21 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/078d0c5b28e0b5839786cb51decf461a.pdf d077294b74301b3a5849fc31f00c373f PDF Text Text Toplumsal Kimliğin Devamlılığına Dilin Etkisi ve Boşnakların Türkçe Tercihi Mustafa ÇETİN International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mcetin@ibu.edu.ba Özet : Kimlik tanımı, kişisel ve toplumsal bir ihtiyaç olarak görünmektedir. Kimlikler; yaşayış ve düşünüş biçimi, dil, töre, gelenekler ve değer yargıları gibi birçok unsurun birleşmesi olarak kabul edilmektedir. Kişisel ve toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığını sağlayabilmek önemli görülmektedir. Bu tebliğde Boşnakların toplumsal kimliğinin demalılığını sağlamada dilin etkisi üzerinde durulmaktadır. Türkizm denilen, Osmanlı Türkleriyle Bosna-Hersek coğrafyasına gelen Müslüman kişi adları ve günlük diyaloglarda kullanılan Türkçe ifadeler anlatılmaktadır. Bunların, toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığına etkisi üzerinde durulmaktadır. Anahtar sözcükler : Boşnak, kimlik, kimliğin devamlılığı. kişi adları, Türkizm, Türk kültürü, toplumsal Toplumsal Kimlik Milli kimlik: Bir milletin kendine özgü düşünüş ve yaşayış biçimi, dil, töre ve gelenekleri, toplumsal değer yargıları ve kuralları ile oluşan özellikler bütünü, milli hüviyet(Türkçe Sözlük, 2005) olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Kimlik yüzeysel olarak kısaca kişilerin ve çeşitli büyüklük ve nitelikteki toplumsal grupların “kimsiniz, kimlerdensiniz?” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplardır(Güvenç, 1993:3). Kimlik kavramı toplumun sosyal sisteminin en temel ve en önemli kökenini teşkil etmektedir(Yıldız,2007). Toplumların kökenleri aidiyetlerinin referanslarını göstermektedir. Kişinin “mensubiyet”(attachment) ve “ait olma”( belonging) konusundaki başvuru çevreleri, kimlik”tutumu”nu (cohesion) sağlayan dayanaklardır. Burada kimlik başka bir şeye ait olma ihtiyacının sonucu olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır(Güleç, 1992:14). Kimlik hem tümüyle toplumsal hem de benzersiz biçimde kişiseldir; değişen derecelerde kişinin kendisi tarafından oluşturulan ve/veya başkaları tarafından atfedilen göndermelerden kaynaklanır. Hayatın dramatik niteliği, kişinin kendisinin sahiplendiği ama ötekilerin ona atfetmediği ya da ötekilerin atfettiği halde kişinin benimsemediği kimliklerin sonsuz ikilemleri içinde akmasından kaynaklanır(Aydın, 1998: 13-14) Toplumsal kimlikleri ayrıştıran ve/veya derinleştiren bu ikilemlerdir. Çağımızın kimlik sorunu, kişi, grup ve toplulukların resmi-ulusal(milli) ve tarihi-kültürel kimliklerinde ortaya çıkmaktadır. Asıl önemli olan ise zaten bu içerikteki kimlik oluşumları ve bütünleşmeleridir(Yıldız, 2007). Boşnak kimliğinin tanımı da tarihi ve kültürel geçmişine dayandırılmaktadır. Osmanlıların 1463'te Bosna'yı fethinin ardından, Türk sarıklarını tercih eden Bogomil inancına mensup halk, kitleler halinde gönüllü olarak İslam dinini kabul etmiştir(Eker, 2006:72). Osmanlılar Bosna'da kendi klasik yönetim kurumlarını oluşturmuş, Müslüman Boşnaklar84 da bölgedeki Osmanlı kültür ve uygarlığının temsilcisi ve sahibi haline gelmiştir(Eker, 2006:73). Boşnak, Osmanlı döneminde, Bosna vilayetinde yaşayan bütün halkın, bazen yalnızca Müslümanların, Yugoslavya döneminde ise ülkede yaşayan İslam inancına mensup Slav kökenli halkın adıdır (Bringa 1995: 238). Yugoslavya'da 1948 yılında yapılan nüfus sayımında Boşnaklar, Müslüman-Sırp, Müslüman-Hırvat, Belirsiz-Müslüman seçeneklerinden %90'a yakın oranda sonuncusunu tercih etmiştir(Bringa, 1995:323; Malcolm 1999:312). Bugünün Boşnak aydınları, eski Yugoslavya'dan tevarüs eden Müslüman yerine Boşnak etnonimini önermiş olsalar da, Bosna'nın yanı sıra Batı'da Müslüman terimi yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Arnavutlar ile birlikte Avrupa'nın yerli Müslümanları olarak tarih sahnesindeki yerini alan Boşnak halkının kimliğiyle ilgili soruya vereceği cevap tektir:Müslim!( Malcolm 1999:311-315). Boşnaklar ötekilerden(Sırp ve Hırvat) farklı bir etnite olarak, Müslüman kimliğiyle tanımlanmaktadır. 84 Boşnaklar (Boşnakça: Bošnjaci), tarih biliminin bakış açılarından birine göre, bir Güney Slav halkıdır. Çoğunluğu Güneydoğu Avrupa'da Bosna-Hersek'te ve Sırbistan ve Karadağ arasındaki Sancak bölgesinde yaşar. Ayrıca Hırvatistan, Slovenya,Almanya, ABD, Avusturya, İsveç, Kosova, Makedonya Cumhuriyeti ve Türkiye’de de Boşnaklar vardır. 351 �Toplumsal Kimliğin devamlılığı ve Dil Kimliğin iki temel bileşeni vardır. Bunlardan ilki tanımlama ve tanıma, ikincisi ise aidiyettir. Kendini tanımlama ve toplum içinde belli bir sıfatla, toplumsal olarak tanıma hem insana özgüdür hem de insani bir ihtiyaçtır. “Toplumsal tanınma” nın en temel aracı öncelikle konuşma dili, ardından da yazılı bir dil ve bir “kültürel eda”dır. Toplumsal ve kültürel dünyanın oluşumu dil aracını gerektirir(Aydın, 1998:12). İnsan yığınlarını “millet” haline getiren “kültür” leridir... Sosyologlar milletleri millet yapan maddi, manevi ortak değer ve müesseselerin hepsine “kültür” adını veriyorlar... Kültür deyince ilk akla gelen şey “dil”dir. “Dil” , millet denilen sosyal varlığı birleştiriyor(Kaplan, 2007: 24-25). Toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığı, tarihten bugüne bütün uluslar için en önemli sorunlardan biri olagelmiştir. Uluslar, toplumsal kimliklerini korumak ve/veya devam ettirmek için birçok yola başvurmuşlardır. Toplumsal kimliği koruma adına 15 Mayıs 1277’de, Karamanlı Mehmet Bey: “ Bugünden sonra, Divanda, Dergahta, Barıgahta, Mecliste, Meydanda Türkçe’den başka dil kullanılmayacaktır.” buyruğunu vermiştir. Bu buyruk, o dönemde yaşayan Türk toplumunun ulusal kimliğini devam ettirme adına girişilmiş önemli bir çaba olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Boşnakların toplumsal kimliğinin devamlılığına dilin çok büyük etkisinin olduğu gözlenmektedir. Özellikle, günlük diyaloglarda kullanılan dil ile bir dil elementi olan kişi adları, Boşnak kimlik tanımının en önemli kanıtlarını teşkil etmektedir. Aslında Boşnakça, Sırpça ve Hırvatça arasında ciddi farklar gözlenmemektedir. Aralarında yüzde yüze yakın oranda simetrik karşılıklı anlaşılabilirlik bulunan bu diller Ana Slav85 dilinin diyalektleri olarak, bütün dil bilgisel düzeylerde birbirine çok yakın özellikleri paylaşırlar(Eker, 2006:76). Ancak Boşnakların kullandığı, Osmanlı Türkçesinden geçen kişi adları ve Türkçe sözcüklerin tercih edilmesi ayırt edici önemli bir faktör olarak göze çarpmaktadır. Boşnakların Türkçe Tercihi ve Boşnak kimliğinin devamlılığı Resim 1.. Başçarşı'daki sokak ismi. Boşnakların Türkçe tercihinden kastedilen, öncelikle Türkçeden Boşnakçaya86 geçen sözcük ya da sözcük öbeklerinin Türkizm şeklinde adlandırılmasıdır. Türkçe ya da Türkçe aracılığıyla kopyalanan Arapça, Farsça hatta diğer dillere ait sözcüklere Güney Slav dillerinde Türkizm (Boş. turcizam, Turcizmi, İng. Turkishism) adı verilir (Eker, 2006:78). Abdullah Şkalyiç 1965 yılında çıkan Turcizmi u Srpskohrvatskom jeziku adlı sözlük tarzındaki yapıtında 8742 Türkizm sözcük vermiştir. Ancak, bu sayının daha fazla 85 Güney Slavca : Banat Bulgarcası · Boşnakça · Bulgarca · Bunyev · Kilise Slavcası · Hırvatça · Makedonca · Karadağca · Eski Kilise Slavcası · Sırpça · Yunanistan'daki Slav Diyalektleri · Slovence 86 Boşnak dili hakkındaBoşnakça (Boşnakça: Bosanski jezik, Bosanski), çoğunluğu Bosna-Hersek'te yaşayan Boşnakların konuştuğu dil. Bosna-Hersek'in nüfusunun yarıdan fazlasını Boşnaklar oluşturur ve Boşnakça bu ülkenin resmi dillerinden biridir. Özellikle son yıllarda Hırvatça ve Sırpça'dan hem biçim, hem sözcük dağarcığı bakımından iyice farklılaşmaya başlamıştır. Hırvatça gibi Latin abecesiyle yazılır. 352 �olabileceğini de belirtmiştir. Bu demek oluyor ki, Osmanlı Türkçesinden Boçnakçaya geçen sözcük sayısı on bin dolaylarındadır. Bu da Türkçenin temel sözcük hazinesine yakındır. İkinci olarak Türkizm dedikleri ifadeleri güncel Boşnakçada kullanma tercihleri gelmektedir. Aslında bu tercih, Boşnakların kimlik tecihiyle doğrudan bağlantılı görünmektedir. İç Savaş ve etnik temizlik sonrasında özellikle medya ve edebiyat aracılığıyla Türkizmler daha bilinçli olarak kullanılmaya, bu yolla Hırvat ve Sırp dilleri yanında, Boşnak dili ve kimliği yeni bir statü kazanmaya başlamıştır (Bringa, 1995: 241). Adıyla, sokak adlarıyla, tarihiyle, kültürüyle Türk dilinin ve kültürünü izlerini taşıyan Başçarşı'yı bugüne kadar sahiplenmek ve korumak da ayrı bir Türkçe tercihidir. Başkentinin (Sarajevo), ikinci büyük kentinin (Tuzla) ve bu şehirlerin en merkezî semtlerinin adları (Baščaršija ve Kapija) Türkçe olan bir coğrafya, Türk kültürünün ve dilinin bölgedeki işlevi hakkında bir fikir verebilir( Eker, 2006:78). Türkizm şeklinde değerlendirilen kişi adlarını çocuklarına vermeleri de toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığı açısında önemli bir tercih konusudur. Şehirlerin sokaklarında duvarlara, yan yana asılan yeşil-beyaz ay-yıldızlı, Ahmet, Fatima, Alah, ahret sözcüklerinin yer aldığı ölüm ilânları ile siyah renkli, haçlı Slobodan, Jasna yazılı ölüm ilanları etnik kimlik vurgularıdır(Eker, 2006:78). Resim 2. Cenaza ilanı Toplumsal kimliklerle toplumsal tercihler arasında sıkı bir bağlantının varlığı göze çarpmaktadır. Dolayısı ile toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığı bakımından Boşnakların kişi adlarındaki tercihi ve günlük konuşma dilindeki Türkçe tercihi önemli görülmektedir.. Boşnakçada Kişi Adları ve Toplumsal Kimliğin Devamlılığı İnsanoglu, genel anlamda yaşamı kolay ve verimli sürdürebilmek için birçok araç geliştirmiştir. İşte dil ve buna baglı olarak adlar bu araçların en önemlilerindendir(Karpuz, 2006). Ünlü adbilimci Adolf BACH :”Bir ulusun ad hazinesi, onun geçmişteki ve bugünkü zihinsel-ruhsal durumunun anlatımıdır.” demektedir(Aksan, 2000:115). 353 �Saraybosna’nın Koşova mezarlığında87 bulunan şehit isimleri üzeründe yapılan araştırmaya göre 1941,1940 ve öncesinde doğan 50 şehidin adları %95’in üzerinde Müslüman adları olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu sayısal ifade Boşnakların o dönemde Müslüman kimliklerinin çok daha ön planda olduğunu göstermektedir. Aynı yöntemle 1969,1970 ve sonrasında doğanlar arasında yapılan incelemede, 85 şehit adına göre ise Müslüman adları % 80’ lere düşer. Bu dönemdeki adlarda yüzde yirminin üzerinde değişmeler görülür. Bu değişme Hırvatların yoğun olduğu Mostar’da88 daha fazla hissedilmektedir. Yabancı kültürlerin kendini ilk gösterdiği yer, adlardır. Kişi adlarının dilbilim açısından önemli bir yönü de, dildeki yabacılaşmayı veya öze dönmeyi yansıtmasıdır (Güllüdağ, 2002:81). Saraybosna'daki şehitliklerde gözlemlenen kişi soyadlarının içerisinde birçok Türkçe ada rastlanmıştır: Kartal, Kurtoviç, Karaçiç, Durak, Duran, Kalkan, Çelik, Begiç, Beşiç, Aslani, Tosunoviç, Topaloviç, Başiç, Turkoviç, Tulumoviç, Zorlak, Tuzlak, Uzunoviç vb. Ayrıca, Soyadlarda bazı meslek adlarına da rastlanmıştır:Spahiç, Terzimehiç, Subaşiç, Kahvedjiç, Saraçeviç, İmamoviç, Tabakoviç vb. Resim 3,4. Şehitlikten isimler. Gerçekte dinin kendisi, Yugoslav toplumunda da genellikle simgesel işleve sahip olmuş, hatta dinler ve mezhepler arasındaki çizgiler Tito döneminde neredeyse silinecek ölçüde soluklaşmıştır(Eker, 2006:74). Bunun neticesinde karışık evlilikler artmıştır. Karışık evliliklerden olan çocuklara ana ve babanın adlarının ilk hecelerinin karışımından oluşan adlar verildiği gözlenmiştir:İsmar(İsmet-Mariya), İsmir(İsmeta-Miroslav), Fatmir(Fatima-Miroslav)(Lisiçiç, 2006: 71). Bunun yanında evrensel adların da verildiği görülmüştür:Elvir, Alen, Sanel(Lisiçiç, 2006: 68-69). Ayrıca, Boşnak şehitliğinde Sırp ve Hırvat toplumlarının kullandığı adlara da rastlanmıştır: Goran,Zlatar vb. 87 Bosna Hersek 'in efsanevi Cumhurbaşkanı Aliya İzzetbegoviç'in Savaşta yer bulmadığımız için futbol sahalarını Kabristana çevirdik sözlerinin sebebi olan kabristandır. Şehirdeki önemli şehitliklerdendir.Tıp fakültesi ile Şehir stadının arasında yer almaktadır. 88 Mostar Mostar Bosna-Hersek Cumhuriyetinin Hersek bölgesindeki Neretva kantonunun markezi olan şehir.Neretva Nehrinin kıyısında yer alan Mostar, Bosna-Hersek Cumhuriyetinin 4. büyük şehridir. 105.000 nufuslu şehir, BosnaHersek'teki iç savaş sırasında büyük zarar gördü. Şehre ismini veren ünlü Mostar Köprüsü Hırvatlar tarafından yıkıldı. Savaş sırasında Şehrin etnik yapısı değişti. Müslümanlar Mostar'ın doğusunda, Hırvatlar batısında yaşamaya başladı. Sırpların çoğu ise şehirden ayrıldı. 354 �Aşağıda en sık karşılaşılan ilk beş ad verilmiştir. 1941 ve Öncesi Tekrarı 1969 ve Sonrası Tekrarı 1. Saffet 2. Mehmet 3. Şakir 4. Mumin 5. Ramiz 3 3 3 2 2 1. Nejad 2. Safet 3. Almir 4. Elvir 5. Edin 3 3 3 3 3 1992-1995 yılları arasında yaşanan savaş Tito dömeminde silinmeye yüz tutan dinin etkisini artırmıştır. Değişmeye başlayan toplumsal kimliğin yeniden eski çizgisine kaymasını sağlamıştır. Ancak, bugün de küreselleşme, toplumsal kimliği kişi adları bakımından değiştirebilecek bir tehlike olarak sezilmektedir. Buna rağmen dini adlar koyma Bosna Hersek’te, Türkiye’de ve bütün Müslüman ülkelerde çoğunluktadır. Türkiye’de kişi adlarıyla ilgili yapılan birçok çalışma kırsal kesimlerde hala, Müslüman adların verilme oranının % 90 civarlarında olduğunu göstermektedir. Dinsel adlar koyma, pek çok toplumda en yaygın eğilimdir.Hıristiyanlık dünyası adlarının büyük bir bölümünü bu adlar oluşturur; Hıristiyanlığın benimsendiği ülkelerin kişi adlarından çoğu Ahdiatik’te ve İncil’de geçen Peygamber ve din ulularının adlarına dayanır. Örneğin Hz.İsa’yı vaftiz eden aziz Yohanna’nın adı bütün Hıristiyan ülkelerinde en yaygın erkek adlarından biridir. İslamlıkta Peygamberin ad ve sıfatları(Muhammet, Mustafa, Ahmet, Mahmut, Resul, Ekrem), dört halifenin adları(Bekir, Ömer,Osman, Ali) Hz. Ali’nin çocukları (Hasan, Hüseyin) kadın adı olarak da Hatice, Ayşe, Fatma, Emine, Zeynep gibi Hz. Peygamberin eşlerinin, annesinin ve kızının adları, değişik biçimlerle bütün Müslüman ülkelerinde yaygındır (Aksan, 2000:116). Bosnada da aynı gelenek devam ettirilmektedir. P.TROST’a göre kimi adlar(küçük ad, ön ad), onları taşıyan kimselerle ilgili birtakım bilgiler verir(dini, uyruğu, toplum katmanı, yaş katmanı). Bu savda gerçek payı vardır. Örneğin Moşe adını duyduğumuzda bir Musevi, İvan adını duyduğumuzda İslav ırkından bir kimse, Ali, Ahmet, Mustafa gibi adlarda ise bir Müslümanın söz konusu olduğunu düşünürüz(Aksan, 2000:95). Gerçekten, Boşnakları, aynı coğrafyada beraber yaşadıkları, etnik köken açısından aralarında ciddi farklar bulunmayan Sırp’tan ve Hırvat’tan nasıl ayırt edersiniz sorusunun ilk ve en önemli cevabı : Ad’ındandır. Günümüz Boşnakçasında Türkçe Bosna Hersek’te kimliklerin referanslarında en önemli unsurlardan biri de konuşma dili kabul edilmektedir. Boşnaklar, günlük konuşma dilinde sıkça Osmanlı Türkçesinden geçen sözcükleri veya ifadeleri tercih etmektedirler. Bu konuda Boşnak Toplumunda ciddi bir gayret gözlenmektedir. Hatta Sancak bölgesinde89 aile büyüklerinin çocuklarına Türkçe ifadeleri kullanma konusunda ısrarcı oldukları belirtilmektedir. Özellikle Selamünaleyküm, sabah hayrola, akşam hayrola, hamdosum(hamdolsun), hayırlı olsun, eydovale(iyi dua ile), eysahadile(iyi saat ile), hayrola(hayrola), mubareçola(mübarek olsun), kabulosum(kabul olsun), yok vala(yok vallahi), deçmişola(geçmiş olsun), helal olsun, başunsagosum(başın sağ olsun), başustune(başüstüne), beriçetversun(bereket versin), buyrum(buyrun), bayram mubarek ola, Allahemanet(Allah’a emanet ol), Allah razı ola(Allah razı olsun), Allahkerim(Allah kerim) gibi yüzlerce sözcük ve ifade vardır. Türk mutfağından çeşitli damak tadları adıyla tadıyla Bosna’da yaşamaktadır. Boşnaklar arasında en çok tercih edilen yemekler Türk kültüründen kalan yemeklerdir. Bosna-Hersek coğrafyasında hayatın her alanında Türkçe ifadelerle karşılaşmak mümkün görünmektedir. 89 Sancak bölgesi, Sırbıstan sınırları içerisinde kalan, yoğun olarak Boşnakların yaşadığı bölgedir. 355 �Resim 5,6. Boşnak menülerinde Türkçe. Sonuç Boşnak kimliğinin devamlılığına kişi adlarının ve günlük konuşma dilinin etkisinin oldukça fazla olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Türkçenin temel sözcük varlığı Boşnakçada yaşamaktadır. Osmanlı yaklaşık beş yüz yıl hüküm sürdüğü bu coğrafyada Türk dilinden ve kültüründen bir çok miras bırakmıştır. Boşnaklar toplumsal kimliklerini devam etirme adına bu mirasa sahip çıkmaktadır. Türkler ve Boşnaklar birbirine tarihten gelen derin bir sevgi duymaktadır. Boşnaklar, Osmanlı kültür ve medeniyetini, kimliklerinin referansı olarak görmektedirler. Bu manzara iki halkın, iki ülkenin bundan sonraki ilişkilerine de olumlu katkı sağlayacaktır. Kaynaklar: Aksan , Doğan(1995), Her Yönüyle Dil Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim,TDK yay Ankara 1995, s.125 Aksan, Doğan(2000), Her Yönüyle Dil(Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim),TDK,Ankara, 3.cilt,s.115. Aydın, Suavi (1998), Kimlik Sorunu Ulusalcılık Türk Kimliği, Öteki matbaası. Bringa, Tone (1995), Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Communication in a Central Bosnian Village, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Güleç, Cengiz (1992), Türkiye’de Kültürel Kimlik Krizi, V Yayınları, Ankara. Güllüdağ, Nesrin (2002), Sarıkamış Başköy’de Kişi Adları, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,Cilt:12, Sayı:1,s.81, Elazığ, Güvenç, Bozkurt (1993), Türk Kimliği, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. Eker, Süer(2006), Bosna'da Etno-Linguistik Yapı ve Türk Dili ve Kültürü Üzerine, Milli Folklor, Yıl 18, Sayı 72. Kaplan, Mehmet(2007), Kültür ve Dil, Dergah Yayınları,Cağaloğlu-İstanbul.s.24-25. Karpuz, H. Ömer(2006), Buldan İlçesindeki Kişi Adları, Buldan sempozyumu 23-24 Kasım 2006 356 �Lisisiç, Süleyman(2006), Savremena İmena Boşnyaka, Hrvata İ Srba, Emanet, Zenica. Malcolm, Noel (1999), Bosna, İstanbul: Om Yayınevi. Türkçe Sözlük (2005),TDK, 10. baskı, Ankara. Yıldız, Süleyman (2007), Kimlik ve Ulusal Kimlik Kavramlarının Toplumsal Niteliği, Milli Folklor,yıl 19,sayı 74, s.9-10. 357 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 399 Title A name given to the resource Toplumsal Kimliğin Devamlılığına Dilin Etkisi ve Boşnakların Türkçe Tercihi Author Author ÇETİN, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Kimlik tanımı, kişisel ve toplumsal bir ihtiyaç olarak görünmektedir. Kimlikler; yaşayış ve düşünüş biçimi, dil, töre, gelenekler ve değer yargıları gibi birçok unsurun birleşmesi olarak kabul edilmektedir. Kişisel ve toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığını sağlayabilmek önemli görülmektedir. Bu tebliğde Boşnakların toplumsal kimliğinin demalılığını sağlamada dilin etkisi üzerinde durulmaktadır. Türkizm denilen, Osmanlı Türkleriyle Bosna-Hersek coğrafyasına gelen Müslüman kişi adları ve günlük diyaloglarda kullanılan Türkçe ifadeler anlatılmaktadır. Bunların, toplumsal kimliğin devamlılığına etkisi üzerinde durulmaktadır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/634a31a356ca025db023bc483ce35e2f.pdf c7c026c56fc93373190817c709a5610c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Excel Solver Model for a Blending Type Optimization Problem in Mining with Quadratic Programming Necmettin ÇETIN Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mining Eng. Dept. Kütahya/Turkey necmettin@dumlupinar.edu.tr Ünal GÖ KT AŞ W olfram Research, Inc. 100 Trade Center Drive Champaign, IL 61820-7237, USA unalg@wolfram.com Abstract: A Stochastic non-linear optimization model using Quadratic Programming (QP) is presented for a hypothetical blending type problem in mining industry. Microsoft Excel 10.0 Solver is used to develop the model for a three-seam coal mine and data are hypothetically generated for a case study problem. Optimum quantities of each run of mine (r.o.m) coal with variability in calorific values to be fed to a nearby power plant are determined with given specifications. QPs arise directly in such applications as least-squares regression with bounds or linear constraints, robust data fitting, Markowitz portfolio optimization, data mining, support vector machines and tribology. They also arise as sub problems in optimization algorithms for nonlinear programming and in stochastic optimization. Keywords: Stochastic Optimization, Quadratic Programming, Coal Blending, Open Cast Mining Introduction Blending problems arise in food, feed, metals, and oil industries. The problem is to mix or blend a collection of raw materials (i.e. differenttypes of meats, cereal grains, or crude oils)into a finished product (i.e. dog food, sausage or gasoline). The cost per unit of productis minimized and itis subject to satisfying certain quality constraints. They are usually modeled by Linear Programming (LP) and solved easily (Erarslan et al, 2001). However,a good optimizer should also exploitthe correlations,the expected values,the variances and the user constraints in real optimal decision-making circumstances. In this study, another mathematical programming method istried for a hypothetical coal mine problem, which is quadratic programming. Quadratic Programming problems (QPs) are optimization problems in which the objective function is a convex quadratic and the constraints arelinear.They have the generalform Min ½ XT Q X + c T X subjectto A X = b, C X >= d W here Q is symmetric positive semi-definite n x n matrix, x є Rn is a vector of unknowns, A and C are matrices, and b and d are vectors of appropriate dimensions. The constraints Ax = b are referred to as equality constraints while Cx >= 0 are known as inequality constraints. QPs arise directly in such applications as least-squares regression with bounds or linear constraints,robust data fitting, Markowitz portfolio optimization, data mining, support vector machines,and tribology. They also arise as sub problems in optimization algorithms for nonlinear programming and in stochastic optimization.(Gertz and Wright, 2003). Problem Definition The coal with varying calorific values is mined out by open cast mining method from different production areas and is fed to a nearby power plant which has an annual capacity of 4.5 million tons and minimum heat content of 1750±100 Kcal/kg. The quality of coal seams are highly changing both horizontally and vertically, which requires a precise scheduling and blending during mining and stockpiling stages. 364 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Otherwise, a great deal of penalty charges has to be paid by Coal Company to the power plant. The three coal seams are assumed to have mean calorific values of 2000, 1800, 1600 Kcal/kg,respectively, with equal standard deviations of 20%. Itis also assumed thatthe coal seams are mined out selectively and stockpiled into separate stockpiles. The objective ofthisstudy isto feed the power plantrequirements withthe availablethree coal seams which are highly variableinterms of calorific values. Optimum quantities of coalto be mined from each ofthese three coal seams are to be determined by Quadratic Programming. Model Construction The key to the development ofthe modelisthe factthat for random variables, X1,X2, X3,., Xn var(c1 X1 + c2 X2 + c3 X3 + ... + cn Xn ) = [ c1 c2 c3 …cn] (covariance matrix) [c1 c2 c3...cn]T The objective function in this study problem is to minimize the variance of power plants calorific values from both the upper and the lower limits (Markowitz, 1952). The constraints are capacity requirement of power plant and both upper and lower mean calorific value limits. A simple covariance matrix is assumed to represent the correlations between each coalseam (Markowitz et al., 1991). Here is how we proceed. The steps of algorithm are presented below as: Step 1: Trial values are entered into the changing cells as: $A$3:$C$3 Step 2: Compute the total amount of coalto be mined from three seams by the formula as =SU M (A3:C3) Step3: Compute the mean calorific values both forlower and upperlimits by the formula as: =SU MPRO D UCT (A5:C5, A3:C3) Step 4: The objective function to be minimized isthe variance of calorific values which is computed by the formula = M M ULT (A3:C3, M M ULT (A8:C10, TRANPOSE (A3:C3))) Note that Control Shift Entermust be hitforthisformula to work. Output Results Excel model is given in Table 1 for a hypothetical coal seam blending problem in mining industry. Excel solver modelis developed in Table 2 and answer reportand sensitivity reports are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. 365 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo B1 Seam 2.062.500,0 M EAN C AL O RIFIC V AL UES B2 Seam 1.500.000,0 B3 Seam 937.500,0 A CT_T OT AL_PR O D 4.500.000,0 E(X1) 2000 2000 E(X2) 1800 1800 E(X3) 1600 1600 M E A N_CAL_VAL 1.650,0 1.850,0 Mean Standart Deviation Calorific Values Calorific Values Coal Seam B1 2.000 20,0% Coal Seam B2 1.800 20,0% Coal Seam B3 1.600 20,0% INPUTS B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 100,0% 0,0% 0,0% Correlations B2 B3 0,0% 0,0% 100,0% 0,0% 0,0% 100,0% B1 20,0% Standart Deviation B2 B3 20,0% 20,0% B1 4,0% 0,0% 0,0% Covariance Matrix B2 B3 0,0% 0,0% 4,0% 0,0% 0,0% 4,0% = Plant Cap 4.500.000,0 >= <= Cal_Limit 1650 1850 C AL_VAL_VA R 2,95313E+11 Table 1. An Excel Solver Model for Coal Seam Blending Problem 366 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2. Excel Solver Model for a Case Study Coal Seam Blending Problem Microsoft Excel 10.0 YanıtRaporu Çalışma Sayfası:[blending3.xls]Sayfa1 Yaratılan Rapor: 18.03.2009 13:27:43 Hedef Hücre (En Küçük) Hücre Ad Đlk Değer Son Değer $D$35 CAL_VAL_VAR 2,16738E+12 2,35723E+12 Ayarlanabilir Hücreler Hücre Ad Đlk Değer Son Değer $A$7 B1 Seam 2.062.500,0 2.249.999,9 $B$7 B2 Seam 1.500.000,0 1.687.500,1 $C$7 B3 Seam 937.500,0 562.500,0 Sınırlamalar Hücre Ad Hücre Değeri Formül Durum Serbestlik $D$10 M E A N_CAL_VAL 1.650,0 $D$10>=$F$10 Aynı 0,0 $D$7 ACT_TOTAL_PROD 4.500.000,0 $D$7=$F$7 Farklı 0 $A$7 B1 Seam 2.249.999,9 $A$7>=0 Farklı 2.249.999,9 $B$7 B2 Seam 1.687.500,1 $B$7>=0 Farklı 1.687.500,1 $C$7 B3 Seam 562.500,0 $C$7>=0 Farklı 562.500,0 Table 3. Answer Reportfor Case Study Coal Seam Blending Problem 367 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Microsoft Excel 10.0 Sensitivity Report W orksheet: [blending31.xls]Sayfa1 Report Created: 14.05.2009 23:00:22 Adjustable Cells Final Reduced Cells Na me Value Gradient $A$7 B1 Seam 2.062.500,0 0,0 $B$7 B2 Seam 1.500.000,0 0,0 $C$7 B3 Seam 937.500,0 0,0 Constraints Final Lagrange Cells Na me Value M ultiplier $D$10 M E A N_CAL_VAL 1.850,0 1.012.500.930,5 $D$11 M E A N_CAL_VAL 1.850,0 0,0 $D$7 ACT_TOTAL_PROD 4.500.000,0 131.250,1 Table 4. Sensitivity Reportfor a Case Study Coal Seam Blending Problem In a real case study, sufficient amount of data should be collected for representing the probability density functions for each coal seam and their relationships between them for more accurate results. Geostatistical analysisisrequired to modelthe variability for each coal seam with proper variograms. Conclusions In this study, a new approach tothe blending problem of open pit coal mines is modeled and solved by Quadratic Programming method. Optimum coal blends satisfying the needs of a hypothetical power plant are determined. The models are developed and solved in Excel Solvers 10.0 and it predicts reasonably well for multiple coals with varying calorific values both horizontally and vertically. The developed model can easily be modified for many seams situations otherthan three seams. References H. Markowitz. Portfolio Selection. Journal of Finance, 7:77–91, 1952. H. Markowitz, W. F. Sharpe, and M. Miller. Founders of Modern Finance: Their Prize Winning Concepts and 1990 Nobel Lectures. AIMR, Charlottesville VA, 1991. K. Erarslan, H. Aykul, H. Akçakoca and N. Çetin, 2001, “ Optimum Blending of Coal by Linear Programming at Seyitömer Coal Mine”, IMCET, Ankara, Turkey. E. M. Gertz and S. J. Wright, 2003. “Object Oriented Software for Quadratic Programming”, ACM Transactions, on Computational Logic. W.L. Winston, Fourth Edition, 2004, Operations Research – Applications and Algorithms, Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning, USA. 368 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 508 Title A name given to the resource An Excel Solver Model for a Blending Type Optimization Problem in Mining with Quadratic Programming Author Author ÇETIN, Necmettin GÖKTAS, Ünal Abstract A summary of the resource. A Stochastic non-linear optimization model using Quadratic Programming (QP) is presented for a hypothetical blending type problem in mining industry. Microsoft Excel 10.0 Solver is used to develop the model for a three-seam coal mine and data are hypothetically generated for a case study problem. Optimum quantities of each run of mine (r.o.m) coal with variability in calorific values to be fed to a nearby power plant are determined with given specifications. QPs arise directly in such applications as least-squares regression with bounds or linear constraints, robust data fitting, Markowitz portfolio optimization, data mining, support vector machines and tribology. They also arise as sub problems in optimization algorithms for nonlinear programming and in stochastic optimization. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cec09e9f6a84916e578c4d7cb0f8c5fe.pdf 7325dc01933d7f839af230da3fda9167 PDF Text Text Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes Şaban ÇEPIK Fatih University/ Turkey Abstract: The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we, teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously. Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively; however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability classes. Key words: mixed ability students, motivation, reaction, pedagogical problems Introduction I find needless to ask whether teachers have different leveled students in the classes, I am sure you have or will have such problems. We all very often encounter mixed ability (lower or higher leveled) students in our classrooms. And as teachers, we must learn to find out these kinds of problems and deal with them effectively. We generally ask these questions concerning the issue; what kind of problems do you have with them? How do you adjust them to the class atmosphere? And how do you treat them to concentrate on the lecture? Teachers need to perceive and recognize the nature of the problems students have in the classrooms. Our reactions towards these students are mostly different from each other, we sometimes approach the matter positively and deal with the problem very seriously but sometimes we ignore it. The unsolved matter of an individual may cause some serious problems like discipline, psychology and class management. Anxiety and disappointment encountered by some students regarding these matters may result in unexpected and extreme reactions. When such problems appear, as teachers we should confront these problems. Our approach and reaction shouldn’t be negative. Always there are some students who are below average and this is quite normal. Different problems may also stem from the pedagogical, psychological or social causes, but we mainly focus on their weakness and difference of level. General Problems with Different Leveled Students Discipline problems Teachers often lose control of their classes when they spend too much time with each student. While they are working with one student, others goof off. In his research, Jones found commonly experienced discipline problems when they finished a lecture and began helping students individually at their seats. Students usually began immediately to ask their teachers for help. Teachers usually responded with a "universal helping interaction." They tried to: 1. Find out where a student was having difficulty. 2. Re-explain the portion of the lesson the student did not understand. 3. Supply the student with additional explanations and examples. Jones contends that this process ordinarily takes at least 5 minutes for each student. If the practice period lasts 30 minutes, no more than six students can receive help. While the teacher is helping these students, the rest of the class, particularly those who are unsuccessfully seeking help from the teacher, will talk and goof around. According to Jones, this result helps explain why talking to neighbors in ways that a constitutes 80% of the discipline problems in a typical classroom. Not only does discipline break down, but the students who do receive help are unable to use 1 �long, drawn-out explanations to successfully complete their work. The universal helping interaction is too slow and inefficient. Teachers tie themselves up for too long period with too few students and leave too many students unattended and for too much of the work period (Jones, 1987a. cited in Jones H.F. cited in Edwards H.C.2000.p.204). As long as the students are involved and interested, and if the topics are challenging they will love the lecture and appreciate the teacher. Demotivation As the essence of learning is motivation, learning may not result in success if we can not motivate the mixed leveled students. Due to conflict of such students, concentration and attention of both the teacher and the learners will be distracted. Low-leveled students may lose self-confidence which is essential for language learning, and the upper leveled students most probably will be bored because their needs are not met satisfactorily. “So what teachers should do is to get the students attention Students lack motivation to learn for various reasons. In some cases they may have limited ability and experience difficulty keeping up and consequently develop chronologically low expectations while desensitizing themselves to failure. Others develop learned helplessness from attributing their performance to low ability. A third group of students who have a lot of difficulties are those who are obsessed with the need to protect their self-worth and who thus focus on performance goals rather than learning goals.” (Edwards H.C.2000. p.306). Apart from this, demotivation may also cause some psychological problems here is the main one; sense of helplessness will cause the law leveled student to have the absence of self-esteem, and this may evoke an inner-conflict which is revealed in a negative way. Problems of Class Management Since different leveled students do not keep up with the lesson the learning atmosphere will be spoilt, their peers will be affected badly and use of class time will be wasted. Professionally a teacher must keep the students active at any moment. In order to do that, he/she should create many actions and attractions to take their attention. Doyle (1986) contends that classrooms are difficult to manage because they are multidimensional, simultaneous, and unpredictable. So this matter is urgent and teachers should perform in full view of every student. Because of the many type of characters in the same classroom, any occasion can have multiple consequences that may require different reactions from the teacher. (Edwards H.C.2000) Teachers`Reactions to Such Problems Generally we are not very patient towards the low leveled students, after warning them twice or three times we get angry with them, or even we behave very harshly because they spoil the class atmosphere. With high leveled ones we do not have many problems with them but hardworking students create problems or at least they rightfully show dissatisfaction. Suggestions and Solutions A) Things That Should Be Done 1-Attention In order to take attention of the weak students we should ask simplified questions, or decrease our speech rate for them and also using eye –contact, gestures and mimics we can draw the students` attention back to the lecture. 2- Negotiation We can work at making language comprehensible to students by negotiating meaning. The teacher can open up lines communication by using questions that aim at classification and confirmation. These same types of questions are useful to negotiate meaning for the students who have less enthusiasm and lower levels. 3- Easier tasks may encourage weak students, and enhance their self-confident. E.g. In high level class students are discussing about the wars in history, we may ask weak students only the place and the date and the heroes of the war may be country. If we adjust the questioning to the language 2 �level of the students they can manage uttering only a few words and by time, they may improve and gain selfconfidence. 4- Cooperative Work (Team Model) If you are suffering a lot from the weak or different leveled students, the way of grouping the students with better ones may help you. Because one of the ways of learning is to be with friends, they learn from each other. One educational strategy Glasser advocates to promote more meaningful learning and reduce discipline problems is cooperative learning, also known as the learning team model. He believes that this kind of learning provides students a better way to satisfy their basic needs. Glasser recommends that students work on long-term projects with other students to go deeper into a subject and become more involved in the experience of learning. For this purpose, he suggests that teachers organize teams of from two to five students who have reached different levels of achievement. He lists several benefits to be gained from cooperative team learning. (Glasser, 1986a cited in Edwards, 2000): • Working in teams provides students a sense of belonging, which helps motivate them to work harder and achieve more. • The more advanced students find it fulfilling to help less able team members because they want the power and friendship that go with a high-performing team. • Less able students also have their needs fulfilled. In the group, they are able to accomplish something, whereas they did very little before. Their contribution to the team is appreciated more than their previous individual efforts were. • By working in teams, students gain a greater sense of independence from the teacher and discover themselves able to make valuable contributions to the class. • Learning teams serve as a structure within which students can obtain a deeper understanding of school subjects. Unless students understand the subjects they study more deeply, they will be unable to make the vital connection between knowledge and power that must underlie any attempt to improve today's schools. • Teams provide a framework within which students can better evaluate themselves. More than just grades may be considered as evidence that students are learning. • Promote positive beliefs about ability. Help them see that their intelligence is not a given amount, but that they can increase it with effort and learning. • Help students make a connection between their efforts and achievements. Help them set realistic goals and develop confidence in reaching them. • Help students learn to take pride in personal accomplishments and their developing expertise, and to minimize the attention given to competition and social comparisons. • Help them achieve a feeling of self-worth through their achievement. (Covington, 1992) • And also, depending on the experience in their research, Hallam & Ireson (2001) claim that a more cooperative environment is encouraged, where students work in groups and support each other. By doing this A more permissive classroom atmosphere will be possible. But on the other hand they mention that they include the comments from a school teacher: ‘I have a few reservations about mixed ability teaching because the higher ability pupils are not stretched to their full potential. However, we do very well with the lower ability in the classroom.’ 5- Using the Praise-Prompt-Leave Sequence Teachers can escape the predicament of mixed ability students by avoiding universal helping interactions and instead using the praise-prompt-leave sequence of instruction. (Jones H.F. cited in Edwards H.C.2000.p.204) Praise- In giving praise, the teacher reviews what the student has done right, which not only provides a positive experience for the student but also defines the starting point for new instruction. For teachers to become good at giving praise, they need to avoid the common habit of looking for errors in students' work. This tendency causes teachers to communicate dissatisfaction as well as frustration and exasperation. Teachers should build on adequately completed work, not defects. They need to develop an aptitude for seeing the positive and making it a reflex action. Once the strength of a student's work is identified, appropriate words can be used to describe it. This language must be a specific description of exactly what is well done- Avoid statements such as "Nice job" and "You're off to a good start," Instead, say "You have organized this paragraph well. There are transitions between all the sentences." Prompt- To prompt is to tell students exactly what to do next. Prompting should be clear and simple. Ordinarily, mastery of concepts involves many steps. Students, however, can perform these steps only one at a time. Teachers therefore should provide a prompt that requires a one-step performance. Asking students to perform many steps tends to produce cognitive overload. Teachers tend to bog students down with excessive, complex verbiage. 3 �They talk too much and explain more than students can keep straight at one time. Instead, teachers should prompt students about the next action to take and then encourage them to act on the prompt. Prompts can either direct a student to do something or not to do something. An initiating request asks a student either to begin something or to do it more. A terminating request asks a student to stop something or to do it less. Leave- Once a clear and simple prompt is given; teachers should leave and turn their attention immediately to other students, take time to observe how students act on prompts. Leaving will cause discomfort, given their inclination to stay at students' desks long enough to see how they respond to instructions. Even so, teachers must avoid the tern longer. Not only does leaving convey confidence in students' ability instruction given, but it also gives teachers more time to circulate in the system, teachers can see more students and see the same student more than once in one class period. At the same time, the teacher gains greater control by being able to move around the entire classroom more quickly. (Jones 1987 cited in Edwards, 2000). 6-Types of learners Hallam, S& Ireson, J.(2001) classify the learners type as; gifted, high-end, academically talented and advanced learners, and we can add lower leveled ones to this group. All these miscellaneous type of learners bother us but if we identify them very well we can find solutions to the problems. Of course gifted students need special interest, low leveled students (if not little school kids) can be motivated in the cooperative learning groups with the assistance of advanced learners. And Like the others they should be encouraged and satisfied as well, and their abilities need to be developed. These learners may fail to achieve their potential without teachers that coach for applying useful, high level and challenging curriculum. B) Things That Should Not Be Done. We sometimes unconsciously demotivate the weak students by motivating them a bit, and later discourage them badly by mentioning their unforgivable mistakes or so on. In the Jones’ Model Fredric H. Jones suggests that teachers should be aware of how most universal helping interactions between students and teachers are initiated and avoid getting caught up in them. The following are actions that might be avoided: Asking students where they are having difficulty is the most common and straightforward means of initiating a helping interaction. Teachers often ask, "Where are you having difficulty?" or "What is it you don't understand?" 1. Teachers are often aware of the difficulties students experience and identify these difficulties as they offer to help. For example, they may say, "I see you are having trouble carrying the correct digit. Let me show you how it is done." 2. Focusing on the students' strengths before calling attention to the problems is a common tactic among teachers who are aware of the necessity of giving students support during feedback. They believe that giving good news first will diminish the negative effects of the bad news that follows. A teacher might say, "You did the first few problems correctly, but when you got to the ones requiring long division, you did them all wrong." 3. Some teachers express their exasperation with students in the way they use body language, such as shaking the head from side to side, as if to say, "I have never seen anything like this. How could you have worked these problems this way?" 4. Sometimes, before they help students, teachers give voice to comments that are simply derogatory (for example, "How can you he so stupid?"). Jones calls these comments "zaps and zingers." Considerable harm can be done to students to whom these comments are directed. (Edwards, ,2000. p.241) 5. Should not be ignored and be insulted 6. High performance should not be expected from the weak ones. 7. Should not be reprimanded, dismissed from the class 8. Teachers should never try corporal punishment. Conclusion Having different or mixed leveled students is unavoidable for the teachers of languages, so what we’ve got to do are to accept the situation. And without ignoring they try to find satisfactory and productive solutions. These solutions are mainly to put them into a cooperative work, motivate them by giving extra help and home task, ask high leveled students to help the lower leveled. Especially if these kinds of students lose their self confidence for 4 �learning they may start thinking that they can not do anything. So teachers should carefully approach in order to help them in time, and prevent them from spoiling the class atmosphere. Children with learned helplessness also benefit from attribution retraining. This consists of providing a planned series of experiences, couched within an achievement context in which modeling, socialization, practice, and feedback are used to teach them (1) to concentrate on what they try to learn without worrying about failing, (2) to deal with mistakes by retracing their steps to find where they slipped up and by analyzing the problem to find a more reasonable approach, and (3) to attribute their failures to insufficient effort, lack of information, or use of ineffective strategies rather than lack of ability (Craske, 1985). These efforts are necessary because success alone is not enough. (Edwards, 2000 p.307). Cooperative learning provides hope for altering this unhappy situation. It provides a way for students to assert themselves without the discomfort of always being compared with their peers and found lacking. Properly organized cooperative learning can help all children experience success and feel more accepted in school. Classrooms thus become more exciting places to learn because students have greater control over what they learn and because the atmosphere in which learning takes place is more fun. In cooperative learning programs, teachers can capitalize on the motivation students already have for learning by involving them in decisions about what they learn and then allowing them to pursue their own interests in their own style. (Edwards, P.313, 2000). Examining the mixed ability teaching environment and students at different ages, and reading the comments of some teachers in the book written by Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001) we assume that mixed ability learners at early ages may be more problematic than the mixed ability adult learners. So Cooperative learning can solve our problem at least to an extent. References Covington, M. (1992) Making the Grade: A Self –Worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform. Cambridge. UK. Cambridge University Press. Edwards, Cliff .H. (2000). Classroom Discipline and Management. New York. US. John Wiley&Sons. Inc. Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001).Ability grouping in Education.UK. Sage. Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (2001).How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (1999).The Differentiated Classroom, Responding to the Needs of All Learners. Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Williams M. and Burden L.R (2000). Psychology for Language Teachers, Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press. 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 311 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes Author Author ÇEPIK, Şaban Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we, teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously. Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively; however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability classes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/979dc0ba6dcf7d44adbf0f7423bf07a2.pdf f6d3143378f5639cf64f8851890119d2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Democracy and Economic Development in Turkey: An Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis Fatih ÇELEBĐOĞLU Dr., University of Dumlupinar, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kutahya, Turkey fcelebi@dumlupinar.edu.tr Hüseyin ALTAY Dr., University of Bilecik, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Bilecik, Turkey haltay16@hotmail.com Abstract: The aim of this paper is to perform an exploratory spatial data analysis on the democracy and development level of the 76 Turkish regions over 1995-2001. While our choropleth maps indicate that the Western part of the country is significantly more developed than the East, the tools of spatial statistics reveal the presence of spatial dependence across provinces. The presence of heterogeneity is reflected in the distribution of LISA statistics. Overall, our results shed new light on the distribution of growth across Turkish regions and its relation with participation rates in general elections. Key words: Turkey, Democracy, Regional Disparities, Spatial Statistics Introduction Democracy is a form of government in which state-power is held by the majority of citizens within a country. All the people should be able to have their say in one way another in everything that affects their lives. It is interesting that almost each developed countries have high level democracy and civil freedom. Furthermore, democracy is related to the level of economic development of a particular country. For this reason, relations between democracy and economic development are intensively examined by economists in the recent years. The first cross-national study on world democratizations emphasized the conditioning effect of industrialization and economic development was performed by Lipset (1959) in his seminal study. Bollen (1979) explores the relationship between development timing and political democracy. Arat (1988) explore democratic instability and economic development. Burkhart and Lewis-Beck (1994) finds that economic development "causes" democracy, but democracy does not "cause" economic development. Muller (1995) investigates that the relationship between the level of economic development and the level of democracy found in most quantitative cross-national research. Barro (1999) finds that improvements in the standard of living predict increases in democracy for over 100 countries from 1960 to 1995. Rodrik (1999) reviews those relations among labor productivity, income levels, the level of manufacturing wages and democracy. Przeworski et al. (2000) implies relations between democracy and development. Hayo (2001) analyzes whether attitudes towards the progress in democratization in Eastern Europe is influenced by economic factors. Heo and Tan (2001) perform causal analysis about relations between democracy and economic growth. Öniş and Türem (2002) look into relations among entrepreneurs, democracy, and citizenship in Turkey. Lee (2005) tests explanations of how public sector size and democracy affect income inequality. Rabinson (2006) researches that the effects of economic development on democracy. In this study, we examine relations between democracy and economic development in terms of regional (provincial) level in Turkey by using Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA). Turkey and Regional Development Turkey is formally composed of several provinces used as administrative units. The definition of regions is only used for geographic classification purposes (for example Marmara, Aegean, Southeastern areas) and to cluster provinces according to their level of economic development. For instance, the provinces located in the Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia areas are known to be lagging behind in economic and social terms. 217 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A couple of reasons have been highlighted in the past to justify the East-West divide that has marked the Turkish regional economies for a couple of decades (Ates et al. 2000; Balkir 1995; Gezici and Hewings 2004). They are, among others, inequalities in salaries (Elveren and Galbright, 2008), the dependence on agriculture and weakness of industrial sector (Ozaslan et al. 2006), the divide in the education level (Ozturk 2002), the migratory flows from the east to the west (Kirdar and Saracoglu 2007), and the lack of private investment in the east (Deliktas et al. 2008). However, it is very difficult to assess the extent to which the phenomena above are the reason or the consequence for the divide observed within Turkey. Following the spirit of the literature cited above, the aim of this paper is to investigate inequalities across the 76 Turkish regions over 1995-2001 by means of an exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA). It is a set of techniques used to describe and visualize spatial distributions, identify atypical locations or spatial outliers, discover patterns of spatial association, clusters or hot spots, and suggest spatial regimes or other forms of spatial heterogeneity (Anselin 1988 and 1999). Several ESDA have been performed on the issue of regional inequalities. For instance, Dall’erba (2005), Ezcurra et al. (2007), Battisti and Di Vaio (2008) focus on the EU regions. ESDA offers the opportunity to compare the differences between the eastern and western provinces by means of choropleth maps, box plots and scatter plots and measure the extent of spatial autocorrelation. Data analysis Our dataset comes from the Turkish Statistical Institute and the State Planning Organization. They represent for each region the level of per capita income in 1995, the growth rate of per capita income over 19952001, participation rates to general election of the region in 1995 and province level literacy rates in 1995. All data are expressed in 1987 constant prices. The time frame we use (1995-2001) is limited by data availability. Indeed, data before and after that period simply do not exist at the regional level. As a result, even if Turkey currently counts 81 provinces, we are obliged to work with the 76 provinces that correspond to that period. Mapping the Distributions We start our analysis with the quartile maps of the distribution of our variables for each province. Figure 1 displays the distribution of the regional growth rate of per capita GDP relative to Turkey’s average over 1995-2001. The darker areas indicate a greater level of relative growth. It appears from this map that the distribution of growth is pretty random, which is an idea that will need to be assessed in the next section. Fig. 1 Growth Rate for period 1995-2001 in Turkey Figure 2 displays the distribution of regional per capita GDP levels in 1995 relative to Turkey’s average. A clear core-periphery (or east / west) pattern appears in this map, with the core composed of the richest regions, whereas the peripheral regions are also the poorest ones. This confirms the findings of the various studies mentioned in the introduction above. In the Western part of the country, the coastal areas and the province of the capital city are clearly better off than the rest of the country. This is because trade, industry and tourism are developed in these areas. 218 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fig. 2 Log of GDP per capita (1995) in Turkey Figure 3 shows participation rates to 1995 general elections. This result is clearly indicates that participation rates in Turkey’s East part are lower than West part. Fig.3 Participation Rates to 1995 General Elections in Turkey Figure 4 may give us more insights into the East-West disparities mentioned so far. Indeed, as can be seen on this quartile map, literacy rates as % of population in Turkey (in 1995 and relative to Turkey’s average) is much greater in the West than in the East. Fig. 4 Province Level Literacy Rates in Turkey (1995) As a result, it can be linkage that low level participation to democratic elections and low literacy rates in the East part of Turkey. 219 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Box Plots The box plot is another tool of ESDA. Designed by John Tukey (1977), box plots display five interesting pieces of information about a dataset: the lowest value, the lower quartile of the distribution (25% of the cumulative distribution, noted Q1), the median (Q2), the upper quartile (75% of the cumulative distribution, noted Q3), and the highest value. The median is represented by the line in the center of the rectangular box. In addition, a box plot displays the outliers which are defined as the values above or below a given multiple (either 1.5 or 3) of the difference between the first and third quartile. For instance, a lower outlier corresponds to a value below [Q1-1.5*(Q3-Q1)] and an upper outlier is defined as a value above [Q3+1.5*(Q3-Q1)]. The thin line on the upper part of box plots is called the hinge, here corresponding to the default criteria of 1.5 times the difference between the first and third quartile (Thompson 2003). The box plots of our variables appear in figures 5 to 8. They show that Bolu and Zonguldak are the only (upper) outliers in the distribution of provincial growth rate; while only Kocaeli is the province with the highest value of per capita GDP in 1995 but it is not an outlier. Manisa is the province with the highest value of participation rates to general elections and Đstanbul has the highest value of literacy rates but they are not an outlier also. Canakkale is the province with the lowest value of growth rate in the period of 1995-2001. There are two lowest values (Agri and Mus) in the distribution of log of per capita GDP in 1995. While Ağrı, Batman, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Mardin, Muş, Şanlı Urfa, Siirt and Van are the provinces with the lowest values in the distribution of literacy rates, other some provinces (Ağrı, Ardahan, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Erzincan, Gümüşhane, Iğdır, Kars, Rize, Siirt, Şırnak and Tunceli) have the lowest values in the distribution of the share of the population with a university degree. Quartile maps and box plots are useful tools to get some insights into the distribution of a variable. However, they do not formally test whether the spatial distribution of a variable is random or not. For instance, the distribution of the per capita income and province level literacy rates across Turkish provinces is marked by two distinct clusters (East vs. West) as can be seen from figures 2 and 4 above. This observation needs to be tested by the formal tools of Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis. It starts with the definition of a spatial weight matrix and continues with the measurement of spatial autocorrelation. Fig.5 Growth rate for period of 1995-2001 in Turkey 220 Fig.6 Log of Per Capita GDP in Turkey (1995) �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fig.7 Participation rates to General Elections in Turkey (1995) Fig.8 Province Level Literacy Rates in Turkey (1995) Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) Spatial Weight Matrix A spatial weight matrix is the necessary tool to impose a neighborhood structure on a spatial dataset. As usual in the spatial statistics literature, neighbors are defined by a binary relationship (0 for non-neighbors, 1 for neighbors). All our work is performed under GeoDa. We have used a basic approach for defining neighborhood: contiguity (shared borders). Contiguity-based weights matrices include rook and queen. Areas are neighbors under the rook criterion if they share a common border, not vertices. Based on this concept, we decided to create a weight matrix to investigate the distribution of our variables of interest: k_7 nearest neighbor matrix. We present the k_7 nearest neighbor matrix only below:  w (k ) = 0 if i = j  ij *   wij (k ) = 1 if dij ≤ Di (k ) and wij (k ) = wij (k ) / ∑ wij (k ) for k = 7 j   w (k ) = 0 if d > D (k ) ij i  ij (1) dij is great circle distance between centroids of region i and j and Di (k ) is the 7th order smallest distance between regions i and j such that each region i has exactly 7 neighbors. Now that the weight matrix where has been defined, we estimate a couple of spatial statistics that will shed some light on the spatial distribution of our variables. The most common of them is Moran’s I which is a measure of global spatial autocorrelation (Anselin 1988). Moran’s I for Global Spatial Autocorrelation Spatial autocorrelation refers to the correlation of a variable with itself in space. It can be positive (when high values correlate with high neighboring values or when values correlate with low neighboring values low) or negative (spatial outliers for high-low or low-high values). Note that positive spatial autocorrelation can be associated with a small negative value (e.g., -0.01) since the mean in finite samples is not centered on 1. Spatial autocorrelation analysis includes tests and visualization of both global (test for clustering) and local (test for clusters) Moran’s I statistic (Anselin et al. 2006). 221 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global spatial autocorrelation is a measure of overall clustering and it is measured here by Moran's I. It captures the extent of overall clustering that exists in a dataset. It is assessed by means of a test of a null hypothesis of random location. Rejection of this null hypothesis suggests a spatial pattern or spatial structure, which provides more insights about a data distribution that what a quartile map or box plot does. For each variable, it measures the degree of linear association between its value at one location and the spatially weighted average of neighboring values (Anselin et al. 2007; Anselin 1995) and is formalized as follows: n It = n * wij (k ) xit x jt ∑∑ i =1 j =1 n (2) n ∑∑ xit x jt i =1 j =1 * Where wij is the (row-standardized) degree of connection between the spatial units i and j and x ij is the variable of interest in region i at year t (measured as a deviation from the mean value for that year). Values of I larger (smaller) than the expected value E(I ) = −1/ (n −1) indicate positive (negative) spatial autocorrelation. In our study, this value is (-0.0133). There are different ways to draw inference here. The approach we use is a permutation approach with 999 permutations. It means that 999 re-sampled datasets were automatically created for which the I statistics are computed. The value obtained for the actual dataset has then been compared to the empirical distribution obtained from these re-sampled datasets. The results of Moran’s I are presented in table 1 below. All the results indicate a positive spatial autocorrelation, i.e. the value of a variable in one location depends positively on the value of the same variable in neighboring locations. For instance, when the per capita income in one province increases by 1%, the one of its neighbors increases by slightly more than 0.6%. Three out of our four variables of interest are significant (at 1%) with the k_7 nearest neighbor matrix. For this reason, this is the weight matrix we will use in the rest of our study. Table 1: Moran’s I and P-Value Variables K_7 Growth Rate (1995-2001) 0.045 (0.129) Log of Per Capita GDP (1995) 0.647 (0.001) Participation Rates to Gen. Elections (1995) 0.706 (0.001) Literacy Rates (1995) 0.799 (0.001) Note: p-values are into brackets Moran’s Scatter plot for Global and Local Spatial Autocorrelation The Moran scatter plot often complements Moran’s I because it provides an easy way to categorize the nature of spatial autocorrelation into four types: low-low (noted LL), low-high (LH), high-low (HL) and highhigh( HH) with the first part refereeing to the studied location itself and the second part refereeing to the neighboring ones. For instance, HH means a high value in the studied area and a high value in the neighboring areas. The four types are reflected in the four quadrants that compose a Moran’s scatter plot. The link between a scatter plot and Moran’s I is reflected by a line of which slope is the value of Moran’s I statistic. Regions located in quadrants I and III refer to positive spatial autocorrelation, the spatial clustering of similar values, whereas quadrants II and IV represent negative spatial autocorrelation, the spatial clustering of dissimilar values. Figures 9 to 12 below display the Moran scatter plots of our variables of interest. For both the per capita income, participation rates and literacy rates, positive spatial autocorrelation is reflected by the value of Moran’s I and the fact that most of the provinces are located in quadrants HH and LL with HH displaying a cluster a Western provinces while LL shows a cluster of Eastern provinces. Once again, it reflects the dualistic structure of Turkey’s provinces. 222 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fig. 9 Growth rate for period of 1995-2001 in Turkey Fig. 11 Participation Rates to General elections (1995) Fig. 10 Log of Per Capita GDP in Turkey (1995) Fig. 12 Province Level Literacy Rates in Turkey (1995) 223 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2 indicates the name of the regions according to their distribution in the Moran scatterplot quadrants. Positive spatial autocorrelation is reflected by the fact that most provinces are in the high-high and low-low quadrants. More precisely, for the per capita GDP, participation rate and literacy rate variables, the Western provinces are mostly High-high areas while the Eastern ones are Low-Low. Obviously, the Low-High and High-Low quadrants contain fewer provinces. Table 2 Distribution of Spatial Autocorrelation LH HL Growth rate for period of 1995-2001 Ağrı, Bayburt, Bingöl, Bitlis, Eskişehir, Giresun, Gümüşhane, Hakkari, Iğdır, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kocaeli, Muş, Ordu, Rize, Sivas, Tunceli, Van, Zonguldak, Bolu HH Aksaray, Antalya, Aydın, Balıkesir, Burdur, Bursa, Çanakkale, Corum, Elazığ, Đçel, Đzmir, Karaman, Kırıkkale, Konya, Kütahya, Samsun, Şanlıurfa, Tekirdağ, Uşak, Yozgat, Đstanbul, Gaziantep LL Afyon, Batman, Denizli, Edirne, Isparta, K.Maraş, Kırklareli, Kırşehir, Manisa, Muğla, Nevşehir, Niğde, Sinop, Tokat Log of province level per capita GDP (1995) Ankara, Antalya, Aydın, Balıkesir, Bilecik, Burdur, Bursa, Çanakkale, Denizli, Edirne, Eskişehir, Đçel, Đzmir, Karaman, Kastamonu, Kırklareli, Konya, Kocaeli, Kütahya, Manisa, Muğla, Niğde, Sakarya, Tekirdağ, Uşak, Đstanbul, Zonguldak, Adana, Bolu Adıyaman, Ağrı, Ardahan, Batman, Bayburt, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Erzincan, Erzurum, Giresun, Gümüşhane, Hakkari, Iğdır, K.Maraş, Kars, Kırşehir, Malatya, Mardin, Muş, Ordu, S.Urfa, Siirt, Sinop, Şırnak, Sivas, Tokat, Tunceli, Van Afyon, Aksaray, Bartın, Çankırı, Isparta, Yozgat Adıyaman, Amasya, Ankara, Ardahan, Artvin, Bartın, Bilecik, Çankırı, Diyarbakır, Erzincan, Erzurum, Hatay, Kars, Malatya, Mardin, Sakarya, Siirt, Şırnak, Trabzon, Adana Amasya, Artvin, Corum, Elazığ, Hatay, Kayseri, Kırıkkale, Nevşehir, Rize, Samsun, Trabzon, Gaziantep Participation to General Elections (1995) Afyon, Ankara, Antalya, Aydın, Balıkesir, Bartın, Bilecik, Burdur, Bursa, Çanakkale, Çankırı, Çorum, Denizli, Edirne, Eskişehir, Isparta, Đzmir, Karaman, Kastamonu, Kırıkkale, Kırklareli, Kocaeli, Konya, Kütahya, Manisa, Muğla, Nevşehir, Sakarya, Samsun, Tekirdağ, Tokat, Uşak, Yozgat, Zonguldak, Bolu Adana, Adıyaman, Ağrı, Ardahan, Artvin, Batman, Bayburt, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Elazığ, Erzincan, Erzurum, Giresun, Gümüşhane, Iğdır, K.Maraş, Kars, Malatya, Mardin, Muş, Ordu, Rize, Şanlıurfa, Siirt, Şırnak, Sivas, Trabzon, Tunceli, Van, Gaziantep Amasya, Hakkari, Hatay, Kayseri Aksaray, Đçel, Kırşehir, Niğde, Sinop, Đstanbul Literacy Rates (1995) Adana, Afyon, Aksaray, Ankara, Antalya, Aydın, Balıkesir, Bartın, Bilecik, Bolu, Burdur, Bursa, Çanakkale, Çankırı, Denizli, Edirne, Erzincan, Eskişehir, Gümüşhane, Đçel, Isparta, Đstanbul, Đzmir, Karaman, Kayseri, Kırıkkale, Kırklareli, Kırşehir, Kocaeli, Konya, Kütahya, Manisa, Muğla, Nevşehir, Niğde, Sakarya, Samsun, Sivas, Tekirdağ, Trabzon, Uşak, Yozgat, Zonguldak Adıyaman, Ağrı, Ardahan, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Elazığ, Erzurum, Gaziantep, Hakkari, Iğdır, K.Maraş, Kars, Mardin, Muş, Şanlıurfa, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli, Van Amasya, Artvin Bayburt, Hatay, Malatya, Rize Çorum, Giresun, Kastamonu, Ordu, Sinop, Tokat LISA Statistics for Local Spatial Autocorrelation LISA statistics (Local Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation) measure, by definition, the presence of spatial autocorrelation for each of the location of our sample. It captures the presence or absence of significant spatial clusters or outliers for each location. Combined with the classification into four types defined in the Moran scatter plot above, LISA indicates significant local clusters (high–high or low–low) or local spatial outliers (high–low or low–high). The average of the Local Moran statistics is proportional to the Global Moran's I value (Anselin 1995; Anselin et al. 2007). Anselin (1995) formulated the local Moran’s statistics for each region i and year  x  I i =  i  ∑ wij x j  m0  j 224 with m0 = ∑ xi2 / n i t as the follows: (3) �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo where wij is the elements of the row-standardized weights matrix W and xi ( x j ) is the observation in region i ( j) . Once again, this result reflects the will of the authorities to counterbalance poverty in the East. We provide the LISA maps (figures 13 to 16) as a visual representation of these results. Fig. 13 Cluster Map (Growth Rate 1995-2001) Fig. 14 Cluster Map (Log of Per Capita GDP 1995) Fig. 15 Cluster Map (Participation Rates in 1995) Fig. 16 Cluster Map (Literacy Rates in 1995) 225 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusions The aim of this paper has been to perform an exploratory analysis of the economic disparities across 76 Turkish provinces. We have investigated the spatial distribution of growth over 1995-2001, of the per capita GDP, participation rates and literacy rates in 1995 across these provinces. First, our quartile maps have revealed the gap between East and West when it comes to per capita GDP, participation rates and literacy rates. Second, the Box plots showed that West Anatolia and the coastal area provinces are upper outliers in the distribution of almost all our variables. When we measure spatial autocorrelation by means of Moran’s I, our results indicate positive (and significant) global autocorrelation for all our variables except growth, thus indicating the geographical location of a province influences its level of income, participation rates and literacy rates. These results are corroborated by the corresponding Moran’s Scatterplots that display most of the eastern provinces in the Low-Low quadrant and the western ones in the High-High quadrant. Finally, LISA statistics confirm the significant presence of local spatial autocorrelation and highlight spatial heterogeneity in the form of two distinct spatial clusters of high and low values of per capita income. Overall, these results confirm the dualistic structure of Turkey’s economic geography, as many previous studies had showed. References Anselin L & Sridharan S & Gholston S (2007). 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Annual Review Politic Sciences. 9, 503–527. Rodrik D. (1999) Democracies Pay Higher Wages. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 114, No. 3. 707-738 Thompson JR (2003). John Tukey (1915-2000): Deconstructing Statistics. In: Barry AB and Edward JW (eds.) Proceedings of the Sixth U.S. Army Conference on Applied Statistics, ACAS00/ThompsonJames/ThompsonJames.pdf, Accessed 21 August 2008 Tukey JW (1977) Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA 227 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 204 Title A name given to the resource Democracy and Economic Development in Turkey: An Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis Author Author ÇELEBiOĞLU, Fatih ALTAY, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to perform an exploratory spatial data analysis on the democracy and development level of the 76 Turkish regions over 1995-2001. While our choropleth maps indicate that the Western part of the country is significantly more developed than the East, the tools of spatial statistics reveal the presence of spatial dependence across provinces. The presence of heterogeneity is reflected in the distribution of LISA statistics. Overall, our results shed new light on the distribution of growth across Turkish regions and its relation with participation rates in general elections. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8daf0bef4d42e2143f09220c9d4a280d.pdf 4d1529a6c7432373d462e5d2eb3d9e45 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Factors That Affect Life Values “A Research on the Students of Suleyman Demirel University” Đlker Hüseyin ÇARIKÇI Assoc. Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey ihcarikci@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Ahmet Sait ÖZKUL asozkul@sdu.edu.tr Sebahattin TAŞ sbhttntas@hotmail.com Abstract:This study aims to determine the life values profiles of the students of Suleyman Demirel University according to demographic variables whether it changes. The theory part of the research about life values is consist of Maslow, Rokeach, Hofstede and Schwartz Value Theories. The domain of the research is 600 students from five different faculties of Suleyman Demirel University. Gungor’s Life Values scale was used for questionnaire of the research. First, the principal component analyses was applied to the scale. As a result, the life values could be collected in three factors. Later, these factors were tested with the demographic factors which were chosen. At the analyses, independent sample t test, One Way Anova and principal component analyses methods were used. Value Notion Value notion was initially explained by famous social psychologist Milton Rokeach’s (1973) expressions. Rokeach gave master assumptions about nature of human values preferential consideration in order to make description on value. These assumptions are stated as follows: 1) Total number of values owned by an individual is relatively small. 2) Individuals undertake same values with different levels. 3) Organization of values eventuated in value systems. 4) Culture, society, associations and personality of the individual are effective in development of an individual’s values. 5) Value’s importance outstands and evidently observed in every piece of social science’s spehere of interest. Rokeach defined value as “enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” on the basis of above assumptions. (Rokeach, 1973: 3,5) Geert Hofstede (1980) who made broad intercultural research on values, expressed value as “a great tendency towards preferring specific states than alternatives.”(Hofstede, 1980: 19) Shalom Schwartz (1999) who performed considerable efforts on values, describes value as, “a social actor which helps in choosing behaviours/actions, evaluating people, explaining behaviours/actions” and defines as “desirable purposes serve as guiding principles within variable importance in the lives of people” (Schwartz, 1999: 24–25) In other words, values defined as, “verbal representatives of master motivations approved by society.” (Struch and others, 2002: 16–17) Erol Gungor who is recognized by his studies on Values Psychology, defines value as, “belief respect to anything desirable or unenviable.” (Gungor, 2000: 27) Schwart defines the properties of values as follows. 1) Values are beliefs. But, they are not objective/not subjective/neutral and cold beliefs, they are bonded/committed with strong feelings which are sometimes impasse/inevitable. 2) Values have motivational structure. Values contain desirable targets and they are about these targets which people show strenuous efforts to achieve. 3) Values are the concepts which are upon specific movements/behaviours and occasions. Values are metaphysical targets. This metaphysical structure differentiates values from concepts like norms and attitiudes mostly related to special movements, objects or occasions. 4) Values lead in evaluating and selecting events, people, behaviour patterns and movements. This case is the indicator of values serving as leading standards and criterias. 488 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 5) Values are arranged/lined up by comparative importance of a condition to another. These lined up values network yields to value priorities to be formed. People’s value figure is a steady system of value priorities which defines/describes/characterized them individually. Values’ hierarchical feature differentiate themselves from norms and attitudes. (Schwartz, 2007) Value Theories Leading life theorists can be listed as, Abraham Maslow, Milton Rokeach, Geert Hofstede and Shalom Schwartz. Maslow told that needs and values are in relation one another hierarchical and developmental in terms of power and priority. According to Maslow, needs are values. He said that the only value that every single person wants to attain is to actualize oneself. According to Maslow’s postulate, if the needs at lower levels are met/satisfied, the higher needs are conspicuous. As it is specified above, together with the thought Maslow had that the condition that person is in at that moment without realising a new need is the most important need while he was representing that some of the factors may influence for good. (Oishi and others, 1999: 981; Malka and Chatman, 2003: 744) Rokeach emphasized that values can be categorized as instrumental and terminal. According to Rokeach, terminal values are classified as individual-centric/subjective (intrapersonal) values and societycentric/social (interpersonal) values. He specified that this classification that he spoke out can be in the form of interpersonal and transpersonal, and he specified the distinction of these two forms, as an example; personal purpose expressions like person’s peace of mind and salvation are transpersonal values, on the other hand, communal purpose expressions like world peace and fellowship are interpersonal values. (Rokeach, 1973: 7-8) According to Hofstede, values also have two features; intensity (importance level) and direction (what it implies). He expressed that if an individual accepts a value, these features have great importance to respond the questions in the subject of how much this value is important for him and to what level it is suitable for that individual. According to Hofstede, reason for the individual to determine some behaviours as good and some as bad is resulting from the characteristic of the values’ direction/orientation and people differentiate in terms of intensity or direction or both. Hofstede set off this with an example. According to him, the money is important for the one who heeds/adopts Holy Book-Bible (intensity), nonetheless having less is important than having a lot of (Direction). According to present day’s values, money is still important (Intensity), but it is important that the money is a lot not the less (Direction). However, money is no consideration for some people (Intensity). (Hofstede, 1980: 20) Schwartz told that the content which abstracts values are the motivational purpose types that values signify, and he assumed that value types result from three universal requirements. He declared these basic assumptions as, 1) Biologic reasoned basic requirements of individudal’s organism, 2) Social interaction requirements among individuals, 3) Social requirements which provide continuity and affluence of societies and groups (Roccas and others, 2002: 790) As a reply to the question, “What are the basic contents of the values?”, Schwartz expressed that universal requirements of human existence form the basis of the values. (Bardi and Schwartz, 2003: 1208) Schwartz expressed that societies and individuals represent their universal requirements consciously which they should overcome. (Ros and others, 1999: 51) Students’ Point of Vıew on Life and Work Values Life values of the students, who have many expectations from daily life and working life, is the main subject of the research. In this study, life values of university students were tried to be profiled and the subject of which values the students give the most importance was accentuated. Model of the below study’s hypothesis is seen as: Model of Research Hypothesis Demographic Factors Life Values Gender Ideal Values High School Faculty Belief Values Class Birth Place Economic Values Resident Area 489 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Cosmos of the research is Undergraduate and Associate Degree students of Suleyman Demirel University in 2006–2007 Fall and Spring Semester. %1-%2 of the students of Suleyman Demirel University participated in this research. A fixed number of scale of Life and Work Values handed out to 750 students with the criteria of academic unit (Faculty/MYO) and gender differences and 600 of them filled out the survey and took part in the implementation. Because the non-proportional quota sampling model has been applied, 120 each person has been selected from each faculty. 60 each person from both first and senior classes from each faculty has been selected. 300 each person has been selected as in equal for the number of female and male students. Findings of the Research 1. Reliability Analysis: Reliability coefficient for life values scale in Cronbach-Alpha personal consistency analysis was 0,8295 and N: 573. 2. Life Values Factor Analysis According to the results obtained from life values scale, factors were formed and they were called upon the predominance of the topics. Calling of Life Values Factors Factor 1: Ideal Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 26,088) 1) Provide equity 2) Fight for Independence 3) World in which ignorance purified 4) Help People Factor 2: Belief Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 22,900) 1) Purification of sins 2) Achieve eternity-beyond 3) Peace in conscience Factor 3: Economic Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 16,728) 1) Economic independency 2) Live in easy circumstances As it is stated at the first factor, political and notional statements that person wants to do/achieve/fulfill priority consideration in life, and in general, because it reflects the ideals not the realities first factor is called as Ideal Values. Because the second factor emphasizes the spiritual feelings and belief dimension of an individual, it is called as Belief Values. In the last factor, individual’s eagerness to economic independency and desire to live in easy circumstances to be monitored so it is called as Economic Values. 3. Life Values of Demographic Factors In this section, whether there’s difference or not of demographic factor groups over on life value factors in terms of attitudes of students was researched. Relations between demographic factors and variables added up under the name of examined factors that were stated before with the applied analysis. All hypothesis has been developed in this context. Gender and Life Values • Gender-Ideal Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 490 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig. 1,382 ,240 ,534 ,465 ,203 ,653 6,004 ,015 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -,704 596 ,481 -3,801E-02 5,396E-02 -,1440 6,796E-02 -,705 593,748 ,481 -3,801E-02 5,395E-02 -,1440 6,794E-02 -,260 593 ,795 -1,247E-02 4,788E-02 -,1065 8,157E-02 -,261 588,959 ,795 -1,247E-02 4,788E-02 -,1065 8,156E-02 ,506 595 ,613 2,454E-02 4,854E-02 -7,08E-02 ,1199 ,506 590,318 ,613 2,454E-02 4,853E-02 -7,08E-02 ,1199 1,420 596 ,156 6,893E-02 4,854E-02 -2,64E-02 ,1642 1,419 581,009 ,156 6,893E-02 4,856E-02 -2,65E-02 ,1643 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sig. (2-tailed) values of all variables are above 0,05. This case shows that no difference is noted in attitudes of students towards ideal values among gender groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per gender groups.” is accepted. Furthermore, the result of “Gender groups did not give rise to changes of attitudes in belief and economic values” is seen by the applied analysis. High School which was Graduated and Life Values • High School – Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 6,160 253,472 259,632 1,229 201,050 202,279 ,703 208,604 209,307 1,262 209,347 210,609 df 6 591 597 6 588 594 6 590 596 6 591 597 Mean Square 1,027 ,429 F 2,394 Sig. ,027 ,205 ,342 ,599 ,731 ,117 ,354 ,331 ,920 ,210 ,354 ,594 ,736 Sig. values of all variables except first one are above 0,05. No difference is noted in attitudes of students towards ideal values among high school groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. • High School-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 10,483 328,097 338,579 9,348 448,403 457,750 7,672 210,150 217,822 df 6 585 591 6 586 592 6 588 594 Mean Square 1,747 ,561 F 3,115 Sig. ,005 1,558 ,765 2,036 ,059 1,279 ,357 3,578 ,002 Sig. values of all variables except variable DINI2 are below 0,05 at the table. This shows that there is difference in attitudes of high school groups towards belief value variables. Graduates of Regular High School, Super High School, High School in English language, Engineering High School are more sensitive than Science High School graduates as per belief value factor variables. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. • High School-Economic Values 491 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,248 417,333 419,581 1,968 255,379 257,346 df 6 590 596 6 591 597 Mean Square ,375 ,707 F ,530 Sig. ,786 ,328 ,432 ,759 ,602 Sig. values of all variables are above 0,05. This shows that there is no difference in attitudes of high school groups towards economic value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. Faculty and Life Values • Faculty-Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Sum of Squares 3,905 df 4 Mean Square ,976 ,431 Within Groups 255,728 593 Total 259,632 597 3,782 4 ,945 Within Groups 198,497 590 ,336 Total 202,279 594 3,871 4 ,968 Within Groups 205,435 592 ,347 Total 209,307 596 Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups 2,229 4 ,557 Within Groups 208,379 593 ,351 Total 210,609 597 F 2,264 Sig. ,061 2,810 ,025 2,789 ,026 1,586 ,176 Sig. value of two variables is above 0,05 and for two of them it is below 0,05 at the table. When the analysis checked, no difference is noted in attitudes towards ideal values as per faculty groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. • Faculty-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 492 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,231 336,348 338,579 7,367 450,383 457,750 5,032 212,790 217,822 df 4 587 591 4 588 592 4 590 594 Mean Square ,558 ,573 F ,973 Sig. ,421 1,842 ,766 2,405 ,049 1,258 ,361 3,488 ,008 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sig. value of two variables is below 0,05 and one variable’s value is above 0,05 at the table. This shows that there is difference predominantly in belief values factors among faculty groups. Students of Engineering Faculty and Economics and Business Administration Faculty are more sensitive than the students of Technical Education Faculty and students of Business College are more sensitive than students of Engineering Faculty. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. • Faculty-Economic Values ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 4,487 415,094 419,581 3,328 254,018 257,346 df 4 592 596 4 593 597 Mean Square 1,122 ,701 F 1,600 Sig. ,173 ,832 ,428 1,942 ,102 One variable’s Sig. value is below 0,5 and other is above 0,05 at the table. According to the results of the analysis, a significant difference is not observed among faculty groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. Class and Life Values • Class-Ideal Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 1,038 ,040 2,746 ,481 Sig. ,309 ,841 ,098 ,488 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper ,659 596 ,510 3,557E-02 5,396E-02 -7,04E-02 ,1415 ,659 593,729 ,510 3,557E-02 5,397E-02 -7,04E-02 ,1416 -,120 593 ,904 -5,751E-03 4,789E-02 -9,98E-02 8,830E-02 -,120 587,208 ,904 -5,751E-03 4,789E-02 -9,98E-02 8,831E-02 -,737 595 ,462 -3,576E-02 4,853E-02 -,1311 5,955E-02 -,737 591,151 ,461 -3,576E-02 4,852E-02 -,1310 5,953E-02 ,317 596 ,751 1,541E-02 4,861E-02 -8,01E-02 ,1109 ,317 590,939 ,751 1,541E-02 4,863E-02 -8,01E-02 ,1109 Attitude difference is not noted between first classes and senior(last) classes for ideal values at the table. Because all p values are above 0,05 and their group average is so close to each other. This case represents that class groups do not set forth different attitudes among ideal value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. 493 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Class-Belief Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig. 4,766 3,332 1,211 t-test for Equality of Means t ,029 ,068 ,272 df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -1,375 590 ,170 -8,549E-02 6,217E-02 -,2076 3,661E-02 -1,377 574,124 ,169 -8,549E-02 6,210E-02 -,2075 3,647E-02 -,966 591 ,334 -6,980E-02 7,222E-02 -,2116 7,205E-02 -,967 577,980 ,334 -6,980E-02 7,217E-02 -,2115 7,194E-02 -,766 593 ,444 -3,807E-02 4,967E-02 -,1356 5,948E-02 -,766 592,974 ,444 -3,807E-02 4,966E-02 -,1356 5,947E-02 Sig.(2-tailed) values of variables at the table are above 0,05. This represents that there is no attitude difference among belief value variables as per class groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. • Class-Economic Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed ,154 11,229 Sig. ,695 ,001 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 1,795 595 ,073 ,1230 6,855E-02 -1,16E-02 ,2577 1,795 591,740 ,073 ,1230 6,856E-02 -1,16E-02 ,2577 2,609 596 ,009 ,1394 5,344E-02 3,449E-02 ,2444 2,608 583,728 ,009 ,1394 5,346E-02 3,444E-02 ,2444 First variable’s p value is above 0,05, second variable’s p value is below 0,05 at the table. When T values are checked, first classes are more sensitive to economic values than senior(last) classes. This case shows that there’s attitude difference towards economic values among class groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. Place of Birth and Life Values • Place of Birth-Ideal Values 494 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,645 256,784 259,430 1,539 200,572 202,111 4,668 204,078 208,746 2,432 207,991 210,423 df 7 588 595 7 585 592 7 587 594 7 588 595 Mean Square ,378 ,437 F ,865 Sig. ,534 ,220 ,343 ,641 ,722 ,667 ,348 1,918 ,064 ,347 ,354 ,982 ,443 No difference is noted from the table among the students who came from different regions. Reason for this is, Sig. values of all statements are above 0,05. This represents that despite birth places are different, student groups do not set forth different attitude among ideal value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per place of birth groups.” is accepted. Moreover, the analysis shows that there’s no difference in attitude towards belief and economic values among place of birth groups. Place to Live and Life Values • Place to Live as of now-Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 12,185 247,143 259,328 4,880 197,147 202,027 3,025 205,960 208,985 9,038 201,292 210,329 df 5 589 594 5 586 591 5 588 593 5 589 594 Mean Square 2,437 ,420 F 5,808 Sig. ,000 ,976 ,336 2,901 ,013 ,605 ,350 1,727 ,126 1,808 ,342 5,289 ,000 Although one variable’s Sig. value is above 0,05, three variables’ value is below 0,05. This case is the indicator of having difference predominantly in ideal values factors among place groups. Students staying at dormitories or at parent’s place are more sensitive to ideal values than the ones staying alone. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. 495 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Place to Live as of now-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 6,351 331,537 337,888 28,537 426,385 454,922 3,629 213,491 217,120 df 5 583 588 5 584 589 5 586 591 Mean Square 1,270 ,569 F 2,234 Sig. ,050 5,707 ,730 7,817 ,000 ,726 ,364 1,992 ,078 First variable’s Sig. value is 0,05, although second variable’s Sig. value is below 0,05, one of those variables’ value is above 0,05. This case is the indicator of having difference in belief values factors among place to live groups. Students staying at dormitories, at parent’s place, with friends and at other places (guest house, etc.) are observed to be more sensitive than the ones staying alone. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. • Place to Live as of now-Economic Values ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 5,674 412,765 418,439 2,848 253,831 256,679 df 5 588 593 5 589 594 Mean Square 1,135 ,702 F 1,617 Sig. ,154 ,570 ,431 1,322 ,253 All variables’ Sig. values are above 0,05. This represents that students within place to live groups do not set forth different attitudes to economic value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. Results Acording to the results of the research, the relation with Life Values and Demographic Factors is as follows. • A result with attitude difference is not seen in terms of grouping between life values and gender factor. Male and female students do not show different attitudes in life value factors like; Ideal, Belief and Economic Values. • Where the hypothesis was set as differing in high schools types-engage very important place for education in the life of students- may have effect in value judgements, the achieved results represent the difference in grouping. As a result, there is difference in attitudes towards life values among high school groups. • According to the analysis results about life values could be commented in a different way as per the cases of faculty groups, it can be said that there is difference in point of view. Results like differing in being educated in separate faculties have effect on belief values which is a factor of life values. • According to the test results about different attitudes may occur in life values in terms of being educated in first grade or senior(last) grade, it can be said that there is difference in point of view. It is observed that there is 496 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo attitude difference only in economic values in terms of differences of classes of the students. Based on this case, it is observed that first grade students are more sensitive than senior(last) grade students to economic values. • A result with attitude difference is not seen in terms of grouping between life values and birth place factor. • According to the hypothesis test results, where the hypothesis was set as, if selected places where the students are staying cause any differences on their thoughts for life values or not; it is observed that there is difference in attitudes towards the subject of Ideal and Belief values which have the most highest and second highest variant value of the students’ life values. With these factors, it is observed that the students, staying at dormitory or with parents, are more sensitive to ideal values than the ones staying alone. It is observed that the students, staying at dormitory, with parents, with friends and other places (guest house, etc.) are more sensitive to the factor of belief values than the ones staying alone. It is observed that the students who are staying alone are showing dissimilar attitude than other groups in both factors. Circumstances/environment of the place to live may effect individuals’ point of view to life. As a result, the places where students are living as of now cause differences in attitudes on life values. References Bardi, A. ve Schwartz, S. H., “Values and Behavior: Strength and Structure of Relations”, Personality Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, s: 1207-1220, 2003. Güngör, E., Değerler Psikolojisi Üzerine Araştırmalar, Đkinci Baskı, Ötüken Yayınevi, Đstanbul, 1998. Hofstede, G., Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage Publications, London 1980. Malka, A. ve Chatman, J. A., “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Orientations as Moderators of the Effect of Annual Income on Subjective Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study”, Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 29; 737, 2003. Oishi, S., Diener, E. F., Lucas, R. E. ve Suh, E. M., “Cross-Cultural Variations in Predictors of Life Satisfaction: Perspectives from Needs and Values”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, s: 980, 1999. Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H. ve Knafo, A., “The Big Five Personality Factors and Personal Values”, Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, s: 790, 2002. Ros, M., Schwartz, S. H. VE Surkiss, S., “Basic Individual Values, Work Values and The Meaning of Work”, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48 (1), s: 49–71, 1999. Schwartz, S. H., “A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work”, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48 (1), 23–47, 1999. Schwartz, S. H., “Basic Human Values”, Theory, Methods and http://dpms.csd.auth.gr/emplak/Schwartzpaper.pdf (Date: 23 Mart 2008, Saat: 00:58) Aplications, An Overview, Rokeach, M., The Nature of Human Values, Free Press, New York, 1973. Struch, N., Schwartz, S. H. ve Kloot, W. A., “Meanings of Basic Values for Women and Men: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 2002. 497 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 299 Title A name given to the resource Factors That Affect Life Values “A Research on the Students of Suleyman Demirel University” Author Author ÇARIKÇI, ilker Hüseyin ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait TAS, Sebahattin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to determine the life values profiles of the students of Suleyman Demirel University according to demographic variables whether it changes. The theory part of the research about life values is consist of Maslow, Rokeach, Hofstede and Schwartz Value Theories. The domain of the research is 600 students from five different faculties of Suleyman Demirel University. Gungor’s Life Values scale was used for questionnaire of the research. First, the principal component analyses was applied to the scale. As a result, the life values could be collected in three factors. Later, these factors were tested with the demographic factors which were chosen. At the analyses, independent sample t test, One Way Anova and principal component analyses methods were used. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e8f7ccdf44dd2b5c313e0107c7e0555.pdf 4bee2d5178fb7affc1f0ead6cc294d78 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire Đlker Hüseyin ÇARIKÇI Assoc. Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey ihcarikci@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Ahmet Sait ÖZKUL asozkul@sdu.edu.tr Aygen Demir OKSAY aygen@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Hasan Hüseyin UZUNBACAK hhuzunbacak@yahoo.com.tr Abstract : The professional criteria can be neglected in both the developing countries and the countries that have intensive traditional ties. One can be recruited or appointed according to his relations with a politician, the owner or the manager of a business instead of his qualifications. We come across with this situation, what is called as ‘kin selection’ or ‘nepotism,’ in our society both in the past and today. In this study, we will try to explain the cognitive frame of favoritism especially nepotism (relative/kin favoritism) in Ottoman Empire, which has a very important role both in the world and the Turkish history, and also give some examples to it. Because nepotism is very important today for taking control of the management process in associations and corporations as in the past. The Concept of Nepotism and Favoritism Favoritism is giving someone preferential treatment. In other words it can be explained as the public officers defending their relatives when they behave against law. In literature, relative favoritism is called as ‘nepotism,’ friends and acquaintances favoritism is called as ‘cronyism’ and political favoritism is called as ‘patronage’ (Aktan and Çoban, 2008) The reason of favoritism in public sector is more then money; it is about loyalty and responsibility. It is possible to use relative ties as an impression tool to affect the public officers instead of something economical like some goods or money. The essence of this cooperation depends on favoritism. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002) Favoritism is a big problem of the bureaucracy. Favoritism, which in bureaucracy can be found in various forms, first took place in the literature when General Jackson won the presidential elections in 1828. The ‘Protection System he carried out was misused and afterwards the concept favoritism took place in the politics and management literature. Yılmaz and Kılavuz (2002) define favoritism as some specific measures like going to the same schools, being from the same town, supporting the same political party being much more important then the universal measures that regulates the management practices. The degeneration in politics provides a basis for degeneration in the society as well. The negativeness and the corruption in the politics affect the society’s trust on the political system. This in turn reflects as the corruption in the society, which is most known as favoritism. (Aktan and Çoban, 2008) The laziness and the blindness of being unable to see the future changes the society’s habits from producing to consuming. It is really hard to make decisions about future in an environment like this where all the balances in the economy and politics are destroyed. The distrust that comes along with hopelessness drags the society to bribery or other illegal ways to become rich. (Özbilen, 2001: 1-2) The most common types of favoritism are relative favoritism and political favoritism. In the public institutions ‘relative favoritism’ can be seen in the assignment of the jobs. It shows itself as showing preferential treatment to someone because of some personal factors such as his town, relatives, friends, etc. other then his qualifications. People sometimes try to take advantage of being friends or a relative of the public officer and ask the officer to treat him specially. In these kinds of situations sometimes the public officer depending on his responsibilities his relations require, treats the citizen in a special way then he does a plain citizen. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002: 25) 498 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The first type of relative favoritism as known as “Nepotism” is “assigning someone to a public position according to his relative relations instead of the required qualifications.” According to some studies, especially in less developed countries, the close relative relations still have an important affect in formal organization structure. The second type is known as “cronyism” which is known as “assigning someone to a public position according to his relations such as friendship or citizenship.” Some researches say that there is no difference between nepotism and cronyism. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002: 25-26) Another type of favoritism occurs when someone influential uses his force to ask a privileged treatment from a public officer. In this situation; the officer in case of asking a favor later or just to protect himself from the possible negative reactions, might does a privileged procedure. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002) Nepotism, cronyism and partisanship can be seen in almost all the public offices. The wrong policy carried out in personnel management decreases the efficiency and also affects the trust to the government negatively. (Özbilen, 2001: 1-2) The Formation Of Nepotism Nepotism is a fact that is seen mostly in countries that have intense traditional ties and relations and where the market mechanism isn’t developed well as well as in those family businesses in the developed countries. (Özler, Özler ve Gümüştekin, 2008: 438; Tepav, 2006) “Kin selection” is a natural instinct in humans and as some scientist say in animals. According to the biological/ecological approaches nepotism is a rational behavior. These approaches define nepotism as a chosen behavior. (Özler, Özler ve Gümüştekin, 2008: 438) The phrase “Friendship lasts a day, kinship lasts every day.” is taken from Kramer’s book ‘L’Historie Commence a Summer’, summarizes nepotism as the continuance of trust from the human being’s point of view. (Danışmend, 1979: 27) Another factor in the forming of nepotism is the structure of family and society. The degree of society’s being individualist or collectivist also affects nepotism. The appropriate composition of society’s individualism or collectivism is important for the balance and health of society. In the western societies estrangement is seen because of excessive individualist structure. On the opposite side the excessive collectivist structure prevent the forming of non-governmental organizations; while the sharp collectivist structure forms estrangement in the eastern societies. In this context the spirit of cooperation should be built again in the western societies. On the other hand in the eastern societies the individualism should be supported so as to turn the firm and close community into a society. (Bayhan, 2002) According to Fukuyama traditional family ties form dependant individuals and prevent the development of the countries. The continuance of only family and complex relative relations prevents economical progress. The individuals who only trust their family or relatives can’t establish free will relationships. Nepotism is effective in those societies where the self-interest and solidarity in family comes before the ethical values. Family, relatives, citizenship, political party, clan, ideology or a religious community play a deterministic role in social relations. “When loyalty in social structure exceeds economical rationalism; then the cooperation in the commune will lead to favoritism in simple employment procedures.” (Bayhan, 2002) The definitions of nepotism in the literature are as follows: Nepotism is “employing or giving promotion to people according to their relative ties and ignoring whether they have the required qualifications such as education, skills, ability, etc.” (Özler, Özler and Gümüştekin, 2008: 438) Nepotism is derived from a Latin word ‘nepos’ which means a ‘male cousin’ or a ‘grandson’. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism) The negative meaning of the word comes from the Renaissance period where the Popes assigned their nephews to the highest positions without looking at their qualifications. (Khanri vd.; 6-7) Thus it can be defined as giving position to nephews or other relatives according to relations other then capability or suitability. (Khatri vd.; 7) Another definition of nepotism is using one’s preference in favor of a relative in assignment of important positions. The applications of nepotism can be seen mostly in less-developed countries where the traditional ties are more intense. (Özsemerci, 2003: 20, Uluyol, 2004: 63) Some researches say that in case of nepotism the public officers don’t have a benefit whereas other researches disagree with this idea. As a result it is obvious that the public officer gains prestige and recognition as well as monetary benefit from a status he doesn’t deserve. (Tepav,2006) In the private sector we see the applications of nepotism during the establishment of family businesses. (Uluyol, 2003: 63) It should be seen something natural to put family members in the important positions; but it can hurt the company negatively to employ someone without the required qualifications just because they are family members. Just like Nejat Eczacıbaşı said “It’s a big mistake to hire inadequate talented family members and give them a managing position just because of their relations.” ( Eczacıbaşı, 1999: 257) The application of nepotism can be seen in two different ways: 499 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo � � The ones who gain power give important positions to their friends and acquaintances. The most known way of nepotism is this. (Fişek; http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2000/10/05/246865.asp) In this kind of application nepotism is done by the one who owns power. The one who has authority uses this power to gain benefit to his relatives. We can say that in this kind of nepotism the person deliberatively uses his position badly. In the other type of application the relatives themselves use the person’s authority, name or power to gain advantage. (Fişek) We can see this kind of application especially in the government bidding processes. Nepotism in History Favoritism is seen in all periods of history: in Archaic China, India, Greece, the Roman Empire, the Sumerians, the Middle Ages, Age of Reason and today in most of the world. The Sumerian tablet, found in BC 4000, in Istanbul Archaeological Museum shows how an unsuccessful student became the most successful student of the class as well as the president of the class. It tells in the tablet how the family invites the teacher to their house, serve him food and give him presents. (http://www.tepav.org.tr/tur/admin/dosyabul/upload/yolsuzluk1.pdf) It is known that 2300 years ago the president of Brahmani counted the 40 ways of corruption and in the old China the civil servants were paid ‘yang-lien’ in addition to their salary just to prevent bribery. (http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/yolsuzluk_ arastirma/ kaynaklar/Kisim_1.pdf) Another interesting example of favoritism in history is Platon assigning his sister’s son Speusippos to the management of the academy after himself in order for him to survive. (Platon; 2005: 13) When the president of USA J. Garfield gets killed by an unemployed person, the system was questioned and The Law of Pendleton (1883) which decreased patronage and formed Government Personnel Unit was accepted. Thus the system changed from captured property to merit and career system. The senator Frank Murkowski, when chosen as the chief magistrate of Alaska assigned his daughter as the representative of the state was blamed for nepotism. John F. Kennedy was blamed for nepotism as well when he assigned his brother Robert Kennedy as his advisor. The second Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Abdul Razak, assigned his son Najib Tun Razak as vice president. The first prime minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew assigned his son as prime minister after himself. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism) In 1952 the Truman management was blamed for Cronyism because of assigning his friends to the public offices. (Khatri vd.;3) Favoritism and Nepotism in Establishment of The Ottoman Empire Until the 16th century it is possible to say that favoritism isn’t seen in the Ottoman Empire. The reason of this was because of the theologists and their advices that were effective in the establishment of the empire as well as the precautions to prevent the bad going of the empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries when the favoritism starts, many tractates, which gave advices and warnings towards corruption and moral, such as tractate of Koçibey was indicted. (Özcan Yeniçeri, www.kibris.com, Erişim: 09.04.2009) The advices of Şeyh Edebali to Osman Gazi have been the most important principles in the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. One of these advices was: “The country isn’t an asset that is shared between the Sultan and his brothers or sons. The country only belongs to the Sultan.” (Topbaş, 1999: 28) When we take these advices as a whole it isn’t a surprise to not find a sign of favoritism during the establishment of the empire. Osman Gazi also advices his son Orhan Gazi not to turn aside from honesty and justice. (Topbaş; 1999: 26–29, 34- 35) It is hard to find applications of favoritism in such a system like this. It can be said that nepotism isn’t seen until the end of the 16th century. But towards the end of 16th century many resources show that corruption, bribery and nepotism becomes widespread. Nepotism is a management style just like monarchy or dynasty and it has both its advantages and disadvantages just like every other system. Every culture has it’s own trends towards nepotism where the traditions, symbols and rules differ in the application process. Thus there are differences between the Turkish nepotism, the American nepotism or the Italian nepotism. For example it is possible to come across with two different ways of becoming the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire. One is a relatively institutionalized method where the most talented brother becomes the Sultan. This is rather a way that covers both nepotism and competition. The other way is becoming the Sultan without having the talent or the capacity thanks to the intrigues. (Özler, Özler, Gümüştekin, 2008:438) Favoritism And Nepotism During The Decline Period Of The Ottoman Empire In the book of “The Moral and Mentality World of Economic Disengagement” Ülgener gives place to couplets showing the portrait of the people in the disengagement period. These couplets show that nepotism is a 500 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo matter of preference and that people should be leery on the cooperation with the foreign and should prefer their relatives even if they are unqualified. The couplets express that there should be distance with the foreign. (Ülgener, 1981: 205) Favoritism is one of the major problems that come across after Kanuni. (Yılmaz ve Kılavuz; 2002: 26) C.H. Fleischer, in his monography on Mustafa Ali from Gallipoli, tells that the Ottoman intellectuals in the 16th century have a strong awareness of the law. These people criticize those who are assigned to some duties without having deserved it and talk about the concept of ‘kanun-i kadim’ which is a law on punishment, management and finance. Even though it is said that the government system is destroyed before the 16th century, nepotism is widespread after this century. (Özsemerci: 29- 30) After the 16th century corruption started wide spreading in every area. After the 16th century the administrative system as well as the financial system fell down and the authority got lost in time. The loosing of the authority provides a basis on favoritism and bribery. (Özsemerci; 2003: 27). “Another factor that supports this development is the financial problems that the public managers go through at the end of the 16th century. As a result of this the managers fell in trouble of surviving and negative effects on honesty and prestige occurs.” (Bayar; 1979: 48) From this point of view one can say that the applications of nepotism start with the government loosing power on economy and politics. These kinds of applications start even in the education system. The Medresseh structure starts to drop back after the 16th century and from this date on politics and favoritism starts to interfere with the education system. Before the 16th century, in order to become a teacher in the Medresseh academical qualifications were important whereas after the 16th century favoritism became more important. (Sağ; 2003: 17) Some Examples of Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was unable to cope with the applications of favoritism. The cradle of ulema is a good example of this. The scientists were called ulemas and they were intellectual people who were educated on both religion and social sciences. But during the decline period of the empire, in case the ulema had a son he would gain a salary as much as his father (the ulema himself) and he would be called ‘cradle of ulema.’ Thus just after he is born it is thought that he would be an intellectual person just like his father. Also in the 18th century it was ordered the non-educated boys of the ulema to grow a beard so as to cover for their illiteracy, which was made fun of. In the beginnings the salary was cut off when the son didn’t became an intellectual; but later on this application was discarded. The cradle of the ulema has been the most beautiful example on favoritism in the Ottoman Empire. (Ortaylı, 2006) The men who married with the daughters or the sisters of the Sultans were called as bridegroom. The ones married with the bigger sister of the Sultan was called brother-in-law. When choosing bridegroom, the status of the person was taken into importance not the age, the degree or the aristocracy. During the establishment period the gentleman of the Anatolian Seljuks, later on the gentlemen of sanjaks were chosen as bridegroom. Beginning from the 16th century the bridegroom was chosen from the Ottoman civil servants. The election would be told to the chosen person and ask him to get ready for the wedding. The bridegroom would indulge to the princess because of his respect to the dynasty. The bridegrooms who were working in the provinces would be assigned to Istanbul because the princesses weren’t allowed to get out of Istanbul. During the 18th century some high degreed public officers imitated the Sultan’s way of living. They lived in very big residences and hired hundreds of servants. In order to strengthen their power they would hire young and talented Ottomans. And then make them marry with someone from the family in order to become relatives with them. This application was similar to making the grand vizier as bridegroom. If a young talented person succeeds to take attention of a high degreed officer, he will be assigned to important positions. During the 18th century this application was so common that the historians of that period used the term ‘being bridegroom’ as the finding of a protector and climbing up the steps of the Ottoman management. Fall from grace meant to confiscate the assets of the officer. (Findley, 1996) One of the examples of favoritism in the Ottoman Empire is Đbrahim Pasha. He has been first assigned as the grand vizier and then became the bridegroom after marrying with the Sultan’s sister. Uzunçarşılı wrote about this event in his book called the History of Ottomans and pointed out that by marrying with the Sultan’s sister Hatice he has raised his prestige. Clever, educated and someone very talented Đbrahim Pasha has been the object of compliments never seen before in the empire. One of the main reasons of Đbrahim’s promotion is the closeness to the Sultan Süleyman. (Tezcan; 2004: 12- 14–15) After the 17th century the occupation of ulema lost its importance and instead of the qualified people the ones who are patronized and who give a bribe were assigned to this occupation. Below are some examples of favoritism that occurred after the breakdown. There is emphasis on nepotism in these examples; because the favoritism in the examples are about the first and second degree relatives. 501 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sir Saadettin, who first was the teacher of Murat the 3rd and later on became his son’s teacher became the Muslim judge of Mekka when his older son was 3 years old only. Immediately he was assigned as the Muslim judge of Istanbul which caused a rumor. A poet even wrote a poem about this corruption. This child became a military judge after two months when he was only 29 years old. The other son of the teacher, named Esad suddenly became a Muslim judge of Edirne and after that at about 25 years old he became the Muslim judge of Istanbul. These promotions closed the doors to the real scholars and the positions of judges were opened to the sons of the Sultan’s teachers, Military judges and the chief religious officials. (Uzunçarşılı, 1995: 123) Sultan Mehmet the 3rd once complained about not having found an equitable and trustable man. When they asked him the reason he would tell them that he had complimented the chief religious official Sir Bostanzade and he had immediately assigned his ignorant brother as a military judge and also assigned another ignorant young as a Muslim judge to Salonika. He also told that his father’s teacher Saadeddin by assigning one of his young sons to the military judge of Anatolia and the other to the Muslim Judge of Edirne, made him gain a bad reputation and himself shameful. (Uzunçarşılı, 1995: 123-124) A study oriented to the working women in the Ottoman Bank has interesting results. According to the results most of the women working in the bank during 1911-1939 are the daughters of the privileged people. “Behiye the daughter of the Commander of the Bosphorus Asaf Pahsa; Zaruhi Acemiyan the daughter of Sir Dikran, the eye doctor; Halab diplomat Michel Yakimansky's daughter Irène Yakimansky; Adèle Huri the daughter of a cotton Merchant Joseph Huri; Bedriye the daughter of a sergeant; lawyer Hasan Tahsin’s daughter Meryem Muazzez [Berkand]; the daughter named Pierrette Alyanaki of a hat seller named Antoine; Alba Pech daughter of one of the old worker’s of the bank; a commissioner’s daughter Elsa Filozof; the gardner Alexandre’s daughter Athanassia Fasulakis; the granddaughter of Cemile Sultan Mevhibe Cellaleddin, etc…They all worked in the Otoman Bank in one part of their lives.” (Ammour and Baruh; 1999) The Preacautions Taken in The Ottoman Empire to Prevent Favoritism and Nepotism One of the main problems that bother the Ottoman Empire was favoritism. Lots of effort was made in order to prevent favoritism in the government businesses. The most significant example to these efforts was recruiting boys for the Janissary corps. This system can be explained as taking the non-muslim children to the palace and educating them for to give duties on different stages of the government. One of the reasons why this system was formed was to prevent favoritism. The children who were raised with this system couldn’t do any favoritism since they didn’t have any relatives. We can say that many great people such as Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, Mimar Sinan, etc. have been raised with this system. (Ortaylı, 2006) Especially the researches who have claimed that the breakdown started in the 16th century, have stated that favoritism in education, military and Muslim judgement have begun. The government which affected negatively from this favoritism made some reforms. The breakdown that started in the second half of the 16th century affected the judgment system as well. Especially the breakdown in the education system made the students graduate without having enough knowledge and skill; thus the negativeness that occurred because of the Muslim judges increased. The precautions that were taken weren’t enough. No positive results were gained from the orders that have been declared during the 17th century. Especially with the precautions taken in 1838 the judgment institutions have been set in order and the assignments, the promotions and the dismissals have been tied to legal rules; trying to prevent favoritism. (Fevzioğlu and Kılıç, 2008) Immediately after the innovations done in civil, fiscal and other areas; beginning from 1844 arrangement in military was done while trying to get volunteer support from the citizens. Especially precautions that will get support and contribution from the Muslim citizens were taken. The concepts of religion, government and homeland were used in order to make some propaganda. Along with this it was emphasized that the laws would treat everyone equally, that no one will be looked out and transparency will be the principle in hiring military personnel. (Tunalı, 2008) A solution such as lottery was found for the military where favoritism was extremely common. The lottery being picked in front of the eyes of the participants ended the injustice in hiring military personnel and the applications of favoritism which were reminders of the old period. Along with these general reforms some Sultans gave importance to individual reforms as well. Selim the 3rd, apart from the Sultans before him tried to widespread the reforms through the society. Before having formed the reform project he asked opinions of the notables and also opened a way to participation. 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Özler, H., Ergun Özler, D. and Gümüştekin, G., “Aile Đşletmelerinde Nepotizmin Gelişim Evreleri ve Kurumsallaşma”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2007. Özsemerci, K., “Türk Kamu Yönetiminde Yolsuzluklar, Nedenleri, Zararları ve Çözüm Önerileri”, Sayıştay Yayın Đşleri Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara, October 2003. Platon, Devlet, (Translation: Saraçoğlu, Cenk ve Atayman, Veysel), Trend Yayın; 9. Baskı, Đstanbul, September 2005. Sağ, V., “Toplumsal Değişim ve Eğitim Üzerine”, C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 27 No:1, May 2003. Tepav, Bir Olgu Olarak Yolsuzluk, Nedenler, Etkiler Çözüm Önerileri, TBMM Yayınları, 2.Baskı, Ankara, 2006. Tezcan, E., “Pargalı Đbrahim Paşa Çevresindeki Edebi Yaşam”, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi; Bilkent Üniversitesi Ekonomi ve Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, June 2004. Topbaş, O.N., Abide Şahsiyetleri ve Müessesleriyle Osmanlı, Erkam Yayınları, Đstanbul 1999 Tortop, N., Personel Yönetimi, Yargı Yayınları, Ankara, 1994. Tunali, A.C., “Tanzimat Döneminde Ordu-Halk Đlişkilerine Dair Bazı Gözlemler”, 2008. Uluyol, O., Aile Şirketleri, Medipres, Malatya, 2004. Uzunçarşili, Đ.H., Osmanlı Tarihi, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Beşinci Baskı, Cilt 3, Bölüm 1, Ankara, 1995 Ülgener, S., Đktisadi Bozulmanın Ahlak ve Zihniyet Dünyası, Đstanbul, 1984 Yeniçeri, Ö., “Türk'ü Devlet Yapan Adam: ATATÜRK”, http://www.kibris.com , Date: 09-04-2009 Yilmaz, A. and Kilavuz, R., “Türk Kamu Bürokrasisinin Đşlemsel Sorunları Üzerine Notlar”, C. Ü. Đktisadi Ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2002. 503 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 504 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ABSTRACTS 505 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 506 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 300 Title A name given to the resource Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire Author Author ÇARIKÇI, ilker Hüseyin ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait OKSAY, Aygen Demir UZUNBACAK, Hasan Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The professional criteria can be neglected in both the developing countries and the countries that have intensive traditional ties. One can be recruited or appointed according to his relations with a politician, the owner or the manager of a business instead of his qualifications. We come across with this situation, what is called as ‘kin selection’ or ‘nepotism,’ in our society both in the past and today. In this study, we will try to explain the cognitive frame of favoritism especially nepotism (relative/kin favoritism) in Ottoman Empire, which has a very important role both in the world and the Turkish history, and also give some examples to it. Because nepotism is very important today for taking control of the management process in associations and corporations as in the past. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af8677c724a4f66b29fa79f2ab363cc1.pdf c2610f71850261de1bb906c05fee435e PDF Text Text The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students Mehmet ÇARDAK Social Sciences Institute, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey mehmetcardak@hotmail.com Mustafa KOÇ Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey mkoc@sakarya.edu.tr Tuğba Seda ÇOLAK Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey tseda@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students. Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables. 1. Introduction Technology is changing the nature of problems. Symptoms often identified were a preoccupation with the Internet, an inability to control use, hiding or lying about the behavior, psychological withdrawal, and continued use despite consequences of the behavior (Young, 2007). The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the excessive Internet users, these benefits turn out to be useless. Most individuals use the Internet without negative consequences and even benefit from it, but some individuals do suffer from negative impacts. Psychologists and educators are aware of the potential negative impact from excessive use and related physical and psychological problems (Griffiths ,2000 & Greenfield ). Users who spend a significant amount of time online often experience academic, relationship, financial, and occupational difficulties, as well as physical impairments (Chou, 2001). Some researchers (Brenner, 1997, Nie & Erbring, 2000.) have even linked Internet use with an increase in psychological difficulties such as depression and loneliness. Excessive Internet use is a more common problem in Turkey. Internet use in Turkey has increased rapidly and has become a major part of daily life. However, the advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but also negative results. Of these negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Internet addiction is called addiction disorder, pathological Internet use, excessive Internet use, and compulsive Internet use. (Kim, 2008) Internet addiction is described as an impulse control disorder that does not involve the use of an intoxicating drug and is very similar to pathological gambling (Young, 1996). “Healthy Internet use” is the use of the Internet for an expressed purpose in a reasonable amount of time without cognitive or behavioral discomfort. Problematic Internet use is “a psychiatric condition which involves maladaptive thoughts and pathological behavior” (Davis, 2002). Problematic Internet use is excessive time spent on various activities on the Internet to an extent that might have negative effects on the user’s physical and psychological health; social, academic, professional, and marital relationships, and other areas of life (Young1997). Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, (2000) define problematic Internet use as intensive use of the Internet, failure to control Internet use, serious harm to the user’s life resulting from this use. Problematic Internet use has been associated with increases in impulsivity and increases in social comfort while online (Davis, 2002). Problematic Internet use can cause Internet addiction. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure averaging 38 hours or more per week, largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter families, relationships, and careers (Young, 1996). 172 �Internet addiction, also described as pathological Internet use, is defined as an individual’s inability to control his or her use of the Internet, which eventually causes psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person’s life (Young & Rogers 1998; Davis 2001). Addictive Internet use is defined as “an impulse control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant” and is akin to pathological gambling (Young, 1998). Young further categorized five specific types of Internet addiction: (1) cyber sexual addiction to adult chat rooms or cyber porn; (2) cyber relationship addiction to online friendships or affairs that replace real-life situations; (3) net compulsions to online gambling, auctions, or obsessive trading; (4) information overload to compulsive web surfing or databases searches; and (5) computer addiction to game playing or programming (Young, 1998). Like other addictions, furthermore, Internet addiction has been linked to a variety of problems. Besides little sleep, failure to eat for long periods and limited physical activity, it also disrupts the studies and other aspects of the daily life of an individual ( Cao &Su; 2006). These people demonstrated two or more Internet addiction symptoms, namely, spending more time on the Internet than intended, feeling an urge to instantly connect to the Internet once arriving home, receiving complaints from family members and friends about too much time on the Internet, and unsuccessful attempts to cut back on Internet use (Chak &Leung, 2004). Previous studies indicate that people may develop a new lifestyle through Internet activities, which may cause a worsening in their actual social relationships (Whang, Lee & Chang, 2003). In other words, depressive feelings of people relying on the Internet for social support might remain or even worsen toward their real-life interpersonal relationships, increasing their risk of becoming Internet addicted (Yu-Chun, Huei-Chen , Jo Yung-Wei, M.A.,2 and Chung-Ping, 2008). Internet use may be beneficial when kept to 'normal' levels, however high levels of Internet use which interfere with daily life have been linked to a range of problems, including decreased psychosocial well-being, relationship breakdown and neglect of domestic, academic and work responsibilities (Beard 2002; Weiser 2001; Widyanto & McMurran 2004; Yao-Guo, Lin-Yan & Feng-Lin 2006; Young 1998). Studies indicated that the potential for negative psychological and social consequences reduced as society became more accustomed to using the Internet. ( Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings, Helgeson & Crawford 2002). The explosive growth of the Internet in the last decade has had a huge impact on psychological research in understanding its role in communication and interpersonal behavior. There has been increased interest in the addictive potential of the Internet1 and the effect this can have on psychological well being ( Niemz, Griffiths & Banyard, 2005). Internet use in university students is becoming a serious problem, possibly resulting in many physical and mental health problems The advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but also negative results. Of these negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Typical The aims of this study were to determine effect of group counseling program on Internet addiction in Turkish University Students. 2. Research Method 2.1 Participants The subjects for this study were 276 University students who were at Sakarya University in Sakarya province. After the pretest, twenty-four participants were volunteers among sixty-five Internet addicts who had shown Internet addiction disorder. Demographic information of the participants follows. The participants consisted of twenty-eight males and thirty-seven females. They were randomly assigned into two groups, twelve for the experimental group and twelve for the control group, respectively. In the experimental group, there were six males and six females. Twelve were in the control group, of whom six were males and six females. 2.2 Data collection tools Demographics This section included questions about the participant’s sex and daily Internet use. Addicted Internet Users 173 �With the following two cases as university students were dependent on Internet addicted in this study. In other words, Internet use six hours a day and from five to eight questions, yes, was adopted as the Internet addicted. 1. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure averaging 38 hours or more per week, largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter families, relationships and careers (young, 1996). 2. She developed an 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users, which was adopted from the criteria for pathological gambling as referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–IV (Young, ,1996). In her studies, respondents who answered “yes” to 5 or more criteria were classified as addicted Internet users and those who responded “yes” to less than 5 were classified as normal Internet users. Criteria for Problematic Internet Use Include (Young. 1999): ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ Preoccupation with Internet Need for longer amounts of time online Repeated attempts to reduce Internet use Withdrawal when reducing Internet use Time management issues Environmental distress (family, school, work, friends) Deception around time spent online Mood modification through Internet use 2.3 Procedure Prior to the initial commencement of the REBTgroup counseling program, all participants signed an informed consent agreement and completed a demographic information questionnaire. Subsequent to the completion of the pretest assessment, the treatment group participated in the REBT group counseling program that would be held two sessions per week for five consecutive weeks. The control group received no treatment. After completion of the program, both the treatment and the control group completed the posttest assessment. Experimental pretest-posttest control group design as follows, RG1 RG3 T --- RG2 RG4 2.4 Data Analysis The data collected were analyzed by independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test. in an effort to examine the initial differences between the treatment and control groups on the pretests. Means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the treatment group and the control group were calculated. 3. Results Independent samples t tests found significant differences that two groups were not statistically equivalent on two variables including Addictive Automatic Thought and averaging use of Internet 38 hours or more per week. The results of this study are reported in Tables 1-2 and Figures 1-2. 174 �test Groups pretest yes/no hours Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00 Mean Rank Sum of Ranks treatment N 12 12,08 145,00 control 12 12,92 155,00 Total 24 treatment 12 12,50 150,00 control 12 12,50 150,00 Total 24 Z: -.314 P, .754 / Mann-Whitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00 Table 1. Results on Pretest for Treatment and Control Groups 8 7 6 5 no 4 yes Daily Internet Use:hours 3 2 1 Treatment male6 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 male6 female1 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 female1 0 Control Figure 1.Results on daily Internet use and 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users As exhibited in Table 1, Mann-Whitney U scores, Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00 Z: -.314 P, .754 / MannWhitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00 There is no differences between treatment and control groups about Internet addiction and Internet use 38 hours or more per week. Research Question Does the REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their Internet addiction level? 175 �test groups posttest yes hours Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500 Mean Rank Sum of Ranks treatment N 12 6,54 78,50 control 12 18,46 221,50 Total 24 treatment 12 6,50 78,00 control 12 18,50 222,00 Total 24 Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000 Table 2. Results About Posttest Of Treatment And Control Groups 8 7 6 5 no yes 4 Daily Internet Use:hours 3 2 1 Treatment male6 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 male6 female1 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 female1 0 Control On each of the dimensions of the Internet Addicted Scala, after the treatment of the “Rebt Group Counseling Program”, the treatment group demonstrated significantly even lower Internet addiction than did the control group. Rebt Group Counseling Program reduce significantly Internet addiction university students daily Internet use level ( Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500 Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000). The results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on Internet addiction. 4. Discussion Internet addiction is a common problem in Turkey as Internet users are increased. They spent at least 3-4 hours a day online, usually playing games or chatting .Generally, many counselors who specialized in the treatment of addiction such as drug, alcohol, gambling, sex, and even Internet take advantage of individual, group, and family counseling with a heavy emphasis on the rational choice. Many studies on addiction recovery treatment have proved that group counseling is the predominant modality (Kim,2008). University students, also, become to Internet addiction because of many factors such as difficulty adapting to life away from home and underlying psychological problems, including depression or social problems, anxiety and loneliness. University is a training center for adulthood and an individual must be responsible for oneself. Counselors and University administrators should treat Internet addiction University students for their recovery(Kim,2007) Does the REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their Internet addiction level? The purpose of the present study was to implement this program and examine the effectiveness. 176 �The data collected immediately after the delivery of the treatment of the REBT group counseling program showing that the participants who participated in the treatment group demonstrated significant lower Internet addiction level than did participants in the controlled group. Disclosure the treatment group to the REBT group counseling program significantly reduced university students Internet addiction usage. This may be linked to the fact that exposing the experimental group to R/T group counseling program enables them to aware of their doing and wants, and to plan and perform plan. Also, self-evaluation for the implementation and the choice of more effective behaviors help them improve responsibility. The treatment group experience psychological support from the counselors. The REBT group counseling program that was used in this study techniques: observation of demonstration, reinforcement, behavioral practice, explanation, role-play, feedback, encouragement, and assignment of behavioral tasks related to Internet excessive usage. In the posttest Immediate after the treatment, participants who participated in the REBT group counseling program exhibited higher self-esteem than did participants who received no treatment 177 �References Beard, K.W. 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CyberPsychology & Behavior; 1:25–8. Yu-Chun Y. , Huei-Chen K., Jo Yung-Wei W., M.A., and Chung-Ping C. (2008). Gender Differences in Relationships of Actual and Virtual Social Support to Internet Addiction Mediated through Depressive Symptoms among College Students in Taiwan. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAViOR Volume 11, Number 4, 485-487. 179 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 385 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students Author Author ÇARDAK, Mehmet KOÇ, Mustafa ÇOLAK, Tuğba Seda Abstract A summary of the resource. Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students. Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e5afa8a6aab2aa97997c06f275a9ae28.pdf 77e3ed577542d6f3ae9ed3046478caaa PDF Text Text Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi Mümine ÇAKIR Giriş Rumeli, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Trakya’dan Balkanlar’a uzanan ve Avrupa’da kalan topraklarının genel adıdır. Türklerin, Rumeli’ye geçişlerinden itibaren bu topraklar gerek Anadolu’dan getirilenler gerekse devşirme teşkilatının etkisiyle ilmî ve kültürel açıdan tam bir Müslüman Türk ülkesi oldu. Bu çerçevede Rumeli’de Saraybosna, Priştine, Vardar, Üsküp gibi sanat ve kültür merkezleri oluştu. Bu merkezlerde doğup yetişen bir çok şair İstanbul’a gelmiş ve ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tezkirelere bakıldığında edebiyat tarihimize katkıda bulunan bir çok şairin Balkan şehirlerinde doğduğu görülmektedir. Yazımızda bahsedeceğimiz şair Âhî Hasan da bu merkezlerden önemli birisi olan ve Tuna Nehri kıyısında bulunan Niğbolu’da doğmuştur. Âhî’nin Hayatı ve Edebî Şahsiyeti Hayatı: Asıl ismi Hasan olan ve Benli Hasan diye de anılan Âhî, 878/1473-1474 senelerinde Tersenik/Niğbolu’da doğmuştur.1 Âhî’nin bu mahlası almasında tezkîrelerde verilen bilgilere göre birçok psikolojik sebep vardır. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da, “Hâlâ ki Âhî mahlasının şe’âmeti ile kemâhiye kendüye te’sîr idüp gam u endûh ile âh u vâhdan kurtulmadı. Müddet-i ömründe rûzgârından kâm alup akrân u emsâli miyânında ta‘ayyün bulmadı”2denilerek onun mahlasıyla yaşantısı arasındaki uyum belirtilir. Buradan da anlıyoruz ki Âhî, bu mahlası hayatı boyunca çektiği sıkıntılar sebebiyle almıştır. Fuat Köprülü ise şairin ; Saçların çözsün bulutlar ra‘d kılsun nâleler Haşre dek yansun yakılsun kabrim üzre lâleler matlaından hareketle “rûhunun hissî temâyüllerine tercüman olduğu içün” “Âhî” mahlasını aldığını söyler.3 Hasan Çelebi’ye Benli Hasan denmesinin sebebi olarak da Evliya Çelebi onun yanağındaki “Hâşimî ben”ini zikreder. Ayrıca “bu ben sebebiyle onu gören âşıklar bir âh çekerlermiş”4der. Âhî Hasan ticaretle uğraşan ve bu konuda mahir olan Seyyid Hâce isimli bir zengin tüccarın oğludur.5 Annesi ise Melek Kadın’dır. 6 Babasının vefatı üzerine annesi Melek Kadın başka birisiyle evlenince üzüntüyle işini, ailesini bırakıp İstanbul’a gelir. İstanbul’a geliş sebebi bazı kaynaklarda ilim tahsili7 olarak gösterilmesine karşın asıl sebep, annesinin başkasıyla evlenmesidir.8 İstanbul’a gelmeden önce bir süre gurbette dolaşır. Birçok sıkıntı çeker.9Aşık Çelebi bu durumu şu sözlerle anlatır: “Bî râhile ve bizzâd tek ü tenha piyâde yola girdi. Nâz ü naîm ile perverîş bulmuş vucûdı şedâyid-i sefer-i gurbet ile zebûn...”10 1 Ayrıntılı bilgi için bkz. Necati Sungur, Âhî Divanı, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1994, s.15; Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn ü Dil”i, İstanbul 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), s. 7-8; Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Ansiklopedisi, c.1, Dergah Yay., İst., 1987, s.50; Tezkire-i Latîfî (Nâşiri Ali Cevdet), İkdam Mat., Dersaadet, 1314, s.97; Tezkire-i Sehî ( Nâşiri Muhammed Şükrü), Matbaa-i Amedî, 1325, s.108; Bursalı Mehmed Tahir, Osmanlı Müellifleri, Matbaa-i Âmire, 1333, c.2, s.67; Kınalızâde Hasan Çelebi, Tezkiretü’ş-şuarâ, TTK Yay., Ank., 1989, c.1, s.191; Mustafa İsen, Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın Tezkire Kısmı, AKM Yay., Ank., 1994, s.173. 2 Mustafa İsen, age., s.173. 3 Köprülüzâde Fuad, “Harâbâd Erenleri: Âhî” Yeni Mecmua, c.3, S.54, Yıl: 1918, s.25 4 Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi (Tevfik Temel KURAN- Necati AKTAŞ), c.1, İst., 1978, s.240. 5 Âşık Çelebi Tezkiresi (Meşâirü’ş-Şuarâ) (Haz: Meredith-Owens), London, 1971, s.51a (Tezkire için bkz. Necati Sungur, Âhî Dîvânı, KTB Yay., Ank., 1994, s.13); Şemseddin Sami, Kâmusu’l-Âlâm, Tarih ve Coğrafya Lügati, Mihran Mat., İst., 1306, c.1, s.502; Faik Reşat, Terâcim-i Ahvâl, Kasbar Mat., İst., 1313, s.41; Kınalızâde, a.g.e., c.1, s.191; Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e. s.173; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25; Sadeddin Nüzhet Ergun, Türk Şairleri, c.1, İst. 1936, s.20. 6 Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25, S.Nüzhet., a.g.e., s.20. 7 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191; Kâmusu’l- Âlâm, a.g.e., s.502; Terâcîm-i Ahvâl, a.g.e., s.41; Kafile-i Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.31. 8 Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde, a.g.m., s.54. 9 Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.54. 10 Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b. 403 �Âhî, İstanbul’a gelince ilim tahsiline başlar.11 “İstanbul’a gelüp tahsil-i ma‘ârif u kemâlâta müdâvim ü tarîk-i pür- tevfik-i ilme sulûk itmekle mülazım olmuşdur”12 Kırk yaşlarında Kara Bâlî’den mülazım olmuş,13 bu arada tahsiline devam ederken şiir yazmaya da devam etmiş ve ismini duyurmuştur. İlimdeki başarısını şairlikte de göstermiştir. Ticareti bırakıp İstanbul’a gelerek ilimle uğraşan Âhî, oldukça geç yaşlarda mülazım olur. Bu arada gazeller yazarak, mesnevî vadisinde dolaşarak edebiyatla da uğraşır. Bir gün Yavuz Sultan Selim onun şiirlerinden bazılarını görür ve kim olduğunu sorar. Onun kırk yaşlarında ve hala mülazım olduğunu öğrenince bir medreseye tayinini emreder. Âhî, Bursa’da Bayezid medresesine tayin edilir. Zeyrekzâde onu kandırarak bununla kanâat etmemesini, kendisine daha önemli bir müderrislik verileceğini söyler. Âhî de verilen görevi kabul etmez. Bunun üzerine Yavuz Selim kızarak Âhî’den bir daha bahsedilmemesini ister. Bu olay üzerine Necâtî’nin bir gazeline nazire yazan Âhî’ye Yavuz’un hiddeti daha da artar. Nihayet, Âhî, sıkıntılı yıllar geçirdikten sonra Karaferye müderrisliğine tayin edilir. 14 Âhî, H.923/M.1517’de tahmînen 45 yaşlarındayken vefat etmiştir. Ömrünün yarısına yakını Niğbolu’da, diğer kısmının hemen tamamı İstanbul’da ve son yılları Karaferye ve Manastır’da geçmiştir.15 Âhî, sessiz, rint-meşrep karakteriyle, gurur ve istiğna dolu halka yakın söyleyişleriyle, samîmî, kayıtsız ve lâubâlî bir ifadeyle aşk duygularını ve diğer düşüncelerini anlatmasıyla ve harabâtî tarafıyla orijinal bir şahsiyete sahiptir.16 Edebî Kişiliği Âhî’nin edebî kişiliği ile ilgili olarak tezkirelerde oldukça değerli bilgiler vardır: Latîfî “Şu‘arâ-i Rumun mümtâz u müstesnâlarındandur” diyerek onun üslûbunun Hüsrev’in şiirlerindeki yakıcılıktan, Selman’ın sanatları ve Kemal’in hayallerinden daha güzel olduğunu belirtir. Gazelleri renk, laf, söz ve mana bakımından bütün dünya söz ustaları tarafından makbüldür. 17 Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da ise Âhî şu şekilde anlatılır: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘ u mu‘teberi kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür ki vilâyet-i Rûmda te’lif olınan âsârun makbul u bî-mu‘adilidür.”18 Kınalızâde Tezkiresi’nde “Hakkâ ki şuârâ-yı Rûm’un a’lâlarından ve bu tâ‘ifenün mümtaz u müstesnalarındandur. Eş’âr-ı dil-güşâ vü ebyât-ı can-fezâsı makbul u müsellem ü memdûh-ı sühan-verân-ı âlemdür.”19 Bu şekilde bilgilerin yer aldığı tezkirelerin dışında Âhî’nin Divanı üzerinde doktora çalışması yapan Necâti Sungur’un, şairin gazelleri hakkındaki değerlendirmesi ise şöyledir: “Âhî’nin gazelleri incelendiğinde, ruh bakımından iki unsurun şiire hâkim olduğu görülebilir. Bunlardan biri, hızını biraz da mahlastan alan ıstırap ve bedbînlik, diğeri ise bunun tamamen aksine, şuh bir edâ ve bazan de işi kalenderliğe vuran rindâne meşrepdir... Bize göre Âhî, Necâtî’yi Nedim’e bağlayan çizgide yer alan bir şair olarak görünmektedir... Rumeli şairlerinin bâriz özellikleri olan, sanat gösterme düşüncesiyle yapmacıklığa düşmeme, çok sade hatta bazan kayıtsız ve laubali bir ifade ile aşk duygularını anlatma, halk zevkine uygun buluşlar Âhî’de kendini çok açık olarak gösterir...”20 Eserleri Dîvân Âhî’nin önemli eserlerinden birisi Divân’ıdır. Âhî’nin, Divân şiiri geleneği içinde oldukça orijinal ve kudretli bir şair olmasına rağmen, divanında az şiir vardır. Âhî Divânı üzerinde araştırma yapan Necati Sungur, 11 Tezkire-i Sehî, a.g.e., s.108. Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191. 13 Mustafa İsen, “Âhî “ mad.,İslam Ansiklopedisi, TDV,c.1, İst., 1988, s.527. 14 Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b; Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174-175; Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e.,s.193-194 15 Necati Sungur, a.g.e.., s.18-19. 16 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.30. 17 Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.99; Latífî Tezkiresi, (Haz: Mustafa İsen), Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1990, s. 92. 18 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.274. 19 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., c.1, s.191. 20 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.37-44. 12 404 �çalışmasında belirttiğine göre şairin Divanı’nda; 1 kaside, 1 murabba, 1 tahmis, 1 kıta ve 136 gazel bulunmaktadır. Sungur, bu rakamları dikkate alarak onun bir gazel şairi olma özelliği taşıdığını söyler.21 Hüsrev ü Şîrîn: Âhî’nin kaleme alıp bitiremediği eserlerinden birisidir. Latîfî Tezkiresi’nde verilen bilgiye göre Şeyhî’nin Hüsrev ü Şirin’ine nazire olarak kaleme alınmıştır. Eserin ismi “Hikâyet-i Şîrîn u Perviz vü Rivâyet-i Gülgûn u Şebdîz”dir.22 1- Hüsn ü Dil: Âhî’nin çok beğenilen bir eseridir. Tezkirelerde övgüyle bahsedilen Hüsn ü Dil tamamlanmamıştır. . Hüsn ü Dil hikayesinin kaynağı; Hüsrev ü Şirin, Leyla vü Mecnun gibi İranlı bir şair olan Fettâhî Nişâburî’nin temsili bir aşk hikayesidir. Türk Edebiyatı’nda bir çok Hüsn ü Dil yazılmıştır. Hüsn ü Dil yazan Türk şairleri şunlardır: Lâmiî, Yenipazarlı Vâlî, Muhyî-i Gülşenî, Edirneli Sabrî, Sıdkî, Reşid ve Âhî. 23 Âhî’nin mesnevîsi, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Bu konuda tezkirelerde çeşitli değerlendirmeler vardır. Âşık Çelebi onun güzelliğini anlatmanın imkansızlığından bahsederken24 Kınalızâde de “Merhûmun bir te’lîfi dahî Hüsn ü Dil’dür. Hakkâ ki bir inşâdur ki Hüsn gibi vasf-ı hüsni hâric-i hayta-i dâire-i imkân ve dil gibi makbûl u memdûh-ı dil u cân-ı ins u cândur. Manzumât-ı dil-âvizi cemâl-i dilberân gibi tarabefzâ vü menşûrât-ı lutf-âmîzi hâl-i ‘âşıkân gibi engüşt-nümâ dakâ’ik-ı ‘ibârâtında i‘câz-ı suhan-ârâyı peydâ u hakâ‘ik-ı kinâyâtında âsâr-ı mu‘ciz-nümâ-yı vâzıh u hüveydâdur.”25 der. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın tezkire kısmında da Hüsn ü Dil için Rum ilinde benzerinin olmadığı söylenerek şöyle denilmektedir: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘u mu‘teber kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür ki vilâyet-i Rûm’da te’lif olunan âsârun makbûl u bî-mu‘âdilidür. Lâmi‘î merhûmun Hüsn ü Dili güyâ bu da‘vânun hâll-i müşkilidür.”26 Âlî, Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’inin diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler içindeki yerini de onun benzersizliğini söyleyerek ve Lâmî‘î’nin eserini değerlendirerek ortaya koyar. Sehî Bey de Tezkiresi’nde Hüsn ü Dil’den bahsederken şu ifadeyi kullanmıştır: “Hüsn ü Dil adlu bir kitabı dahî var, gayet güzel ve bî-bedel yazmışdur.”27 Latîfî ise Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’de yeni bir tarz oluşturduğuna dikkat çekerek şunları söyler: Hakkâ budur ki kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dil’i üslûb-ı inşâda tarz-ı hâs u makbul-ı efâzıl-ı havâsdur. Tarîk-ı inşâda tarz-ı münşiyânı kudemâya gitmemişdür...”28 Bursalı Mehmet Tahir ise Âhî’’nin Hüsn ü Dil’ini pek çok yenilikler ve değişiklikler yaparak yine o isimle Fettâhî Nişâburî’den tercüme ettiğini fakat tamamlayamadığını belirtir.29 Tezkirelerin verdiği bilgilerden de anlaşılıyor ki Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Îranlı şair Fettâhî Nişâburî’nin eserinden pek çok yenilikler yapılarak tercüme edilmiş; nazım-nesir karışık bir hikayedir. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da Lâmí’nin eserine nazire olarak yazıldığı belirtilse de asıl kaynak Fettâhî Nişâburî’dir. Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’i diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler arasında en çok okunan ve beğenilen eserdir. Gelibolulu Âlî bunu Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da Lâmiî’yi anlatırken şu şekilde ifâde eder: “Nihayet Hüsn ü Dil-i Âhî tururken anun mü’ellefi okınmaz.”30 Âhî Hasan Hüsn ü Dil’ini tamamlayamadan ölmüştür. Bu da onun Hüsn ü Dil’i (923) 1517’de yazdığını gösterir. Yarım kalan eseri kayınbiraderi Haverî tamamladığı söylenmekle birlikte bu şekliyle de eser eksiktir.. Hüsn ü Dil önce Asır Gazetesi’nde tefrika edilmiş sonra da aynı gazetenin matbaasında Çaylak Tevfik tarafından bastırılmıştır. 31 Hüsn ü Dil’in tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Türkiye’nin çeşitli kütüphanelerinde 40 kadar nüshası vardır. Bu da onun çok sevilip okunduğunu göstermektedir.32 21 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.24. Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s. 98. 23 Daha geniş bilgi için Fatih Köksal, “Türk Edebiyatında Hüsn ü Dil Hikayeleri ve Yenipazarlı Vâlî’nin Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevisi”, Türklük Bilimi Araştırmaları, Sayı 3, Sivas 1997, s. 95-104. 24 Âşık Çelebi , a.g.e., s. 51b 25 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.194 26 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174. 27 Tezkire-i Sehi , a.g.e., s.108. 28 Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.98-99. 29 Osmanlı Müellifleri, a.g.e., s.67. 30 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.266. 31 Fatih Köksal, a.g.m., s.103; Âhî, Hüsn ü Dil, Çaylak Tevfik Matbaası Yay., İst. 1287 (1871) 22 405 �Hüsn ü Dil’in Konusu: Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi, güzellik, gönül ve bununla birlikte bazı vücut organlarına kişilik verilerek meydana getirilmiş tasavvufî bir aşk hikayesidir. Hikayede Hüsn ile Dil’in aşkları uğruna geçirdikleri sıkıntılar, uğradıkları bazı haller sembol kahramanlarca anlatılır. Hikayede; Dil(gönül), Hüsn(güzellik), Aşk, Akıl, Nazar, Himmet, Rakip, Hayal, Nağme, Rahip Zerk, Gamze, Zülf gibi temel kahramanlar ve bunların yanında yardımcı kahramanlar diyebileceğimiz Namus, Tevbe, Gayr, Nefs, Fahr, Tebessüm, Naz, Sak, Gayret, Şive, Ney, Çeng, Def, Şemayil yer almaktadır. Bütün bu kahramanlar allegorik bir şekilde canlandırılmıştır. Hepsinin de karşıladığı bir tasavvufî mânâ vardır. Eserin konusu kısaca şu şekildedir: Yunan ülkesinde Akıl isimli bir hükümdar vardır. Karısı Nefs-i Nefis ile birlikte ettikleri duaların ve adadıkları adakların sonucunda Dil isimli bir erkek çocukları olur. Dil Kal’a-i Beden ve Hisâr-ı Ten’de devlet tecrübesi kazanması için yetiştirilir. Bu sırada öğrendiği “Âb-ı hayat”ı merak eder. Dil’e bu konuda Nazar isimli adamlarından birisi yardımcı olur. Onun adına Âb-ı Hayat’ı aramaya gider. Âfiyet şehrine gelir. Hükümdar Namus’tan, Şöhret şehrinde hükümdar Fahr’dan böyle bir suyun olmadığı cevabını alır. Nazar daha sonra Hayret girdabına dalar ve Hidayet şehrine ulaşır. Hükümdar Himmet ona yardım eder ve yol gösterir. Nazar yola çıkar. Diyar-ı Maşrık’ta bulunan Aşk isimli padişahın kızı Hüsn’ün bulunduğu Didar şehrindeki Bâğ-ı Ruhsar’a gidecektir. Âb-ı Hayat oradadır. Nazar yolda çeşitli tehlikelerle karşılaşır. İlk önce Segsâr isimli yerde Rakîb’e yakalanır. Himmet’in kardeşi Kamet’in yardımıyla oradan kurtulur. Yola devam ederken Zülf ile karşılaşır. Zülf, Nazar’a bir kaç kıl verir. Nazar başı sıkışınca bunu yakıp sıkıntıdan kurtulacaktır. Nazar yoluna devam eder. Mâr-pâye’ye esir düşer, ondan da kurtulur ve Şehr-i Dîdâr’a ulaşır. Bu şehirde birçok gariplikler vardır. Sonra Hüsn’ün silahdarı Gamze ile karşılaşır. Gamze onu tam öldüreceği sırada Nazar’ın kulağında bend gibi bir gevher görür. Gamze’nin kılıç bağında ise hamayıl gibi bir cevher vardır. Bu işaretler onların kardeş olduklarını göstermektedir. Bunun üzerine Gamze onu Hüsn’ün huzuruna çıkarır. Hüsn ona bir cevher gösterir ve ne olduğunu sorar. Bu cevher Dil’in şeklidir. Hüsn Dil’e âşık olur. Dil’i getirmeleri için Nazar’ın yanına bir ressam olan aynadar Hayal ve mutrib Nağme’yi katarak onları gönderir. Bu arada Nazar’a bir yüzük vermiştir. Bu yüzük tılsımlıdır ve onu kötülüklerden koruyacaktır. Nazar ve yanındakiler şehr-i Beden’e Dil’in yanına gelirler. Hayal, Hüsn’ün resmini yaparak Dil’e gösterir. Dil de Hüsn’e aşık olur. Hüsn’ün yanına gitmeye karar verir. Bunu Akıl’ın veziri Vehm, hükümdara iletir. Nazar, Hayal ve Nağme tutuklanır. Akıl bunları ayrı ayrı hapseder. Nazar yüzük sayesinde kurtulur. Birden kendisini Çeşme-i Mîm-Fem’de bulur. Bu “âb-ı hayat”tır. Nazar âb-ı hayattan içmek isterken yüzük buraya düşer ve kendisini Rakîb’in ülkesi Segsâr’da bulur. Rakîb’in elinden, saç telini ateşe atarak kurtulur. Şehr-i Dildar’a geri gelir. Olanları Hüsn’e anlatır. Hüsn bir ordu hazırlayarak Gamze önderliğinde Şehr-i Beden’e gönderir. Rakib’in oğlu Tevbe’nin askerleriyle karşılaşırlar. Tevbe yenilir. Bunu haber alan Akıl, Dil’i iknâ ederek Aşk’ın ülkesine doğru yola çıkarlar. Hal ve Ân’ın yardımıyla Dil yaralanarak esir edilir. Akıl da oğlunu kurtarmak için Hüsn’ün ordularına saldırır ve esir düşer. Hüsn Dil’i Çâh-ı Zekan’a attırır. Tebessüm isimli nedîmesi Dil’in yaralarını iyileştirir. Dil’i Vefâ’nın Bağ-ı Dil-güşâ denilen bahçesindeki Çeşme-i Âşinâ’nın ortasındaki Kasr-ı Visal’e götürür. Burada günlerini geçiren Dil’i Hüsn görmek ister. Dil’i sarhoş ederler ve Hüsn onu bu şekilde görür. Hikaye burada kesilmektedir. Buradan sonra ise diğer Hüsn ü Dil’lerde konu şu şekilde devam eder: Bir gün Rakib’in kızı Gayr Hüsn’ün kılığına girer ve Dil’e gider ve yanına yatar. Hüsn bunu görür ve Dil’i zindana attırır. Daha sonra Dil’in kabahatsiz olduğu Hüsn’e bir mektupla bildirilir. Hüsn pişman olur. Onu affeder. Aşk’la Akl’ın gerçekte kardeş oldukları anlaşılır. Dil ile Hüsn evlenir. En sonda Hızır ortaya çıkar ve dini vecibelerden bahseder. Hüsn ü Dil’de Dil ve Üslup Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinde 16. yüzyıl Türkçesini görmek mümkündür. Bu sebeple bugün kullanmadığımız bir çok kelime eserde yer almaktadır. Eser nazım-nesir karışık olmakla birlikte eserin nesir kısmı ağırlıktadır. Olayların anlatımında kolay anlaşılır bir dil kullanılırken tasvirler, hitaplar Arapça ve Farsça tamlama ve kelimelerle yüklüdür. Olayların 32 M. Çakır, a. g. t., s. 14-16. 406 �geçtiği kısımlarda fazla tamlama ve yabancı kelime yoktur. Fakat hitaplarda, tasvirlerde ve metnin diğer kısımlarında dil ağırlaşmaktadır. Sade olan beyitlerden birkaç örnek: “Cihandan yüz çevirüp nâme gibi Dilüm kesmişdim andan hâme gibi Bütün dünyada bir yârim yog idi Egerçi anda agyârım çog idi.”33 ... “Câhilüñ fahri kesb-i mâlledür ‘Ârifüñ ‘izeti kemâlledür Bizi gör kim ne hâlimiz vardur Ne kemâl ü ne mâlimiz vardur”34 Eserde Türkçe şiirlerin yanında Arapça, Farsça şiirler de vardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçe-Arapça; Türkçe-Farsça yazılmış beyitlere de rastlanmaktadır. Derya-yı dil ol cihanda ki bu rûzigârdur Tecri’r-reyâhu leyse kemâ teştehî’s-sefeki”35 Eser oluşturulurken ağırlıklı olarak ayetler, hadisler, Arapça ve Farsça ibarelere yer verilmiştir. Özellikle ayet ve hadisler metne ustalıkla yerleştirilmiştir. Kimi yerde ayetin ve hadisin sadece metne uygun olan kısmı verilirken, kimi yerde de tamamı verilmiştir. Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’ini incelerken karşımıza çıkan diğer bir husus da eserin tamâmen teşhis ve intak sanatı ile yazılmış olmasıdır. Eserde allegorik bir anlatım söz konusudur. Dil, Hüsn, Nefs, Riyâ gibi soyut kavramlar kişileştirilirken ney, def, çeng gibi çalgı aletleri de kişileştirilmiş ve konuşturulmuştur. Eser insan dışındaki cansız varlıkların canlandırılması üzerine kurulmuştur. Teşhis ve intak sanatı bütün esere hakimdir. Bununla birlikte eserde teşbihler oldukça başarılı ve canlıdır. Birçok durum ve olay teşbihlerle canlı bir şekilde ifade edilmiştir.36 Sonuç Rumeli’nin Türk toprağı haline gelmesinden itibaren buralarda oldukça etkili bir edebiyat ortamı oluşmuştur. Bu topraklarda birçok şair yetişmiş, bunlar çeşitli vesilelerle İstanbul’a gelmiş ve İstanbul’da edebî bir muhitin oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuşlardır. İşte bu şairlerden birisi de Rumelili Âhî Hasan’dır. Âhî Hasan, XV. yüzyılın sonu XVI. yüzyılın başında yaşamış, Niğbolulu bir şairdir. Bazı sebeplerden dolayı İstanbul’a gelmiş ve burada ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tahsili neticesinde müderrislik yapmaya başlayan Âhî, daha ziyade şair kimliği ile tanınmıştır. Şiir meclislerindeki sessizliği, içine kapanıklığı, rind meşrep bir yapıya sahip oluşu, şiirlerinde samimî ve harâbâtî bir ifadeye dönüşmüştür. Âhî, çağının sanattaki olgunluğunu şiirlerine yansıtabilmiş bir şairdir. Tezkireler onun şairlikteki becerisinde hem-fikirdirler. Şiirlerindeki sadelik, atasözü ve deyim zenginliği, halk söyleyişine yakın ifadeler onun orjinalliğini ve bu konudaki başarısını göstermektedir. Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinden başka Divân’ı ve Hüsrev ü Şîrîn mesnevisi vardır. Hüsrev ü Şîrîn mesnevisi, Hüsn ü Dil gibi tamamlanamamıştır. Divân’ı ise onun bir gazel şairi olduğunun işaretidir. Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Eserin çeşitli kütüphanelerde 40 civarında nüshasının bulunması onun halk tarafından beğenilerek okunduğunu gösterir. Tezkirelerden öğrendiğimize göre Âhî’nin ömrü eseri tamamlamaya yetmez. Tezkirelerde verilen Haverî’nin eseri tamamladığına dair bilgi yanlış olup eser elimizdeki haliyle eksiktir. Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi; güzellik, gönül, akıl, aşk ve bununla birlikte sembolleştirilmiş bazı varlıklarla meydana getirilmiş temsîlî bir aşk hikayesidir. Eserde aşk uğruna çekilen sıkıntılar tasavvufî bir ifadeyle anlatılır. Eser, nazım-nesir karışık kaleme alınmış ve şiirler mesnevî, beyt, kıt‘a başlıklarıyla verilmiştir. Arapça, Farsça ibareler, ayetler metinde ustalıkla kullanılmış, hatta metne eseri ilgi çekici hale getirmek için Arapça, Farsça, Türkçe karışık şiirler yerleştirilmiştir. Eserin dili nesir kısmında, özellikle de tasvirlerde ağırken, şiirler oldukça sadedir. Hüsn ü Dil, dil ve üslup hususiyetleriyle devrinin özelliklerini yansıtan önemli bir eserdir. Sonuç olarak şunu söyleyebiliriz ki; Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Leylâ ve Mecnun, Hüsn ü Aşk gibi kendi vâdisindeki benzerleri içinde zirveye yerleşmiş mühim bir eserdir. 33 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 64. M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 89 35 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 98 36 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s 24-27. Bu çalışmanın kaynak alındığı tez: Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn ü Dil”i, İstanbul Fatih Üniversitesi 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi) 34 407 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 430 Title A name given to the resource Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi Author Author ÇAKIR, Mümine Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1623a69b95ca04ef9f17f7dd8b2deb70.pdf e24e0bdad8a3ef387827fbd6d5245501 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Ergin ĐSMAĐL President of COFER, Macedonia e.ismail@coferweb.org Semi ŞAHĐN Finance Director of COFER, Macedonia s.sahin@coferweb.org Abstract: The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Keywords: global financial crisis; Balkans; growth; unemployment; remittances Financial Crisis in the World, Economic Crisis in the Balkans What started as a global financial crisis has become an economic crisis. The world financial crisis emerged from a property bubble and a credit boom. Bad debts soared and banking sector in the developed economies became insolvent. The implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Investments, remittances, industrial production, foreign exchange reserves and employment rates have fallen. As a result, growth has slowed down. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. The governments of the region of the western Balkans, when the crisis hit in September 2008, argued that they were immune to the crisis. However, as their export-oriented economies began to slump in the autumn of 2008 due to the slid in the world commodity prices, which resulted in tens of thousands of citizens of western Balkan countries loosing their jobs, the governments of the region became more open about the difficulties of their economic situation, although continuing to argue that the effects of the financial crisis are least to be felt in western Balkans in comparison with other regional economies of Europe such as that felt in Iceland, Baltic states or Ukraine. The culprit many of the governments have now settled on is the world out of Balkans. Even wider publics took comfort of this argument due to relatively low exposure of the local economies to the world financial markets. Although the governments continue to predict that the economies would show growth and small contraction in 2009, the economic indicators show that the economies are in some degree of trouble at the moment with industrial output, foreign investment and remittances falling and unemployment rising.1 Growth forecasts are down across the region from 5 to 3%, investors are slowing projects and governments are drawing up rescue plans.2 Independent economists think that 3% growth of GDP for 2009 is wildly optimistic. Depending on the world manufacturing and commodity prices, they could show growth by 2 or even 1% of GDP. For the small economies of a scale of western Balkans that have boomed for the past seven-eight years, following the end of conflicts in the region in 2001 - that last one being the conflict of Macedonia in 2001 - with 1 2 The Economist, "The Balkans: A year in the life of Kosovo", 14 February 2009, p. 14. The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 381 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo annual average GDP growth reaching 5%, economic slowdown and contraction in GDP that has started to be seen starting from the autumn of 2008 is a particularly harsh blow to western Balkans. The whole region, except Serbia and Croatia, has escaped the global financial crisis however it has run into economic crisis due to the recession in its export markets, including EU. As small open economies the western Balkan countries are uncomfortably exposed to the world crisis and particularly to EU as their trade with the EU member states comprises their largest trade volume. Since the global financial crisis hit in September 2008 growth has turned to contraction and unemployment is mounting in the region. Also, any lingering hopes that the western Balkans might escape relatively unscathed from the global financial storms were dashed when managers of the foreign banks in the region, mainly those of Austria and Greece, sought support from the international finance institutions. This shows that, although the economies are small and relatively well protected, they are exposed to the global financial crisis that has been replicated in the region in the form of economic crisis. The falling manufacturing and commodity prices in the world markets are causing problems. Depended on steel and metal exports, the region has been hit hard by the global slump in commodity prices and by the expensive imported electricity, sending metal prices into a tailspin. The price of the metals has fallen by almost two-thirds since mid-2008 leading to slowdown in the region's economies. More than a fifth of economic output and employment are based on exports, making them particularly vulnerable to a fall in global growth and trade. Manufacturing and exporting economies are grinding to a halt, as demand across the world melts away. The western Balkan economies contracted further in last quarter of 2008, as a dispute between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices reduced energy supply to the region and forced the countries' heavy industries to go slow, cutting production or even halting assembly lines. For example, Silmak, a significant producer of ferro-nickel in Jegunovce, in the western part of Macedonia, has cut production and has laid 700 workers due to the drastic fall of the ferro-nickel's price in the world markets.1 The nearby brick factory Kiro Kucuk in Veles, in the central part of Macedonia, also exemplifies the gravity of the setback. On 1 March 2009 the employees turned up for their final day's work. The factory will not reopen until the economy recovers.2 A similar story could be told in many countries of the region. Macedonia is not alone depended on exporting metallurgical industries. Serbia has suffered far more as global demand for the goods in which its industry specialises has evaporated. For example, US Steel, one of Serbia's leading exporters, closed one plant.3 These examples are reflection of the data released for January 2009 that industrial production, which accounts for a fifth of total value added in Macedonia4 and Serbia has plummeted by 17%, its steepest fall in years.5 The Macedonian State Statistics Office reported that the local companies have been operating by using 50% of their capacities in the course of January 2009 and their situation has deteriorated on a monthly basis, which has led to a drop in employment rate as well as a large fall in production due to the reduced foreign demand for Macedonian products, insufficient domestic demand, uncertain economic situation and the financial problems. These are hotbeds that might be transferred to other economic sectors, such as the textile and leather industry and to the construction sector, which comprise large share in the country's GDP. The gloom reflects growing worries about underlying weaknesses that make the countries especially vulnerable to recession happening in the EU and other economies to which Balkan economies are depended. So companies have announced big lay-offs as demand has fallen and factories have closed.6 The official unemployment figure of Macedonia already stands at 33% (unofficially it is probably 35% or more) and is set to rise as the new basic salary estimates will only count employed those who pay social security benefits. Unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo are more than 40%. The unofficial unemployment rate is, however, much higher and many who say that they have jobs are in fact on indefinite unpaid leave. The economists forecast that unemployment region-wide will rise. Most of that rise will be the result of fall in trade (many exporting companies have laid off workers), and due to declining investments. Coffee streets from Knjez Mihajlova in Belgrade to Kej Vardar in Skopje to Bash Charshija in Sarajevo are busy during sunlight as young people, forming more than 50% of the unemployed force in the region, sip their coffees. Unemployment rates are soaring and offices of the Employment Agencies in whole region are full with people looking for work. The stock markets have plunged as well. The Zagreb stock exchange index lost 42% during the last quarter of 2008 and others such as Sarajevo Stock Exchange, dropped by 19% during the same quarter, leading 1 Dnevnik, "Silmak prekina so rabota", 2 Mart 2009, p. 7. Utrinski, "Rabotnicite od Kucuk izvisija", 3 Mart 2009. 3 European Commission, DG ECFIN, EU Candidate and Pre-Accession Countries Economic Quarterly, 9 January 2009, p. 30. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Utrinski, "Pad na proizvodstvoto za 16.7%", 27 February 2009. 6 International Monetary Fund, "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Staff Report for the 2008 Article IV Consultation", Prepared by Staff Representatives for the 2008 Consultation with Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 11 November 2008, p. 11. 2 382 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to an annual decrease of 67% in 2008.1 The Belgrade Stock Exchange tumbled and its index lost 75% during 2008.2 An important sector that waits to be affected is the real estate market as the credits have gone down and the borrowers are unable to pay back their monthly loans. The scale of the bubble in the region is as big as in troubling EU cities. House prices rose further in Belgrade than they did in Tirana. So did commercial-property prices. As a result, demand for new homes has dried up although prices have remained stable and over inflated, with Belgrade topping the prices where average residential square meter is sold at 2000 euros. The housing boom in the region is among the extreme, measured by real price increases and resulting overvaluations. This is a bubble which is waiting to burst. Another bubble which is waiting to burst is commercial property where office blocks and shops are overvalued. Both these booms have been fuelled by debt, another reason why the region looks particularly vulnerable now. There is much to suggest that the pain is felt most by small enterprises, labelled as small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that are the backbone of the western Balkan economies. SMEs seem especially vulnerable to the downturn. Many specialise in textile and these are also the products whose orders are the first to be cancelled when economies slow and companies trim investment. These firms are finding themselves chronically short of orders and capital. The governments in the region have launched actions to stimulate their economies. Montenegrin government launched a plan with significant capital expenditures and other stimulus to businesses at some 10% of the projected GDP for 2009.3 In November 2008, the Macedonian government unveiled measures worth 5-6% of GDP.4 Other governments as well have unveiled packages that include extra billions to finance investment, infrastructure projects, extra benefits for poorer and tax cuts. The central banks as well have joined in tightening monetary policies and increasing controls of the credit markets. These measures mean the economy may suffer only a mild downturn. Tightening of control by the central banks has encouraged banks to drastically decrease the amount of lending. When there are no loans for companies and consumers, the consumption of domestic and foreign products decreases, leading towards economic stagnation. So officials are also trying to inject cash and confidence into the banking system, avoiding confidence crisis that in October 2008 hit Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia where the lack of confidence led to a withdrawal of deposits by population.5 They have done this in various ways. Croatian central bank has abolished reserve requirements. The Bank of Albania has limited Banks' exposure towards their foreign parent companies.6 The National Bank of Serbia has eliminated the tax on savings income to help boost foreign exchange liquidity.7 The Bosnian central bank has increased the level of guaranteed savings deposits from 3500 to 10.000 euros and the Montenegrin government has given full guarantee to deposits. The Montenegrin government has also given capital boost to ailing Prva Banka to allow it to expand landing, especially for small businesses.8 The global crisis has slowed down western Balkans' credit-fuelled boom. Estimates of output have slumped and currencies have dropped as capital inflows have dried up. The bad debts have raised as local customers default particularly those that have borrowed in foreign currencies that have since risen relative to their own. One of the dirty habits from the boom is that as local loan growth outpaced deposit growth.9 There is likelihood that one or more of the ex-communist Balkan countries will default on its debt. The biggest weakness lies in a financial system that has combined badly run local banks with loosely overseen subsidiaries of western ones. Some local banks now depend on their parents' willingness to keep financing them – and those parents have plenty of problems at home. The Greek government has told its banks to draw back from their lending in the Balkans. Debt burdens are high today because so much was borrowed in the recent past. This began as a logical response to declining interest rates, low inflation, rising asset prices and less frequent recessions. Some countries have an extra problem of big external government debts (in Croatia's case, the gross figure is near 85% of GDP). For other countries, the strong Euro is a problem; they have pegged their currencies to it.10 Tumbling exchange rates raised the real burden of foreign-currency loans, forced policymakers to keep interest rates high. However, by boosting exports, a weaker currency can offer a route to recovery. In Macedonia, by contrast, denar stays strong as the economy slumps, deflation setting in which will lead debts to grow and possibly banking problems to grow. Possible threat of financial crisis has led the Euro to be seen as a shelter for western Balkan economies from the storms. The local currencies dinar of Serbia, kuna of Croatia, lek 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 23. Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ibid, p. 26. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Ibid, p. 3. 6 Ibid, p. 18. 7 Ibid, p. 31. 8 Ibid, p. 27. 9 The Economist, "Eastern European banks: The ties that band", 21 February 2009, p. 73. 10 The Economist, "Eastern Europe: Argentina on the Danube?", 21 February 2009, p. 14. 2 383 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo of Albania have lost their value against the Euro. Kuna depreciated by 2.9% and lek 1% vis-à-vis the euro in the last quarter of 2008,1 where as the Serbia's dinar has lost close to 17% of its value against the Euro in the same period. The central bank of Macedonia has spent over 50 million euros of its reserves in January 2009 alone, largest since the introduction of denar in early 1990s, to cushion the devaluation of its currency and avoid public panic.2 Macedonia will suffer damages if the Euro loses its value in relation to the dollar as it would affect the Macedonian export to EU markets. The increase of the dollar value will also have negative implications for Macedonia as the country uses this foreign currency to purchase twice as much as it sells. The value of the Euro in comparison to the dollar has been declining since autumn 2008. The drop of the value of the Euro with this fixed course of the denar in relation to the Euro currency will damage the Macedonian economy and de-motivate exporters primarily exporting to EU states.3 The government in Macedonia also has shredded investor confidence by calling for decreasing the amounts given to private pension funds. Recovery is possible only through strong demand in the rest of the world (which is to lack for some time), that would lead exports to soar, allowing quick recovery. However, today demand is falling rapidly across the globe and most big developed economies buying Balkans products face simultaneous banking crises. With demand weak everywhere, the familiar route to recovery is blocked.4 For the largest trading partners of western Balkan economies, the EU countries, figures that came out in February 2009, showed that Euro-area GDP shrank at an annualised rate of around 5% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The IMF has forecasted that Euro-area GDP will decline by 2% in 2009 and barely recover in 2010. Countries with huge current-account deficits are most exposed in a credit drought. So the hope had been that weaker economies of Balkans would be offset by faster economic recovery in EU economies and support by the local banks mother banks' in EU. Unfortunately, the EU economies are facing recession and mother banks and mother countries have asked them to lend first to domestic businesses and households and not to transfer money to their subsidiaries in Balkans. The Greeks publicly advised banks to be more prudent about transferring bail-out funds to Balkan subsidiaries.5 The western Balkan countries face a current account deficit this year in average of around 14%. Nevertheless, the crisis for example has not stopped the Macedonian and Kosovar governments from doling out billions of euros' worth of cultural projects. Financial crisis is also having effect on remittances, a large share in GDP of the economies of Balkans. Foreign workers have been first to be laid off in the western economies. Remittances make up more than a tenth of the GDP of Balkan economies. Although they are likely to fall as a result of the slumping world economy, as it has been the case with Albania, where remittances' inflows have declined from 13% of GDP in 2007 to 11% of GDP in the last quarter of 2008,6 they may be less affected by the world economy.7 It is expected that people keep the cross border payments going even when their incomes fall. Migration from western Balkans to EU countries is expected to rise as the borders are getting opened through visa facilitation and liberalisation programmes. However, this rise will be balanced with the recession in the EU economies where it means fewer jobs for migrants. In surveys, the economy has leapt to the top of voters' concerns. Overall the public is scared and uncertain. So far, the Balkans has escaped the civic unrest seen in the Baltic States, Iceland, or elsewhere.8 There are not yet signs of discontent, except concerns expressed by politicians and economists. Thousands taking to the streets to protest against crises in Baltic States and Ukraine have not resembled in Balkans. However, pundits predict unrest in towns that rely entirely on one ailing factory or industry. But so far the signs are limited. The middle class in the whole region is under a great threat. The middle class flourished during communist times. As economy goes into reverse they may well be hit harder than the rich or poor. They work in export industries so their jobs are unsafe. The other part of the middle class, who are employed in the state administration, and whose jobs are relatively safe, they have started to borrow, so are hurt by the credit crunch. To End with a Negative and a Positive Note The economies of the Balkan region, except those of Serbia and Croatia, have escaped the financial crisis. However they are facing the biggest economic crisis since 1991, when they left the communism regime. Corporate profits have collapsed. Big manufacturers' output is down. Metal producers have halved or halted their 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 7. Biljana Krstevska, "Stopeni uste 53 milioni evra", Dnevnik, 27 February 2009; Utrinski, "Samo so dobra plata do kredit", 27 February 2009. 3 Abdulmenaf Bexheti, "Experts on Fixed Course of Denar", Skopjediem, 25 February 2009. 4 The Economist, "America's banking crisis: Worse than Japan?", 14 February 2009, p. 76. 5 The Economist, "Charlemagne: Single-market blues", 7 February 2009, p. 30. 6 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 19. 7 The Economist, "Remittances: Trickle-down economics", 21 February 2009, p. 74. 8 The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 2 384 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production. Companies have slashed jobs and investment. Industrial output and employment have fallen at record levels not seen since 1991. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers (workers remittances) during the spring and summer seasons. These seasonal effects are expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 278 Title A name given to the resource Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Author Author iSMAiL, Ergin SAHiN, Semi Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a412783246362cec70a8c4a7b68b550c.pdf 04eb0c19972f269c8fdfb9f0bf4d4ee8 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Individual and Organizational Fit: It’s Impact on Turkish Academic Staff Fatma Nur ĐPLĐK Cukurova University Karatas School of Tourism and Hotel Management Department of Hotel Management, Turkey nuriplik@cu.edu.tr Azmi YALÇIN Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration, Turkey azmiyalcin@cu.edu.tr Kemal Can KILIÇ Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration, Turkey kcan@cu.edu.tr Abstract: Achieving congruence between the values of the employee and the organization which often is called person-organization (P-O) fit that has gaining a growing interest in the organizational behavior field in recent years is the main theme of this article. Researches about P-O fit (O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Lauver & Kristof-Brown 2001; Cable & DeRue 2002; Sekiguchi 2004; Hoffman & Woehr 2006; Nelson & Billsberry 2007) revealed that a high level of congruence has a positive impact on job attitudes of individuals and creates a number of positive outcomes for organizations. P-O fit that affects the degree to which an individual is liked by co-workers, supervisors, and subordinates (Judge & Ferris 1992) improves individual and organizational effectiveness. Because P-O fit has been positively related to job attitudes (organizational commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors) and negatively related to turnover intentions of employees, the congruence between individual and organizational values could be critical for the organizations. In this context, this study attempts to explore the relationships between the P-O fit and job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance level of academicians. In order to test hypothesis empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is being in the list of Top 500 World Universities located in Turkey. After the reliability, correlation and regression analyses, we conclude by discussing implications, limitations, and future researches concerning the P–O fit. Keywords: Person-Organization Fit, Job Satisfaction, Work Alienation, Individual Performance, Academic Staff, Turkey. The Concept of Person-Organization (P-O) Fit The fit between a person and the work environment received attention from both scholars and practitioners in recent years (Schneider 2001; Ballout 2007; Kristof 1996; Chatman 1989; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986). Practitioners who study in organizational psychology field initially focused on person and environment (P-E) subject to explain the relationship between person and organization. P-E is defined as the compatibility that occurs when personal and situational characteristics of employees are well-suited (Schneider 2001). P-E fit studies have discerned between person-job fit, person-team fit and person-organization fit (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005; Vianen Van et al. 2007). The majority of P-E fit papers have evaluated individual features “needs and values” and situational/organizational characteristics “job demands and occupational type” for forecasting and clearing up the valuable results related with increased fit (Ballout 2007). The most investigated subject within P-E fit is P-O fit (Kristof 1996) that is one of the most popular areas of research in the general management and organizational behavior fields. This domain of research captures the congruence between the characteristics of individuals (i.e., goals, skills, and values) and the characteristics of organizations (i.e., goals, values, resources, and culture) (Bright 2007). P-O fit relates a person’s personality, goals and values with those of the organization (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Thus many PO fit studies (Edwards 1996; Kristof 1996; Chatman 1989; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986) have examined the match between people’s values and those of the organization, because values that are conceived of as fundamental and 373 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo relatively enduring represent conscious desires held by the person and encompass preferences, interests, motives and goals (Vianen Van et al. 2007). P–O fit is defined as “the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when at least one entity provides what the other needs or they share similar fundamental characteristics or both” (Kristof 1996). In other words, P-O fit is the "congruency between patterns of organizational values and patterns of individual values" (Chatman 1989) emphasizing the extent to which a person and the organization share similar characteristics and meet each other’s needs (Sekiguchi 2004). There are certain values that the individual carries over into his or her role, certain values that the organization imposes, and certain values that the two share. The extent to which the role-related values of the organization and those of the individual are shared indicates the degree of the individual's "fit" with the organization (Lopez 1999). P-O fit emphasizes the importance of fit between employees and work processes and the importance of creating an organizational identity through the institutionalization of consistent values that permeate an organization’s culture (Morley 2007). Thus researchers and practitioners contend that P-O fit is the key to maintaining the flexible and committed workforce that is necessary in a competitive business environment and a tight labor market (Sekiguchi 2004). In other words, P-O fit is a positive attribute that is to be promoted (Nelson & Billsberry 2007). Some scholars (e.g. Kristof, Chapman etc.) categorized P-O fit according to their empirical studies. Kristof (1996) identified four different operationalizations of P-O fit: • The first one is the congruence between individual and organizational values. • The second one is goal congruence with organizational leaders. • The third one is the match between individual preferences or needs and organizational systems and structures. • The fourth one is the match between the characteristics of individual personality and organizational climate. As well to labeling demand-abilities and needs-supplies fit within P-O fit construct, P-O fit also includes supplementary fit and complementary fit, both of which are important in P-O fit studies (Morley 2007; Piasentin & Chapman 2006; Nikolaou 2003). Piasentin & Chapman (2006) identify four common definitions of P-O fit, namely: Supplementary fit where an individual possesses characteristics that are similar to existing organizational characteristics. Complementary fit where an individual fills a void or adds something that is missing in the organization. Needs-supplies fit where an individual’s needs are fulfilled by the organization. Demand-abilities fit where an individual’s abilities meet the demands of the organization. Supplementary fit has to do with matching similar levels of characteristics between employees and organizations, whereas complementary fit is concerned with bridging the gap between the patterns of these assessed characteristics, however, needs-supplies and abilities-demands fit have attracted more P-O fit researchers as they apply to congruence and vocational choice theories (Piasentin & Chapman 2006; Morley 2007; Nikolaou 2003; Ballout 2007). Most P-O fit studies have used needs and values as attributes of comparison between persons and organizations (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Because organizational needs and individual needs are important factors in P-O fit investigations, a sample list of organizational and individual needs for each organization included in Table 1. The degree of similarity between these lists is an indicator of the degree of the P-O fit (Silverthorne 2004). Table 1: Sample Organizational and Individual Needs List Organizational Needs Individual Needs Loyalty to the organization Good salary Hard work Job security Employee cooperation Being with other people Creativity Good supervision Following directions Opportunity for promotion Good quality of work outcomes Challenging work Commitment to the organization’s objectives Feeling of achievement Comradeship with colleagues Good working conditions Respect for authority Being involved in the organizational climate Employee satisfaction Ability to take responsibility Source: Silverthorne, C. (2004). The impact of organizational culture and person-organization fit on organizational commitment and job satisfaction in Taiwan. The Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 25 (7), 592–599. 374 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationships between P-O Fit and Job Attitudes P-O fit is a key factor with great influence on employee outcomes. Thus it is assumed that both individuals and organizations will be more effective when the values of the person and organization are congruent (Shin & Holland 2004). In the aggregate, empirical studies provide convincing evidence that P-O values fit is an important determinant of long-term consequences for employees (e.g. work attitude, intention to quit and turnover, prosocial behavior, self-reported teamwork, contextual performance and self-report work performance), organizational entry (e.g. individual job search), and socialization (Huang 2005; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Sekiguchi 2004). A high level of P-O fit is likely to increase commitment and motivation of employees toward task performance and their engagement in good and lasting relationships (mentoring relationships, organizational citizenship behaviors) with their employers, which in turn will result in positive organizational outcomes (Ballout 2007). P-O fit has influence on many job attitudes of employees, but in this study specifically we focus on the influence of P-O fit on job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance. P-O fit has been studied as a potential inductor of job choice decisions and job attitudes (e.g. trust, commitment and satisfaction) (Cable & Judge 1996; Zoghbi & Manrique De 2008). In this context, P-O fit has been shown to play a significant role in how job applicants choose organizations (Saks & Ashforth 1997) and how recruiters select applicants (Kristof-Brown 2000). In addition to this, interactionist research suggests that an employee's job attitudes such as satisfaction and organizational commitment result from the relationship between the attributes of the job and the values required in that situation. In other words, jobs that the employee perceives as providing him or her with important values are satisfying, whereas jobs that the employee perceives as being incongruent with his or her values are dissatisfying (Judge et al. 1997; Lopez 1999). Following this approach, if employees don’t have values that are consistent with those of their organization, and therefore lacks proper fit, they experience feelings of incompetence and anxiety (Chatman 1989). P-O misfit would also lead to disconnected personal values for the organization, bringing out emotion of low self-esteem and lack of trust (Kristof 1996; Kuczmarski & Kuczmarski 1995; Saks & Ashforth 1997; Vianen Van 2000; Zoghbi & Manrique De 2008), minimize motivation in work environment and decrease in organizational commitment (Cable & Judge 1996; Chatman 1989; McConnell 2003; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Silverthorne 2004; Vianen Van 2000; Westerman & Cyr 2004; Papavero 2007). Previous literature about person-organization fit suggests that similarity in the values of the employee and the organization bring out positive outcomes for both of them. While past researches have examined various aspects and impacts of fit, we specifically focus on the relationships among P-O fit and three key employee attitudes—job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance. In this direction, it is proposed that the degree of congruence between the values of the employee and the organization will be positively related to employee job satisfaction and performance level and negatively related to three dimensions of work alienation. Studies of the impact of P-O fit on individuals find powerful correlations between P-O fit and greater levels of job satisfaction (Nelson & Billsberry 2007; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Sekiguchi 2004; Lopez 1999). Thus P-O fit researchers theorize that the degree to which an individual’s and organization’s values overlap, termed value-goal congruence (Chatman 1991), the more satisfied the employee will be in his or her job. On the reverse side, lack of value-goal congruence reduces employee job satisfaction, most likely through violation of employee expectations, which in turn causes employee turnover (Bright 2007; Wheeler et al. 2007; Ostroff et al. 2005). In this direction the following hypothesis are proposed: P1: P-O fit will be positively related to job satisfaction of academicians. Work alienation that refers to subjective feeling states which are the result of objective work conditions is defined as a discrepancy between the workers’ perception of objective task conditions along specific dimensions (control, purpose and self-expression) and their expectations regarding these dimensions, which is further intensified by the importance or salience of these dimensions. The outcomes of work alienation are a feeling of powerlessness, meaninglessness and hence a sense of self-estrangement in work (Mottaz 1981). According to this, powerlessness exists when workers are unable to control their job activities; meaninglessness exists when workers contribute only minutely to the total product; and self-estrangement exists when workers view work as a means to some other end such as making money, rather than as a means of personal self-fulfillment (Shepard 1977; Mottaz 1981). Work alienation is the degree to which an individual identifies psychologically with a specific type of work; it reflects a situation in which an individual cares little about work, approaches work with little energy and works primarily for extrinsic rewards. In this context, business managers consider awareness of the work alienation and organizational commitment of their employees to be a key concern. Ostensibly, highly committed, less alienated employees are more productive and less likely to leave the organization (Michaels et al. 1996). 375 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Work alienation represents a generalized, unenthusiastic outlook toward the world of work that indicates a low level of engagement in the work role and portrays a low level of positive affect for the world of work (Hirschfeld & Field 2000). This unenthusiastic outlook toward work is typically regarded as stemming from people perceiving that, in general, work endeavors do not contribute to the attainment of their personal goals or salient needs. Because work alienation represents a generalized tendency to respond to work endeavors and contexts in a detached manner (Hirschfeld 2002), it is proposed that, the closer the congruence between employees' values and their organizations' values, the lower the employees' work alienation. In this direction the following hypothesis are proposed: P2: P-O fit will be negatively related to the powerlessness dimension of work alienation. P3: P-O fit will be negatively related to the meaninglessness dimension of work alienation. P4: P-O fit will be negatively related to the self-estrangement dimension of work alienation. Job Satisfaction of Academicians H1 H2 PersonOrganization (P-O) Fit H3 Powerlessness of Academicians Meaninglessness of Academicians H4 Self-Estrangement H5 Individual Performance Level Figure 1: The Relationship between Research Variables The P-O fit literature strongly suggests that individuals who are compatible with the characteristics of their organization will have higher performance than individuals who are less compatible (Bright 2007). In a foundational work, Pervin (1968) theorized that when a match exists between individual and organizational characteristics, performance tends to be high and stress tends to be low (O’Reilly et al. 1991). But only a few studies examined the P-O fit – job performance relation and their results remained unclear. Unlike earlier studies which showed P-O fit to relate negatively to indices of job performance (i.e., Becker et al. 1996; Meglino et al. 1989), the study of Shin and Holland (2004) indicated that as indices of P-O fit increased, so did job performance (Shin & Holland 2004). In this context, as the congruence between individuals and organizations increases, employees become more committed and productive (Bright 2007). In this direction the following hypothesis is proposed: P5: P-O fit will be positively related to individual performance level of academicians. Method In order to test hypothesizes empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is located in Turkey. All scales used in this study were translated into Turkish and then translated independently back into English (Brislin 1980). The questionnaire measured P-O fit, job satisfaction, work alienation and job performance along with demographic variables of academicians. The questionnaire which contained these measures was distributed to 256 randomly selected academicians of 9 faculties, 3 high schools and 9 vocational schools of a State University. At the end of the survey 187 questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 73 percent. In study 41.7 percent of respondents were women (78) and 58.3 percent were men (109). In table 3 we see the age range of academic staff. 26.7 percent of them are between 25-31 age. 38.5 percent of them are 32-38 age. 17.1 percent of respondents are between 39-45 and 12.3 percent of them are between 53-59 age. So we can say that most of the staff is in the middle age. 376 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3: Age And Tenure of Academicians Age Age 18-24 25-31 32-38 39-45 46-52 53-59 60 and + Frequency 1 50 72 32 23 6 3 Tenure Percent .5 26.7 38.5 17.1 12.3 3.2 1.6 Years 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26 and + Frequency 48 62 37 18 14 8 Percent 25.7 33.2 19.8 9.6 7.5 4.3 Academic staff’s tenure is shown in table 3. According to table, 25.7 percent of the staffs are between 15 years job tenure. 33.2 percent are between 6-10 years, 19.8 percent are 11-15 years, 9.6 percent are 16-20 years and 7.5 percent are 21-25 years. Measures and Analyses In this study person-organization fit was measured by three items adapted from Cable&Judge (1996). Work alienation was measured a scale (powerlessness, meaninglessness, and self-estrangement) proposed by Mottaz (1981), job satisfaction was measured five items adapted by Brown&Peterson (1994), and individual performance was measured by four items adapted from Kirkman and Rosen (1999). All constructs were measured with scales adapted from existing scales. All items were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale where “1 strongly agree” and “5 strongly disagree”. This study assessed perceived P-O fit. In perceived or direct P-O fit, academic personnel estimated the extent to which their values are similar to those of their University. We used the three-item five-point Likert scale developed by Cable and Judge (1996). Items include “My values match those currently in the organization”, “The values and ‘personality’ of this organization reflect my own values and personality”, and “I feel my values ‘match’ or fit this organization and the current employees in this organization”. Job satisfaction was measured a scale developed by Brown and Peterson (1994). The demographic variables in the study are age, gender and job tenure. In addition to these, the questionnaire includes the department and academic rank of respondents. In study the coefficient alpha was used to estimate the reliability for scales. Three items for P-O fit measure had alpha reliabilities 0.82. Alpha reliability for job satisfaction was 0.74, for powerlessness was 0.79, for meaninglessness was 0.64 and for self-estrangement of academicians was 0.79. These results indicate that the internal consistency reliabilities for all of the scales were reasonable. Table 4: Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities Variables P-O Fit Job Satisfaction Work Alienation • Powerlessness • Meaninglessness • Self-Estrangement Job Performance Mean 2.7362 2.2130 Std. Deviation .89765 .74350 Coefficient Alpha .8228 .8637 N 187 187 2.3066 2.3155 3.0419 2.0936 .80981 .60078 .31233 .66645 .7948 .6452 .7941 .8096 187 187 187 187 After the reliability analyses, means and standard deviations for each variable were calculated and a correlation matrix of all variables used in hypothesis testing was created. Means, standard deviations, coefficient alpha and correlations among all scales used in the analyses are shown in Table 4 and 5. The means and standard deviations are within the expected ranges. 377 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5: Pearson Correlations Among All Research Variables Research Variables 1.P-O Fit 2.Job Satisfaction 3.Powerlessness 4.Meaninglessness 5. Self-Estrangement 6.Job Performance Means Std.Deviation N 1 1 .556** .314** .401** -.057 .296** 2.7362 .89765 187 2 3 4 5 6 1 .485** .543** .109 .447** 2.2130 .74350 187 1 .420** .041 .227** 2.3066 .80981 187 1 .084 .288** 2.3155 .60078 187 1 .111 3.0419 .31233 187 1 2.0936 .66645 187 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The pattern of correlations is supportive of our four hypothesizes. That is, correlation coefficients between P-O fit and job satisfaction, job performance are significant and in the predicted direction (positively related). For example, P-O fit correlate with job satisfaction .556 (strongly correlate) and with job performance .296 (weakly correlate). Correlation coefficients between P-O fit and powerlessness, meaninglessness are significant and in the not predicted direction (positively related). For example, P-O fit correlate with powerlessness .314, with meaninglessness .401. But correlation coefficient between P-O fit and selfestrangement is non-significant, and not supportive of our fourth hypothesis. Results The findings show that P-O fit is related to job satisfaction and job performance of academicians. In addition to this, P-O fit is positively related to meaninglessness and powerlessness, and non-significant relation with self-estrangement. Results support P1, P5 indicating that P-O fit positively related to academicians’ job satisfaction behaviors. It was proposed that as the compatibility between academicians and their organization increases, job performance will also increase. This hypothesis was weakly supported by the findings of the current study. As the congruence between the respondents and their organization increased, their job performance also increased. Therefore, P1 and P5 were supported. P-O fit positively related to academicians’ powerlessness and meaninglessness behaviors directed at their university. Therefore, P2 and P3 were not supported. P-O fit and selfestrangement is non-significant. So there is no relation between them. Therefore, P2, P3 and P4 were not supported. Limitations and Implications This study makes an important contribution to the literature, but is limited by two key issues. First, the results are based on a single sample. An important consideration is whether the findings of this study will generalize across jobs and organizations. In this context more research is needed to untangle the varying relationships between P-O fit indices and employee job attitudes. In this study we examined perceived congruence between organizational and employees' values. Recent studies have confirmed that both perceived and actual fit with the organization have independent and interactive relationships with job attitudes (Ravlin & Ritchie 2006). Even though the vast amount of research on P-O fit that has been already done, there still are a lot of research opportunities to investigate the role of P-O fit in organizations. Future research is expected to include new topics such as the simultaneous effects of P-O fit on many other work attitudes e.g. organizational citizenship behaviors, organizational commitment, tenure, career success and turnover intention in a crosscultural perspective. Conclusion Empirical facts have shown that a high level of P-O fit is related to academicians work behaviors and performance. Fit has been positively related to individuals’ job satisfaction and job performance and positively 378 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo related to work alienation. While past researches have examined various aspects of fit we specifically focus on the relationship between perceived P-O fit and job performance and job satisfaction, work alienation of academicians. The research results show that P–O was positively related to individuals’ satisfaction and performance consistent with previous research. According to this, the closer the congruence between academicians' values and their universities' values, the higher the academicians' job satisfaction and performance. The results also provide that P-O was positively related to powerlessness and meaninglessness at work. The other result shows that there is a non-significant relation between P-O fit and self-estrangement. These results were inconsistent with the literature. Therefore, the consequences partially reinforce the findings from earlier research (Chatman 1991) that the concept of P-O fit plays an important role for academicians in a variety of organizational settings. Finally, this research provides support for the importance of P-O fit in organizations (Silverthorne 2004) and also indicates the incongruity between P-O fit and work alienation in Turkish State University. 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 276 Title A name given to the resource Individual and Organizational Fit: It’s Impact on Turkish Academic Staff Author Author iPLiK, Fatma Nur YALÇIN, Azmi KILIÇ, Kemal Can Abstract A summary of the resource. Achieving congruence between the values of the employee and the organization which often is called person-organization (P-O) fit that has gaining a growing interest in the organizational behavior field in recent years is the main theme of this article. Researches about P-O fit (O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Lauver & Kristof-Brown 2001; Cable & DeRue 2002; Sekiguchi 2004; Hoffman & Woehr 2006; Nelson & Billsberry 2007) revealed that a high level of congruence has a positive impact on job attitudes of individuals and creates a number of positive outcomes for organizations. P-O fit that affects the degree to which an individual is liked by co-workers, supervisors, and subordinates (Judge & Ferris 1992) improves individual and organizational effectiveness. Because P-O fit has been positively related to job attitudes (organizational commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors) and negatively related to turnover intentions of employees, the congruence between individual and organizational values could be critical for the organizations. In this context, this study attempts to explore the relationships between the P-O fit and job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance level of academicians. In order to test hypothesis empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is being in the list of Top 500 World Universities located in Turkey. After the reliability, correlation and regression analyses, we conclude by discussing implications, limitations, and future researches concerning the P–O fit. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory