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Neural-Network Applications for Analysis of Infilled Frame
Muhiddin Bağcı, Hakan Başaran
Celal Bayar University, 45140, Manisa, Turkey.
E-mails: muhiddin.bagci@bayar.edu.tr,hakan.basaran@bayar.edu.tr,ali.demir@bayar.edu.tr
Abstract
The modelling of infilled frames is complex due to the large number of variables as well as
the non-linear material behaviour involved. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is found to be a
tool capable of solving such problems. This has led to the increasing use of ANN for
analysing infilled reinforced concrete frames. This paper reports the details of a study
conducted using ANN for predicting the failure of an infilled reinforced concrete infilled
frame subjected to lateral loading. Using the data generated based on analytical solutions, the
ANN model was trained. The so trained model was tested for different set of input parameters
and the output values were compared with the actual values based on analytical results. The
agreement was found to be good.
Keywords:. Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Infilled Frame, Equivalent strut method
1. INTRODUCTION
The principle behind Artificial Neural Networks is the functioning of the human brain.
Different areas in engineering and technology use this technique for solving complex
problems. In civil engineering, it is successfully applied to areas like optimal design of
structures, earthquake characterization, damage detection etc. It is found to be efficient for
analysing structures which are otherwise very difficult to analyse due to various constraints.
Different approaches have been used in the past to analyse the infilled-framed structures. In
general, the theoretical studies were followed by experiments to evaluate the reliability of the
proposed method. In most of the experimental investigations, only models are used since
testing of prototype structures will be costly, time consuming and laborious. The infill walls
are used as partitions and / or architectural elements. The presence of infill is usually
neglected in conventional designs. Since the interaction between the frame and the infill plays
an important role in the stiffness and strength of infilled frames, a method in which the infill
portion is neglected will not be a realistic one.
Maurizio Papia [1998] used numerical analysis to examine the behaviour of infilled frames
subjected to horizontal loads. Stafford Smith [1962] studied the behaviour of infilled frames
subjected to inplane loading, by replacing the infill by an equivalent strut and considering the
445
�infill neither as an integral part nor bonded to the frame. Stafford Smith and Carter [1969]
considered the possibility of failure occurring either by diagonal cracking or by crushing of
infill. By an analogy with the behaviour of beam on elastic foundation, the contact length was
expressed as a function of λh, where λ is a non-dimensional parameter. The method was
evaluated by testing a three-storey prototype building. The estimated values agreed well with
the experimental results. A six-storey steel frame with rigid joints was analysed by Jenkins
[1995] using ANN. He concluded that ANNs could be used for the analysis provided the
training data is sufficient and the number of units in the hidden layer is adequate to represent
the internal features and relationships connecting input and output values. Muralikrishna and
Gangadharam [1999] investigated a single bay single storey portal frame subjected to inplane
nodal loads and demonstrated that ANN can accommodate the non-linear behaviour of
infill/frame materials as well as their non-homogeneity and, the uncertainties like lack of fit
at the frame/infill.
2. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
The present study is concerned with the prediction of the collapse load and the displacement
of infilled reinforced concrete frames under lateral loading using ANN .For this, a five storey
building with number of bays ranging from one to five is considered. The data for training
and testing were formed using analytical results.For generating the data analytically,
equivalent strut method was used. The database consists of 63 sets of results, of which 55 sets
were used for training the network, and the remaining 8 were used for testing
2.1. Equivalent Strut Method
The design method based on equivalent strut concept developed by Stafford Smith and Carter
[1969] is used here for the analysis. This method predicts the lateral strength and stiffness of
the brick infilled composite frame .
The stiffness and strength of an infilled panel depend not only on its dimensions and physical
properties but also on its length of contact with the surrounding frames. The length of contact
α is governed by the relative stiffness of the infill and the frame and Stafford Smith and
Carter [1969] suggest an approximate relation,
h
2h
(1)
in which h= height of storey and λh = a non- dimensional parameter expressing the relative
stiffness of the frame and the infill ,
h 4
446
E m t sin 2
4E c I c h
(2)
�where Em = Young’s modulus of elasticity of infill, t = Thickness of infill, h1 = Height of
infill ,Ic = Second moment of area of the column, Ec = Young’s modulus of elasticity of
column concrete and θ = Slope of the infill diagonal to the horizontal.
The relative stiffness parameter λh provides the key to the estimation of an infilled frame’s
behaviour, and it therefore assumes a prominent role in the development and presentation of
the methods for predicting the strength and stiffness.
In estimating the lateral strength of an infilled frame, it is necessary to find the weakest of the
various modes of failure of the frame and the infill. The possible failure modes of the frame
include the tensile failure of the columns and beams, shear failure of the column and, joint
failure between the column and the beam.
An approximate method to determine the strength, based on these modes, is to analyse the
forces in the equivalent pin-jointed frame subjected to known horizontal loading, assuming
the infills to be replaced by diagonal struts. The calculated tensile load in the column and
beam and the shearing components of the load in the diagonal struts may then be compared
with the respective strengths of the columns and beams. Assuming the frame has adequate
strength, the brick infill may fail by one of the following modes.
-Tension cracking of the mortar joints and masonry
-Shear cracking along the interface between the bricks and mortar (bed joints)
-Local crushing of the masonry at the mortar in one of the compressed corners of the infill.
2.1.1 Diagonal cracking of infill
The diagonal tensile strength of masonry may be assumed to be equal to the tensile strength
of the mortar in all cases where the mortar has lower tensile strength than the individual
bricks. Using the curves relating the width of the of the equivalent strut and the
nondimensional parameter λh given by Stafford Smith and Carter [1969] , the diagonal
cracking tensile strength of brickwork was obtained by Govindan [1986] as
l
Rt
3.1 l
ft h t
h
l
0.98
h
0.48
ll
l
h
-0.1
(3)
where Rt = Diagonal load on the infill to cause cracking, ft = Tensile stress of the infill and
l1 = length of infill.
2.1.2. Shear strength of infill
The resistance of masonry to shear stresses is usually considered to be provided by the
combined action of the bond, shear strength and the friction between the masonry and mortar.
Using the design curves given by Stafford Smith and Carter [1969], the following
447
�relationship was derived by Govindan [1986] for calculating the shear failure load of the
infill.
l
Rs
1.65 l
fs ht
h
l
0.6
h
ll
l
-0.05 h
0.50
(4)
where Rs = Diagonal load on the infill to cause shear failure of infill and fs = Maximum
shear stress of the infill.
2.1.3. Compressive failure
After cracking in the brick infill due to shear and/or tension, it has been observed from
experiments that the corner region of the infill, where crushing takes place generally extends
along the column contact length α. Based on this, Stafford Smith and Carter [1969]
developed an approximate formula for the diagonal compressive strength
Rc = α t Secθ fm
(5)
where Rc = Compressive failure load and fm = Compressive stress of the infill. Substituting
the value of α, the compressive failure load can be expressed in the nondimensional form as
Rc
sec
fm ht 2 h
(6)
. For a given infilled frame, λh can be calculated and these expressions can be used to obtain
ll
the failure load corresponding to the infill for any aspect ratio,
hl
.
Unit load method has been used for calculating the deflection of the frames. The equivalent
strut width for each individual panel in a multistory building varies with the applied loading
and consequently, the stiffness of the structure decreases as the lateral load increases. The
stiffness of the equivalent frame for any value of load can be determined by considering
appropriate equivalent widths of the diagonal struts for the particular load and computing
FUL
Σ A E . It is often useful to know the total lateral displacement at a particular loading. Based
on the Mechanics of materials approach, the horizontal displacement under any load as given
by Stafford Smith and Carter [1969] is
δH= H Σf
FUL H 2
+
A I E 2 Hc
Σs
FUL A I _ A C
AE
A I .A C
(7)
where δH = total horizontal displacement under applied load, H = Applied load, Σf =
Summation sign for all beams and columns in the frame including diagonal strut, Σs =
Summation sign for all diagonal struts only, F= force in members due to applied load H, U =
Force in members due to unit load applied, at the point and in the direction in which
448
�displacement is required, AI = Initial cross-sectional area of members, including diagonal
strut when H/Hc=0. Ac = Cross-sectional area of diagonal struts when H/Hc=1 in critical
panel, all others proportioned accordingly, E= Modulus of elasticity of frame members and
infill, Hc = Horizontal load, to cause crushing in the critical panel infill, determined from the
appropriate value of Rc / (fm. h t ) for the particular value of λh, L=Length of member.
2.2. Identification of Parameters
Based on a critical study of the parameters affecting the strength and stiffness of infilled
frames, ten major parameters were identified. They are; aspect ratio, number of bays, area of
column, column steel, column stirrups, area of beam, beam steel, type of concrete, type of
steel used for the construction and a non-dimensional parameter λh representing the infill
behaviour. Concrete of grades C20, C25, C30, C35 and steel of grade S420 and S500 are
used in the analysis. Hence the number of nodes or processing elements in the input layer of
the network comes to 14 representing the ten parameters listed above plus the four extra
grades for concrete and steel considered. The output layer consists of three nodes for the
collapse loads corresponding to frame as well as infill and the top storey displacement of the
frame at the verge of failure.
Table 1. Range of Values for Data Base
Parameter
Symbol
Range
Aspect ratio
l/h
1 to 2.5
No.of bays
B
1 to 5
Area of column
Ac
0.02 to 0.15
Area of column steel
Acst
Area of beam
Ab
0.0068 to 0.0100
m2
0.05 to 0.12 m2
Area of beam steel
Abst
Area of stirrups
Asv
Non-dimensional
parameter
Grade of concrete
449
characteristic
length Λh
C20,C25,C30
C35
0.000315
0.00250 m2
0.000195
0.00113 m2
to
to
2 to 15
and 20, 25, 30 and 35
MPa
�Grade of steel
S420,S500
420, 500 MPa
2.3 Configuration of the Network
2.3.1 Selection of error tolerance
A numerical study of training and testing of the network was done keeping the error tolerance
values as 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001.For an error tolerance of 0.1, the number of cycles required is
less: but the results are less accurate. In the case of 0.001, even though the accuracy is high,
the numbers of cycles required are very high. Hence, keeping in mind the number of cycles
required for convergence together with the accuracy needed for training and testing, the error
tolerance was chosen as 0.01.
2.3.2 Selection of number of hidden layers.
The first step in the configuration of the network is the selection of the number of hidden
layers to be used. The parametric study is made to find out the optimum number of hidden
layers as well as the number of nodes for the present problem. With one hidden layer, the
architecture is able to attain the required error tolerance of 0.01 within 5000 cycles
considered for all the combinations of neurons considered. The network with one hidden
layers having the 14-10-3 architecture is chosen since it reaches the required error tolerance
with the least number of cycles, which in turn will reduce the CPU time requirement.
2.3.3 Selection of learning rate and momentum parameters
For the chosen architecture of 14-10-3, the number of cycles required to reach the desired
error tolerance of 0.01 are computed for different learning rates and momentum parameters.
The results are shown in Table 2. From the table, it can be seen that a learning rate of 0.7 and
momentum parameter of 0.9 are the optimum values since only this combination requires the
minimum number of cycles to achieve the required error tolerance. Hence, these values are
used in the analysis.
2.3.4 Training of the network
Using the 14-10-3 architecture and the learning rate, momentum parameter values of 0.7, 0.9
, the network is trained and then tested. For training the network, totally 55 data set are used
which are listed under Table 2. These data sets were generated analytically using the
equivalent strut method.
450
�Table 2. Data Set Used Training
INPUT
OUTPUT
B
l/h
S420
S500
C20
C25
C30
C35
Ac
Ab
Acst
Abst
λh
Asv
C-F
C-I
Δ
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0.02
0.02
0.0068
0.000315
2
0.000195
18.8
89.34
25.467
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.06
0.05
0.0214
0.001030
6
0.000503
61.1
186.9
34.896
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.06
0.05
0.0214
0.001030
10
0.000503
61.1
136.80
35.769
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5
1.5
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
10
0.000785
826
766.7
121.133
5
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
4
0.000785
1035
547
70.98
5
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
8
0.000785
1035
899
142.049
NOT: C-F = Collapse load corresponding to frame in kN , C-I= Collapse load corresponding to infill in kN, Δ=
Displacement of frame at the top level under collapse load in mm.
2.3.5 Testing of the network
The network, after being trained, is tested with 8 data sets.. The data sets used for testing the
network are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Data Set Used Testing
INPUT
OUTPUT
B
l/h
S420
S500
C20
C25
C30
C35
Ac
Ab
Acst
Abst
λh
Asv
C-F
C-I
Δ
2
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.05
0.05
0.0214
0.001030
6
0.000503
148
301.1
61.383
2
2.5
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
4
0.000785
546
217.6
28.237
3
1.5
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.06
0.05
0.0214
0.001030
6
0.000503
322
612.4
42.905
3
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
8
0.000785
658
515.2
81.409
4
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0.02
0.02
0.0068
0.000315
2
0.000195
101
281.3
11.115
4
1.5
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.06
0.05
0.0214
0.001030
2
0.000503
429
394.3
46.650
5
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
0.11
0.08
0.0357
0.001730
8
0.000785
1035
899
142.049
5
2.5
0
1
0
0
0
1
0.15
0.12
0.0510
0.002500
15
0.001130
1795
700.6
110.669
3. RESULTS and DISCUSSION
451
�The collapse load and displacement predicted using ANN is compared with the actual values
in Fig.1. In these figures, the diagonal lines represent a one to one correspondence, that is,
when the predicted and the actual values are identical.
The results clearly show that for the frame and infill failure, the collapse load values
predicted using neural network vary only marginally (the maximum variation is only 4%)
from the actual values for the data formed using equivalent strut method. In the case of the
displacement of the frame under collapse load, the predicted values using neural network
vary only marginally (maximum of 5%) from the actual values, be it based on experiments or
equivalent strut method. It can be stated that overall the prediction is very good.
Figure 1. Comparison of predicted and actual values.
4. CONCLUSION
The conventional analysis of infilled frames is complex due to the large number of
parameters and the non-linear behaviour involved. Hence, the practice is to ignore the
contribution from the infill and analyse the structure as a bare frame. However, it is well
known that the infill affects the behaviour of the structure significantly. In this context,
Artificial Neural Network is increasingly used effectively as a tool for the analysis of infilled
reinforced concrete frames. In this paper, a multilayer feed forward network with back
452
�propagation algorithm has been adopted to model a five storey infilled frame with number of
bays ranging from one to five. The training patterns were generated using the equivalent strut
method with different modes of failures in the frame and infill to arrive at the collapse load
for the infill and frame as well as the displacements. The performance of the network has
been demonstrated by comparing the output with the analytically generated values. Based on
the investigation, it can be stated that ANN models can predict the behaviour of infilled
frames efficiently.
REFERENCES
Maurizio, P. (1988). Analysis of Infilled Frames Using a Coupled Finite Element and
Boundary Element Solution Scheme. International Journal of Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 28, 731-742.
Stafford, S. B. (1962). Lateral Stiffness of Infilled Frames’, Journal of Structural Divisions,
ASCE, 88, 183-199.
Stafford, S.B. & Carter, C. (1969). A Method of Analysis for Infilled Frames’, Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers 44, 31-48.
Jenkins, W.M., (1995). Neural Network Based Approximation for Structural Analysis.
Developments in Neural Networks and Evolutionary Computing for Civil and Structural
Engineering. Edinburgh.
Muralikrishna, N. & Gangadharam, D. (1999). Analysis of Infilled Frames a Study Using
Neuralnets’, Journal of Structural Engineering, 26, 173-178.
Laurence, F. (1993). Fundamentals of neural network-Architectures, Algorithms, and
Applications’. Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs: NJ 1993.
Hojjat, A & Hyo S. P. (1995). Counter propagation neural networks in structural engineering’
, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 14 , 1205-1212.
Wael, W. E., Mohamed, E. & Ahmad, H. (2003). ‘Three strut model for concrete masonry
infilled steel frames. Journal of structural Division ASCE , 129, 177-185.
Perumal, E. B. (1995). Influence of Brick Infill on Multistory, Multi-bay R.C.Frames’, Ph.D
Thesis, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore.
Govindan, P. (1986). Composite Action and Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Frames With
Brick Infill’, Ph.D Thesis, Anna University
453
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1202
Title
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Neural-Network Applications for Analysis of Infilled Frame
Author
Author
Muhiddin, Bağcı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The modelling of infilled frames is complex due to the large number of variables as well as the non-linear material behaviour involved. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is found to be a tool capable of solving such problems. This has led to the increasing use of ANN for analysing infilled reinforced concrete frames. This paper reports the details of a study conducted using ANN for predicting the failure of an infilled reinforced concrete infilled frame subjected to lateral loading. Using the data generated based on analytical solutions, the ANN model was trained. The so trained model was tested for different set of input parameters and the output values were compared with the actual values based on analytical results. The agreement was found to be good. Keywords:. Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Infilled Frame, Equivalent strut method
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),T Technology (General)
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A Cross – Sectional Analysis of Environmetal Sustainability Practices
Toksari Murat1, Uçan Okyay2
1Nigde University, Department of Business,
2Nigde University, Department of Economics
E –mails: mtoksari@nigde.edu.tr, okyayu@hotmail.com
Abstract
In 1970s and 1980s the concept of sustainability developed as a process of protection for the
elements that social, economic and eceological systems need. During the Environment and
Development Summit held in 1992, decisions were made about the works to protect and
improve the environmental sustainability with the help of objective policies. By revealing
sustainability specifically focuses on the social, economic and ecological target, Brountland
report states that meeting Socia-Economic needs is limited to the carrying capacity of ecosystem.
Environmental sustainability is divided into three categories. They are resource management,
energy management and product sustainability. While, solid waste and water conservation
compose the resource managament, energy managament includes energy conservation,
renewable energy, GHG emission reduction, energy sufficient. Finally, product sustainability
involves product transportation, supply chain audit, product stewardship and Life Cycle
Program.
In this context, environmental sustainability index and environmental performance index
were prepared by the universities of Yale and Colombia. With environmental sustainability
index, it is intented to reach perfection in the current and future environmental qualities of the
countries. This index, is a tool when aiming to be qualified and is an important mechanism
for testing the environmental performance. As for environmental performance index, it has
been developed by using result-oriented indicators.
In this study, the countries whose performances enter the scope of the environmental
performance index were compared, 149 countries in 2008 and 163 countries in 2010 were
included in this index.
Keywords: Sustainability, environmental performance index, environmental sustainability
index, Turkey
454
�1.INTRODUCTION
Dictionary meaning of the concept of sustainable is “today's needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs met unless otherwise
indicated”. The concept of sustainability in the final report in 1987 by the United Nations
Commission on Environment and Development is defined as follows: "Humanity, without
compromising the ability to respond to the needs of future generations, by providing the daily
needs, has the ability to make development sustainable”.
The term “sustainability” was coined by the United Nations appointed Brundland
Commission and later refined by the UN Commission on Environment and Development held
in Rio de Janeiro (Blackburn, 2007). The best – known definition of sustainability, as
established by the UN Commission on Environment and Development, states that
“development is sustainable where it meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).
The concept of sustainability on different topics in the discipline of economic
stability, debt sustainability in order to be able to express the ability of being able to continue,
such as sustainable growth around the macro-economic definitions are used extensively.
However, the concept of sustainability in all areas, especially in the field of economics
Brundland by the World Commission on Environment and Development Report, has
expanded the definition of sustainable development.
Since the 1980s, the development of international environmental discussions of
sustainable development, applied science, environmental and international policy areas
examined as a multi-faceted concept that has become the focal point of development
strategies (Carvalho, 2001: 62; Bakırtaş ve Bakırtaş, 2007: 223).
Sustainable Development, briefly, to meet the demands and needs of future
generations without restricting the ability and facilities, can be expressed as the present needs
are met.
This defines the extent of development mentioned above, under six headings
summaries spreadable. These are can be expressed as the environment, the future, quality of
life, justice, precautionary principles, and holistic thinking. In addition, there are 3
dimensions of the sustainability of the development which are indisputable and can not
distinguish between each other (Arzu Özyol, http://hydra.com.tr/uploads/kutup9.pdf):
Social Dimension: Continuing education for the public "quality of life will provide increasing
benefits for themselves and the whole of the next generations,
455
�The Economic Dimension: Due to limited resources, these resources can improve people's
quality of life and how the fairest way to determine what is the most effective way to
distribute
The Environmental Dimension: Recycled or not, the use of any determination as to ensure
the continuity of natural resource
In this context, one of the dimensions of the environmental dimension of sustainable
development for environmental sustainability are discussed for the first time in the capital of
Brazil, Rio De Janeiro on Environment and Development Summit held in 1992. In this
summit, the objective of environmental sustainability is necessary for the protection and
development policies, concluded that the aid. The most important work in this area of
Environmental Sustainability Index (CSI) 's prepared. This index is prepared jointly by Yale
University and Columbia University. Index has 21 indicators is entegrated to 76 data. This 21
quality indicators provide to compare five different subjects: the peripheral system, stress
levels of this system, the human population sensitivity to environmental degradation,
environmental stress and institutional capacity and global resposibility (Global Leaders,
2001:9).
The paper organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the theoretical background.
Section 3 summarizes the literature.The methodology is presented in Section 4. The overall
conclusion and result are in the final section.
2. Theoretical Background
Although sustainability is important for ensuring the future Quality of the global
environment, it can also be viewed as a business opportunity, an investment in the future and
a pathway to innovation and creative thinking (Satterfield et al. 2009; Hontou et al. 2006;
Cowan et al. 2010).
Today business, now more sensitivity towards environmental activities as a cost item
or to see the threat of competition as an oppurtunity rather than one have to see (Lee et al.,
2006: 292). For this reason, environmental innovation can be stated as environmental risk
education or more generally as a contribution to sustainable development goals, new ideas,
attitudias, development and implemntation of products and process (Rennizgs, 2000: 322).
Environmental product innovation in the production and even the destruction of the product
until they begin to become waste throughout the product life cycle to eliminate or reduce the
negative effects on the environment includes the innovative activities (Büyükkeklik et al.,
2010: 375).
456
�3. Literature
Author
Year
Method
Result
Robert Goodland 1996
and Herman Daly
Distinguishing
development
from
sustainability and from growth, the paper
describes the concept of natural capital and
uses the concept to present four alternative
definitions of environmental sustainability.
The final section describes
how one large development
agency, the World Bank, is
endeavoring to incorporate
these new principle into its
operaions.
Gregory Theyel
2000
There are discernible differences in the
enviromental innovation and performance of
US chemical firms that can be explained by
differences in the management practices and
characteristics of the firms.
Firms in the chemical industry
and in other industries can
learn from the leading firms in
this research. Firms that do
mak
environmental
management part of production
management are likely to be
leaders in innovation for
pollution
prevention
and
environmental performance.
Smita
B. 2003
Brunnermeier
and Mark A.
Cohen
Panel data models to study how
environmental
sustainability
by
Us
manufacturing ındustries responded to
changes
in
pollution
abadement
expenditures and regulatory enforcement
during the period 1983 through 1992.
Environmental
innovation
responded to increases in
pollution
abatement
expenditures. Also find some
emprical
evidence
that
environmental innovation is
more likely to occur in
industries
that
are
internationally competitive.
Sergio et. al.
This paper anayses and discusses the
potentional role of evolutionary theories in
environmental innovation with emphasis on
sustainability.
The study concludes that eco –
evolution is efficient when
identifying non – optimal
technological trajectories and
sustainable
options
for
innovation on the base of
existent knowledge.
2003
Allen S. Bellas 2007
and Nancy F.
457
Following their introduction in the mid - Anslysis indicates that there
1970s, fabric filters, a new type of industrial are spesific characteristics of
�Nentl
scrubber, experineced aggressive growth,
and by 1990, this new technology (EIA)
form 767, using t tests, cross tabulations and
binominal regression to identify the
characteistics of those boilers, plants and
utilities that installed fabric filters from the
alte 1970s to 1990.
David Hillier
2008
Dallas M. Cowan 2010
Et. Al.
early adopters of fabric filter
techonology such as the
capacity and age of the
associates boiler, the capacity
and size of the utility, and
whether the utility was
privately or publicly owned.
An opinion piece, that presents the view of There are those who believe
four authors on the current state of the that
marketing
and
depate in this field.
sustainability
simply
be
reconciled, while there are
others
who
argue
that
marketing can contribute to the
development of sustainable
consumption.
Benchmark analysis, They have collected
information on the sustainability programs
of the largest US companies in each of the
26 industrial sectors.
Thes have called product
sustainability one in which
toxicologist and environmental
scientist can play a vital role
helping to ensure that a
manufactured item will indeed
be considered acceptable for
distrubition now
4. Methodology
Environmental Sustainability Index was developed for monitoring of environmental
sustainability covering natural resources, past and present pollution levels, environmental
management efforts, contributions and society for the protection of the global values. This
index defines the sustainability of countries' capacity to improve the existing environmental
quality (Yıkmaz, 2011: 73).
Variables to allow comparisons between countries in the index, percent change is usually
determined. Some of them are diveded by GDP, imports of goods and services, to get avarage
values. After getting the proper comparison of variables, for the missing data, forecasting and
consolidation various transformations is applied to perform. In the first stage variables were
examined for normally distribution.
2 stage way is used for the skewness problems.
458
�If the value is larger than 2 variables are taken in natural logarithm. Next, if they are larger
than 4 after the transformation .They all transformed to old values except the variables that
have larger than 4.
Since at the normal distribution, observations are distributed symmetrically around mean
value of skew is zero(0). Statistical methods to estimate the missing data (Markov ChainMonte Carlo simulation model) were applied. However, some variables, the index of
ecological and geographical factors are not within the scope of work because of missing data
could not be estimated.
The results of distributions are truncated by "Winsorization" technique in order to prevent
skewness because of the extreme values of the data. Priorities of the indicators vary by
country, generally acceptable weights for the indicators is not known, equal weight was
applied. Indicators are equally weighted variables in the form of the firms themselves.
Preserves the relative locations of receiving countries in order to avoid differences in the
scale of the z-scores were calculated. High values for the variables expressed in a high zscores of environmental sustainability; (variable value-mean value) / standard deviation of
the variables that environmental sustainability is for high-low values, (average of the
variable-variable value) / standard deviation was calculated using the formula (WEF, 2005).
5. Results and Conclusion
It’s emphasized that when Environmental Sustainability Index score is high, it’s more likely
to leave a healthier environment to the future generations. Upon looking into the results of the
index,it’s seen that none of the countries received high scores from 21 indicators. The results
of the Environmental Sustainability Index show that, environmental performance is closely
related to ,low population density, good governance the economic vitality (WEF, 2005).
Table 1. Countries in the years 2002 and 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)
Performance Comparison Chart
Country
ÇSE
2002
ÇSE 2002 ÇSE
Ranking
2005
ÇSE 2005 Çse Point ÇSE as the
Ranking
Difference Difference
Finland
73,9
1
75,1
1
1,2
0
Norway
73
2
73,4
2
0,4
0
Uruguay
66
6
71,8
3
5,8
3
459
�Sweden
72,6
3
71,7
4
-0,9
-1
Iceland
63,9
8
70,8
5
6,9
3
Canada
70,6
4
64,4
6
-6,2
-2
Switzerland
66,5
5
63,7
7
-2,8
-2
Guyana
-
-
62,9
8
-
-
Austria
64,2
7
62,7
9
-1,5
-2
Argentina
61,5
15
62,7
10
1,2
5
Brazil
59,6
20
62,2
11
2,6
9
Gabon
54,9
36
61,7
12
6,8
24
Australia
60,3
16
61
13
0,7
3
New
Zealand
59,9
19
61
14
1,1
5
Latvia
63
10
60,4
15
-2,6
-5
Peru
56,5
29
60,4
16
3,9
13
Paraguay
57,8
25
59,7
17
1,9
8
Costa Rica
63,2
9
59,6
18
-3,6
-9
Croatia
62,5
12
59,5
19
-3
-7
Bolivia
59,4
21
59,5
20
0,1
1
Irelan
54,8
38
59,2
21
4,4
17
Colombia
59,1
22
58,9
22
-0,2
0
Lithuania
57,2
27
58,9
23
1,7
4
Alabania
57,9
24
58,8
24
0,9
0
460
�Central
African
Republic
54,1
43
58,7
25
4,6
18
Estonia
60
17
58,2
26
-1,8
-9
Denmark
56,2
31
58,2
27
2
4
Panama
60
18
57,7
28
-2,3
-10
Slovenia
58,8
23
57,5
29
-1,3
-6
Japan
48,6
78
57,3
30
8,7
48
Germany
52,5
50
57
31
4,5
19
Namibia
57,4
26
56,8
32
-0,6
-6
Russia
49,1
73
56,1
33
7
40
Bostwana
61,8
13
55,9
34
-5,9
-21
France
55,5
33
55,2
35
-0,3
-2
Papua New 51,8
Guinea
52
55,2
36
3,4
16
Portugal
57,1
28
54,2
37
-2,9
-9
Malaysia
49,5
68
54
38
4,5
30
Congo
54,3
40
53,8
39
-0,5
1
Netherlands
55,4
34
53,7
40
-1,7
-6
Mali
47,1
85
53,7
41
6,6
44
Chile
55,1
35
53,6
42
-1,5
-7
Bhutan
56,3
30
53,5
43
-2,8
-13
Armenia
54,8
37
53,2
44
-1,6
-7
461
�Unites States 53,2
45
53
45
-0,2
0
Slovakia
61,6
14
52,8
46
-8,8
-32
Belarus
52,8
49
52,8
47
0
2
Ghana
50,2
65
52,8
48
2,6
17
Myanmar
46,2
90
52,8
49
6,6
41
Laos
45,9
92
52,5
50
6,6
42
Ecuadar
56,2
32
52,4
51
-3,8
-19
Cuba
51,2
58
52,3
53
1,1
5
Hungary
62,7
11
52
54
-10,7
-43
Tunisia
50,8
61
51,8
55
1
6
Georgia
-
-
51,5
56
-
-
Uganda
48,7
77
51,3
57
2,6
20
Moldova
54,5
39
51,2
58
-3,3
-19
Zambia
49,5
69
51,1
59
1,6
10
Senegal
47,6
81
51,1
60
3,5
21
Bosnia51,3
Hezzegovina
55
51
61
-0,3
-6
Israel
50,4
63
50,9
62
0,5
1
Tanzania
48,1
80
50,3
63
2,2
17
Nicaragua
51,8
51
50,2
64
-1,6
-13
46,1
91
50,2
65
4,1
26
Combined
Kingdom
462
�Madagascar
38,8
128
50,2
66
11,4
62
Greece
50,9
60
50,1
67
-0,8
-7
Italy
47,2
83
50,1
68
2,9
15
Cambodia
45,6
97
50,1
69
4,5
28
Mongolia
54,2
42
50
70
-4,2
-28
Bulgaria
49,3
71
50
71
0,7
0
Gambia
44,7
102
50
72
5,3
30
Thailand
51,6
54
49,8
73
-1,8
-19
Malawi
47,3
82
49,3
74
2
8
Spain
54,1
44
48,8
75
-5,3
-3,1
Indonesia
45,1
100
48,8
76
3,7
24
Kazakhstan
46,5
88
48,6
77
2,1
11
Guenia
Bissau
38,8
127
48,6
78
9,8
49
Sri Lanka
51,3
57
48,5
79
-2,8
-22
Kyrgyzstan
51,3
56
48,4
80
-2,9
-24
Venezuela
53
48
48,1
81
-4,9
-33
Guinea
45,3
98
48,1
82
2,8
16
Oman
40,2
120
47,9
83
7,7
37
Jordan
51,7
53
47,8
84
-3,9
-31
Nepal
45,2
99
47,7
85
2,5
14
Benin
45,7
94
47,5
86
1,8
8
463
�Honduras
47
47,4
87
-5,7
-40
Serbia and Montenegro
-
47,3
88
-
-88
Canary
Islands
-
-
47,3
89
-
-
Macedonia
47,2
84
47,2
90
0
-6
Turkey
50,8
62
46,6
91
-4,2
-29
Czech
Republic
50,2
64
46,6
92
-3,6
-28
Romenia
50
66
46,2
93
-3,8
-27
South Africa
48,7
76
46,2
94
-2,5
-18
Mexico
45,9
93
46,2
95
0,3
-2
Algeria
49,4
70
46
96
-3,4
-26
Burkina
Faso
45
101
45,7
97
0,7
4
Azerbaijan
41,8
113
45,4
98
3,6
15
Nigeria
36,7
133
45,4
99
8,7
34
Kenya
46,3
89
45,3
100
-1
-11
India
41,6
116
45,2
101
3,6
15
Poland
46,7
87
45
102
-1,7
-15
Chad
45,7
95
45
103
-0,7
8
Niger
39,4
123
45
104
5,6
19
Mozambique 51,1
59
44,8
105
-6,3
-46
Morocco
72
44,8
106
-4,3
-34
464
53,1
49,1
�Rwanda
40,6
119
44,8
107
4,2
12
Jamaica
40,1
121
44,7
108
4,6
13
Ukraine
35
136
44,7
109
9,7
27
United Arab 25,7
Emirates
141
44,6
110
18,9
31
Togo
44,3
105
44,5
111
0,2
-6
Belgium
39,1
125
44,4
112
5,3
13
Bangladesh
46,9
86
44,1
113
-2,8
-27
Democratic
43,3
Republic of
Congo
109
44,1
114
0,8
-5
Guetemala
49,6
67
44
115
-5,6
-48
Egyptian
48,8
74
44
116
-4,8
-42
El Salvador
48,7
75
43,8
117
-4,9
-42
Syria
43,6
107
43,8
118
0,2
-11
Deminic
Republic
48,4
79
43,7
119
-4,7
-40
Liberia
37,7
130
43,4
120
5,7
10
Sierra Leone
36,5
134
43,4
121
6,9
13
South Korea
35,9
135
43
122
7,1
13
Angola
42,4
110
42,9
123
0,5
-13
Resource: WEF 2005
142 countries in 2002 and 146 countries in 2005 were evaluated from the aspect of country
index. All the countries except Guayana, Georgia, Ivory Coasts and Somalia were both in
2002 and 2005 country index.
465
�In the table given the index average of all countries in 2002 was 49,7 and 49,9 in 2005. But
when 2002 and 2005 index values are compared, a decrease in most of the countries has been
seen. This situation indicates that environmental sustainability has decreased or it may be
because of the difference in two years indicators.
However, significant changes in country rankings can be observed. For example, Madagascar
ascends from being 128th to 66th , Japan from 78th to the 30th, Mali from 85th to 41st ,
Russia from 73rd to 33rd , Malaysia from 68th to the 38th order , but Zimbabwe descends
from being 46th to 128th, Guatemala from 67th to 115th , Egypt from 74th to 116th, and
Hungary from 11th to 54th. Turkey has 50,8 points in 2002 Index with an order of 62. In
2005 Turkey has 46,6 points and descends to the 91th order. Turkey is over the avarage in
2002 while it is under the avarage in 2005.
In this study we try to compare the two Environmental Sustainability Index in 2002 and 2005
for the world countries. This situation shows the index is very sensitive to the choice of
indicator. Low-scoring countries in 2002 are Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, North Korea,
Iraq and Saudi Arabia, while in the 2005 study, North Korea, Iraq, Taiwan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan, countries receive the lowest score The highest rated 5 countries in the 2002
Environmental Sustainability Index are: Finland, Norway, Sweden, Canada, Switzerland,
while in 2005 they are: Finland, Norway, Uruguay, Sweden and Iceland. Common features of
these countries have significant natural resources and population density is low.
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source of Basic Skills: A General Evaluation, Journal of Management and Economics,
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BELLAS S. Allen and Nancy F. Nentl (2007), Adoption of Environmetal Innovations at US
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BLACBURN, W.R. (2007), The Sustainability Handbook: The Complete Management Guide
to Achieving Social, Economic and Environmental Responsibility Earthscan, Washington,
DC.
BRUNNERMEIER B. Smita and Mark A. Cohen (2003), Determinants of Environmental
Innovation in Us Manufacturing Industries, Journal of Environmental Economics and
Management, Vol. 45, pp. 278-293.
BÜYÜKKEKLİK, Arzum, Murat Toksarı, Hasan Bülbül (2010), An Investigation on
Environmental Sensitivity and Innovativeness, Süleyman Demirel University the Journal of
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Vol. 15, No.3, pp. 373-393.
COWAN M. Dallas, Pamela Doport, Tyler Ferracini, Jennifer Sahmel, Kimberly Merryman,
Shannon Gaffney, Dennis J. Paustenbach (2010), A Cross- Sectional Analysis of Reported
466
�Corporate Environmental Sustainability Practices, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology,
Vol. 58, pp. 524-538.
GLOBAL LEADERS (2001), Pilot Environmental Sustainability Index, World Economic
Forum 2001, Davos, Switzerland.
GOODLAND Robert and Herman Daly (1996), Environmental Sustainability: Universal and
Non Negotiable, Ecological Applications, Vol. 6 , No.4, pp.1002-1017.
HONTOU, V., D. Diakoulaki, L.Papagiannakis (2006), A Multicriterion Classsification
Approach for Assesing the Impact of Environmental Policies on the Competitiveness of
Firms, Corp. Soc. Respons. Environ. Manage, Vol. 14, pp. 28-41.
JOFRE, Sergio, Kiyotaka Tsunemi, Tohru Moriaka (2003), A New Eco – Design Strategy to
Assess Sustainable Environmental Innovations, Third International Symposium on
Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, Tokyo, Japan, December 811.
JONES, Peter, Colin Clarke-Hill, Daphne Comfort, David Hillier (2008), Marketing and
Sustainability, Marketing Intelligence & Planning Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 123-130.
LEE, J.J., T.K. Gemba, F. Kodoma (2006), Analyzing the Innovation Process for
Environmental Performance Improvement, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, Vol.
73, pp. 290-301.
ÖZYOL, Arzu (http://hydra.com.tr/uploads/kutup9.pdf).
RENNINGS, K. (2000), Redefining Innovation – eco-innovation Research and the
Contribution from Ecological Economics, Ecological Economics, Vol. 32, pp. 319-332.
SATTERFILED M.B., C.E. Kolb, R. Peoples, G.L. Adams, D.S. Schuster, H.C. Ramsey, E.
Stechel, F. Wood-Black, R.J. Garant, M.A. Abraham (2009), Overcoming Nontechinal
Barriers to the Implementation of Sustainable Solutions in Industry, Environ.Sci. Technol.,
Vol. 43, pp. 4221-4226 .
THEYEL Gregory (2000), Management Practices for Environmental Innovation and
Performance, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 20, No. 2,
pp. 249-266.
YIKMAZ R. Fikret (2011), Measuring the Sustainability of Development and Improvement
of Methods for Turkey, T.C. Prime Ministry State Planning Organization, Publication No.
2820, Ankara, Turkey.
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Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, Item 83, 42nd Session
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Center For International Earth Science Information Network, Environmental Sustainability
467
�Index:
Bencmarking
National
Environmental
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/esi/esı2005 (23.04.2012).
Stewardship,
Traffic Accident Detection By Using Machine Learning Methods
Nejdet Dogru, Abdulhamit Subasi
International Burch University,Sarajevo, Bosnia And Herzegovina
E –mails: ndogru@ibu.edu.ba, asubasi@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract
There are lots of studies about preventing or detecting the car accidents. Most of them
includes sensing objects which might cause accident or statistics about accidents. In this
study, a system which detects happening accidents will be studied. The system will collect
necessary information from neighbor vehicles and process that information using machine
learning tools to detect possible accidents. Machine learning algorithms have shown success
on distinguishing abnormal behaviors than normal behaviors. This study aims to analyze
traffic behavior and consider vehicles which move different than current traffic behavior as a
possible accident. Results showed that clustering algorithms can successfully detect
accidents.
1.INTRODUCTION
Recent inter vehicular studies are acquiring commercial interest via the DSRC/WAVE
standard in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs). Possible future services among vehicles
are topic of many studies(Xu et al., 2004; Nandan et al., 2005; Lee and Gerla, 2010)
In VANETs, vehicles are able to communicate with each other in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) or
with roadside network infrastructure in vehicle-to-Roadside Communication (V2R) manner.
Some of the envisioned applications for vehicular networks are : vehicle collision warning,
security distance warning, driver assistance, cooperative driving, cooperative cruise
control,dissemination of road information, internet access, map location, automatic parking,
driverless vehicles(Boukerche et al., 2008)
Most of applications need traffic speed and travel time measurements. These measurements
can be used to help roadway users to decide which route to use or when to depart etc. Also
These measurement can be saved to analyze traffic speed and travel time patterns for
different time intervals. Currently local detectors at specific points along the road are used to
468
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1203
Title
A name given to the resource
Neural-Network Applications for Analysis of Infilled Frame
Author
Author
Muhiddin, Bağcı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The modelling of infilled frames is complex due to the large number of variables as well as the non-linear material behaviour involved. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is found to be a tool capable of solving such problems. This has led to the increasing use of ANN for analysing infilled reinforced concrete frames. This paper reports the details of a study conducted using ANN for predicting the failure of an infilled reinforced concrete infilled frame subjected to lateral loading. Using the data generated based on analytical solutions, the ANN model was trained. The so trained model was tested for different set of input parameters and the output values were compared with the actual values based on analytical results. The agreement was found to be good. Keywords:. Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Infilled Frame, Equivalent strut method
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),T Technology (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b04599b9bb919439ecbd15e543f7d835.pdf
68feff30029593c5406bfa5770138db4
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
duties, to evaluate its effectiveness, discover weak points in its operation and propose
measures
to
eliminate
the
appearance
of
weakness.
In other words, the internal audit activity is organized by the management of the business
entity or other business entities to assist in the evaluation of the operation as a whole or to
individual segments. In terms of business and management functions in enterprises, internal
audit can be monitored as part of steering control, where business functions are subject to
examination in order to perform more efficiently, thus ensuring the functioning of an
information subsystem
which however, the guide provides information for making
appropriate business decisions. According to the definition of the Committee of audit practice
(Auditing Practice Committee-APC) Internal audit is an element of internal control sistem set
by management of the business entity, banks or other institutions for examination, evaluation
and reporting function of accounting and other controls in operation. Internal audit is
introduced in order to improve the decisions of managers or to satisfy statutory requirements.
Institute of Internal Audit in the UK, apart from this definition, the internal template defines
as an independent activity in the corporate assessment of the operation, established as a
service office of the corporation. It is a control function that works by evaluating the
adequacy and effectiveness of other controls and supervision. From these definitions can
freely conclude that the primary task of Internal Audit, through sight and evaluation to assess
the activities of the business entity, to provide adequate assistance to owners and management
of the business entity in order to more effectively engage them to perform undertaken
professional activities. For this goal to be achieved, the internal audit of users of this type of
service offers numerous analyzes, suggestions, recommendations, advice and information
directly related to activities subject to internal audit.
Do Private Savings Offset Public Savings in Turkey?
Muhittin Kaplan1, Hüseyin Kalyoncu, Hasan Göcen1
1Meliksah University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of
Economics, Kayseri, Turkey
2Meliksah University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of
International Trade and Business, Kayseri, Turkey
Email: mkaplan@meliksah.edu.tr, ,hkalyoncu@meliksah.edu.tr,hgocen@meliksah.edu.tr
Abstract
The issue of whether public savings offset private savings, and visa vice, has important
implications for the effectiveness of fiscal policy. This study examines long-run relationship
between public and private savings rates using annual Turkish data for the period 1975-2005.
The result of Engle-Granger cointegration test has shown that there is no long-run relationship
between private and public savings ratios. However,once endogenously determined structural
break is allowed, the test results confirm the existence of the cointegration relationship
between private and public savings. Econometric estimation of the offset coefficients using
both FMOLS and DOLS yields values of between -0.11 and -0.82. The results also indicate
that the potency of fiscal policy significantly reduced with the liberalization of financial
markets.
230
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Keywords: Savings, Offset coefficient, Ricardian Equivalence, DOLS, FMOLS.
JEL Classificiation: E6, H6, E21.
1. INTRODUCTION
The relationship between private and public savings has been central issue in both the
theoretical and the empirical literature. The importance of the subject stems from the fact that
the effectiveness of fiscal policy is closely related to the responsiveness of private saving to
changes in fiscal stance. The relationship between lower public deficits and national savings,
however, remains controversial both theoretically and empirically. Theoretically, while
Keynes (1936) assumes no relationship between private and public savings, Friedman (1957)
and Modigliani (1946) develop models showing full substitution between private and public
savings.Barro (1974) also introduced the notion of perfect substitutability between private and
public savings, which is called RicardianEquivalence Proposition (REP).
Although there area number of opposing views in the theoretical literature, ultimately, it is an
empirical issue to determine the extent to which private savings offset public savings. In the
empirical literature, the relationship between private and public savings is investigated for
different countries using different econometric methodologies. However, there is no
consensus over the size offset coefficient (for a survey see Seater, 1993, Holmes 2006 and
Ricciuti 2007). Studies on advanced economies have shown that about half of the change in
public savings is offset by an opposite change in private saving (Masson et. al. (1998);
Hemming et. al. (2002); Holmes (2006); Mandal and Payne (2007); Seater and Mariano
(1985); Leiderman and Razin (1988); Makin and Narayan (2009); De Castro andFernandez
(2009)). Although empirical studies are limited in number, offset coefficients were found to
be higher for developing countries than for developed countries (Loayza et. al. (2000); Lopez
et. al. (2000); De Mello et. al.(2004); Edwards (1996); Masson et. al. 1998; Bulir and Swiston
(2009)).
This study provides evidence on the validity of the REP by applying powerful econometric
techniques of DOLS and FMOLS to time series data a developing country, Turkey. This
paper is organized as follows. Section II sets out the econometric methodology and the data
employed in this study. Section III presents the results. Section IV concludes.
2. Methodology and Data
Empirical studies on testing the REP estimate the following model:
(1)
where
refers to private sector savings as a proportion of GDP,
is public sector
savings as a ratio to GDP; is the long-run public-private offset (substitution) coefficient is
the intercept term and represents usual error term. takes value between 0 (no offset) and 1 (full offset). If
, then a decrease in public sector savings is fully offset by an increase
in private sector savings.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The data employed in our empirical analysis is an annual private and public sector as a
percentage of GDP obtained from State Planning Organization (SPO) publications for the
years 1975 and 2005. Before estimating the long-run offset function given in equation (1), we
first need to investigate the time series properties of the private and public sector saving
ratios. Results obtained from unit root tests which are performed to determine whether
savings variables have a unit root are presented in Table 1a (ADF, DF-GSL, PP, KPSS and
ERS unit root tests) and Table 1b (Ng-Perron). Examination of the Tables show that the null
hypothesis of unit root could not be rejected for both private and public sector savings ratios.
Table 1a. Unit Root Test Results
PSR
GSR
Constant
Constant and Trend
Constant
Constant and Trend
ADF
-1.432876
-1.133958
-1.473065
-2.322051
DF-GLS
-1.367547
-1.595668
-1.384922
-1.798766
PP
-1.454917
-1.253357
-1.479741
-1.480789
KPSS
0.538798
0.110454
9.029962
0.380299
ERS
8.002194
13.83224
8.084297
12.96383
Note: ADF, DF-GSL, PP, KPSS and ERS stand for Augmented Dickey-Fuller (1979), Phillips Perron (1988),
Elliot, Rothenberg, and Stock (1996), Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt and Shin (1992), Elliot, Rothenberg, and
Stock point optimal (ERS, 1996) unit root tests.
Table 1b. Ng-Perron Unit Root test Results
MZa
MZt
MSB
MPT
PSR
-3.24375
-1.25975
0.38836
7.53622
GSR
-3.23349
-1.27022
0.39283
7.57531
Asymptotic critical values*:
1%
-13.8000
-2.58000
0.17400
1.78000
5%
-8.10000
-1.98000
0.23300
3.17000
10%
-5.70000
-1.62000
0.27500
4.45000
Note: The number of lags used in Ng-Perron (2001) unit root test is determined by Schwarz Information Criteria
(SIC) and turned out to be zero for all specifications.
Having established that private and public savings ratios are I(1) variables, we need to test for
cointegration between private and public savings to avoid spurious regression.To determine
whether there is long-run relationship among these variables, the Engle-Granger (1987)
methodology is employed. Testing for cointegration within this methodology involves
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
extracting the residuals from equation (1) and testing for unit root in residuals. The EngleGranger bivariate cointegration equation and the ADF tests applied to residuals are reported in
Table 2. The optimal lag determined by using Schwarz and Akaike information criteria turned
out to be zero. The cointegration test statistic is -2.086 with a probability value of 0.251
implying non-rejection of the null of unit root in residuals. Hence, there appears to there is no
long-run relationship between private and public sectors savings ratios.
Table 2. Engle- Granger Cointegration Test
Dependent Variable
PSR
ADF test statistics (probability):
Constant
GSR
20.157
-1.009
(0.531)*
(0.101)*
-2.086 (0.251)
Test Critical values:
1% level
-3.671
5% level
-2.964
10% level
-2.621
Note: The values in parenthesis are standard errors. * indicate significant at 1% level.
However, the residual based cointegration tests have a low power in the presence of a
structural break (Gregory and Hansen, 1996). For this reason, we applied Gregory-Hansen
cointegration procedure to test whether there is long-run relationship among private and
public savings. Specifically, Gregory and Hansen (1996) provide the following three
structural break alternatives given by equations (2a-2c):
(2a)
(2b)
(2c)
where D represents a dummy variable equal to 0 if is less than or equal to unknown timing
of change , otherwise it is equal to one; is time trend; other variables are defined as before.
The first cointegration regression (2a) is allowed to have a level break, the second model
includes level shift and time trend and third model includes regime shift variable.
Given that the structural break point is unknown, Gregory-Hansen procedure involves
computing the cointegration test statistics for each possible break and taking the minimum
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
test statistics (ADF test) across all possible break points. That is, the break point is unknown
and determined by finding the minimum value for the ADF statistic. The Akaike Information
criterion (AIC) is used to determine the number of lags of the change in the residual used in
computing the ADF statistic and turned out to be zero for all three models. The results of the
Gregory-Hansen Cointegrationprocedure for all specifications indicate that the null of no
cointegration is rejected with an endogenous break year of 1989. The ADF statistics for
equations (2a-2c) are -5.082, -5.34836 and -5.15361 respectively and they are statistically
significant at 5 percent level.
3. Empirical Results
Having found evidence of cointegration and having established that private and public saving
are I(1), the equations (2a-2c) are estimated using the Dynamic OLS (DOLS) proposed by
Stock and Watson (1993) and the FMOLS proposed by Phillips and Hansen (1990). The
results obtained from FMOLS and DOLS estimators are presented in Tables 3a-3c.
Examination of the Tables indicates that while the FMOLS coefficients of offset (betas)
ranges between -0.82 and -0.46, the DOLS coefficients of betas ranges from -0.74 to -0.11
yielding a partial offset.For models (2a) and (2b), coefficient on government savings is
statistically significant at 1% level. However, the offset coefficient is insignificant in the
model (2c). The long-run offset coefficient estimated by FMOLS (DOLS) is -0.458 (-0.11)
but they are both statistically insignificant. However, there was statistically significant (at 5%
level) change in the slope coefficient,
, after 1989 for DOLS estimates. Thus
allowing for the slope change in the regime shift specification in the DOLS case, the long-run
coefficient is -0.72 (
. The structural break dummy, D, is significant across alternative
estimates implying the presence of structural break in the data. Taken together, the results
show that a structural break did occur in the long-run relationship between private and public
saving in 1989.
Table 3a. FMOLS and DOLS Estimates for Level Shift Model, 1975-2005
Constant
GSR
D
FMOLS
DOLS
16.129
15.734
(1.002)*
(0.682)*
-0.709
-0.741
(0.129)*
(0.0967)*
5.112
5.377
(1.268)*
(0.891)*
Note: *, **, *** indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively. The values in
parenthesis are standard errors.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Table 3b. FMOLS and DOLS Estimates for Level Shift with trend Model, 1975-2005
Constant
GSR
D
TREND
FMOLS
DOLS
18.263
13.892
(1.310)*
(1.393)*
-0.819
-0.577
(0.124)*
(0.148)*
7.320
4.693
(1.503)*
(1.049)*
-0.193
0.137
(0.084)**
(0.088)
Note: See the note in Table 3a.
Table 3c. FMOLS and DOLS Estimated for Regime Shift Model, 1975-2005
Constant
GSR
D
DGSR
FMOLS
DOLS
14.571
11.685
(2.977)*
(2.263)*
-0.458
-0.109
(0.462)
(0.349)
6.627
9.355
(3.032)**
(2.318)*
-0.268
-0.613
(0.483)
(0.322)**
Note: See the note in Table 3a.
4. Concluding Comments
This study examines the long-run relationship between private and public sector saving ratios
using FMOLS and DOLS methodologies. Empirical findings of this study can be summarized
as follows. First, there is no long-run relationship between private and public savings unless
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
endogenous structural break in the cointegration relationship is allowed in Turkish case.
Secondly, the extent of offset coefficients ranges from -0.82 to -0.11 supporting weak form of
Ricardian equivalence. Statistically significant change in the slope coefficient in DOLS case
also shows that the substitution (offset) between private and public savings are stronger after
1989. This point is particularly worth mentioning because financial repression in Turkish
economy was fully removed at this date. Thirdly, the results of the paper suggest that the
effectiveness of fiscal policy implementations by the government has decreased significantly
after achieving financial liberalization in 1989.The statistically significant and relatively large
coefficient (
) on regime shift variable can be taken as an evidence for this
argument.
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raising National saving?”,Review of Economics and Statistics, 82:226-238.
Mandal, A. and J. E. Payne (2007), “The long-run relationship between private and public
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237
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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1299
Title
A name given to the resource
Do Private Savings Offset Public Savings in Turkey?
Author
Author
Muhittin, Kaplan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The issue of whether public savings offset private savings, and visa vice, has important implications for the effectiveness of fiscal policy. This study examines long-run relationship between public and private savings rates using annual Turkish data for the period 1975-2005. The result of Engle-Granger cointegration test has shown that there is no long-run relationship between private and public savings ratios. However,once endogenously determined structural break is allowed, the test results confirm the existence of the cointegration relationship between private and public savings. Econometric estimation of the offset coefficients using both FMOLS and DOLS yields values of between -0.11 and -0.82. The results also indicate that the potency of fiscal policy significantly reduced with the liberalization of financial markets.Keywords: Savings, Offset coefficient, Ricardian Equivalence, DOLS, FMOLS. JEL Classificiation: E6, H6, E21
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/83122bb31c46b55d6c83ebb233f0f1b7.pdf
85596c32430d68bf29436edf2520fe82
PDF Text
Text
Hydrogen Production via Natural Gas Reforming Process – A Life Cycle Assessment
Approach
Murat Öztürk, Nuri Özek
Department of Physics, Faculty of Art and Sciences, Suleyman Demirel Univesity,
32260Isparta/ Turkey
E-mails: muratozturk@sdu.edu.tr, nuriozek@sdu.edu.tr
Abstract
The use of hydrogen as a sustainable alternative fuel and energy carrier is gaining more
acceptance as the environmental impact of hydrocarbons becomes more significant. Hydrogen
can be produced from various energy sources, such as steam reforming of natural gas, coal
gasification, water electrolysis and thermo-chemical water splitting. Hydrogen production is
accomplished by steam reforming of natural gas and other fossil primary energy at
approximately 97% of total and less than 3% is based on renewable energy sources, such as
solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, etc. Today, steam reforming of natural gas is the most
important and economic ways of the hydrogen production. The environmental performance of
products or processes has become a key issue, which is why ways to minimize the effects on
the environment are investigated. One of the effective ways for this purpose is life cycle
assessment (LCA). In this paper, LCA of hydrogen production by natural gas reforming
(NGR) process are investigated for environmental affect. The investigation uses LCA, which
is an analytical tool to identify and quantify environmentally critical phases during the life
cycle of a system or a product and/or to evaluate and decrease the overall environmental
impact of the system or product.
Keywords: Environmental effects, hydrogen production, LCA, natural gas reforming
252
�1. INTRODUCTION
The energy carrier hydrogen can help solve some energy challenges. Since, its oxidation does
not emit greenhouse gases; its use does not contribute climate change, provided it is derived
from clean energy sources. Moreover, conversion to electricity via fuel cells is efficient and
environmental benign (Solli 2004). There are several ways to produce hydrogen including
steam reforming of natural gas, coal gasification, water electrolysis and thermo-chemical
cycles. The most commonly used method for hydrogen production is natural gas reforming
(Dufour et. al 2009). Natural gas is one of the most important energetic resources. Its
importance is growing in the economic world. The methane reforming process is therefore
widely studied because of its importance in the petrochemical industry (Gresser and et. al
1998).
In addition, due to the increase in hydrogen demand and the importance of synthesis gas as a
major feedstock for carbon chemistry and fuel cells, methane reforming reactions have
become more important. Notably, the one site hydrogen production has received considerable
attention (Armor and et. al 1999; Roch and et. al 2003; Matsumura and et. al 2004; Kusakabe
and et. al 2004). The steam reforming of methane (SRM) is currently the most cost-effective
and highly developed method for production of hydrogen at relatively low cost and high
hydrogen to carbon ratios are desired for hydrogen production (Sharma and et. al 2007;
Profeti and et. al 2008; Xu and et. al 2008; Maluf and et. al 2009). However carbon formation
is always the main drawback of the reaction. Some recent works pointed out the basicity role
of the support and of the reduction conditions in the carbon formation. In fact, two other
factors seem to be important to decrease the carbon deposition: size of metal particles and
interactions between the metal particles and the support.
In order to evaluate potential options for the future energy strategy it is of interest to evaluate
hydrogen energy system. It has become of great interest to evaluate power system using
different criteria. In this respect there are a number of methods, which are used with
respective procedure in presenting quantitative merits for the rating of different power system
designs (Afgan and Carvalho 2000). Among popular methods applied in the evaluation of
power system are: thermodynamic method, energy cost evaluation method and LCA method.
Each of the methods is based on the optimization function reflecting a single indicator in
evaluation of individual options of power plant design. It has been noted that the energy
system complexity requires multivariable assessment taking into a consideration different
aspect of power system. It is obvious that beside the economic valorization of the power
system the modern approach has to take into a consideration other aspect of the individual
design of power system. Since energy production in the power system is based on different
physical principles each power system option will reflect the importance of different
optimization parameter. Also, each power system option will use different energy source,
which conversion in the finale energy will impose different interaction with its environment
(Afgan and et. al 2000). In this paper LCA is used to compute life cycle emissions and
material use of hydrogen production via natural gas reforming process (without CO2 capture),
and the results are compared using process criteria and value scaling for a similar plant.
�2. Analysis of Life Cycle Assessment
The concept of a LCA simply means that the inputs to the cycle (energy, materials, etc.) and
outputs (energy waste materials, products, etc.) are evaluated for each step of a product or
process life (Ciambrone 1997). LCA analysis can have a positive impact on human health, the
ecosystem and natural resources. Specially, LCA is a systematic technique that uses four steps
to assess the potential impacts associated with a product, process or service: i-) Goal
definition and scoping, ii-) life cycle inventory, iii-) life cycle impact assessment, iv-) life
cycle interpretation. It establishes the context in which the assessment is to be made and
identifies the boundaries and environmental effects to be reviewed for the assessment.
Inventory Analysis identifies and quantifies energy, water and materials usage and
environmental releases (e.g., air emissions, solid waste disposal, and wastewater discharge).
Impact Assessment assesses the human and ecological effects of energy, water, and material
usage and the environmental releases identified in the inventory analysis. Interpretation
evaluates the results of the inventory analysis and impact assessment to select the preferred
product, process or service with a clear understanding of the uncertainty and the assumptions
used to generate the results.
3. Natural Gas Reforming Process
A simplified basic diagram of a conventional steam reforming process of natural gas is shown
in Figure 1. The process basically consists of three main steps: I-) Synthesis gas generation,
II-) water-gas shift reaction, and III-) gas purification. Natural gas feedstock is mixed with
process steam and reacted over a nickel based catalyst contained inside a system of alloyed
steel tubes (Steinberg and Cheng 1988). To protect the catalyst, natural gas has to be
desulphurized before being fed to the reformer. The following reactions take place in the
reformer (Veziroglu and Barbir 1998).
(
)
(H=+206.16 kJ/molCH4)
(1)
(H=-41.15 kJ/molCO)
(2)
The reforming reaction is strongly endothermic and energy is supplied by combustion of
natural gas. The metallurgy of the tubes usually limits the reaction temperature to 700-925°C.
The synthesis gas leaving a catalytic reformer is typically a mixture of H2, CO, CO2 and
CH4. After the reformer the gas mixture passes through gas purification units to remove CO2,
the remaining CO and other impurities in order to deliver purified hydrogen. Several
commercial processes can be used for removing CO2 (and CO), such as wet scrubbing,
pressure swing adsorption, and recently membrane processes.
254
�Shift
conversion
Heat recovery
CH4
Gas
purification
H2
Desulfurization
CO2
Reformer
Sulfur
Fuel
Figure 1. Block diagram of hydrogen production via NGR process
4. Environmental Assessment of Hydrogen Production via NGR Process
LCA analysis is carried out by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) for
renewable-based (wind electrolysis) and fossil-based (NGR process) system in order to
compare the two different types of systems currently seen as feasible near-term hydrogen
generation options (Spath and Mann 2001). The natural gas system considered in NREL study
was assumed to be sized as 1:5 millionNm3/day. This reflects the typical size of the current
systems found in oil refineries. In this study, unlike the literature (Spath and Mann 2001),
impact values of material use and environment are scaled and also it is determined that which
impact values should be improved.
4.1. Material Use and Environmental Impacts
Regional Air Impacts; The main air pollutions and the quantities emitted to the air during the
life cycle of NGR process are given in Table 1. Most of the air emissions in the hydrogen
production process originate from the natural gas production and distribution process steps.
NGR process plant itself produces a small amount of the listed air emissions during its
operation. The regional air emissions from the life-cycle of the process result in a total of 47.7
g/kgH2 of air emissions.
Table 1. Air emission of NGR process
255
Pollutant
Emission
(g/kgH2)
Pollutant
Emission
(g/kgH2)
Benzene (C6H6)
1.4
Non-methane hydrocarbons
16.8
�Carbon monoxide (CO) 5.7
Particulates matter
2.0
Nitrogen oxide (N2O)
Sulfur oxide (S2O)
9.5
Total emission
12.3
47.7
Global Warming; The greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O) are considered as contributing factors for the global warming potential (GWP) of
the system, which is expressed as the amount equivalent to CO2 emissions. GWP of CH4 and
N2O are 21 and 310 times that of CO2, respectively. Therefore, the GWP of the NGR process
is found to be 11,888 gCO2-equivalent/kgH2, with contributions of 89.3%, 10.6% and 0.1%
from CO2, CH4 and N2O, respectively. The distributions of the greenhouse gas emissions are
as follows: 25% from natural gas production and distribution, 2.3% from electricity
generation, 0.4% from construction and decommissioning, 78.4% from hydrogen plant
operation and -2:5% (credit) from avoided operations.
Water Impacts; The total amount of water emission from NGR process plant is 0.2 g/kgH2,
with the primary pollutant being oils (60%) followed by dissolved matter (29%). The water
pollutants come primarily from the material manufacturing steps required for pipeline and
plant construction.
Solid Wastes; The total amount of solid waste generated by the NGR process is 202 g/kgH2, a
majority of which comes from the natural gas production and distribution steps. The
compressor stations and the natural gas reforming plant have electricity requirements that are
significant (80% of solid waste generation is due to these power requirements). The electricity
required to operate the pumps and compressors in the system are provided from the national
grid.
Land Use; The engineering, procurement and construction company (CB&I), involved in
projects for natural resource industries such as oil and gas, is annoyed about the land use of
natural gas reforming facility. An approximation of 37.5x45 m (0.17 ha) of land area for a 0.5
milNm3/day facility is given. This land area is scaled to a 1.5 milNm3/day facility size (to
mach the assumed facility size given in the literature (Spath and Mann 2001)), giving a land
area of 0.5 ha/MW.
Water Use; A total amount of 19.8 L/kgH2 of water is used in the NGR process. The majority
of the water is consumed at the hydrogen plant. The smaller percentage (24.0%) is the amount
that is consumed during the conversion of natural gas to hydrogen while the higher percentage
(71.2%) is a result of the excess steam production.
Energy Use; The total energy consumption (on LHV basis) of NGR process is 183.2
MJ/kgH2, which is mainly from the natural gas extraction and transport steps of the process.
Materials Use; The non-feedstock resources (fossil fuels, minerals and metals) utilized within
the boundaries for NGR process are given in Table 2. The most resource used is natural gas.
Iron and limestone are made use of in the construction of the pipeline that transports the
natural gas to the NGR plant, as well as the constriction of the NGR plant itself most of the oil
is consumed while producing and distributing the natural gas and coal is the main sources of
256
�electricity (which is used by the plant). A total amount of 3855 g/kgH2 of materials is used by
the system.
Table 2. Resources consumption of NGR plant
Resources
Consumption
(g/kgH2)
Resources
Consumption
(g/kgH2)
Coal
159.2
Limestone
16.0
Iron (ore)
10.3
Natural gas
3642.3
Iron (scrap)
11.1
Oil
16.4
Total Consumption
3855
4.2. Life Cycle Assessment of the Processes
The information gained on the performance of NGR process on all of the criteria is initially
entered in Table 3. The best and worst cases is the noted (based on the maximization or
minimization of the criterion from literature), and the range between the best and worst case is
indicated as seen in Table 4.
Table 3. Environmental impact, resource use and cost data for NGR process
Impacts
Value
Unit
Impacts
Value
Unit
Regional Air Impacts (RAI)
47.7
g/kgH2
Water (W)
19.8
L/kgH2
Global Warming (GW)
11888
gCO2/kgH2
Energy (E)
183.3
MJ/kgH2
Water Impacts (WI)
0.2
g/kgH2
Materials (M)
3855
g/kgH2
Solid Wastes (SW)
202
g/kgH2
Cost (C)
1.38
$/kgH2
Land (L)
0.5
ha/MW
Cost (C)
5.60
$/GJ
The data is then scaled according to these ranges, to result in values ranging from zero (the
worst) to one (the best). This calculation is done by using the following formulation.
257
�(
)⁄(
)
(3)
where, X is scaled data, Xw and Xb is the worst and best value assumed for data, respectively.
Table 4. Example data on the performance of the NGR process on the criteria and value
scaling
Criteria (Raw Data)
RAI
GW
WI
SW
L
W
E
M
C
47.7
11888
0.2
202
0.5
19.8
183.3
3855
1.38
Best
Best
Best
Best
Best
Best
Best
Best
Best
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
Worst
80.0
30000
10.0
3000
3
130
500
30000
8.0
Criteria (Scaled Data)
RAI
GW
WI
SW
L
W
E
M
C
0.40
0.60
0.98
0.93
0.85
0.84
0.63
0.87
0.82
Table 4 demonstrates a portion of the raw data, best/worst cases, ranges and value scaled data
to illustrate the explanations above.
5. CONCLUSION
Environmental effects normally are not revealed in market prices. By assigning monetary
values to these effects, they will be enabled to have a place in the market, thus providing
grounds for more effective decision-making. Since the market is deficient in representing the
external costs resulting from the environmental impacts, there is no incentive to incorporate
this cost in the decision-making process. However, if the market takes the externalities into
account, then a final decision will also have to include both the private and external costs,
thus providing a fairer system. In this study, LCA of hydrogen production via natural gas
258
�reforming is presented. Obtained impact values of material use and environment are scaled
from 0 (worst) to 1 (best). Accordingly, water impacts (WI) and solid wastes (SW) impacts
values of this process are good. In addition, land (L), water (W), materials (M) and cost (C)
values are average, meaning neither good nor bad. However, it is emphasized that values of
regional air impacts (RAI), global warming (GW) and energy (E) should be improved in
terms of environment.
REFERENCES
Afgan, N.H. and Carvalho, M.G. (2000) Sustainability Assessment Method for Energy
Systems, Kluwer Academic Publisher , Boston.
Afgan, N.H., Carvalho, M.G. and Hovanov, N.V. (2000) Energy System Assessment with
sustainability Indicators, Energy Policy, 28, 603-612.
Armor, J.N. (1999) The multiple roles for catalysis in the production of H2. Applied Catalysis
A General, 176, 159-176.
Ciambrone, D.F (1997) Environmental Life Cycle Analysis. Lewis Publishers.
Dufour, J., Serrano, D.P., Galvez, J.L., Moreno, J. and Garcia C. (2009) Life cycle assessment
of processes for hydrogen production: Environmental feasibility and reduction of greenhouse
gases emissions, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 34, 1370-1376.
Kusakabe, K., Sotawa, K.I., and Iwamoto, T. (2004) Methane steam reforming over Ce-ZrO2supported noble metal catalysts at low temperature. Fuel Process Technology, 86, 319-326.
Maluf, S.S. and Assaf, E.M. (2009) Ni catalysts with Mo promoter for methane steam
reforming. Fuel, 88, 1547-1553.
Matsumura, Y. and Nakamor, T. (2004) Steam reforming of methane over nickel catalysts at
low reaction temperature. Applied Catalysis A General, 258, 107-114.
Profeti, L.P.R., Ticianelli, E.A. and Assaf, E.M. (2008) Co/Al2O3 catalysts promoted with
noble metals for production of hydrogen by methane steam reforming. Fuel, 87, 2076-2081.
Roch, H.S., Jun, K.W. and Park, S.E. (2003) Methane-reforming reactions over Ni/CeZrO2/q-Al2O3 catalysts. Applied Catalysis A General, 251, 275-283.
Sharma, P.O., Abraham, M.A. and Chattopadhyay, S. (2007) Development of a novel metal
monolith catalyst for natural gas steam reforming. Industrial and Engineering Chemical
Research, 46, 9053-9060.
Steinberg, M. and Cheng, H.C. (1988) Modern and prospective technologies for hydrogen
production from fossil fuels. Hydrogen Energy Progress VII, 2, 699-740, Pergamon Press.
Solli, C. (2004) Fission or fossil: A comparative life cycle assessment of two different
hydrogen production methods, Master‘s thesis, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Trondheim, Norway, Jun.
Xu, J., Yeung, C.M.Y., Ni, J., Meunier, F., Acerbi, N. and Fowles, M. (2008) Methane steam
reforming for hydrogen production using low water-ratios without carbon formation over
ceria coated Ni catalysts. Applied Catalysis A General, 345, 119-127.
259
�Veziroglu, T.N. and Barbir, F. (1998) Hydrogen Energy Technologies, United Nations
industrial development organization, Vienna.
Seed Micromorphological Investigations On 7 New Taxa Of Crocus Chrysanthus
(Herbert) Herbert From Turkey
Feyza Candan
Biology Dept, Botany Section, Faculty of Arts and Science, Celal Bayar University, Manisa,
Turkey
Abstract
This Investigation is made to determine seed micromorphological properties of four
subspecies and tree varieties of Crocus chrysanthus have been distinguished:Crocus
chrysanthus (Herbert) Herbert subsp. chrysanthus with 3 varieties (var. chrysanthus, var.
bicoloroceus F. Candan & N. Özhatay, and var. atrovioloceus F. Candan & N. Özhatay),
Crocus chrysanthus (Herbert) Herbert subsp. punctatus F. Candan & N. Özhatay, Crocus
chrysanthus (Herbert) Herbert subsp. kesercioglui F. Candan & N. Özhatay and Crocus
chrysanthus (Herbert) Herbert subsp. sipyleus F. Candan & N. Özhatay. Scanning electron
microscope was used to determine micromorphological features as regards mature seeds of all
taxa.
Keywords: Crocus chrysanthus (Herbert) Herbert, seed micromorphology.
1.INTRODUCTION
Among the Angiosperm members, Iridaceae family is an invincible family with its attractive
flowers. The taxa that belongs Iridaceae family are herbs with rhizomes, corms and bulbs
(Mathew, 1984).
Iridaceae family is resembled with 6 genus in Turkey. These are Iris L., Hermodactylus
Miller, Gynandriris Parl., Crocus L., Romulea Maratti and Gladiolus L. (Mathew, 1984).
Crocus species are perennial plants, adopted to overcome a dry dormant period in the form of
an underground corm, in many ways resembling Colchicum L. (Mathew, 1982; Bowles 1924,
1952).
The genus Crocus L. (Iridaceae) presently consists of 90 species, mainly in the Mediterranean
Region and the drier floristic areas of the Irano-Turanien Region. The majority of species are
restricted to Turkey and the Balkans. Turkey is an especially rich country in terms of Crocus
species, with 31 species recorded in the Flora of Turkey (Mathew, 1984). The thirty-second
species mentioned in Flora of Turkey is C. boissieri Maw. This plant collected in Turkey by
Tchihotcheff in 1853 and then it has not been refound (Mathew, 2001). Since, the Flora of
Turkey was written, five new taxa were described as C. biflorus Mill. subsp. albocoronatus
260
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Title
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Hydrogen Production via Natural Gas Reforming Process – A Life Cycle Assessment Approach
Author
Author
Murat , Öztürk
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The use of hydrogen as a sustainable alternative fuel and energy carrier is gaining more acceptance as the environmental impact of hydrocarbons becomes more significant. Hydrogen can be produced from various energy sources, such as steam reforming of natural gas, coal gasification, water electrolysis and thermo-chemical water splitting. Hydrogen production is accomplished by steam reforming of natural gas and other fossil primary energy at approximately 97% of total and less than 3% is based on renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, etc. Today, steam reforming of natural gas is the most important and economic ways of the hydrogen production. The environmental performance of products or processes has become a key issue, which is why ways to minimize the effects on the environment are investigated. One of the effective ways for this purpose is life cycle assessment (LCA). In this paper, LCA of hydrogen production by natural gas reforming (NGR) process are investigated for environmental affect. The investigation uses LCA, which is an analytical tool to identify and quantify environmentally critical phases during the life cycle of a system or a product and/or to evaluate and decrease the overall environmental impact of the system or product. Keywords: Environmental effects, hydrogen production, LCA, natural gas reforming
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General)
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d30e68d118b00816d4ee8330130a621f
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Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
ECER, H. Ferhat (2004) Yüksek Lisans Tezi “Entelektüel Sermayenin Firma Değeri
Üzerindeki Etkisi ve Ekonometrik Bir Analiz”.
HATİBOĞLU, Z. (1986) “İşletmelerde Stratejik Yönetim” İstanbul: İrfan Yayıncılık.
KÖSE & AKGÜN (2004) “Süleyman Demirel University’s 10. Year Gift”. Isparta.
Süleyman Demirel University's Strategic Plan (2011). Isparta.
TUIK (2011) Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Kayıt Sistemi Veri Tabanı.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) “Our common future”
Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.
Institutionalization In Hotel Management And An Applied Study On Cappadocia’s 4
And 5 Star Hotels
Mustafa Caliskan, Hayrullah Cetin
Nevsehir University, Nevsehir, Turkey
1.INTRODUCTION
In the simplest terms, institutionalization means that the specific rules are to be valid in all
the relevant issues. In other words, certain rules are dominated in all of the social processes
such as from the one’s individual life to the family life and to the institutions and
organizations, societies, and inter-communal relations.
Institutionalization is not just a question of top management. A general management
philosophy covering the entire of the enterprise is a corporate culture.The decision or
personal behavior of salesman working at the endpoint of organization is an indication of the
level of institutionalization of the company. Recently, it is seen that many enterprises enter
into the process of institutionalization so that they have more stable and more planned growth
path.
The most important element of the tourism sector is the hotel enterprise. Revealing that hotel
enterprises give importance to which points to institutionalization and determining the
viewpoint of them on the institutionalization constitute the basic question of the study.
In the study, primarily by considering the institutional framework; institutionalization term,
principles, the importance of institutionalization in terms of hotel enterprises and the concept
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
of institutionalization in terms of employees are discussed. Then, a survey for the hotels the
Cappadocia has been practiced.
Keywords: Institutionalization, Institutionalization in Tourism.
Purpose Of The Study, the purpose of this study is to determine the level of
institutionalization of the hotel enterprises operating in the tourism sector - one of the main
sectors of the economy- and to make an assessment of perception about institutionalization of
those working in the hotel enterprise.
Due to that, the study aims to show the emphasis on the issue of institutionalization of the
hotel enterprise offering accommodation services in tourism sector, it can be defined as
setting out the current situation (descriptive).
Overview Of The Research, the overview of the research consists of 4 and 5 stars hotel
enterprises in Cappadocia. For the study, fourteen hotels have been reached. Three hotels
haven’t participated in the study. A questionnaire consisting of 375 questions were
distributed eleven hotels participating in the study. 175 questionnaires have been taken back
within 10 days. 141 of them have been evaluated. 34 questionnaires haven’t been suitable for
further evaluation.
1.1. Literature Rewiev
1.2.The Notion Importance and Principles of Institutionalization
Institutionalization is a process of composing literal norms and currencies for the aim of
accruing of generally wanted to be reached targets, being carried out the system of
coordination and control, making an organization attuned to internal and external
environment. (Baran, 2000: 6-7)In other words, it is something that definite rules dominate in
all of the social processes from individual life of a person to his/her domesticity, agency and
institute, communities and inter-societal relations. (Fındıkcı,2005:82) In the simplest term, it
means that definite rules relating to every kind of issue are valid.
Expressing it as a process, institutionalization can be defined as a series of a complement of
activities that have a work environment composed which is accepted by everybody and based
on the rules derived from the involvement of staff members working both at the top and at the
bottom level for firms’ reaching their pre-determined aims. (Ak, 2010: 37)
Institutionalization emerges by starting to be implemented similarly by the followers of
actions which are became a pattern by various actors. As long as the actions became a pattern
show similarity, a corporate identity is formed. (Berger and Luckmann, 1976,72).
Institutionalization of a firm reflects the resistance against this firm’s illiberality culture.
(Selznick, 1996: 271)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
In Turkey, institutionalization is perceived as administrative efforts aimed at turning into
organizations which are estranged from selfhood while determining the responsibilities,
conducting the business and prioritize persistence. (Yildirim, 2011:190). Chief aim of
institutionalization is that the firms become independent of individuals (boss, administrator,
core personnel, etc.) and their fulfilment method depending on their own talents.
Institutionalization means that a firm is able to become a system. Corporate Governance is a
system where firms are controlled, leaded in an economical and social system, and firms’
administration and organizational structure are arranged. (Korkmaz and others, 2012:5)
Corporate Governance could be carried out when a corporation management is subjected to a
set of principles determined in accordance with legislations and market laws after moving
exactly away current conflicts of interest. That is, carrying out corporate governance is
possible by acting according to these principles. In Turkey, Capital Markets Board of Turkey
determined the framework of institution management through the criteria specified by OECD.
According to Corporate Governance Association, main principles of corporate governance
having universal acceptance and validity are fairness, accountability, transparency and
liability. (www.tkyd.org/tr)
2.Importance of Institutionalization in Hotel Management
Institutionalization capability of private sector enterprises operating in an area plays a
fundamental role in effectuation of development objective of the area. So long as enterprises
are institutionalizing, they develop a certain character and distinctive capabilities.
Institutionalization of enterprises increases their capacity, makes them grown and lived long
standing. Institutionalization is essential for fulfilment of enterprise objective systematically,
creating an original identity, developing stable administration policies, and especially
legitimating of enterprise asset. Enterprises should review, harmonize their structuring
persistently according to requirement of the present and, if it needs, start the right changing.
Apart from the changing, enterprise creating its own identity lies behind being able to success
the institutionalization. Institutionalized enterprises providing with the economic value to
their areas is increasing.
In addition to supplying with principally the accommodation requirement of their clients,
hotel operations are facilities involving in auxiliary and supplementary units for catering and
entertainment, etc. requirements. The importance of institutionalization activity in hotels is
increasing gradually because of the reasons such as customer expectations, conditions of
competitions, development of technology and the obligation of hardening between customer
orientation and cost-orientation. Even though the economy of Cappadocia Region is
predominantly based on agricultural sector, the agricultural sector is a subject of national
economy from the point of the region. Cappadocia is known as a tourism region in
international community. Cappadocia is in line for growing in tourism with its uncommon
geographical features. The institutionalization level of the hotels, especially four and fivestar, operating in this region will raise their contributions to regional economy.
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2.1.Institutionalization From The View Of Labour Force Of Enterprise
Nowadays in work life qualities of serving or property that is understood as institution policy,
are concepts like quality in workers’ manufacture who work in enterprise and quality in their
relation (professionalism) and generally making investment in society for people, for
customer and reputation. Corporate mentality, institutional action, motivation,
communication, determining method of management and relation between management and
workers are very important indicators of institutionalization. These assets are heightening the
importance of corporate governance and institutional constituent on workers more and more.
(www.isletmeportali.com).
In an institutional constitute development and sustainability is being possible with the action
of constituted work, not with the format of work. Also efficiency of institutionalization is
important for enterprise from the view of human resource, which is very important capital for
enterprise. In this regard institutional administrative mentality and action have an important
and efficient result on workers. Managers should try to ascertain their company’s priorities
together with workers’ participate and they should try to be understood and accepted all these
priorities by all workers. Otherwise the workers’ aim and association’s aim will be differed.
So, desired output and desired participation cannot be achieved. (Korkmaz and others,
2012:5).
It is certain that institutionalized company is preferred by the workers qualified and with high
performance. Workers’ education and expressing their ideas freely can be possible in
institutionalized governance enterprise. An administrative mentality in which workers are
able to defence their idea freely can make workers take part in decision making process more
active. One of the important factor in workers’ motivation, more important than money, is the
environment that they can improve themselves. So, enterprises which can apply the
institutional management in the proper sense can have more qualified human resource.
3.Problem statement
The research attemps to make an assessment as to what extent have institutionalization and
the attached importance reached in hotel enterprises providing service in the field of tourism,
one of the main sectors of economy.
Purpose Of The Study, the purpose of this study is to determine the level of
institutionalization of the hotel enterprises operating in the tourism sector - one of the main
sectors of the economy- and to make an assessment of perception about institutionalization of
those working in the hotel enterprise.
Due to that, the study aims to show the emphasis on the issue of institutionalization of the
hotel enterprise offering accommodation services in tourism sector, it can be defined as a
description, setting out the current situation.
144
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
4.Research Methodology
Firstly, domestic and foreign literature related to the institutionalization has been inquired.
After examining the literature, a questionnaire has been prepared to gather information in the
light of the information obtained. In this way, a questionnaire has been prepared for those
working in hotel enterprises. With the aim to learning what those working hotel enterprises
think about the institutionalization and determining the effects of institutionalization in the
hotel enterprises on the workers, such a questionnaire has been prepared. The questionnaire
prepared for the hotel enterprises consists of two chapters. The first chapter consists of six
closed-ended questions in order to determine of the demographic characteristics of people
working in hotel enterprise and reveal a relationship with the hotel enterprise. The second
chapter consists of twenty questions in order to determine the level of institutionalization
approach in the enterprise of those working in the hotel enterprise and the behavior of
entrepreneurs in the process of institutionalization. Those working in the hotel enterprise
have been kindly asked to answer as “yes” or “no” with the twenty questions in the second
chapter.
4.1.Findings
The reliability test of the study has been made and it is concluded that reliability of the survey
is 85%. In the evaluation of questionnaires, status determination has been made using SPSS
17 statistical package program. When we beware of the briefs to the analysis of
questionnaire;
According to the survey results, in the first question it is seen that the opinions of the
employees weren’t asked. In the second question, employees expressed that there is an
enterprise constitution.
In the third question, in-hotel permissions were seen as arranged without conforming to the
rules. When it is evaluated with the second question, a contradiction emerges. It is understood
that enterprise constitution doesn’t run in practice.
According to the results,in the forth question the enterprises get consulting service from
outside. In the fifth question, employees are aware of the conflict between the family
members. When we evaluate this question with the working hours, it is viewed that the more
working hours increase, the more employees become aware of the conflict between the
family members.
In the sixth question, employees expressed that decisions are taken by only one of the family
members.
In the seventh question, in terms of the findings, it is understood that the founder of the hotel
made an effort for development of employees.
In the eightth question, 75 percent of the employees stated that they know the person who
will take the place of the founder of the hotel in the event of quitting of him.
In the ninth question, 84.4 percent of the employees know the in charge in the hotel.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
In the tenth question, It is seen that the employees solve their problem by getting information
from just one person.
In the eleventh question, according to 74.5 percent of the employees, anyone doesn’t interfere
in scope of authority and responsibility of each other.
In the twelveth quesiton, according to 75 percent of the employees, it was expressed that the
administrators who are not family members bear so called responsibility and authority.
In the thirteenth question, in as much as the results, 79.4 percent of the employees expressed
that suggestions and opinions are discussed by conducted a meeting in their working sections.
In the fourteenth question, most of the employees find the quality of provided service high.
In the fifteenth question, 71.2 percent of the employees know that sales volume of the hotel
accrued in proportion to the previous year.
In the sixteenth question, 76.6 percent of them know the new service project of the hotel.
In the seventeenth question, 83 percent of the employees expressed that they are in
accordance with the environment of the hotel that they work.
In the nineteenth question, most of the employees said that the hotel that they work took part
in a social responsibility project.
In the last question, 75.2 percent of them stated that the result related to the hotel was shared
by everybody.
4.1.1.Summary of Findings
4 Stars hotels in Cappadocia Region are more institutionalized than 5 stars hotel in that
region. It is understood that, when 5 stars hotels got the fifth star, they gave up
institutionalization process. 4 stars hotels are keeping on institutionalization process.
The Most Important Limitation Of The Study is that the study cannot do with managers and
business owners. Because, they rejected to do it. So, it became difficult to collect owner and
manager opinions to our research.
5.CONCLUSION
Tourism sector consists of many components. But the most important component is hotel
management. Hotel managements should give up traditional management styles. In every
respect, hotel managements should implement modern management styles for tourism sector
and economic system. This will lead to better results. One of this management styles is
intuitionalism. Intuitionalism is very important concept as without it or by neglecting it,
managements may lose their rivalry position.
Hotels participated to the questionnaire though believe in intuitionalism, it is observed that
they still have deficiencies. During questionnaire period, hotel founder and managers didn’t
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
accept our invitations to take the survey so this indicated that hotel managements should
implement severe institutionalization practices (precautions). In this respect, managers and
owners should attend the conferences and should observe the successful applications in other
institutions. Employees should constantly be involved in in-service programs, so it helps to
the employees, attending decision period, finally they can easily make some decisons.
In conclusion owners, managers and employees should cooperate and should be in
communication all the time. This is an important step towards intuitionalism. Criteria about
distribution of work, authority and responsibilities, employing procedures, appointment, and
promotion should be by the institution rules and be independent of individual factors.
REFERENCES
AK G. B. (2010). Aile İşletmelerinde Kurumsallaşmanın İşletme Başarısına Olan Etkileri:
Aydın İlinde Faaliyet Gösteren Aile İşletmeleri Örneği, Adnan Menderes University, Social
Sciences Institute, Phd Thesis, Aydın.
BARAN. Y, (2000).“Kurumsallaşma İle Örgüt Kültürü Arasındaki İlişki”, İ.Ü. Social
Sciences Institute, Management Faculty.
BERGER, P. L. ve LUCKMANN, T. (1976). The Social Construction of Reality A Treatise
in the Sociology of Knowledge, Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex.
FINDIKCI, I. (2005), Aile Şirketleri, İstanbul: Alfa Books.
KORKMAZ M, SAVAS, K. ve YAHYAOGLU, G. (2012) Kurumsal Aile İşletmelerinde
Stratejik Yönetimin Çalışanlar Üzerinde Etkisi Üzerine Bir Çalışma, Academic Wiev
Magazine, V: 28, Kirgyzistan.
SELZNICK, P. (1196). Institutionalizm, Old & New, Administrative Science Quartely,
Volume 41, Number 2 , June.
YARAR, O. (2008), Kurumsallaşma Ve Markalaşma, İstanbul İlindeki Özel Hastaneler
Üzerinde Bir Araştırma, İstanbul University, Social Sciences Institute Phd Thesis, İstanbul.
YILDIRIM, S. (2011). Kurumsallaşamayan Aile Şirketlerinde Pazarlama Sorunları Üzerine
Nitel Bir Çalışma, Kocaeli University, Social Sciences Institute Magazine, V: 2 N:185-202
http://www.isletmeportali.com/konular/yonetim-ve-organizasyon/kurumsallasma-4.html (10
April 2012
http://www.tkyd.org/files/downloads/basin_odasi/tkyd_makaleleri/murat_dogu_23 ( 10 April
2012)
147
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Title
A name given to the resource
Institutionalization In Hotel Management And An Applied Study On Cappadocia’s 4 And 5 Star Hotels
Author
Author
Mustafa, Caliskan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the simplest terms, institutionalization means that the specific rules are to be valid in all the relevant issues. In other words, certain rules are dominated in all of the social processes such as from the one’s individual life to the family life and to the institutions and organizations, societies, and inter-communal relations. Institutionalization is not just a question of top management. A general management philosophy covering the entire of the enterprise is a corporate culture.The decision or personal behavior of salesman working at the endpoint of organization is an indication of the level of institutionalization of the company. Recently, it is seen that many enterprises enter into the process of institutionalization so that they have more stable and more planned growth path. The most important element of the tourism sector is the hotel enterprise. Revealing that hotel enterprises give importance to which points to institutionalization and determining the viewpoint of them on the institutionalization constitute the basic question of the study. In the study, primarily by considering the institutional framework; institutionalization term, principles, the importance of institutionalization in terms of hotel enterprises and the concept of institutionalization in terms of employees are discussed. Then, a survey for the hotels the Cappadocia has been practiced. Keywords: Institutionalization, Institutionalization in Tourism.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c520719c6b1da90cae5914d7835384d0.pdf
41ebf851b1a8dc55251f2368ccf44cfd
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Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Green Marketing Activities Of Green Star Hotels In Concept Of Sustainable Tourism
Mustafa Gulmez1, Ismail Karayun2 ,Selcuk Burak Hasiloglu3
1Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, 07058, Konyaalti, Antalya
2Akdeniz University, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, 07192, Yesilbayir, Antalya
3.Pamukkale University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 20070, Kınık,
Denizli
E-mails: mgulmez@akdeniz.edu.tr, ismailkarayun@akdeniz.edu.tr, hasiloglu@pau.edu.t
Abstract
Due to increasing of global warming, the activities and studies about environmental
consciousness and environmentally awareness are adopted by green star hotels and concept of
sustainable tourism is becoming increasingly important in this context. Environmentally-friendly
hotels or green star hotels have social responsibility consciousness to protect the environment by
creating and developing economical solutions by hotel management for water and energy storing
and reducing the solid wastes. Nowadays, both hotel managers and visitors pleasure in doing
works environmentally responsible. While the hotel managers are adopting environmentallyfriendly construction, visitors (tourists) are behaving more environmentally-friendly about
holiday plans and shopping. It is indicated that, the number of tourists who consider green star
criteria while selecting the hotels are increasing and at last decades, environmentally-friendly
tourism have enormously increased. The aim of this study is to expose green marketing activities
of green star hotels in Turkey. In this context, the activities of green star hotels have been
examined and viewpoints of the visitors about green marketing have been retained. In this
research, both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used together. Deep - interviews
were done with hotel managers also the questionnaires were used to get information about the
awareness of visitors about green star hotels and green marketing activities.
Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Tourism, Green Star Hotel, Green Marketing, Green
Consumer
1.INTRODUCTION
Hotel company managers increasingly have to take environmental issues into account. A major
number of typical vacation touristic events are directly dependent on the natural resources at a
destination. Some planning consequences attempt to achieve higher levels of environmental
sustainability at the destination. Tourism planning is to try to attract consumers who are
intrinsically interested in protecting the environment and consequently behave in a way that leads
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to a smaller ecological footprint. Several authors have suggested this alternative approach and
recommended that it may be suitable to reduce the ecological footprint of tourism at destinations.
(Dolnicar and Leisch 2008)
2.GREEN STAR CONCEPT DEFINITION
Today in tourism we find different eco-labels. In fact, obtainment of the eco-label exhibits the
commitment of tourism suppliers towards sustainable development and environment
improvements. There are several eco-labels in hotel sector, such as The Green Key. Similarly,
The Green Star is one of the them. Hotel eco-labels create image of caring and friendly tourism
organizations and, at the same time, inform tourists about sustainable orientation of tourism
product and promote them. Suppliers can also develop guidelines for social responsible
development. Green star hotel awards are an environmentally friendly program. A lot of hotel
companies can improve their image by being environmentally friendly. They can improve neutral
image about social responsibility into a positive one by helping to improve environment. Green
star hotel companies might invest in environmentally friendly energy systems. A great number
hotels can plant trees to improve the environment. (Rudez 2009).
Eco-innovation and green star hotel practices are the new weapons for the progressive companies
in tourism. Environmental improvements can enhance marketability and represent a potent source
of innovation. Muntean and Stremtan (2008) tried to underline how important is for a hotel to
develop sustainable eco-marketing strategy, called green star hotel practices. According to them
Romanian hotels should ensure that eco-innovative efforts are communicated in all corporate
environmental as well as responses to questionnaires from customers and socially responsible
investors. The companies should make a public commitment to develop more eco-innovative
products, and should ensure that commitments emanate from the highest level of the company.
(Muntean and Stremtan 2008).
Rudez (2009) focused on loyalty programs in the hotel management and, further applies
corporate social responsibility into loyalty programs. According to Rudez (2009) that joint
donation, environmentally friendly practices and programs of care for people are proposed as
social responsible loyalty. On the other hand many companies that sell tourism products are
environmental unfriendly. Tribe (2005, Rudez 2009) classifies negative impacts of tourism.
Environmental impacts are impacts on natural resources, pollution, physical impacts.
Song et al. (2012) introduced three environmentally related constructs. These are environmental
concerns, perceived customer effectiveness, and environmentally friendly tourism behaviors.
They examined the effect of environmentally friendly perceptions on the behavioral intention of
visitors at a festival in South Korea. Environmentally friendly consumption behaviors are usually
related to people’s belief that their environmentally friendly actions to solving ecological
problems. Therefore perceived customer effectiveness is a useful construct to understand
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customer’s environmentally conscious behaviors (Roberts, 1996). Namely, Straughan and
Roberts (1999) stated that customers can be effective in resolving environmental problems tend
to engage in more intense environmentally friendly behaviors with a high level of concern. (Song
et al. 2012)
Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) have researched in India where the two examined attitudes and
behavior towards green star hotel practices. They’ve used a number of research methodologies.
Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) have also used correlation and factor analysis. They’ve found that
consumers were not only conscious of green star hotel practices. There were two main symptoms.
The first symptom was the consumers’ reluctance to sacrifice quality of service to stay at a green
hotel, while the second was a refusal to pay more to stay at hotels which have adopted green star
hotel practices. They brought to an end that a hotel could derive a competitive advantage from
green practices however the hotel would have to take a longterm vision concerning any financial
gains. Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) also suggested that the government should institute rewards
for and tax benefits to advance the entrenchment of green practices in the hotel sector in India. In
addition, Kasim (2004) conducted a study in Penang Island, Malaysia. The purpose of this
research was to examine tourists’ attitudes towards business socio-environmental responsibility.
The findings of the research were mixed, similar to Manaktola and Jauhari (2007). Kasim found
that tourists practiced more business socio-environmental responsibility activities at home than
while on vacation. It’s also, the findings suggested that the tourists were not willing to make their
hotel choice based on the business socio-environmental responsibility criteria’s, nor were they
willing to pay extra for the same. In each case the researcher found that the subjects had the
knowledge and may have even cared about green star hotel practices. (Moreo 2008).
3.GREEN STAR APPLICATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS IN THE WORLD
In the world, green star applications are implemented generally and it is mentioned under the
concept of eco-friendly hotels. They are giving names to the hotels which protect the
environment and respect to natural environment as “green hotels” or “eco-friendly” hotels.
There are some organizations and councils about green hotels in the world. Especially about
sustainable tourism, there is an organization and it is named as Global Sustainable Tourism
Council (GSTC). GSTC is a global initiative dedicated to promoting sustainable tourism practices
around the world. Momentum around this movement is growing. The GSTC is currently active in
all World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) regions, including Africa, The Americas, East Asia
and the Pacific, South Asia, Europe and Middle East (http://new.gstcouncil.org/about/learnabout-the-gstc). They have some criteria’s to assess the hotels and tour operators. First criteria’s
were published in 2008 and three years later, in 2011, revised criteria’s were published. GSTC
has 37 criteria’s, based on environment management system, water management, energy
management, waste management, guest information, kitchen (food and beverages),
housekeeping, garden and beach area, interior and exterior appearance, organized around four
main themes as effective sustainability planning, maximizing social and economic benefits for
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the local community, enhancing cultural heritage and reducing negative impacts to the
environment. The criteria’s which are offered by another organizations which inspect hotels
about sustainable environment, use these criteria’s to create their own check lists. Besides GSTC,
another organizations and programs about sustainable environment and tourism are United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), International Union for Nature (IUCN), International
Tourism Partnership (ITP), World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), Rainforest Alliance,
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), European Environment Agency (EEA),
Network Evolution for Sustainable Tourism (NEST), United Nations Foundation, DestiNet and
Travelife. Travelife using 99 criteria’s to assess the environmental operations in hotels and
offering bronze, silver or gold awards depend on success of a hotel. There is an association about
green hotels and named as “Green Hotels Association” in USA established in 1993. They have
more than 50 member hotels all around the world but most of them locate in USA. This
association aims to control waste management, protection of the natural environment and energy
and water saving activities in hotels and consult them in these fields. There are over 800 different
green certifications (http://www.greenhotels.com). Green Hotels Association is not offering
“green star hotel certificate” to the hotels, instead of this, they are offering a guideline includes
rules about how to protect the environment and the other subjects such as water, energy, waste
management and air quality. The hotels have this guideline can have an opportunity to check all
subjects mentioned above on-their-own and reduce management costs easily in these fields.
There is a program named as “GreenHotelsGlobal” can provide metric-based information for the
hotels. Hotels that use the Green Hotels Global program can accurately report to existing and
prospective clients the carbon footprint; energy consumption; water usage and waste generation
associated with room-night usage and event bookings. Green Hotels Global provides tracking of
ongoing environmental progress in a standardized format, thereby establishing consistency,
transparency and reportable metrics (http://greenhotelsglobal.com/about.aspx). With this
program, hotels can assess the environmental subjects mentioned above and create reports
includes the recent results regularly. With these reports, hotels can periodically benchmark them
with each other and see the inefficient fields they have.
4.GREEN STAR HOTEL APPLICATIONS IN TURKEY
In Turkey, green star hotel applications are operated and inspected by The Ministry of Culture
and Tourism. The Ministry have 122 criteria’s based on; “General Management”,
“Environmentally Training”, “Arrangements in Rooms”, “Compliance with Environment”,
“Energy Management”, “Water Management”, “Sanitizers, Hazardous Chemicals Management”,
“Waste Management” and “Other Services” All criteria’s have special score board. If a hotel is
being inspected have adequate total score, regarding the type of the hotel (3-star, 4 –star, 5-star),
there is a certificate named as “The Certification of Environmentally Friendly Accommodation
Establishment” is offered by Ministry since 2008 and it is renewed every two years. About
adequate score, if a hotel is a 5-star holiday village, it should have minimum 330 points; or if it is
5-star hotel, it should have minimum 300 points to get this certificate. These total scores
necessary for the certificate depend on the type of hotels. The Ministry aims to encourage the
hotels to get this certificate. That’s why they have special score table is divided into two groups
as Resort Hotels and City Hotels. All hotels from 1-star to 5-star can apply for this certificate to
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the Ministry. After getting Environmentally-Friendly Certificate, the color of the stars on the
hotel-plate changes to green. That’s why in Turkey, “Green Hotel” concept converts to “Green
Star Hotel” concept. If a hotel is a member of the Ministry, to get this certificate they are not
obligated to pay. There is no organization/association for Green Star Hotels in Turkey. Now, only
the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is responsible for green star applications formally but the
hotels can have certificates about environment or other subjects from other institutions if they
have sufficient facilities inspected by them such as Travelife.
5.EVALUATION OF GREEN STAR HOTELS IN TURKEY
5.1The Aim and The Scope of Research
The aim of this study is to determine the total amount of green star hotels in Turkey and to see
green star hotel applications particularly in Antalya. Only 11 green star hotels locate in Antalya
are taken into consideration in these research.
Selecting Hotels and Data Collection
To evaluate the environmental activities of green star hotels, special questionnaire was prepared
by regarding GSTC’s, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s and other organizations’
assessment criteria’s and had face-to-face interviews with hotel managers. Approximately 2
hours were spent at each hotel to get answers for questions and to take photos for some important
environmental points.
5.2.Analyzing of Collected Data’s
All data’s collected from 11 green star hotels in Antalya were classified as energy management,
water management, waste management and recycling; based on lobbies and opened areas, rooms,
offices, kitchen and laundry areas and hotel operations. Besides that, environmentally training,
certificates related to environment were analyzed. On another hand, questionnaires were prepared
for visitors and tried to get answers for their knowledge about green star applications, why they
chose the hotel they lodged and whether green star is affective on their decisions or not, the
visuals show environmental activities by the hotel enough for the visitors or not, if they would
like to participate to these activities or not etc. were analyzed.
6.FINDINGS
6.1.The Total Number of Green Star Hotels
In Turkey, with regarding the fact sheet of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, “Calista Luxury
Resort Hotel” is the first Green Star Hotel in Turkey and now there are 23 green star hotels have
environmentally-friendly certificate (See Table 1).
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Table 1. Dispersion of all Green Star Hotels in Turkey
No
Hotels
n
%
11
48
5
22
2
9
Antakya
1
4
Konya
1
4
21 Tuğcan Hotel
Gaziantep
1
4
22 DoubleTree by Hilton Avanos Kapadokya
Nevşehir
1
4
23 Dedeman Hotel Sanliurfa
Şanlıurfa
1
4
TOTAL
23
100
1
Amara Dolce Vita
Antalya
2
Calista Luxury Resort Otel
Antalya
3
Club Hotel Rixos Tekirova
Antalya
4
Concorde De Luxe Resort
Antalya
5
Xanadu Resort Hotel
Antalya
6
Otium Eco Club Side
Antalya
7
Crystal Palace Resort Kemer Otel
Antalya
8
Crystal Hotels Flora Beach
Antalya
9
Crystal Sunrise Queen Luxury Resort & Spa
Antalya
10 Crystal Palace Family Resort
Antalya
11 Crystal Paraiso Verde Resort & Spa
Antalya
12 Crowne Plaza Istanbul Asia
Istanbul
13 Four Seasons Hotel
Istanbul
14 The President Hotel
Istanbul
15 The Sofa Otel
Istanbul
16 Holiday Inn Istanbul City
Istanbul
17 Ersan Tatil Koyu Bodrum
Muğla
18 Hilton Dalaman Golf Resort & Spa
Muğla
19 Antakya Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort
20 Dedeman Hotel Konya
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There are 11 green star hotels, %48 of total number of green star hotels in Turkey, locate Antalya
as you see on the table above. These hotels are intensively locate in Belek, Beldibi, Tekirova,
Lara, Side and Kemer. Belek is the most intensive region for green star hotels as %36 of total
hotels in Antalya. Because in Belek, hotels have large green area and also most of these hotels are
suitable for golf sports.
6.2.Range the Trends in Green Star Hotels
Hotels have being inspected since 2008 by the Ministry. In 2008, no hotels got the certificate
because it was the first year of constitution. Since 2009, the total numbers of hotels have being
increased (See Figure 1)
Figure 1. Range the Trends in Green Star Hotels
In 2009 there are 2 hotels applied for green star and in 2010; it increased and 10 hotels applied. In
2011, 12 hotels applied for green star and got the certificate. In 2012, one hotel have got the
environmentally friendly certificate but it was not included on the graph. Because of data’s for
2012 are limit to April so if we put on the graph, people can understand that in 2012 trend is
going down which is not correct.
6.3.Energy Management Activities in Green Star Hotels
Within the scope of 11 green star hotels, all of them are using energy-saving lighting system in
their lobbies, rooms, opened areas, offices, kitchens and laundry areas. %45 of them benefit from
the sunlight in restaurants and lobbies and they have an opportunity to reduce the lighting
expenditures at comparatively crowded these areas. %73 of the hotels are using motion sensor
lamps in general toilets. %91 of the hotels have posters about energy savings in rooms and all of
them have automatic heating and cooling systems, energy saving refrigerators and other
electronically devices and machines in rooms, kitchens and laundry areas. Most of them have
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double-glass windows system in whole hotel and this allow hotel management to control heat
abduction. All of them are using integrated office equipments such as printer, scanner, copy and
fax, all in one, devices so they do not consume energy separately.
6.4.Water Management Activities in Green Star Hotels
All hotels are using water-saving device named as aerator at their taps and showers. Aerator does
not allow to much consuming and certain rate of water is being used. Also in all hotels, west-bins
are being used also they have small posters for visitors about put the garbage to the west-bin. %9
of hotels are using waterless urinals and the rest of them have photocell urinals in general toilets.
Photocell taps are being used in all hotels in general toilets but in rooms, none of them has.
Reusable things have highly importance in green star applications. At %45 of examined hotels,
there are some small cards on the towels and “will be used again” written on them. So they do not
use disposable towels in rooms and after using by the visitor, they are cleaned with high-tech
washing technologies and used again for another visitors. If visitors request to change their
towels and bed sheets, they should put them on the floor and there is a card explains what visitors
should do. Unless they do, nobody can change them and still have to use. This is an important
activity in green star hotels to avoid unnecessary water utilization. %64 of the hotels have
photocell tap systems also in kitchens. Because kitchens are really important consuming points
about water utilization so they could control water using rate easily with this system. In some
countries, especially always rainy countries in Europe, hotels are collecting rain waters by special
system and using this water for garden. %18 of green star hotels in Antalya is using this system
and they are using the collected rain water especially for gardens. The rate is so low because it is
normal that Antalya does not get rain so much if you compare with Europe.
6.5.Increasing the Air Quality in Hotels
About examined green star hotels in Antalya, the entrance of the hotels are designed specially to
leave dusts and other things outside. In some hotels, armchairs, beds and carpets are being
cleaned by expert cleaning companies periodically to clean mites and allergens. %64 of the hotels
are using environmentally-friendly paints and wallpapers in their rooms and lobbies. Especially
about the paints, water-based paints are highly important to protect the environment. Another
important subject is to determine smoking areas and rooms certainly. Also in most of the hotels,
smoking is not allowed to personnel within the work hours. All of the hotels examined have
special applications about smoking such as only at private areas in disco or balconies. In %73 of
hotels, “High Efficiency Particulate Absolute System” (HEPA System) is implemented so they
can control the air circulation efficiently. Personnel are trained about controlled use of printers in
offices. Because the micro particles are unhealthy for human life so it should not be breathed so
printers have to be used carefully.
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6.6.Waste Management and Recycling
About waste management and recycling subject, in all hotels recycling-bins place in opened areas
and visitors can reach them easily. Also it has different colors such as for glasses; blue, for paper;
yellow and for plastic; green colors are used in one recycle-bin so people can understand easily
which is more appropriate for their garbage. But %37 of all hotels have recycle-bin also in rooms
and %55 of them have at offices. Reducing paper usage is one of the most important subject in
waste management. %73 of all hotels let visitor to do their check-in and check-out transactions
via on-line so they are managing the low rate paper using successfully at the same times. Also
identity cards and passports of visitors are being scanned and they don’t have any paper copy to
keep at registration. Soaps and foams are being kept in boxes on the wall in general toilets. When
they are finished, they can be filled again and boxes reused easily. But in rooms, all hotels are
using disposable small bottles for shampoo and soaps. When they are finished, in some of the
hotels, they are filled again and reused but most of the hotels, they are not used again. In all
hotels, cotton or bamboo curtains, bed sheets and towels are being used also there are small
posters on the wall in rooms and lobbies to inform visitors about waste management and reducing
the wastes. Also in all hotels, using environmentally-friendly cleaners, big size detergents and
other cleaners, using the reusable table clothes, to request authorized companies by municipality
to take waste oil for producing bio-diesel are the most important subjects in waste management
and all of them are expending energy on these subjects. Housekeeping personnel in all green star
hotels is collecting the garbage from the rooms and other areas, regarding the type of items. They
have some special equipment to collect the wastes and also have different colors bags regarding
to type of garbage. The most important point at waste management is %73 of hotels grant old but
working machines, reusable towels and bed-sheets, personnel clothes and uniforms to the charity,
municipalities, hospitals, mosques and other places. Also some hotels have their own zoo’s and
cat houses within the hotel area and the appropriate waste foods are given to the animals.
Hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials are being collected and stored in special depots
outside the hotel building to avoid damaging people’s health.
6.7.Environmental Training Programs for Hotel Personnel
All 11 green star hotels in Antalya have opportunity for their own personnel to train them about
environment with in-house training modules. Especially personnel are being trained about
appropriate techniques for waste management, fire and job security management, environmentconscious trainings, collecting and storing waste oils for bio-diesel, information security,
perceiving customer expectations effectively, ISO 14001 Environment Management System,
good and successful environmental activities etc.
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6.8.Environmental Committee and Certificates
All hotels have their own environmental committee within the hotels. Regarding the rules
determined by the Ministry, to get environmentally-friendly certificate also hotels should recruit
at least one environmental engineer who is responsible for whole green star applications process
within the hotel. %82 of hotels have environmental committee with 1-5 people. %9 of hotels have
6-10 people and the rest of; %9 have 11-15 people. Environmental committee is always
organizing meeting with the others about activities and green star applications in their hotels and
report them annually. These annual reports are taken into account by the Ministry every 2 years
for certificate renewal. %91 of hotels have ISO 22000 Food Safety Management System
Certificate, %73 of them have ISO 9001 Quality Management System Cert, again %73 of them
have ISO 10002 Customer Satisfaction Management Certificate, %64 of hotels have ISO 14001
Environment Management System Certificate, , %36 of them have OHSAS ISO 18001
Occupational Health And Safety Management System Certificate.
6.9.Environment Policy and Visuals Attracting Visitors
The 11 hotels interviewed in Antalya have their own “Environment Policy” and %73 of them put
the policy in lobby and other areas to attract visitors. Also %64 of the hotels inform the visitors
about green star applications they organized and operated with using environment board,
environment tree or photos in lobbies, opened areas or in rooms. %73 of hotels are getting
comments and suggestions from visitors about green star applications and hotel environment. On
the other hand, %64 of hotels request visitors to join them for environmental activities such as
replanting, collecting garbage etc. Also some hotels instruct special areas to cultivate organic
vegetables, fruits and to protect endemic plants with visitors.
7.THE AWARENESS OF VISITORS ABOUT GREEN STAR APPLICATIONS
We prepared another questionnaire for visitors not for hotel management to measure the
awareness of visitors about green star applications and environmental activities operated by
hotels. Firstly the visitors were classified as gender, nationality, age, education and occupation
(See Table 3).
Table 3. Demographic Features of Visitors
101
Gender
n
%
Nationality
n
%
Male
37
69
Turkish Rep.
17
32
Female
17
31
UK
16
30
Total
54
100
Germany
11
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Occupation
n
%
North Europe
4
7
Independent
22
41
Middle Europe
4
7
Not Written
8
15
Russia
2
4
Retired
6
11
Total
54
100
Teacher
3
6
Age
Accountant
3
6
18-25
2
4
Manager
3
6
26-33
5
9
Student
2
4
34-41
11
20
Sales
2
4
42-49
12
22
IT
2
4
50-57
9
17
Bank Empl.
1
2
58 and over
15
28
PC Progr.
1
2
Total
54
100
Secretary
1
2
Education
n
%
Total
54
100
Prim.School
9
17
High School
16
30
Graduated
25
46
Post-Graduated
4
7
Total
54
100
n
%
Totally 54 visitors answered this questionnaire within 4 green star hotels in Antalya. %59 of all
visitors do not have any idea about green star hotels. Related to this, %76 of them did not select
the hotel which they are lodging because it has green star. About green star applications in hotels,
%69 of them told that green star applications are enough and %67 of them think that visual about
green star application are enough within the hotels. %24 of them indicated that Blue Flag is the
most important criteria while selecting the hotel. %19 of them equally said green star and other
things are important. %74 of the visitors in four green star hotels think that the posters about
energy saving, waste management and recycling in lobbies, rooms and open areas are enough and
they attract them about protecting the environment. The same rate, %74, of visitors also think that
the institutional environmental policy is so clear and they can see easily in lobbies, rooms and
open areas. About the participating to environmentally activities by hotel management such as
collecting garbage, replanting etc., %56 of visitors would like to participate to these activities.
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%72 of visitors answers our question positively about getting their suggestions and
recommendations about environment by hotel management. It is very high rate and %96 of them
recommend the green star hotel which they are lodging to anyone but %48 of them indicated that
they did not see any differences between other 5-star hotels (which are not green star) and this
green star hotel they are lodging. The visitors who thought there was a difference between them,
indicated that in green star hotel some applications are being operated more carefully such as
there is a environment board which shows endemic plants and wild animals etc., more effective
waste management, more service quality, to more respect for endemic plants and animals, to give
more importance on cleaning, usage of plastic and paper glasses and to have a card in rooms
about towels and bed sheets to put on the floor if visitors request to change.
8.CONCLUSION
Green star applications and processes are a bit different from eco-friendly hotel arrangements.
Because eco-friendly hotels, only about some subjects important and assessed to protect the
environment but not so much care about the hotel building, instruction necessities and some
technical fields. Now, in the world the numbers of green hotels are enormously increasing
because the fast global warming. All hotels have decided to be more careful about the
environment, energy saving, water saving, waste management, recycling and personnel training
about environment. Hotels are investing in technology and personnel training more than before
and protecting the environment also began to be a strong criterion between hotels about
competition circumstances. Green star hotel applications are really important in Turkey
especially in Antalya. With these applications, besides the hotels, also people started to be more
environment-conscious also individually. In Turkey, the number of green star hotels are
increasing and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is working to encourage all types of hotels to
get the environmentally-friendly certificate. Now, there are 23 green star hotels in Turkey and the
most of them, %48, locate in Antalya because Antalya is the best known city about tourism by
foreign visitors even in Turkey. Green star hotel concept will be important about the
Scandinavian and developed countries’ preferences for destinations. Now, blue flag is more
affective on decisions for hotel selecting and in the future green star will be more affective
instead of blue flag.
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GSTC Global Sustainable Tourism Council. Last Accessed on 4 29, 2012, from
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Green Marketing Activities Of Green Star Hotels In Concept Of Sustainable Tourism
Author
Author
Mustafa, Gulmez
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Due to increasing of global warming, the activities and studies about environmental consciousness and environmentally awareness are adopted by green star hotels and concept of sustainable tourism is becoming increasingly important in this context. Environmentally-friendly hotels or green star hotels have social responsibility consciousness to protect the environment by creating and developing economical solutions by hotel management for water and energy storing and reducing the solid wastes. Nowadays, both hotel managers and visitors pleasure in doing works environmentally responsible. While the hotel managers are adopting environmentallyfriendly construction, visitors (tourists) are behaving more environmentally-friendly about holiday plans and shopping. It is indicated that, the number of tourists who consider green star criteria while selecting the hotels are increasing and at last decades, environmentally-friendly tourism have enormously increased. The aim of this study is to expose green marketing activities of green star hotels in Turkey. In this context, the activities of green star hotels have been examined and viewpoints of the visitors about green marketing have been retained. In this research, both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used together. Deep - interviews were done with hotel managers also the questionnaires were used to get information about the awareness of visitors about green star hotels and green marketing activities. Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Tourism, Green Star Hotel, Green Marketing, Green Consumer
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1a64de4528f6bceffe4870ada30816d6.pdf
5da449a5bb35ab6a2adee3cd9d100c3b
PDF Text
Text
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Energy Procedia 5, 1360-1364.
New Approaches To Marine Aquarium Systems
Mustafa Alparslan, Hasan Barış Ozalp
Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Fishery Faculty, Department of Hydrobiology, Izmir/Turkey
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Fishery Faculty, Department of Hydrobiology,
Çanakkale/Turkey
E-mails: m_alparslan@hotmail.com, jacenzo@yahoo.com
Abstract
Marine aquarium systems are limited environments that include many marine plants and
animals. This habitat also has very interesting marine species, living rocks, wrecks and the
other objects. The chemical indicators of water quality such as salinity, specific gravity, Ph,
ammonia, Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate, Alkalinity, Copper, Calcium, and Magnesium are vital
for the marine organisms. Further, the essential components are an aquarium made from
acrylic, special heating systems , the consideration of overall lighting, metal halide, higher
output fluorescent, standard fluorescent, incandescent, natural sunlight, filtration and live
rocks.
241
�Marine aquarium systems can range in volume from less than 80 liters (approximately 20 US
gallons) to over 1.300 liters (400 gallons). The biggest marine aquariums in the world are;
Georgia Aquarium (6.3 million gallons), Okinowa churaumi Aquarium (1.98 million gallons),
L‘oceanografic (1.85 million gallons), Turkuazzo (1.32 million gallons), Monterey Bay
Aquarium (1.2 million gallons), uShaka Marine World (1 million gallons), Shaghai Ocean
Aquarium (approxiamately 1 million gallons), and Shanghai Ocean Aquarium (approx. 1
million gallons), and Aquarium of Genova (approx. 1 million gallons).
Turkuazoo Marine Aquarium which is the first biggest aquarium of Turkey was opened in
2009 in İstanbul. It is located in Bayrampasa region. This marine aquarium is one of Europe‘s
largest aquariums and includes many shopping malls as well. Marinescope Sea Tube is 90
meters in length and this makes it one of the World‗s longest underwater tunnels, offering
visitors an outstanding marine life. The water in the Turkuazoo comes from the Sea of
Marmara, the Black Sea and the Aegean Seas.
Istanbul Marine Aquarium, located around Florya region, was opened on 25th.June, 2011 in
Istanbul. This marine aquarium has a capacity of 6.8 million liters of seawater, and includes a
variety of living organisms from East Atlantic, West Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, Panama
Channel, Pacific Ocean, the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, the Aegean Sea, the Marmara Sea,
the Bosporus, the Dardanelles and also from one rain forest.
Beyond these, the main aim is to set up marine aquariums to be able to explore the underwater
life. In addition, protecting marine organisms such as sea plants and sea animals is our priority
which will also reinforce tourism activities, education and economy.
Finally, marine aquarium systems can also be used as a therapeutical tool for the patients
with psychological disorders as this aquatic world creates a very positive and relaxing mood.
1.INTRODUCTION
According to research conducted recently, many people who are fond of marine creatures tank
hobby are the ones who are single in developing countries. This implies that people use this
activity as a means of overcoming boredom and loneliness. If these people do not keep fish
as a hobby, they would probably have a pet instead.A method of escaping from monotony of
life. Marine Aquariums are said to be an ideal way to relax and this is the reason why the term
―Marine Animals and Plants‖ are coined. This is a reality, though. Looking at this flora and
fauna strutting wares in the fish tank will completely give us great relaxation. The small and
big fish like Sparus Aurata will move in unison form one place to another and you would love
to see them in a feeding system.Marine Aquarium brings out the creativity in our world.
Many people love this hobby and can breed these creatures for making money and the others
for fun. These living organisms can be collected from the natural environment or purchased
from other places. At the same time , these systems have functions in the fields of education
and tourism, beside its economic benefits.1
2.New Aquarium Planning
Put the stand into an ideal place and level it, make sure that you leave clearance for electrical
systems of connections and equipment.
Clean the tank with freshwater and a soft sterile cloth or sponge.
Place the tank on the stand, using an under-pad for cushioning underneath if needed, and
check to see that the tank is level.
242
�Install power strip/light timer.
3.Filtration / Aquarium Filters
Aquarium filtration is very important for anoptimum aquarium. Biological filtration is the
term used to describe beneficial bacteria, which are established during the initial cycling of
the aquarium. Protein skimmer and biological filtration are vital in Marine Aquarium systems.
Chemical filtration is for dissolved wastes (amino acids, proteins, phenols, creasols,
terpenoid, fats, plant hormonos, vitamins, carotenoids, glycolic and citric..). Mechanical
aquarium filtration is for solid particles within the water tank. This helps to remove floating
waste materials.3This type of filtering actually is a way of removing free-floating waste
beforehand.
Protein skimmer essentially removes the biological waste. This filtration type is suitable for
reef tanks. A sponge filter has a tube with a sponge like material inside. These sponges also
serve as a mechanical filter, removing larger particles from the water. The ideal sponge filter
system use two sponges, making it easier to preserve bacteria by checking sponges.
4.Heating systems
A quality aquarium water heater is necessary for ideal aquarium systems. A thermometer and
a temperature controller are very necessary to prevent the stress of marine organisms in the
tanks. Large marine tanks need more than one heater system.
5.Overall lightening System
For photosynthetic plants, living rocks, algae and animals in water deeper than 24"/60cm,
metal halides may be necessary. For larger marine aquaria systems that are long but shallow,
modern efficient fluorescentlighting will work as optimal like T 5 technology. T5 lighting is
a relatively new light system in the United States that was originally developed as a light
source in combination with specialized reflectors for marine aquarium lighting. Traditional
fluorescent T8 & T12 bulbs are simply not powerful enough to light an area more than 8-10"
below the bulb. However, with the recent introduction of T5 technology, researchers can now
reap many benefits of using Fluorescent Grow Lighting. A typical 54 Watt T5 HO (High
Output) bulb produces 5000 lumens which is equivalent to 92.6 lumens per watt.
6.Acrylic Glass System
Most marine aquarium systems are made of either glass or acrylic. Both glass and acrylic
tanks have their benefits and drawbacks. Colours are not quite true, position is not quite
accurate, size can be distorted slightly in glass system. Acrylic has nearly the same index of
refraction as seawater, size and colour are true. Glass tanks are less expensive than acrylic
tanks. Tempered glass can not be drilled, but acrylic tank can be drilled to accommodate an
overflow system.7
Home aquarium tank is generally 29 or 30 gallon, however some people have constructed
aquariums of many thousands of gallons. Public aquariums are naturally larger than any of the
home aquariums.There are many huge marine aquariums in different countries:10
Aquarium of Western Australia (0,8 million gallons), AUSTRALIA
243
�This marine aquarium is Australia‘s largest aquarium tank. The main tank is approximately
40 meters (130 ft) long and 20 meters (66 ft) wide and holds 3,000,000 liters (793,000
gallons) of seawater. It has a 98 meter (322 ft) underwater tunnel. There are 400 different
species in this marine aquarium.
Aquarium of Genoa (< 1 million gallons) ,ITALY
This aquarium which was built for Expo 92 is one of the largest aquariums in Europe. The
aquarium‘s 70 tanks reproduce marine and terrestrial habitats from throughout different
places and provide a home for more than 6000 animals. Some tanks reproduce natural
environments from different areas as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
The sharks, the dolphins and the seals are very important animals for this marine.
Shanghai Ocean Aquarium (< 1 million gallons) ,CHINA
The Shanghai Ocean Aquarium is one of the largest aquariums in Asia. It is composed of 9
exhibition zones all over the world, including the China Zone, the Antarctic Zone and the
Australia Zone. The China Zone is home to several endangered Chinese aquatic species,
including rare and precious species from the Yangtze River. The biggest attraction of the
aquarium is the underwater tunnel. It is the longest underwater tunnel in the world ( 155
meter (509 ft) .
uShaka Marine World (< 1 million gallons) ,SOUTH AFRICA
The uShaka Marine World is an International aquapark and it is located in Urban, South
Africa. It contains the largest aquarium in Africa boasting 32 tanks. The sea creatures found in
the aquarium range from small sea horses to sharks and dolphins. The Aquarium is built to
look like an old wreck and contains a number of restaurants and cafes. The most interesting
of these restaurants is ―The Cargo Hold‖ restaurant which contains a full wall sized aquarium
containing a number of sharks which are visible from most of the dining area.
Monterey Bay Aquarium (1,2 million gallons) ,USA
This marine aquarium is located in Monterey, California. Among the aquarium‘s numerous
marine creatures are two gigantic tanks. The centerpiece of the Ocean‘s Edge Wing is a 10
meter (33 foot) high 1,3 million liter (0,33 million gallon) tank for viewing California coastal
marine life. The part one is a 4,5 million liter (1,2 million gallon) tank in the Outer Bay Wing
which features one of the world‘s largest single-paned windows. Sealife on exhibit includes
stingrays, jellyfish, sea otters, and numerous other native marine species, which can be
viewed above and below the waterline
Turkuazoo (1,32 million gallons) ,TURKEY
This marine aquarium opened in 2009, and Turkuazoo is Turkey‘s first giant aquarium which
consistsof a rainforest, flooded forest and tropical seas zones. The aquarium is located inside
the Forum Istanbul Shopping Mall and contains approximately 80 meter long underwater
tunnel. This aquarium holds about 10,000 sea creatures including tiger sharks, giant stingrays
and piranhas in 29 different exhibits where the largest holds 5 million liters (1,32 million
gallons) of water.
Istanbul Aquarium, (1.79 million gallons)TURKEY
The Istanbul aquarium opened its doors in Istanbul on the 25th of June, 2011.There is a lot
of confusion at the moment about Istanbul‘s aquariums. The simple reason for this is that
Istanbul is the proud owner of two massive aquariums. The first one is located in Forum
Istanbul, which has been around for a few years and where sharks are the main attraction.
Istanbul Aquarium Florya, which is a member of World Association of Zoos (WAZA), is a
244
�two story building of no less than 22.000 m². There are 64 tanks with 6.800 m³ water,
displaying 15.000 land and sea creatures of over 1.500 species. The samples are from:
Black Sea
Istanbul Strait
The Dardanelles
Aegean Sea
Suez Canal
Red Sea
Global Warming
Mediterranean
Straits of Gibraltar
East Atlantic (Liberty, the sunken ship)
Mid-Atlantic
Western Atlantic
Panama Canal
Pacific Ocean
Nautilus (Submarine)
Rain Forest 9
L'Oceanogràfic (1,85 million gallons) ,SPAIN
L‘Oceanogràfic is a marine world where different marine habitats are represented. It is
integrated inside a complex known as the City of Arts and Sciences inside Valencia,Spain.
The Oceanogràfic features the largest aquarium tank in Europe and houses more than 45,000
marine creatures. They have nine under water towers, structured on two levels that represent
several marine ecosystems. Two underwater towers are joined by a 35 meter underwater
tunnel and essentially sharks, rays living in 7 million liters (1,85 million gallon) of seawater.
Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (1,98 million gallons) JAPAN
The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium located within the Ocean Expo Park in Japan opened in
2002. The main tank of the aquarium, called the Kuroshio Sea, the largest panel in the world
on its opening, holds 7,5 million liters (1,981,000 gallons) of water and features an acrylic
glass panel measuring 8.2 by 22.5 meters (27 by 74 feet) with a thickness of 60 centimeters
(24 inches) Whale sharks and manta rays are kept alongside many other fish species in
Kuroshio Sea. As of July 2010, four manta rays were born in the aquarium.
Dubai Mall Aquarium (2,64 million gallons), Dubai, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, The
Dubai Mall, one of the world‘s largest shopping malls in the world, is a part of the 20-billiondollar Burj Dubai complex . The centerpiece of the mall is the gigantic aquarium tank, with a
capacity of 10 million liters (2,64 million gallons) of water. The aquarium has more than
33,000 living animals including over 400 sharks and rays. Acrylic Panel measures 8.3 by
32.88 meter (27 by 108 feet) and is 75 centimeters (30 inches) .
Georgia Aquarium (6,3 million gallons) Atlanta ,USA
245
�This aquarium system is the largest aquarium in the world housing more than 100,000 sea
creatures. The aquarium was opened in November 2005. The Georgia Aquarium is the only
institution outside of Asia to house whale sharks. The sharks are kept in a gigantic 24 million
liter (6.3 million gallon) tank in the Ocean Voyager exhibition. There has been controversy on
the decision of the Georgia Aquarium to house whale sharks.
Sealife Aquarium, Helsinki, FINLAND
This aquapark has a nearly 33 foot long (10m) R-Cast™ acrylic tunnel that visitors walk
through a 66,000 gallon (250,000 liter) ocean tank where they can view sharks and other
marine life that live in tropical and reef environments. SeaLife Helsinki will journey from
tropical seas to the depths of the Baltic, encountering hundreds of astonishing creatures along
the way. Among these: 10 different shark species, colourful fish of coral reefs, rays, jelly fish,
sea horses and many others.Even students of elementary school study with applied education
in this aquarium system .Microorganisms in terms of phyto and zooplakton are exhibited with
tables.12
The National Aquarium ,Baltimor,MD,USA
The National Aquarium is a non-profit aquatic education and conservation organization with
two locations and one mission: to inspire conservation of the world‘s aquatic treasures.
In 2003, separate aquariums in Baltimore, MD, and Washington, DC, joined as one ―National
Aquarium.‖ The National Aquarium venues together hold living collections that include more
than 16,000 animals from more than 660 species of fish, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and
mammals living in award-winning, naturalistic habitats.
Educators reach thousands of students each year with activities in schools and in the field;
conservation crews and volunteers restore habitats and preserve species around the
Chesapeake Bay and around the world; and the National Aquarium venues continue to boost
the econoym in the city of Baltimore and as a unique tourist attraction in Washington, DC.
Through all of its work, the National Aquarium maintains its long-time commitment to
serving the communities around.Children and visitors can easily touch to some marine
organisms like horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).11
7.CONCLUSION
The first public aquarium was opened in London Zoo in May 1853,green house as it came to
be known, Barnum's American Museum was the first marine aquarium in the USA, which
was located in Broadway, New York before it burned down in 1856. ThenHYPERLINK \l
"cite_note-Brunner-1"a number of aquariums opened in Europe, such asThe Jardin
d'Acclimatation in Paris and the Viennese Aquarium Salon (both founded in 1860),the Marine
Aquarium Temple as part of the Zoological Garden in Hamburg (1864),as well as aquariums
in Berlin (1864) and Brighton (1872)6.
A marine aquarium is an aquarium that keeps marine plants and animals in a contained
environment. Marine fishkeeping is different from its freshwater counterpart because of the
fundamental differences in the constitution of saltwater and the resulting differences in the
adaptation of its inhabitants. A stable marine aquarium requires more equipment than
freshwater systems, and generally requires more stringent water quality monitoring. The
inhabitants of a marine aquarium are often difficult to acquire and are usually more expensive
than freshwater aquarium inhabitants. However, the inhabitants of saltwater aquariums are
usually much more spectacular than freshwater aquarium fish.
246
�Marine aquarium components: The major and important components are an aquarium, usually
made from acrylic or glass, filtration equipment, lighting, and an aquarium heater. Marine
aquariums can range in volume from less than 80 liters (< 20 US gal) to over 1,200 litres (300
US gal). Small volumes are more difficult to maintain due to the more rapid changes in water
chemistry. The majority of saltwater aquariums are between 160 and 400 litres (40 and 100
US gal).
Most common size for a home aquarium tank is probably 29 or 30 gallon, though some
aquarists have constructed aquariums of many thousands of gallons. Public aquariums can be
larger than any of the home aquariums. Only a few are big enough to make it to the list of
largest aquariums in the world. The kind of aquarium that can keep whale sharks and manta
rays. It takes a very large tank to hold these kind of marine creatures. These marine aquariums
are :the Aquarium of Western Australia, the Aquarium od Genoa, The uShaka Marine World,
The Monterey Bay Aquarium, Turkuazoo, Istanbul Aquarium, L‘Oceanografic, The Okinawa
Churaumi Aquarium, The Dubai Mall Aquarium, The Georgia Aquarium.
Marine aquarium and aquapark systems are very interesting and exciting for disabled
children and adult. In this connection ,positive discrimination can be shown for disabled ,
poor people and students in the meaning of admission prices and suitable paths which are
inside the marine aquariums.International Disability Action Plan can be aimed at improving
the quality of life of disabled people in each ages.
Generally marine aquarium and freshwater aquarium systems can efficiently be evaluated in
every phase of education and scientific area including medical marine biology in terms of
neurological problems, cancer and aizheimer.These marine aquariums are very important
segment of modern life and they aretotally education centers.
REFERENCES
1.Borneman,E.H.
(2004)
Aquarium
History.p.211,T.F.H. Publications.
Corals:
Selection,Husbandary,and
Natural
2.Brunner, Bernd (2003). The Ocean at Home. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. pp.
99. ISBN 1-56898-502-9
3..Calfo,A.
and
Fenner,R.(2003)
compatibilit.p.400,T.F.H. Publications.
An
essential.Guide
to
selection,care,and
4.Fenner,M.R.(2008)The Conscientious Marine Aquarist.p. 400 T.F.H. Publications.
5.Hemdal,J.F.(2006) Advanced Marine Aquarium Techniques.p.352,TFY Publications.
6.Sprung,J. (2002) Invertebrates. A quick Guide Reference.p.240.T.F.H. Publications.
7.http://www.thereeftank.com/forums/f45/acrylic-vs-glass-13750.html
8.http://wwwfishchannel.com.com/articles
9.http://www.wittistanbul.com/magazine/istanbul-aquarium-a-spectacular-tourist-attraction/
10.http://www.touropia.com/largest-aquariums-in-the-world/
11.http://www.aqua.org/
12.http://www.visitsealife.com/Helsinki/
247
�
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1251
Title
A name given to the resource
New Approaches To Marine Aquarium Systems
Author
Author
Mustafa , Alparslan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Marine aquarium systems are limited environments that include many marine plants and animals. This habitat also has very interesting marine species, living rocks, wrecks and the other objects. The chemical indicators of water quality such as salinity, specific gravity, Ph, ammonia, Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate, Alkalinity, Copper, Calcium, and Magnesium are vital for the marine organisms. Further, the essential components are an aquarium made from acrylic, special heating systems , the consideration of overall lighting, metal halide, higher output fluorescent, standard fluorescent, incandescent, natural sunlight, filtration and live rocks. Marine aquarium systems can range in volume from less than 80 liters (approximately 20 US gallons) to over 1.300 liters (400 gallons). The biggest marine aquariums in the world are; Georgia Aquarium (6.3 million gallons), Okinowa churaumi Aquarium (1.98 million gallons), L‘oceanografic (1.85 million gallons), Turkuazzo (1.32 million gallons), Monterey Bay Aquarium (1.2 million gallons), uShaka Marine World (1 million gallons), Shaghai Ocean Aquarium (approxiamately 1 million gallons), and Shanghai Ocean Aquarium (approx. 1 million gallons), and Aquarium of Genova (approx. 1 million gallons). Turkuazoo Marine Aquarium which is the first biggest aquarium of Turkey was opened in 2009 in İstanbul. It is located in Bayrampasa region. This marine aquarium is one of Europe‘s largest aquariums and includes many shopping malls as well. Marinescope Sea Tube is 90 meters in length and this makes it one of the World‗s longest underwater tunnels, offering visitors an outstanding marine life. The water in the Turkuazoo comes from the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea and the Aegean Seas. Istanbul Marine Aquarium, located around Florya region, was opened on 25th.June, 2011 in Istanbul. This marine aquarium has a capacity of 6.8 million liters of seawater, and includes a variety of living organisms from East Atlantic, West Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, Panama Channel, Pacific Ocean, the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, the Aegean Sea, the Marmara Sea, the Bosporus, the Dardanelles and also from one rain forest. Beyond these, the main aim is to set up marine aquariums to be able to explore the underwater life. In addition, protecting marine organisms such as sea plants and sea animals is our priority which will also reinforce tourism activities, education and economy. Finally, marine aquarium systems can also be used as a therapeutical tool for the patients with psychological disorders as this aquatic world creates a very positive and relaxing mood.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/604e22f88a78daf6226a53f6e8af6ef9.pdf
063f437985f7a4be5282fde087d5f47c
PDF Text
Text
A Suggestion for Forestry: Assigning Idle Public Lands to Private Sector by Projecting
and Provisioning
Mustafa Durman,Murat Fatih Köymen
F.E.&A.S. of DPÜ
E –mails: durman007@hotmail.com,siffah@gmail.com
Abstract
Land is a widespread natural resource and commonly used by humans. It is commonly used
distributed for agriculture, forestry, urbanization, resting, transportation and settling. Land is
not a renewable resource and is under the threat of erosion, polluting and salinization because
of agricultural irrigations. In consequence of increasing population and industrialization
wetlands, agricultural lands and forests are used for settlement and industrial areas.
Maximizing utility of resources is an essential issue for environmental economics. Thus
maximizing utility of land uses is an essential issue for land using strategies. When viewed
from this aspect it is obvious that land areas of a country are shared by public (state) and
private sectors. In public areas forest areas have an important share.There are enormous
amount of areas which are owned by state but they are waiting idle. In this paper after
analyzing present administrations we will make a suggestion. We will focus on assigning
these idle areas to private sector for forestry use. It is hoped that this assignment will
contribute the problems of unemployment, income, cleaning the atmosphere, preventing
erosion and input for industrial production. Despite the subsidies, private foresting is
inadequate. We will suggest publicizing investors by projecting the proper lands, subsidizing
and presenting economic potentials of these areas.
1.INTRODUCTION
Forests create distinctive climates on large land masses. Organisms forming forests are trees
lives on significant altitudes, soil and density, bushes, alga, fern, mushrooms, underground
and surface microorganisms, insects and animals (Ayanoğlu 1999). The 6831 numbered
forest law defines as “Trees growing naturally or by planting and woods are ranked as forests
with their land areas. But…” Then the law defines exceptions.
Forests occupy an important place in human life. They are one of the most important
renewable raw materials and energy resources. Forests clean the weather and protect the
moisture balance of atmosphere. Because they oxygenate for carbon dioxide balance forests
398
�are essential. Forests decrease the negative effects of drought, frost, high temperature,
spankings and protect earth against erosion. They help protecting plant and animal diversity.
Forests as a natural resource which are subject to distribution between generations should be
protected for future generations while providing today’s human needs (Aras, Çalışkan 2004).
Forests are natural resources which affect water and earth regimes, economy, the need of
recreation, climate and health positively (Korkmaz 2010).
While reviewing contributions of forests economically it is possible to divide these like
pecuniary and non pecuniary contributions. Timber based first order forest products, non
timber based second order products, decreasing effect on difference between regional
development levels, contribution to other sectors and positive effect on balance of payments
can be examples to their pecuniary contributions. On the other hand their help on climate,
water and soil can be examples to their non pecuniary contributions (Ormanlarımızın
Faydaları OGM).
2.Material and Method
Literature review on forestry and private forestry is made and works on this field are tried to
be presented. Share of private forests on world and Turkey will be revealed by percentage.
Subsidies for private forestry in Turkey, the expectations of private afforestators, sum of
private afforestation in last years will be revealed and will be tried to analyze the disruptions.
Then with a review, a suggestion will be enhanced.
2.1.Findings
Forests are not homogenous on natural diversity and property basis. Forests grow without
human effort is called natural forests and forests planted by humans are called artificial
forests. They can be described in three ways. Forests which help the protection of water, earth
and climate are defined as conservation forests. These cannot be operated. Forests which help
tourism, help recreation need, embody natural beauties and serves science and art are defined
as national parks. Operating these parks is tied to strict rules. Forests which are used for
harvesting forest products are defined as operation forests (Korkmaz 2010).
All world attach importance to forests and there are researches for utilizing from them more
efficiently. The idea ‘private forestry increases efficiency of producing, management and
protection’ spreads. Some countries extend private forestry with respect to this idea. The
proportions of private forests in the continental basis are: Africa 2%, Asia 5%, South
America 17%, Oceania 24%, North and Central America 30% (Yeşildağ 2009). “Percentage
of forests in total land area for countries: Germany 31.5%, Austria 47%, Spain 51.3%,
Sweden 68.1%, Finland 77.8%, and the world average is 40.9%” (Korkmaz 2010). Countries
appreciate both forests and private forestry. Thanks to this appreciation and subsidies
399
�percentage of private and public corporationforests in total forest areas in Germany 42%,
Spain 61%, Sweden 71%, Finland 71%. But in Turkey it is only about 1% (Korkmaz 2010).
According to Orman Genel Müdürlüğü (General Directorate of Forestry) the view of
afforestation efforts in world and Turkey are like this: 24% of world forests are private
forests. This percentage reaches to 61% in EU (VII. Five Year Development Plan). In Turkey
99.5% of forests are belong to state. The percentage of registered private forests is only
0.05% (URL2).
Turkey’s location on world is very proper for afforestation. 75% of Anatolian lands were
forests ten thousands years ago but unfortunately today it is 26%. Sufficient productive
forests are only 14% of Anatolian area. A country can be counted as a rich forest country she
should have 33% forest of total lands. Therefore Turkey’s forests are not enough with this
statistics (Seval Aras, meb, 182). If we look at Turkey’s forests 27% of forests are marsh
forests (19% non yielding, 8% yielding), 73% woods (31% non yielding, 42 yielding)
(Ormanlarımızın Faydaları, OGM).
Ağaçlandırma Genel Müdürlüğü (General Directory of Forestation) defines private
forestation like this: “Properties protected and utilized by owner; non yielding forest lands,
idle forest lands, treasury lands, properties of individuals and corporations; which are
projected and approved by Ministry of Environment and Forestry are “private forestation””
(URL2). Figures which can afforest are: Village Corporations, Municipalities, Public
Institutions and Corporations, Agricultural Development co-ops, Village Serving Units,
Chambers, Clubs, Foundations, Commercial Corporations and Individuals. There is no
difference between private forestation as an individual or corporation in Turkey.
Subsidies given to private forestation by General Directory of Forestry: In purpose of private
forestation grants given to village corporations and loans given to individuals or other
corporations. Groups can get grants or loans are;
-Land clearing (clearance of undesirable ground cover of area and plowing),
-Sowing and planting costs,
-Seedling (grafted or ungrafted) and seed costs,
-Barbed tape, fence, surrounding wall costs,
-3 year maintenance costs,
-Projecting costs,
-Pruning costs,
-Grafting costs,
Grants or loans are assigned by General Directory according to General Directory of
Forestation and Erosion Control’s constant prices with regard to projected work’s amount.
After project is done interim payments are given. Therefore projectors should sign an
400
�obligation or estate mortgage. For obligation there should be two respected and solidary
bailsmen and public notary approval. Bailsmen should be registered to Commercial or
Industrial Chambers or Craftsman’s Associations. (URL3). Loans given for trees like pine,
cedar and fir will be paid after the end of 30th year as only capital. Loans given for trees like
walnut, chestnut and pistachio will be paid after the end 15th year with an interest rate which
equals 1/7 of T.C. Ziraat Bank’s agricultural loan interest rate for small business stock
(URL3).
Despite these subsidies private forestators have some demands:
-To be informed by experts about buying seedlings, planting and maintaining,
-Faster bureaucratic transactions for subsidies,
-Increase in loan unit prices or increase in number of components
-After reaching a point of land area permission to build a wooden shelter for tools,
-Disengage village headmen and abolish the need of their permission,
-Grants or loans should be given by a unique institution,
-Permission to graft for olive groves,
-Permission to second order plants and their loaning (Özkurt, A., Yeşilkaynak, B)
The results of private forestation efforts in last 10 years in Turkey are given below.
Year
State
Forests Treasury
(decare)
(decare)
2002
17,110
4,851
29
21,990
2003
43,177
6,228
25
49,430
2004
77,683
6,344
2,213
86,240
2005
90,535
10,178
4,317
105,030
2006
69,611
37,241
3,168
110,020
2007
55,663
22,987
3,250
81,900
401
Areas Private
(decare)
Areas Total
(decare)
�2008
77,759
11,217
1,364
90,340
2009
71,858
18,337
5,155
95,350
2010
145,581
16,116
11,363
173,060
2011
70,785
7,909
6,966
85,660
Total
719,762
141,408
37,850
899,020
Table 1: The Results Of Private Forestation Efforts In Last 10 Years In Turkey
Source:URL3
Despite the subsidies private forestations are not even 100.000ha/year in last ten years.
There are 3,715,642 real estates registered to Turkish Treasury with an areas 211,151 km2.
This area is 25.92% of Turkey’s total land surface. Only 651,585 of these areas are allocated.
These areas are 13.39% of Turkey’s total land surface. Therefore Turkey’s lands’ 12.53% is
waiting idle or utilized illegally (URL4).
3. Review and Conclusion
Pecuniary and non pecuniary benefits of forests and forestation are indicated above. Plus
these benefits while a country has a serious problem of unemployment and low income
problem laying aside these areas idle doesn’t seem rational. If the present administrative
applications are not enough then disruptions and inabilities should be determined, problems
should be asked to investors. And then the precautions believed to solve the problem should
be taken. In this paper we found that despite all these subsidies, idle treasury and state owned
lands and the unemployment rate above 10% there is no enough private forestation. Cause of
this situation is not the scarce of labor, capital or natural resources. Most important reason
here is inadequacy of information flows. Lots of investors are unaware about this investment
option. We suggest that: Opportunities in this investment field should be announced clearly
and may be the most importantly this investment options should be projected properly and be
reported to individuals. This work is agriculture focused. And people who interest in
agriculture might give up because of the technical difficulties as projecting.
402
�REFERENCES
Aras,S., Çalışkan, V., Türkiye’nin Beşeri Ve Ekonomik Coğrafyası, Meb Basımevi, İstanbul,
2004
Ayanoğlu, S. Anayasa Hükümleri Karşısında Orman Mevzuatımız, Ormancılık Hukuku,
Türkiye Çevre Vakfı Yayını, Ankara 1999.
Korkmaz, Y., Özel Ormanlar ve Mülkiyet Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, Gazi Üniversitesi
Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C.XIV, 2010
Orman
Genel
Müdürlüğü,
http://www.agm.gov.tr/AGM/AnaSayfa/faliyetler/ozelagaclandrma.aspx?sflang=tr
URL2,
Orman
Genel
Müdürlüğü,
URL3,
http://www.agm.gov.tr/AGM/Files/faaliyetler/ozel_agaclandirma/sorularla_ozel_agaclandirm
a.pdf
Ormanlarımızın
Faydaları,
OGM,
http://web.ogm.gov.tr/Resimler/sanalkutuphane/ormanin_faydalari.pdf
URL1,
Özkurt, A.,Yeşilkaynak, B., Özel Ağaçlandırma Çalışmalarının Sosyal Ve Ekonomik Boyutu
- Mersin Örneği-, Iı. Ormancılıkta Sosyo-Ekonomik Sorunlar Kongresi, Isparta, 2009
URL3, http://www2.tbmm.gov.tr/d24/7/7-3270sgc.pdf
URL4, http://www.milliemlak.gov.tr/istatistiksel-bilgiler Tarih:07.03.1
Yeşildağ, G., Dünyada Bazı Ülkelerde Özel Orman Mülkiyetinin Gelişimi, Ormancılıkta
Sosyo-Ekonomik Sorunlar Kongresi, Isparta, 2009
403
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1195
Title
A name given to the resource
A Suggestion for Forestry: Assigning Idle Public Lands to Private Sector by Projecting and Provisioning
Author
Author
Mustafa , Durman
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Land is a widespread natural resource and commonly used by humans. It is commonly used distributed for agriculture, forestry, urbanization, resting, transportation and settling. Land is not a renewable resource and is under the threat of erosion, polluting and salinization because of agricultural irrigations. In consequence of increasing population and industrialization wetlands, agricultural lands and forests are used for settlement and industrial areas. Maximizing utility of resources is an essential issue for environmental economics. Thus maximizing utility of land uses is an essential issue for land using strategies. When viewed from this aspect it is obvious that land areas of a country are shared by public (state) and private sectors. In public areas forest areas have an important share.There are enormous amount of areas which are owned by state but they are waiting idle. In this paper after analyzing present administrations we will make a suggestion. We will focus on assigning these idle areas to private sector for forestry use. It is hoped that this assignment will contribute the problems of unemployment, income, cleaning the atmosphere, preventing erosion and input for industrial production. Despite the subsidies, private foresting is inadequate. We will suggest publicizing investors by projecting the proper lands, subsidizing and presenting economic potentials of these areas.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),T Technology (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7aea8557f0fab7c171ad6e2ebfc4eb7a.pdf
4a22917824cc29700b8e139223bee813
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
concentration of anesthesia increases, the time of transition to induction stage shortens (Ross
et al, 2008). Induction times of the fish vary depending on the dose of clove oil and, normally,
as the dose increases, recovery time increases.
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Çetinkaya, O., Şahin A.( 2005) Balık Biyolojisi Araştırma Yöntemleri. (Ed) Mehmet Karataş,
Balıklarda Anestezi Uygulamaları ve Başlıca Anestesikler, 237-270. ISBN.975-591-757-8.
Cookea, S. J., Suskib, C. D. Ostranda , K. G, Tuftsb, B. L., Wahl, D. H.(2004) Behavioral and
physiological assessment of low concentrations of clove oil anaesthetic for handling and
transporting largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Aquaculture 239, 509–529.
Padilla, D. K., Williams, S. L.(2004) Beyond ballast water: aquarium and ornamental trades
as sources of invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 2004, 2(3): 131–138.
Ross, L., Ross, B.(2008) Anaesthetic and Sedative Techniques for Aquatic animals, 240.
Seol, D., Lee J., Im, S., Park, I. (2007) Clove oil as an anaesthetic for common octopus
(Octopus minor, Sasaki). Aquaculture Research, 38, 45-49.
Tolon, T., Hekimoğlu, M.A.( 2011) Türkiye´de Süs Balığının Pazar Durumu. XVI. Ulusal Su
Ürünleri Sempozyumu 25-27 Ekim 2011 Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Antalya.
Ucar, A., Atamanalp, M. (2010) The Effects of Natural (Clove Oil) and Synthetical (2phenoxyethanol) Anesthesia Substances on Hematology Parameters of Rainbow Trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Brown Trout (Salmo trutta fario), Journal of Animal and
Veterinary Advances 9(14): 1925-1933.
Whittington, M., Pereira, M. A. M., Gonçalves, M., and Costa, A.(2000) An Investigation of
the
Ornamental
Fish
Trade
in
Mozambique.
URL
http://www.oceandocs.org/bitstream/1834/889/1/2000.11en.pdf
Yıldırım, Y.B., Genc, E., Turan, F., Cek, S., Yanar, M.(2010) The Anaesthetic Effects of
Quinaldine Sulphate, Muscle Relaxant Diazepam and Their Combination on Convict Cichlid,
Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Günther, 1867) Juvenies, Journal of Animal and Veterinary
Advances,9(3), 547-550.
Sustainable Development in Aviation Industry
and the case of Turkish Airlines
Mustafa Kavacık1, Saadet Zafer2, Ali Yıldız3, Davut Karaman
1Akdeniz University Alanya Faculty of Business, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey,
2Muğla University Dalaman Vocational School, Dalaman, Muğla, Turkey,
3Akdeniz University Alanya Chamber of Commerce and Industry Vocational School,
Alanya, Antalya, Turkey
E-mails: mkavacik@akdeniz.edu.tr, saadetzafer@akdeniz.edu.tr,
aliyildiz@mu.edu.tr,davutkaraman@akdeniz.edu.tr
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Abstract
Within changing world, sustainable development globally has become an important strategic
goal for all sectors.
Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance social, economic and
environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and welfare of present and
future generations. The significance level of these related goals and sources is very high.
Threats and hazards such as limited resources around the globe, overly population increase,
global warming, damaging of ozone layer, decreasing of live species and environmental
pollution dramatically reveal the importance of sustainable development.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol
which was signed in 1997 came into force in 2005. In this context, aviation industry is a good
sample for sustainability. Fuels used in consist of non-renewable resources so contribute to
climate change negatively. But, at the same time, that industry makes very valuable and
unique contributions to the sustainable development aimed by global society. These
contributions are realized social, economical and environmental dimensions.
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences.
Economically, aviation industry encourages economic development by facilitating access of
regional and global markets, involving with these markets and increasing market share. At the
same time, aviation industry leading to the development of trade, travel and tourism sector
provides improving of income distribution by creating employment around the globe.
This industry pioneers to the electronic transportation. Highly savings got at ticketing and
other documentation transactions by adopting to the electronic system. Decrease in the level
of aircraft noise-footprint at a 20 db in recent years, an increase in fuel efficiency of 70
percent in last 40 years – today’s newest aircraft technology often matchs the energy
consumption of modern cars and in some cases (depending on speed and distance)-, coming
down Carbon emission ratios dramatically, alternative fuel systems as biofuels and less
service required space area compared to other transportation types can be taken as outstanding
environmental effects of this industry.
Turkish Airlines (THY) showed an outstanding performance both economically and socially
for the last years. Now, being a member of Star Alliance Group, it has a wide flight network
around the globe with generated fleet. Furthermore, the company works to make contributions
to the sustainable future.
Keywords: Sustainable Development in Aviation İndustry; Sustainable Aviation; Carbon
Emission; Turkish Airlines Case;
1. INTRODUCTION
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Today, world deals with not only the countries’ GDP values or other economic data’s but
environmental issues and social benefits also. Climatic changes threat the future at a
significant degree higher than ever. Nowadays, world consumes its resources rashly, but
could future generations reach these resources easily is a problem the world faced. Similar
issues appear to be problem the world faces in this century.
Aviation industry plays essential role both in economic, social and environmental respect. As
air transportation developed, trade volume will increase, good transportation volume will
continue to be positive, cultures will socialize as a result of increased tourism traffic and time
will be used more efficiently. By performing all of them, using resources less and effectively,
being environmentally sensitive creates the critic points of this industry. To survive in this
industry depends on “Sustainability” and companies should change and design strategies
towards to the “green coloured” strategies. At this stage, instutions as IACO, IATA, UN, EU
help companies by creating and regulating rules, standards and systems as KYOTO or
European Union Emission Trading Scheme ETS.
In this sense, this paper examines the importance of sustainable development for aviation
industry. However, we examine Turkish Airlines as a case study in the context of how it has
become an international effective player in recent years, strategic alliances that have made
and contributions to the sustainability efforts.
2. Environmental Issues Associated with Aviation
Civil aviation, like most other economic activities, gives rise to environmental problems of
various kinds. In 1999, the ICAO (Interational Civil Aviation Organization) Secretariat
compiled an inventory of environmental problems what may be associated with civil aviation,
to assist the ICAO Council in identifying future priorities in the environmental. It was
assumed that "the environment" means all those natural and man-made surroundings which
may be adversely affected by the presence of civil aviation, but which are not directly
involved in the aviation itself10. Issues include:
2.1. Aircraft noise
Historically, noise has been the external impact of aviation with the highest profile. There
have been substantial reductions in the noise generated by new aircraft and in the overall
noise at many airports. However, at most airports, the frequency and total number of
movements is expected to increase in the future. For some people near airports, aircraft noise
is a significant nuisance affecting their quality of life. There is considerable variation in
individual reactions. Aircraft noise can also have impacts on sleep.11
Significant progress has been achieved in reducing the noise impact around many airports,
arising from reductions in both engine and airframe noise as well as improvements in
10 http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
11
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
operational procedures. Today's aircraft are typically 75% quieter than jets in the 1960.12
Research initiatives target a further 50% reduction by 2020. The number of people exposed to
aircraft noise worldwide has gone down – by about 35% between 1998 and 2004. IATA (The
Air Transportation Association) has developed a policy on night flights. According to this
policy, Night time operational restrictions are increasing, especially in Europe. At some
airports, night flights are completely banned. These restrictions can have a serious impact on
the economy, next-day delivery services, home-based charters, freight services and
intercontinental flights. They can also increase daytime congestion.13 According to Air
Transport Action Group (ATAG) data, The South African horn made infamous at 2010 World
Cup, the vuvuzela, at blast is rated at 127 decibels. An A380 on the other hand takes off with
a relative whisper at 82 db.14 This shows us the latest improvements in aircraft engine
technologies.
2.2. Carbon Emissions & Fresh Air
Air pollution arising from airline and airport operations has a variety of sources, including
aircraft engines, apron vehicles, ground transportation, refueling and power generation
equipment. These can pose a problem at a local scale, where increasingly stringent
environmental quality standards are being imposed, and at a global level, where increasing
concern is being expressed about the significance of the contribution of aircraft engine
emissions to the problem of global warming.15 With regard to climate change, IPCC
Report16 estimates that aircraft contribute about 3.5 per cent of the total radiative forcing by
all human activities and that this proportion is likely to increase. The emissions from aircraft
of relevance for climate change include carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour nitrogen oxides
(NOx), sulphur oxides and soot.
In the context of environment, technological advancements, operational measures, and air
traffic management can all improve emissions and fuel efficiency. Acc. to IATA data, new
aircrafts are 70% more fuel efficient than 40 years ago and 20% better than 10 years ago.
Airlines are aiming for a further 25% fuel efficiency improvement by 2020. By 2050, net
aviation carbon emission is aimed to be half of what it was in 2005. Modern aircraft achieve
fuel efficiencies of 3.5 liters per 100 passenger km. The A380 and B787 are aiming for 3 liters
per 100 passenger km – better than a compact car! Aircraft engine emissions are directly
related to fuel burn. Each kilogram of fuel saved reduces carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by
3.16 kg. So the key for airlines to minimize their environmental impact is to use fuel more
efficiently. IATA airlines improved their fuel efficiency by 3.1% in 2006 and 2007. IATA
12
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
13 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
14 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
15 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 115
16 http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/aviation/index.php?idp=22
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airlines have adopted a voluntary fuel efficiency goal. This is to reduce fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions (per revenue tonne kilometer) by at least 25% by 2020, compared to 2005
levels.17
ICAO projections states that the commercial aircraft fleet is expected to increase to about
47,500 by 2036, of which more than 44,000 (94 %) aircraft will be new generation
technology.18 Acc. to ATAG, today, global aviation industry produces around 2 % of all
human-induced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Aviation is responsible for 12 % of CO2
emissions from all transport sources, compared to 74 % from road transport. And around 80
% of aviation CO2 emissions are emitted from flights over 1,500 kilometers, for which there
is no practical alternative mode of transport19. The Figure below indicates passenger air
traffic fuel consumption per 100 km. It shows that fuel consumption will decrease in
subsequent years due to increasing technology and new generated engines and aircrafts.
Figure 1: Air Traffic fuel efficiency trend and today’s aircraft (source: ICCAIA)20
2.3. Alternative Fuels
Because of both economic and environmental issues, aviation industry should seek ways for
diversification of current fuels and should produce alternative fuels. The International Air
Transportation Association (IATA) is dedicated to support its members and the industry to
reduce the emission of CO2. Alternative fuels, particularly sustainable biofuels, have been
identified as one of the key elements in helping achieve this goal. Biofuels derived from
sustainable oil crops such as jatropha, camelina and algae or from wood and waste biomass
can reduce the overall carbon footprint by around 80% over their full lifecycle. Biofuels test
flights carried out by seven airlines have proven biofuels work and can be mixed with existing
jet fuel. The industry is now working on finalizing technical certification so biofuels can be
17 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/fuel_efficiency.aspx
18 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
19 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
20 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
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used for passenger flights.21 If the industry were to get 6 % of its fuel supply from alternative
fuels by 2020, this would reduce current carbon footprint by 5 %.22 Objectives are as follows:
building a long-term sustainable, environmentally friendly and cost competitive aviation
industry.
3. Social and Economic Factors
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences. However, developments at aircraft Technologies and at fuels affect
the social life directly. People lives near airports expose high noise than to other people, so
night sleep can be a torture for them. But recent developments decreased the noise problem at
a significant level about 35 % between 1998 to 2004.23 And also, low carbon emission will
affect social life in a positive manner too.
There is a general acceptance that there is a positive, mutually supportive relationship
between aviation and economy.24 Aviation supports some 56.6 million jobs around the world
or it carries 35% of the world’s cargo by value.
According to ATAG report 201025; Airlines transport over 2.6 billion passengers annually
with revenue passenger kilometers (RPK) totaling nearly 5 trillion in 2010. The USA
followed by China and then the UK were the top three countries in terms of RPK. Aviation is
indispensable for tourism, which is a major engine of economic growth, particularly in
developing economies. Globally, 51% of international tourists travel by air. Connectivity
contributes to improved productivity by encouraging investment and innovation; improving
business operations and efficiency; and allowing companies to attract high quality employees.
Aviation’s global economic impact (direct, indirect, induced and tourism catalytic) is
estimated at $2.2 trillion, equivalent to 3.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP).
It provides 8.4 million direct jobs: airlines, air navigation service providers and airports
directly employ 7.6 million people and the civil aerospace industry (manufacture of aircraft
systems, frames and engines) employs 0.8 million people. There are 9.3 million indirect jobs
generated through purchases of goods and services from companies in its supply chain.
Industry employees support 4.4 million induced jobs through spending. Aviation-enabled
tourism generates around 34.5 million jobs globally.
The world’s airlines carry over 2.6 billion passengers a year and 48 million tonnes of freight
in 2010. Providing these services generates 8.4 million direct jobs within the air transport
21 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/alternative-fuels.aspx
22 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
23 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
24 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 39
25 http://www.aviationbenefitsbeyondborders.org/download-abbb-report
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industry and contributes $539 billion to global GDP. Compared with the GDP contribution of
other sectors, the global air transport industry is larger than the pharmaceuticals ($445
billion), the textiles ($236 billion) or the automotive industries ($484 billion) and around half
as big as the global chemicals ($977 billion) and food and beverage ($1,162 billion) sectors.
In fact, if air transport were a country, its GDP would rank it 19th in the world, roughly equal
to that of Switzerland or Poland.
In 2030, forecasts suggest that there will be nearly 6 billion passengers and aviation will
support nearly 82 million jobs and $6.9 trillion in economic activity.
4. Turkish Airlines
Turkish Airlines Incorporation that was established in 1933 and named shortly THY was
called The State Airlines Administration when first established. It has taken action as
incorporation that it is called today. At first it started to fly by using 5 aircrafts. The first
international voyage Atina was flown in 1947. Turkish Airlines offered about 50% of shares
to the public in 2006 and they were traded at Istanbul Stock Exchange. In addition, it had 50%
of partnership in Sun Express centered in Antalya by making an agreement with German
airline Lufthansa in 1989 and invested in Sarajevo airline Bosnia and Herzegovina Airlines by
purchasing 49% of shares. Company established AnadoluJet centered in Ankara to serve all
people in Turkey in 2008. It joined oldest airlines alliance of world, Star Alliance, by making
an agreement in Istanbul in 2008. On the other hand, Turkish Airlines was named Turkish
Airlines Cargo has taken action its cargo service in 1936 and changed its name to TURKISH
CARGO in 2000. Turkish Airlines that owned 6 cargo aircrafts had totally 179 aircrafts.
Company grows by purchasing new aircrafts continuously and also develops its cargo
services. At the end of 2011 it reached of totally 189 cities including 40 cities for domestic
and 149 cities for international. Simultaneously it has 2 technical maintenance centers in
Istanbul. Turkish Airlines Technical Incorporation that is one of these centers was established
in Atatürk Airport in 2006 and has become an important technical maintenance point in air
transportation. Other center, Aviation Maintenance Repair and Modification Center
Incorporation (HABOM), was founded in Sabiha Gökçen Airport in 201126.
After World War II with global economy, aviation industry also developed rapidly. With
increasing population and income level, there were changes in travel expenditures and
behaviours. As a results of these developments, new infrastructure, routes, airfares and offers
was served up in aviation industry. The importance of social, economical and environmental
purposes and preservation, improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For
these purposes, Turkish Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development
that global community aims.
When mentioned about sustainable development, firstly, development without effecting
environment adversely might be mentioned. World is under threat of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane and ozone. In this sense, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the
amount of carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities. Because of Fuel-Saving
Project implemented in 2008, Turkish Airlines saved jet fuels about 78.371.439 $ and
decreased carbon dioxide emission about 201.700 tons.
26 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/tarihce
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Aviation industry was joined to the Carbon Emission Trading System that was valid from 1
January 2012. In this context, Turkish Airlines has to comply with regulations of European
Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) as other airlines operating flights to Europe27.
Temel Kotil, General Manager of Turkish Airlines, said that they were working with
International Air Transport Association about fuel-saving. So, less fuel usage at flights, 30
million $ fuel-saving per year and significantly decreasing amount of carbon dioxide emission
was aimed28.
Activities about decreasing of damages to the environment and human health that derives
from airport facilities were initiated by Directorate General of Civil Aviation. In 2010, for
luggage transportation, vehicles with electricity started to be used instead of vehicles with fuel
at airports with heavy traffic. If airport facilities met certain conditions in the context of this
project, airports are taken to the category of “Green Airport” and facilities that met conditions
provide discounts in the service recipe29.
Aviation industry in Turkey has grown substantially for last decade. There were liberalization
steps in the industry that was closed to the open competition and under the monopoly of
Turkish Airlines until 200230. Between 2002-2010, average annual growth was 16% for air
traffic and 25,5% for passenger traffic31.
In 2009, while the aviation industry in the world downsized, Turkish Airlines continued to
develop and increased by 11%. Turkish Airlines carried 10,4 million passengers in 2003,
raised the number of passengers to 22,5 million in 2008, 25,1 million in 2009, 29,1 million in
2010 and 32,6 million in 201132. In 2011, among the member airlines of Association of
European Airlines, it ranged fourth with 8,7% market share in terms of number of passengers
and fifth with 7,3% market share in terms of seat kilometers offered. While total number of
passengers of member airlines increased by 4,2%, Turkish Airlines raised by 15,6%. In
addition, Turkish Airlines is market leader in air cargo transportation in Turkey. It increased
its market share by 64% in 201133.
Turkish Airlines implements efficiency-oriented employment program. Its total number of
personnel was 10.239 people in 2003 and raised by 15.491 people in 2011. To become the
best airline in the world, the best cabin crew is required as a return of differentiation in the
service concept. From this point, Turkish Airlines applied “Service Quality and Increasing
Passenger Satisfaction Programme” since August, 201034.
27 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
28 http://hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/15229951.asp
29 http://shgm.gov.tr/greenairport.pdf
30 http://invest.gov.tr/tr-TR/infocenter/publications/Documents/TURIZM.SEKTORU.pdf
31 http://shgm.gov.tr/doc4/2010fr.pdf
32 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/yolcu-sayisi
33 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
34 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/is-gucu
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Company also gives promotion tickets, companion tickets and opportunity to upgrade to the
members with Miles&Smiles Programme. At the same time, call center which is one of the
most important marketing and sales channel were included in the service as of 200935.
Turkish Airlines achieved significant successes in context of brand invesments. Sponsorship
of Euroleague, FC Barcelona and Manchester United has provided a great advantage in the
European market. There were other sports sponsorships. On the other hand, Kevin Costner,
Caroline Wozniacki, Kobe Bryant and Novak Djokovic were brand face of Turkish Airlines
with the slogan of “Globally Yours” and company has increased brand awareness. In the
sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of sustainable development,
Turkish Airlines applies long-term value-based growth programme and effective cost
management. Aviation Week Magazine, leading broadcasting organizations of aviation
industry, identified Turkish Airlines as the best airline from the point of financial situation in
2010. It has given “The Best Airline of Europe”, “The Best Airline of South Europe” and
“The Best Premium Economy Seat” by “Skytrax World Airline Awards” organization, known
as the Oscars of aviation industry. Turkish Do&Co catering company, joint of Turkish
Airlines, was awarded as the best of world with the catering service in economy class.
Furthermore, it achieves “The Best Market Leader” of 2010 in the context of Air Transport
World Airline Industry Achievement Awards, accepted one of the most prestigious awards of
aviation industry36.
Turkish Airlines also sustains activities about culture, art and social responsibility. It has
supported Istanbul, 2010 European Capital of Culture, as “Capital Sponsorship”. According to
the contract with Turkish Red Crescent, company contributes victims of natural catastrophes.
Moreover, by planting 5.000 saplings it made up “THY Technical Commemorative Forest” in
Kurtköy and Kemerburgaz37.
5.CONCLUSION
This paper has attempted to show how sustainable development in aviation industry is
important for global world. Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance
social, economic and environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and
welfare of present and future generations. Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient
transport type. Industry meets the society’s air transport needs by establishing relationship
with employees, local communities, customers and industry partners. A competitive and
commercial viable aviation industry makes a positive contribution to the world economy.
Aviation industry generates $2.2 trillion in 2010 and it equals to 3.5% per cent of global GDP.
Around the world industry supports 56.6 million jobs. Emission is a huge problem standing
that the future generations will face tragically. New aircrafts are 70 % more fuel efficient than
40 years ago and 20 % better than 10 years ago. In 2050, industry aims to decrease carbon
emission to be half of what it was 2005.
The importance of social, economical and environmental purposes and preservation,
improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For these purposes, Turkish
35 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
36 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
37 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
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Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development that global community
aims. With its new generation aircrafts, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the amount of
carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities and fuel consumption. Hence, it has
taken important steps about the sustainability by being a member of European Emission
Trading Scheme. In the sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of
sustainable development, Turkish Airlines has got remarkable performance by performing the
economic aspects of sustainable development. Company has to fulfil conditions what the
sustainability requires so it may survive in the market and become number one in avaition
industry around the world.
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Directorate General of Civil Aviation, Green Airport Project, Last Accessed on 4 28, 2012,
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Directorate General of Civil Aviation, 2010 Annual Activity Report, Last Accessed on 4 26,
2012, from www.shgm.gov.tr/doc4/2010fr.pdf.
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Global Atmosphere, 1999 at ICAO’s request by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
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from
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
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Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Mehmet Mercan1, Etem Karakaya2
1Hakkari University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
2Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
E-mail: mmercan48@gmail.com; mehmetmercan@hakkari.edu.tr, ekarakaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio
Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures.
Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction
targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to
reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels.
Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances
they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission
reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to
have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones.
In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to
take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are
various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.
167
�
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1241
Title
A name given to the resource
Sustainable Development in Aviation Industry and the case of Turkish Airlines
Author
Author
Mustafa , Kavacık
Saadet , Zafer
Ali , Yıldız
Davut , Karaman
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Within changing world, sustainable development globally has become an important strategic goal for all sectors. Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance social, economic and environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and welfare of present and future generations. The significance level of these related goals and sources is very high. Threats and hazards such as limited resources around the globe, overly population increase, global warming, damaging of ozone layer, decreasing of live species and environmental pollution dramatically reveal the importance of sustainable development. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol which was signed in 1997 came into force in 2005. In this context, aviation industry is a good sample for sustainability. Fuels used in consist of non-renewable resources so contribute to climate change negatively. But, at the same time, that industry makes very valuable and unique contributions to the sustainable development aimed by global society. These contributions are realized social, economical and environmental dimensions. Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of educational experiences. Economically, aviation industry encourages economic development by facilitating access of regional and global markets, involving with these markets and increasing market share. At the same time, aviation industry leading to the development of trade, travel and tourism sector provides improving of income distribution by creating employment around the globe. This industry pioneers to the electronic transportation. Highly savings got at ticketing and other documentation transactions by adopting to the electronic system. Decrease in the level of aircraft noise-footprint at a 20 db in recent years, an increase in fuel efficiency of 70 percent in last 40 years – today’s newest aircraft technology often matchs the energy consumption of modern cars and in some cases (depending on speed and distance)-, coming down Carbon emission ratios dramatically, alternative fuel systems as biofuels and less service required space area compared to other transportation types can be taken as outstanding environmental effects of this industry. Turkish Airlines (THY) showed an outstanding performance both economically and socially for the last years. Now, being a member of Star Alliance Group, it has a wide flight network around the globe with generated fleet. Furthermore, the company works to make contributions to the sustainable future. Keywords: Sustainable Development in Aviation İndustry; Sustainable Aviation; Carbon Emission; Turkish Airlines Case;
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5568abb3ad1a146bc3c723f47134f4ba.pdf
a75833d633ecec0f59551d1643490c6f
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
An Evaluation Of Regional Development Agencies’ Roles In Regard To Social
Sustainability: A Disscussion Of Turkish Development Agencies’ Experience
Mustafa Ökmen1, Buğra Özer1, Vedat Bal2
1Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of
2Celal Bayar University, School of Applied Sciences, Department of International Trade, ,
Manisa, Turkey
Abstract
This study focuses on the nexus between social sustainability and regional and local
development. In handling the issue in question, the work proposes to focus on the role played
by regional development agencies in facilitating social sustainability. The study will facilitate
the discussion by reviewing the Turkish experience in regional development by reviewing
Turkish regional development agencies’ legacy that came on the Turkish regional
development discussions in the mid of the very first decade of 2000s. The attempt will be to
demonstrate that Turkish RDAs cannot handle mechanisms to deal with problems that appear
at social and environmental levels of the notion of social sustainable development.
1. INTRODUCTION
This study shall dwell on the nexus between social sustainability and regional and local
development. In dealing with the issue in question, the work proposes to focus on the role
played by regional development agencies in facilitating social sustainability. The study will
facilitate the discussion by reviewing the Turkish experience in regional development by
reviewing Turkish regional development agencies’ legacy that came on the Turkish regional
development discussions in the mid of the very first decade of 2000s.
Given the prospect of full membership of Turkey to the European Union and related never
ending accession talks and negotiations with the Union(Öniş, 2000, Öniş 2003), regional
development agencies assumed to bring a wide array of remedies to the ongoing important
problems in regard to the regional economic and social disparities embedded in the Turkish
politico-economic setting (Reeves,2005). In such respect, the scale of regional disparities
between the different parts of Turkey has posed itself as a significant problematization in a
wider dimension than that of the scale of regional disparities in the EU (Sungar,2005).
Given the challenge, regional development agencies have been primary actors to deal with
the disparities mostly emerging in economic dimension while Turkey in terms of
geographical size encompasses an area bigger than that of Germany, Italy and Portugal
combined, with an approximating population of seventy-five million (LoewendahlErtugal,2005). Despite the fact that most regional development related institutions and
programs came to be inextricably linked to the economic development disparities first and
foremost, not adequate attention has been paid to the social sustainability dimension of
problems (Gibbs,2010). In this respect, the proposed study will problematize respectively:
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On theoretical terms the link between regional development and the notion of social
sustainability how the economic, social and economic dimensions of economic development
may be integrated in a single approach of regional development.
What the Turkish regional development agencies’ experiences have been on the way to create
a national regional development policy while maintaining ties to the EU accession talks,
thereby setting linkages to the Union’s regional development policies.
How the Turkish Regional development agencies have devised mechanisms to integrate
social sustainability schemes to the regional development policies.
Following the juxtaposition of research problematizations, the intended study aims to fill in
some gaps. Although there exists a bulk of literature on regional and local development in the
context of the EU; the lack of research on the link of regional development agencies to social
sustainability schemes in the case of Turkey is striking. In such regard, one other effort of the
paper is to contribute towards filling the gap in research literature on regional development in
relation to social sustainability in Turkey.
2. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES (RDAs) AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT NOTIONS IN GENERAL PESPECTIVE
2.1.Rationales for RDAs and Regional Policies
In an era of major restructuring and retrenchment of government internationally, RDAs
assume to play essentially important roles in facilitating and promoting economic
development (Halkier and Danson, 1997). As understood from the dimension, the economic
role of RDAs has been the pillar characteristic of the raison d’être of the organizations
(Danson et al., 2005, Pike et al., 2006). A standard academic definition shall also interlink the
role of RDAs to the notion of public policy by stating that RDA is “a regionally based,
publicly financed institution outside the mainstream of central and local government
administration designed to promote indigenous economic development through an integrated
use of predominantly ‘soft’ policy instruments.” (Halkier and Danson, 1997). Then the basic
components of such definition will emphasize the semiautonomous characteristic of RDAs
functioning in a multifunctional and integrated manner. (Halkier, 2011, Halkier etal 1998)
Accordingly, RDAs are given the task of supporting economic development through soft
policy means. The soft policy means may stand on a wide array of alternatives ranging from
the provision of advice to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to inducing
networking and learning(Halkier et al., 1998) Lagendijk etal emphasize that such a softpolicy-means perspective implies a strategic point view that RDAs shall “bridge the gap
between regional economic policy and other fields of policy that impact upon regional
development, building on their capacity to collectivize local interests” (Lagendijk,2009).
The importance of RDAs comes from three factors. First and foremost, RDAs develop a
platform for public policy that will have proximate links to the private enterprise along with a
sound distance that will avoid the abuse that might possibly come from the individual
enterprises and local political interests (Benneworth,2001). Secondly, RDAs are alternative
bureaucratic bodies more closely related to private enterprises in terms of facilitation of
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regional development, offering a shelter from day to day political pressures and providing a
more strategic approach to the issue of regional development in the long run. These two
factors bring forth a third repercussion that RDAs become more suitable actors involved in
regional policy under the EU Jurisdiction, namely, European Structural Funds. As Halkier
notes, “and as the importance of the European level in regional development has increased
significantly since the late 1980s, the growing role of RDAs in and beyond the current
borders of the EU undoubtedly owes a lot to the adoption of a long-term programming
approach within the Structural Funds.” (Halkier, 2011)
In terms of regional policy paradigms, the pre-1990s regional policies were designed in a topdown style, that is to say , the basic rationale of regional policy was to “to promote equality
between regions by redistributing economic activity to problem areas by means of a system
of ‘carrots’ and ‘sticks’, primarily relying on ‘hard’ policy instruments such as infrastructure
and financial subsidies in order to boost economic hardware in the designated regions
through increased investment” (Halkier, 2011). In terms of organization, the developmental
era emphasized the need to nationally designate programs via different bureaucratic
departments (Danson et al, 2005). The top-down design of regional policy signified the
redistribution of growth, thereby increasing economic hardware through ‘hard’ resources by
policy instruments which were non-selective and reactive in terms of their nature
(Halkier,2011).
In the post-1990s setting, the making of regional policies has significantly changed. First and
foremost, RDAs were designates as semi-autonomous bodies which contributed to the
juxtaposition of regional based targets (Halkier,2011). Individual regions became the basic
unit of analyses rather than nationally-designated units. The rationale behind top-bottom
regional policy has not changed in its essential sense and rather remained economic as the
approach principally aimed to deal with competitiveness of individual firms of localities. The
basic means for public policy became ‘soft’ policy instruments such as advice, networks. In
such regard, RDAs became training units which added up to improving economically
relevant knowledge (software) and knowledge exchange (orgware).Moreover, within the
bottom-up approach responsibility became selective and proactive (Halkier,2011).
2.2.Sustainable Development and RDAs
Despite the economic-centric definition of RDAs and regional policy, there is an increasing
awareness of sustainable development notion at the policy level. By 2000s, sustainable
development notions have been more and more incorporated into the concerns of spatial
scales in terms of mediation of objectives and economic development and other concerns of
sustainable development (Shearlock etal,2000).
A bulk of literature exists on sustainable development, defining the term as development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs.” (Shearlock etal,2000)Therefore the term has a long-term vision for society
along with the short term horizons which add up to long-term objectives. Sustainable
development as a term integrates various dimensions of human action starting from the local
level to the global level. In such regard sustainable development has a different set of
objectives inclusive of the improvement of the quality of life of both current and future
generations, while safeguarding the earth’s capacity to support life in all its diversity;
promotion of high levels of employment in an economy whose strength is based on
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education, innovation, social and territorial cohesion and the protection of human health and
the environment and Notion of its grounds and emphasis on democracy, the rule of law and
respect for fundamental rights including freedom, equal opportunities and cultural diversity
(Gibson,2010).
Economic, social and environmental dimensions are the basic pillars of sustainable
development. It is rather a process that facilitates “improvement of the range of opportunities
facilitating individual human beings and communities to meet their needs, as well as to
achieve their aspirations and full potential over a sustained period of time, while maintaining
the resilience of economic, social and environmental systems ” (Shearlock etal,2000). There
exist distinct driving forces and objectives for each domain As the economy domain strives to
improve human welfare, primarily through increases in the consumption of goods and
services, the main focus of the environmental domain is on protection of the integrity and
resilience of ecological systems (Gibson,2010). The social domains underline the need for the
enrichment of human relationships and achievement of individual and group aspirations.
Sustainable development becomes the basic object
of programs with continuous
improvements in the present quality of life at a lower intensity of resource use, thereby
leaving behind for future generations an undiminished stock of productive assets (i.e.,
manufactured, natural and social capital) that will enhance opportunities for improving their
quality of life (Gibson,2010; Shearlock,2000).
Given the basic perspective drawn above, regional policy schemes have not been able to take
general approaches that shall integrate the social and environmental domains of sustainable
development. Most regional policies devised RDAs in a novel way that would embrace
bottom to up approaches; however RDAs lacked means to integrate social and environmental
domains. Most environmental policies devised by RDAs globally suffered from the same set
of problems. In spite of European and global recognition of Sustainable Development
throughout the 1980s, many concrete projects were far away from dealing with the problem
that emerged at social and environmental levels. As Straaten et al (1999)observe in his
discussion of environmental policies throughout the EU, “the principle of sustainable
development does not alter this situation. On the contrary, all polluting industries accept the
principle of sustainable development as a starting point for the national economy. However,
as soon as the pollution in their sector is discussed, they use strong arguments based on
traditional economic theories. The government is then always in the difficult position of
having to demonstrate that the implementation of strict environmental standards will benefit
the economy. In many cases they are not able to do this. The situation is also complicated in
the case of transboundary pollution. The traditional interests of the polluting industries in
some countries may be contrasted with the interests of countries suffering from pollution”
(Straaten et al,1999). Indeed, the RDAs as alternative bodies that could spread the word of
sustainable development could not penetrate through mechanisms that would supposedly
produce solutions at environmental level and social levels. Here one should note that
problems of social domain of sustainable devlopment can not become substantial concerns
fror RDAs. In particular, cultural integration and social participation, as two important
problems in the EU integration region did not constitute as significant problems that required
immediate remedies.
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3. Turkish RDAs in Perspective
By mid 2000s Turkey entered a new phase in which the country witnessed the making of a
great of number of RDAs thanks to the Europeanization of regional governance policies. In
such respect Turkish RDAs nurtured in a setting of European Union and central government
funding (Kayasü etal 2003, Sungar,2005, Loewendahl-Ertugal2005). By 2012, Turkey
established 26 ‘statistical regions’ at the NUTS-II level, which group together Turkey’s 81
provinces. In this context RDAs are supposed to play a critical role in mobilizing support and
funding for regional development projects. As Lagendjik (2011) observes, RDAs are
potentially apt to become strategically important organizations strengthening regional forms
of governance and regional socio-economic development. In the Turkish case, RDAs become
centers for consultancies for the European funding. In such regard Turkish RDAs become
highly absorbed in a tension of, as Lagendjik observes at the European level, “ ‘high politics’
and the necessity to embed themselves in a particular local institutional and business setting”
(Lagendjik, 2009). While facing ‘top-down’ political-strategic and bureaucratic obligations,
Turkish RDAs are obliged to respond to local demands in terms of governance (partnering,
strategy development), economic intelligence, and business needs in a state of institutionally
and politically conditioned and circumscribed priorities (Reeves,2005).
In terms of integrating the social sustainability dimension, Turkish RDAs have a long way to
cover. The main objectives of RDAs still stay at a level of economic domain of sustainable
development notion. It should also be noted that given the short life spans of Turkish RDAs,
it may be too early to carry out an assessment. However, given the path of development of
Turkish RDAs, these institutions should find ways to integrate social sustainable
development notions into their developmental projects. The economic-centered emphasis in
Turkish RDAs , thus, remains an important concern to which more attention should be paid.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
In light of short life span of Turkish RDAs, social and environmental concerns are not
important references for regional governance policies. It can definitely be argued that the
sustainable development can be used as a policy-making principle for the Turkish RDAs.
Until now, the notion of sustainable development has not been well operationally defined due
to the difficulties arising in RDAs’ insistence in shortcomings of economic-centered
definition of regional governance policies. Although Turkish RDAs mention about the term
‘sustainable development’, there is not much materialized in terms of concrete policies
pursued by these institutions. Therefore sustainable development should be the basic
reference point in particular for the social and environmental concerns. Most of these
concerns ‘objectives are to be realized in the long-run. In such regard, it is required that
Turkish RDAs become more and more absorbed in the formation of a coherent environmental
and social policy with the European regional policies.
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Comparison Study of Approaches to Measuring Poverty Implementing Fuzzy Set and
Classic Set Using The Household Data of Turkey
Alparslan Abdurrahman Basaran1, Murat Alper Basaran2
1Hacettepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of
Public Finance, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Engineering, Management Engineering Department,
07425,Alanya, Turkey
E-mails: aab@hacettepe.edu.tr, muratalper@yahoo.com
Abstract
Poverty is one of the issues several industrialized and developing countries encounter in the
world. No country is exempt from this problem and its consequences. The top list item of the
agendas of both countries and international agencies is related to diminishing poverty. Before
taking action against it, countries and agencies need to measure poverty based on collected
data. It is a sophisticated issue having several dimensions. So far measuring it with available
data has resulted with indicators which show some deficiencies. When poverty is considered,
it is a linguistic term and has a vague concept as mentioned in the theory of fuzzy set.
Therefore, a new approach is proposed in the literature to examine it in order to overcome
those deficiencies mentioned when classic tools are employed. On the other hand, fuzzy set
117
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1159
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An Evaluation Of Regional Development Agencies’ Roles In Regard To Social Sustainability: A Disscussion Of Turkish Development Agencies’ Experience
Author
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Mustafa , Ökmen
Abstract
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This study focuses on the nexus between social sustainability and regional and local development. In handling the issue in question, the work proposes to focus on the role played by regional development agencies in facilitating social sustainability. The study will facilitate the discussion by reviewing the Turkish experience in regional development by reviewing Turkish regional development agencies’ legacy that came on the Turkish regional development discussions in the mid of the very first decade of 2000s. The attempt will be to demonstrate that Turkish RDAs cannot handle mechanisms to deal with problems that appear at social and environmental levels of the notion of social sustainable development.
Date
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2012-05-31
Keywords
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PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)