fingers. Jafar Jabbarli's Baku. Only two eyes in the entire world. It is not enough to estimate these poetic series of the 1960s simply as a modern poem, there is a process of realizing life in them. There is a mode of approaching life philosophically here. As noted also by many researchers, ―The Colours‖ has a function of penetrating from the surface of the things, events into their inside, uncovering the invisible features of those things and events through their visible features known to us. Owing to R.Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖, the innovatory inclinations in the contemporary Azerbaijani poetry got ever stronger. Among the poems R. Rza wrote until 1980 there are many pieces which continue ―The Colours‖. His poem ―Time‖ is one of them. Time is the moment when youth symbolizing the ardent passion stands face to face with the depressed and weary old age in the paths of life. What artistic and incomparable words does the poet use when describing the early periods and the last moments of life! R.Rza‘s poetry is the poetry that has brought ―a substantial and perfect form, fine, attractive puns (cinas), original, unparalleled rhymes, rhythms, harmony‖ (5, 79) to our contemporary poetry. In the 1960s the modern poetry made just an impression of an experiment in the panorama of the Azerbaijani poetry, and thus resistance against it was natural. The reading public was not ready to accept such kind of poems yet; however, to cease that process and to prevent it were beyond one‘s power. The first 453 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Azerbaijani modernists themselves were not concerned with the results of this process. They were trying either to escape the tight cage of the traditional poetry as much as possible or create innovations within the traditional poetry. To review the path made by the modernist poem in the Azerbaijani poetry, we can say that in the Azerbaijani literary environment modern poems had a secondary place compared to traditional poems. Firstly, the foundations of the traditional poetry were very strong, from the point of view of wide audience it had earned a firm support; secondly, the defenders of the traditional poetry were eager to prove its advantage over the modernist poetry by all means, and most of the time managed it. Despite some obstacles, modernist poems turned into one of the stylistic trends of our poetry; and certainly, the supporters of the traditional poetry could not prevent this trend, and the Azerbaijani poetry could not be isolated from the world poetry. One can proudly say that the name of the Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza is on the same list with such universal poets as W.Witman, E.Verkhara, V.Nezval, N.Hikmat, P.Neruda who are creators of blank verse in the world literature. REFERENCES Abdullazadeh A. ―Uncommon individuality of a poet‖. Baki , Azerneshr, 1990. Abdullazadeh Arif. ―60s years as a turning point of Rasul Rza`s creativity‖, Azerneshr, 1990 Akhundov N., Azerbaijan Soviet Literature Abroad ―Yazichi‖, 1987. Ali Nazim . ‖We drink the Sun- turn into the Sun‖, Marif ve medeniyet. Baki, 1929. Efendiyev Asif. Poem and tradition (Responsibility of wisdom). Baki, Genjlik, 1976. Northern neighbours – Canada, 1967. Rasul Rza. On a Sguare in Algiers. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets), Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Rasul Rza. White elephant. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets). Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Seyidov Yusif. ―Poems with spirit‖. Literary criticism and language. Yazichi, 1986. Zeynalli A., Salmanov Sh.,‖Literature in modern period‖. Poetry, History of Azerbaijani Literature: 2 vol., Baki: Azerb.SSR AS., Neshriyat, 1967. 454 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 67 Title A name given to the resource RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Author Author GUL, Etrabe Abstract A summary of the resource. The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d3a807d8c12cc0fbd6c52cd03f7b04aa.docx 3c83bd28bcd38a9bf730d3f35eb9f67b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5abbc83e0ffd7aec83d445d36a38285e.pdf baed126c54e667802a09d74f264da770 PDF Text Text Autor: Nerma Halilović – Kibrić, MA Institucija: Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije Univerziteta u Sarajevu (asistent pri katedri sigurnosnih studija) E-mail: nhalilovic@fkn.unsa.ba RAZVOJ SIGURNOSNE POLITIKE BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE U SVJETLU EUROATLANSKIH INTEGRACIJA Sažetak Jedan od najvećih problema u Bosni i Hercegovini, od samog potpisivanja Dejtonskog sporazuma, predstavlja stvaranje zajedničkog odbrambeno - sigurnosnog sistema, a samim tim i donošenja i uspostavljanja zajedničke sigurnosne politike Bosne i Hercegovine. Problem leži u tome što Bosna i Hercegovina još uvijek nema zaokružen sistem nacionalne (državne) sigurnosti, što proističe iz oslikavanja državne strukture i na sigurnosni sektor. Akt o sigurnosnoj politici je osnov kako za prevenciju tako i represiju modernih sigurnosnih izazova svake demokratske države. Prethodno navedene značajke je moguće posmatrati kao jasan indikator da istraživanje njegove preduge izrade i usvajanje uz političke kompromise, koja je itekako nedopustiva, ima naučnu, stručnu, ali i društvenu opravdanost. Jedno od rješenja koje se nameće, ali lahko ne ostvaruje, su evropske integracije koje bi značile usklađivanje svih zakonskih akata sa evropskim, i poštivanje principa Evropske unije. S tim u vezi, ovaj rad neposredno tretira negativne, ali i pozitivne aspekte razvoja sigurnosne politike Bosna i Hercegovina na putu ka euroatlanskim integracijama. Ključne riječi: sigurnosna politika, euroatlanske integracije, sigurnost �1. Uvod Bosna i Hercegovina još uvijek nema zaokružen sistem nacionalne (državne) sigurnosti, što je prouzrokovalo odlaganje donošenja najvažnijeg akta iz domena sigurnosti jedne demokratske zemlje, Dokumenta o sigurnosnoj politici Bosne i Hercegovine. Jedan od najvećih problema koje država Bosna i Hercegovina ima je „zamršena“ struktura vlasti, te proces tranzicije iz kojeg nastoji da “ispliva” već punih dvadeset godina. Bosna i Hercegovina kao pre-demokratska država koja se nalazi u procesu tranzicije, sa svim unutrašnjim protivrječnostima političke, etničke, ekonomske, kulturne i druge naravi, nastoji oblikovati novi model razvoja demokratije i njenih institucija, primjereno razvoju svih savremenih civilizacijskih društava (Ahic, 2004, p. 358). Dakle, traži se takva priroda transformacije koja treba dati odgovarajući okvir u iznalaženju najoptimalnijih rješenja i objektivnom sagledavanju svih zapreka različitog karaktera i intenziteta koje još uvijek opterećuju bosansko-hercegovačku društvenu zbilju. Afirmacija i brisanje razlika prošlosti između građana i naroda Bosna i Hercegovina, ujedno je i put za reafirmaciju svih demokratskih načela koje daju važan poticaj stabilnosti političkog sistema u Bosna i Hercegovina, jer, niti jedan politički sistem ne može egzistirati ukoliko on u kontinuitetu ispoljava nestabilne sigurnosne tendencije koje dovode u pitanje osnovne vrijednosti društva. Euroatlanske intergacije nameću nam niz potrebnih izmjena u svim sferama društva, kako bi Bosna i Hercegovina postala dio jedne velike zajednice, čime bi joj se pružile različite mogućnosti razvoja, ali i svojevrsna zaštita svih društvenih i državnih vrijednosti. Svi unutrašnji problemi s kojima se Bosna i Hercegovina susreće, čine je nepouzdanim sigurnosnim subjektom međunarodnih odnosa. Na osnovu navedenog može se zaključiti da kreiranje politike sigurnosti postaje veliki izvor utjecajnih varijabli u odnosu prema problemima same nacionalne sigurnosti (Buzan, 1983, p. 4). Zbog toga se kao jedino rješenje nameće stvaranje kvalitetne i efikasne politike sigurnosti, koja će dovesti do stvaranja povoljne klime za napredak Bosne i Hercegovine na putu ka Europskoj uniji. 2. Šta je sigurnosna politika? Šta je ustvari sigurnosna politika? Kako je definiramo? Najbolji način bi bio rastavljanje pojma na dva iznimno važna elementa i njihovo definisanje. Prvi pojam bi bio sigurnost. Međutim, pojedini autori smatraju da je sigurnost jako teško definirati. Morgan (1992, p. 466) kaže da postoje velike teškoće u definiranju pojma sigurnosti. Na sličan način Buzan (1992, p. 16) zaključuje da priroda sigurnosti sprječava pronalaženje definicije sigurnosti s kojom bi se svi slagali. Međutim, iako postoje teškoće u definisanju, pojam sigurnosti Abazović (2012, p. 27) definira kao stanje u kome je obezbjeđen uravnotežen psihički, duhovni, materijalni i društveni opstanak pojedinca, društvenih grupa sa drugim pojedincima, društvenim grupama i prirodom. Dok je s druge strane prema studiji UN-a o sigurnosti (1986), sigurnost stanje u kojem države smatraju da nema opasnosti od vojnog napada, političkog pritiska ili ekonomske prisile, tako da mogu da se slobodno razvijaju i napreduju. Prema poznatom američkom psihologu Maslowu (1962), primarne biološke potrebe ili fiziološke potrebe organizma, najvažnije su, najosnovnije i najjače od svih ljudskih potreba. Nezadovoljavanje tih potreba dovodi do smrti organizma. Odmah poslije osnovnih bioloških potreba, slijedi potreba za sigurnošću, kao temeljna psihološka potreba. To je potreba za stalnošću, redom, poretkom, strukturom, potreba za predvidljivošću događaja u bližoj ili daljnjoj budućnosti. Tek kada su zadovoljene ove prve dvije potrebe, moguće je ispuniti i one iduće u hijerarhiji potreba, kao što su potreba za pripadanjem i ljubavlju, potreba za poštovanjem i samopoštovanjem, potreba za samoostvarenjem itd. Upravo zbog toga se nameće potreba da se sigurnost razmatra, te da se na kvalitetan način izrade politike koje će dati odgovor na pitanja zaštite interesa i prioriteta građana, konkretnog društva i države u cjelini. S druge strane, pojam politike se definira na različite načine. U pojedinim jezicima, kulturama i ideologijama ima još više pridodatih značenja. Prvo i najviše upotrebljavano značenje je praktično. Pod politikom se podrazumijeva program ili smjer određenih aktivnosti ili težnji, odnosno, skup sredstava i ciljeva. Po drugom, uobičajenom značenju, politika podrazumijeva više ili manje usklađen ili racionalan skup iskazanih interesa, shvatanja ili ideala. U nekim jezicima postoje i posebni termini za oba navedena �pojma politike. Na primjer, u engleskom jeziku se upotrebljavaju termini police i politices. U većini savremenih svjetskih jezika ista riječ politika sadrži oba značenja. Pod pojmom politika najčešće se misli na njeno prvo značenje: politika je, dakle, usmjeravanje društvenog kretanja u određenom pravcu. U skladu sa prethodno navedenim definicijama, sigurnosna politika treba dati odgovore na pitanja zaštite interesa i prioriteta grđana, konkretnog društva i države u cjelini od vanjskih i unutrašnjih prijetnji bilo koje vrste predvidjeti političke, ekonomske i vojne mjere u tom smislu (Abazović, 2012, p. 34). Pod ovim se podrazumijeva da se konstantno mora vršiti analiza sigurnosnog okruženja, te iznalaziti načini za djelovanje. Sigurnosna politika je okvirni kompleks mjera i aktivnosti na političkom, ekonomskom, socijalnom, sigurnosnom, odbrambenom planu kao i drugim oblastima koje su donesene u skladu sa naučno-stručnom analizom izvora ugroženosti, a koje se provode putem legitimnih instrumenata države koja poštuju načela ustavnosti i zakonitosti, a sve u cilju zaštite vanjske i unutrašnje sigurnosti demokratskog društva (Masleša, 2001). Sigurnosna politika je u suštini set mjera i aktivnosti kojima se procjenjuju izvori ugroženosti iz svih oblasti jednog demokratskog društva, a sve u cilju zaštite tog društva. U provođenju sigurnosne politike ima više konstanti. Među prvima diferencira se procjena prijetnje i rizika sigurnosti. To podrazumijeva usmjeravanje pažnje na moguće tendencije u sferama (Hensen, 2000): unutrašnjih konflikata po bilo kojem osnovu; nasilne promjene međunarodno priznatih granica; eventualne ekspanzije etničkog ili religijskog ekstremizma; nasilne promjene unutrašnjeg ustavom utvrđenog poretka; organiziranog kriminala; proliferacije; trgovine ljudima; ilegalnih migracija; terorizma; razvoja i transfera oružja za masovno uništenje; socijalnih problema; masovnih rušilačkog nemira; zagađenja okoliša i dr. 3. Proces donošenja siugurnosne politike Bosne i Hercegovine Prilikom izrade sigurnosne politike jedne države, prije svega je potrebno da se identificiraju prijetnje. Stvarne prijetnje se ne mogu mjeriti, što predstavlja veliki problem. Ukoliko se nešto identificira kao prijetnja, a da to zapravo nije, može rezultirati poremećajima u društvu, s druge strane, ukoliko se neko pitanje ne kvalificira kao prijetnja to može umanjiti mogućnost da se na vrijeme izvrše pripreme za moguće poremećaje (Abazović, 2012, p. 52). Regija Jugoistočne Evrope spada u jedno od najdinamičnijih područja kako po odvijanju društvenih procesa u svakoj državi pojedinačno, tako i u okviru subregija. Proces tranzicije koji se odvija već dvadeset godina na spomenutom području predstavlja veliki problem, jer tranzicija je mnogo složeniji problem od puke strukturalne promjene unutrašnje društvene i političke organizacije. Tranzicioni put prema Evropskoj uniji (EU) predstavlja problem za sve zemlje regije, a posebno za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, prvenstveno zbog njene složene državne organizacije. Dakle, značajan broj država u tranziciji suočava se sa problemima koji ih destabiliziraju unutar samih njih, a one, kao takve, djeluju kao destabilizirajući faktor na regionalnom pa i kontinentalnom nivou. S druge strane, nosioci savremenih sigurnosnih rizika tendiraju ka homogenizaciji, užem povezivanju i uspostavljanju jasnih i provjerenih standarda u ostvarivanju svojih ciljeva (Abazovic, 2012, p. 60) Bosna i Hercegovina kao i svaka druga moderna demokratska i pravna država, putem institucionalnih sigurnosnih i ostalih zaštitnih mehanizama treba obezbijediti zaštitu teritorijalnog integriteta i suvereniteta, političku samostalnost i međunarodni subjektivitet, te ostale vrijednosti pred svim oblicima vanjskog i unutrašnjeg ugrožavanja. Sa svim državnim atributima trebaju se stvarati demokratsko-sigurnosni uslovi za sprovođenje vladavine zakona s osnovnim ciljem obezbjeđenja opće klime za društveno-ekonomski, socijalni, kulturni, i svaki drugi razvoj građana i bosanskohercegovačkog društva u cjelini. Na taj način se dolazi �do centralnog pitanja kojom politikom osigurati stabilnost i sigurnost u razvoju Bosne i Hercegovine? To je sigurnosna politika, koja svoje uporište ima u već navedenim ustavno-pravnim rješenjima. Dakle, svaka organizirana država koja je prevashodno politička organizacija oblikuje i razvija niz politika (ekonomska, vanjska, odbrambena, ekološka, kulturna, itd.) koje zavisno od prilika i okolnosti mogu imati odgovarajući utjecaj na stanje sigurnosti u državi. Sve one čine sigurnosnu politiku na nivou države. Znači iz globalnog koncepta sigurnosne politike, proizlaze sve naznačene i druge politike (Ahic, 2004, p. 361). Dakle, samo jedna demokratska, objektivna, pragmatična, efikasna i provodiva sigurnosna politika (sa ciljevima, snagama, sredstvima, dinamikom operacionalizacije, itd.), i njenom djelotvornom implementacijom i donošenjem ostalih racionalnih odluka u konkretizaciji operativnih zadataka, omogućit će političkim strukturama vlasti u Bosni i Hercegovini, da oblikuju jednu poželjnu demokratsku i sigurnosnu zajednicu (Masleša, 2002, p. 30) Istovremeno, to je način da se kroz praktični aktualitet institucionalnih mehanizama čije se aktivnosti moraju odvijati u ustavno-zakonskim i političkim neutralnim okvirima, daje puni doprinos u održavanju stabilnosti i sigurnosti političkog sistema u Bosna i Hercegovina. Jedino se na taj način može stvarati klima o sposobnosti i efikasnosti u zaštiti osnovnih vrijednosti bosansko-hercegovačkog društva (Ahić, 2004, p. 352). Odlukom Vijeća za implementaciju mira (Briselskom deklaracijom), u maju 2000. godine, Bosna i Hercegovina se obavezala na donošenje dokumenta Sigurnosna politika Bosna i Hercegovina do kraja 2000. godine., a Predsjedništvo Bosna i Hercegovina obavezalo je Vijeće ministara za nosioca aktivnosti za izradu ovog dokumenta. Vijeće ministara Bosna i Hercegovina je tek u avgustu 2001. godine formiralo radnu grupu za izradu ovog akta u koju su uključeni Vojni savjetnici, kao i ekspertnu grupu u koju su uključeni članovi Sekretarijata Vijeća ministara u Bosna i Hercegovina. U septembru 2002. godine radna grupa Vijeća ministara završila je nacrt dokumenta koji je usvojen tek 2006. godine. Međutim, najveći problem kod izrade Dokumenta o sigurnosnoj politici Bosne i Hercegovine je primjena dosta zastarjelih tradicionalnih stavova, koji preferiraju idealističke koncepte, bez adekvatnog naučnog, stručnog i operativnog spoznavanja svih otvorenih i latentnih prijetnji koje se u kontinuitetu odražavaju na stanje sigurnosti u državi (Masleša, 2002, p. 37). Ukoliko nema sistemskog, profesionalnog i pravovremenog djelovanja, sigurnosna situacija će se zasigurno usložnjavati, što će predstavljati veliku kočnicu na putu Bosne i Hercegovine ka evropskim integracijama. 4. Sigurnosna politika Bosne i Hercegovine i Evropske unije U maju mjesecu, 1999. godine je počeo Proces stabilizacije i pridruživanja (Stabilisation and Association Process - SAP), koji nudi jasnu mogućnost integracije za Bosnu i Hercegovinu kao i ostalih pet zemalja regije zapadnog Balkana u EU. Od tog trenutka pa do danas desilo se niz promjena koje su državu stavile u povoljniji položaj, ali niti jedna koja bi je stavila na listu punopravnih članica Evropske unije. Radi potreba ovog rada izvršena je analiza Izvještaja Evropske komisije o napretku Bosne i Hercegovine u 2015. godini (Evropska komisija, 2015). Komisija redovno izvještava Vijeće i Parlament o napretku koji su zemlje regiona Zapadnog Balkana postigle u procesu evropskih integracija, ocjenjujući njihove napore u ispunjavanju kriterija iz Kopenhagena i uslova iz Procesa stabilizacije i pridruživanja. Sve države članice EU su ratifikovale Sporazum o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju (SSP) potpisan u junu 2008, ali Vijeće dugo nije donijelo odluku o njegovom stupanju na snagu, zbog neuspjeha zemlje da provede presudu Evropskog suda za ljudska prava u predmetu Sejdić-Fincii. Puna provedba presude Sejdić-Finci je predstavljala ključni element da bi EU zahtjev za članstvo Bosne i Hercegovine prihvatila kao vjerodostojan. iPredmet Sejdić-Finci protiv Bosne i Hercegovine, decembar 2009. godine, u vezi etničke diskriminacije u smislu da osobe koje ne pripadaju jednom od tri konstitutivna naroda ne mogu biti birane u institucije države. �Međutim, Evropska unija je u decembru 2014. godine primjenila jedan novi pristup koji bi zemlji pružio veće mogućnosti za napredovanje prema pridruživanju Evropskoj uniji, ali i riješio otvorene društveno-ekonomske izazove s kojima se zemlja suočava. Cijeli proces koji je obuhvatao rješavanje pitanja presude Sejdić-Finci je zaustavljen nakon Opštih izbora u oktobru 2014. godine, kada su njemački i britanski ministri vanjskih poslova pokrenuli tzv. njemačko-britansku inicijativu. Evropska unija je tim činom prihvatila svoj neuspjeh te je otišla korak dalje, uklanjajući provedbu odluke “Sejdić i Finci” sa liste uslova koji moraju biti ispunjeni kako bi Sporazum o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju (SSP) stupio na snagu, što se i dogodilo 1. juna 2015. Do kraja maja 2015., samo je Vijeće ministara usvojilo godišnji plan rada. Nijedna od dvije entitetske vlade nema godišnji plan aktivnosti i programske ciljeve. Nije bilo napretka u učinkovitosti rada parlamenata. Tokom 2014. godine, PS BiH usvojila je svega osam zakona. U izvještaju o monitoringu Centra civilnih inicijativa (2014) navodi se da je u mandatu 20102014. PS BiH usvojila ukupno 85 zakona što je duplo manje nego u prethodnom mandate, dok ih je 67 bilo odbijeno. U aktuelnom mandatu, PS BiH je usvojila četiri zakona, Parlament Federacije BiH tri (svi vezani za budžet), a Narodna skupština RS pet. Uočljivo je nazadovanje na ovom polju, što pokazuje da ne postoji volja vladajućih struktura da pokrenu zemlju u pravcu reformi i EU integracija. Nakon što su se vlasti u BiH pismeno obavezale na provođenje socio-ekonomskih reformi, nije uslijedio transparentan proces izrade reformske agende. Civilno društvo, kao i državni i entitetski parlamenti, bili su potpuno isključeni iz ovog procesa. Vlada FBiH i Vijeće ministara BiH usvojili su reformsku agendu u junu 2015, dok je Vlada Republike Srpske odbila da je potpiše. Nakon toga, otkazana je posjeta Komesara za proširenje EU, Johannesa Hahna, koja je trebala uslijediti nakon potpisivanja agende. Ovakav razvoj događaja pokazuje da su bh. političari/ke više zainteresovani/e za održavanja statusa quo, nego za provođenje otvorenog, inkluzivnog i transparentnog reformskog procesa. Ono na što Evorpska komisija posebno akcentuje su nedostatak koordinacije i saradnje između instanci vlasti u BiH, misleći na entiteske, kantonalne i općinske vlasti. Slična situacija je i sa sigurnosnim službama što sistemski dovodi do rasta nesigurnosti građana, ali i njihovog nepovjerenja u državni sigurnosni sistem. S tim u vezi, po pitanju Zajedničke vanjske i sigurnosne politike (ZVSP) Bosna i Hercegovina se u izvještajnom periodu, po pozivu, uskladila sa 18 od ukupno 29 relevantnih deklaracija EU i odluka Vijeća (usklađenost 62 %). Dok se nije uskladila s odlukama Vijeća o uvođenju restriktivnih mjera EU u kontekstu ilegalne ruske aneksije Krima i događaja u istočnoj Ukrajini, jer nije bilo konsenzusa unutar Predsjedništva Bosne i Hercegovine. Međutim, okvirni sporazum o sudjelovanju Bosne i Hercegovine u operacijama upravljanja krizama u EU potisan je u septembru ove godine. EU je i dalje ulaže znatna sredstva u Bosni i Hercegovini u okviru Zajedničke vanjske i sigurnosne politike i Zajedničke sigurnosne i obrambene politike. Pojačana prisutnost Ureda specijalnog predstavnika EU-a i EU delegacije u Bosni i Hercegovini i dalje je korisna za građane, ali i za provedbu ciljeva programa EU u ključnim područjima. (Evropska komisija, 2014, p. 65). U samom izvještaju data je analiza svih onih pojava koje ugrožavaju sigurnost države i koje utiču na njen put ka Evropskoj Uniji. Prije svega dat je osvrt na korupciju gdje se navodi da je Bosna i Hercegovina došla do određenog nivoa pripremljenosti za borbu protiv korupcije kroz usvajanje Strategije i Akcionog plana za borbu protiv korupcije za period 2015.-2019. godina u aprilu 2015. godine. Međutim, nedostaje konkretan politički angažman po ovom pitanju, a o rasprostranjenosti govore statistički podaci. U 2014. godini bilo je ukupno 158 istraga na državnoj razini u vezi sa finansijskim kriminalitetom i korupcijom, od čega 103 (65%) su zatvorena, a 53 poslano Tužilaštvu Bosni i Hercegovini. Nije bilo konačnih presuda u većini slučajeva u izvještajnom razdoblju. Slučajevi su često procurili u medije, te su u većini sučajeva imali tendenciju da postanu politiziran, ili su već postali takvim. Političke vlasti trebaju osigurati da tijela za provedbu zakona u cijelosti budu ovlašten da djeluje učinkovito i nepristrano, kada istražuji krivična djela korupcije. (Evropska komisija, 2015, p. 16). Naredno na šta je u izvještaju stavljen poseban naglasak je policijski sistem Bosne i Hercegovine i nedostatak institucionalizovane koordinacije i saradnje između državnih i entitetskih/kantonalnih policijskih tijela otežava efikasan rad policijskih službi, te nedostatak efikasno organizovane policije. To je �posebno došlo do izražaja u februaru 2014. kada su se policijske snage suočile sa ozbiljnim poteškoćama u kontrolisanju nasilnih uličnih protesta koji su rezultirali sa nekoliko miliona eura materijalne štete, a stotine ljudi je povrijeđeno.Također, jedan od najsvježijih primjera je napad na premijera Srbije Aleksandra Vučića u Srebrenici 11. jula kada se obilježavalo dvadeset godina od genocida, kada sigurnosne službe BiH svoj posao nisu odradile na nabolji i naprofesionalniji način (nap.ba, 2015). Pravni okvir na rad policije još treba usvojiti. Iako zakon predviđa neovisni i transparentan nadzor policije, uključujući javne žalbene mehanizme, njegova provedba je u praksi često pogrešna. Stoga je potrebno uložiti dodatne napore kako bi se ograničio politički utjecaj, osobito u imenovanju visokih policijskih službenika. Sveukupno gledano, ostvaren je određeni napredak u oblasti policije, kako navodi izvještaj. Međutim, nedostatak koordinacije i saradnje, te nedostatak odgovarajuće obuke i opreme sprječavaju efikasan rad policijskih službi, što se najviše pokazalo tokom socijalnih nemira u februaru. Koordinacija i saradnja među organima za provođenje zakona i dalje je uglavnom neformalna. Postoje naznake neprikladnog političkog utjecaja po etničkim linijama. Zakonodavni okvir kojim se uređuje oblast policije i dalje se mora poboljšati da bi se postigao viši nivo profesionalnosti, transparentnosti i odgovornosti u cijeloj zemlji. (Evropska komisija, 2015, p. 61). U Bosni i Hercegovini su u izvještajnom periodu, podignute 22 optužnice za organizirani kriminal. Nekoliko velikih operacija je provedeno, uključujući i one koje su provedene u suradnji s državama članicama Europske unije. U 2015. oduzeta je imovina u vrijednosti od 550 000 eura, u ukupno 36 slučajeva. U 2014. godini broj žrtava trgovine ljudima se povećao, na 49 žrtava, dok je prethodnim godinama prosjek bio 30. U prvih šest mjeseci 2015. je identificirano deset žrtava trgovine ljudima, i to u svrhu eksploatacije rada, seksualnog iskorištavanja, prošnje i prisilnih brakova. U borbi protiv terorizma BiH je ozbiljno pogođena fenomen stranih terorističkih boraca i radikalizacije. Radikalizam je identificirani u cijeloj zemlji, posebno u vehabijskog zajednici. U aprilu je u policijskoj stanici u Zvorniku je izvršen napad u kojem je smrtno stradao jedan policajca, dok su dva ranjena. Napadač je ubijen u razmjeni vatre. Dvojica osumnjičenih koji su navodno povezani s napadom su uhićeni i potom pušten iz pritvora, uz restriktivne mjere. Odredbe Krivičnog zakona BiHii o sankcijama protiv „boraca na stranim ratištima“iii su se počeli koristiti u krivičnom postupku (Evropska komisija, 2015, p. 17). Rad na borbi protiv terorizma je intenziviran uvođenjem ovih sankcija u krivičnom zakonu, međutim to nije dovoljno za jak intenzitet prijetnje od ovog oblika ugrožavanja. Zbog toga bi se jedan poseban dio Dokumenta o sigurnosnoj politici trebao baviti samo ovim problemom. Konačni zaključak izvještaja je da Bosna i Hercegovina nije prevazišla zastoj u procesu evropskih integracija dok druge zemlje regije odlučno korčaju naprijed. Ova razočaravajuća situacija nastupila je uglavnom zbog nedostatka kolektivne političke volje na strani vodstva zemlje. Potrebno je unaprijediti efikasnost i funkcionalnost političkih institucija na svim nivoima vlasti i hitno uspostaviti funkcionalan mehanizam za koordinaciju o pitanjima EU integracije. 5. Zaključak Pristupanje Europskoj uniji strateški je prioritet Bosne i Hercegovine. Osnovni pravci i aktivnosti vanjske politike podrazumijevaju dalje približavanje i institucionalizaciju odnosa sa EU u skladu sa Procesom stabilizacije i pridruživanja, zaključivanje Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju sa EU, te njegova potpuna primjena. Aspiracija Bosna i Hercegovina za sticanjem punopravnog članstva u EU zasnovana je na širokom političkom konsenzusu. Član 162. Krivičnog zakon BiH (Službeni glasnik BiH, broj 3/03, 32/03, 37/03, 54/04, 61/04, 30/05, 53/06, 55/06, 32/07, 8/10, 47/14, 22/15) iii Izmjene zakona kojima se sankcioniše učešće u sukobima u inostranstvu u vojnim, paravojnim ili parapolicijskim jedinicama stupile su na snagu nakon što su 17. juna, na osnovu odluka Zastupničkog i Doma naroda parlamenta, obavljene u Službenom glasniku BiH. Direktan povod za izmjene je činjenica da su destine državljana BiH učestvovale u borbama u Siriji u redovima ekstremnih islamističkih organizacija. ii �Proces euroatlanskih integracija zahtijeva sveobuhvatno prilagođavanje politika, institucionalnog okvira i pravnog sistema s ciljem dostizanja europskih standarda u svim oblastima. Nadalje, proces pravne harmonizacije i prihvatanja europskih standarda podrazumijeva opsežne unutrašnje reforme, opću konsolidaciju sistema, snažniji privredni razvoj i intenzivnije vanjskopolitičko djelovanje u oblastima koje utiču na dinamiku odnosa Bosna i Hercegovina i Europske Unije. Perspektiva članstva u EU izuzetno je snažan poticaj za nastavak već započetih reformi u Bosna i Hercegovina i pokretač procesa koji treba da omogući stvaranje ekonomske, pravne, organizacione i socijalne strukture sposobne za djelovanje u skladu s pravilima Europske unije. S ciljem ubrzanog procesa uključivanja Bosne i Hercegovine u europske integracione tokove, neophodna je aktivna uloga svih segmenata društva. Ukupna sigurnost Bosne i Hercegovine ovisi od svih elemenata državne moći na način da se oni zajednički planiraju i uvezuju, kako bi se stvorile mogućnosti koje Bosna i Hercegovina može iskoristiti da bi se postigla sigurnost i dobrobit za sve građane. Sigurnosna politika Bosne i Hercegovine je opći i konceptualni dokument u oblasti sigurnosti. Svojom strukturom i rješenjima je kompatibilna s odgovarajućim dokumentima iz ove oblasti u državama parlamentarne demokracije. Ovaj dokument nudi okvir s kojim je moguće i potrebno uskladiti sva zakonska i druga normativna rješenja, kao i razvojne i doktrinarne dokumente kojima se uređuju pojedini dijelovi sigurnosne politike. Obuhvata temeljne odluke koje utiču na spoljnu i unutarnju sigurnost države i društva. Utemeljuje se na utvrđenom državnom pristupu sigurnosti, daje smjernice za vojnu doktrinu i uvažava međunarodne i regionalne regulative kojima je država pristupila. Provođenje Sigurnosne politike zahtijeva puni angažman svih državnih organa i resora, čime se osigurava sagledavanje svih aspekata državne sigurnosti na integralni sveobuhvatan način. Pravovremenim prepoznavanjem sigurnosnih prijetnji planiranjem mjera i adekvatnim odgovorom tijela i institucije na svim razinama vlasti da će dati svoj puni doprinos njenoj implementaciji. Bosna i Hercegovina je opredjeljenja za aktivnu međunarodnu suradnju na političkom, ekonomskom i sigurnosnom planu, te bi trebala uložiti napore ka približavanju i institucionaliziranju odnosa s odgovarajućim međunarodnim strukturama. Uspostavljanje efikasnog mehanizma koordinacije među različitim nivoima vlasti za prenošenje, provedbu i primjenu prava EU treba rješavati kao prioritetno pitanje kako bi u državi postojao jedinstven stav po pitanjima vezanim za EU. Europska Unija također nastavlja svoje prisustvo u Bosni i Hercegovini u okviru zajedničke vanjske i bezbjedonosne politike, te evropske sigurnosne i odbrambene politike. Bosna i Hercegovina sve više preuzima odgovornosti, preduzima aktivnosti usmjerene ka izgradnji takvog sigurnosnog sistema kroz nadležne institucije, koje će joj moći pružiti adekvatnu zaštitu i poštivanje vitalnih vrijednosti kao i mogućnosti za promociju i ostvarivanje njenih sigurnosnih interesa. U tom cilju, Bosna i Hercegovina će bržim i efikasnijim koracima krenuti ka Europskoj uniji i pronaći svoje mjesto pod evropskim nebom. 6. Popis literature Abazović, M. (2012). Državna bezbjednost. Sarajevo: Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije. Ahić, J. (2004). Dokument o sigurnosnoj politici Bosne i Hercegovine - "Conditio sine qua non" Kriminalističke Teme, III(3-4), 357-367. Buzan, B. (1991). People, States and Fear; An Agend for International Security Studies in the Post-ColdWar Era. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Centar civilnih incijativa (2014). Monitoring PS BiH i Vijeća ministara BiH 01.01 – 31.03.2014. Preuzeto sa: http://www.cci.ba/news/1/42/40.html �European Commission. (2015). Bosnia and Herzegovina Progress Report. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.ba/wpcontent/uploads/2015/11/20151110_report_bosnia_and_herzegovina.pdf Hansen, B. (2000). Unipolarity and the Middle East. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH. (2015). Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015: POLITIČKI KRITERIJI. Preuzeto sa: http://adi.org.ba/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Alternativni-izvje%C5%A1taj-o-napretku-BiH-2015.pdf Kovačević, G., Korajlić, N., Smajić, M., & Ahić, J. (2013). Novi koncepti razumijevanja odnosa sigurnosti i politike. Policija i Sigurnost, 22(2), 236-247. Krivičnog zakon BiH (Službeni glasnik BiH, broj 3/03, 32/03, 37/03, 54/04, 61/04, 30/05, 53/06, 55/06, 32/07, 8/10, 47/14, 22/15) Masleša, R. (2001). Teorije i sistemi sigurnosti. Sarajevo: Magistrat. Masleša, R. (2002). Oblikovanje sigurnosne politike na nivou Bosne i Hercegovine Kriminalističke Teme, III(3-4), 27-41. Masleša, R. (2004). Značaj sigurnosne politike u planiranju i provođenju prevencije iz oblasti sigurnosti Kriminalističke Teme, III(3-4), 55-61. Maslow, A. (1998). Toward a Psychology of Being (3rd ed.). New York: Yohn Willey & Sons. Nap.ba (2015). Incident s Vučićem izazvali ljudi koji su preskočili ogradu Memorijalnog centra. http://nap.ba/new/vijest.php?id=14013 Smajić, Z. (1997). Europska unija i zemlje bivše Jugoslavije. Sarajevo: Oko. Preuzeto sa: �Author: Nerma Halilović – Kibrić, LL.M., Senior Assistant Institution: Faculty of Criminal Justice, Criminology and Security Studies of Sarajevo University E-mail: nhalilovic@fkn.unsa.ba SECURITY POLICY OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DEVELOPMENT IN LIGHT OF EURO-ATLANTIC INTEGRATIONS Abstract One of the biggest problems in Bosnia and Herzegovina since the signing of the Dayton agreement, represents the creation of a common defense - security system, and making the establishment of a common security policy. Bosnia and Herzegovina still does not have an integrated system of national (state) security, which stems from the state structures and the security sector. Act on Security Policy is the basis for the prevention and repression of modern security challenges of any democratic state. The above features can be seen as a clear indicator that the investigation of his too-long development and adoption of the political compromise, which is certainly unacceptable, has a scientific, professional, and social justification. One solution that is imposed, but can not realized, the European integration that would mean the harmonization of legislation with the European Union, and respect for the principles of the European Union. In this respect, this work immediately treated negative, but also positive aspects of Bosna i Hercegovina security policy on the road to Euro-Atlantic integration. Key words: security policy, Euro-Atlantic integration, security � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3171 Title A name given to the resource RAZVOJ SIGURNOSNE POLITIKE BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE U SVJETLU EUROATLANSKIH INTEGRACIJA Author Author HALILOVIĆ, Nerma Abstract A summary of the resource. Jedan od najvećih problema u Bosni i Hercegovini, od samog potpisivanja Dejtonskog sporazuma, predstavlja stvaranje zajedničkog odbrambeno - sigurnosnog sistema, a samim tim i donošenja i uspostavljanja zajedničke sigurnosne politike Bosne i Hercegovine. Problem leži u tome što Bosna i Hercegovina još uvijek nema zaokružen sistem nacionalne (državne) sigurnosti, što proističe iz oslikavanja državne strukture i na sigurnosni sektor. Akt o sigurnosnoj politici je osnov kako za prevenciju tako i represiju modernih sigurnosnih izazova svake demokratske države. Prethodno navedene značajke je moguće posmatrati kao jasan indikator da istraživanje njegove preduge izrade i usvajanje uz političke kompromise, koja je itekako nedopustiva, ima naučnu, stručnu, ali i društvenu opravdanost. Jedno od rješenja koje se nameće, ali lahko ne ostvaruje, su evropske integracije koje bi značile usklađivanje svih zakonskih akata sa evropskim, i poštivanje principa Evropske unije. S tim u vezi, ovaj rad neposredno tretira negativne, ali i pozitivne aspekte razvoja sigurnosne politike Bosna i Hercegovina na putu ka euroatlanskim integracijama. Ključne riječi: sigurnosna politika, euroatlanske integracije, sigurnost Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-50-9 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0997f3f751a1b8891b1c16ab1787f640.pdf f588d7c61a1be305e6b323357fe62189 PDF Text Text READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA Galina Gordishevsky & Ira Slabodar Ashkelon Academic College, Israel Article History: Submitted: 18.06.2015 Accepted: 11.08.2015 Abstract: The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner. The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length and structure/complexity. The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms. Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students' metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. Keywords: EAP/ESP; reading comprehension strategies; L1 in L2 classroom. �EAP REQUIREMENTS IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA In Israel, all students in higher education are obliged to reach an exemption level of English. This can be achieved by means of either a psychometric test or by studying English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses in college. Students in Israeli colleges are native speakers of Hebrew, Arabic and Amharic (the language spoken in Ethiopia) - all Semitic languages, as well as native speakers of Russian and French. Hebrew is the lingua franca - the main official language of the country, and students usually exhibit high mastery of it. The students’ level of English at the entrance level is usually low, and students have to take three annual courses to reach the exemption level: beginners, intermediate, advanced. At the exemption level, students are expected to answer questions following an academic text in English which is 3,000 words long. Thus, the ultimate goal of EAP courses in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension (RC) strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE Proficient vs. Non-proficient Readers Before we outline the different types of RC strategies, let us discuss their relevance for successful coping with academic texts. It is well established that proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading comprehension strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005, to mention just a few, and Brantmeier, 2002, for a comprehensive review of earlier research). What distinguishes more proficient readers from less proficient ones is the ability of the former to use appropriate strategies in a given context and to “orchestrate” the use of various strategies rather than using one at a time (Anderson, 1991; Carrell, 1998). “Novice readers, by contrast, often focus on decoding single words, fail to adjust their reading for different texts or purposes, and seldom look ahead or back in text to monitor and improve comprehension. Such cognitive limitations are characteristic of young novices as well as of older, unskilled readers” (Carrell, 1998). McNeil (2011) argues that low proficiency is due to, among other things, deficiencies in lexical and syntactic knowledge. This brings us to the need to teach lexical and syntactic strategies explicitly, along with higher-order strategies, including paragraphand text-level ones. The latter are supposed to bootstrap the weak lexical and syntactic knowledge. Numerous studies on the topic point out that reading comprehension strategies can be taught and their successful application will improve reading comprehension (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Rraku, 2013; Singhal, 2001; Song, 1998). �Let us now outline the groups of reading comprehension strategies that we teach in our classes throughout the academic year, lead by the belief that these are necessary for student success. RC Strategies - an Outline For the ease of categorization, we divide all the strategies into four subcategories:     Word-level strategies: parts of speech, suffixes and prefixes, specific terminology, vocabulary enrichment, synonyms and paraphrasing, guessing from context; Sentence-level strategies: sentence structure, including phrase structure (which differs in English vs. Semitic languages), noun phrases, verb tenses, active vs. passive, compound and complex sentences, reference words, connectors; Paragraph-level strategies: paragraph structure, topic sentence, connectors, main ideas vs. supporting details, inference, prediction; Text-level strategies: topic, main idea, introduction, subheadings, development of the argument, author's opinion, conclusion, types of texts, background knowledge. Given the necessity of mastery over a great deal of reading comprehension techniques, we devote a prominent portion of our classes to teaching and practicing reading strategies of all levels. How a Strategy is Taught Winograd & Hare (1988) outline five key elements in teacher’s explanation for successful strategy training, as follows:      What the strategy is Why the strategy should be learned How to use the strategy When and where the strategy should be used How to evaluate use of the strategy Our course books comprise a comprehensive collection of reading strategies of different levels (i.e. from word-level to text-level), followed by extensive practice at all levels. Our course book explanations usually follow the same pattern. First of all, a strategy is briefly explained and examples are provided. The explanation and example �are followed by practice exercises of rising levels of complexity: first, the strategy is practiced on a sentence level using sentences corresponding to the course level, followed by practice on a paragraph level, with paragraphs taken from authentic academic texts, and finally on a text level - when the relevant strategy is encountered in an academic text, it is pointed out by the teacher and practiced within its context. This way we ensure maximum exposure to the strategy taught with maximum training provided. THE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN EAP CLASSROOMS The need to teach and train students in the different text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 (target language, in this case English) vs. L1 (students' mother tongue or dominant language) in our EAP classrooms. As teaching involves not only presentation of the strategies, but also making them part of the students' metacognitive knowledge (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Singhal, 2001; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), the importance of the students' understanding of the teacher's explanations should be stressed. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in teachers' explanations gains higher importance. The students’ L1 Part of the uniqueness of Israel is that we have a high rate of immigrants. The majority of our students speak Hebrew as their mother tongue, but there are also native speakers of other Semitic languages, such as Arabic and Amharic (language spoken in Ethiopia), as well as speakers of other languages, such as Russian and French. Hebrew, the dominant language of the country, is the lingua franca for all and one and the students are usually fluent at it. Technically Hebrew should be called the students’ DL (dominant language), and English - their TL (target language). For convenience, we will continue referring to English as L2 and to Hebrew - as L1. Native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom The "native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom" debate is not new. For the past thirty years, language teachers and researchers have been gaining insights into the importance and unavoidability of L1 in the classroom. The somewhat “purist” L2 approach to language teaching has given way to the use of L1 both by students and teachers. In order to understand the need of L1, we first need to understand why and when students use their L1 in the classroom. The Use of L1 by Students and Teachers �Why A number of possible reasons for L1 use in the classroom have been outlined. First and foremost, the L1 is ever present in the minds of our L2 learners, whether we want it to be there or not (Cook (1992) in Seng & Hashim, 2006). Translation into L1, both conscious and unconscious, is a powerful technique which is widely preferred by the students themselves (Atkinson, 1987; Harbord, 1992; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). Moreover, L1 is part of the students’ culture and identity and gives them a sense of security (Schweers, 1999). When Numerous advocates of the use of L1 in EAP classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of possible occasions for the use of mother tongue:          Eliciting language Checking comprehension Giving complex instructions Co-operation among students Discussions of classroom methodology Presentation of language structures Checking for sense via translation Testing Development of useful learning strategies (Adapted from Atkinson (1987)) We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, L1 is an invaluable resource. The use of the students‘ L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of the various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. The latter possibility will be outlined in the concluding part of this paper. The Uses of Hebrew in an EAP Classroom Our observations show that Hebrew is used in our EAP classrooms mostly for:     Classroom management Revoking background knowledge Presentation of grammar rules Presentation of RC techniques �  Assessment of comprehension Group and pair work Whereas the uses outlined above are self-explanatory, we would like to discuss two of them in the context of teaching reading comprehension strategies, i.e.:   Presentation of grammar rules Presentation of RC techniques Grammar Rules and RC Techniques The students’ L1 is crucial in presentation of word-level and sentence-level reading strategies, both in terms of deeper comprehension and comparison between languages. Language and grammar points can serve as points of comparison and contrast between the learners’ L1 (mother tongue) and L2 (target language). In this connection, Harbord (1992: 354-5) writes about using L1 to facilitate learning of L2: This final category will be concerned principally with the evaluation of strategies which aim specifically at aiding L2 acquisition through comparison with L1. These strategies have two purposes: the first is to make students aware of the dangers of translation and teach them to exercise a conscious check on the validity of their unconscious translation; and the second is to teach them ways of working towards what Danchev (1982: 55) calls 'functional translation' (i.e. transferring meaning into L2) rather than the wordfor-word translation that occurs when the learner's unconscious need to make assumptions and correlations between languages is ignored. Similarities and Differences Between Languages Points of similarity and divergence between languages are numerous. Rather ignoring these points, we decided to teach them explicitly, employing the students' L1. In what follows, we provide a number of examples.  Connectors - similarity between languages: One point of similarity among different languages is connectors. Every language has ways to indicate transitions such as cause-and-effect, exemplification, addition, similarity, contrast, etc. We first try to elicit as many connectors as possible in the students’ mother tongue, before moving on to teaching them in English.  Sentence structure – similarity & difference: Sentence structure is another issue at point. Whereas the basic sentence structure - �i.e. subject-verb order - is generally similar among the languages spoken in our classrooms, phrase structure presents a point of divergence and thus deserves special attention and explanation. One example of such divergence are noun phrases.  Noun phrases: structure & comprehension Consider the following noun phrase (and a title of one of the academic texts we teach): Bilingual children’s mother tongue In English, the head word (the main word of the noun phrase) comes last, whereas in Hebrew it comes first. So, translation of noun phrases into Hebrew should be done backwards: starting with the last word and moving to the first one: 4 3 2 1 Bilingual children’s mother tongue  Vocabulary Homonyms: Same sound, different meaning, often different parts of speech - can be exemplified using translation into the students’ mother tongue. Examples: present (n.), present (adj.), present (v.); abstract (adj.), abstract (n.), abstract (v.) Another point of divergence between languages that should be stressed are so-called “false cognates” or “false friends” (Laufer, 1997): False cognates (“false friends”): words that sound similar/the same in different languages, but have a different meaning in each language. Example: factor in academic texts in English usually means “cause”; faktor in Hebrew is usually used as a mathematical function, e.g. adding bonus points to a test grade. Example: effect in academic texts in English usually means “influence”; efekt (pl. efektim) in Hebrew is usually used to describe special features, e.g. in a movie. Other examples of “false friends” would be: Sympathetic in English - simpati (‘nice’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997) Tramp in English - tremp (‘lift’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997) Severe in English - savir (‘reasonable, plausible’) in Hebrew Actually in English - aktuali (‘relevant, topical’) in Hebrew These differences are pointed out and repeatedly stressed in our EAP classrooms, using comparison between the students' dominant language and the class' target �language. TEACHING STRATEGIES VIA AN ACADEMIC TEXT IN HEBREW To conclude, instead of avoiding L1 in the classroom, trying to direct our students solely to L2 - a mission destined to failure - we adopted a hands-on approach and decided to face the L1 issue. The first class in our courses at all levels starts with an analysis of an authentic academic text in Hebrew. It’s usually a short text, one page long, which follows the rules and structure of academic writing and has academic vocabulary. Lead by the belief that text-coping techniques are stronger in the student’s dominant language, we demonstrate how these can be used with an academic text in their L1/DL. References Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75(3), 460-472. Anderson, N. J.(2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757-771). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource? ETL Journal, 41(4), 241-247. doi: 10.1093/elt/41.4.241 Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. doi: 10.2307/3586949 Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. Block, E. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 319-343. Brantmeier, C. (2002). Second Language Reading Strategy Research at the Secondary and University Levels: Variations, Dispartities and Generalizability. The Reading Matrix 2(3). http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/brantmeier/article.pdf Carrell, P. L. (1998). Can Reading Strategies be Successfully Taught? The Language Teacher Online 22(3). http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/issues/199803_22.3 �Cook, V. (2001). Using the First Language in the Classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402-423. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.57.3.402 Farrell, T. S. C. (2001). Teaching reading strategies: "It takes time!" Reading in a Foreign Language, 13, 631-646. Harbord, J. (1992). The use of the mother tongue in the classroom. ELT Journal 46(4), 350-355. doi: 10.1093/elt/46.4.350 Hock, M., & Mellard, D..(2005).Reading comprehension strategies for adult literacy outcomes. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,49(3),192-200. Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don't know, words you think you know, and words you can't guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). New York: Cambridge University Press. McNeil, L. (2011). Investigating the contributions of background knowledge and reading comprehension strategies to L2 reading comprehension: an exploratory study. Reading and Writing, 24(8), 883-902. Raftari, S., Seyyedi, K., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2012). Reading strategy research around the world. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention ISSN (Online), 1(1), 24-30. www.ijhssi.org Rraku,V. (2013).The effect of reading strategies on the improvement of the reading skills of students. Social and Natural Sciences Journal (Online), 7(2). http://ojs.journals.cz/index.php/SNSJ/article/view/418/408 Schweers, W. Jr. (1999).Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37 (2), 6-13. Seng, G. H., & Hashim, F. (2006). Use of L1 in L2 reading comprehension among tertiary ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 29-54. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Singhal, M. (2001). Reading Proficiency, Reading Strategies, Metacognitive Awareness And L2 Readers. The Reading Matrix, 1(1). http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/singhal/ Song, M. (1998).Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54. �Winograd, P., & Hare, V. C. (1988). Direct instruction of reading comprehension strategies: The nature of teacher explanation. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment instruction and evaluation (pp. 121-139). San Diego: Academic Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2950 Title A name given to the resource READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA Author Author Gordishevsky, Galina Slabodar, Ira Abstract A summary of the resource. The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner. The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length and structure/complexity. The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms. Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students' metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dbe1649e4924251199b39a4575640da3.docx e0b2153571614d05c2c5492b8425ff93 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4a4caea88d6f0497eeda00438537ccef.pdf 426495045de9be5deb6ca78d18398e0d PDF Text Text Reading Therapy: An Evaluation about Literary Books of Puberty on the Axis of Bibliotherapy Kemalettin Deniz Gazi University/ Ankara, Turkey Key words:Bibliotherapy, Puberty Books, Reading Education,Turkish Language Education, Puberty ABSTRACT Bibliotherapy is a reading strategy which aims to help people solve their problems or adapt to a new environment with the help of specifically chosen texts. This study aims to examine the first works of youth era in Turkish Literature in educational activities on the basis of bibliotherapy. The target group of the study includes 12 to15-yearold students of secondary stage in primary schools. The main problems of young people aged between 12-15 can be ordered as in the following: stepmother and stepfather, puberty, physical appearance deficiencies (disability, structural deficit, emaciation or obesity), not able to accept socio-economical status, being ashamed of family, introduction to bilateral relations and new concepts, addiction, neglect, child sexual abuse, change of location, test anxiety, death of a family member/ relative, violence from family or acquaintances. For this purpose, the puberty works which appeal to young people aged between 12-15 were analyzed by using content analysis from qualitative method in order to provide solutions and guide young people. According to findings, when the changes and possible problems that adolescents aged between 12-15 go through are examined it is seen that their choice of books reflects their states. Interests shape in relation to the traits of development era. When young people’s choice of books and problems are compared, it is seen that such themes as pursuit of similarity, self-discovery, pursuit of role model, differences in socio-economical status, norm/normlessness conflict, test anxiety and realizing opposite sex are common. It is also seen that books related to step mother/father, addiction, neglect, child sexual abuse, change of location, death of a family member/ relatives, violence by family/acquaintances and physical appearance deficiencies are not in the list of choice. Considering the findings, it is possible to suggest the following points: Libraries and publishing firms should form a suggestion list of books by taking possible problems into consideration as well as young people’s interests and desires. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2089 Title A name given to the resource Reading Therapy: An Evaluation about Literary Books of Puberty on the Axis of Bibliotherapy Author Author DENIZ, Kemalettin Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:Bibliotherapy, Puberty Books, Reading Education,Turkish Language Education, Puberty ABSTRACT Bibliotherapy is a reading strategy which aims to help people solve their problems or adapt to a new environment with the help of specifically chosen texts. This study aims to examine the first works of youth era in Turkish Literature in educational activities on the basis of bibliotherapy. The target group of the study includes 12 to15-year-old students of secondary stage in primary schools. The main problems of young people aged between 12-15 can be ordered as in the following: stepmother and stepfather, puberty, physical appearance deficiencies (disability, structural deficit, emaciation or obesity), not able to accept socio-economical status, being ashamed of family, introduction to bilateral relations and new concepts, addiction, neglect, child sexual abuse, change of location, test anxiety, death of a family member/ relative, violence from family or acquaintances. For this purpose, the puberty works which appeal to young people aged between 12-15 were analyzed by using content analysis from qualitative method in order to provide solutions and guide young people. According to findings, when the changes and possible problems that adolescents aged between 12-15 go through are examined it is seen that their choice of books reflects their states. Interests shape in relation to the traits of development era. When young people’s choice of books and problems are compared, it is seen that such themes as pursuit of similarity, self-discovery, pursuit of role model, differences in socio-economical status, norm/normlessness conflict, test anxiety and realizing opposite sex are common. It is also seen that books related to step mother/father, addiction, neglect, child sexual abuse, change of location, death of a family member/ relatives, violence by family/acquaintances and physical appearance deficiencies are not in the list of choice. Considering the findings, it is possible to suggest the following points: Libraries and publishing firms should form a suggestion list of books by taking possible problems into consideration as well as young people’s interests and desires. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed