22 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57762c977ea511e21cc6015744fd2df6.pdf 88225623e1db2920276fb8aa6c66c929 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship Between The Sustainable Development and the Vision of Nations: The Sample of Ottoman Empire Hasan ĐBĐCĐOĞLU Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta hibici@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Belma AK Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta bak@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Münire ÇĐFTÇĐ Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta munire@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Đbrahim Yaşar GÖK Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta yasargok@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Seher DERYA Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta seher@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: A global, rapidly changing and advancing world of information age, states in terms of standing and resources to be effective, efficient and people have to use it to live in prosperity, especially in a state that is not strong in the universal space is a problem. Using resources effectively and efficiently be transferred to future generations to improve the quality of life with modern standards, requires a solid and consistent work. This study is one of the sustainable development of future generations to meet their own needs against the needs of our time while not restrict the ability. The conscious of joint action to ensure sustainable development has played a significant role. Individual interests and rant fight are the greatest obstacles in front of the sustainable development. This energy and expectations of individual should be canalized to common area. This area is the requests and the ideals of the nations. In terms of sustainable development, a picture of national requirements should be drawn and this picture is coherent and realistic, must be shown to the nation. That is; a nation vision should be created. Because nations are respected and strong at the rate of their national aims. The national aims are the dynamic power, the reason of unity and the resource of courage for nations. In this study, indicating mission and vision of the nations according to the sustainable development, it is highlighted from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Repuclic by explaining the created visions and the mission perception that shaped the visions and achieved points in the end. With this study, we can conclude that there is a relationship between the mission perception of nations and visions which are improved by this perception and the mission perception with vision factor are the dynamics of the sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable development, Vision, Ottoman Empire Introduction The The Holy War (Gaza) thought boost after having been accepted of the Islam by the Turks and ‘the fighting for religion’ phenomenon lying under this thought did not come against warrior structure of the Turks. The Ottomans, the last empire of the Turks continued this ‘gaza policy’ . The Gaza policy continued as a chain from Ertuğrul Bey to Osman Bey and Osman Bey to Orhan Bey didn’t base on only thought of having large territory that was targeted by many states. The vision of ‘dissseminating the Islam and its impact seemed clearly on the Ottomans, was providing directions to this idea. The Ottomans never assimilated people in the conquered places after realized conquest and they approached tolerant to the public and in many places, after some time from the conquest, people adopted and accepted the Otoman Empire. This an evidence to that the idea that the gaza thought didn’t base on domination phenomenon. With the famous historian Gibbon’s phrase: ‘While the Jews was killed totally and the inquisition was spreading death, people with several religion were living in peace and harmonization under the rule of the 337 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ottomans. The famous profesor and the historian C. Brockelmann says that The Muslim Turks had the power and opportunity to alter the Christianity during their conquest but their religion doesn’t allow this. During the transition process to the Otoman Empire ‘’to disseminate the Đslam’ vision was accepted by all parts and it became an ideal. This vision directs the government to govern the people with justice moral and stability and directs people to trust and like the government and thus there is a strong tie between people and government. The reason for this strong tie is the Islamic thought that orders to like the government and to be fair in governing. The Ottomans who approaches the people with the same thoughts enable people to choose the Islam with their own decision. The mission of thinking the citizens that is formed through the vision of disseminating Đslam develop the Otoman Empire and each victory accelarated the this development process. Development, is a social phenomenon and should be evaluated within the social structure. Social structure also houses many problems. When this issue is taken into consideration today’s analysis are inadequate for development. Whether the formation of resources, or use, or the distribuition phase factors other than economic directly influence development process. This fact makes it essential that all these mentioned factors required to be included in the analysis. In order to analyse such a social problem, there are limitations to reach a result and these results can only be overcome when it is supported by other factors. (Yavilioğlu :116) From this perspective vision has been handled as an affect on the development. The relationship between the Ottoman vision and the development has been questioned by taking account of the development in the Ottoman Empire. In this work, first of all the literature is analyzed and the frame of the vision and the sustainable development have been mentioned. In the process of Ottoman Empire all the beneficial activities from establishment to standstill with the vision of Otoman Empire has been analyzed by taking into account the progress. Conceptual Literature People know, while doing something, what the society expect him/her to do by making use of existing institutional system and he/she does the expected behaviour Institutional system which shapes the human behaviour has some identifier. These identifiers takes place in the literature as designs of life. Designs of life are shared: most of the people are reconciled on the designs of life. They are not dependent on the judgement of any people. Designs of people happens with enthusiasm. People does self sacrifice and even die for the holy values. They are taken seriously. People regard these values together with the meeting of social requirements and saving of the mutual prosperity. (Yivilioğlu:117). When we take into consideration the characteristics of designs of life, it is possible t o say that vision is one of these designs of life. The etimological roots of the vision derives from “seeing” . A simple definition of vision is: 'a picture or view of the future. Something not yet real, but imagined (Thornberry:28). Vision is a mental journey from the known to the unknown, creating the future from a montage of current facts, hopes, dreams, dangers and opportunities (Manasse:1). Warren Bennis ve Burt Nanus say that the most critical point of the vision is to show the realist thought, credibility an attractive future for organisation and most problems better than the current situation in a very clear way. Kotter argued that the content of the vision must be sensible and clearly understood by organizational members; content without clarity is ineffective. Likewise, Collins and Porras advised that “vision must be translated from words to pictures with a vivid description of what it will be like to achieve your goal” (Cole:354). The vision that is expressed by a mutual Picture is adopted by the whole organization. To coincide the aim of the organization and the aim of the members is done. In this point of view vision is the tool that enables organisation to act for the mutual aim. Goldberg (1997) says that in order to have a strong vision, the vision that is developed by the supervisor and the managers should help the development and change of the company.(Eren) According to Peter Senge a shared vision is not only an idea it is a strength that motives people. A shared vision is an answer to the question “What do we want to do?” In his book Fifith Discipline he defines vision a shared vision as an hologram. Because when the hologram is cut it reflects the whole with each angle and when it is united it makes the whole.(Senge 226-239) Nations as well as the organizations need to follow the change and adjust the new developments. National vision is the roots of the National developments. National vision enables the economical social political and cultural aims to happen. That constitutes the development. Development is a social phenomenon and must be analyzed in the social structure. Social structure takes socio cultural political psyhological and economic whole in itself. In other words the social structure is a complex of economy, politic, culture and the family. 338 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The first popularly accepted definition of sustainable development arose from the report of Norwegian Gro Harlem Brundtland who, with her Commission members, suggested in 1987 that the world should be “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Lawrence:3). In early 2007, Donald Kennedy, a Harvard-trained biologist, former president of Stanford University, and since June1, 2000 the editor-in-chief of Science, wrote that ‘‘sustainability would require that a resource be technically managed in such a way that its contribution to human welfare is conserved or improved for succeeding generations.’’Sustainable development -meeting the needs of people alive today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs - will be one of the key forces guiding public policy development in the years ahead. (Brauer:7). In a country sustainable development can only be done by social economic and ecological sustainability that means the phenomenon of the social development is an economical development which does not consume the national sources and save balance between the eco system and the economy. (Alagöz:3-4). Vision of Ottoman Empire and Sustainable Development Vision of “fighting for religion” (spreading Islam) appearing with Turks’ acceptance Islam was depending on an idea to establish Islam to the places that don’t know Islam. The Holy War (Gaza) policy, that was considered in accordance with this policy, was realized efficiently on these years and holy wars revealed development and development revealed holy wars respectively. This eventual development continued until 1700’s and Ottomans lived a progress from seigniory to state and state to empire. Policies realizing in accordance with vision of fighting for religion provided the development of Ottomans and caused the long-year continuence of this. Ottoman State, that reached a three-continent structure with this vision until years 1700, afterwards entered a term meaning some changes in perception and declinations in the vision of fighting for religion. Ottoman state going far from the basic vision took the state to an unstable condition. A lethargy term started to occur with the increases of the wealth of public and maximum level of growth at managerial level specially palace administration. Soltans who led every wars during the process of transition from seigniory to state, not joining the wars after the years 1700 and not leading the army with the title of khalif is the result of going far from the basic vision perception. With this alienation from the idea of gaza lost its importance, administration of the army was damaged and fiscal structure of the state went worse. All of these advancements lasted with the collapse of the empire. But a probing point is that the public didn’t go far from this basic vision during the collapse of state. Because an existence challenge was performed with limited opportunities against huge forces just against collapse period. Actually Ottoman State, that didn’t loose the First World War, has been acceppted as looser with the missings of allied countries. Acting with the vision of “fighting for religion” until the discontinuance period caused Ottomans to develop and performing some efforts for the wealth of public. Below table, composed in accordance with the information given by Öztuna, (p:17-265) show that frontiers of Ottoman state expanded with every new Soltans. Ottomans, which had a development economically with the expanding of lands, had a stable condition at income and expense at the budget. There was no difference between incomes and expenses in treasury at the term of Kanuni (Soleman The Magnificient). However incomes of treasury reached to 1830 loads namely 183.000.000 golds and expenses reached to 3000 loads namely and in 1597 incomes reached to 3000 loads and expenses reached to 9000 loads. (Seyithanoğlu: 1993) Socio-cultural structure developed with the economical development and some evidences occured supporting sicence and cultural activities at many provinces and districts. Many mosques and moslem theological school (medrese) and chams in Anatolia and Balkans from Süleymaniye to Selimiye and Ecyad Castle, collapsing in Arabia, may be given as examples. Foundation system was established to prevent the poverty and compensate the needs of public. In this sense every foundation has a land and incomes of the land belongs to foundations and conpensating the needs of the public has importance. 2860 foundations were established in Đstanbul during the years 1519-1596. (Barkan XXXI) 339 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. Frontiers of Ottoman Empire During the Administration Period of Ottoman Soltans Soltans Before After Administration Administration ( km 2 ) ( km 2 ) Asia ( km 2 ) Europe ( km 2 ) Africa ( km 2 ) Ertuğrul Bey 1000 ila 2000 4800 4.800 *** *** Osman Bey 4800 16000 16.000 *** *** Orhan Bey 16000 98000 98.000 *** *** I. Murat Yıldırım Beyazit 98000 500.000 208.000 291000 *** 500.000 942.000 500.000 441.000 *** Çelebi Mehmed 942.000 872.000 *** *** *** II. Murat Fatih Sultan Mehmed 872.000 950.000 *** *** *** 950.000 2.214.000 511.000 1.703.000 *** II. Beyazit Yavuz Sultan Selim Kanuni Sultan Süleyman 2.214.000 2.373.000 596.000 1.777.000 *** 2.373.000 6.557.000 1.905.000 1.702.000 2.950.000 6.557.000 14.893.000 4.169.000 1.998.000 8.726.000 III. Murat 14.893.000 23.000.000 5.729.285 3.543.662 13.725.464 According to the 953/1546 dated Đstanbul Foundations Census Records, “public” foundations in Đstanbul had more than 4000 houses, 5717 shops, 28 caravansaries, 19 khans, 38 canvas factories, 18 cisterns, 14 basements, 68 bakehouses, 199 villages, 40 hamlets and 228 mills for income. Capital of the 1150 cash foundations reached 21.385.786 golds between the years 1456-1546. (Barkan XXXI) Some foundations were composed in the subjects of equipment of poor girls, arrangement of streets (social), treatment of ill and disabled storks, giving meat to cats and dogs (environmental), paying the debts of people in the prison because of debts (social). Also foundations provided funds for the establishment of many monuments contributing social life. Mosque, masjids, foundations, schools, cultivations, hospitals, baths, caravansaries, khans also social complexes, public fountain, water-tank with fountain, roads, domes, markets, wells, hot springs, squares, libraries, bridges, ports, beacons, channel, water channels, dams are some examples of these monuments. Suggestions and Conclusion Settlement at economical, social and environmental target and policies with the vision of “spreading Islam” developed Ottomans and made it sustainable by extending over a long time. Ottomans composing economical (extending the limits of economical progress, gaza idea), social (fair wealth disturbance, efforts to prevent poverty), environmental (efficient usage of natural resources) targets in accordance with this vision is the sign of sustainable development. The vision of “spreading Islam” is one of the most important factors of sustainable development which was in progress until the end of rising term of Ottomans. Many factors as prince training before acceding, foundation policies developed by government, renewal movements at army, administration policies of bureaucracy were developed in accordance with this basic vision. State continued development during the application of this vision and every soltan developed the country than older soltans. Respective acceptance of this basic vision without refusal is an important reason. There have been economical, sociological, political and cultural developments paralel to this vision. Development of treasury, state getting a stronger condition to help other countries, trade moving around the lands and ports of Ottoman state can be shown as the signs of economical developments. Gladness of Ottoman public from the administration, Ottoman state being respectful to different beliefs and not assimilating different nations may be examples for social aspect of development. Ottoman state being super power of the world, a state administering nations in three continents and other countries not developing policies without considering Ottoman state and composing an effect area between India and England and Africa and Russia may be stated as the political aspects of development. Finally a direct relationship can be mentioned between the vision of nations and sustainable development. Realizing the development with national visions embracing the public in spite of specific visions of leaders. Because this conditions appropriates development to public and development becomes a routine life 340 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo vision in spite of realizing in a specific term. But declinations ,as just seen in Japans and perivously in Ottomans, at the national visions causes development to access in a decreasing process and is a major obstacle on sustainable development. Because of this not lowering the visions and keeping them alive has a big importance. Vision which is one of the factors that people may devote theirselves to make changes in the direction of national development, both is social and another aim –whether having different ideas- should be considered. References Akgemci T, Çelik, A.and Ertuğrul, Ü.G., (2006). “Vizyon Sahibi Örgütlerin Özellikleri: Konya Sanayi Đşletmelerinde Yapılan Bir Araştırma”, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 11, ss:1-29 Alagöz, M.,(2004), “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmada Çevre Faktörü:Teorik Bir Bakış”, Akademik Bakış Uluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler E-Dergisi, Sayı 11. Barkan, Ö. Lütfi –Ayverdi, E Hakkı (1972). Đstanbul Vakıfları Tahrir Defteri 953 (1546) Tarihli, Đstanbul. Akt. Nazif Öztürk “Sosyal. Siyaset Açısından Osmanlı Dönemi Vakıfları”, <http://www.sosyalsiyaset.com/documents/osmanli_vakiflari.htm>. (01.04.2009). Brauer, J. (2008), “International Security and Sustainable Development, Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace” , Economics and Development, Book volume:6. Cole M. S., Harris S. G. and Bernerth J. B. (2006). “Exploring the implications of vision, appropriateness, and execution of organizational change”. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 352-367. Cole, M. S., Haris, S. G. and Bernerth, J. B., (2006), “Exploring the implications of vision, appropriateness and execution of organizational change” Leadership & Organization, Development Journal, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 352-367. Çetin, M. (2006), “Teori ve Uygulamada Bölgesel Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma”, C.Ü. Đktisadi ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 7, Sayı 1. Döğüş S., (2008), “Avrasya Steplerinde Đlk Gaziler”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 20 Eren, E., Alpkan L. And Ergün, E., (2003). “Kültürel Boyutlar Olarak Đşletmelerde Đçsel Bütünleşme ve Dışsal Odaklanma Düzeylerinin Performansa Etkileri”, Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 4 (1) , 55-70. Lawrence G., (2006), “Promoting Sustainable Development: The Question of Governance”, Research in Rural Sociology and Development, Book volume:11 Lin C.-C., Luh D.-B. (2009), “A Vision-Oriented Approach For Đnnovative Product Design”, Advanced Engineering Informatics, 23, 191–200. Manasse A. L., (1985), “Vision and Leadership: Paying Attention to Intention”, Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 150-173 Özdemir Đ., Osmanlı Toplumunda Çevre Anlayışı, Türkler, edt. H.C. Güzel-K. Çiçek, Ankara: Yeni Turkiye Yayınları, c. 10. Öztuna Y.,(2004). Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, Ötüken Yayınları, 2004, s.168 Senge, P.M.(2006), Beşinci Disiplin, 13. Baskı. (Çev.A. Đldeniz ve A. Doğulkan), Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul. Seyithanoğlu K., Büyük Đslam Tarihi, Çağ Yayınları, 1993 Thornberry N.(1997). “A View About Vision”, European Management Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 28-34,. Yavilioğlu C.,“Ekonomik Kalkınma ve Motivasyon Arasındaki Đlişki” C.Ü. Đktisadi ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 2, Sayı , 109-130. 341 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 244 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship Between The Sustainable Development and the Vision of Nations: The Sample of Ottoman Empire Author Author iBiCiOĞLU, Hasan AK, Belma ÇiFTÇi, Münire GÖK, ibrahim Yasar DERYA, Seher Abstract A summary of the resource. A global, rapidly changing and advancing world of information age, states in terms of standing and resources to be effective, efficient and people have to use it to live in prosperity, especially in a state that is not strong in the universal space is a problem. Using resources effectively and efficiently be transferred to future generations to improve the quality of life with modern standards, requires a solid and consistent work. This study is one of the sustainable development of future generations to meet their own needs against the needs of our time while not restrict the ability. The conscious of joint action to ensure sustainable development has played a significant role. Individual interests and rant fight are the greatest obstacles in front of the sustainable development. This energy and expectations of individual should be canalized to common area. This area is the requests and the ideals of the nations. In terms of sustainable development, a picture of national requirements should be drawn and this picture is coherent and realistic, must be shown to the nation. That is; a nation vision should be created. Because nations are respected and strong at the rate of their national aims. The national aims are the dynamic power, the reason of unity and the resource of courage for nations. In this study, indicating mission and vision of the nations according to the sustainable development, it is highlighted from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Repuclic by explaining the created visions and the mission perception that shaped the visions and achieved points in the end. With this study, we can conclude that there is a relationship between the mission perception of nations and visions which are improved by this perception and the mission perception with vision factor are the dynamics of the sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable development, Vision, Ottoman Empire Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5046b8f5906c71a3e762e094bcd645df.pdf a407a689f53fb3d3d348a8c65e891309 PDF Text Text Bir Saray Okulu: Enderun Suat ZZEYREK Ali ERKEN Giriş Osmanlı Devleti, 16. yüzyılda askeri ve siyasi olarak gücünün zirvesine çıktığı gibi topraklarını da en geniş sınırlarına ulaştırmış bulunuyordu. Doğal sınırların zorlandığı bu seviyeye güçlü idari, askeri ve eğitim kurumlarının kalitesiyle ulaşmıştı. Adalet ve güvenlik kavramları da Osmanlı toplumunun sağlam bir yapıya kavuşmasında etkili oldular. Osmanlı Devleti çok milletli ve kültürlü bir yapıda olduğu için siyasi sistem farklı uyrukları bir arada tutmaya göre düzenlenmişti. Farklı uyruklar için adalet ve güvenlik sistemi esastı. Osmanlı sistemine göre asker olmadan devlet ve hâkimiyet olamaz, askere sahip olmak için servete ihtiyaç vardır. Servet uyruklardan toplanır, uyruklar ancak adaletle refaha kavuşabilirlerdi.50 Bu sistemin kurulabilmesi için servetin genişletilmesi ve korunması şarttı. Bir devletin güçlendirilmesi ve muhafaza edilmesinde yönetici sınıfının ve ordunun niteliği oldukça önemlidir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin ilk dönemlerinde Türklerden teşkil edilmiş bulunan piyade ve süvari birlikleri fetihlerin genişlemesiyle beraber yetersiz gelmeye başladı. Yeni bir askeri teşkilata ihtiyaç duyulunca savaşlarda ele geçirilen esirlerden yararlanılmaya başlandı. Zaman içerisinde esirlerin azalmaya başlaması sisteme yeni bir kaynak arayışına neden oldu. Bu kaynak arayışında sisteme mükemmel bir askere alma yöntemi kazandırıldı. Bu yöntemin adı “devşirme” yöntemidir. Devşirme yöntemi, Hıristiyan çocukları arasından sekiz yaşından yirmi yaşına kadar uygulanan bir çocuk toplama sistemidir. Esirlere “acemi oğlanı” denildiği için devşirme yöntemiyle toplanan çocuklara da aynı isim verildi. Bu esirlerden ve toplanan çocuklardan daha iyi yararlanmak için sıkı esaslara dayanan bir Acemi Ocağı ilk olarak Gelibolu’da kuruldu. Böylece kapıkulu ocaklarının temeli atılmış oldu. İhtiyaca göre genişletilen ve mükemmel bir hale getirilen Devşirme Sistemi’nin 18. yy ortalarına (1747) kadar devam ettiği anlaşılıyor.51 Devşirme Sistemi; Ermeni, Bulgar, Arnavut ve Bosnalılara uygulanırdı. Boşnaklardan Müslüman olduktan sonra kendi arzularıyla acemi oğlanı alınmaya devam edilmiştir. En çok acemi oğlanı toplanan yerler Üsküp, Köstendil, Prizren, Görice, Taşlıca, Yanya, Pirlepe, İşkodra, Ohri, İpek, Kırçova, Foça, Manastır, Mostar, İzvornik, Böğürtlen, Hurpista ve Akçakale idi.52 Acemi oğlanlarının sayı itibarıyla fazla olduğu zamanlarda bazı acemi oğlanları Türkçeyi ve Türk İslam adetlerini öğrenmek üzere Anadolu’daki Türklerin hizmetlerine verilirdi. Sonra buralardan alınarak muhtelif hizmetlerde kullanılırlardı.53 Diğer Devşirme çocukları yani kadrosu olanlar ise ecemi oğlanları kışlası’nda terbiye ve Müslüman edildikten sonra Yeniçeri Ocağı’na katılırdı. Dışarıdan ocağa yeniçeri yazılmak imkânsızdı.54 Devşirme, her zaman genel bir şekilde yapılmaz, ihtiyaç miktarına göre bölge bölge yapılırdı. Bu iş ile ilgili bizzat Yeniçeri Ağası ile Acem Ocağı Ağası ilgilenirdi. Her türlü suiistimalleri önlemek için devşirmeye gönderilen ocak zabitinin eline bir ferman ile Yeniçeri Ağası tarafından devşirme mıntıkasındaki dadılara bir mektup gönderilirdi. Devşirme memuruna hiç kimse karışmazdı. Devşirme memuru kazalara kadar gidip çocuk devşirmeye geldiğini tellallar vasıtasıyla köylere bildirirdi. Sekiz-yirmi yaş aralığındaki Hıristiyan çocukları başta, papazları olarak ve babaları ile kaza merkezindeki toplantı mahalline gelirlerdi. Toplantı mahalli genellikle mahkemeler olurdu. Çocuklar bizzat görülür ve kanuni vasıfları tutanlar ayrılırdı. Çoğunlukla her kazada 40 haneden bir oğlan devşirilirdi. Fakat her zaman böyle yapılacağı anlamına gelmez, sayı bazen ihtiyaca göre değişirdi.55 Devşirilen çocukların sayısını hesaplayabilmek için elimizde çok az veri olsa da 16. yy.da yıllık devşirme sayısı üç bin dolaylarındadır.56 Devşirilen çocukların yetiştirilmesi ve eğitilmesiyle güçlü bir ordunun çekirdeği ile devlet yönetiminde üst kademe memurları oluşturuluyordu. Bilhassa Türk kültürü ile yetiştirilmiş olan saray devşirmeleri arasında devlet idaresini ele alan çok kıymetli vezir, beylerbeyi yetişmiş, içlerinden birçoğu da 50 Stanford Shaw, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Modern Türkiye, C: I, İstanbul 1982, s.166. Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü, C: 1, s: 448. 52 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, “Devşirme”, İ.A, C: 3, s. 563. 53 Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, aynı eser, s. 445. 54 Mustafa Nuri Paşa, Netayic-ül Vukuat, C:1–2, (sadeleştiren Neşet Çağatay) Ankara 1987, s.153. 55 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, aynı makale, s. 564. 56 Albert Howe Lybyer, Kanuni Devrinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yönetimi, İstanbul: Süreç 1987, s. 55. 51 346 �sadrazam olmuştur. Görüldüğü gibi kökenleri ne olursa olsun bir insanın Osmanlı Devleti’nde yönetici sınıfına girebilmesi mümkündü. Bunun için de Türkçeyi bilmesi, İslam dinini benimseyip onun düşünce ve eylem sistemini kabul edip uygulaması, verilen görevleri üstlenmesi ve hakkıyla yerine getirmesi gerekirdi. Eğer yönetici sınıftakiler ya da çocukları niteliklerini koruyamazlarsa reaya sınıfına düşerlerdi.57 Yönetici sınıfın yeni üye yetiştirmek için kurduğu çeşitli okullarda uzun bir öğrenim dönemi ve hükümet dairelerinde çıraklık dönemi geçirmek gerekiyordu. İstek, yetenek ve şans Osmanlı düzeninde yükselenleri belirleyen etkenlerdi. Osmanlılarda ırk ve din ne olursa olsun, yetenekli insanlara daha çok değer verip onlardan yararlanmışlardır. Yönetimde kişisel yetenek ve başarı ile dürüst ve topluma yararlı davranışlarla yükselmeye dayanan bir terfi ve ödüllendirme sistemi vardı.58 Nitekim Busbecq, “Türkler kendi soydaşlarını bile kişisel yetenek ve liyakattan başka ölçüyle değerlendirmezler. Bu konuda tek ayrıcalık padişaha aittir’’59 diyecektir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri, siyasi ve idari yönetimi doğrudan doğruya Saray’ın elinde bulunuyordu. O yüzden hükümdar, devlet adamlarının ekserisini tecrübeden geçirmek zorundaydı. Bu eğitim ve tecrübe yeri Enderun Okulu idi. Enderun Okulu, kurulduğu yıllardan itibaren büyük bir gelişme gösterecek, Tanzimat Dönemi’ne kadar gelmiştir. Enderun Okulu’na; Galata Sarayı, Eski Saray ve Edirne Sarayı gibi sarayların orta dereceli saray okullarını bitirenler kabul edilmekteydi.60 Enderun Okulu’na alınan çocuklara “iç oğlanları” denilirdi. Bunlar, üç biçimde yetiştirilirlerdi. Enderun eğitimi, günümüzün eğitim sistemine benzemezdi. Belli bir süresi ve programı yoktu. Her iç oğlanı, hem hevesine göre yöneliyor hem de öğrenebildiği kadar öğreniyordu.61 İç içe girmiş durumda olan bu üç tür eğitimi şu şekilde özetleyebiliriz: Hizmet Yoluyla Öğrenme: Enderun Okulu’nda hizmet yoluyla yetişme yedi oda içinde verilirdi. İlk iki oda Küçük ve Büyük odalar, okulların hazırlık sınıfına benzerler, liyakati olan çocuklar birinden diğerine geçerlerdi. Üçüncü, dördüncü, beşinci ve altıncı odalar; saray hizmetlerini tanırlar ve yaparlardı. Yedinci oda ise Has Oda idi. Has Oda, ihtisas bölümü mahiyetinde olup, padişahla daha yakından temas imkânı bululardı. Her odanın kendine mahsus dereceleri vardı. Bir odadan diğer odaya geçmek için kıdemli, yani eskimiş olmak şarttı. En son sınıf demek olan Has Oda’ya kadar gelenler “çıkma” tabiriyle çıkarılırlar, çırak edilirler ve her türlü hükümet ve ordu işlerinde kullanılırlardı. Çıkma müddeti sekiz sene idi. Çıkmaların yerine Acemi Oğlanlar Ocağı’ndan yenileri alınırdı.62 Enderun Okulu’nda, Has Oda’yı bitirenlerin güvenilir, sadık ve yetenekli bir insan olup olmadığının anlaşılabilmesi için çeşitli görevler verilerek denenmesi gerekliydi.63 Has Oda, Enderun Okulu’nun en önemli sınıfıydı. Fatih’in ünlü kanunnamesinde buna yer vermesi, verilen değerin bir ifadesidir. Padişahın en yakın hizmetlerini gören bu odanın mevcudu kırk kişiydi.64 Teorik Eğitim Enderun Okulu’nda bütün odalardaki çocuklar, kendi odalarına düşen görevleri yaptıktan sonra kalan boş vakitlerinde yazı öğrenirler, Kur’an okurlar ve onu ezberlemeye çalışırlardı. Enderun’da eğitim ve öğretim sadece Büyük ve Küçük odalara (Birinci ve İkinci Odalar) has değildi. Enderun Okulu öğrencilerinin bir gününü şöyle özetleyebiliriz. Sabahları güneş doğmadan önce kalkarlar, sabah namazına kadar Kur’an okurlar, namazı kıldıktan sonra Kur’andan okuyacakları yeni dersleri alırlardı. Enderun öğrencileri bu dersleri de saraya gelen hocalardan alırlardı.65 Öğrenciler, günlük çalışma programları bittikten sonra Hükümdar’a ait ne gibi görevleri varsa onu yaparlar sonra da derse başlarlardı. Burada medreseler düzeyinde kitabî bir eğitim-öğretim yapılırdı. Türk ve İslam kültürü ile ilgili derslerin birinci derecede olduğu görülürdü.66 Okutulan dersler; Türkçe, Arapça, Farsça, Edebiyat, Tarih, İslami Bilimler (Tefsir, 57 Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 167. Yahya Akyüz, Türk Eğitim Tarihi, s. 101. 59 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 85–86. 60 Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), Türkiye Tarihi, C: 2, İstanbul: Cem 1997, s. 244. 61 Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), aynı eser, s. 84–85. 62 Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, İstanbul 1977, s. 17. 63 Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 104. 64 Mehmet İpşirli, “Enderun”, DİA, C: 11, İstanbul 1995, s. 186. 65 Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, s. 14. 66 Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 14. 58 347 �Hadis, Fıkıh, Kelam, gibi) ve Matematik. Bu dersler arasında Türkçe, Edebiyat, Tarih ve Matematik dikkat çekiyor. Şu halde Enderun Okulu’nun programı medreselerden daha iyi düzenlenmişti.67 Enderun eğitiminde, başından sonuna kadar titizlikle riayet edilen ilkelerden biri “çıkma” idi. Hazırlık sınıfından Enderun eğitiminin sonuna kadar geçen süre içinde başarı ve ilerleme gösteremeyenler, buradan alınıp ordunun çeşitli kademelerine verilirdi. Görüldüğü gibi üstün başarı gösterenler, eğitim süresini tamamlayabilirdi. Enderun’da disiplinden hiç taviz verilmezdi. Çünkü çok değişik ırk ırk ve dini kökenlerden gelen gençler, İslam-Türk kültürü içerisinde yetiştiriliyordu.68 Burada Enderun’un amacı da ortaya çıkıyor. Kendilerinden çok şey beklenen ve daha sonra büyük görevler yüklenerek bu farklı yapıdaki çocukların kültürlerini artırma, disiplin altına alma ve kabiliyetlerini yöneltmedir. Enderun’da kabiliyetli yeni adaylara devamlı bir kontenjan bulunurdu. 1550’li yıllarda İstanbul’da Habsburg elçisi olarak görev yapan Busbecq, Batılıların iyi yetiştirilmiş attan ve köpekten zevk aldığını, Türklerin ise iyi yetiştirilmiş insanlardan büyük zevk aldıklarını anlatmaktadır. Türkler, olağanüstü bir insan bulduklarında, değerli bir nesne edinmişçesine coşku duyarlar, onu yetiştirmek için hiçbir emek ve çabadan kaçınmazlar. Biz ise onu eğitmek için kendimizi zahmete sokmaz, onu eğitmenin bize düşen bir iş olduğunu düşünmeyiz.69 16. yy. da İstanbul’daki hayatı yakından gören Busbecq, insan yetiştirmenin Osmanlıda bir hedef olduğunu gördüğü halde, 20. yy. başlarında A.H. Lybyer, “İnsan sevgisini ve ana babanın çocuklarını kendi hayat ve dinlerine göre yetiştirme hakkını hiçe sayıyordu.70” diyerek tenkit etmektedir. Hâlbuki aynı zamanlarda Avrupa’da toprağa bağlı soy asaleti denilen senyörlük sistemi vardı. Sistemin en üstünde kral, tebaası sayılan köylü de tabanda, en alt kısımda yer alırdı. Kral’la tebaası olan köylülerle doğrudan bir ilişki yoktu. Kralla köylü arasında senyör grubu yer alırdı. Osmanlı Devleti’nde ise tebaa ile merkezi otorite arasında aracı gruplar yer almazdı. Devlet hiçbir zaman bu tip araçların ortaya çıkmasına izin vermezdi. Osmanlı Sipahisi ile padişahın ilişkisi tek yönlüdür. Merkez her şeye hâkimdir. Sözleşme değil, merkezin emri ve kanunlar söz konusudur. Feodal senyörlerin, kralları ile ilişkileri ise iki yönlüdür. Senyörlerin hak ve yetkileri ile kralın hak ve yetki alanları “şart” denilen sözleşmelerle tayin ve tespit edilmektedir.71 Avrupa’daki manasıyla Türklerde feodal kurumların hiçbir izi yoktur. Soy teşkilatı ve asalete dayalı bir sistemde oluşmamıştır. “Bey” kelimesi doğuda bir nezaket unvanıdır.72 Bir insanı ailesinden, yuvasından hayat şartlarından ve dininden ayıran bir düzeni kötülemek kolaysa da bu uygulamayı 16. yy. şartları ve değerleri ve Avrupa’nın o dönemde içinde bulunduğu eğitim anlayışı ile değerlendirmek gerektiği unutulmamalıdır.73 Beden ve Sanat Eğitimi: Enderun’da çocukların yeteneklerine göre de bir eğitim vardı. Dersler dışında ata binmek, iyi silah kullanmak isteyenler iyi bir silahşor olarak yetişirlerdi. Savaş sanatı öğretilirdi. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman’ın binicilikle ilgili özel bir ilgisi vardı. Bu sporu yapan ve öğrenenlerle yakından ilgilenir onlarla konuşur ve hediyeler verirdi.74 Güzel yazı, cilt sanatı, tezhip tasvir ve mimari gibi sanata merak edenler, musiki, şiir, edebiyat ve tıp, matematik, mühendislik gibi bilimlere ilgi duyanlar da ilgilendikleri alanlarda sarayda görevli bilginlere ya da ilgili sanatın ustalarına devam ederlerdi.75 Bu eğitimlerin önemli bir amacı da gerektiği zaman bu yoldan geçimini sağlayacak bir mesleği kazandırmaktı. Enderun Okulu, ordunun ihtiyacı olan nitelikli askerleri yetiştirdiği, merkezde ve eyaletlerde çeşitli seviyelerde hizmet eden kişiler hazırladığı gibi sarayın mimarını, nakkaşını, ressamını, kâtibini, müneccimini, şairini, tarihçisini, bilginini, silahşorunu ve müzisyenini de yetiştirmiştir. Enderun, çalışma biçimi, programı ve işleyişi bakımından bir okuldan ziyade çeşitli hünerlerin, sanatların, idari ve siyasi bilgilerin uygulamalı olarak öğretildiği, kabiliyetlerin tespit edildiği bir kurs ve staj yeri gibi olduğu söylenebilir.76 Osmanlı Devleti’nde şüphesiz Enderun Okulu’ndan başka da eğitim kurumları vardı. Tamamen farklı metotları olan medreseler vardı. Medreseler ülke çapında yaygın kurumlardı. Ülkenin üst düzey görevlilerinin çoğunluğu medrese kökenliydi. Medreseler geleneksel eğitimlerinin yanı sıra tabii bilimler eğitimini de yapıyorlardı. En yüksek düzeyde olan sekiz fakülteli (sahn-ı seman) Süleymaniye Medresesi idi. Buna rağmen daha çok Enderun Okulu ön plana çıkıyordu. Aynı durum ülkede büyük Tımar ordusu (mevcudu 200.000 kişi) 67 Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 105. Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186. 69 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 76–77. 70 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 56. 71 Mehmet Doğan, Tarih ve Toplum, İstanbul 1977, s. 125–126. 72 Ciro Truhelka, “Bosna’da Arazi Meselesinin Tarihi Esasları”, THİTM, C: I, İstanbul 1931, s. 59–60. 73 Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 169. 74 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 78. 75 İsmet Parmaksızoğlu, “Enderun Mektebi”, Türk Ansiklopedisi, C: 15, Ankara 1968. 76 Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186. 68 348 �olduğu halde sayıları 12–14 bin kişi olan Yeniçeri Ordusu için de geçerlidir. Devletin temel ordusu Anadolu’da örgütlenen toprağa bağlı Tımar Ordusuydu. Fakat daha çok nazara verilen ordu ise Yeniçeri Ordusu idi. Bunun sebebi İstanbul’a gelen yabancı elçilerin okul olarak Enderun’u, ordu olarak da Yeniçeri Ocağı’nı görüp, onların üzerinden değerlendirmelerde, araştırmalarda bulunarak dış dünyaya tanıtmış olmalarıdır. Bununla birlikte Enderun Okulu’nun ve Yeniçeri Ordusunun insan kaynağının sağlanma biçiminin dikkat çekici olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Enderun Okulu, bir seçkinler eğitimi veriyordu. Aşırı bir disiplin uygulanan okulda kurallara uyma konusunda son derece sert davranılıyordu. En küçük kusurlar bile cezalandırılıyordu. Bu disiplin; sabretmeyi, zorluklara karşı dayanmayı, alçak gönüllü olmayı bir yaşam biçimine dönüştürüyordu. Enderun’daki çocuklar biliyorlardı ki gelecekte sahip olacakları imkânlar bugün yaşadıkları sıkıntıların sonucuna bağlıdır. Enderun, dönemin şartlarından doğmuş çok önemli bir okuldur. Osmanlı Devleti’nin sosyal yapısı çok kültürlülük esasına dayandığı için ırk ve kan bağının yerine kültür bağı ve birlikte yaşama sanatının geliştirilmesi gerekiyordu. Bu dönüşümü ancak bir okul yapabilirdi. Ortak bir kültür, ortak bir vatandaşlık sorumluluğu bir vatan kavramı etrafında oluşturulmuştu. Bir sistem, şirket ve devlet ne kadar sağlam esaslara dayalı olarak kurulursa kurulsun zaman içerisinde zafiyete uğraması ihtimalden uzak bir durum değildir. Ezeli bir tecrübedir ki tarih bu gibi örneklerle doludur. Hedef ve mahiyet itibariyle zirvenin zorlandığı zamanlar aynı zamanda zafiyetin de başlangıç zamanlarıdır. Devşirme sisteminin ve buna bağlı Enderun Okulu’nun Türk dışı unsurlardan oluşması nedeniyle bozulduğu tezinin gerçeği çok yansıttığı söylenemez. Bu konuyla ilgilenen birçok düşünürümüz birbirleriyle tezat halinde olmuşlardır. Osmanlı medeniyetinin dar anlamda da kurumların duraklamasına Osmanlı yöneticilerinin kültürüyle Türk halk kültürünün arasında derin bir uçurumun oluşmasına neden olacak gösterilmektedir.77 Buna karşılık Yeniçeri Ocağı’na Türk dışı unsurların girmesinin bu ocağı bozduğu tezini gözü kapalı savunmaları, ne kadar korkunç bir bilgisizlik içinde debeleştiklerini gösterir, diyenler de olmuştur.78 Osmanlı Devleti, çok kültürlü bir toplum olmanın dezavantajını, milliliği ikinci plana atarak avantaja çevirmiş, dolayısıyla farklı din ve kültüre mensup milletlerden endişe duymamıştır. Osmanlı coğrafyasında ana kimlik dinden çıktığı için ihtida ettirmek sistemin temel amacı olmalıydı. Bu hareket zorlamayla yapılmayacak, İslamiyet’i kabul edenler terfi ettirilip desteklenecekti. Yönetici grubun çoğunlukla her üyesinin Hıristiyan kökenli olmasına karşılık, yükselebilmesi için Müslüman olması şarttı. Enderun Okulu’ndan en dindar Müslümanlar çıktığı halde din değiştirmeden eğitimini tamamlayanlar da oluyordu. Enderun’da kimse Müslüman olmaya zorlanmıyordu. Etnik ve dini unsurlara azami hoşgörü uygulanıyordu. Enderun’da çok ünlü tarihçiler, sanatçılar ve bilginler yetişiyordu. Ünlü Osmanlı tarihçilerinden Fındıklılı Mehmet Ağa, Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi, Evliya Çelebi, Kâtip Çelebi ve Koçi Bey bunlar arasında sayılabilir.79 Enderun’da Müslüman olmadığı halde Türk kültürüne ve devletine büyük hizmetler yapan kişiler de yetişmiştir. Bunların başında Dimitriyus Kantemir (1673–1723) gelmektedir. Enderun’da rehine olarak İstanbul’a getirilen kral çocukları da tahsil ve terbiye görürlerdi. Dimitri Kantemir de Boğdan Prensliğine tayin edilen (1684) babası Kostantin’in devlete sadakatinin bir göstergesi olarak İstanbul’a getirilmediği için durumu diğerlerinden biraz farklı olmakla beraber Enderun’un himayesine verilmişti. Dimitri, kendi dinini muhafaza etmekle beraber Enderun’da okutulan dersleri, sanatları, Türk ve İslam kültürünü öğrenmiştir. 1687 yılında Enderun’a giren Dimitri, Türkçeyi, Arapçayı ve Farsçayı öğrenmişti. Zaten Enderun’a girdiğinde Rumca, Latince, Rusça, eski Yunan ve Fransız dillerini biliyordu.80 Türkiye’de aralıklarla 22 yıl kaldı. Geniş bir dil bilgisinin de etkisiyle doğu-batı kültür değerlerinin güçlü ve anlamlı bir sentezini yaparak Osmanlı Tarihi hakkında iki ciltlik Latince bir eser meydana getirdi. Dimitri Kantemir, bu eserini yazarken Hoca Saadettin Efendi’nin Tacüt-tevarih’i olmak üzere Selaniki, Peçevi, Karaçelebizade, Naima ile dillerini iyi bildiği Batılı tarihçilerden de yararlanmıştı.81 Çok genç bir yaşta İstanbul’a gelen Dimitri Kantemir Doğu ve Batının fikir harmanında kendini bulmuştu. Halil İnalcık’ın deyimiyle Dimitri Kandemir, Osmanlı başkentinde yeni kültürel yönelişe istikamet verenlerden biridir ama aynı zamanda İstanbul’un kültür ve fikir hayatının da bir ürünüdür. Dimitri Kantemir’in Türk kültürüne yaptığı en önemli hizmeti yazdığı Osmanlı tarihi ile oldu. J. Von Hammer’in 1827–1835 yıllarında yazdığı Osmanlı Tarihine kadar Avrupa’da yüzyıl boyunca tek eser olarak kabul edildi. Bütün bir Avrupa neredeyse Osmanlı tarih ve kültürünü Dimitri Kantemir vasıtasıyla öğrendi. Osmanlı Devleti’nin yükseliş nedenlerini objektif bir dille ortaya koydu. Türk adalet, hoşgörü ve iyiliksever özelliklerinin bütün uyrukları kucakladığını bunun da devleti güçlendirdiğini örneklerle ortaya koydu. Osman Gazi’nin oğlu Orhan bey’e vasiyetinin devletin temelinin sağlam olmasıyla yakından ilgisini kurarak halka ve hakka hizmetin esas alındığını hükümdarda acıma ve iyilik duygularının kaybolmamasını ancak böylelikle 77 Mümtaz Turhan, Garplılaşmanın Neresindeyiz, İstanbul 1980, s. 41. Kemal Tahir, Notlar/Kitap Notları, İstanbul 1993, s. 33. 79 İsmail Baykal, Enderun Mektebi Tarihi, İstanbul 1953, s. 98–111. 80 Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 11. 81 Dimitri Kantemir, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yükseliş ve Çöküş Tarihi, c:I, İstanbul 1998. s.24. 78 349 �Tanrının himayesine kavuşulacağını belirtir.82 Osmanlılarda yasa ve törelerin egemen olması merhametli hükümdarların göreve gelmeleri, Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin Balkanlarda yayılmasını kolaylaştırmış, Hıristiyan çocuklarının devşirilmelerini kolaylaştırmıştı. Dimitri Kantemir, Hıristiyan çocuklarına İslam eğitimi verildikten sonra asıl orduya katılmalarını da yadırgamamıştır. Orhan Bey’in merhametli davranması karşısında duygulanan İznik halkının gönüllü olarak Osmanlı Devleti’ne vergi vermeyi kabul ettiğini, böylece İznik’te Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin başladığını söyler. Türk hoşgörüsünün kısa zamanda İznik’in nüfusunu, İstanbul’la yarışacak seviyeye getirdiğini ifade eder.83 Dimitri Kantemir’in Osmanlı tarihine dair yazdığı eser, Avrupa’da heyecan uyandırmış kısa süre içinde Avrupa’nın ünlü saraylarında tercüme edilmeye başlamıştır. Bu vesile ile Türk kültürü Avrupa’da sağlam bir kaynaktan yayılma imkanı bulurken, Osmanlılar arasında da Batı’nın 17. yy. sonlarından itibaren başarısının sırrını anlamak yolunda bir keşif başlattığı söylenebilir. 82 83 Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 74-75. Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 79. 350 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. 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International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship between Economic Growth and Human Capital: An Empirical Analysis for Turkey Mahmut ZORTUK Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Kütahya, Türkiye mzortuk@istanbul.edu.tr Đbrahim BAKIRTAŞ Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Kütahya, Türkiye ibakirtas@dumlupinar.edu.tr Serkan VARSAK Bilecik Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Bilecik, Türkiye svarsak@bilecik.edutr Abstract: The aim of this study is to explain the long and short run probable effects on the economic growth of human capital. According to main hypothesis of research, as human capital raises, the economic capital raises. In our analysis, human capital is defined with two variables. These are school enrollment rate (SR) and education spending for each student (ED). The growth rate is defined as real gross domestic product rate (GDP). The analysis includes 1970-2008 term of Turkey. The main hypothesis is tested by the help of Bounds test approach. According to the analysis results there are long run meaningful these are variables. On the other hand, long run coefficients which are estimated by the help of the model are meaningful but short run unmeaning. These are results is parallelisms between the literature and the long run and short run coefficients symbols from the analysis results. Keywords: Human Capital, Economic Growth, Time Series. 1. Introduction Growth models which started with Keynes effect in 1930’s and frequently discussed till early 1950’s, found base with Ricardo and that were brought alternative approach with Marx, has been pushed to background in economic literature for 30 years until 1980’s. Although no general model has been reached about growth; several studies have been made in growth literature by the addition of new economic factors. Globalization in world economy rendered the production and usage of learning technology, qualified labor power, and consequently the importance of human capital. Human capital is the only production factor that could unite and use all other production factors and handle the possible problems that could occur in all other production factors. For this reason, the formation targeted investments of developing countries gained importance in order to realize the expected level of the economic growth. Human capital concept which is one of the major sources of economic growth is being used to express all concepts such as {knowledge, ability, skills, health condition, place in social relations and education level} (Kar ve Ağır, 2003). Although classic economists like Adam Smith, J. Stuart Mill and Alfred Marshall first studied the human capital concept, their opinions have been ignored by modern human capital theories. Later on, Denison, Schultz and Becker; developed the human capital concept referring to Smith’s opinions and integrated it into their analysis as one of the production factors such as physical capital. Studies included in economy literature, has approved the hypothesis of “human capital needs investments just like economy needs physical capital investments” (Kar ve Ağır, 2003). Human capital build up is accepted as the most important factor in the achievement of the expected growth and progress. Companies started giving more importance to personal training in order to exist, compete and get along with the innovation. In the recent years, it is accepted that training achieves not only personal development but also social and economical progress (Hoşgörür ve Gezgin, 2005). However, evoking of this power depends on human capital and the support given to training of human capital. It is a resource; in breeding of qualified labor power which is consistent with the needs of national economy, achievement of social order and realization of economical growth at desired level by supporting the development of higher techniques (Wykstra, 1971). 439 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Literature The impact of human capital on economic growth has been explained using Internal Growth Models and Neo-classical Growth Theory. In the studies concerning this issue the impact of human capital on growth has been measured using the impact of education, which is a measurable human capital indicator, on economic growth. Other capital factors were not included in the analyses made and the studies have been based on the relationship of education and growth (Atik, 2006). The studies that formed the basis of neoclassical growth theory were carried out by Solow (1956) and Swan (1956). In the studies based on Neo-classical economics theory, the impact of human capital factors on economic growth was calculated using Cobb-Douglas production function. The function is given below. Y t = AKt α Ht β Lt γ (1) In Equation (1), the following abbreviations were used; Y; Real income, A; External information, K; Physical capital, H; Education, L; Labor force, α ; Physical Capital Elasticity of Production, β ; Educational elasticity, γ ; Labor force elasticity, t; Time. In the studies based on Cobb-Douglas production function, different indicators were used for education variable. The most common indicators used are; school admission rates, graduation rates, average period of education, educational expenses and the rate of schooling (Atik, 2006). The first study belongs to Schultz (1960). Schultz, making use of the educational indicators in USA between the years 1900–1956, reached the conclusion that all the GNP could not be accounted for by traditional production factors. Schultz asserted that the unaccountable part comprises the variables incorporated to the model under human capital indicators and the rise in the national product which was not accountable by the traditional production factors could be explained by the labor force who are primary school, secondary school and higher education graduates. Nonneman and Vanhoudt (1996) made a generalization of Expanded Solow model in their study and obtained a production function related to the model and used effective labor force as a variable. In the study made by Nonneman and Vanhoudt using the economic growth rates of OECD member countries; only human capital, technological knowledge oriented investments and their starting points were considered to be significant and taken as explanatory variables. Through this study, Nonneman and Vanhoudt have reached the conclusion that the major factors which affect economic growth in almost every economy, especially those of OECD countries, are human capital and technological investments. Denison (1962) investigated the relationship between average education period and economic growth using the annual data pertaining to 1910–1960 period. The results of the analysis suggest that 23% of the economic growth in the USA might be accounted for based on the increase in the level of education of the labor force. Another study which investigates the impact of human capital on economic growth was conducted by Chuang (1999). In the study which investigated two major components of the impact of human capital on longterm economic growth, namely human capital accumulation and technological advancement processes, industrial data from Taiwan were taken as the basis. According to the findings of this study; 7% of the 29% increase in total production can be explained by the increase in levels of education. Schultz (1999) who studied the relationship between economic growth and individual capital stressed that health and education investments not only bring individual benefits but also are important for economic growth. The investments in the fields of education and health in the African continent which is considered to be underdeveloped in education and health services have been assessed and the impact of the scarcity of investment in these fields on economy was evaluated. Schultz has, in view of the series used for obtaining data, reached the conclusion that education and health services in African countries positively effect economic growth. Another study which investigates the impact of human capital on economic growth was conducted by Rangazas (2000). In his study, which uses the data pertaining to the USA for the period from 1870 to 1970, he has investigated the impact of human capital on economic growth. Rangazas divided the labor factor into human capital and unskilled labor force. According to the findings of the study, the growth rate realized as 9,3% from 1870 to 1970 might be accounted for as 20% by physical capital, 6,7% by human capital, and 69% by labor force. Moreover, it has also been concluded that educated labor factor increases the strength of physical capital in defining the increase in growth. Romer (1986) and Lucas (1988) have laid the foundations of internal growth theories. In internal growth models human capital accumulation creates positive externalities and has a positive effect on economic growth. Internal growth models try to make up for the deficiencies of the Cobb-Douglas type production function. Internal growth models include the impact of human capital on production factors and total factor productivity in the analysis. The production function used in internal growth models is as follows (Atik, 2006): Y=A(H) F(H,L,R,A) (2) 440 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In the equation (2), the following abbreviations are used Y income, A(H): technology internalized during education, H education, L unskilled labor force, R: R&D, and A technological knowledge. In Barro (1991)’s study which explains the relationship between human capital and economic growth, the increase in the real value of the per capita GNP of 98 countries in the time period covering 1960-1985 has a positive relationship with initial human capital (according to 1960 school records) yet displays a negative relationship with the initial value of the GNP. Countries that have larger human capitals also display a lower birth rate. Growth is in inverse proportion with the expenditures of government in GNP. Other important findings include the positive correlation between growth rates and political stability and the negative correlation of the growth rates with negative macroeconomic indicators of the market. Wolff and Gittleman (1993) have defined the human capital variable as school admission rates and investigated the impact of human capital on economic growth. The impact of education on labor force has been analyzed in the study. As a result of the analyses it has been asserted that admission to higher education rates increase labor productivity. Tallman and Wang (1994) investigated whether or not the human capital was the source of growth in Taiwanese economy using the data pertaining to the period 1965-1989. Tallman and Wang based their study on Lucas-Romer type internal growth model. The most important assumption of the model appears as human capital has a fixed yield. The findings of the study suggest that human capital factors effect the labor force in Taiwan and account for 40% of the economy and human capital is an important factor that enhances the productivity of technology and labor force. Benhabib and Spiegel (1994), through the model they have built in their study, have studied the adaptation speed of human capital to technological developments in 121 developed and developing countries using the panel data pertaining to 1965-1985 period and they have tested the hypothesis “human capital effects the physical capital productivity and increases total factor productivity”. They have obtained the result that human capital as a production factor has a negative effect on economic growth. However, as a result of the analysis they have made they concluded that human capital has an indirect impact on economic growth rather than a direct one. Coe, Helpman and Hofmaister (1997) have taken average education period as the human capital variable. They have explained the impact of human capital on economic growth for 77 countries covering the time period from 1971 to 1990 in their study. According to the obtained findings, those developing countries which have high levels of education and research and development expenditures acquire positive externalities from the trade with developed countries and have an increase in the productivity of production factors as they produce new technologies. Einarsson and Marquis (1998), on the other hand; adapted the Lucas model to the real business cycles and searched for the influence of human capital on economical growth of the USA. In this study performed using the annual data of the years from 1950 to 1989, they reached the conclusion that the rate of human capital growth was slower than that of physical capital growth and that its influence on economical growth was less strong compared to that of the physical capital. Erk, Çubuk and Ateş (1998), studied on accumulation of physical capital and human capital and also their long run effects on economical growth. In this study they established three alternative models and applied them on 45 developing countries. Moreover, making use of the results of this study the reason for why the developed countries have lower long term growth coefficients compared to the under-developed countries was searched for. In the first model established they used the data pertaining to the 45 countries selected covering the period between the years 1960-1990 and these data revealed that the slope rates that give unit change rates of human capital and physical capital are high for the developed countries and low for the developing ones. Another study focusing on theoretical approaches concerning human capital and production technologies belongs to Park (2004), who manipulates effects of economic growth on distribution of population as for human capital, considering educational success levels. Here, using the data pertaining to some developing and developed countries collected in five- year-periods between the years 1960 and 1995, it was concluded that human capital distribution has a positive interaction with growth. Tunç (1993) in a study, searched for the contribution of schooling rate to the economic growth of Turkey using the annual data pertaining to 1968-1995 and simple regression method. According to the regression results the influence of secondary school schooling rates was determined to be 40%, while higher education schooling rate had a contribution of 0,09%. Furthermore, the study has shown that there is a close relationship between the development levels of the countries and the educational levels of the labor force in economy. Ateş (1998), on the other hand, using the annual data pertaining to 1960-1994 period in Turkey, analyzed the capacity of extended Solow model with human capital to explain economic growth. Ateş reached the conclusion that the capacity to explain the changes in economic growth is higher in extended Solow model with human capital compared to the non-extended Solow model. 441 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The common point of the all studies is that long term economic growth of the countries that care about human capital accumulation beside the other production factors is larger compared to that of the other countries (Gümüş, 2004: 159). Moreover, the main subject of these studies is economic development. Because the most important factor was deemed to be economic growth in realization phase of economic development, the studies were analyzed around the axis of growth. 3.Data and Methodology This study examines the plausible impacts of human development on the economic growth in the light of hypotheses by using annual date for 1970-2008. For the model in which real gross national product (GNP) is dependent variable we use two independent variables, namely; school enrollment rate (SR) and educational expenditure per student (EDE). SR is defined as simple mean values of the rates of primary education, secondary education and higher education. GNP data are from State Planning Organization (DTP), EDE data are from Ministry of Education (MEB), and SR data are from database of World Development Indicators (WDI). In our analyses we use the logarithmic values of GNP, EDE, SR. The model is as follows: ln GNPt = α 0 + α 1 ln EDEt + α 2 ln SRt + u t (3) To implement the bounds test let us define a vector of two variables, zt , where zt = ( y t , xt' )' , yt is the dependent variable and xt is a vector of regressors. The data generating process of zt is a p-order vector autoregression. For cointegration analysis it is essential that ∆ yt be modelled as a conditional error correction model (CECM); p q i =1 j =0 ∆y t = c0 + π yy y t −1 + π yx. x xt −1 + ∑ ϑi ∆y t −i + ∑ φ 'j ∆xt − j + θω t + µ t (4) Here, πyy and πyx.x are long-run multipliers. co is the constant and ωt is a vector of exogenous components, e.g dummy variables. Lagged values of ∆yt and current and lagged values of ∆xt are used the model the short-run dymamic structure and µ t is error term. The bounds testing procedure for the absence of any level relationship between yt and xt is through exclusion of the lagged levels variables yt-1 and xt-1 in Equation 4. It follows, then, that our test for the absence of a conditional level relationship between yt and xt entails the following null and alternative hypotheses: H0; πyy = 0, πyx.x=0' , Hl; πyy ≠ 0, πyx.x ≠ 0' veya πyy ≠ 0, πyx.x= 0' ya da πyy = 0, πyx.x ≠ 0' Peseran et.al.(2001) generated two sets of critical values assuming that both regressors are I(1) and both are I(0). While the critical values are reported in Pesaran and Pesaran (1997) and Pesaran et al. (2001), they are generated for sample sizes of 500 observations and 1000 observations and 20 000 and 40 000 replications, respectively. The F Statistic that has a non-standart distiribution, depends upon; (i) whether the ARDL model contains an intercept and/or a trend, (ii) the number of regressors, (iii) whether variables included in the ARDL model are I(0) or I(1). If the calculated F statistic is higher than the upper critical value, I(1), the null hypothesis of no long-run relationship can be rejected without knowing the order of integration of the regressors. Alternatively, if calculated F statistic is smaller than the lower critical value, I(0), the null hypothesis is accepted without knowing the order of integration of the regressors. When the test statistic falls inside the upper and lower critical value, a conclusive inference cannot be made. Then, we must know the order of integration of variables, I(d), for any conclusion can be drawn. There are different advantages of the bounds testing approach that motivates us in our work. This procedure can be applied to models irrespective of whether the variables are I(0) or I(1). This is unlike other popular cointegration techniques such as the Engle and Granger (1987), Johansen and Juselius (1990) and, which require pre-testing the variables to determine their order of integration. (Pesaran and Pesaran, 1997) Other advantage of bounds testing for this work that the method can be applied in case in which data set is of small sample sizes, such as a in the present study. Narayan(2005) show that the bounds testing approach to cointegration is popular in small sample sizes. In addition to the tis advantages the bounds test, the Engle-Granger Method the Unrestricted Error Correction Model does not push the short run dynamics into the residual terms. Thus, the ARDL approach, because it draws upon the Unrestricted Error Correction Model has better statistical properties than the EngleGranger cointegration test (Benarjee et.al., 1998) 442 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The UECM for equation (1) can be written as below: n n n i =1 i =0 i =0 ∆ ln GNPt = a 0 + ∑ a1i ∆ ln GNPt −i + ∑ a 2i ∆ ln EDE t −i + ∑ a3i ∆ ln SRt −i + a 4 ln GNPt −1 + a 5 ln EDEt −1 + a 6 ln SRt −1 + a 7 DUM + et (5) where, ∆lnGNP, ∆lnEDE and ∆lnSR are first difference of the logarithms of real domestic income (lnGNP), real education expenditure (lnEDE), and school rate (lnSR) respectively. We include a dummy variable to account for structural break. DUM is dummy variable that indicates the beginning of eight-year basic education in Turkey in 1997. The dummy variable is defined by: DUM = 1 If t = 1997-2008 0 otherwise 4. Empirical Results The ADF and PP test the null of a unit root against the alternative of stationary. We allow both intercept and intercept with trends in the testing. As shown in Table 1, the testing results are mixed. Since none of the variables are integrated at an order higher than one, this allows the use of the ARDL bounds procedure. Table 1.Test results for unit roots lnGNP ∆lnGNP lnEDE ∆lnEDE lnSR ∆lnSR ADFa intercept 0.37(0) -6.48(1)* 0.32(2) -3.34(1)* 0.17(1) 3.96(1)* intercept and trend -2.17(0) -6.42(0)* -1.09(2) -3.37(1)* -2.11(0) -4.07(0)* PPb intercept 0.08(2) -6.48(0)* 0.52(0) -4.87(3) 0.32(1) 4.05(1)* intercept and trend -2.67(0) -6.42(0)* -1.13(1) -5.10(2)* -1.79(1) -4.08(1)* Notes: aH0: the series has a unit root. AIC is used to select the lag length. The maximum number of lags is set to be four. bH0: the series has a unit root. Barlett–Kernel is used as the spectral estimation method. The bandwidth is selected using Newey– West method. *, indicate 1% level of significance. The optimal lag length or bandwidth is indicated in the parentheses. The calculated F-statistic together with the critical values are reported in Table 2. The calculated Fstatistic (Wald test), that necessary for testing the presence of cointegration relation among the variables of equation (2). When real GNP is the dependent variable, the calculated F- statistic is FRGNP(RGNP|REDE,RSR)=7.6127 (Prob:0.002). This value higher than the upper bond critical value of 6.36 at the %1 level. The result suggest that the null hypothesis of no long-run relationship can be rejected. A maximum of 2 lags was used for the model. The estimated model presented here is based on the Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. The long-run and short-run results are presented in Tables 3. Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests proposed by Brown et al. (1975) are used in testing for constancy of the long-run parameters. As seen from Figure 1, Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests statistics are inside the 95% confidence interval. This result shows that applied Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests clearly indicate stability of the estimated parameters of the CECM during the sample period. In addition to this Figure 1 was subjected to a number of diagnostic tests, including test of autocorrelation, normality and heteroskedasticity in the error stability term. We found no evidence of autocorrelation in the disturbance of the error term. The estimated model passes the Jarque-Berra normality tests, suggesting that the errors are normally distributed and the Ramsey-Reset test indicates that the model is correctly specified while according to the ARCH test, there is no problem of heteroskedasticity. Table 2. Cointegration Test Results (Critical value Bounds of the F -statistic: Unrest’d intercepts and no trends) 90% level 95% level 99% level k I(0) 2 3.17 Calculated F-statistic FRGNP(RGNP|REDE,RSR) I(1) 4.14 I(0) 3.79 I(1) 4.85 I(0) 5.15 I(1) 6.36 7.6127 (Prob:0.002) Note: The critical value are extracted Peseran et. al. Table CI(iii) Case III and k: The number of explanatory variables. lnEDE lnSR Table 3. Estimated Short-Run and Long-Run Elasticity’s UECM Short-run Long-run -0.02 (Prob: 0.1497) 0.022 (Prob: 0.0042) -0.13 (Prob: 0.2123) 0.40 (Prob: 0.0025) 443 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo *The long run coefficient of DUM variable is calculated to be 0.95 (Prob: 0.031). 12 1.6 8 1.2 4 0.8 0 0.4 -4 0.0 -8 -12 -0.4 1994 1996 1998 CUSUM 2000 2002 2004 2006 5% Significance 2008 1994 1996 1998 2000 CUSUM of Squares 2002 2004 2006 2008 5% Significance Jarque-Bera:1.61 (Prob:0.44), Ramsey Reset[1]: 2.49 (Prob:0.13), Ramsey Reset[2]: 1.97 (Prob:0.19) Breusch-Godfrey, LM test[1]: 0.42 (Prob:0.53), LM test[2]: 0.21 (Prob:0.80), ARCH test[1]:0.02 (Prob:0.87), ARCH test[2]:0.49 (Prob:0.61) ARCH test[3]:0.33 (Prob:0.79). Figure 1. Plots of Cusum Cusum of Squares and Diagnostic tests for the estimated UECM 5. Conclusion and Policy Implication Studies started in 1950’s which human capital concept up to nowadays, are measuring the relationship between growth and progress of domestic economies and education level of the society and moreover effect of education on increase in average per capital income and accordingly rise in national income. Studies on determination of schooling rates and education expenses and their economical effects; stated that there is a positive relation between education and personal income. Additionally, continuing studies showed that as schooling rate and education period increase, the personal income increases faster, personal income raise could be explained with the raise in personal education, education expenses have positive effect on income distribution and domestic education expense levels have linear relation with development levels. By the advantage of this fundamental knowledge and rich literature, a long term statistical meaningful relation has been found between schooling rates, educational expense per student and real gross national expenditure growth rate variables and variables derived from the results of Bounds test approach which were carried on between 1970 and 2008 in Turkey. While model based predicted long term coefficients are said to be meaningful, short term coefficients are found meaningless. At the end of the analysis, it was seen that long and short term coefficient signs derived from the analysis are parallel to the literature. References Ateş, S., Çubuk, A. ve Erk, N. (1998), "Long-Run Growth and Physical Capital-Human Capital Concentration". Working Paper presented at the International METU Conference on Economics II, September 11, Ankara. Ateş, S. 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Hoşgörür, V. ve Gezgin, G.(2005), “Ekonomik ve Sosyal Kalkınmada Eğitim”, Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Elektronik Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 2 (1): http://efdergi.yyu.edu.tr (22.11.2006). Johansen S. And Juselieus K. (1990), “Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Inference on Cointegration with Application to the Demand for Money”, Oxford Bulletin of Economic and Statistic, 52:169-210. Kar, M. ve Ağır, H. (2003), “Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye ve Ekonomik Büyüme: Nedensellik Testi”, II. Ulusal Bilgi, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 181-190 Lucas, R. E. (1988), “On The Mechanics of Economic Development”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 22: 3-42. Narayan, P. K. (2005), “The Saving and Investment Nexus for China: Evidence From Cointegration Tests”, Applied Economics, 37: 1979–1990. Nonneman, Y. and Vanhoudt, P. (1996), “A Further Augmentation of the Solow and the empirics of Economics Growth for OECD Countries”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(3): 943-953. Park, J. (2004), “Dispersion of Human Capital and Economic Growth”, Journal of Macroeconomics, 28(3):520-529. Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. J. (2001), “Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3): 289–326. Pesaran, H. M. and Pesaran, B. (1997), Microfit 4.0, England: Oxford University Press. Rangazas, P. (2000), “Schooling and Economic Growth: A King-Rebelo Experiment with Human Capital”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 46(2): 397-416. Romer, P.M. (1986), “Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 94(5):1002-1037 Schultz, T. W. (1960), “Capital Formation by Education”, Journal of Political Economy, 68 (1): 571-583. Schultz, T. W. (1999), “Education and Economic Growth: Return to Education” Readings in the Economics of Education, UNESCO, 277-292. Solow, R. M., (1956), “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70:65-94. Swan, T.W. (1956), “Economic Growth and Capital Accumulation,” Economic Record, 32:334-361 Tallman, E. and Wang, P. (1994), “Human Capital and endogenous Growth: Evidence from Taiwan”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 34(3): 101-124. Tunç, M. (1993), “Türkiye’de Eğitimin Ekonomik Kalkınmaya Etkisi”, DEÜ, ĐĐBF Dergisi, 8(2):1-32. Wolff, E.N. and Gittleman, M. (1993), “The Role of Education in Productivity Convergence: Does Higher Education Matter?”, Explaining Economic Growth, A. Szermai, B.V. Ark and D. Pilat (Eds.), North Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers, 147-167. Wykstra, R. A. (1974), Education and the Economics of Human Capital. New York: Free Pres. 445 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 289 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship between Economic Growth and Human Capital: An Empirical Analysis for Turkey Author Author ZORTUK, Mahmut BAKIRTAS, ibrahim VARSAK, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to explain the long and short run probable effects on the economic growth of human capital. According to main hypothesis of research, as human capital raises, the economic capital raises. In our analysis, human capital is defined with two variables. These are school enrollment rate (SR) and education spending for each student (ED). The growth rate is defined as real gross domestic product rate (GDP). The analysis includes 1970-2008 term of Turkey. The main hypothesis is tested by the help of Bounds test approach. According to the analysis results there are long run meaningful these are variables. On the other hand, long run coefficients which are estimated by the help of the model are meaningful but short run unmeaning. These are results is parallelisms between the literature and the long run and short run coefficients symbols from the analysis results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3bf68748ca88229e06c2c375ec91c21.pdf 967ab1545653b8023cdf536c919a343a PDF Text Text Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Ismail Zorluer Technical Educational Faculty, Construction Education, Geotechnical Branch Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Lemi Tufan Taspolat Vocational High School, Construction Department, Anadolu University Bilecik Bilecik, Turkey lltaspolat@anadolu.edu.tr Abstract: Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Keywords: Waste marble dust, Environment, landfill liner, freezing-thawing 1. Introduction The waste materials are serious environmental problem. Rapidly growing cities with increasing population have formed this problem. Concentration of population in cities has increased consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed for the recycling of wastes; many of them cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies; however, a final amount of trashes must be stored for the last removal procedure. In the landfill layers, usage of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to prevent from environmental conditions. By this way, the waste materials, such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. In recent times, waste marble dust was used as an additive material for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi’s study (1999) showed that the geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are improved substantially by the addition of marble dust, plasticity was reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55% respectively. Additionally, normal 28 day curing improved after 7 to 10 days of normal curing. The effect of waste marble dust on swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays was investigated by Zorluer (2003). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages of dry soil weight. Then, they were compacted at the standard compaction effort and swelling tests were carried out with odometer apparatus. The experimental results reveal that waste marble dust is effective for controlling of swelling potential and it can be used for this purpose. Also marble dust affect unconfined compression strength of clay soils according to study of Zorluer (2006). Clay soil had mixed marble dust at 3, 5, 8, 10 % percentages. Then mixtures had been compacted with standard proctor compaction energy. Specimens had been sampled from compacted soils for compression test. At the end of 28 days curing time, strength increased 20.1 by N/cm2 to 57.3 N/cm2. Hassini (1992) determined that impermeable layer cycles much at landfills. In doing so, he carried out an experiment of freezing-thawing to specify soil strength and its permeability. After 12 cycles, as suggested by Chamberlain (1981), he found that 10-15% grain loss does not have any impact on strength. 57 �This study examines the degree of deformation derived from seasonal temperature differences at impermeable layers with marble dust. For this reason, three mixture of soil to waste marble dust (the proportions were 5, 10, 15% dust to dry soil by weight) have been prepared. And freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. 2. Materials 2.1 Na Bentonite Clay Bentonite is a colloidal aluminium hydro silicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water. It has a swelling characteristic till 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite. It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara Turkey. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.2 Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness of layers is 7.2 Å, the length of layers is between 1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is (SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure; first excavation from clay ores, then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µm at the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The clay used consists of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of the kaolinite clay are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.3 Waste Marble Dust Marble dust is minimum sized marble waste. It occurs with sawing process of marble blocks and plates. This dust is carried by water to sedimentation pond. Sediment dust is removed from this pond to wasteland, but this condition have formed serious problem for environment. Because, waste marble dust is used in very little quantities even though it used in the very different industries such as construction, ceramics and cement industry, paint industry, agriculture and fertilizer industry, etc. Therefore, they have happened big mass in the waste areas (Zorluer 2003). Marble dust, used in this study, was obtained a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. Then, it is dried and sieved with #40 sieve. The marble dust grains are smaller than 300 micron. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of waste marble dust are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental Analysis are shown in the table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). GSGb UWc Grain Size Distribution (%) WCa (%) (g/cm3) Sand Silt clay Na-Bentonite 12.7 2.76 0.94 2 46 52 Kaolinite 0.1 2.64 0.59 11 26 63 Marble Dust 4.1 2.75 2.73 14 78 8 ( a ): Water Content, ( b ): Grain Specific gravity:, ( c ): Unit Weight. Additions Table 1 Some physicochemical and geotechnical properties of materials. Additions SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Na-Bentonite 59.49 18.06 4.14 Kaolinite 51.52 32.00 1.75 Marble Dust 0.01 0.85 0.04 ( a ): Loss of Ignition. CaO 3.72 0.20 55.30 MgO 2.42 0.20 0.24 P2O3 0.11 ----- K2O 0.91 0.50 0.20 Na2O 2.50 0.09 0.03 SO3 0.10 ----- Mn2O3 LOIa 8.55 0.04 12.62 ----- 43.51 Table 2 Chemical compound of materials. 58 �3. Experimental Study The changes in the strength at material against seasonal impact are determined by using freezingthawing test. The deformation in the material as a result of this test is closely related to the amount of the water in it given that the nature and ratio of soil water changes to a grade extent when it freezes. When the water transform in to ice, its volume increases about 9% in accordance with the development of its hexagonal crystal texture (Penner & Ueda 1977). Test specimens were prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight for use in the impermeable clay layer. This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the waste marble dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained from other studies in the literature. Marble dust is abbreviated as a MD. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. Freezing-thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in ASTM D560 (1985). In this experiment, samples are stored in a freezer at -20o C for 24 hours. Then, the same samples are stored at the room temperatures at 18o C for 24 hours. This process is called as one cycle. 12 cycles are carried out for the samples in this experiment after which the surfaces of the samples are brushed gently with wire brush to remove particles. Then, they are weighted to determine the percentage of the loss compared to their previous weight. The highest loss rate accepted in the literature is 15%. The surface crystallization and the sample deformation after the cycle are given in figure 1and figure 2 respectively. Fig. 1 Crystallization on surface after the freezing Fig. 2 Deformation after the cycles 4. Test results After freezing and thawing test consisting of totally 12 cycles, it was seen that grain loss has decreased with marble dust increase. It has decreased from 17.6% to 12.5% at the end of 12 cycles. It can be declared that this decreasing can make positive influence to the strength values of layers. The less the grain losses is, the higher the soil strength is. The findings show that the strength of the samples increases when the amount of the 59 �added marble dust increases. As it is seen in table 3, an additional 5% of marble dust is ineffective on freezingthawing. While an additional 15% marble dust results in 12,5% grain loss, an additional 10 % marble dust bring in 13,5 grain loss. Initial water Number of Grain loss contents (%) cycle (%) Control (90K10B) 25 12 17.6 90K10B +5% MD 25 12 18 90K10B +10% MD 25 12 13.5 90K10B +15% MD 25 12 12.5 Table 3 Freeze-Thaw experiment results of waste marble dust mixtures. Materials 5. Conclusions Grain Loss (%) Firstly, it is observed that the amount of grain loss in the samples with 10% and 15% of marble dust addition as a result of deformation in the freezing-thawing test are in compliance with the highest grain loss referred in the literature. Secondly, it is seen that on addition of 5 % of marble dust is ineffective since the results from this sample are close to those of the control sample. Thirdly, As it is seen in figure 3, the study shows that the lowest deformation occurs in the material with 15% of marble addition. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Control 5% MD 10% MD 15% MD Additive Material Fig.3 Effect of waste marble dust on freezing-thawing In the light of the given findings, it can be argued that use of marble dust increases the strength of landfill liner. Trough its use in landfill liners, the recycling of marble dust will be possible. Consequently, this will not only to contribute to the protection of the environment but also to provide an economical additive material to landfill layer. References Okagbue C. O., Onyeobi T. U. S., (1999), Potential of marble dust to stabilise red tropical soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, V. 53, pp 371-380. Zorluer, I., (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium Proceedings. İzmir-Turkey, pp. 475-482. Zorluer, I., (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V Engineering Congress Proceedings. Şanlıurfa-Turkey, pp. 1042-1046. Hassini, S., (1992). Some aspects of landfill desing environmental science and engineering, Environmental geotechnology, 137-143p Chamberlaın, E. J., (1981). Overconsolidation Effects of Ground Freezing, Engineering Geology, 18, 97-110. Koyuncu, H., (1998). Physicochemical, microstructure and geotechnical properties of petroleum boring wastes improved with stabilization/solidification method. PhD thesis, Osmangazi University. Penner, E. and Ueda, T., (1977). Proceedings, symposium on Frost Action in Soils, Universty of Lulea, Lulea, Sweden, I, 91-100. ASTM D560-96 (1985). Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 60 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 650 Title A name given to the resource Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Author Author ZORLUER, Ismail Taspolat, Lemi Tufan Abstract A summary of the resource. Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ca864cf69562c308873bf60df189a1ed.pdf 190cbefc1b2bc6797993c990e2dfe798 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Analysing Business Competition by Using AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method: An Example of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Halil ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, halilzaim@fatih.edu.tr Mehmet ŞANAL Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, msanal@fatih.edu.tr Nuri Gökhan TORLAK Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, gtorlak@fatih.edu.tr Selim ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, szaim@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The article uses AHP weighted TOPSIS multi-methodological approach in the Turkish domestic aviation industry. It starts by describing exceedingly complex nature of competition in the sector. Then, it deals with the constituent parts of the research methodology and the eclectic approach itself. The implementation of AHP weighted TOPSIS method reveals the ranking of major air carriers in light of key success variables in the sector. Keywords: strategy, AHP weighted TOPSIS, multi-methodology, TOPSIS. 1. Introduction The purpose of this article is to apply AHP weighted TOPSIS approach to the Turkish domestic aviation sector in order to rank air carriers according to their relative closeness coefficient on the basis of criteria that are most critical to success and prosperity in the industry. This analysis provides useful information for airline companies about evaluating their objectives and strategies. To reach this end, in the first section the article initially describes the nature of rising competition in the Turkish domestic aviation industry that became a menace to the survival of firms during the period 2003-2007 as well as provides brief information about the chief characteristics of major domestic air carriers in the sector. The next section, called background information about research methodology, explains AHP weighted TOPSIS method, namely analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method, and the traditional TOPSIS method, and then proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method. We assume that this multi-methodological AHP weighted TOPSIS approach with its wide-ranging applications meet the requirements of survival volatile environments like aviation industry Then the following section, called the application of the AHP weighted TOPSIS method, undertakes a real industry case from a comparative perspective that provides full and invaluable data for airline companies in the sector so that they should review their goals, strategies, plans, and programmes. Conclusion is provided in the final section. 2. The Nature of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Although the Turkish aviation sector has been negatively affected by the political and financial crises, it has continued its progress in the long term with the growth of economy, liberalisation, globalisation, developing international trade, lowering prices, and expanding service net. This sector’s climax was the terrorist attack in 9/11 2001 in the U.S. The aviation sector was globally harmed due to this attack that gave rise to the bankruptcy of some prominent airline companies. While the aviation sector was trying to recover itself, it was damaged again by Gulf War and SARS illness in the Far East Asia in 2003. But, Iraqi War was shorter than expected and SARS was taken under control, so aviation sector got into growing trend in 2004. The high performance of the Turkish economy in recent years, the rising numbers of tourists coming to Turkey, the lower prices of the private airline companies after the tax cut on flight prices in 2004 accelerated the 207 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkish aviation transportation to the sector. Though the domestic passenger number was 8, 7 million in 2002, it rose to nearly 20 million in 2005. This number was 38 percent more than the number in 2004. By 2006, the Turkish aviation sector had 204 passenger planes, 24 cargo planes and capacity of 38 thousand passengers. Although the Turkish Airlines had domestic flights from two airports to 25 scheduled domestic points in 2003, the flights today are from seven airports by five airline companies to 38 points. If we bear in mind the Turkey’s advantageous geographical condition, interregional trade development, and the improvement efforts in tourism, the Turkish aviation sector which has a current growing trend is expected to continue its expansion process. Turkey due to its geographical location acts like a point of passing between Europe, Middle East, and Asia. Improvements in recent years as well as Turkey’s liberal policies and bilateral agreements have turned this hectic geographical area to a special centre for passenger and cargo transportation. However there are still 70 idle airports nationwide that can be opened to air traffic in Turkey. In particular, in the East part of Turkey the number of unused airports is high due to the topographic structure of this region. In a short time, the increasing need for air transportation would bring these airports in use and provide important benefits for Turkey. In terms of competition in the Turkish Domestic Air Transportation after the privatisation of Turkish Airlines in 2003 the number of passengers in Domestic Air Transportation was noticeably increased. This led to new air carriers enter the aviation sector and the competition became severe. The slogan of “Every Turk will try plane at least once” became popular in the Domestic Air Transportation. In relation with the incentive policy to make the domestic flights attractive and to bring activity to regional airports there has been a reduction in DHMI (Government Airport Service) tariffs, and a cut in private communication tax. Furthermore, the Ministry of Transport abolished the education contribution pay in 2003 and gave authorisation of domestic flights to the private airline companies. With this practice a couple of new carriers such as Fly Air, Onur Air, Pegasus Airlines, and Atlas Jet entered the market. As a consequence, a sudden change and a cutthroat competition developed in the sector. This increased the number of domestic passengers (Table 1). Private firms increased domestic flights by taking their licenses. Onur Air, Pegasus Airlines, and Atlas Jet became initial firms that took their licenses. Rank 1 2 3 4 Table 1: Number of Domestic Passenger Carried in 2006 Companies Number of Passenger Turkish Airlines 8.857.000 Onur Air 4.400.267 Atlas Jet 2.982.712 Pegasus 1.818.989 3. Background Information about Research Methodology This section briefly describes the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) technique, and the TOPSIS method, and proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method. 3.1. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Methodology The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) methodology, which was developed by Saaty (1980), is a powerful tool in solving complex decision problems. The AHP helps the analysts to organize the critical aspects of a problem into a hierarchical structure similar to a family tree. By reducing complex decisions to a series of simple comparisons and rankings, then synthesizing the results, the AHP not only helps the analysts to arrive at the best decision, but also provides a clear rationale for the choices made (Chin et al., 1999). In AHP approach, the decision-maker is required to provide his preferences by pairwise comparisons, with respect to the weights and scores (Chu and Lin, 2003). 3.2. The TOPSIS Method TOPSIS method is a technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (Hwang and Yoon, 1981). The ideal solution (also called positive ideal solution) is a solution that maximizes the benefit criteria/attributes and minimizes the cost criteria/attributes, whereas the negative ideal solution (also called antiideal solution) maximizes the cost criteria/attributes and minimizes the benefit criteria/attributes. The so-called benefit criteria/attributes are those for maximization, while the cost criteria/attributes are those for minimization (Bellman and Zadeh, 1970). The best alternative is the one, which is closest to the ideal solution and farthest from the negative ideal solution. 208 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3.3. The Proposed AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method The basic steps of proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method can be described as follows: Step 1. In the first step, a panel of decision makers (DMs) who are knowledgeable about airline selection and evaluation process is established. In a group that has K decision-makers (i.e. D1, D2, ..., Dk) are responsible for developing the hierarchical structure of the airline evaluation and selection. Then, using AHP technique, the normalized weights for each evaluation and selection criterion are determined. Step 2. In the second step, DMs evaluate the performance of each airline company with respect to each criterion to obtain a decision matrix.  x11 x X =  21  ...   xm1 x12 x22 ... xm 2 ... x1n  ... x2 n  ... ...   ... xmn  Step 3. After forming the decision matrix, normalized decision matrix is obtained as:  r11 r12 r r R =  21 22  ... ...  rm1 rm 2 ... r1n  ... r2 n  ... ...   ... rmn  Step 4. The weighted normalized decision matrix is computed by multiplying the importance weight of evaluation criteria and the values in the normalized decision matrix. Step 5. Then positive and negative ideal solutions are determined. Step 6. Then the distance of each alternative from positive and negative ideal solutions are calculated. Step 7. Then the closeness coefficient CC is determined. 4. The Application of AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method The application of the proposed algorithm is explained in the following steps. Step 1. In the first stage, a panel of ten DMs from various departments including purchasing, quality, and production and planning who are involved in Strategy process was formed. Based on semi-structured interviews with DMs, a list of nine Strategy Process criteria was generated. These criteria are related to various aspect of strategy ranging from Advertising Product Quality, Price Competitiveness, Customer Loyalty, Market Share, Customer Service, E-commerce, Management Experience, and Branding. The DMs were then asked to specify the relative importance of airline selection criteria using pairwise comparison scale. Then normalized weights for each criterion were obtained. These values are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Normalized Weights for each Evaluation Criteria standart Advertising 0.0417 Product Quality 0.2584 Price Competitiveness 0.1499 Customer Loyalty 0.1555 Market Share 0.0551 Customer Service 0.1396 E-commerce 0.0249 Management Experience 0.0981 Branding 0.0767 Total 1.0000 209 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Step 2: In this step, we measure the performance of firms with respect to each strategy criterion. Table 3 shows the decision matrix of selection criteria. Table 3: Decision Matrix Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding THY 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 Onur Air 2 2 4 2 3 1 3 2 1 Pegasus 3 3 5 3 4 3 4 4 3 Atlasjet 3 3 4 2 3 2 3 2 1 Step 3: In this stage, normalized decision matrix is obtained depending on whether the objective of selection criterion is that of minimization or maximization. Table 4 shows the normalized decision matrix. Table 4: Normalized Decision Matrix Turkish Airlines Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet max max max max max max max max max Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.7293 0.2917 0.4376 0.4376 0.7293 0.2917 0.4376 0.4376 0.3693 0.4924 0.6155 0.4924 0.6963 0.3482 0.5222 0.3482 0.6509 0.3906 0.5208 0.3906 0.8006 0.1601 0.4804 0.3203 0.6509 0.3906 0.5208 0.3906 0.7143 0.2857 0.5714 0.2857 0.8333 0.1667 0.5000 0.1667 Step 4: Then weighted normalized decision matrix is calculated. The weighted normalized decision matrix for each selection criterion is shown in Table 5. Table 5: Weighted Normalized Decision Matrix THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0304 0.0122 0.0183 0.0183 0.1885 0.0754 0.1131 0.1131 0.0554 0.0738 0.0923 0.0738 0.1083 0.0541 0.0812 0.0541 0.0359 0.0215 0.0287 0.0215 0.1117 0.0223 0.0670 0.0447 0.0162 0.0097 0.0130 0.0097 0.0701 0.0280 0.0561 0.0280 0.0639 0.0128 0.0384 0.0128 Step 5 and Step 6: The positive and negative ideal solutions are determined. Table 6 and 7 show the ideal solutions. Table 6: Positive Ideal Solution and its Distance for Each Alternative THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0000 -0.0183 -0.0122 -0.0122 0.0000 -0.1131 -0.0754 -0.0754 -0.0369 -0.0185 0.0000 -0.0185 0.0000 -0.0541 -0.0271 -0.0541 0.0000 -0.0144 -0.0072 -0.0144 0.0000 -0.0894 -0.0447 -0.0670 0.0000 -0.0065 -0.0032 -0.0065 0.0000 -0.0421 -0.0140 -0.0421 0.0000 -0.0511 -0.0256 -0.0511 Step 7: The closeness coefficient CC is determined. As initial average weights were used in the TOPSIS calculations, the values of CC in Table 8 are considered as crisp TOPSIS results. Table 7: Negative Ideal Solution and its Distance for Each Alternative THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet 210 Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0183 0.0000 0.0061 0.0061 0.1131 0.0000 0.0377 0.0377 0.0000 0.0185 0.0369 0.0185 0.0541 0.0000 0.0271 0.0000 0.0144 0.0000 0.0072 0.0000 0.0894 0.0000 0.0447 0.0223 0.0065 0.0000 0.0032 0.0000 0.0421 0.0000 0.0280 0.0000 0.0511 0.0000 0.0256 0.0000 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 8: Computations of AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method (CC) Firm CC THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet 0.8211 0.0977 0.4631 0.2620 5. Conclusion In this study, the AHP weighted TOPSIS methodology has been employed as an alternative to the conventional TOPSIS approach. When AHP weighted TOPSIS approach has been implemented, the Turkish Airlines has been identified as the most suitable company, Pegasus the runner-up, Atlasjet the third, and Onur Air the fourth (Table 8). This research finding indicated that the Turkish Airlines preserved its dominant role even after its privatization and new entrants in the domestic airline industry. It is worthy of noting that Pegasus though newly founded air carrier could intensify the competition in the sector and become a serious rival for the Turkish Airlines in the coming years. References Bellman, B.E., Zadeh, L.A. (1970). Decision-making in a fuzzy environment. Management Science 17 (4), 141–164. Chin, K. S., Chiu, S. , Tummala, V. M. R. (1999). An evaluation of success factors using the AHP to implement ISO 14001- based ESM, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 16, 4, pp. 341-361. Chu, T. C., & Lin, Y. C. (2003). A fuzzy TOPSIS method for robot selection. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 21, 284–290. Hwang, C.L. and Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications. Berlin: Springer Saaty, T.L. (1980). The Analytical Hierarchy Process. Mc. Graw-Hill, New York, NY. 211 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 193 Title A name given to the resource Analysing Business Competition by Using AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method: An Example of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Author Author ZAİM, Halil ŞANAL, Mehmet TORLAK, Nuri Gökhan ZAİM, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. The article uses AHP weighted TOPSIS multi-methodological approach in the Turkish domestic aviation industry. It starts by describing exceedingly complex nature of competition in the sector. Then, it deals with the constituent parts of the research methodology and the eclectic approach itself. The implementation of AHP weighted TOPSIS method reveals the ranking of major air carriers in light of key success variables in the sector Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ae4764f51ffc193d39e5cca3a2756ec.pdf b0531b138502adc8e2ccec2fa51d7ffa PDF Text Text The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Serhat ZAMAN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey (serhatz@atauni.edu.tr) Res.Assist. Ogün COSKUN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey Ramazan SEVER Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Primary School Teaching, Social Science Education, Erzurum-Turkey Kenan TÜRKEZ Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Nilgün ZAMAN Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Key words: Geography Education, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Teaching Methods. 227 �Introduction Rapid increase in the production of information and technology and development of communication in the world led to the extensive and easier access to sources of information and, in this way, drastically changed the life. It became the initial problem of the educators to convey this accumulated information in every sphere to individuals effectively and equally. For the realization of this transmission and retention of learning, everyday, new methods, techniques are developed and new materials are used in education. With its subject topics, geography is one of the courses which are appropriate for the use of different instructional materials. Due to this convenience, different teaching designs and materials are developed in order to increase the effectiveness in the education and instruction of geography. One of them is the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is more extensively used day by day. In this study, the effects of GIS on the academic achievement of the students in geography education were investigated by an experimental research. The study consists of two major parts. In the first part, definition of the GIS, its role in geography education, and the utility of this system in the new changing geography curriculum in Turkey are questioned; and, in the second part, the results of a study aiming to investigate the effects of GIS on students’ academic achievement are discussed. What is GIS (Geographical Information Systems)? Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a computer system which was designed to collect every type of data, together with their coordinates, related to the physical and anthropological characteristics of the Earth in a database, to make some analyses on them in line with certain purposes, and to illustrate the results in the forms of maps, tables, and figures (Fitzpatrick,C. & Maguire,D.J. 2000,63–64). In other words, GIS is a computer-based data processing program designed to analyze and visualize the objects and events on the Earth (Demirci,A.,2008a,11). The system consists of basically four components. They are computer (hardware), programs used in computer (GIS software), the data to be analyzed through software, and the user who would organize and direct these three components (Figure 1). Figure 1. Components of GIS, Reference: Demirci 2008a: 12. GIS, due its name, is considered to be a technology developed only for the area of geography. Although it is partially true, since GIS is a system collecting, storing, processing, and analyzing data, it is in an interaction with many disciplines. GIS, a system helping the more effective services in various sectors, is a tool used to increase the quality in decision making and solutions of problems. Due its content and scope, GIS can be used by all of the disciplines and groups of profession whose domains cover the phenomenons of natural environments, variable of time, and human beings which somehow represent a part of the Earth (Turoğlu,H. 2000,4). In this sense, GIS can be 228 �defined as a technology with the qualities that would facilitate the lives of people not only from the area of geography but also from every part of society. GIS in the Institutions of Education in Turkey GIS, which used in many official institutions and organizations in Turkey, is utilized mostly by universities in education. It has just begun to be used in primary and high schools. Since 2000, contents of all courses have been gradually changed by the Ministry of National Education with a student-centered educational approach. Trying to keep pace with developed and rapidly changing teaching strategies, Ministry of National Education advises the use of materials, especially, GIS technologies equipped with computers in classes. While GIS is used as an instructional material in social sciences, environmentalism, and sciences courses in the world, in Turkey, it is used only in geography courses. Together with the change in the geography curriculum by the Ministry of National Education in 2005, GIS began to be used in geography education. Unfortunately, limitations of GIS use in schools reveal themselves in the curriculum. In the part related to the application of the program, there is an expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). However, since most of the schools do not have the equipments and facilities required for the GIS implementations and the teachers qualified enough to use the data and software, they are not ready to use these systems effectively. GIS in the New Geography Curriculums The discipline of geography has vital responsibilities in understanding the relationships between people and the nature and the relationships among themselves. One of the most important aims of geography education is to help students learn the abstract and complex geographical issues meaningfully and far away from memorization and to prepare the conditions required. Therefore, educationalists need the well-selected methods and materials to be able to teach geography in the most effective ways. GIS implementations, the main concern of this study, can meet these needs. For this reason, GIS implementations were put great emphasis on in the new geography curriculum prepared in 2005. Geography curriculum supports the use of GIS in the teaching of geography topics. In the program, it is clearly stated in the expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). The suggestions for the use of certain acquisitions in the program can be regarded as a clear evidence for this support. When globally analyzed, it is easily seen that most topics (or issues) are convenient to be taught via GIS. However, for the extension of GIS in schools, geography teachers, at least, should attain GIS equipments and make practices. Otherwise, it is certain that the extension of GIS in schools will not be possible. In the geography curriculum in Turkey, there are many activities which are appropriate for the use of GIS. Five of the topics suggested to be taught by GIS are in the 9th, nine of them in the 10th, two of them in the 11th, and four of them are in the 12th year program. The number of the targeted acquisitions in these topics is 28 in sum (See Table 1). 229 �Suggested Number Grade Outcome Numbers A.9.3 1 9 A.9.4 2 A.9.5-A.9.6 3 C.9.5-C.9.6 4 C.9.7 5 A.10.2-A.10.3 6 10 B.10.2 7 B.10.3 8 B.10.4 9 B.10.5 10 B.10.9-B.10.10 11 C.10.10 12 C.10.11 13 C.10.12 14 B.11.4-B.11.5-B.11.6 15 11 D.11.2 16 C.12.4-C.12.5 17 12 C.12.8-C.12.9 18 D.12.6 19 D.12.8 20 Suggested Topics of Activities Maps (in the section of definitions) Coordinate System (in the section of definitions) Contour Lines Climate of Turkey Elements of Climate in Turkey Thermal Springs World Population Population Change Dynamics of Population Population Pyramids Categorization of Economic Activities Urban Structure of Turkey Differences in the Distribution of Population in Turkey Dynamism of Our Population From Production to Consumption Span of Spread of Turkish Culture Trading Structure of Turkey Scenarios in the Population of Turkey for Future Locations of Countries Regionalization of the World Table 1. The Topics in the New Geography Curriculum Appropriate for the Use of GIS (Demirci 2008a: 70). Study The Effects of the Instruction of Vegetation and Types of Climate Topics in the 10th Year Geography Course through GIS on Achievement Levels of Students (Turkey-Erzurum Sample) In this section of the study, the findings obtained from the instruction of pre-determined geography topics (Vegetation and Types of Climate) to students in two different methods were presented. First of them was the conventional method whereas the second was GIS-supported method. The universe of the research consists of the high school students studying at schools in the city centre of Erzurum in 2008-2009 education years; and the sample consists of 86 10th year students from Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye in Erzurum. Formation of the Experimental and Control Groups Tests including the questions related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics were given to all 10th year students from both of the schools; and, according to the results, two classes (one experimental and one control) from each school, in sum, four groups, were determined (See Table 2). Research Group Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School Şükrüpaşa High School 10 Science-A 10 Science-B 10 Social-A 10 Social -B (Experimental) (Control) (Control) (Experimental) Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male 7 13 5 14 10 Table 2. Research Sample. 230 14 7 16 �By this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics in the 9th and 10th years using the Geography Information Systems on the academic achievement levels of students. Using the software of GIS, some practices were made together with the students and they were allowed to develop their own materials. Later, on the basis of the material developed by the researcher, topics were taught in connection with the data formed by the students according to the instructions. In this way, it was intended to help students acquire the skills to use the program and participate in the classes with the materials they developed themselves. In this experimental research, the real experimental design, the model with pre-test/post-test and experimental/control groups, was conducted. In this model, a pre-test and a post-test were given to randomly chosen experimental and control groups before and after the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” (See Table 3). G1 PRE-TEST X1 POST-TEST G2 PRE-TEST X2 POST-TEST Table 3. Research Model. G1: Experimental Group, G2: Control Group, Pre-test and Post-test: Achievement Test, X1: The group taught through GIS implementations, X2: The group taught through conventional methods. Throughout a four-week period, the experimental group students were taught “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics enriched with the prepared course plans and activities based on GIS, and the control group was taught the same topic through the conventional methods in accordance with the targeted outcomes. Procedure In the procedure of the research, the steps below were followed; ■ In the research, as the data collection instrument, an achievement test consisting of 20 questions which some experts were councilled about was used. ■ A course plan was prepared for the activities to be held and the treatment took four weeks. ■ Both experimental and control groups were taught by the same teacher. ■ A computer downloaded ArcWiev 9.2 program and a projector were taken to the classroom in which GIS implementations would be carried out and a list of instructions was given to each student. ■ GIS implementations were carried out together with the students. ■ In the control group, teacher-centered conventional instructional methods, in which the teacher, all the time, was active, were used. In addition, maps and atlases were utilized in the classes. ■ During the classes, similar extra activities were carried out in the groups and the students were given some questions and asked to answer in order to identify whether they had understood the topics or not. Findings and Interpretations While the mean of the scores of the experimental group students taught through GIS-based activities from the test on “Vegetation and Types of Climate” was X =8,20 before the treatment, after the treatment the mean was found to be X =14,65. On the other hand, whereas the mean of the scores of the students taught through conventional methods (e.g., question-answer, direct instruction) was X =8,20 before the treatment, it changed to X =11,39 after the treatment. According to these results, it was determined that although achievement levels of both groups got higher the increase in the scores of the experimental group students was greater (See Table 4 and Figure 2). 231 �Pre-test Post-test Groups X S.S. N Experimental Control Experimental Control 8,20 8,20 14,65 11,39 2,44 2,62 1,67 2,70 43 43 43 43 Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations for Achievement Test Scores of All Students. As a result of the treatment, it is seen that students’ behaviors (knowledge) related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” changed positively. The differences between the achievement levels of the groups can be associated with the student-centered GIS practices in the experimental group. Figure 2. Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Experimental and Control Groups. Results and Suggestions Development and use of new technologies in education increase the quality and effectiveness of instructional services. GIS is one of these new techniques. Furthermore, according to the observations, it was understood that students are more willing for classes carried out through GIS-based activities. As understood from the findings from the treatments, students’ achievement levels in geography courses based on GIS technologies are higher than others. When geography classes are taught by the conventional methods, learning based on memorization appears and the topics cannot be remembered in long term. During geography classes, teaching settings which will involve as many senses as possible should be designed. In addition, in GIS-based classes, education, being far away from memorization, is realized by the participation of the students on the basis of practices. Rate of retention in learning through computer is higher. Also, one of the skills acquired by the students thanks to GIS-based activities, as pointed at in geography curriculum, is the skill to use information and communication technologies. More time should be allotted for the GIS use in geography education and, for this purpose; some revisions should be made in the content of geography courses. In a study on the utility of GIS technologies in schools (Demirci 2006,5), it was found that none of the teachers could use the GIS Technologies. To solve this problem, use of GIS Technologies by teachers should be increased and laboratories of GIS technologies should be designed and developed in the faculties serving to train geography teachers. 232 �One of the most important problems in geography education is that there are not enough and appropriate places to preserve the instructional tools and materials. Modern classrooms in which geography instruction can be realized most effectively and the components of GIS can be placed and used should be formed. As in developed countries, the utility of GIS technologies should be tested in not only in geography but also in other, especially, science, courses. The most important components of GIS are data and software. Without them, implementations of GIS are not possible. These sources should be provided to teachers and students by their institutions. References Aksoy,B.,(2004). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamalarının Öğretimi Üzerine Bir Model. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 12, (No:1), pp. 179–190. Aladağ, E.,(2007). İlköğretim 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde CBS’nin Kullanımının Öğrencilerin Akademik Başarı ve Derse Karşı Motivasyonlarına Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. Ankara. Demiralp,N.,(2007). Coğrafya Eğitiminde Materyaller ve 2005 Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 5–6, (No:1), pp. 373–384. Demirci,A.,(2006). CBS’nin Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programına Göre Coğrafya Derslerinde Uygulanabilirliği. 4. CBS Bilişim Günleri Bildiriler Kitabı. Fatih Üniversitesi Yay., İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008a). Öğretmenler İçin CBS: Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri. Fatih Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Bölümü, Yay. No. 41, İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008b). Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Öğretim Programının Öğretmenlerin Bakış Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi (Sayı-178), pp. 105–178. Doğanay,H,(2002). Coğrafya Öğretim Yöntemleri. Aktif Yayınları, 5. Baskı, Erzurum. Doğanay,H.,Zaman,S.,(2002). Orta Öğretim Coğrafya Eğitiminde Hedefler-Stratejiler ve Amaçlar. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 8), pp. 7-26. Fitzpatrick,C.,Maguire,D.J.,(2000). GIS In Schools: Infrastructure, Methodology And Role In: Gıs: A Sourcebook For Schools. Edited by David R. Green, Taylor&Francis. Girgin,M.,(2001). Neden Coğrafya Öğreniyoruz. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 5), pp. 127-143. M.E.B.,(2000). Milli Eğitim ile İlgili Mevzuat. Milli Eğitim Basımevi, MEB Yay. No: 3126, Ankara. M.E.B.,(2005). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu (9-12. Sınıflar), MEB Yayınları, Ankara. Nalçacı,A.,(2006). İlköğretim 6. ve 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Programındaki Coğrafya Konularının Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Erzurum. Taş,H.İ.,(2005). Cumhuriyetin Kuruluşundan Günümüze İlköğretim II. Kademe ve Liselerde Coğrafya Dersi ve Müfredatının Değişimi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 14), 2005, pp. 311–330. Türkez,K.,(2009). 10. Sınıf Coğrafya Dersinde Yer Alan İklim Tipleri ve Bitki Örtüsü Konularının CBS İle Öğretilmesinin Öğrenci Başarısına Etkileri (Erzurum Örneği). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum. Yomralıoğlu,T.,(2002). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar. İber Ofset, Trabzon. Zaman,S.,Coşkun,O.,(2006). Erzurum’da Görev Yapan Coğrafya Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf İçi Performanslarını Etkileyen Faktörler Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Kâzım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (Sayı: 14), pp. 373–391. 233 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 405 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Author Author ZAMAN, Serhat COSKUN, Ogün SEVER, Ramazan TÜRKEZ, Kenan ZAMAN, Nilgün Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/73349563813ae6f8f9a424df3efa4b2c.pdf 14248c40963bdb8332ca53ecff5eeed9 PDF Text Text Significance of Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park in Sustainable Tourism Mehmet ZAMAN Ataturk University Department of Geography, 25240 Erzurum / Turkey mzaman@atauni. edu.tr Abstract: Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park are located in the Eastern Black Sea part of the Eastern Black Sea Region. Administratively, the whole Fırtına Basin, and a great part of Kaçkar Mountains National Park (83.7 %) area located within Çamlıhemşin, Rize, and the rest of the area (16.3 %) falls within the boundaries of Yusufeli, Artvin and İspir, Erzurum. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park, a large part of which is in the basin of the related valley, are one of the most important natural places of Turkey and are known at an international level owing to their wild life, vegetation richness and geomorphological formations they have. On account of these characteristics, the related area has been counted in 200 ecological areas that must be preserved by WWF (World Wild Fund For Nature). In addition, centuries - long high pasture activities in the area and archaeological works add historical and folkloric value to the basin. Therefore, they remain one of the important areas in Sustainable Tourism. They have a potential for such natural recreational activities as mountain tourism, high pasture tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, botanical tourism, rafting, heliksi, camping, photography, mountain cycling, jeep safari, trekking, fishhook, paragliding and observation of birds and wild life. Utilization of the related area with respect to sustainable tourism potential will greatly contribute to the economic devolopment of the region. The reason is that sustainable tourism remains a kind of tourism which protects local, natural, cultural and structural sources, devolops life quality of the people around, provides a high – quality service for the tourists, increases environmental quality of sites and fosters economic devolopment. Key Words: Kaçkar Mountains National Park, Fırtına Basin, Sustainable Tourism Introduction In the context of prospective sustainability, sources continue to be utilized on the one hand while it becomes necessary to protect the same sources so that future generations may make use of them. The reason for this is that the process of technological and socio-economic developments and changes in our century will continue in the same way in the future. Therefore, it has been an obligation to follow a planned method while making natural and human sources available to use (Atabay, 1998:2). In addition, sustainability is a kind of behaviour that is constantly renewed. The objective of such behaviour is to protect the sources in terms of sustainability. This is significant not only with respect to economy but human life. Accordingly, sustainable tourism can be defined as an activity which adorns natural, cultural and social sources in the long run and protects them, and which supports economy moderately(Scharpf, 1998:18). Such terms as Responsible Tourism, Soft Tourism, Eco-Tourism and Alternative Tourism bear similar meanings with Sustainable Tourism. They are examined within in the scope of Sustainable Tourism. Geographical Characteristics of the Area Fırtına Stream Basin is made up of a land (2000-2200 m.) incised deeply with rivers and high mountainous fields where glaciations/ glaciations is effective. Among forms of glaciations are actual glacial, glacial lakes, glacial basins, moraine sets and synclinal folds (Erinç, 1949: 243-245; 1971: 258-260). A semioceanic and semi-continental climate is seen in this region. There exists a thick forest thanks to suitable precipitation and temperature. The forest is visible till 2200 metres and from that metre upward, there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Kaçkar Mountains National Park (Figure 1) remains the fifth with respect to size among the 36 national parks in Turkey with its space of 5150 hectares. It was gained the status of tourism centre in 1991 and of national park in 1994 with its such characteristics as geological and geomorphological qualities, existence of traditional transhumance, richness of vegetation and wild life, and natural landscape. Located in the area, Ayder 28 �High Pasture is a place was announced to be the first touristic centre in the Eastern Black Sea Region in 1987 under name of ‘Rize-Çamlıhemşin-Ayder Thermal Spring Touristic Centre’. Figure 1. Location Map of Fırtına Stream and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. There are one town (Çamlıhemşin), 27 villages, 41 high-pastures and 18 hamlets in Fırtına Stream Basin. Facilities of Sustainable Tourism and Their Utilization Such recreational activities as high-pasture tourism, mountain tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism (agriculture and farm tourism), wild life and bird watching (ornito-tourism), hunting tourism, botanical tourism, river tourism (sportive hand line fishing, canoe and rafting), congress tourism, rafting, heliski, camping and caravan tourism, photography (photo safari), mountain cycling, paragliding, horse riding, film and documentary production, scientific research and training camps(Zaman, 2007, s. – 2008: s.). High pasture tourism is without doubt one of the mostly-demanded of those mentioned above and has been the most popular form of alternative tourism. The reason is that high pastures with their natural beauty, cold and clear waters, fresh air, ethnological, cultural and other attractive characteristics draw attention. The high pasture in the basin are suitable for such activities as stopover, rest, observation of nature and culture, trips, photography, observing and participating in traditional high pasture life, tasting local food, and taking place in cultural activities. With these characteristics, the related area offers sustainable tourism facilities and draws the attention of both local and foreign tourists (Photo 1). Among the important high pastures with transportation and accommodation facilities are Ayder, Yukarı Kavron, Elevit, Başyayla, Çiçekliyayla, Tirovit, Palovit, Amlakit, Apivanak, Pokut and Sal(Zaman, 2007: 200-2008:17-26). Photograph 1. Such Social and cultural activities as high pasture festivals and bullfights are organized in Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. Another important kind of alternative tourism is mountain tourism on the mountains with high peaks located in the south part of the basin. There are such summits as that of Mount Kaçkar (3932 m.) and of Mount Verçenik. The touristic potential of the park in mountain tourism includes tracking and hiking, peak and glacial climbing, mountain skiing and alpinism (Photo 2-Somuncu, 1986:1 - 1988: 30-31). 29 �Photograph 2. The potential of the Kaçkar Mountains National Park in mountain tourism includes tracking and hiking, peak and glacial climbing and heliski. The mentioned area has rural tourism facilities with its rural life style, traditional village and high pasture life, scattered settlement, houses built in accordance with wooden civil architecture, customs and conventions, garden and agriculture activities, and animal husbandry. In addition, the fact that the thermal springs in Ayder High Pasture, which is the thermal tourism centre, have positive effects on the treatment of rheumatism, on skin, blood system, respiration, gynaecological system, neural system and muscles attract many tourists to the area. Fırtına Basin is also one of the most attractive places in terms of cultural tourism with its historical sites like Zilkale and Kale-ı Bala as well as stone bridges, its architecture, music, wearing style of people, food culture, rural residences, high pasture festivals, bullfights and life style (Photo 3). Photography 3. The castles on the basin (e.g. Zilkale), historical stone bridges, residences and local clothes are among the elements that contribute to the development of cultural tourism in the area. 30 �Hunting tourism and bird watching are also available in Fırtına Basin (Photo 4). In addition to diversity of wild life, the large number of bird kinds adds value to the area, which has been announced as one of the 100 significant bird areas of Turkey by The Society for the Protection of Nature and by Bird Life International. 57 of the bird kinds have been taken under protection in accordance with Bern III Contract. In addition, capercaillies in the area have given the area the status of being one of the 217 endemism areas (Kurdoğlu, 2002: 5/Bird Life,1995). Photography 4. In recent years, bird watching has been carried out in Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. Having a unique botanical diversity, the area holds a number of rare kinds with its 537 woody plants, Fırtına Basin remains one of the 122 significant plant fields(Yeğen,2007:101-103). All these demonstrate that the area has a significant potential for the devolopment of botanical tourism. Since 2003, heliski has been available in the National Park(Photo 5). Tourists, especially from Sweden, Switzerland, Norway and Finland, join heliski activities which are mostly held on Kaçkar Mountains and such valleys as Kavran, Ceymakcur and Avacur. Photograph 5. The tourists landed on the peaks of Kaçkar Mountains join heliksi. As for river tourism, the area offers such alternatives as canoe and rafting thanks to the length of the course, flow rate and valley slope(Photo 6). Photograph 6. Canoe and rafting are carried out in Fırtına Stream especially in the period of transition from spring to summer. 31 �In recent years, jeep safari and mountain cycling have become popular activities in Fırtına Basin. There are many routes for these activities. In addition, the area has often been preferred by the campers with its magnificent views and fresh, clean air. With its unique natural beauty, the basin provides heavenly facilities for photographers and photo safari. As for as their height, slope and wind are concerned, the peaks of Kaçkar Mountains are suitable for paragliding(Photo 7). Sal, Pokut and Hazindak high pasture are among the appropriate places for this activity. Photograph 7. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park have places suitable for camping and paragliding. Apart from these, local residences, thermal spring, accomodation sites and cultural structure of Ayder High Pasture can be arranged so as to host congresses to be held, which will add to sustainable tourism activities in the area. In addition, there are suitable places for horse riding, orienteering, view watching and picnic. Conclusion Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park offers various alternatives of sustainable tourism for tourists. It is obvious that present state of the National Park, which has a number of natural, social and cultural sources, can only be maintained by the protection and sound use of these sources. To do so; • • • • • • Economic, ecologicial and social aspects of sources should be assessed together for a sustainable development. Plans, projects and investments that may cause pollution and environmental damage should be avoided. Ecological capacity should be taken into account while development is supported. Natural, cultural and social diversity should be protected and supported. Tourists and local people should be informed about possible negative environmental effects. Sustainability of the above without doubt is closely connected with the continuity of the relationship between tourism, and natural and social environment in a sound and positive manner. References Atabay, S., (1998 ), 21. Yüzyılda Sürdürülebilir Turizm Politikaları. 1. Uluslar arası Turizm Sempozyumu (1617 Aralık 1998), Yıldız Teknik Üniv., İstanbul. Doğanay, H., (2001), Türkiye Turizm Coğrafyası (3. Baskı). Çizgi Kitabevi Yay. No:33, Üniversite Kitapları: 9, Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya Doğu, A.F., Somuncu, M., Çiçek, İ., Tunçel, H., Gürgen, G., (1993), Kaçkar Dağı’nda Buzul Şekilleri, Yaylalar ve Turizm. Ankara Üniv. Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Derg. 2, Ankara. Erdoğan, N., (2003), Çevre ve (Eko)turizm. Pozitif Matbaacılık, Ankara. Erinç, S., (1945), Doğu Karadeniz Dağları’nda Glasyal Morfoloji Araştırmaları. İstanbul Üniv. Edebiyat Fak. Yay. Coğrafya Enst. Doktora Tezleri Serisi, No: 1, İstanbul. Kurdoğlu, O., (2002), Fırtına Vadisi’nin Doğal Kaynak Yönetimi Açısından İncelenmesi. KTÜ Fen Bil. Enstitüsü (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Trabzon. Scharpf, H., (1998), Sürdürülebilirlilik Açısından Bölgesel ve Yerel Yönetimlerin Turizm Politikasındaki Görevleri. 1. Uluslar arası Turizm Sempozyumu (16-17 Aralık 1998), Yıldız Teknik Üniv., İstanbul. 32 �Yarar, M., Magnın, G., (1997), Türkiye’nin Önemli Kuş Alanları. Doğal Hayatı Koruma Derneği Yay., İstanbul. Zaman, M., (2007), Doğu Karadeniz Kıyı Dağları’nda Yaylalar ve Yaylacılık. Atatürk Üniv. Yay. No: 960, Fen Edebiyat Fak. Yay No: 105, Araştırma Serisi No: 75, Erzurum. Zaman, M., (2008), Fırtına Deresi Havzası ve Kaçkar Dağları Milli Parkı’nın Alternatif Turizm Açısından Önemi. Atatürk Üniv. Sosyal Bil. Enst. Derg.Cilt:12, Sayı:2 , Erzurum. 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 645 Title A name given to the resource Significance of Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park in Sustainable Tourism Author Author ZAMAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park are located in the Eastern Black Sea part of the Eastern Black Sea Region. Administratively, the whole Fırtına Basin, and a great part of Kaçkar Mountains National Park (83.7 %) area located within Çamlıhemşin, Rize, and the rest of the area (16.3 %) falls within the boundaries of Yusufeli, Artvin and İspir, Erzurum. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park, a large part of which is in the basin of the related valley, are one of the most important natural places of Turkey and are known at an international level owing to their wild life, vegetation richness and geomorphological formations they have. On account of these characteristics, the related area has been counted in 200 ecological areas that must be preserved by WWF (World Wild Fund For Nature). In addition, centuries - long high pasture activities in the area and archaeological works add historical and folkloric value to the basin. Therefore, they remain one of the important areas in Sustainable Tourism. They have a potential for such natural recreational activities as mountain tourism, high pasture tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, botanical tourism, rafting, heliksi, camping, photography, mountain cycling, jeep safari, trekking, fishhook, paragliding and observation of birds and wild life. Utilization of the related area with respect to sustainable tourism potential will greatly contribute to the economic devolopment of the region. The reason is that sustainable tourism remains a kind of tourism which protects local, natural, cultural and structural sources, devolops life quality of the people around, provides a high – quality service for the tourists, increases environmental quality of sites and fosters economic devolopment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/30336fda94929648514a2f36504a02b6.pdf e9785e8e64de3488ccf1f18938a3b57a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Application of Factor Analysis in the Assessment of Water Quality in Sakarya River (Turkey) Suheyla Yerel Bozuyuk Vocational School Bilecik University, Bilecik, Turkey suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Nurgul Ozbay Engineering Faculty Bilecik University, Bilecik, Turkey nurgul.ozbay@bilecik.edu.tr Huseyin Ankara Department of Mining Engineering Eskisehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir, Turkey hankara@ogu.edu.tr Abstract: Factor analysis is applied to the dataset on surface water quality of the Sakarya River (Turkey), generated one year monitoring at five monitoring stations for eight parameters. This study presents of factor analysis technique for evaluation of large complex dataset with a view to get better information about the surface water quality and design the monitoring stations for effective management of water sources. Three factors were determined, which were responsible from the 88.886% of total variance of the surface water quality in the Sakarya River (Turkey). The first factor explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor explained 27.914% and the third factor 17.332% explained of the variance, respectively. This study showed that, factor analysis help decision makers to judge effectiveness of surface water quality programs. 1. Introduction One of the major concerns in hydrological studies understands the factor and process that control and affect water quality. Water quality “reflects the composition of water as affected by natural processes and by humans’ cultural activities, expressed in terms of measurable quantities and related to intended water use” (Novanty and Chesters, 1981). Surface waters contain many chemical species in the dissolved state that play an important roleinthe survivalaquatic ecosystems (Santos-Roman et al., 2003). Water quality monitoring has one ofthe highest prioritiesin environmental protection policy (Simeonov et al., 2002). The main objective isto control and minimize the incidence of pollutant-oriented problems, and to appropriate qualityto serve various purposes such as drinking water,irrigation water, etc (Boyacioglu, 2006). The quality of water is identified in terms of its physical, chemical and biological parameters (Sargaonkar and Deshpande, 2003). The particular problem in the case of water quality monitoring is the complexity associated with analyzing the large number of measured variables (Saffran, 2001). The data sets contain rich information about the behavior of the water resources. The classification, modeling and interpretation of monitoring data are the most important steps in the assessment of water quality (Boyacioglu, 2006). Inthis study evaluated the water quality parameters using factor analysis. This analysis was applied to a surface water quality dataset obtain by Sakarya riverin Turkey. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Dataset Surface water quality datasets of five surface water quality observation stations comparing eight parameters monitoring monthly a years, were obtained from DSI. Observation stations are seen fig. 1. 262 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The selected surface water quality parameter for the determination of water quality characteristics are; Total dissolved solids (TDS), Sulphate (SO4), Chloride (Cl), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ), Nitrate nitrogen (NO3 -N), Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Dissolved oxygen (DO) and Sodium (Na). The results were evaluated by using factor analysis. Figure 1. Sakarya river monitoring stations 2.2. Factor Analysis Factor analysis is a statistical technique that attempts to extract a lower dimensional linear structure from the data. The main purpose of factor analysisisto reduce the contribution of less significant variables and to simplify even more of the data structure. As a result, a small number of factors will usually account for approximately the same amount of information as the much larger set of original observations (Shrestha and Kazama, 2007). The factor analysis can be expressed as: zji = af1f1i + af 2f2i + af 3f3i +... + afmfmi + efi i = 1, 2,..., p (1) where z is the measured variable; a isthe factor loading; f represents the factor score, e is the residual term accounting for errors or other source of variation;iisthe sample number,and m representsthetotal number of factors. 3. Results and Discussion Surface water quality parameters were grouped using factor analysis in this study. The eigenvalues for different factors, eigenvalues and total variance are given in Tab. 1. The table shows that,the three eigenvalues were higher than 1. Majority of the total variance of the dataset has been investigated by the firstthree factors Varimax rotation was then used to obtain readily interpretable factorloadings. 263 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters TDS Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 0.952 - SO4 0.946 - - Cl 0.887 - - BOD5 0.857 - - NO3-N - 0.943 - COD - 0.777 - DO - - 0.843 Na - - 0.708 Eigenvalue 3.491 2.233 1.387 Total variance (%) 43.639 27.914 17.332 Table 1. Rotated factorloadings matrix The factor analysis generated three significant factors, which explained approximately 88.886% of the variance in monitoring stations dataset. Parameters were grouped based on the factorloadings and the following factors were given: Factor 1: TDS, SO4, Cl and BO D5 Factor 2: NO3-N and COD Factor 3: DO and Na The first factor (Factor 1) is explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor (Factor 2) is positively loaded with parameters NO3 -N and COD. This factor accounts for 27.914% of the total variance. Factor 3 explained 17.332% ofthe total variance and related tothe parameters DO and Na. The data of the Factor 1 were calculation into mean value to compare the aspects of the variation in surface water quality data obtained from five different monitoring stations as presented by fig. 2. Among the mean value, all parameters were found to be high at Station 1 showing high pollution ofthese sites. Figure 2. TDS, SO4, Cl and BO D5 mean value at monitoring stations 264 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion In this study, factor analysis was applied to surface water quality dataset. The analysis was used to classify surface water quality parameters. Based on the above results, monitoring stations were explained by the three factors,itisthe Factor 1 (TDS, SO4, Cl and BOD5 ) that best observed variances in the data. These results represent that pollution caused differences in terms of water quality in the Station 1 of the river. Finally,it was determined thatthe factor analysis usefulness forinterpretation of water quality dataset. 5. References 1. Boyacioglu, H. (2006). Surface water quality assessment using factor analysis. Water SA, 32, 389-394. 2. Novanty, V., & Chesters, G. (1981). Handbook of non-point pollution, Sources and Management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. 3. Saffran, K. (2001). Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life, CCME water quality index 1,0 User’s manual, ISBN 1-896997-34-1. 4. Santos-Roman, D.M., Warner, G.S., & Scatena, F. (2003). Multivariate analysis of water quality and physical characteristics of selected watersheds in Puerto Rico. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 829-839. 5. Sargaonkar, A., & Deshpande, V. (2003). Development of an overall index of pollution surface water based on a general classification scheme in Indian context. Environ. Monit. Assess., 89, 43-67. 6. Shrestha, S., & Kazama, F. (2007). Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques. A case study of Fuji river basin, Japan. Environmental Modelling and Software, 22, 464-475. 7. Simeonov, V., Einax, J.W., Stanimirova, I., & Kraft J. (2002). Environmetric modeling and interpretation of river water monitoring data. Anal. Bional Chem., 374, 898-905. 265 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 477 Title A name given to the resource Application of Factor Analysis in the Assessment of Water Quality in Sakarya River (Turkey) Author Author Yerel, Suheyla Ozbay, Nurgul Ankara, Huseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Factor analysis is applied to the dataset on surface water quality of the Sakarya River (Turkey), generated one year monitoring at five monitoring stations for eight parameters. This study presents of factor analysis technique for evaluation of large complex dataset with a view to get better information about the surface water quality and design the monitoring stations for effective management of water sources. Three factors were determined, which were responsible from the 88.886% of total variance of the surface water quality in the Sakarya River (Turkey). The first factor explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor explained 27.914% and the third factor 17.332% explained of the variance, respectively. This study showed that, factor analysis help decision makers to judge effectiveness of surface water quality programs. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/607da21842ba6a92dcd60e42c1f88966.pdf df457c175f9db3cd3d16ca1d651d1a4c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Biodegradable Modified Corn Starch and Its Electroreological Properties M ustafa Yavuz, Suleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey yavuz@fef.sdu.edu.tr Tahir Tilki Süleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey Meh met Çabuk Mus Alparslan University, Mus, Turkey Meh met Ulutürk Süleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey Abstract: In this study an electrorheological (ER) effect of the suspensions containing both native starch (S) and modified starch (MS) particles in corn oil under various externally applied electric field strengths are reported. To prepare an ER active material, biodegradable starch was partially hydrolyzed and converted to its Li+ salt. Both biopolymers were characterized by 13C-NMR, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Suspensions of Starch and modified Starch particles were prepared in corn oil at concentrations ranging from 5-40% by mass. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator to investigate the effects of electric field strength and particle concentration on ER performance. Effects of various parameters such as sedimentation stability, dispersed particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate, frequency and temperature onto ER activity were investigated. Modified starch suspension was accepted as a biodegradable anhydrous ER fluid. Introduction Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes and microorganisms. The term is often used in relation to ecology. Starch is a linear polymer (polysaccaride) made up of repeating glucose groups linked by glucosidic linkages in the 1-4 carbon positions. Biodegradation of starch based polymers is a result of enzymatic attack (Ogungbenle 2007) at the glucosidic linkages between the sugar groups leading to a reduction in chain length and the splitting of sugar units (monosaccharides, disaccharides and oligosaccharides)(Kato et al. 2003). ER fluids can potentially be used as a smart materialfor active devices, which transform electric energy to mechanical energy. They are composed of a suspension of polarization solid particles dispersed in a nonconducting liquid media (Block & Kelly 1988). When an electricfieldisimposed,the rheological properties of the fluid vary, showing a characteristic fibrillation (Winslow 1949);the strings of the particles are oriented along the direction ofthe electricfield. This structureis known to be induced by a mismatch ofthe dielectric constants and conductivity ofthe suspended particles and theinsulating oil(Parthasarathy & Klingenberg 1996). ER fluids are divided into two categories (Tao et al. 2001): one is called dry-base ER system (or anhydrous, which shows ER activity without adding any polar promoter) the other one is called wet-base ER systems (or hydrous, which needs a polar promoterto be added to show ER activity). In this study, we investigate native starch and modified starch as a vigorous nominee for anhydrous particles in high performance dry-base systems by analyzing the effect of particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate and frequency via sheartests. 50 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Experimental 1. Material The chemicals were Aldrich, Acros and Merck products, with analytical grade. The base fluid used was corn oil with a density ρ= 0.936 g/cm3, viscosity η = 45 mPa s, dielectric constant ε = 3.34, and conductivity (E = 1 kV/mm) σ = 4X10-11 S/m at 25 o C. The starch was (used as dispersed phase) produced by Acros Organics products. 2. Modification Of Native Starch Suspensions of the air-dried corn starch (50 g) in distilled water (500 mL) were supplemented with ammonium vanadate (NH4 VO 3). A marine blue color was appeared. The pH of each suspension was adjusted to 9.0 by adding 10% NaOH(aq). Each suspension was continuously stirred for 48 h at a constant temperature of 35–40o C, under atmospheric conditions. After the reaction was completed, its color turned to yellowish. The reaction mixture was filtered through a sintered glass and the filtrate washed with cold water to remove any impurities present. The products were dried in desiccators over molecular sieves. The dried products were dispersed in 0.1 M LiOH(aq) and the lithium-salt of partially modified starch was obtained. The final product was also dried under the same conditions. The modification reaction mechanism of the native starch is given in Scheme 1. H CH2OH OH NH4VO3 10% NaOH O H H H H O H pH: 9 OH OH LiOH COOH OH H OH OH OH H OH Scheme 1. Oxidation reaction mechanism and chemical structure of modified starch. 3. Electrorheological Measurements Suspensions of starch derivative particles were prepared in corn oil at a series of concentration (c = 5– 40% m/m). Suspensions were mechanically stirred before each measurement against sedimentation. Rheological properties ofthe suspensions were determined with a Termo-Haake RS600 parallel plateElectro-rheometer (Germany). The gap between the paralel plates was 1.0 mm and the diameters ofthe upper and lower plates were 35 mm. Allthe experiments were carried out at a controlled rate (CR) mode and at various temperatures (25–125 ◦ C, with 25 ◦ C increments.). The voltage used in these experiments was also supplied by a 0–12.5 kV (with 0.5 kV increments) dc electric field generator (Fug Electronics,HCL 14, Germany), which enabled resistivity to be created during the experiments. Scheme 2. Mechanism of ER behavior. Results and Discussion 1. Characterizations Both native starch and modified starch were subjected to the following characterizations before ER measurements to be carried out; The 13 C-N MR spectra were obtained in D MSO-d6 and CDCl3 at ambient 51 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo temperature using a 400 MHz Bruker DPX Avonce Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer atthe Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory (ATAL). Modified starch showed similar 13 C-N MR spectratothat of the native starch,indicating that modification did not have an effect on the molecular packing of the double helices in the crystalline regions but a new additional signal of the carbonyl carbons in ester groups formed by the formulation at 176.15 ppm is clearly visible; some differences exist also in C6 region. The samples were scanned by Scanning electron micrographs (SE M) with an extra of ED A X analyzer ( Jeol JSM-6360 LV, Japan ).The study of EDAX analysis revealthat reactions of modification were completed positively. EDAX analysis evaluated the extent of ionic types (Mi et al. 2003). Spectra (a) is shown energy profiles coming from starch as oxygen and carbon but spectra (b) shows that one more energy profile became the Li+. (a) (b) Figure 1. EDAX analysis of energy positions (a) starch (b)modified starch. Thermal analysis data of particles were obtained using a Setaram 8ET8 V8 Evolution 1760 model thermogravimetric analyzer(TG A) inthe presence of nitrogen atmosphere up to 600o C, ata heating rate of 10 o C / min. The results from TGA are compared for starch and modified starch as a thermogram. Starch has two decomposition stages with one beginning at 250 o C and another beginning at 450 o C. Thermal result of starch and modified starch is similar. There aretwo weightlosses for samples consistat 245 o C and 440 o C. The weight loss is approximately 100% for starch and 85% for modified starch at 600 o C. as a result, modified starch was appeared about 15% end ofthe analysis( Vijaya et al. 2008). Figure 2. Thermogravimetriccurve of (a) starch and (b) modified starch. 52 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Electrorheology 2.1.Effect Of Dispersed Particle Concentration Effect of dispersed particle concentration on viscosity of S and MS suspensions was investigated using five different concentrations (5%–40% m/m) and results obtained are shown in Figure 3. Suspension concentration exerts principle effect on the ER activity (Wu & Shen 1996). The viscosities of both S and MS suspensions were shown increase with rising particle concentration up to c = 30 (%, m/m) and then leveled off. The maximum electric field induced viscosities (ηE) of Starch and Modified Starch were observed to be 1976 Pas and 3170 Pas,respectively under E = 2 kV/mm and shown a typical strong ER effect. Figure 3. The change in viscosity with concentration, T = 20o C and E = 2 kV/mm. 2.2. Effect Of Electric Field Strength Shear stress is one of the critical design parameter in ER phenomenon and has attracted considerable attention both theoretically and experimentally. Figure 4 also shows the changes in the shear stress (τ) and viscosity (� of S and MS in Corn Oil suspensions under various electric field values. Increase in electric field causesincreasein τ and � Thisis due tothe formation of chain-like structure caused by the polarized particlesin suspensions under E electric field strength ( Choi et al. 1997). Figure 4. The change of viscosity and shear stress with electric field strength, T = 20o C, c = 30% m/m,�= 0.2 s−1 2.3. Effect Of Temperature The temperature dependence of the shear stress is shown in Figure5. The results were investigated at 53 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo temperatures between 25-80°C. It was observed that,for S/Corn Oil system, τ decreased with increasing T and a shear stress loss of ∆τ = 118 Pa was measured. An interesting curve was obtained for MS/Corn Oil suspension, showing a decrease in τ up to T = 50 °C, then gave an increase with rising T. This may be attributed to the loss of moistureinthe MS/Corn Oilsuspension and the increased kinetic energy of Li+ ionsinsertedintothe structure of starch withthe modification process, which gave risetoincreased mobility and polarizability ofthe suspended modified starch. Although shear stress changes withincreasing temperature reported inthe literature ( Unal et al. 2006;Liu & Shaw 2001 ) Figure 5. Effect oftemperature on the shear stress for starch and modified starch suspension, c =30% m/m, � = 0.2 s–1, E = 2.0 kV/mm. 2.4. Effect of frequency The effect of frequency (f) on the shear modulus (G’) for S and MS suspension is shown Fig.6. Up to f = 50 Hz, viscoelastic properties of both Starch and Modified Starch were not much changed. After f = 50 Hz, a sharpincrease was observed for each sample as atypical characteristic of a viscoelastic material, which indicates a vibration damping property. The increase in G’ with increasing external f was also reported in the literature( Zhao et al. 2008). Figure 6. The change of Gı with frequency, c= 30% m/m, T=20o C, γ = 10 Pa, E=2kV/mm . 2.5. Sedimentation stability Sedimentation ratio curves as a function of time for S and M S suspension at 20% concentration at room temperature are shown in figure 7 that, prepared polymer suspensions exhibited colloidal stability against sedimentation, which the sedimentation ratio is 58 % end of 30 days. The sedimentation stability of modified starch suspension is betterthan that of starch. Thisis possibly because starch is easily congregation foritsflakelike structure, greatly modifies its dispersal ability so as to increase its anti-sedimentation ability (Xiang & Zhao 2006). 54 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 7. Sedimentation stability of starch and modified starch depend on time, c = 20% m/m, T= 20o C Conclusions In presentstudy we have shown thatthe native starch can successfully be partially modified and converted to ER active Li salt. The results showed that, S and MS suspension exhibited ER behavior under electric field strength. The conductivities of S (10-9 S/m) and MS (10-5 S/m) were in the range of ER active materials. Sedimentation stabilities of S and MS suspension were found to be 58% and suitable for potential industrial applications. Optimum particle concentration of the both suspensions was determined to be 30% by mass. The shear stresses of the both materials were shown a linear increase with increasing E. S and MS suspension showed Newtonian behavior when E = 0 kV and Bingham behavior when E ≠ 0 kV. The viscosities of S and MS suspension decreased with increasing shear rate and given a typical of viscoelastic behavior by means of shear thinning. Electric field induced viscosities of the both materials were observed to increase linearly. Temperature was observed to be effective on the both materials and caused shear stress losses on S and shear stress increase on M S, especially at elevated temperatures. Our results revealed that, wet-base ER active S/corn oil suspension system become dry-base ER active after the modification, and shown 3 times stronger ER strength; which is extremely important from industrial point of view. Acknowledgements We are grateful for financial support by The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (Project no: 107T628 ) References Block H. and Kelly J.P. (1988). Electro-rheology. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 21, 1661-1667. Choi, H. J., M. S. Cho, and M. S. Jhon. (1997). Electrorheological properties of poly(acene quinone) radical suspensions. Polym. Adv. Tech. 8, 697–700. F.-L. Mi, H.-W. Sung, C.-C. Su, C.-K. Peng (2003). Synthesis and characterization of biodegradable TPP/genipin cocrosslinked chitosan gel beads. Polymer 44 6521-6530. Kato Y., Matsuo R., Isogai A. (2003). Oxidation process of water-soluble starch in TEMPO-mediated system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 5, 1 69–75. Liu, B.; Shaw, M. T. (2001). Electrorheology of filled silicone elastomers. J. Rheol., 45, 641-657. Ogungbenle H. N. (2007). Effect of chemical modification in starch of some legume flours. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6 (2), 167-171. Parthasarathy, M. and Klingenberg, D.J. (1996). Electrorheology : mechanisms and models. Mater. Sci. Eng., R17:57–103. 55 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Tao, R., Zhang, J., Shiroyanagi, Y., Tang, X. and Zhang, X. (2001). Electrorheological Fluidsunder Shear. Int. J. Mod. Phys. B, 15:918–929. Unal, H. I.; Agirbas, O.; Yilmaz, H. (2006). Electrorheological properties of poly(Li-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) suspensions Coll. and Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 274, 77-84. Winslow, W.. M. (1953). Field Controlled Hydraulic Device. U.S., Pat. No: 2661596. Wu, S. and Shen, J., 1996. Electrorheological properties of chitin suspensions. J.Appl.Polymer Sci., 60:2159-2164. Xiang, L.; Zhao, X. (2006). Preparation of montmorillonite/titania nanocomposite and enhanced electrorheological activity. J. Coll. Inter. Sci., 296, 131–140. Vijaya, Y., Popuri, S.R., Boddu, V.M. and Krishnaiah, A. (2008), Modified chitosan and calcium alginate biopolymer sorbents for removal of nickel(II) through adsorption. Carbohydrate Polymers, 72 (2), 261-271. Zhao,Y.; Wang, B.; Ding, C.; Zhao, X. (2008). Nano Titanium Oxide Organosol: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application for Electrorheological Fluid. J.Appl.Polym.Sci.,110, 3763-3769. 56 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 471 Title A name given to the resource Biodegradable Modified Corn Starch and Its Electroreological Properties Author Author Yavuz, Mustafa Tilki, Tahir Çabuk, Mehmet Ulutürk, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study an electrorheological (ER) effect of the suspensions containing both native starch (S) and modified starch (MS) particles in corn oil under various externally applied electric field strengths are reported. To prepare an ER active material, biodegradable starch was partially hydrolyzed and converted to its Li+ salt. Both biopolymers were characterized by 13C-NMR, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Suspensions of Starch and modified Starch particles were prepared in corn oil at concentrations ranging from 5-40% by mass. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator to investigate the effects of electric field strength and particle concentration on ER performance. Effects of various parameters such as sedimentation stability, dispersed particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate, frequency and temperature onto ER activity were investigated. Modified starch suspension was accepted as a biodegradable anhydrous ER fluid. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9fa4f5ab19fcbd67d67b5fff42afbdb3.pdf 1d180e0fefa3c15b2a57766ea4558ca6 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Dissolution Kinetics Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate In Aqueous Chlorination Solutions Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Ah met Yartaşı Hakan Temur M. Muhtar Kocakerim Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Chemical Engineering Erzurum TURKEY yartasi@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, the dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite concentrate was investigated by using the solutions obtained with dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. A mathematical expression representing the process was established by using experimental data and a package program, as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t Also, it was found that the dissolution rate was controlled by chemical reaction step with an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0C. Keywords: Chalcopyrite, copper, chlorination, dissolution kinetics. Introduction Chalcopyrite, being one of the most abundant copper ores in the world isthe most important ore used in production of the copper by pyrometallurgical methods.It contains minerals such as FeS2 , ZnS, PbS in addition to CuFeS2 in nature. On the other hand, the SO2 gas emitted to atmosphere during the production of copper by pyrometallurgical methods is an important pollutant. Nowadays, the governments force the firms producing metals from sulphide minerals to use less harmful technologies because of its threatening properties for environment. This situation brings along the necessity of developing of new environmentalisttechnologies. As an alternative to the pyrometallurgical processes, hydrometallurgical metalrecovery is getting importance in this area. Furthermore,the problem of evaluating the chlorine gas being a by-productin production of NaOH needed in enormous amountsinindustry is waiting a solution because ofimpossibility ofits emission to the atmosphere. There are many studies on the dissolution, dissolution kinetics and mechanism of copper ores in various aqueous media. Havlik et al.(1995) examining the leaching of chalcopyrite concentrate with ferric chloride solutions found that the rate of leaching increased with concentration of ferric ions up to the 0.5 M concentrations of ferric chloride and the activation energy of this process was 55 ± 5 kJ.mol-1. Havlik and Kam mel(1995) investigated leaching of chalcopyrite in acidified FeCl3 and acidified FeCl3 + CCl4 solutions. They found thatthe leaching in the absence of CCl4 was a chemically controlled reaction with activation energy of 68.9 kJ.mol-1 inthetemperature range 45-800 C and inthe presence of CCl4 was a diffusion controlled process with activation energy of 31.2 kJ.mol-1 inthe same temperature range. The high reactivity of gaseous chlorine as an oxidizing agent in leaching processes have been caused a number of studies on the extraction of metalsulphides by chlorineleaching. Bayrakçeken et al.(1990) studied the kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspensions and found that the rate controlling step was the chemical reaction between chlorine and pyrite forthe temperature range 13-35 0 C, and the diffusion of chlorine through the fluid film forthe temperature range 40-60 0 C withthe activation energies respectively 36.7 kJ.mol-1 and 3.7 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Çolak et al.(1987) examined the kinetics of dissolution of chalcopyritein aqueous solutions saturated by chlorine gas and determined thatthe diffusion of the reactants through product layer was the rate controlling step with an activation energy of 9.81 kJ.mol-1. 212 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reactions of copper sulfide minerals with chlorine in an aqueous media were studied by Groves and Smith(1973) and determined that when the dissolution process was complete,the reaction products(copper,iron and sulfur) were in their highest oxidation states and stoichiometric amount of chlorine was consumed. In an study carried out by Ekmekyapar et. al.(1988), it was investigated the dissolution kinetics of an oxidized copper ore in water saturated by chlorine, and found that the dissolution process proceeded in two stages and was controlled by diffusion through the ash layer in each stage. The authors determined that the activation energies forthe first and second stages were 27.15 and 20.21 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Chalcopyrite can be dissolved with various leaching agents such as hydrochloric acid (Habashi and Toor, 1979), chloride/hypo chloride media (Puvvada and Murthy, 2000),ferric chloride (Dutrizac, 1990; Maurice and Hawk,1999), acidic Cl- solutions(Lu et al.,2000), CCl4 saturated with chlorine(Saraç etal.,1994) and H2 SO4NaCl-O2 (Padilla et al., 2003). In addition to these, oxide and sulphide ores of base metal minerals were examined by using various chlorinating agents such as Cl2,HCl, Cl2-O2, FeCl2 and O2 and CuCl2 (Mukherjee and Gupta, 1983). In this study, the dissolution kinetics of concentrate chalcopyrite in the chlorination solution (solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentratein water saturated with chlorine was investigated and effects of the parameters, such as reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] on the dissolution rate were determined. Methods And Materials The chalcopyrite concentrate used in this study was provided from Çayeli, Rize in Turkey and sieved by using a 75 µm AST M standard sieve. Chemical analysis of concentrate gave a composition of 24.02 % Cu, 29.36 % Fe, 36.55 % S, 2.19 % Zn, 0.19 % Pb, 0.1 % Al2 O3, 0.9 % moisture and 6.69 % other components. X-ray diffractogram obtained by a Rigaku D M A X 2000 Series X-ray diffractometer and given in Figure 1 shows that the concentrate contains CuFeS2, FeS2, ZnS, Cu2 S, CuS and very smallamount of Al2 O3 and SiO2. Also, SE M photogram ofthe concentrateis seen in Figure 2. 250mL- a jacketed glass reactor was used for dissolution experiments under atmospheric pressure. The reactor contents were mixed by a mechanical stirrer with tachometer and its temperature was controlled by a constant temperature circulator. The reactor was fitted with a cooler to prevent the volume reduction of the solution by the evaporation. The parameters used in the experiments and theirranges are given in Table 1. Dissolution experiments were carried out using the chlorination solutions.In order to obtain this solution an enough amount of chalcopyrite concentrate was dissolved in enough amount of chlorine saturated water under predetermined optimum conditions(45o C for reaction temperature, 0.05gmL-1 for solidto liquid ratio, 0.2 molL-1 for [Fe3+], 0.025 molL-1 for [Cu2+] and 120 min for reaction time), and then,the suspension was filtered and the filtrate stocked. The obtained solution was containing species such as Fe3+, Cu2+, H+, SO4 2- and Cl-. Concentrations of these spieces were 14.6, 4.0, 4.46, 2.2 and 124.3 gmL-1, respectively. Various concentrations of Fe3+, Cu2+ and H+ were prepared by adding Fe3+, Cu2+ or H+ to this solution or by diluting the solutions. After 250 mL of the chlorination solution was placed into reaction vessel it was heated to the reaction temperature. And then, a certain amount of the concentrate was added tothe reaction vessel,and the vessel content was stirred at a certain stirring speed for a desired period. At the end of dissolution period, reaction mixture was filtered, and the amounts of Cu2+ passing to the solution was determined by the volumetric method(Gülensoy, 1984). In the experiments, whilethe effect of one parameter was examining,the values of other parameters were kept constant. The data obtained were plottedinthe form of conversion fraction, described as X = [the amount of Cu passing to the solution from chalcopyrite concentrate /the amount of Cu in chalcopyrite concentrate] versus time. Results And Discussion Dissolution Reactions In aqueous medium, the reactions between chalcopyrite concentrate and chlorine gas are as follows(Demopulos and Distin,1983, O’Malley and Liddell, 1987, Meyers,1977) 2CuFeS2(s) → Cu2 S(s) + 2 FeS(s) + S(s) (1) Cu2 S(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + CuS(s) (2) CuS(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + S (aq) (3) (4) FeS2(s) →FeS(s) + S(s) 2FeS(s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl2(aq) + 2S(s) (5) 213 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4S (s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2 S2 Cl2(l) (6) 2 FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl3 (7) (aq) (8) 2 S2 Cl2(l) + 10Cl2(aq) + 16H2 O → 4H2 SO4(aq) + 24HCl(aq) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 3Fe2+(aq) + 2S(s) (9) CuFeS2 (s) + 4Fe3+ → Cu2+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) + 2S(s) (10) S(s) +6Fe3+ (aq) +4H2 O→ HSO4 - (aq) +6Fe2+ (aq) +7H+ (aq) (11) W hen chalcopyrite concentrate is added into the chlorination solution,the reactions taking place in the medium can be written as follows; (10) CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) + 2 S(s) CuFeS2(s) + 16Fe3+(aq) + 8H2 O → Cu2+(aq) + 17 Fe2+(aq) + 2SO4 2-(aq) +16H+ (aq) (12) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 3Fe2+(aq) + 2S(s) (9) 6Fe3+(aq) + S(s) + 4H2 O → 6Fe2+(aq) + HSO4 -(aq) + 7H+ (aq) (13) After dissolving the concentrate atreaction temperature of 75 o C, particle size of 75 µm, stirring speed of 450 min-1, solid-to-liquid ratio of 0,02 g.mL-1, Cu2+ ion concentration of 4.03 g.L-1, Fe3+ ion concentration of 13.90 g.L-1 and H+ ion concentration of 4.46 g.L-1 and the mixture was filtered. After the solid part was extracted with 100 mL of carbon sulphide in a reaction vessel equipped with a condencer and the extraction mixture was filtered,the filtrate was evaporated and it was seen thatthe residue was elemental sulphur. The effects of parameters The effect of reaction temperature on the dissolution rate was studied using four reaction temperatures (50, 65, 75 and 88 o C ) at particle size of 75 µm, stirring speed of 450 min-1,solid-to-liquid ratio of 0,02 g.mL-1, [Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1, [Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. As seen in Figure 4,the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrateincreases with increasing reaction temperature. The effect of stirring speed on the dissolution rate was studied by using three stirring speeds (300, 450 and 600 min-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio of 0.02 g.mL-1, 2+ -1 3+ -1 + -1 [Cu ] of 4.03 g.L ,[Fe ] of 13.90 g.L and [H ] of 4.46 g.L . The experimentalresultsseen in Figure 5 show evidently thatthe dissolution rate is not affectimportantly of stirring speed. To investigate the effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on the dissolution rate,the experiments were carried out by using three solid-to-liquid ratios(0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 g.mL-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1,[Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. Data for various solid-to-liquid ratios is seen in Figure 6. This figure shows that decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio increases the dissolution rate, which can be explained by the decrease in the amount of solid per amount of solution in the reaction mixture. To determine the effect of [Cu2+] of on the dissolution rate, the experiments were carried out by using three[Cu2+] values (4.03, 6.03 and 8.05 g.L-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-toliquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. As can be seen in Figure 7, which the experimentalresults are given,the effect of[Cu2+] on the dissolution rateis notimportant. This case can be explained by the factthat when the large amount of Fe3+ ions are presentin reaction medium, Cu2+ ions can not have an oxidizing effect. The effect of[Fe3+] on the dissolution rate was investigated by using three [Fe3+] values (13.90, 20.89 and 27.85 g.L-1) at particle size of 75µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1, [Cu2+] of 4.02 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. Experimental results plotted in Figure 8 show that the dissolution rate increase with increasing [Fe3+]. It has been stated that the following reactions occur during reaction between chalcopyrite and FeCl3 (Hawlik et al. 1995; Çolak et al., 1987); CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) + 2 S0(s) (10) CuFeS2(s) + 16 Fe3+(aq) + 8H2 O → Cu2+(aq) + 17Fe2+(aq) + 2 SO4 2-(aq) + 16H+ (aq) (12) Due to above reactions (1 and 2),the dissolution rateincreases with increasing [Fe3+]. The effect of [H+] on the dissolution rate was investigated by using three [H+] values (4.46, 2.23 and 1.12 -1 g.L ) at particle size of 75µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1 and [Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1. The experimentalresults plotted in Figure 9 show that dissolution rateincrease with increasing [H+]. Kinetics Analysis The kinetics of a noncatalytic reaction between a solid and a liquid,represented by A(fluid) + bB(solid) → Products, can be represented by one of two ideal model: Progressive-conversion model and shrinking core 214 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo model(Levenspiel, 1999). In progressive-conversion model, it is visualized that reactant liquid enters to particle and reacts throughoutthe particle at alltimes. At this case,the reaction rate can be defined by pseudo-homogenous models and in the shrinking core modelitis derived integrated rate equations to show the reaction rate.In such a case, the particle size may unchanged or shrink. Ifit unchanges, the derived integrated rate equations are t/t* = X, (for diffusion controlthrough liquid film) t / t* = 1-3(1-X)2/3 +2(1-X), (for diffusion control through ash or product layer) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/3, (for surface chemical reaction control) If it shrinks during the reaction, the diffusion through ash or product layer is absent and the integrated rate equation are t / t* = 1-(1-X)2/3 , (the diffusion control through liquid film for small particles) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/2 , (the diffusion control through liquid film for large particles) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/3, (for surface chemical reaction control) In the presented study, it was determined by statistical and graphical methods that which of above models fits with experimental data and was observed that the most appropriate model was surface chemical reaction control. As shown in Figure 10, graphs of[1-(1-X)1/3] versus tfor various reaction temperatures(50, 65, 75 and 88 o C ) gave straightlines. The similar straightlines were obtained for other parameters, also. The regression coefficients of these lines were higher than those obtained for other models. This result stated that the dissolution rate is controlled by chemical reaction. The activation energy of this dissolution process was found to be 32.96 kJ.mol-1 from the slop ofthe straightline of Lnk versus 1/T in Figure 11. W hen the activation energy result of the present work is compared the results from the literature for chalcopyrite leaching (Dutrizac 1978, Jermilow et al. 1969, Dutrizac 1978, Dutrizac 1982 and Hirato et al. 1986),itis seen thatthe results ofthis work islower than those in the literature(Table 2).To find the reason of this case,the initialrate values, ro were determined from Figure 4, and accepting thatthe kinetic equation isin the form of ro = ko[exp(-Ea/RT)],another activation energy value of 47.59 kJ.mol-1 was calculated from the graph of Lnro versus 1/T shown in Figure 12. This value is in a good agreement with the literature values given in Table 2, and can be considered astrue value ofthe activation energy. The difference between the observed activation energy and the one calculated from initialrate values can be explained by the formation of elemental sulphur covering the surface of the particle. When the reactions between the active species in the leaching solution and chalcopyrite and/or pyrite proceeds, elemental sulphur occurs according to the following reactions FeS2(s) + 2Fe+3(aq) → 3Fe+2(aq) + 2S0(aq) (9) CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 2S0(s) (10) Elementalsulphur precipitating on the particle surface can coverthe surface,forming a productlayer. Due tothis film,the activation energy reduces from the true value of 47.59 to 32.96 kJ.mol-1 asthe reaction proceeds. Similar observations have been recorded by Boncukçuoğlu et al.(1994) and Erşahan et al.(1995). In the study of Boncukçuoğlu et al.the reactions taking place in the leaching system were FeS2(s) + 2Fe+3(aq) → 3Fe+2(aq) + 2S0(s) (9) FeS2(s) + 14Fe3+(aq) +8H2 O → 15Fe2+(aq) + 2HSO4 - aq) + 14H+ (aq) (14) Because reaction 9 is very fast compared to reaction 14 and high acidity gains speed this reaction (Boncukçuoğlu et al.,1994; Erşahan et al, 1995, Meyers, 1977) and ,in similar way,it may say thatreaction 10 is faster than reaction 12, also, sulphur obtained by reactions 9 and 10 forms a sulphur layer increasing on particle surface and the dissolution reaction becomes slow. As a results,taking into accountthe values ofthe activation energies, 1-(1-X)1/3 versus t graphs and their regression coefficients, ineffectiveness of stirring speed on the dissolution rate, it can be concluded that the dissolution process was controlled by chemicalreaction. To drive a mathematical expression including the effects of the parameters, the experimental data were treated using a statistical program and the following equation was developed 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)-0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+ ]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t (15) This method gave an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 which is slightly lower than the value of 32.96 kJ.mol-1 calculated from Lnk – 1/T graph. To test the agreement between the experimental conversion values and the values calculated from mathematical expression,the plot of Xexp versus Xtheo was drawn. As seen in Figure 13, the agreement between the experimental and calculated values is very good. 215 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusions In the presented study, the dissolution kinetics of concentrate chalcopyrite in a solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine have been investigated using reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. For this dissolution process, a mathematical model was obtained as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)-0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+ ]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t (15) It has found thatthe dissolution rateis controlled by chemicalreaction step with an activation energy as much as 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0 C. List Of Symbols X t t* b D T S/L SS [H+] [Fe3+] [Cu2+] fractional conversion time (min) time for complete conversion of a single solid particle(min) stociometric coefficient of B (solid) reacting with each mole of A (fluid) particle size (µm) reaction temperature (K) solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) stirring speed(min-1) H+ ion concentration (g.L-1) Fe3+ ion concentration (g.L-1) Cu2+ ion concentration (g.L-1) References Bayrakçeken, S., Yaşar, Y. and Çolak, C., (1990). Kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspension. Hydrometallurgy. 25, 27-36. Boncukçuoğlu, R., Kocakerim, M. M. and Erşahan, H., (1994). 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Parameters Values Reaction temperature ( 0 C) 50 65 75 Solid-to-liquid ratio(g.mL-1) 0.01 0.02 0.04 Stirring speed(min-1) 300 450 600 [Fe3+ ](g.L-1) 13.90 20.89 27.85 [Cu2+ ](g.L-1) 4.03 6.03 8.05 [H+ ](g.L-1) 4.46 2.13 1.12 Table 1.Parameters used in the experiments and theirranges 88 Temperature range Ea Literature (0 C) (kJ.mol-1) 50-100 46 ± 4 Dutrizac (1978) 30-100 42 ± 4 Dutrizac (1978) 40-100 63 ± 8 Dutrizac (1982) 58-85 59.5 Hirato et al.(1986) Table 2. Apparent activation energy values Ea of chalcopyriteleaching with ferric chloride 217 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. X-Ray diffractogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 2. SE M photogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 3. SE M photogram of undissolved solid portion during the reaction 218 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,8 0 Reaction temperature( C ) 0,7 50 65 75 88 0,6 X 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time (min) Figure 4. Effect of reaction temperature on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,6 -1 Stirring speed (min ) 300 450 600 X 0,4 0,2 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 5. Effect of stirring speed on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 219 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,7 -1 Solid-to-liquid ratio( g.mL) 0.01 0.02 0.04 0,6 0,5 X 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time (min) Figure 6. Effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,7 0,6 2+ -1 [Cu ] ( g.L ) 4.03 6.04 8.05 0,5 X 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 7. Effect of [Cu2+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,8 0,7 3+ [Fe 0,6 X 0,5 -1 ]( g.L ) 13.90 20.89 27.85 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 8. Effect of [Fe3+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 220 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,6 + 0,4 X -1 [H ]( g.L ) 2.64 1.32 0.66 0,5 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 30 60 90 120 150 Reaction time (min) Figure 9. Effect of [H+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,35 0 Reaction temperature( C ) 50 65 75 88 0,30 1-(1-X) 1/3 0,25 0,20 0,15 0,10 0,05 0,00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 10. Plot of 1-(1-X)1/3 againstreaction time for various reaction temperature -6,0 Ln k -6,4 -6,8 -7,2 -7,6 2,7 2,8 2,9 3,0 3 3,1 -1 1/T x 10 (K ) Figure 11. Graph of Lnk versus 1/T for dissolution process inthe reaction temperature range 50-88 0 C. 221 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -4,2 -4,6 Ln r 0 -5,0 -5,4 -5,8 -6,2 -6,6 2,7 2,8 2,9 3 3,0 3,1 -1 1/T x 10 (K ) Figure 12. Graph of Lnro versus 1/T forinitialreaction rate 0,40 0,35 0,30 X Experimental 0,25 0,20 0,15 0,10 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 XTheoretical Figure 13. Comparison of experimental and theoretical conversion values from mathematical expression in Eq. 15 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 513 Title A name given to the resource The Dissolution Kinetics Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate In Aqueous Chlorination Solutions Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Author Author Yartası, Ahmet Temur, Hakan Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, the dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite concentrate was investigated by using the solutions obtained with dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. A mathematical expression representing the process was established by using experimental data and a package program, as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)- 0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t Also, it was found that the dissolution rate was controlled by chemical reaction step with an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0C. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)