206 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f962c635fcee260d3cd4ed7746fc7ff9.pdf 31d9e354b76d916ce94e5ef40c01ccf6 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Iqtidar Ali Shah Faculty, College of Applied Sciences, Salalah Ministry of Higher Education, Sultanate of Oman ias85@hotmail.com Neeta Baporikar Faculty, College of Applied Sciences, Salalah Ministry of Higher Education, Sultanate of Oman neetajb@rediffmail.com ABSTRACT The concept of people’s participation in development is well defined but its meaning is different to different development organizations and social scientists. The objective of the paper is to unpack the concept of participation by looking at its various aspects including types, forms and stages. The paper focuses on research questions such as what kinds of participation are used worldwide with special reference to Pakistan; how the importance of people’s participation is realized and incorporated in development projects worldwide and more so in Pakistan. The paper provides the rationale for conceptual understanding of participatory approach and enables to deepen the knowledge about participatory approach for development. Thus, this paper contributes to the existing theory in terms of exploring the conceptual understanding of participation, realizing the importance of participation in development. The paper is descriptive in nature, based on secondary materials (research papers and various project documents), case studies and examples. JEL Codes: O53, P49 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 KEYWORDS People’s Participation, Pakistan, Development, Community, Participatory Approach ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 27 July 2011 Resubmitted: 11 Spring 2012 Resubmitted: 12 March 2012 Accepted: 27 March 2012 111 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar Introduction In response to the failure of development projects in 1950s, social activists and fieldworkers observed that the populations concerned were not included in project’s design and implementation. Failure was linked to the lack of local people’s involvement in developmental projects. It was assumed that if local people were involved, projects would have been more successful (AWARD, 2008). Similarly, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO) also pointed out that the traditional top-down approach of many developing and developed countries failed to reach and benefit the rural poor (FAO, 1991). The reason for this failure, identified by the international community in the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD), held in Rome in 1979, is the lack of active participation of the poor in development programmes (FAO, 1990). As an alternative approach, the concept of participatory development gained significance in development debates and programmes. Adopting a people oriented approach rather than a government outlook will bring in more peace and development. The recent people protest in Arabs called “Arab Spring” is more an outcome of young generation demanding participation in the country’s governance and resource allocation processes. Such human turmoil can be minimized if not totally eliminated by adopting people participatory approach to crucial projects at least. This will have a twofold effect – strengthen the community and second bring in the better citizenship. Thus, involving people in development, governance and decision making becomes need of the day as it ensures confidence of the people. It also helps in providing equality, justice and smooth delivery of services. The low level of participation can be one of the reasons behind the recent “Arab Spring” started in 2010. The people in these countries have stood up for more freedom, equality, justice, better future prospects, employment, economic and social development and participation in the decision making process. The phenomenon of participatory or bottom-up development has become very popular, interesting and attractive in the context of urban and regional development and has recently become virtually indispensable in the discussion on development. According to Masanyiwa and Kinyashi (2008, p 3) “participation has now become an established orthodoxy in development thinking and practice.” Participation is widely accepted by many governments and international agencies including the World Bank (World Bank, 1996; World Bank, 1998; World Bank, 2000), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1997), US Agency for International 112 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Development (USAID, 1999), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA, 1995), Food Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1990, FAO; 1991, FAO; 1994 and FAO, 1997), Inter-American Development Bank (IADB, 1996) as an important element in development projects and programmes, and have involved people/GROs/ NGOs in their development programmes/activities in order to achieve sustainable development. On the other hand, in the so-called top-down approach to development, the entire process of formulating and implementing polices and projects are carried out under the direction of government and people were put in a passive position and were rarely consulted in development and usually have no active role in development activities. This government-led approach to development remained intact or even increased deep-rooted problems including economic and social disparities between social classes, genders, regions, and between urban and rural areas. Participatory development arose from consciousness of these inadequacies. According to the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA, 1995), participatory development is not an attempt to replace the top-down development approach with local community-led approach but it attempts to compensate for or overcome the limitations and shortcomings of the top-down development approach by adopting a bottom-up style of development. Participatory approach enables local people to acquire the skills needed to implement and coordinate the management of development projects themselves and thus reap more returns. For example, three years after the completion of the People’s Participatory Programme (PPP) project at Sierra Leone, a FAO consultant reported after his visit to the project action area “The PPP villages have undertaken a number of community development projects, raising money to build schools, bridges and grain stores. Some groups have branched out into palm oil, groundnut and vegetable production.” The visitor found that while the group no longer had regular access to credit, they continued to save, investing their capital in construction projects and in small businesses. The groups still kept record books and had adopted a participatory monitoring and evaluation system. Two former Group Promoters had formed Rural Workers’ Association that meets regularly with government representatives and local leaders to discuss project ideas and to coordinate the delivery of farm inputs (FAO, 1990). Thus, participation is more than an instrument of development; it ensures sustainability and makes development efficient. All the governments, developmental agencies and NGOs have recognized that the top-down approach possessing convention development strategies has largely failed to reach and benefit the rural poor. For example, an evaluation found that half of Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 113 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar the rural development projects funded by the World Bank in Africa out rightly failed to reach the poor as the top-down approaches were used (FAO, 1990). A review of assistance to agriculture cooperatives by the World Bank reported similar results (FAO, 1990). On the other hand, an examination of 25 agriculture and rural development projects financed by the World Bank found that participation by beneficiaries was a key factor for the 12 projects that achieved long-term economic sustainability (World Resource Institute, 1992). Similarly, a study by the International Labor Organization (ILO) of 40 “poverty oriented” projects worldwide showed that the poorest were excluded from activities and benefits (FAO, 1990). UNDP in its Human Development Report, 1990, emphasizes that the participatory approach is crucial to any strategy for a successful human development (FAO, 1991). The literature review, to a greater extent, confirms the results of effective participation in the form of empowerment of communities, social capital and sustainability of the projects (World Bank, 2000a). However, the same approach is also criticized for being slow and complex process (Mansuri and Rao, 2004). Thus, the potential benefits attached with participatory approach are controversial (Khan, 2006). Research questions to be explored are: what kind of participation is used in the development projects worldwide and in Kyber Pukhtoon Khwa (KPK), Pakistan and how the importance of people’s participation is realized and incorporated in development projects and programme worldwide and in Pakistan. Moreover the meaning of people’s participation in development, types and classification, importance, need, ways, principles and demerits of people’s participation has been reviewed and analyzed with the aim to provide the conceptual understanding of people’s participation which will help to enhance the knowledge about participation. This paper is descriptive in nature and based on secondary materials (research papers and various project documents), case studies and examples. This paper has been organized as: after introduction, a literature review followed by various kinds of people’s participation in Pakistan. Next the methods of how to promote people’s participation in development have been explained followed by the basis / principles of participation. People’s participation and argument against people’s participation is mentioned in next section. The paper ends with a conclusion. 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Literature Review Evolution / History of Participation The concept of participation in the context of economic development is not entirely new. Its origin can be found in ancient Greek. According to Aristotle, participation in the affairs of the state as a citizen is essential to the development and fulfillment of human personality and the best state is one where there is broad participation, with no class dominating the others. At Aristotle’s time, participation was a matter of voting, holding office, attending public meetings, paying taxes and defending the state. In those days there was very little consideration of participation in development. People worked and hoped for prosperity through agriculture, trade and art and craft manufacturing (Cohn & Uphoff, 1980). After World War II, the US and other industrialized countries focused on the technological gap between developing and developed countries and foreign assistance was given to the underdeveloped countries to manage the gap. The people’s participation was to adopt the new technologies. By the 1960s this theory changed into a resource gap between government revenue and expenditure, between export import and between saving and investment and the people’s participation was to pay taxes, consume domestic products, produce more for export, save and invest and hold down the consumption (Cohen & Uphoff, 1980). In 1950s and 1960, the community development gained momentum, particularly in Africa and Asia. National programmes were announced to build community infrastructure and to break down communities’ exclusion from development activities (UNDP, 1997a). Thus, two important approaches to rural development were introduced in a number of countries, particularly in Africa and Asia - community development and “animation rurale” (in West Africa) which aimed at local people’s participation. However, Cohen & Uphoff had a narrow view of participatory activities and felt they were largely ineffective in transforming rural communities (Cohen & Uphoff, 1980). Participation has increased its popularity since the 1970s, when concern was felt for meeting basic needs and reaching the poorest of the poor (Michener, 1998). According to White, Nasir and Ascroft the euphoric word ‘participation’ has become a part of development jargon (1994). In the late 1970s and 1980s, the development Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 115 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar programmes were analyzed, examined the cause of underdevelopment and poverty, and came to the conclusion that the poor were excluded and marginalized both from broader societal participation and from direct involvement in development initiatives. As a result, the number of poor people rose to 900 million worldwide. In the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD), held in Rome in 1979, the international community identified the reason for this failure - the lack of active participation of the poor in programming, designing, to assist them (FAO, 1990). After WCARRD, and throughout the 1980s and 90s, participation in rural development – as well as in development at large – gradually became more established among governments, donors and international organizations (UN, 2008). Thus, the long journey of top-down and non participatory practice broke down and the bottom-up approach to development came into existence. There are many bilateral and multilateral donors, development agencies, and governments which have involved people in some aspects of planning, implementation, management and evaluation of development projects because of the fact/philosophy that sustainability cannot be achieved without the involvement of beneficiaries in the project life cycle. Meaning of People’s Participation in Development In the existing literature, the term people’s participation has been defined by various social scientists, researchers and developmental organizations such as World Bank, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), InterAmerican Foundation (IFA), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) etc. They defined people’s participation from their own point of view, experience and priority. Some of the definitions are: 116 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Participation in the Eyes of World Developmental Agencies The World Bank “Participation is a process through which stakeholders influence and partly control the development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them” (World Bank, 1996). U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) “The active engagement of partners and customers in sharing ideas, committing timing and resources, making decisions and taking action to bring about a desired development objective. Participation describes both the ends and the means; both the kind of results we seek, and the way we, as providers of development and humanitarian assistance, must nurture those results” (USAID, 1999). United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) “Participation means that people are closely involved in the economic, social, cultural and political processes that affect their lives” (UNDP, 1997a). Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) “…for development to succeed, the people of the countries concerned must be the “owner” of their development policies and programs” (USAID, 1999). International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) “…a democratic process in which people, particularly the weak and the poor, are not passive receivers of a developmental project at the end of top-down approach, but are requested to identify their needs, voice their demands, and organize themselves so as to improve their livelihood with the help of financial, technical, and human resources offered by the development project as well as their own” (USAID, 1999). Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 117 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar Inter-American Foundation (IFA) “Institutional style and modus operandi which facilitate accountability to members and clients; broad participation in decision-making; availability of information about the management of resources; and equitable distribution of benefits” (USAID, 1999). Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) “A process whereby individual and community are actively involved in all phases of development. It therefore involves greater equity in economic and political power” (USAID, 1999). Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) “An active process in which people take initiative and action that is stimulated by their own thinking and deliberation and which they can effectively influence” (FAO, 1991). Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) Participation in development can be defined in broad terms as the pprocess through which people with a legitimate interest (stakeholders) influence and control developmental initiatives, and the decisions and resources which affect them, thus, participation often comprise: • the involvement of stakeholders in any or all phases of the project life cycle; • promotion of the role of civil society in the development process; • specially designed facilitation methodologies and techniques; • decentralized or devolved decision-making; or • the institutionalization of decentralized or devolved decision-making such that broad stakeholder involvement becomes a normal, expected part of the development process (IADB, 1996). 118 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Participation in the Eyes of Researchers and Social Scientists Cohen and Uphoff “With regard to rural development.…participation includes people’s involvement in decision-making process, in implementing programmes, sharing the benefits of development programmes and their involvement in the efforts to evaluate such programmes” (Cohen and Uphoff, 1977). Cernea, M. (ed.) “Empowering people to mobilize their own capacities, be social actors rather than passive subjects, manage the resources, make decisions, and control the activities that affect their lives” (Cernea, 1985). Wolfe and Marshall Participation designates “The organized efforts to increase control over resources and regulative institutions in given social situations, on the part of groups and movements hitherto excluded from such control” (Wolfe, 1983). N.C. Saxena “Participatory is a voluntary process by which people, including the disadvantaged (in income, gender, caste, or education), influence or control the decisions that affect them” (Saxena, 1998). Sam Joseph “The invitations to people to take part as beneficiaries in a programme designed exclusively by a development agency in which the beneficiaries have had no input or a situation where local people have had the responsibility and the authority to analyze, plan and implement the solutions to local problems or a situation where Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 119 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar local people have had control of all stages of finding solutions to a local problem” (Joseph, 1996). Angelo Bonfiglioli “A complex social, technical and institutional process through which communities may become more fully involved in their own development, more particularly taking an active part in the design, implementation and evaluation of specific development initiatives” (Bonfiglioli, 1997). The main crux and theme of the above definitions can be summarized as: • the voluntary involvement of the poor, weak and needy, beneficiaries and stakeholders to share, participate and control all economic, social, cultural and political initiatives, • to actively participate in the decisions, resources and benefits of developmental activities, • to take part in the design, implementation and evaluation of specific development initiative, • to involve people in all phases of development programme and policy, because: participation is a means and end, in order to achieve desired objectives, to become owner of the project/ activities / programmes and to improve their livelihood. Pretty has pointed out that there are two overlapping schools of thought and practice. According to them: (a) participation as a means to increase the efficiency, the central notion being that if people are involved, then they are more likely to agree with and support the new development or service (Pretty, 1995). According to UNDP, Participation is seen as a process whereby local people cooperate or collaborate with externally introduced development programmes or projects. In this way participation becomes the means whereby such initiatives can be more effectively imple- 120 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan mented. People’s participation is sponsored by external agency and it is seen as a technique to support the progress of the programme or project. The term ‘participatory development’ is more commonly used to describe this approach and it implies externally designed development activities implemented in a participatory manner. This approach would appear to be quite widespread and essentially promotes participation as a means of ensuring the successful outcome of the activities undertaken (UNDP, 1997a). (b) Participation as a fundamental right, in which the main aim is to initiate mobilize for collective action, empowerment and institution building (Pretty, 1995). UNDP named this fundamental right as an end (goal) of participation. According to UNDP, Participation as an end (goal) which can be expressed as the empowering of people in terms of their acquiring the skills, knowledge and experience to take greater responsibility for their development. People’s poverty can often be explained in terms of their exclusion and lack of access to and control of the resources which they need to sustain and improve their lives. Participation is an instrument of change and it can help to break that exclusion and to provide poor people with the basis for their more direct involvement in development initiatives (UNDP, 1997a). So, very simply, the term participation or participatory approach can be defined as The active involvement of local people/community or their representatives, local organizations, ideas, skills, knowledge and priorities in all the phases of any local project/ programs,, developmental activities and developmental policies, in order to increase the efficiency or to ensure sustainability and equitability, as it is the fundamental right of poor /local beneficiaries or because the local people know more than the government and external professional experts what problems they face and how best to resolve them. The importance of this definition is that it covers three aspects of human life i.e. economic, social and political. According to this definition people are involved in the development process to ensure sustainability, to achieve equitability and to prevail social justice in society. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 121 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar Need of People’s Participation in Development Traditional development theory holds that development is primarily a function of capital investment and that the greater the flow of capital from wealthy countries to poor countries, the more rapid the development of the latter (Korten, 1987). However, overcoming rural poverty is not simply a matter of more investment, more aid or more technology. Poverty will persist until development reaches and benefits the world’s 800 million underprivileged, undernourished and under-educated rural people. The rural poor must be given the opportunity to participate in development (FAO, 1997a). Similarly, Cohen and Uphoff (1980) found that more and more economists have come to challenge the prevailing view that capital was the prime mover in development. According to them, in this theoretical and practical context, people’s participation becomes important to the same extent as it was peripheral when capital formation was considered as the primary factor. According to the World Bank (2000), “economic growth is essential to poverty reduction. However, development requires more than just a focus on macroeconomic and financial issues. Experience shows that looking at both sides-macroeconomic and financial aspects on the one side and structural, social and human considerations on the otheris essential to adequately support a country’s future development.” Thus, to provide the opportunity to local and poor people to participate in development is the only solution for overcoming rural poverty and securing sustainable development. According to Saxena, people’s participation (as an input or an independent variable) can contribute to the achievement of four main objectives: efficiency; effectiveness; empowerment; and equity (Saxena, 1998). Experience has shown that participation improves the quality, effectiveness and sustainability of development actions. By placing people at the center of such actions, development efforts have a much greater potential to empower and to lead to ownership of the results (UNDP, 1997a). “Development is a complex process. It cannot be left in the hands of centralized power. Even latter-day communists such as Mikhail Gorbachev and Deng Xiaoping have come to realize this and tried to open up their societies, to provide more room and more opportunities to the people to be more participative, creative and productive” (Cleveland and Lubic, 1992). The failure of conventional, top-down and non-participatory approach in many development and developed countries led to the foundation of an alternate approach i.e. community participation, which contains the qualities of sustainability, empowerment, self-reliance, and equity. The need of a bottom-up approach was not only felt by the governments of underdeveloped and developed 122 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan countries but also all the donors, international development agencies and NGOs and was incorporated in their development programmes and activities for their successful implementation. The main characteristic of the bottom-up strategy is the community involvement in developmental activities. The question and issue is why people should be consulted, and how to link institutions and people to jointly accelerate the process of development. There are three reasons which justify people’s participation: • When people/community participates in the identification of problems and come up with their own solutions, the results can be both spectacular and sustainable. • Participation allows communities to discover their own wealth of knowledge and capacity for problem identification and problem solving. • The solutions that are identified by communities are more likely to be feasible and implementable than those formulated by outsiders. Linking institutions and communities poses a twofold problem: for the institution it is very difficult to involve the isolated and uneducated people in the main stream of development. It is a problem how to access them to increase their productivity and income and to make development activities more sustainable. The same is also faced by the poor population as they are neither connected with the political system nor with the general economy. They are often isolated, with limited access to newspapers and other forms of communication. They don’t know how to approach the government and other institutions and vice-a-versa, for their rights and own development. Though they know better their own problems and the solutions, the difficulty is to organize them and make their local knowledge effective. So, there is a need of a two ways communication between the two groups. To link the two is mostly done by local NGOs. Importance and Role of Participation in Development The importance and role of people’s participation in development has been highlighted in various papers and documents of projects. It is the most important approach to enable communities to help themselves and sustain efforts in development work. Participation is important because it makes projects efficient, effective, and sustainable Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 123 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar in a variety of ways. According to Katsumoto, participation clarifies project goals, reduces project cost, prevents/reduces management conflicts (that may be caused between development workers and local people), promotes the technology transfer to the people and encourages a culture of self-help and a commitment among the people (Katsumoto, 2007). Participation increases sustainability, productivity, efficiency, reduces cost and builds democratic organizations (FAO, 1997b). Participation improves the status of women by providing them the opportunity to play a part in development activities (UNDP, 1997a). Participation creates the sense of responsibility and ownership in the beneficiaries which leads to sustainability (FAO, 1991). Participation breaks the mentality of dependence and promotes self-awareness and confidence (Mefenguza, 2007). Participation helps to build local capacity and develop the abilities of local people to manage and to negotiate development activities (UNDP, 1997a). Participation improves the efficiency, effectiveness, sustainability and coverage of projects and programmes and promoting stakeholder capacity, self-reliance and empowerment (FAO, 2000). Participation provides equitable development and creates a sense of self-determination, community development and self-development (CPA, 2009). Classification of Participation Pretty, Satterthwaite, Adnan, Alam & Brustnow and Hart have classified participation on the basis of why and how people participate in development (Pretty, 1995). They provide a complete cycle of people’s participation in development. In the first part of their cycle, manipulative participation, passive participation, participation by consultation, and participation for material incentives, are the weak levels of participation and people have no power to plan or decide for their own development. In these levels of participation, the whole development programme is controlled and managed by external agents. The second part of the project cycle includes functional participation, interactive participation, and self-mobilization participation which are comparatively the stronger levels of participation. At these levels of participation, beneficiaries are in a better position to control planning, decisions and resources. Pretty (1995) indicated that for the best results, the people should be involved in all stages of a project, from design to maintenance. If they are just involved in information sharing and consultation then, the result will be poor. 124 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Another way of distinguishing different forms of participation is presented by United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNDP, 1997). According to this typology, participation has been classified on the basis of levels or degrees. This typology can be divided into two levels/stages. Level one contains manipulation, information, consultation and consensus building. This level is a very weak level of participation because at this stage all the beneficiaries are just manipulated, informed and consulted. However, this is a basic level and necessary for future participatory development of a project. The second stage of participation consists of decision-making, risk-sharing, partnership and self-management. This is the actual level where the beneficiaries are responsible to control, manage and share the decisions, risk, partnership and self-management of a development project. This typology of participation seems similar to the typology given by Pretty (1994). However, the difference is that this typology provides various levels/stages of participation while the previous one given by Pretty (1994) indicates various forms/ kinds of participation. Deshler and Sock (1985) also presented participatory levels ranging from pseudoparticipation, (or the manipulation of beneficiaries by development professionals to meet the needs of elites) to genuine participation in which participation is empowered by having control over programme policy and management. This classification is also carried out on the basis of level. They divided the people’s participation into two main levels i.e. Genuine and Pseudo Participation. At the genuine participatory level, the community is empowered and gains control over project planning, decisions and resources. Community partnership is more strengthened with the external agents of development projects. Thus, it is a very strong level of participation where people/community and project implementers have strong cooperation and share all project activities. At this level, communities are delegated more powers to become the owners of the development projects. At the pseudo participatory level, the beneficiaries are just invited, informed, consulted and manipulated with regard to project activities. There is one-way communication. All the project activities are controlled and managed by the project staff. The beneficiaries’ suggestions and advice with regard to project activities are just heard. The pseudo participation seems to be a weak and less important level of participation. But, in fact, this level of participation provides a basis for future genuine participation. White classified participation on the basis of interest of stakeholders (planners and beneficiaries). At each of the first three levels (Nominal, Instrumental and Representative), planners and beneficiaries have different interest. However, only at the Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 125 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar ultimate level (transformative) both groups are interested in the empowerment of beneficiaries (White, 1996). White describes four types of stakeholders’ participation. According to him each type is characterized by the divergent interests of different stakeholders. Planners are identified as having top-down interests versus the bottom-up interests of project beneficiaries. Participation ranges from nominal to transformative. White’s classification is important because it demonstrates that stakeholders do not share the same expectations of participation in development projects. At each of the first three levels, planners and beneficiaries employ concurrently conflicting definitions of participation. Only at the ultimate level (transformative), both groups of stakeholders are interested in the empowerment of beneficiaries (Michener, 1998). Cohen and Uphoff (1980) presented a more comprehensive typology of participation by examining the various dimensions of participation. Their typology not only includes different type/kinds of participation but also who participates and how. The type/kind of participation has been classified with regard to the project cycle i.e. Participation in decision making, implementation, benefits and evaluation and “who” dimension divides the actors or stakeholders involved and they are for example, local residents, local leaders, government personnel and foreign personnel. Similarly, the “how” dimension describes the mechanisms by which participation takes place. For example, its basis, form, extent and effect/impact. Cohen and Uphoff’s typology of participation is more comprehensive. It has an applied focus with less attention to theoretical divisions. This classification provides a complete framework for the analysis of participatory component of any rural development project. The Cohen and Uphoff dimensions of participation concerns the kind of participation which is taking place, the sets of individuals who are involved in the participatory process and the various features of how that process is occurring. Basically these dimensions provide answer to the questions: what kinds of participation take place; who participates in them; and how the process of participation takes place. Pretty (1995) presented a participatory continuum laying out different forms of participation, from the least participatory to the most participatory. Pretty’s participatory continuum is different from the all other aforementioned typologies. This typology lays down different forms of participation, from the least participatory to the most participatory. It indicates how people are involved in the project activities and how they are mobilized to carry out their own developmental activities in the absence of external initiators and facilitators. 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Form of People’s Participation in Pakistan After a comprehensive overview of the participations’ classification in the above section, it can be concluded that participation is classified on the basis level, degree, interest and dimensions etc. However, participation can be classified on the basis of mobilization, origins/sources, sector/activities and beneficiaries. A quick view of this classification is given below. Classification on the Basis of Mobilization: Classification on the basis of mobilization is shown in table 1.1. Table 1. Classification on the basis of mobilization: Participation by “Which” Mobilization 1. Self/Internal Mobilization (Bottom-up Participation) 2. External Mobilization (Top-bottom Participation) Forces for Participation 1. Crises / threat to community 2. Funding fromdonors 3. Inspiration and awareness from other community 1.NGOs Mobilization 2.Government Mobilization Kind of Participation Effect of Participation 1. Short period participation 2. Long period Participation More effective, sustainable and genuine if supported 1.Obligatory Participation 2.Non Obligatory Participation Less effective Source: Self-developed Participation may originate from below (beneficiaries) in that case it can be called bottom-up participation. This type of participation is usually generated during crises, or in response to some threat to community’s identity, survival or values. So community mobilizes itself to protect or resist (Goulet, 1989). Self-mobilization may cast for a short time and end when the threat or crises to the community is over. However, in some cases it takes the shape of a strong platform in the form of grass-root organization that takes the responsibility of community’s welfare and development oriented activities. For example, in response to the construction of Ghazi Baroota Hydral Development Project in Pakistan, the affected local people belonging to Swabi district of KPK and other adjoining areas were self mobilized and made platforms in the shape of NGOs and GROs to demand from the government compensation for their affected agriculture land, houses etc. which were damaged due to the dam’s construction. Some of the NGOs have now opened windows for other developmental activities. Bottom-up participation is more genuine and can be further strengthened if external Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 127 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar agents provide an enabling framework of support. Take the example of Shewa Educated Social Welfare Association (SESWA) of village Shewa, District Swabi, KPK, Pakistan. It is a self motivated organization developed by the youth of village Shewa for the welfare oriented activities of their village. However, the scope of activities of the SESWA increased by extending its development activities to other villages of the district as a result of the support provided by the Germen assisted “Pak-German Integrated Rural Development Project” (IRDP) of the provincial government of KPK. With the passage of time SESWA became a development platform for people of the whole Swabi district. Other villages/communities of the surrounding areas are replicating in order to establish their own organization in the style of SESWA. Communities may also be mobilized from top i.e. by external agents for their specific objectives. There are two types of external forces which generate mobilization/ participation, the public sector and the external NGO working at the location. Participation as a result of these external agents is of two types, obligatory and non obligatory. Sometimes the external forces put condition(s) on the community to participate in the projects by providing some inputs. For example, the community may provide land or material or some percentage of the total cost or compulsory maintenance and repair cost. For example in Pakistan, for the construction of a water supply scheme, a basic health center and a primary school etc. the land must be provided by the beneficiaries. Otherwise the activity is shifted to another area where the people can provide the land for construction. Similarly, the Community Infrastructure Project (CIP) at KPK, Pakistan invited the community to participate in their development programme by providing any land required and compulsory share of 20% of the total cost. (CIP, undated) The main aim behind this obligatory approach was to reduce the cost of the project and to raise the sense of responsibility and ownership among the beneficiaries. In the non obligatory approaches, the communities are mobilized / involved in their activities without putting any conditions on them. The mechanism used for mobilization is through employed agents of change (field workers extension workers, community organizers or animators) and local institutions. The success of external mobilization depends upon the nature of project, social, cultural and economic conditions of the beneficiaries and on the mechanism and technique used for mobilization. The best mobilization approach is that which produces sense of responsibility and ownership in the community for their projects; otherwise the participation will end when project activities are withdrawn from the community. 128 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Classification on the Basis of Origin: On the basis of origins / sources of participation, the classification model is presented in table 1.2. Table2. Classification on the basis of sources: Participation through “whom” Origins / Sources of Participation Kinds of Institutions for Participation 1. Informal Institutions or Invisible Institutions Informal social, cultural, welfare, self-help, regional, religious institutions at grass root level. 2. Formal Institutions Multi sector institutions registered with government like Social Welfare Societies, Village Organizations etc. 3. Individual Elders, religious and influential people of the community. Source: Self-developed There are many informal village or community organizations in every part of the world which are the main origins / sources of participation. Informal organizations vary according to region, level, society, culture, economic situation and religion. For example, in a rich religion society there will be many informal religion oriented mosque and church committees for the welfare, as well as some missionary activities. Rich sociocultural communities consist of many informal institutions such as Panchayat in India (Gent, 1992) and in the Punjab Province of Pakistan, Hujra and Jarga are informal institutions in the KPK (Czech, 1996) and Balochistan Province (Bonfigolioli, 1997) of Pakistan. Many social welfare and self-help institutions are available in the agro based communities which are the main sources of participation and can be effectively involved in any development effort. Most of the institutions such as Jarga and Hujra are “invisible” and can be mobilized for any developmental activity. The other sources for community participation are some formal community based institutions existing in the society. Such institutions are developed and formally registered with the government for some social, welfare, environmental and development oriented activities. For example in KPK, Pakistan, there are 1485 formal community based institutions out of which 509 have been registered with the government (NGO Directory, 1998-99). Most of the NGOs and government sponsored community based projects are utilizing their knowledge and have involved them in their activities. Almost all formal and informal institutions are self-mobilized. However, in the category of formal institutions, there are some organizations which are created by the government or large scale NGOs for carrying out developmental activities through them. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 129 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar The third important source of participation in the rural communities is elders (white bearded), religious scholars (like Ulluma* in Pakistan), and other influential people. Here a question arises that these elders or ulluma may be few or single at village or community so how will they participate in the development activities. But actually they are highly regarded and have a status in rural communities. They have a very deep rooted impact on the rural community. For example, in Pakistani rural communities, a youth cannot speak before the elder of the community and a man, young or old, cannot speak before Allim* (religious scholar). So the participation of an elder, or an Allim accounts for the participation of the whole community. The NGO crises in Pakistan (1999-2000) happened because of the Ulluma. The Ullima were not consulted and were not taken into confidence. Therefore, NGOs activities were stopped in various locations of the country. NGOs are blamed for pursuing women’s freedom and other non Islamic activities (Frontier Post, 2001). On the other hand, Pak-German Integrated Rural Development Project at Mardan, Pakistan, adopted a new approach (Czech, 1996) by consulting and taking up the confidence of all the formal and non formal institutions as well as the elders and Ulluma. As a result of this approach, the project activities were run very successfully (Interview with Community Development Coordinator, IRDP, Mardan, and KPK at Pakistan). Classification on the Basis of Sectors / Activities: Classification of the people’s participation on the basis of sectors / activities is provided in table 1.3. Table3. Classification on the basis of sector/activities: Participation for “what” Sector Activities Political Participation for political activities like peace, democracy, human rights, gender equity, women rights. Legal aid, humanitarian relief, child right, and labor right etc. Economic Participation for Poverty alleviation, Environmental protection, integrated rural and urban development projects, Women in development, gender and development, community development, economic research, family planning, small scale enterprise, employment/income generation, credit and savings, and basic job training etc. Participation for welfare oriented activities like help to the poor and orphan students, Social Welfare and providing food and clothes to the poor, sports and recreations, social research, Religious. rehabilitation of drug addicts, and culture arts and heritage etc. Source: Self-developed There are three main fields for the people to participate i.e. political, economic and social welfare/religious. Under these sectors people perform and participate in various activities, individually or through their formal or informal organizations. Some organizations are specific to only one sector or activity. For example in 130 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan agrarian communities most people are participating for agriculture based activities through their farmers’ associations. Some people or their organizations have a multisectoral focus such as political, economic and welfare oriented activities. In the KPK, 727 people’s organizations have multi-sectoral focus, 473 focus on agriculture, 456 participate for credit and saving, 350 are busy in welfare oriented activities, 96 in human rights and 73 in humanitarian relief (NGOs Directory, 1998-99). Classification on the Basis of Beneficiaries: On the basis of beneficiaries, a classification model for people’s participation has been developed and shown in table 1.4. Table 4. Classification on the basis of beneficiaries: Participation for “whom” Beneficiaries Participatory activity(es) Community Participation in the project(s)/ Programme (s)/activity (es) for community development. Religious Minorities Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) designed for the development of minorities. Members only Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which serve members of the project only. Non –Members Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) whose beneficiaries are non members. Elders Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which have been designed for the welfare of elder people. Students Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which provide benefit to the students community. Youth Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which is useful for the youth and young generation. Children Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which focus on the development of children. Men Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which serve only men of the community. Women Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) which serve only women of the community. Disabled Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) design for the welfare and development of disabled people of the community. Drug Addicts Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) designed for the welfare of drug addicts. Patients Participation in the project(s) / programme (s) / activity (es) to help all kinds of patients. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 131 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar In the beneficiaries based classification, the focus is on the various individuals or groups getting benefits as well as participants in the projects. Some people participate and develop an organization for the welfare or development of a specific group. Their focus is a particular group of the community and not a sector or activity. They design various programmes/ projects/activities just for the welfare/development of particular group(s). For example, there are many people’s organizations which are designed to develop or benefit women or children. In the KPK, there are 836 people organizations which serve the whole community, 710 for women development, 606 for students’ welfare and 536 for patients (NGOs Directory, 1998-99). How to Promote People’s Participation In Development People’s participation is a very complex process and there is no single recipe for its promotions. Different countries have taken different approaches, techniques and methods. It is not possible to present some specific guidelines that can be used for the promotion of people’s participation in development because the issues are different in each setting. It all depends upon people’s behavior, their social customs, traditions, religions, norms etc. The main issues in the promotion of popular participation are: a) how to locate the deprived, b) how to enter in the circle of a poor community, c) how to give them voice and d) how to enhance their capacity of skill and knowledge. According to Picciotto (1999), poor are weak, too numerous, too dispersed and too diverse in their interest to form effective coalitions. How to give voice to the voiceless poor; how to give them a seat at the table when development programmes are debated and policy priorities are set; how to channel their scattered energies and extraordinary skills into productive pursuits is the fundamental challenge of development assistance. To locate the poorest in the programme area one needs to understand the development profile of the area and to find out various dimensions of poverty (economic, social or human development dimensions etc.) that exists in the community and the target groups. Once we find out the poorest, their problems and the target groups, then the next important issue is how to reach and enter in the community of the poor. This is not an easy job because in this regard we have to study their social, 132 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan cultural and religious norms and values. Violation of their norms and values will lead to the failure of the programme. In this regard it is very important to locate the influential individual(s) like political persons, teachers, religious leaders or elders of the community and take them into confidence. Moreover, it is important to contact the formal and informal institutions if already existing in the community. Once the influential individuals and local institutions are consulted and taken into confidence it becomes easy to mobilize the poor and carry out the progamme activities in a sustainable and equitable manner. In case there are no such institutions, then a united platform of the poor in the form of formal grass-root organization is necessary to be formed first. The third issue is how to give voice to the poor, to mobilize them in order to participate in the programme activities and to build their capacity to act. In this regard we need to raise their level of consciousness and to organize, gather and unite them under one platform by the formation of their own organization (if not available) or by strengthening the existing one. The poor need to be aware of the socio-economic realities around them, of the forces that keep them in poverty, and of the possibilities for bringing about changes in their conditions through their own reflections and collective activities. According to Wignaraja (1992), this constitutes a process of self- transformation through people’s praxis when they grow and mature as human beings. Similarly, it is very difficult for the poor to break away from the vicious circle of dependence and poverty individually. It is only group effort organization that can reduce dependence and initiate a course of participatory, self-reliant development. In this way, the voice of the poor for their development and empowerment will arise. To mobilize the poor and to build their capacity to act, the World Bank (1996) has suggested the following steps: • Keep the primary objective of the project which is to learn from poor and collaborate with the poor. This will build the confidence, knowledge and capacity of the poor for action. • Strengthen the organization and financial capacity of the people so that they can act for themselves. • Organize community; provide them training and one-way flows of resource through grant. The provision of benefits delivered to people is not sustainable in the long term and may not improve the ability of people to act for self. • When the capacity of poor people is strengthened and their voices begin to be Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 133 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar heard and they start demanding and paying for goods and services from government and private agencies, they become “clients”. In such a situation move away from welfare oriented approach and focus on things such as building sustainable market based financial systems, decentralizing authority and resources and strengthening local institutions. • Now, when clients ultimately become the owners and managers of the assets and activities, this is the highest stage or rank in terms of intensity of participation. In this stage, then, involve poor in the planning and decision processes. However, in many countries there are policy constraints in the organization and involvement of the poor. Therefore, a suitable policy environment is required to allow all stakeholders, especially poor and disadvantageous groups. Basis or Principles of Participation It is very important to establish the basis or the set of principles for any development project to be adopted. Without such principles it will be very difficult to build an appropriate strategy or to determine how the project is to be implemented. According to the UNDP (1997a), pparticipatory development is not ‘blue-print’ development but it is a strategy which constructs its approach in relation to the demands of the project context. There is a need of some principles or it requires some basis which helps planners to determine what the participatory approach should be in their development projects and programmes. UNDP (1997a) has developed the following principles which are considered to be more important: Target Group: The first principle of participation is to keep the poorest of the poor as a target group in the development of projects and strategies. Techniques and methods should be adopted to identify the poorest and then how to reach and involve them in the projects’ activities. Decision Making Process: People must be the decision makers of the whole development process. Their decisions should be made at all stages of project cycle and an equal importance and weightage should be given to all groups of the community. A free environment should be provided in which each individual can participate in the decision making process and people are encouraged to participate. 134 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan People Capabilities: People’s knowledge, skill and capabilities must be kept in the strategies and should be incorporated in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. People’s knowledge and expertise should be build, strengthened and encouraged to reduce their dependency on external assistance. Sense of Responsibility, Ownership and Control: The most important principle to be kept in any project’s strategy is to produce a sense of responsibility and ownership among the beneficiaries. This principle is important for sustainability. Encourage people to gain control over project activities and outcome. According to the UN report, people should be involved so that they rather act as “contributors” than mere “beneficiaries” of development. Women Empowerment: The gender component is also important and should be incorporated in development projects. Usually, there are various cultural and social barriers for women to participate in the activities. They are not allowed to participate in the developmental activities. Therefore, social and cultural changes should be created so that voice of women could be heard and their participation be secured. Ways of People’s Participation There are numerous ways world over for people’s participation in development projects and programmes. However, their participation depends upon the nature and policy of projects to be executed in their area and the social, cultural, religious, educational and financial capabilities of the people and community. Below are some ways of people’s participation adopted by the government and various NGOs in their respective projects and programmes in Pakistan. Land Provision: There are some developmental projects for which community provides land without cost. For example, in Pakistan, land for schools and water supply schemes as provided by the communities. Labor provision: In some development projects, people participate by providing free labour. For example, in construction of rural access roads in Pakistan, people participate by working themselves as laborers. Material Support: People some time participate by providing material to the projects and other expenditures are undertaken by the project implementers. For example, in Pakistan, people participate in the construction of road/street by providing materials such as sand, mud, crush stones etc. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 135 �Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar Technical and Professional Support: Every community has some technical and professional people such as doctors, engineers, teachers, carpenters, painters etc. These people voluntarily provide their services in the planning and implementation activities. Financial Support: In many cases, people participate by providing financial support to the projects. Sometimes the projects policy makes it compulsory for the people to provide some percentage of the project cost. So, the people contribute in the form of money. In some cases, people participation starts after the completion of the project. In such cases, the completed project is handed over to the communities and all the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) cost is passed onto them. Arguments against Participation Despite various benefits and arguments in favour of people’s participation, few arguments against participation are found in the literature. According to the UNDP (1997a) participation costs more time and money, process of participation is irrelevant and luxury in situations of poverty, participation can imbalance existing socio-political relationships and threaten the continuity of development work, pparticipation can result in the shifting of the burden onto the poor and the relinquishing by national governments of their responsibilities to promote development with equity. Similarly, the Inter-American Development Bank also criticized participation. According to Bank (IADB, 2000) pparticipation generates important benefits for many activities, but not necessarily for every type of activity or project, and is no substitute for technical competence at any stage of the project cycle. Moreover, participation generally requires more time and increased costs, particularly in the stages of project identification and design. High requirements of time and resources are strong disincentives to participation for executing agencies, stakeholders and the Bank itself. Most important is the opportunity cost that participation imposes on the poor for whom time is a valuable resource. As far as high financial cost is concerned, FAO (1990), on the basis of experience from the participatory development project indicated that “the poor’s contribution to project planning and implementation represents savings that reduces project costs. The poor also contribute their knowledge of local conditions, facilitating the diagnosis of environmental, social and institutional constraints, as well as the search of solutions.” 136 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Similarly, two case studies (Shahzada, 1998 and Ali, 1999) regarding participatory forestry and infrastructure projects at Pakistan, found that the cost of the forestry project decreased by 38% and infrastructure project by 33% using participatory approach. Conclusion People’s participation in development used worldwide including Pakistan is an optimum way to achieve sustainable development. The paper reflects that participation is an alternative to the bottom-up approach. Various approaches to involve people in development projects and programmes have been developed and adopted in various countries. Similarly, various methods, level, degree and forms of participation have evolved indicating the quality and extent of participation. The paper helps in establishing the degree to the extent people’s participatory approach stands in term of need, results and level of success in literature and practice. References AWARD (2008). A critical review of participatory practice in integrated water resource management. Research report of the association for water and rural development (AWARD), South Africa. Retrieved February 23, 2012 from http:// www.award.org.za/file_uploads/File/FINAL%20REPORT%20Lotz%20Sisitka%20and%20Burt_.pdf Ali, A. (1999). A comparison of cost of forestry schemes assisted by integrated rural development project (IRDP), mardan and forest department schedule rates. Mardan, Pakistan. Unpublished project report. Bonfiglioli, A. (1997). Participation and grass-roots organizations in integrated range and livestock development, Pakistan-Part 2. 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Paper No. 29, Social Development Papers. World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank (2000). working together: the world bank’s partnership with civil society. World Bank, Washington DC. st World Bank (2000a). Entering the 21 century. World development report 19992000. (Endnotes) * Ulluma (singular Allim) means religious scholars of Muslims in Pakistan. They are also called Immam or Mullah. Usually their activities are limited to Mosque and Muslims pray behind them. They also serve at death and marriage occasions. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 141 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1071 Title A name given to the resource Participatory Approach to Development in Pakistan Author Author Ali Shah, Iqtidar Abstract A summary of the resource. The concept of people’s participation in development is well defined but its meaning is different to different development organizations and social scientists. The objective of the paper is to unpack the concept of participation by looking at its various aspects including types, forms and stages. The paper focuses on research questions such as what kinds of participation are used worldwide with special reference to Pakistan; how the importance of people’s participation is realized and incorporated in development projects worldwide and more so in Pakistan. The paper provides the rationale for conceptual understanding of participatory approach and enables to deepen the knowledge about participatory approach for development. Thus, this paper contributes to the existing theory in terms of exploring the conceptual understanding of participation, realizing the importance of participation in development. The paper is descriptive in nature, based on secondary materials (research papers and various project documents), case studies and examples. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/09c5b138c19402ee543dc179a715e8f1.pdf 0e931534de0e3c44ca83d6bfad1beb19 PDF Text Text PREGLEDNI NAUČNI RAD Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt Partner Relationship: Microcrisis Aspect Prof. dr. Šabani Alisabri Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije, vanredni profesor e-mail: asabani@fkn.unsa.ba Sažetak: U predloženom radu pokušavamo problematizirati pojavu partnerskih odnosa koji po definiciji spadaju u izraz slobodnih volja odraslih ljudi. Istraživanja dokazuju da to nije u potpunosti tako i da je u osnovi tih odnosa socijalna konstrukcija koja im definiše prirodu. Karakter rizika u partnerskim odnosima dobrim dijelom proizlaze iz karaktera modernosti pri čemu smo obratili pažnju na one teoretičare koji su ta pitanja radikalizirali u svojim studijama. Mišljenja smo da su partnerski odnosi oblik zajednice, ali je izložena rizicima socijalne prirode karakterističnih za modernost. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 Ključne riječi: privlačnost, partnerski odnos, društveni konstrukt partnerskih odnosa, rizici u partnerskim odnosima, modernost. JEL klasifikacija: K39 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO152113 Historija članka Dostavljen: 26.12.2013. Recenziran: 30.03.2014. Prihvaćen: 10.07.2014. 233 �Šabani Alisabri Abstract: In the present work we try to problematize the emergence of partnerships which by definition belong to the free expression of the will of adults. Research shows that this is not entirely so, and that is the basis of these relations social structures that define their nature. Character risks in relationships largely stem from the nature of modernity in which we pay attention to those theorists who have these issues radicalized in their studies. We believe that partnership is a form of community, but is exposed to the risks of a social nature characteristic of modernity 234 Keywords: attraction, a partnership, a social construct of the partnerships, risks in partner relationships, modernity. JEL Classification: K39 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO152113 Article History Submitted: 26.12.2013. Resubmited: 30.03.2014. Accepted: 10.07.2014. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt 1. Uvod Put nas je čvrstim uzama vezao, Mi smo saputnici vetra, a put je naš bez kraja… Raznobojnih trenutaka dragoceni cvetni prah Crvenim tragom prolećnog veselja obasipa srca… PUT NAS JE ČVRSTIM VEZAMA VEZAO Rabindranat Tagore U navedenom dijelu Rabindranatove pjesme polazi se od idealnotipske situacije između dvoje ljudi u njihovom putu kroz život. Tako je u svakoj početnoj definiciji odnosa između dvoje ljudi. Međutim, iako su dvoje ljudi puni očekivanja u partnerskim odnosima, oni su često neizvjesni zbog niza vanjskih i unutarnjih događanja vezanih za partnerski odnos. U našem radu pokušat ćemo problematizirati i teorijski razumjeti partnerske odnose kao jedan od odgovora odraslih ljudi na kompleksnost socijalnog života u kojem bivaju. To nisu isključivo bračni odnosi, nego odnosi temeljeni na volji dvoje ljudi da budu zajedno. Struktura partnerskih odnosa podrazumijeva JA, TI i MI (partnerski međusobni odnos) formaciju. Suština partnerskog odnosa je balans između ove tri formacije. Tako se partnerski odnos razumijeva kao udruženje para koje dopušta svakom akteru njegovu vlastitost i jednakovrijednost. Svaka osoba traži i očekuje u partnerskom odnosu psihološku i prosocijalnu dozvolu za svoj osobni razvoj. Realno osjećanje zajednice i partnerstva je ono što se prepoznaje kao izvora zadovoljstva. Međusobni odnos figurira kao konstrukt realnosti za partnere i visoko je neovisan od nepouzdanosti vanjskog svijeta, tj. ima sposobnosti da živi sam po sebi. Partnerski odnos je najčešći oblik udruživanja dvoje odraslih ljudi suprotnog pola (mada ima i istopolnih partnerskih zajednica) i elementarni je oblik veze. Ukoliko preraste u brak zaštićen je nizom sankcija i zakona, kako vjerskih (svetost braka), tako i svjetovnih (Zakon o braku). Danas je jako teško ovladati partnerskim odnosima u smislu normiranja ili bar jednostavnošću strukture. Smatramo neophodnim navesti nekoliko neophodnih Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 235 �Šabani Alisabri osobina partnerskih odnosa koji ukazuju na kompleksnost tih odnosa, a u sebi nose elemente mikrokrizne situacije. 2. Privlačnost kao pretpostavka za partnerski odnos Međuljudska privlačnost može se definirati kao sklonost ili predispozicija vrednovanja druge osobe na pozitivan način. Stoga, međuljudska privlačnost je, u najširem smislu, specifična vrsta stava.1 Na prezentiranoj shemi zapažamo da veza između dvoje ljudi prolazi kroz četiri razine. Na prvoj razini ne postoji kontakt između dvoje ljudi: oni se čak i ne poznaju. Ovo je stanje stvari kod većeg dijela populacije, budući da stvaramo socijalne i vizualno-komunikacijske veze koje su definirane obimom naših kontakata kroz svakodnevnicu ( radne obaveze, dokolica, druženja, hobiji i sl.) i stoga, stupamo u kontakte sa relativno ograničenim brojem osoba. Na drugoj razini dvoje ljudi postaju svjesni jedno drugog; to se događa prije bilo kakve interakcije. To je vrlo bitno jer faktori kao što su fizička privlačnost i percipirana sličnost stavova određuju hoće li doći do interakcije i stvaranje veze. Ako svaka osoba osjeća da su okolnosti dobre, one napreduju na treću razinu – razinu površnog kontakata. Ovdje svaka osoba saznaje nešto o drugoj na način da li druga osoba zadovoljava kriterije kao što su sviđanje, privlačnost, uvjerenja, vrijednosti i sl. Prve tri razine tiču se stvaranja veza. Četvrta razina, uzajamnost, tiče se razvoja veza. To se upisuje kao kontinuum koji se proteže od poznanstva (manje preklapanje) do duboke i trajne veze. Treba istaći činjenicu da su akteri socijalizacijski „utrenirani“ iščitavati sve ove faze koje mogu dovesti do konačne verzije partnerstva. 1 I. Ajzen, „Attitudional versus normative messages: An investigation of the differential effects of persuasive communications on behaviour“, u K. Thomas (ur.), Attitudes and Behaviour, Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1971, 271-280. 236 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt Slika 1.Razine povezanosti između dvoje ljudi,prilagođeno prema D. C. Pennington2 Kao što vidimo, da bi partnerski odnos uopće bio moguć, potrebno je da osoba bude u nekom obliku komunikacije. Osobe koje su socijalno isključene imaju daleko manje resursa na raspolaganju za prevazilaženje ove situacije. Često znaju za ovaj problem ali nemaju hrabrosti, vještina i podrške da ga riješe. Razlike u sposobnosti savladavanja socijalne isključenosti manje su povezane s razlikama u ličnosti, a više s mjerom u kojoj su ljudi sposobni sami sebi postaviti ciljeve, organizirati život i sl. Osobe koje su u tome uspješne manje pate i manje je vjerojatno da će postati apatične. Sažeto, istraživanja o socijalnoj isključenosti 2 D.C. Pennington, Osnove socijalne psihologije, Naklada Slap, Zagreb, 1997,186-190. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 237 �Šabani Alisabri podupiru mišljenje da ljudi općenito trebaju podražaje, a posebno prisutnost drugih.3 Strah od socijalne isključenosti je snažan i potrebna je mala neizvjesnost pa da nastanu neki oblici panike. Strah je reakcija na događaj koji se dogodio, a tjeskoba je emocionalna reakcija na očekivanje budućeg događaja sličnog sadržaja, tj. socijalnog isključenja. Prisustvo drugih ljudi izravno djeluju na smanjenje tog straha, pružajući utjehu i smirivanje. Osobama je potrebna druga osoba jer se na taj način pruža mogućnost procjene samog sebe. Nekoliko nalaza i istraživanja o privlačnosti osoba postuliraju da su: 1. 2. 3. 4. Više popularne i željene;4 Pretpostavljeno je da imaju pozitivne osobine;5 Mogu su zaposliti brže; Opažljivi su, sretni, više osjetljivi, uspješni i društveno iskusni.6 Pretpostavlja se da ljudi stvaraju veze, poglavito intimne, s ljudima sličnima po fizičkoj privlačnosti, poznatih kao pretpostavka o podjednakoj privlačnosti. Vrlo privlačni ljudi stvaraju veze jedni s drugima, kao i umjereno privlačni, neprivlačni i ružni ljudi. Ovo je primjer teorije pravednosti, koja, grubo rečeno, kaže da ljudi dobiju «ono što misle da zaslužuju u životu». Prema teoriji pravednosti, da bi se veza stvorila (i trajala), svaka osoba mora drugoj pružiti dovoljno koristi i smisla da bi opstala.7 Saegert, Swap i Zajonc8 su potvrdili pretpostavku da će se nekoj osobi više sviđati druga osoba što češće bude dolazila u kontakt s njom. 3 A. Šabani, Sociologija, Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije, Sarajevo, 2013, 211-215. 4 D. C. Pennington, Osnove socijalne psihologije, Naklada Slap, Zagreb, 1997, 193 5 D. C. Pennington, Osnove socijalne psihologije, Naklada Slap, Zagreb, 1997, 193 6 E. Hatfield, S. Sprecher, Mirror, mirror… The importance of look in everyday life, SUNY Press, New York, 1986, 74 7 E. Walster, G.W. Walster, E. Berscheid, Equity: Theory and Research, Allyn& Bacon, 1978, 23-40. 8 S. Saegert, W. Swap, R.B. Zajonc, Exposure, context, and interpersonal attraction, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 234-242. 238 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt Koliko se druga osoba sviđala Slika 2. Intenzitet privlačnosti proizlazi iz većeg broja susreta jedne osobe s drugom. 5.0 4.5 1 4.0 2 5 10 Broj susreta Faktori privlačnosti se ne odnose samo na prostornu–vremensku predikciju (vjerovatnoća da ćemo neku osobu vidjeti u određenom vremenu i određenom prostoru), nego i na faktore poput: 1. toga da smo jako privlačni ljudima s kojima dijelimo naše stavove, što više zajedničkih stavova dijelimo, to smo više privlačni; 2. odbijanja komunikacije s osobama koje nam nisu prijatne; 3. moralnih, estetskih i religijskih kriterija koje poštujemo i na osnovu kojih dopuštamo pristup do sebe. Priroda međusobnog odnosa u najvećoj mjeri zavisi od ličnog osjećaja aktera i definicije situacije te način unutarpartnerske komunikacije. Izbor partnera, odnosno psihodinamika partnera zavisi da li smo ispunili početne uslove razvijanja i podržavanja kvalitetnih odnose u dvoje.9 To znači odnos s kojim će se partneri baviti i harmonizirati ga, a ne odnos koji će biti prepušten samom sebi. 3. Društveni konstrukt partnerskih odnosa Socijalna konstrukcija partnerskih odnosa proizlazi iz zahtjeva društva da se ljudi moraju udruživati, osobito odrasli članovi. Partnerski odnosi imaju osobinu da 9 P. Brajša, Se da živeti v dvoje, Delavska enotnost, Ljubljana, 1986, 18-29. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 239 �Šabani Alisabri se pretvore u bračne10 ili neke druge odnose, a na osnovu toga zahtijevaju legitimno važenje. Partnerstvo je univerzalna i masovna socijalna pojava koja je društveno normirana. Većina partnerskih odnosa završava brakom ili vanbračnom zajednicom11. Ukoliko partnerstvo preraste u brak (kao produbljenje partnerskog odnosa) onda ta veza ima sljedeća obilježja: 1. 2. 3. 4. međusobno obvezivanje među supružnicima, prava seksualnog pristupa, očekivanje da će brak potrajati kroz trudnoću i priznavanje legitimnog statusa djece supružnika.12 Partnerski odnosi, u skali funkcionalnih osobina, imaju mogućnosti socijalizacije odgovornosti jer uključuje vođenje računa i o drugoj osobi. Ukoliko su partnerski odnosi formirani između različitih socijalnih i konfesionalnih jedinica onda partnerski odnosi imaju i svoju akulturacijsku funkciju. Na kraju partnerski odnosi predstavljaju instrument socijalne kontrole jer gdje god se dvoje ili više ljudi susreću, neka zajednička pravila moraju biti prihvaćena od strane svih aktera za osiguravanje i održavanje individualnih prava. Uspješnost adaptacije na pravila unutar partnerskih odnosa je uvod za uspješnu adaptaciju i socijalnu definiciju partnerskih odnosa. Kada akteri ne mogu kontrolisati jedne druge tada su prinuđeni da aktiviraju moralne sankcije koje upozoravaju na narušavanje pravila (ljutnja, bijes, povučenost, uvrijeđenost, itd.). Uspostavljanje partnerskih odnosa, odnosno prihvatanje partnerski odnosa kao činjenice konstituira nizu obaveza, prilagodbi, kompromisa ali i očekivanja. Najčešće obaveze ili prilagodbe su slijedeće: 1. uspostavljanje rutine svakodnevnice, 10 M. D. Buss, Human Mate Selection, American scientists,73,47-51. Autor navodi podatak da preko 90% partnerskih odnosa završava brakom. 11 I. Vidanović, Rečnik socijalnog rada, TIRO-ERC, Beograd 2006, 70. Brak je zakonski zasnovana institucija zajedničkog života punoljetnih osoba, podrazumijevaju se prava i obaveze supružnika što se reguliše pravnim normama. Velika promjena u zakonskoj regulativi i praksi pojedinih zemalja dogodio se nakon 2000.g. kada je omogućen zakonski regulisan brak osoba istog pola 12 I. Ivulić, Što žene žele?, Jedna empirijska provjera, u J. Hrgović i D. Polšek (ur.), Evolucija društvenosti, Naklada Jesenski i Turk Zagreb, 2004, 193. 240 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt 2. učenje kako donositi svrhovite odluke zajedno, 3. građenje novih prijateljstava na osnovu činjenice da se u partnerskim odnosima poprimaju novi socijalni atributi, 4. razvijanje odnosa koji imaju potencijal legitimiteta, 5. uspostavljanje zajedničkog financijskog budžeta, 6. razvijanje „dvostruke ličnosti“ u smislu trošenja i kupovanja ne samo za sebe nego i za drugu osobu, 7. uspostavljanje ceremonijalnih i ritualnih navika, 8. odluka o dinamici erotskih relacija, 9. učenje kako se pregovara o konfliktima, 10. učenje kako uzimati i davati u zajedničkom životu, 11. alokacija odgovornosti, 12. razvijanje uspješnih komunikacijskih modela, 13. uspostavljanje i dijeljenje vrijednosnih orijentacija, 14. identificiranje partnerskih uloga, 15. stvaranje zajedničkih ciljeva, 16. odlučivanje o aktivnostima u slobodnom vremenu, 17. odlučivanje o formama i sadržajima uključenosti u zajednicu, 18. uspostavljanje i definisanje kreditnih aranžmana, 19. razvijanje zadovoljstva i uspostavljanje balansa između zajedništva i individualnosti, 20. uspostavljanje partnerstva kao životni uspjeh.13 Kao idealnotipski socijalni konstrukt partnerstva sa stanovišta racionalnosti, često puta i vladajuće ideologije, javljaju se ovi poželjni odnosi i projekcije socijalnih vrijednosti: 1. viša klasa otmjeno življenje 2. gornja srednja klasa karijera i obrazovanje 3. donja srednja klasa poštovanje i stabilnost radnog mjesta 4. radnička klasa finansijski opstanak i mogućnost zaposlenja 5. niža klasa fizički opstanak 13 C. S. Schuster, S.S. Ashburn, The Process of Human Developement: a Holistic Life-Span Approach ( second edition), Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Toronto, 1986, 123-128. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 241 �Šabani Alisabri Kao što vidimo partnerski odnosi su jako usmjereni na kontrolu vanjskih i unutarnjih prijetnji zbog kojih mora biti izgrađen partnerski kodeks čije se poštovanje podrazumijeva od strane oba aktera. 4. Rizici u partnerskim odnosima Najčešći rizici u partnerskim odnosima su:      nepovjerenje, preljuba, razočarenje, konflikti, disfunkcionalnost partnera. 4.1. Nepovjerenje Nepovjerenje je situacija koja ima moralno značenje i odnosi se na odsustvo sigurnosti i izvjesnosti partnerskog odnosa. Socijalna kontrola unutar partnerskog odnosa često konstatira nekonzistentnost toka partnerstva. Nepovjerenje je često uvodna situacija za raspad partnerskog odnosa. Nepovjerenje je uzrok nezadovoljstva kvalitetom odnosa koji nije zasnovan na dubokom poštivanju i obostranom razumijevanju.. Nepovjerenje se može shvatiti i kao strah od gubitka voljene osobe, a ponekad može prerasti u oblik terora koji vremenom postane nepodnošljiv za kontroliranog aktera. 4.2. Preljuba Preljuba je prvi dokaz nepotpune ljubavi i dokazuje nezrelo doživljavanje i poimanje ljubavi. Partner stupa u preljubu ukoliko nije izražena ljubav. Međutim, preljuba može biti izraz virilne kulture jer je takva kultura zadržala dominaciju muškarca, pa prema tome i njegovu pravo da ima više partnerica. 4.3. Razočarenje Razočarenje je jedna od čestih situacija u partnerskim odnosima. Najteži osjećaj jeste spoznaja da jedan drugog razumiju samo na svoj način. 242 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt Ljubav ne važi samo za jednu sferu čovjeka, nego obuhvata kompletnu njegovu ličnost. Često se dešava da nekog partnera ne želi vidjeti takvog kakav je, nego takvog kakav bi on želio. U fazi zaljubljenosti velika su očekivanja da će im partner ispuniti i omogućiti sve želje i da će otpočeti novi život. Prečesto nedostaje jednom od partnera jednostavna konstatacija da su ljudi jednostavno takvi kakvi jesu, a ne da su robovi, slike kako su sebi zamislili. Partnerski odnosi često bivaju opterećeni nizom međusobnih primjedbi, tako muškarci najčešće prigovaraju ženama:    vezanosti za kuću i domaćinstvo, pretjerana vezanost za partnera, pretjerana kontrola; nastojanje da se muškarac veže za kuću i kućne obaveze; emocionalna ovisnost od muškarca i preveliko insistiranje na osjećanjima. S druge strane najčešći prigovori žena muškarcima su:    nemaju vremena za žene, suviše su same i muškarci ne preuzimaju nikakve odgovornosti; oskudica priznanja, ozbiljno neshvaćanje žene, nepriznavanja rada, zasluga, odsustvo ljubaznosti; emocionalna nedostupnost, nikada se ne izraze osjećaj do druge osobe i ne pokazuje pažljivost.14 4.4. Konflikti Konflikti u partnerskim odnosima se definiraju kao povrede psihosocijalnog polja jednog od aktera u partnerskom odnosu. To znači da čitava skala formalnih i neformalnih prava i dužnosti, očekivanja i i simboličkih nagrada biva povrijeđena konfliktom. No, konflikti mogu biti funkcionalni i popraviti stanje u odnosu, a često su sami po sebi fleksibilni. Jedna povreda psihosocijalnog polja aktera od strane drugog aktera povlači reakciju i tako se konflikt može umnožiti. Ako su povrede shvaćene kao ugrožavanje slijedi reakcija i očekivano multipliciranje. Konflikti se ne završavaju dosljedno, nego kompromisno. Na taj način konflikt uči učesnike kompromisnim rješenjima, a dugoročno i toleranciji. 14 V. Satir, Družina za naš čas, Cankarjeva založba, Ljubljana, 1998, 157-170. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 243 �Šabani Alisabri Konflikt je jedna od težih situacija u partnerskim vezama i izuzetno komplicira odnose. Emotivno reagovanje partnera, ukoliko je nefunkcionalno, dovodi do konflikta. U osnovi konflikt je upozorenje na disfunkcionalnost veze i izražava strah od završnog razrješenja situacije. Konflikt često ima izraze i situacije povezane za pobjedu i poraz. Konflikt može kreirati suštinu partnerskog odnosa u:    instrumentalizaciju partnerskog odnosa, koji znači prijelaz iz JA – TI u odnos JA – ONO. Međusobna ljubav se mijenja, ali i međusobno iskorištava. Takav odnos guši partnera i pravi ga nezadovoljnim. u odnose koji dugo traju i u kojima se neprijatna osjećanja ne zaboravljaju, nego se pohranjuju kao kapital za konfliktu situaciju i služe kao energetski izvor i „municija“ za repertoar uvreda koji će se upotrijebiti u budućem konfliktu, najčešće zlostavljanje.15 u odnose u kojima nije sve logično, sa nizom nesvjesnih događanja koja uzrokuju konflikt. Često dolazi od nerazumijevanja i pogrešnog doživljavanja partnerovog ponašanja. Iako je konflikt u partnerskim odnosima uzrokovan nizom neslaganja, neugodnim situacijama i sl., ističemo da ima izvjesnu autonomnost u odnosu na aktere. Naime, psihodinamika konflikta preživljava unatoč činjenici što su nestali elementarni uslovi nastanka istog. Proces partnerskih konflikata otpočinje dinamikom zahtjeva, traženja pa do povlačenja. Jedan od partnera zahtjeva blizinu intimnost, dok drugi odgovara šutnjom i povlačenjem. Partner izbjegava dodir i ulaže punu energiju u distancu, dok drugi partner osjeća strah od samoće. Sljedeća faza konflikta je ona kada jedan od aktera, koji želi bliži dodir, prelazi u fazu proganjanja, a onaj drugi u fazi bježanja. Treći stepen jeste ona situacija kada jedan od partnera osjeća razočarenje. U sljedećem stepenu, partner koji je proganjao drugog, doživljava bijes i počinje neumoljivo napadati, a drugi odgovara protiv napada. U petom stepenu oba partnera 15 Kao što su pokazala istraživanja Autonomne ženske kuće Zagreb (Jutarnji List, ponedjeljak, 18.10.2004.g.) na području Hrvatske, najmanje 29% žena partneri su zlostavljali. Istraživanje je provedeno na 987 žena u dobi 18 do 67 godina iz svih dijelova Hrvatske. Njih 61% je bilo u braku, 21% u vezi, a 18% nije imalo partnera. Rasprostranjenost fizičkog nasilja, između ostalog, mjereno je kroz pitanje zna li ispitanica da je njezinu najbolju prijateljicu partner ikad fizički ozlijedio. Čak 29% žena odgovorilo je potvrdno. 244 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt se nalaze na sigurnoj distanci i tako ostaju do novog konflikta. Šesta i završna faza jeste faza gađenja i prezira.16 4.5. Disfunkcionalnost partnera Odlika kvalitetnog odnosa, pa i partnerskog, jest sposobnost prepoznavanja šta partneru treba u određenom trenutku i kakvim su odnosom oba partnera zadovoljni. Međutim, niz partnerskih odnosa su nastali spletom slučajnih okolnosti i pod utjecajem onih vanjskih prilika koje akteri nisu mogli ili ne mogu kontrolisati i mijenjati ih u svoju korist. Ovi faktori se mogu razumjeti kao disfunkcionalni (odsutvo ili slom funkcionalnih odnosa). U neke od tih odnosa spadaju:     umješanost roditelja u partnerski odnos; nezrelost partnera,smatra se da odnos nije stabilan, npr., tinejdžerske partnerske zajednice ne mogu zbog toga formirati svoj identitet; partnerske zajednice sklopljene od strane aktera koji su inkongruentni po statusno-socijalnom kriteriju;17 partnerski odnosi u kojem je jedan, ili oba, od aktera imao teške traume iz djetinjstva. Ukoliko se partnerski odnosi njeguju kao važni i smisleni za aktere, onda zapažamo da akteri znaju da su oni po sebi nestabilni ukoliko se ne obnavljaju ili redefiniraju. 5. Antinomije u partnerskim odnosima Antinomije se u teoriji smatraju sukobima između dvije suprostavljene istine ili teze, koje su podjednake argumentacijske snage. U našoj raspravi partnerski odnosi imaju tu osobinu. Naime, koliko god osobe rado stupaju u te odnose,18 s 16 M. Metelko, Ljubezen in okamenelo srce, Samozaložba, Vrhnika, 1998, 31-42. J. Burušić, Koliko daleko jabuka pada od stabla, Jutarnji list, 13. studenoga 2013, 28-29. 18 A. Giddens, Sociologija, Nakladni zavod Globus, Zagreb, 2007, 192. Autor ističe da se brak transformirao u sve većem broju u kohabitualne veze kao alternativa braku, parovi žive zajedno i zajedno odgajaju djecu. Predviđa se da će 4 od 5 vjenčanih parova Z. Evropi živjeti zajedno prije braka. 17 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 245 �Šabani Alisabri druge strane postoji i visoka stopa raspada partnerskih odnosa,19 ali i ponovnog ulaska u njih. To znači da su oni ujedno i potreba ali i okvir u kojem nisu potpuno zadovoljene potrebe. To također znači da proces odabira partnera dovode u određenu sumnju taj čin kao čin pun osobnih sviđanja, emocija i zaljubljenosti, neovisno o kontekstu. U većoj se mjeri može razmatrati društvena uvjetovanost odabira partnera unutar koje socijalne, finansijske kulturne, obrazovne i druge varijable imaju vrlo važno mjesto. Prema Richard Sennettu20 velikog kritičara teorije zajednice svedene na dvoje ljudi smatra da su se kroz modernijom historiju reducirali potencijali pojedinca na svijest o njegovim okrenutostima samom sebi. To je proizvelo neku vrstu egoizma i svijest o partnerskim odnosima da su oni jedini skup zaista postojećih ljudskih bića ( pad u sebstvo). Međutim, to ne garantuje da su partnerski odnosi čvrsti, nego su mnogo više krhki i često partnerska zajednica egzistira samo stalnim usiljenim pojačavanjem emocija. Razlog za tu investiciju sastoji se u tome da je dominantna kultura dobrim djelom onemogućila male partnerske jedinice da funkcioniraju bez prisile, straha ili instrumentalnih svrha, poput emocionalnog preživljavanja. Kultura im nudi nestabilne simbole pobude, i namjere i stalno su prinuđeni provjeravati njihovu snagu kroz medije, vizualnu kulturu i kulturalne pritiske. Partnerski odnosi u modernom svijetu funkcioniraju kao male jedinice otpora u modernom svijetu i samim tim gube svoje smisao jer koriste sredstva i instrumente koji malu zajednicu onemogućavaju kao smislenu. Sennett ovu situaciju naziva tiranija prisnosti. On ističe da je privatni život, nasuprot javnom životu, izložen nizu tiranskih prisila koje predstavljaju ideju da sva ljudska aktivnost prolazi kroz mrežu odgovornosti i nadzora. Neispunjavanje dužnosti stvara strah od neispunjavanja tih dužnosti,a samim tim i vrijeđanja dogovorenih partnerskih odnosa. Intimnost, kao važan dio partnerskih odnosa, je polje očekivanih ljudskih odnosa. Očekuje se da su odnosi topli onda kad su bliski.. Paradoksalno, što se ljudi više zbližuju u partnerskim odnosima, to su manje društveni. 19 N. Abercrombie, S. Hill, Riječnik sociologije, Jesenski i Turk,zagreb, 2008,179. Autori navode podatak za Veliku Britaniju da se stopa razvoda naglo povećala (2,1 razvod na 1000 sklopljenih brakova u 1961. godini, u usporedbi s 13,4 u 1995. godini). Istovremeno se stopa ponovnog stupanja u brak nakon razvoda ostale visoke - 50% razvedenih žena u 1980-ima su ponovo stupile u brak 8 godina nakon razvoda. 20 R. Sennett, Nestanak javnog čovjeka, Naprijed, Zagreb, 1989,127-149. 246 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt Anthony Giddens21 u studiji „Transformacija intimniteta“ konstatira da u okružju moderniteta odnosi poprimaju nove kvalitete koje su prije svega rezultat promjena u prirodi društva i strukturi familije. Naime, žene su preuzele rizik oslobođenja od tradicionalnih struktura i porodice. Istovremeno su redefinirale partnerske odnose u smislu da su22 fokusirane na razumijevanje sebe i odnosa u koje stupaju. Na tragu M. Foucaulta, Giddens objašnjava razliku, nastalu u modernitetu, uvodeći ideju „čistih odnosa“. Suština tog odnosa jest da se u njega slobodno ulazi na temelju utilitarnosti, odnosno, smisleno je da traje onoliko koliko je kao odnos koristan. To je ono bitno što je u kontrastu sa ranijim pojmovima braka kao skupa uloga i obaveza. On također hipostazira pojam romantične ljubavi, koja je definirana stavom ili iluzijom da je to „nešto posebno“. Tu vrstu osjećanja Giddens naziva „konfluentna ljubav“ ili ona ljubav koja je posebna po sebi u samom odnosu. Giddens tumači ovu promjenu radikalnom demokratizacijom društva koja je obuhvatila i mikronivoe poput partenskih odnosa. Uočio je da postoji opšta tendencija da su se muškarci kulturalno „ulijenili“ unutar dominantno virilne kulture i da su žene, kroz socijalne promjene, otvorile mogućnost stvaranja konkurentnih vrijednosti unutar te kulture. 6. Zaključak Nekoliko je važnih razloga zašto partnerski odnosi nisu univerzalni odgovor na kompleksnost svijeta za pojedince. Partnerski odnosi, prije svega ne mogu biti zamjena za socijalni život osobe, niti osoba može biti svedena samo na partnersku ulogu. Drugo, osobe u modernom svijetu su socijalizirane na oblike egoizma kao način očuvanja osobnosti i iz tih motiva može lako doći do raspada partnerske zajednice. Treće, osobe modernog doba izložene su snažnim konzumentskim ponudama i slikama za koje ne želi biti uskraćen, a za to može biti prepreka partnerski odnos. Četvrto, partnerski odnos može biti privatni mikrokosmos, ali nesposoban da rješava pitanja u kategorijama javnosti. To dokazuju teorijski okviri i empirijski izvori različitog statusa i značaja. Akteri u partnerskim donosima imaju svoje predstave o zajedničkom življenju i potrebama, koje pokušavaju zadovoljiti u zajedničkom životu. Ipak, shvatili smo da su partnerski odnosi odgovor na 21 A.Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 1992, 140-162. 22 M. Fuko, „Telo, moć“, u P. Milenković, D. Marinković (ur.) Mišel Fuko 1926-1984-2004, Vojvođanska sociološka asocijacija, Novi Sad, 2005, 81. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 247 �Šabani Alisabri usamljenost ili socijalnu isključenost, a da bi bili uspješni karakterizira ih nekoliko zajedničkih osobina: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Jasno i razumljivo komuniciranje, Sudjelovanje, a ne takmičenje, Saradnja, a ne izražavanje moći, Priznavanje realnosti partnerskog odnosa, a ne robovanje zamišljenoj slici tog odnosa, Upotreba autoriteta za uređenje i usrećivanje partnerskog odnosa, prije nego izražavanje moći, Samopoštovanje u svim aspektima ličnosti, Sposobnost odgovornosti do sebe i partnera, Sposobnost suočavanja sa problemima u duhu izazova i novih temelja za prirodu partnerskog odnosa. Činjenica je da je u okolnostima moderniteta ljudska egzistencija nestalna, ali mnogima ostaje mogućnost konstruiranja partnerskog odnosa kao univerzalnog odgovora nato stanje. Ono što možemo učiniti za sebe jeste samopoštovanje i zahtijevanje, u okviru kategorija humanog razvoja i humanističkih odnosa, da me se poštuje. Partnerski odnosi, stoga, predstavljaju jednu od mogućnosti u okviru niza borbi za preživljavanje na koje je čovjek prinuđen da učestvuje. Perspektive suvremenih partnerskih veza, sudeći po onome što modernitet nameće ljudima, pokazuje niz tendencija i eksperimenata, ali je sigurno da će ostati kao važan resurs za one aktere koji ih još uvijek smatraju racionalnim i ontološkim rješenjem svoje egzistencije. 7. Literatura     248 Giddens, Sociologija, Nakladni zavod Globus, Zagreb, 2007, 192. Šabani, Sociologija, Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije, Sarajevo, 2013, 211-215. A.Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 1992, 140-162. C. S. Schuster, S.S. Ashburn, The Process of Human Developement: a Holistic Life-Span Approach ( second edition), Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Toronto, 1986, 123-128. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Partnerski odnosi: mikrokrizni aspekt                  D. C. Pennington, Osnove socijalne psihologije, Naklada Slap, Zagreb, 1997, 193 D.C. Pennington, Osnove socijalne psihologije, Naklada Slap, Zagreb, 1997,186190. E . Walster, G.W. Walster, E. Berscheid, Equity: Theory and Research, Allyn& Bacon, 1978, 23-40. E. Hatfield, S. Sprecher, Mirror, mirror The importance of look in everydaylife, SUNY Press, New York,1986, 74 Ajzen, „Attitudional versus normative messages: An investigation of the differential effects of persuasive communications on behaviour“, u K. Thomas (ur.), Attitudes and Behaviour, Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1971, 271-280. Ivulić, Što žene žele?, Jedna empirijska provjera, u J. Hrgović i D. Polšek (ur.), Evolucija društvenosti, Naklada Jesenski i Turk Zagreb, 2004, 193. Vidanović, Rečnik socijalnog rada, TIRO-ERC, Beograd 2006, 70. J. Burušić, Koliko daleko jabuka pada od stabla, Jutarnji list, 13. studenoga 2013, 28-29. Jutarnji List, ponedjeljak, 18.10.2004.g. M. D. Buss, Human Mate Selection, American scientists,73,47-51. M. Fuko, „Telo, moć“, u P. Milenković, D. Marinković (ur.) Mišel Fuko 19261984-2004, Vojvođanska sociološka asocijacija, Novi Sad, 2005, 81. M. Metelko, Ljubezen in okamenelo srce, Samozaložba, Vrhnika, 1998, 31-42. N. Abercrombie, S. Hill, Riječnik sociologije, Jesenski i Turk,zagreb, 2008,179. P. Brajša, Se da živeti v dvoje, Delavska enotnost, Ljubljana, 1986, 18-29. R. Sennett, Nestanak javnog čovjeka, Naprijed, Zagreb, 1989,127-149. S. Saegert, W. Swap, R.B. Zajonc, Exposure, context, and interpersonal attraction, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 234-242. V. Satir, Družina za naš čas, Cankarjeva založba, Ljubljana, 1998, 157-170. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 249 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2861 Title A name given to the resource Partner Relationship: Microcrisis Aspect Author Author Alisabri, Šabani Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: In the present work we try to problematize the emergence of partnerships which by definition belong to the free expression of the will of adults. Research shows that this is not entirely so, and that is the basis of these relations social structures that define their nature. Character risks in relationships largely stem from the nature of modernity in which we pay attention to those theorists who have these issues radicalized in their studies. We believe that partnership is a form of community, but is exposed to the risks of a social nature characteristic of modernity Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Social Sciences Research Center of International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d5dea25b21d3f374035c75e6e7214318.pdf 6c7f0b0755d60461347336b591ecc6d0 PDF Text Text PASSENGERS’ SATISFACTION IN COACH TRAVEL IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - STUDY ON PERCEPTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN SARAJEVO Adis Ćatić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina adis.catic@hotmail.com Edin Smajić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina esmajic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Transportation of people was always very important aspect of human life. Today, there are many ways in which people can travel. This paper was occupied with coach travel, and passengers’ satisfaction in it in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A coach is a type of vehicle used for carrying passengers on excursions, touristic journeys and trips, and on other long distance journeys such as intercity or international bus lines. The goal of this study was to find out level of passengers’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and what is most important for passengers when they use coach travel services - is it price, speed, safety, comfort, or something else. Study was performed on perception of university students in Sarajevo, because they are representative sample of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Focus of the study was on “on board experience”, which is actually experience of passengers while they are inside of the vehicle. Research clearly indicated what aspects of coach travel are most important for passengers, and also suggested some proposals that can make coach travel more competitive and attractive. Keywords: passengers’ satisfaction, university students, coach travel 1. Introduction Coach travel is one of the most important transportation modes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Actually, it is important way of transportation of people in most of developing countries. In developed countries, where air and rail transportation is well organized, smaller number of passengers uses coach travel services. Anyway, coach travel finds place in organizing touristic trips, excursions and other kinds of journeys in every country, no matter is it developed or developing country. Purpose of this study was to illuminate current situation in coach travel market in Bosnia and Herzegovina, to find out what aspects of coach travel are most important to passengers and to reach level of satisfaction of passengers who travel by coach in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since coach travel is, as we said, one of the most common ways of transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is important to investigate current situation, to analyze reasons and to reach final conclusion in order to make it more attractive and more affordable for all segments of passengers. Although this study was focused only on university students who are studying at any of universities in Sarajevo, conclusions that were reached during the research can also be applied for some other groups of passengers. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 119 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) 1.1 Importance and contribution of the study There are number of reasons that give importance to this research. First of all, this research clearly showed level of satisfaction of university students/passengers with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with, or they have travelled. It is important in order to motivate transportation companies to increase the level of quality of their services and to try to make users of that services more satisfied. Other reason of importance of this research is that the research showed what aspects of coach travel are the most important for university students/passengers. By this information, transportation companies can focus their efforts to improve especially those aspects of coach travel that research participants stated as most important. This research is important because it helps both, transportation companies who provide coach travel services and passengers who use them at the end. Because coach travel is one of the most important ways of transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina (maybe the most important one), it is crucial thing to make it attractive, affordable, comfortable and safe. This research gives its contribution to this very important issue. 1.2 Objectives of the study We can identify several objectives of this research. First of all, objective of the research was to find out what factors or what aspects of coach travel are most important for university students/passengers in Sarajevo when they use coach travel services on intercity lines, international lines, students’ trips and any other kind of journeys by coach. They were asked to fulfill the survey and to rate importance of specific factors such as price, crew, safety, etc. Next, one of objectives of the study was to investigate and to find out level of university students’ satisfaction with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with. University students were also asked to give their comments, proposals, suggestions, critics and experiences (good or bad). These comments were greatly useful in the process of data analysis and commenting of final results. Finally, this research was done in order to find out what are the most common problems that passengers and transportation companies are facing with, and to try to provide some new ideas, proposals or possible solutions for those problems. There were no a lot of researches like this in the past in Bosnia and Herzegovina, so this one is very important in process of illumination of coach travel sector and passengers’ satisfaction in it in this country. 2. Literature review There are number of articles and other kinds of works written about bus and coach travel. Anyway, there are more articles that are examining issues in public and urban transportation, and less about coach travel. We already differentiated these two terms, but in order to get closer to the topic of transportation of people, in this section we will also review some articles that are focused on bus transportation, urban and public transport. Bodiono (2009) was writing about passengers’ satisfaction in public bus transport in Indonesia. The overall result showed that service quality attributes influences overall customer satisfaction in using public bus transport. The service quality could be evaluated and improved by analyzing single attributes but also by analyzing factors based on several attributes. The overall aim is to make public bus transport an attractive, satisfied, and marketable mode of transport. (Budiono, 2009) 120 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Yusof et al. (2014) investigated factors that are affecting students’ satisfaction towards bus services in University of Utara, Malaysia. The objective of this study was to explore factors that influence student satisfaction on bus services in University Utara Malaysia (UUM). A factor analysis yielded three factors which are attitude of bus driver, reliability of the buses and facilities of buses. (Zahayu Md Yusof, Masnita Misiran, Lee Pei Pei and Ho Tian Tian, 2014) Woldeamanuel and Cyganski (2011) were writing about factors affecting travelers’ satisfaction with accessibility to public transportation. This research is similar to previous two. Authors state that accessibility to public transportation is one of the important attributes to assess the effectiveness of a transit system and the integration of transportation with land use. The level of accessibility can be a determining factor for users‟ perception and satisfaction with the overall transit system. (Mintesnot Woldeamanuel and Rita Cyganski, 2011) Islam et al. (2014) conducted a study about measuring costumers’ satisfaction on bus transportation. The purpose of the study was to examine the factors measuring customers’ satisfaction, especially the impact of service quality on customers’ satisfaction in public transportation industry in the university town of Sintok located in Kedah province of Malaysia. (Rabiul Islam, Mohammed S. Chowdhury, Mohammad Sumann Sarker and Salauddin Ahmed, 2014) Authors say that service quality attributes influences overall customer satisfaction in using public bus transport. In March 2011, Passenger Focus, which is independent national passenger web site, wanted to get a better understanding of coach passenger needs and experiences in Great Britain, so it commissioned preliminary research. This included identifying any improvements which could be made and how complaints were handled. Focus groups and depth interviews were undertaken with users several transportation companies in UK. (Coach passengers needs and experiences, 2011) Results indicated that participants of the survey used the coach because it was significantly cheaper than other modes. Also, they mentioned other advantages of travelling by coach: getting a seat is always guaranteed, the seats can be comfortable; coach travel can be a stress free and relaxing experience and the time can be used to work or read. (Coach passengers needs and experiences, 2011) Authors claim that coach travel is one of the most affordable kinds of transportation. 3. Coach travel overview In order to define coach travel correctly, it is necessary to define a term “coach”. Before that, terms “coach” and “bus” have to be distinguished. In Bosnian language there is no difference between these two terms, but in English language it is important to differentiate them. Coaches and buses are both used for carrying passengers from place to place. The differences between a bus and a coach may be hard to recognize, especially when coaches are often confusedly referred to as buses and the terms are used interchangeably. However, buses and coaches differ in service, comfort and pricing. (Gianino) In American English, the word “bus” may refer to any form of public transport by road, be it a short ride through New York City or a coast-to-coast marathon. (Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference, 2011) Things are a little different in European English. A “bus route” is essentially a local service, geared to local traffic. You cannot normally reserve seats in advance. A “coach service,” by contrast, is usually a longer-distance service, often one where advance booking is recommended (even if often not absolutely necessary) and usually operated by a vehicle that has more comfortable seating than you would find on a local bus service. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 121 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) (Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference, 2011) Unlike transit buses designed for shorter journeys, coaches often have a luggage hold that is separate from the passenger cabin and are normally equipped with facilities required for longer trips, including comfortable seats and sometimes a toilet. (Wikipedia - Coach, 2016) The term “coach” was previously used for a horse-drawn carriage designed for the conveyance of more than one passenger, the passengers’ luggage, and mail that is covered for protection from the elements. (Coach (Bus), 2016) Coach development could only benefit from the improvement in roads. Before turnpike trusts, coaches had been un-sprung and any journey in them was very uncomfortable as there was no suspension. Basically a wooden carriage, aided by four wooden wheels, was used to move people or produce. (Treuman, 2016) The world’s first motorized bus went into service on 18 March 1895. Father of it was Carl Benz. Technically speaking, the world’s first motorized bus was in fact a converted passenger car model, fitted with what was known as a landau body – a design very familiar at that time as a carriage body. It was powered by a horizontal single-cylinder rear-mounted engine with an output of 5 hp. The drive to the rear wheels was provided by chains. The bus had space for eight people, including the driver. (Mercedes Benz - first motorized bus) Today’s coaches are equipped with toilets, Wi-Fi, comfortable seats, air condition, kitchen, fridge, TV and audio systems, and many more things. Buses and coaches are an integral part of public transport and travel, and key elements in a sustainable transport system. (The role of bus and coach transport in mobility chain) Methodology 4. This study was occupied with university students who are studying in Sarajevo. Reason for choosing university students for research sample is because they represent important part of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They travel from their home towns to Sarajevo and of course, they use coach travel services. They also organize student trips and excursions all around Bosnia and Herzegovina and Europe. One of reasons why university students in Sarajevo were chosen for research sample is also because they come from almost every part of the country. Because of that, we assumed that they represent good and realistic sample of student population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the data of Institute of statistics in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2013, there were 33 919 university students in Sarajevo, studying at State University and other private education institutions. (FB&H, 2013) According to this, at least 0,01% of student population has had to be investigated. Total number of respondents was 388 which satisfy the minimum requirements of sample size. Survey was conducted in order to find out what criteria or factors are most important for university students in Sarajevo when they use coach travel services on intercity lines, international lines, student trips and excursions. Also, goal of the survey was to explore level of satisfaction of university students with quality of coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with, or they have travelled. Survey was divided into three parts. In first part, students were asked to rate specific criteria (factors/variables) in terms of importance to their travelling experience. There were six variables explored in this survey: - Price and accessibility Crew inside of the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy 122 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Inside of each variable, there were several questions to rate them in terms of importance to university students’ coach travelling experience. Participants were asked to rate them form 1 – not important to 5 –very important. In second part of survey, students were asked to rate their level of satisfaction with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies from 1 – very dissatisfied to 5 – very satisfied. Third part of survey was actually open question for students to give their suggestions, proposals, experiences and comments. This was very useful in process of interpretation and commenting of the results. 5. Results Quantitative data was collected from university student respondents’ surveys. Data was analyzed in Microsoft Excel using means and standard deviations, as well as comparing the means of male and female respondents. Total number of respondents was 388. Respondents were asked to give their information about gender, age and current study program. Surveys were collected via online methods using Google Forms tool for making questionnaires, and via visiting universities, students’ flats and dormitories. 5.1 Analysis of variables In the table below, we can see that „speed and accuracy“ variable has the biggest value of mean (4,213). „Crew inside of the vehicle“ is second with mean of 3,986. „Safety during the trip“ is on third place with mean of 3,923. „Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle“ has mean of 3,766. Fifht variable is „price and accessibility“ with mean of 3,601. Equipment in the vehicle has the lowest mean (3,189). Table 1: Analysis of variables VARIABLES Price and accessibility Crew inside the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy MEAN 3,601 3,986 3,923 3,766 3,189 4,213 ST. DEV. 1,123 0,972 1,060 1,048 1,218 1,046 From these results, we can conclude that speed and accuracy are most important element of coach travel for unversity students. Speed and accuracy of transportation companies are factors that can affect some other aspects of life of passengers. If there are delays in transportation of people, some other obligations and issues can suffer because of that. It is so important for university students to have fast and accurate coach travel, especially on regular bus lines (intercity, for example). During touristic journeys and other student trips, delays can be more accepted than during regular bus lines. From the figure below, we can see graphical view of average means and standard deviations of each of six variable. We can notice that variable with highest value of mean actually has the second lowest value of standard deviation, and variable with lowest mean actually has the highest value of standard deviation. This value of standard deviation for „speed and accuracy“ variable supports reability and validity issues of the research. Second most important factor for university students is nice and friendly crew inside of the vehicle. It is important for them to have kind and helpfulness drivers or tour leaders who will always be communicative. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 123 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Figure 1: Analysis of variables 5.2 Comparative analysis of variables In this section, data gathered from male and female respondents will be compared in order to find out what aspects of coach travel are most important for male and for female university students. As we can see form the table below, speed and accuracy are the most important factors of coach travel for both, male and female univirsity students, but this factor is more important for female than for male respondents. We can also notice that means for females are higher than means of males in each variable except equipment in the vehicle. That means that five of six factors of coach travel are more important for female than for male university students. Table 2: Comparative analysis of variables VARIABLES Price and accessibility Crew inside the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy Male 3,597 3,916 3,781 3,770 3,229 4,171 Female 3,615 4,073 4,079 3,892 3,158 4,272 In the figure below, we can see graphicall view of average means of male and female respondents for each variable. Only equipment in the vehicle, which is actually variable with lowest importance for university students, was more important for males than for females. We can say that femeale university students are more demanding kind of passengers than male university students. 124 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Figure 2: Comparative analysis of variables 5.3 Analysis of university students’ satisfaction in coach travel in B&H In this section of the study, second objective of the research will be examined. Overall level of university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies they travel with or they had travelled will be discovered. In the table below, we can see means and standard deviations of each of six question regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. Safety during the trip has the biggest value of mean (3,046) which means that university students are the mostly satisfied with feeling of safety when they travel by some of Bosnian transportation companies. Research showed that university students are the least satisfied with comfort and quality of vehicles in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Table 3: Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Comfort and quality of vehicles Attitude of crew toward passenger Accuracy in timetable Safety during trips Prices of tickets and trips Generally MEAN 2,879 ST. DEV. 1,175 2,701 2,899 2,863 3,046 2,892 2,874 1,174 1,169 1,172 1,200 1,234 1,098 In the figure below we can see graphical view of means and standard deviations of each question regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. We can see that the biggest value of mean is only 3,046 (safety during the trips). University students are the least satified with comfort and quality of vehicles. At the end, according to average mean (2,879) we can conclude that university students are very little satisfied or neither satisfied nor dissatified with quality of Bosnian transportation companies. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 125 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Figure 3 Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies 5.4 Comparative analysis of university students’ satisfaction in coach travel in B&H In this section, data gathered from male and female respondents will be compared in order to find out which of these two groups has higher level of satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. From the table below, we can see that females’ means have lower values than males’ means in each of six questions regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. Average mean of males is 2,953 while average mean of females is 2,790. Table 4: Comparative analysis of students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies University students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Comfort and quality of vehicle Attitude of crew toward passenger Accuracy in timetable Safety during trips Prices of tickets and trips Generally Male 2,953 2,838 2,984 2,874 3,188 2,906 2,927 Female 2,790 2,545 2,802 2,847 2,899 2,859 2,787 We can conclude that female university students passengers are less satisfied with Bosnian transportation companies than male university students passengers. Not only that, females are also more demanding than males, regarding importance of variables that were investigated in the main part of research. 126 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Figure 4 Comparative analysis of students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies 6. Conclusion After detailed process of analyzing and commenting of collected data, we can conclude that transportation sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina still needs a lot of improvements. Focus of the study was on coach travel and passengers’ on-board experience. After carefull analysis, we can say that research showed that speed and accuracy are the most important factors that make university students satisfied when they use coach travel seriveces. Respondents stated that this element of coach travel has significant importance to their coach travelling experience. Second important factor which affects their satisfaction is crew inside the vehicle. Behavior of coach driver or any other member of crew is significantly important for university students. Feeling of safety during the trip is third most important element of overall travelling experience of university students. After these elements, we have comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle; price of tickets and trips; and equipment in the vehicle. It is interesting to mention that all variables except equipment in the vehicle are more important for female respondents than for male respondents, so we can conclude that female university students are more demanding than males. When we talk about university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies they travel with or they have trevalled, research clearly indicated that university students are not so satisfied with domestic coach travel. It is also interesting to mention that female students are less satisfied than male students in each of six investigated questions regarding their satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. This research clearly showed what aspects of coach travel transportation companies should pay attention to. 6.1 Research limitations and recommandations for future studies This study was occupied with experiences and opinions of university students who are studying in Sarajevo. Other groups of passengers were not included into this research. That is exactly first limitation to this study. All results are based only on responds of university students in Sarajevo who are between 18 and 30 years old. Second limitation to the study is that university students from other cities were not included in this research. University students in Sarajevo were chosen to be a sample for the research because ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 127 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) they come from all parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, not including university students form other cities in the research is surely one of limitations to this study. However, according to the number of respondents who participated in the research, we can freely say that research was effective and successful. In order to investigate overall level of students’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, future researches should include university students from all other university cities in the country. Of course, it will demand larger sample of university students. Also, all other groups of passengers (workers, pensioners) should be included in the research in order to find out a general level of satisfaction of passengers in Bosnia and Herzegovina and what criteria are most important for passengers when they use coach travel services. References • Budiono, O. A. (2009). Costumer satisfaction in public bus transport - a study of travelers’ perception in Indonesia. • Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference. (2011, November 23). Retrieved May 8, 2016, from www.eurocheapo.com: http:// www.eurocheapo.com/blog/bus-and-coach-travel-in-europe-understandingthe-difference.html • Coach (Bus). (2016). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coach_(bus) • Coach passengers needs and experiences. (June 2011). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Passenger Focus: http://www.transportfocus.org.uk/ • FB&H, I. f. (2013). Higher education in federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto 11. May 2016 iz http://www.fzs.ba/god_bilteni/Visoko%20 obrazovanje%20u%20F%20BiH%202012-2013.pdf • Gianino, L. (n.d.). The Differences Between a Bus and a Coach. Retrieved May 8, 2016, from www.ehow.com: http://www.ehow.com/list_7406698_differencesbetween-bus-coach.html • Mercedes Benz - first motorized bus. (n.d.). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Mercedes Benz: https://www.mercedes-benz.com/en/mercedes-benz/lifestyle/mercedesbenz-magazines/classic-magazine/the-first-motorized-bus-dating-back-to-1895was-a-benz/ • Mintesnot Woldeamanuel and Rita Cyganski. (2011). FACTORS AFFECTING TRAVELLERS’ SATISFACTION WITH ACCESSIBILITY TO PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION. Association For European Transport and Contributors . • Rabiul Islam, Mohammed S. Chowdhury, Mohammad Sumann Sarker and Salauddin Ahmed. (2014). MEASURING CUSTOMER’S SATISFACTION ON BUS TRANSPORTATION. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration . • The role of bus and coach transport in mobility chain. (n.d.). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Bus and Coach Travel:http://www.busandcoach.travel/download/ promotional_material/en/Bus%20and%20Coach%20in%20the%20mobility%20 chain.pdf • Treuman, C. N. (2016). Coaches 1750 to 1900. Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz The History Learning Site: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/ transport-1750-to-1900/coaches-1750-to-1900/ • Wikipedia - Coach. (2016). Preuzeto 8. May 2016 iz Wikipedia, the free encyklopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coach_(bus) • Zahayu Md Yusof, Masnita Misiran, Lee Pei Pei and Ho Tian Tian. (2014). Factors affecting students’ satisfaction towards bus services in University. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology . 128 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3306 Title A name given to the resource PASSENGERS’ SATISFACTION IN COACH TRAVEL IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - STUDY ON PERCEPTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN SARAJEVO Author Author Catic, Adis Smajic, Edin Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Transportation of people was always very important aspect of human life. Today, there are many ways in which people can travel. This paper was occupied with coach travel, and passengers’ satisfaction in it in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A coach is a type of vehicle used for carrying passengers on excursions, touristic journeys and trips, and on other long distance journeys such as intercity or international bus lines. The goal of this study was to find out level of passengers’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and what is most important for passengers when they use coach travel services - is it price, speed, safety, comfort, or something else. Study was performed on perception of university students in Sarajevo, because they are representative sample of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Focus of the study was on “on board experience”, which is actually experience of passengers while they are inside of the vehicle. Research clearly indicated what aspects of coach travel are most important for passengers, and also suggested some proposals that can make coach travel more competitive and attractive. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HD Industries. Land use. Labor https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22c27742765f0ca3b9b27020cb55c985.doc 11292ce5093b963b3212b2a0108699ef https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c8119c7f2f69c237466cb8933b752572.pdf 0cb94a42c1d5fd91c9c3280c6addf8ab PDF Text Text 1st International Annual Student Symposium PAYLAŞIM SİTELERİNİN BIREYLERIN YAZMA BECERİLERİNİN GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE ETKİSİ Tuğba ÇALIŞ International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ÖZET Bu araştırmanın amacı; sosyal paylaşım sitelerinin bireylerin yazma becerilerinin gelişimi üzerine etkisini incelemektir. Güncel olan ve sıklıkla kullanılan üç paylaşım sitesinde ( Facebook, Twitter, Messenger ) yapılan yazım hataları belirlenmiştir. Bu yazım hatalarının Türkçemize ve milli kültürümüz olan Türk kültürüne yansımaları yapılan anketler sonucu ortaya konulmuştur. Böylelikle elde edilen bulgular sonucunda sosyal paylaşım sitelerinin yazma becerilerine etkisi istatistiksel olarak bu çalışmada belirtilmiştir. 50 | � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1433 Title A name given to the resource PAYLAŞIM SİTELERİNİN BIREYLERIN YAZMA BECERİLERİNİN GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE ETKİSİ Author Author CALIS, Tugba Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu araştırmanın amacı; sosyal paylaşım sitelerinin bireylerin yazma becerilerinin gelişimi üzerine etkisini incelemektir. Güncel olan ve sıklıkla kullanılan üç paylaşım sitesinde ( Facebook, Twitter, Messenger ) yapılan yazım hataları belirlenmiştir. Bu yazım hatalarının Türkçemize ve milli kültürümüz olan Türk kültürüne yansımaları yapılan anketler sonucu ortaya konulmuştur. Böylelikle elde edilen bulgular sonucunda sosyal paylaşım sitelerinin yazma becerilerine etkisi istatistiksel olarak bu çalışmada belirtilmiştir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72b52859a1ee272c017f9dca82da517c.docx b3c575146bd856f3adcdec62e1e4a302 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/650dc19795343a9f8b0209c0dc399f66.pdf c0e512c8bbe0c67450733e5eb09b96cf PDF Text Text Pedagogical Benefits of E-mail Senka Majetić University of Bihać/ Bihac, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: interaction, e-mail, communicative situation, classroom setting, FL learner ABSTRACT As many researchers have noted, e-mail extends what one can do in the classroom, since it provides a venue for meeting and communicating in the foreign language outside of class. Because of the nature of e-mail, FL learners do not have to be in a specific classroom at a particular time of day in order to communicate with others in the foreign language. They can log in and write e-mail from the comfort of their own room, from a public library or from a cyber-café, and these spatial possibilities increase the amount of time they can spend both composing and reading in the foreign language provides FL learners with more input than they would be able to expect from class time, which typically amounts to not more hours per week in most high school or college settings. By connecting FL speakers outside of the classroom, e-mail also provides a context for communicating with other speakers in authentic communicative efforts that may seem artificial in a classroom setting. They communicate in much like spoken language because of its informal and interactive nature. Yet, unlike face-to-face communication, e-mail is in written form and this can serve the language learner. As Schwienkorst (1998) stressed, "The major advantage of written communication […]" and have for future use "an enormous sample of his or her own efforts in the target language" (p. 125). � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e8d43ef3cc95940fba02bb0647e7df0b.docx b3c575146bd856f3adcdec62e1e4a302 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc984819d3f990d671580e26afbcee5d.pdf c0e512c8bbe0c67450733e5eb09b96cf PDF Text Text Pedagogical Benefits of E-mail Senka Majetić University of Bihać/ Bihac, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: interaction, e-mail, communicative situation, classroom setting, FL learner ABSTRACT As many researchers have noted, e-mail extends what one can do in the classroom, since it provides a venue for meeting and communicating in the foreign language outside of class. Because of the nature of e-mail, FL learners do not have to be in a specific classroom at a particular time of day in order to communicate with others in the foreign language. They can log in and write e-mail from the comfort of their own room, from a public library or from a cyber-café, and these spatial possibilities increase the amount of time they can spend both composing and reading in the foreign language provides FL learners with more input than they would be able to expect from class time, which typically amounts to not more hours per week in most high school or college settings. By connecting FL speakers outside of the classroom, e-mail also provides a context for communicating with other speakers in authentic communicative efforts that may seem artificial in a classroom setting. They communicate in much like spoken language because of its informal and interactive nature. Yet, unlike face-to-face communication, e-mail is in written form and this can serve the language learner. As Schwienkorst (1998) stressed, "The major advantage of written communication […]" and have for future use "an enormous sample of his or her own efforts in the target language" (p. 125). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1975 Title A name given to the resource Pedagogical Benefits of E-mail Author Author MAJETIC, Senka Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: interaction, e-mail, communicative situation, classroom setting, FL learner ABSTRACT As many researchers have noted, e-mail extends what one can do in the classroom, since it provides a venue for meeting and communicating in the foreign language outside of class. Because of the nature of e-mail, FL learners do not have to be in a specific classroom at a particular time of day in order to communicate with others in the foreign language. They can log in and write e-mail from the comfort of their own room, from a public library or from a cyber-café, and these spatial possibilities increase the amount of time they can spend both composing and reading in the foreign language provides FL learners with more input than they would be able to expect from class time, which typically amounts to not more hours per week in most high school or college settings. By connecting FL speakers outside of the classroom, e-mail also provides a context for communicating with other speakers in authentic communicative efforts that may seem artificial in a classroom setting. They communicate in much like spoken language because of its informal and interactive nature. Yet, unlike face-to-face communication, e-mail is in written form and this can serve the language learner. As Schwienkorst (1998) stressed, "The major advantage of written communication […]" and have for future use "an enormous sample of his or her own efforts in the target language" (p. 125). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/850e878a272504af086ba73cbeff3dcd.pdf 242b20c941db7557d0ff93ddb147472b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Bela Gligorova Nova Internatiponal Schools, Macedonia Bela.gligorova@nova.edu.mk Abstract: As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Key words: contact zone, cultural ventriloquism, non-places, heterotopias, quiet cosmopolitan, transnational denizenship, pedagogies of the home Introduction: Constructing a cultural identity is as easy as mastering the nuances of a foreign language while travelling to the country of its origin on an eight-hour flight. Indeed, there are gifted individuals among us who are able to carry out such a feat in less than eight hours. (Fortunately or not, they are few in number.) However, for most of us, nowadays, the process of constructing our cultural ‗selves‘ is the journey of a lifetime, as we struggle to position ourselves within a cultural space that is no longer (re)presented as monolithically uniform. We constantly enter battles with our cultural heritage (who we were before we were ‗we‘ or ‗I‘) and our cultural responses (who ‗we‘ or ‗I‘ are now that we contribute to the ‗living out‘ of the said cultural legacy), since for the most part these two notions are at odds with each other. In other words, we might be born into a certain cultural group which, in turn, due to various social, political, and or religious circumstances may have distinctly reshaped and restructured its beliefs and customs, so that it strikes the outsider as non-existent in the first place. Therefore, when such individuals decide to reaffirm their cultural identity against the background of strong ties to the indigenous culture they were born into and the greater social milieu they had assimilated to (as a result of education, religious conversion, power accessibility, etc.) the outcome may prove disheartening, both to the individuals in question, and to the larger social and familial environments. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). Cultural historian Mary Louise Pratt was the one who originally coined the term ‗contact zone‘ (which seems to have become over the years inextricably tied to the proliferation and understanding of auto/ethnographic narratives), herself searching for a descriptively dynamic way to approach the study of social and personal relations amidst the intersecting frontiers of spaces marked by colonial encounters. In her work on the relationship between travel writing and colonized historical discourse, titled Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Pratt defines the contact zone as ―the space of colonial encounters, the space in which peoples geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish ongoing relations, usually involving conditions of coercion, radical inequality and intractable conflict.‖ (Pratt, 1992, 6) By choosing a denominator (‗contact‘) that is closer to linguistics than traditional historical analysis, Pratt hopes to bring into perspective the relational side to subject formation within the terrain of the colonized frontiers, therefore allowing for the production and distribution of auto/ethnographic ‗expressions‘ that are ‗heterogeneous‘ in structure, idiom and reception. While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with any sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, border-crossing, or bo(a)rdering, so to speak, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students at international schools are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un- 239 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘ in pursuit of global human agency?). Some recent scholarship might go as far as to suggest that international schools are not unlike what French scholar Michel Foucault deemed ‗heterotopias‘, or, non-hegemonically arranged spaces which operate under the condition of ‗otherness‘. (Foucault 1986) As such, their function is to join together, on the one hand, utopian perspectives, and on the other, real spaces, intellectual or physical, which in turn, stand as sites of cultural otherness, linked yet produced in opposition to cultural hegemonies. Hence, cemeteries, gardens, movies, brothels, boarding schools. And even if the daily life of individuals in one such space is controlled, according to Foucault, by the bell and not the whistle, in truth, local students at international schools in the Balkans seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘ (Augé, 1995), a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. And with that, dangerously removed from any prospect of living an integrated cultural life. In lieu of a biographical note When I graduated from the Department of English at the Faculty of Philology within the framework of the State University in Skopje, almost a decade ago, I was certain of two things: a.) I wanted to teach literary texts (no grammar, no tenses) and b.) I wished to work solely within the medium of English. With this in mind, I applied for a position at then one of a few international high schools in Macedonia, Nova High School. Having successfully completed Professor Ekaterina Babamova‘s graduation course in ELT Methodology, I felt up to the challenge: I believed I had acquired the necessary tools that would guide me on this new path. I had also, prior to enrolling at the Faculty of Philology, graduated from a US high school, on US soil, thus the added confidence. Perhaps even cockiness. In October of 2000, I was assigned two classes, nominally called English 9 Regular and English 12. The former comprised of students (sans three) who had recently graduated from state primary schools in Macedonia, whereas the latter consisted of fifteen students who were a part of the very first class of students the said high school had enrolled in September of 1997, when the school opened its doors for the first time. Oddly enough, or so it seemed, the latter group was the more culturally diverse one, not just in terms of the ethnicity pool but also in terms of citizenship. During that very same academic year, both classes allowed me to witness a few key insights about cultural instruction in English, as well as English cultural instruction. Although the 9th graders, for instance, had nearly polished syntax, their communal insights were tied to a Macedonian context; if we were going to make any progress with a Renaissance play or a contemporary American short story, I had to engage with them at a ‗local level‘. Which in turn, would ask for a comparativist method, and a good deal of popular culture immersion. Whereas, with the 12th graders, whose English grammar skills were picked up, peace-meal by peace-meal, from native speakers who taught at this school or at various other international schools abroad that these students had attended prior to transferring, the communal insights were so varied and versatile, that there seemed to be no common denominator. These ‗third culture kids‘, or better, these ‗hybrid cosmopolitans‘ could relate to everything and nothing; it all seemed too easy, or perhaps too vast. Since then, the school‘s student population, in particular the one relating to the high school division, has quadrupled; numbers aside, what has struck me, and those who have taught/teach, especially within the Language Arts Department, is the overwhelming change local students (Macedonians, Albanians, Turks, Roma) who matriculate at Nova International Schools bring with them, through distinct epistemologies and pedagogies, which allows them to stay connected locally while thinking and writing and being internationally. Again, this staggering change, which could and should be examined thoroughly through apt statistical data, based on entrance exams‘ results and interview notes, has allowed me to conceptualize, as well as further explore, the following research questions: 1. By attempting a delocalized ‗territory of culture‘ through their respective missions and objectives, do international schools in the Balkans contribute to a (re)creation of a ‗pseudo nation-state scenario‘? 2. Even so, could their products (students) legitimately question the unspoken acceptance and affirmation of culturally determined roles, imposed on Balkan individuality by various mechanisms of compliance (governmental decisions, communal practices, tradition and gossip)? 3. Yet, when all is said and done, who is to implement a newly designed cultural mythos: individuals or institutions? On that note, in September 2005, upon return from graduate school, I started a project with a group of 25 entering 9th graders (freshmen), tentatively embedded within the context of our English 9 Honors class, yet entirely for extra credit. Throughout the 4 years I spent with this group, which indeed changed in size and circumstance, guiding them towards a successful completion of an Advanced Placement (AP) English Literature and Composition class, this ‗pet project‘ of mine, became our focal point of discussion, immersion and selfassessment; in turn, giving birth to student-initiated projects, such as the one I will discuss later on in the text. 240 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗Journal Keeping‘ Project: a ‗quilted‘ way towards a reciprocal cultural methodology The histories and lives of international students, in particular local kids from multicultural milieus attending/attempting an international education setting, are not (well) represented in the local cultural policies. Since said students have optioned out, for various reasons, to attend private schools (often deemed elitist and viewed by the public as ‗the breeding grounds for snobs‘), their presence within a non-state education facility for the duration of four years, resembles, to a point, a prolonged banishment from all matters relevant to an integrated communal life. In other words, the local community does not feel responsible for their ‗cultural upkeep‘ as they no longer exist as its young offspring. To take it a step further, according to French thinker and scholar Michel Foucault, what we are facing in this case is another example of the intricate relationship(s) existing between the production of various systems of knowledge (i.e., discourses) and the production of power within a social framework. That is to say, each society exerts different rules and regulations that would ‗lawfully‘ police and discipline ‗undesired‘ discourses, thus maintaining its hold on power. Those who are considered a viable threat to the dominant discourse and its tight grip on social structures may be dismissed as ‗mad‘, ‗non-conforming‘, to say the least. Classifying non-conforming individuals as mad eases the ‗burden‘ of ‗dealing with them‘; they could be almost surgically removed from the cultural unconscious, leaving a space which is momentarily filled up by subjects that have been instructed to conform to the norms and ideals of the dominant discourse. (However, even in a ‗well-rounded‘ oppressive social framework there is a push by the marginalized ‗mad subjects‘ to re-claim/re-map this space which has been taken away from them.) To make matters worse, once these students enter the ‗hallowed halls‘ of international schools, they expect an unconditional welcome and a chance to participate and engage, fully, within a more or less, imagined international community that would not shun their choice of being there. The expectations are great, perhaps even illusionary, hence the disappointment, when it comes, hits hard. Just because a community is more versed in politically correct discourse does not mean that it is unequivocally open and forthcoming and giving, or for that matter, ready to welcome anyone unconditionally. While students at international schools in the Balkans are indeed taken care of, namely, looked upon as individuals and not mere numbers, many international schools, due to the very nature of their missions and objectives, and endowments, focus the bulk of their resources on a sad but palpable fact, which can be best summed up as ‗teaching students to be quiet cosmopolitans‘, which in turn amounts to the creation of a subculture that ironically de-personalizes education while attempting to guide and foster intellect. This dangerous practice, whether we wish to admit to it or not, does double-harm: for one, it requires of students to see themselves as empty vessels, stripped off cultural-familial, raced, or gendered knowledge of their past (Thus, in the case of local students, there is a ‗twice removed‘ emptying which takes place) (Delgado Bernal, 2002, 2006). Consequently, it convinces students that only a positivist type of knowledge (white, male, Western) can help them succeed and thus enroll, with a scholarship, at a prestigious university abroad, which is still the principal reason why most local students (and their families) make a leap of faith and apply to international schools in the first place. While I did/do understand the reality of conformity and acculturation, I wanted to find a way, through differentiated instruction, which could allow me to bequeath my students with a means that would in turn help them understand the complexities of their two communities: the home-base and the school environment; one primarily oral, the other unquestioningly written. In a sense, I see now that I was attempting a kind of auto/ethnographic self-recovery: i.e., more than a textual representation of auto-ethno-biographical modes of contact for and in multi-vocal settings. According to ethnographer Deborah E. Reed Danahay, the editor of the first (and to this day, only) anthological work that examines this hybrid form of life-writing ethnography, titled Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social, ‗autoethnography‘ is a boundary-crossing practice and product, simultaneously acting out the method behind the concept; as a method and a text, the act of auto/ethnographic representing fuses ―both a postmodern ethnography, in which the realist conventions and objective observer position of standard ethnography have been called into question, and a postmodern autobiography, in which the notion of the coherent, individual self has been similarly called into question.‖ (Reed Danahay, 1997, 2) As a result, whether or not the astute literary critic or social historian decide, respectfully, to stake their claim either with the autobiographic or the ethnographic side of the hybrid-form, ‗auto/ethnography‘ thwarts conventional story-telling practices (of the ‗realist school‘) by trespassing cultural and social boundaries, thus exerting its presence in ―form of a self-narrative that places the self in a social context.‖ (9) Enter: ‗journal keeping‘. Cultural historian Pierre Nora examined the relationship that exists between historical investment and individual memory, offering a reading of ‗historical truths‘ and ‗remembered events‘ through lieux de mémoire, that is, ‗sites of memory‘ which ―originate with the sense that there is no spontaneous memory, that we must deliberately create archives, maintain anniversaries, organize celebrations, pronounce eulogies, and notarize bills 241 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo because such activities no longer occur naturally.‖ (Nora, 1989, 12) Within contemporary social practices, such ‗sites of memory‘ appear to be a necessity, a final defense against misrepresentation and unilateral polemics in epistemologies and pedagogies. As children of history and memory, lieux de mémoire, according to Nora, are unlike any previously encountered type of history, ancient or modern, since contrary to historical objects, they are without a referent in reality. However, Nora is quick to point out that this unique trait does not leave the ‗sites of memory‘ without a referent all-together; lieux de mémoire are their own referents. Namely, they constitute a double act: they are ―a site of excess closed upon itself, concentrated in its own name, but also forever open to the full range of its possible significations.‖ (24) Bearing this in mind, I wanted to attempt a sort of historical recovery filtered through the tools of feminist scholarship, hoping to show my students an example of one such ‗site of memory‘; and with that, a way out of the slums of ‗quiet cosmopolitanism‘ and into (perhaps) the alertness of ‗transnational cultural denizenship‘ (Buff, 2001). Initially conceived as an attempt to showcase the value of written discourse, while drawing on the abundance of orally transmitted knowledge my students had grown up with, I introduced the students to the storytelling method of what Lomas and Joysmith (2005) term as ‗testimonio‘: an ethnographic genre/strategy which allows the voiceless political subject – the local student – the necessary agency to account for the connections that exist between lived experience and social (education) context.31 Namely, for a semester, my 9th grade class, each Friday, worked on a reflection piece. At first, most preferred to work on their own, while with time, groups started to form. The goal in mind: to think of a way in which their own varied experiences connect them to the particular reading of the week, may it be a poem, a short story, a play or a chapter/chapters of a novel. Thus, to use the allotted class time, and write down, in the English of their choice, the said reflection. Each student had decided to ‗safe keep‘ his or her own reflection pieces in a folder, or a file, or even a notepad. There was no word limit. No passing or failing grade, and no requirement deadline for a submission. Only a hopefulness, that with time, each student may choose to share his or her own piece with someone else. At the end of the semester, I had also hoped that each student would choose a piece to place on the class‘ cork board, so that we could all part-take in a kind of ‗testimonial‘, a quilt-making record of our unhindered critical journey through a series of English texts, i.e., texts written in the English language. A few things occurred: the contact zone which this side-project carved out presented itself as the most rewarding and equally the most challenging one I had ever dwelled into. Namely, the project took on a life of its own, branching out in ways I had not anticipated or even hoped for. Freed from the burden of testing and grading, or excessive monitoring, the quality of writing students presented had created a sense of reciprocity, both in their distinctive relationship to each other, as peers and neighbours, and in their relationship to writing, speaking, listening and thinking in English, now the formative medium of their life in international education. Students started keeping personal blogs, they wrote Facebook notes, msn-ed their thoughts, frustrations, reflections, dilemmas. When the academic semester came to an end, they asked if we could continue with our ‗Friday project‘, even if it was not possible to dedicate each Friday to its unfolding. We could meet after school, on Saturdays, during breaks, they suggested. And we did. For the next four academic years, as they matriculated through the Nova Language Arts curriculum, these 25 local students (and in time 10 more ‗transfers‘), wrote about the various points of intersectionality experienced by a Balkan native when facing the trials and tribulations of education in an international school context. In turn, this empowering practice, unburdened by the weights of grades and arbitration, propelled their written discourse in ways that no class-bound, test-teaching instruction could. In a sense, their ‗testimonio‘ storytelling practice, allowed them to conceptualize the validity of lived knowledge (a Roma girl from Tetovo) as a key strategy in the process of any scholarly enquiry (racial formation in contemporary social practices). For a class, (and a grade), over the years, they did produce nuanced and thoughtfully researched papers on an array of topics, from the seemingly mundane enquiry into popular culture‘s archetypes (think: The Simpsons), all the way to high-brow assertions on the relationship between the modern novel and masculinity discourses (think: Joyce). Not to mention, the college-application essays, and the strength of their argumentation, as individuals. For themselves, and their own contact zone, which seemed to expand with time, they initiated auxiliary projects that expanded the ‗territory of culture‘ realm of the school, such as the MIR Celebrating Literacy Project, The on-line Student-Reviewed Fanzine (The Discourse Detectives), The Reading Group Fellowship. All these projects incorporate a reciprocal cultural methodology, thus allowing all participants to bear witness to their own 31 Here, I‘d like to thank the work of a colleague, Dr. Judith Flores Carmona, formerly of The University of Utah, and now with Hampshire College, for encouraging me to make such an inter-cultural connection, one that I otherwise would not have made, had I been teaching at a state school, or at a local university. Her own work in the Adelante Oral Histories Project (AOHP) gave me the impetus and the strength to draw on the teachings of hooks, Friere, Anzaldua, as well as Elizabeta Sheleva, and see the many common themes which exist between the pedagogy of the oppressed and the reciprocal methodology in international education. 242 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo becoming of both subjects and objects of their own enquiry. And all have a longer shelf life than an academic semester. However, with all said and done, I am still concerned about the following long-term effects, namely as limitations and/or impetuses for further research: 1. While inspirational education does propel change, when exacted through the medium of a colonizing language and culture, could it affect real change within the leakage of the pipeline of local identity formation? 2. If so, by advocating for a ‗pedagogy of the home‘ (Delgado Bernal, 2001, 2002), aren‘t we, (locally-affiliated) teachers and educators in international education, reverting to an epistemology that in turn would dispossess our students from that very home we had set out to promote, and turn them into vulnerable observers (Behar, 1996), that is, reflexive insiders/outsiders bound by the within (Hill Collins, 1990, 1991)? In Lieu of a Conclusion Without the intention or the pretext of further colonization, of pedagogies or epistemologies, I do believe that culturally reciprocal methodology is the only viable means, present out there for us, to create dialogue amidst students from various and varied cultural and social milieus, yet co-habiting the same education space. What I am still debating over, however, is (the extent of) the role English language instruction should play in the creation of such an educational mythos References Augé, M. (1995). Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Brooklyn and London: Verso Books. Behar, R. (1996). The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart. Massachusetts: Beacon Press. Buff, R. (2001). Immigration and the Poltical Economy of Home: Carribean Brooklyn and American Indian Minneapolis, 1945-1992. Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Delgado Bernal, D., Elenes, C.A., Godinez, F.E., Villenas, S. (Eds.) (2006). Chicana/Latina Education in Everyday Life: Feminista Perspectives on Pedagogy and Epistemology. New York: State University of New York (SUNY) Press. Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical Race Theory, LatCrit Theory, and Critical Raced-Gendered Epistemologies: Recognizing Students of Color as Holders and Creators of Knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 105-126. Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Learning and Living Pedagogies of the Home: The Mestiza Consciousness of Chicana Students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(5), 623-639. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Second Vintage Books Edition. Foucault, M. (1986). Of Other Spaces. Trans. By Jay Miskowiec. Diacritics. 16 (1), 22-27. Hill Collins, P. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Boston: Unwin Hyman. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom. New York: Routledge. Joysmith, C., Lomas, C. (Eds.) (2005). One Wound for Another/Una Herida por Otra: Testimonios de Latin@s in the US Through Cyberspace (11 de Septiembre 2001 – 11 Marzo 2002). Mexico, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Nora, P. (1989). Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire. Representations, 26(Spring), 7-24. Reed-Danahay, D.E. (Ed.) (1997). Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social. Oxford: Berg. 117. 243 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 36 Title A name given to the resource Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Author Author Gligorova, Bela Abstract A summary of the resource. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6487084490568a8b2b9813078e84b977.pdf 88112df8410ec1c8d827457a8cebd85c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource BOOKS Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource PEDESTRIAN BEHAVIOUR AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - SARAJEVO STUDY Author Author EMINA ZEJNILOVIĆ, ERNA HUSUKIĆ, ZERINA MAŠETIĆ and DŽELILA MEHANOVIĆ Abstract A summary of the resource. Interest in this study cane from spontaneous social and architectural interventions in urban environments that were triggered into replay during the COVID-19 pandemic, as citizens across the globe made enormous endeavors to find the ordinary under extraordinary living circumstances. When societies and spaces are exposed to large-scale, unexpected situations for long periods of time, visible spatial and societal shifts are created, and their reciprocal connection becomes particularly apparent. A question arises: how did the contemporary model of high-rise, high- density city respond to the imposed social changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic? Images and videos of people singing from windows and balconies have traveled the world in 2020, displaying the natural need for socialization, community, belonging, and protesting the seclusion that was aggressively imposed by the pandemic. The recommendations for new, enforced, but ‘safe’ social conduct forcefully restricted human contact and was very much conflicting with the instinct and inborn human nature. Parallelly, limited circulation within and between cities and countries created heightened demand for open public spaces locally that were identified as crucial social assets in times of crisis s. A square meter more of free space was in high demand during 2020 and 2021 in urban environments, when maintaining social distance was almost equivalent to staying alive. The role of public space as a material realization and constructor of the physical realm within which we live, move, communicate, gather, or avoid one another has been tested to the ultimate limits. The health crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted its role as a generator of social relationships, as well as the importance it has on the quality of everyday life in urban environments. Thus, the most recent pandemic brought the topic of space-society relationships to the forefront, confirming that architectural planning 5 and spatial organization can have serious and large-scale social consequences. Issues of accessibility, availability, flexibility, and transformability of both public and private spaces had a high impact on both physical and mental health during the long months of restricted movement. While it made us revisit the question of how ‘human’ contemporary architecture and space is or how lost we have become trying to cater to the contemporary needs of everyday life, it also opened doors for new spatial concepts. Attempting to assess the relationship between spaces and societies in an urban context during the extreme social situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, this study presents the case of the city of Sarajevo, a town that chronically suffers from an open public space and urban greenery shortage. Imposed changes in social conduct revealed and highlighted all the weaknesses and deficiencies of this progressively congested city. Subsequently, the work examines Sarajevo’s existing inventory of public spaces in order to address the possibility of the city transitioning to a wider and more homogeneous supply of public space. Through cartographic representation, the research produces maps —an atlas of the main categories of public spaces — and makes an in-depth survey of the pattern of movement, use, and quality of selected open public areas using Artificial Intelligence (AI) and technology. AI and technology themselves have become increasingly important in our lives and are changing the way we live. AI systems are designed to automate tasks that were once performed by humans and are becoming more sophisticated every day. AI is also changing the way we interact with technology, making it more intuitive and natural, and providing new and innovative ways to access and process information and services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, AI served as a tool for detecting human movement patterns, assisting in maintaining social distancing. This provides an insight into the assessment of vulnerability and risk in Sarajevo in terms of the availability of public spaces and proposes specific spatial interventions that could provide a more adequate response for changing social behavior during COVID-19 pandemic or in the face of possible new health crises. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Authors https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/52be4b1d8115b36284a130086f3a5b90.pdf e8b073942d9f847a4e2b85b2861c9721 PDF Text Text BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 PEND-NÂME-İ ATTÂR’IN TÜRKÇE ŞERHLERİNİN DİL VE ÜSLUP AÇISINDAN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI Gülçiçek AKÇAY Trakya Üniversitesi / Türkmenistan Anahtar Kelimeler: Şerh, Pend-nâme, dil ve üslup, karşılaştırma. ÖZET İslamî edebiyata ait bir metni yorumlama temayülü İslamiyet’in ilk devirlerinden beri bu alanda çeşitli faaliyetlerin gerçekleşmesine, İslamî edebiyatlara alem olmuş bazı meşhur eserlerin yorumlanmasına zemin hazırlamıştır. Türklerin İslamiyet’i kabulüyle birlikte Arapça ve Farsçadan başta dini eserler olmak üzere birçok eser Türkçeye tercüme edilip yorumlanmıştır. Klasik edebi metinlerin şerhi şarihler için kendi birikimlerini ortaya koydukları bir düzlemdir. Klasik şerh dediğimiz yorumlama faaliyetine giren şarihlerin dil üzerindeki tasarrufları; şerhin genelinde sıkça kullanılan ibareler ve kullanılış amaçları, muhtevalarına göre cümle kuruluşları, atasözü ve deyim kullanımındaki tutumları, söyleyişle ilgili sanatlara temayülleri, şerh ettikleri esere müdahale biçimleri de şerhin keyfiyeti hakkında incelenmeye değer unsurlardandır. Feridüddîn Attâr’ın Pend-nâme’si de Osmanlı coğrafyasında yüzyıllar boyu çok yaygın olarak okunan ve şöhreti dolayısıyla birçok tercüme ve şerhi yapılan eserlerden biridir. Biz bu çalışmamızda Pendnâme’nin Türkçe şerhlerinden birkaçı olan Sa’âdet-nâme (Şem’î), Müfîd (Abdurrahman Abdî Paşa), Şerh-i Pend-i Attâr (İsmail Hakkı Bursevî), Berg-i Dervîşân (Mustafa Refî’a) Rûhu’ş-Şurûh (Kilisli Mustafa Rûhî) ve Mâ-hazar (Mehmed Murad Nakşibendî) adlı eserlerde şarihlerin dil üzerindeki söz konusu tasarruflarını incelemeye çalışacağız. 34 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2704 Title A name given to the resource PEND-NÂME-İ ATTÂR’IN TÜRKÇE ŞERHLERİNİN DİL VE ÜSLUP AÇISINDAN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI Author Author AKÇAY, Gülçiçek Abstract A summary of the resource. İslamî edebiyata ait bir metni yorumlama temayülü İslamiyet’in ilk devirlerinden beri bu alanda çeşitli faaliyetlerin gerçekleşmesine, İslamî edebiyatlara alem olmuş bazı meşhur eserlerin yorumlanmasına zemin hazırlamıştır. Türklerin İslamiyet’i kabulüyle birlikte Arapça ve Farsçadan başta dini eserler olmak üzere birçok eser Türkçeye tercüme edilip yorumlanmıştır. Klasik edebi metinlerin şerhi şarihler için kendi birikimlerini ortaya koydukları bir düzlemdir. Klasik şerh dediğimiz yorumlama faaliyetine giren şarihlerin dil üzerindeki tasarrufları; şerhin genelinde sıkça kullanılan ibareler ve kullanılış amaçları, muhtevalarına göre cümle kuruluşları, atasözü ve deyim kullanımındaki tutumları, söyleyişle ilgili sanatlara temayülleri, şerh ettikleri esere müdahale biçimleri de şerhin keyfiyeti hakkında incelenmeye değer unsurlardandır. Feridüddîn Attâr’ın Pend-nâme’si de Osmanlı coğrafyasında yüzyıllar boyu çok yaygın olarak okunan ve şöhreti dolayısıyla birçok tercüme ve şerhi yapılan eserlerden biridir. Biz bu çalışmamızda Pendnâme’nin Türkçe şerhlerinden birkaçı olan Sa’âdet-nâme (Şem’î), Müfîd (Abdurrahman Abdî Paşa), Şerh-i Pend-i Attâr (İsmail Hakkı Bursevî), Berg-i Dervîşân (Mustafa Refî’a) Rûhu’ş-Şurûh (Kilisli Mustafa Rûhî) ve Mâ-hazar (Mehmed Murad Nakşibendî) adlı eserlerde şarihlerin dil üzerindeki söz konusu tasarruflarını incelemeye çalışacağız. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-23 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-582X P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/17588f38a57d1408bc7e6afa2f7d031d.docx 6897f40767d890cbc81eead75b4b1188 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/97f6c57fbff76ec472d0669328c5e3cb.pdf 4a9c66b766a1604d15ef335d7131139e PDF Text Text Peoples Motives in Utilizing the Freedom of Movement within the EU: The Case of Kosovo and Visa Liberalization with the EU Alban Asllani AAB University Albania alban.asllani@universitetiaab.com ShkumbinMisini Universum College Albania shkumbin.misini@gmail.com KujtimBytyqi Universum College Albania kujtim.bytyqi@gmail.com Abstract: This study intends to identify the main motives for travel of citizens from Kosovo to the EU Member States once the visa liberalization takes place. The authors of this paper take into account demographic information from the surveys handed out to citizens of Kosovo, and try to correlate them with their motives for travel to the EU Member states. The study argues that visa liberalization for Kosovo is of imperative importance in preparing Kosovo for EU membership. The study also argues that citizens of Kosovo benefit substantially by creating networks with professionals in the areas of research, technology, and education. These networks could potentially lead to local businesses gaining from outsourcing, which would overtime increase economic development of the country. However, the study’s focal point is the analysis of the survey of Kosovo’s on how they would utilize the EU visa liberalization regime, using descriptive, correlation, and regression analysis. The descriptive statistics and simple correlation analysis show a strong negative correlation between employment status, and work and study as a reason for visiting the EU member states after visa liberalization, while there is strong positive correlation between employment status and business, tourism and research as reasons for visiting the EU. Similarly, strong correlations have been found between education level of the respondents and their age group as demographics in one side, and work, study, tourism, doing business, and conducting research as reasons for visiting EU after the visa liberalization regime is granted to Kosovo. By conducting such analysis, the authors of this study expect to give an overview of the current situation in terms of economic and socio-political implications regarding the visa liberalization, and the motives of Kosovo’s in utilizing the visa liberalization regime based on the responses received from the questionnaires. Keywords: Demographics, Visa Liberalization, Mobility, Networking, people-to-people contact, Motives for travel, Correlation analysis, reforms 46 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2479 Title A name given to the resource Peoples Motives in Utilizing the Freedom of Movement within the EU: The Case of Kosovo and Visa Liberalization with the EU Author Author ASLLANI, Alban MISINI, Shkumbin BYTYQI, Kujtim Abstract A summary of the resource. This study intends to identify the main motives for travel of citizens from Kosovo to the EU Member States once the visa liberalization takes place. The authors of this paper take into account demographic information from the surveys handed out to citizens of Kosovo, and try to correlate them with their motives for travel to the EU Member states. The study argues that visa liberalization for Kosovo is of imperative importance in preparing Kosovo for EU membership. The study also argues that citizens of Kosovo benefit substantially by creating networks with professionals in the areas of research, technology, and education. These networks could potentially lead to local businesses gaining from outsourcing, which would overtime increase economic development of the country. However, the study’s focal point is the analysis of the survey of Kosovo’s on how they would utilize the EU visa liberalization regime, using descriptive, correlation, and regression analysis. The descriptive statistics and simple correlation analysis show a strong negative correlation between employment status, and work and study as a reason for visiting the EU member states after visa liberalization, while there is strong positive correlation between employment status and business, tourism and research as reasons for visiting the EU. Similarly, strong correlations have been found between education level of the respondents and their age group as demographics in one side, and work, study, tourism, doing business, and conducting research as reasons for visiting EU after the visa liberalization regime is granted to Kosovo. By conducting such analysis, the authors of this study expect to give an overview of the current situation in terms of economic and socio-political implications regarding the visa liberalization, and the motives of Kosovo’s in utilizing the visa liberalization regime based on the responses received from the questionnaires. Keywords: Demographics, Visa Liberalization, Mobility, Networking, people-to-people contact, Motives for travel, Correlation analysis, reforms Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/846030292cb546960fae6f48decab464.pdf c8f3fb1c10ac5386f119ec3b830e559f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Ana BradiĦiĤ Italian High School – Rijeka, Croatia Teacher of English and German Language and Literature ana.bradicic1@ri.t-com.hr Abstract: Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome. Key Words: Lexicon, crosslinguistic influence, similarity perception Introduction For a number of years studies of crosslinguistic influence24 (CLI) focused on the role of the first language in the acquisition of the second language, and the analysis of errors in the learners‘ second language production had the main role in establishing the predictive force of transfer (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1991). The results of more recent studies have shown that all languages acquired after the first language might be the source of CLI when learning a new language (Cenoz, 2001; Dewaele, 1998; Ringbom, 1987; Selinker and Baumgartner-Cohen, 1995; Williams and Hammarberg, 1998). Several factors have been identified as relevant in this process, among which crosslinguistic similarity25, language proficiency, context of communication, age, recency of language use and the ―foreign language effect‖ or the L2 status. In the case of the second language, its ability to function as a source language for CLI is not determined as much by the order of acquisition as by other factors such as proficiency in the source language, frequency and recency of use, and the degree of similarity to the recipient language. Since the majority of studies deal with language production, it is necessary to investigate CLI effects in perception and comprehension in order to gain a deeper understanding of the process of third 24 Crosslinguistic influence, the term proposed by Kellerman and Sharwood Smith in 1986, is used in the literature as the equivalent of the term transfer or interference, and it includes the wide range of psycholinguistic phenomena which result from the contact of two languages, including preference, positive and negative transfer, avoidance and borrowing (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). 25 The phenomenon called linguistic distance, typological similarity, psychotypology and crosslinguistic similarity refers to the degree of similarity between the source language and the recipient language. It determines the possibility of the appearance of transfer (Kellerman, 1977; Ringbom, 1978; Wode, 1976; Cenoz, 2001; Ringbom, 2001, 2007). 140 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language acquisition26. While in language production the speaker starts from the preverbal intention and assigns it a linguistic form, comprehension has its starting point in the lexical form the reader or listener gives meaning to by linking the language form to the semantic knowledge he possess (Ringbom, 2001). Therefore learners try to find similarities between the languages they know in order to establish a relationship of equivalence between them, and in this process formal similarities have a greater importance in comprehension than in language production (Ringbom, 2007). However, it is important to distinguish between objective and subjective similarity, but also between objective and subjective difference. Objective similarities are often not the same as subjective similarities since it is the subjective perception of the speaker to determine the degree of transferability of certain language features from the source language to the recipient language (Kellerman, 1978). The subjective crosslinguistic similarity influences the degree to which the learner relies on the source language in learning and using the target language, whereas objective similarity affects the likelihood that transfer will be positive or negative (Odlin, 1989). However, objective similarities and differences and subjective differences don't lead to transfer, but it is the crosslinguistic similarities that the learners perceive or assume to exist, that form the basis of interlingual identifications that generate most types of transfer (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Perceived language distance is therefore considered the main factor influencing crosslinguistic similarity, and formal similarity between all language systems known to the learner a constant factor of crosslinguistic influence (De Angelis and Selinker, 2001). The importance of perceived crosslinguistic similarity has been attested in all areas of language knowledge, from phonology, morphosyntax to the discourse, but it is mostly evident in the field of the lexicon. Crosslinguistic similarity is most obviously perceived on the basis of formally similar or identical individual items or words. The similarities may also be functional or semantic. Formal similarity is perceived first, in that getting the word form precedes getting the word meaning, and most cases involving the transfer of formal properties seem to reflect perceived similarities, while many cases of semantic transfer seem to occur merely on the basis of assumed similarities and often despite observable differences. Moreover, in the case of formal transfer the source language tends to be a closely related language, that is a source language that the learner perceives as being closely related to the recipient language, whereas semantic transfer strongly tends to come from a language in which the learner is highly proficient, most commonly the L1 but also an L2 in cases where the learner is highly advanced in the L2 (Ringbom, 1987, 2001; Cenoz, 2001). Although perceived similarity mainly facilitates learning, especially when cognate languages are concerned, it can also lead to errors in production and comprehension, as in the case of false friends, i.e. lexemes that belong to different languages, but because of their formal similarity lead to wrong conclusions about their meaning (Gabryś-Barker, 2006, Ringbom, 2007). The first encounter with cognates often leads to an approximate understanding and it doesn't require much cognitive effort on the part of the learners since they easily connect the core meaning of words with the same or similar form. However, on more advanced levels of language learning, it is necessary to invest a greater cognitive effort to acquire the full meaning of lexical units, their stylistic and contextual components (N. Ellis, 1994, 1997; Nemser, 1998; Singleton, 1999). Despite the fact that the research of lexical transfer has received much attention, due to the complexity of this phenomenon that includes several dimensions of lexical knowledge, it is necessary to investigate the implications of this process in multilingual speakers where lateral transfer is manifested, i.e. the transfer from the L2 to the L3 (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Method of the Study The main goal of this study is to gain an insight into the perception of lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers. With regard to objective and subjective similarity, the aim is to establish if the subjects perceive crosslinguistic lexical similarity in reading comprehension, and if so, to which degree they rely on semantic, i.e. formal similarity. Furthermore, the aim is to establish the existence of a relationship between the perception of lexical similarities of L2 Italian and L3 English with the subjects‘ characteristics (first language, Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of L2 Italian, length of studying and language proficiency in L3 26 For the purpose of this paper, it is important to underline the difference between the second (L2) and the third language (L3), since when acquiring the L2 the learner has at his disposal only the knowledge of his L1, whereas when acquiring the third language (L3), he already possesses the knowledge of the previously learnt languages (Hammarberg; 2001). Therefore, an adult learner who starts learning an L3 or an L4, possesses metalinguistic knowledge and learning strategies that a learner of the L2 doesn't have (Hufeisen, 1998). 141 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo English, self-rated language knowledge of English and Italian and formal evaluation in L2 and L3 at the end of the school year) and the features of the lexical items included with reference to word class membership, historical relatedness and semantic and formal similarity. The study of the perception of lexical similarity between L2 English and L3 Swedish (Utgof, 2008) represents the methodological starting point and the basis of this work. Sampling The present study includes 69 subjects, students of a high school in Croatia where the language of instruction is Italian. 35 of them are students of the first class and have been studying English for 7 years and 34 of them are students of the fourth class and have been studying English for 10 years. All informants are bilingual speakers whose L1 is mostly Croatian and the L2 is Italian, which is mainly used only as the language of instruction. The subjects differ also on the following points: Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of the Italian language, self-rated proficiency in L2 and L3 and the formal mark they have in the subjects Italian language and literature and English language at the end of the school year 2009/2010. Materials and Analysis Processes The questionnaire used to gather the data consists of a first part involving similarity judgements for 28 word pairs varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity. Formal similarity was computed by means of the normalized Levenshtein distance, which is a string edit distance for measuring the amount of difference between two strings of characters taking into consideration their length. Since similarity and difference are expressed by a reciprocal measure, the measure of formal similarity is given precedence in consonance with the theoretical assumption that learners tend to rely more on similarities than on differences (Ringbom, 2007). The measure of semantic similarity is given by the similarity ratings of five experienced Croatian-Italian bilingual teachers of English. The included lexical items differ also in their grammatical category, etymological origin, and out of 28 word pairs, there are 23 word pairs that belong to the category of deceptive cognates. Although English belongs to the Germanic language family, a significant number of lexemes has its origin in Latin, so in terms of its lexicon it can plausibly be regarded as a Romance language (Singleton, 2006), which has important implications for the psychotypological effect. It is therefore obvious that a learner who has a knowledge of Italian will encounter a whole array of English words whose meaning he can associate with a previously acquired language. However, deceptive cognates can lead to wrong conclusions since their meaning in English doesn't match the meaning of a similar word in Italian. The importance of context lies in the possibility of lexical and conceptual processing of ambiguous lexemes and in aiding comprehension (Gianico and Altarriba, 2008). All test items have therefore been contextualized and included into sentences provided by the British National Corpus for the English sentences and by Corpora e lessici dell‘italiano parlato e scritto and Corpus dell‘italiano scritto contemporaneo for the Italian sentences. The British National Corpus is an exemplary representative corpus, used in many previous studies, while the corpora of Italian have been chosen for ease of access and their content including spoken and written language as well as literary texts. The sentences were skimmed and chosen at random, and some were edited for length to fit in the form. The included items were checked against the vocabulary list included in the student‘s book used in grade 1 and 4 (Soars, L. and J., 2005, 2009) and chosen according to the researcher‘s judgment. To exemplify the mode of analysis, it has to be mentioned that the similarity ratings have been given on a scale ranging from 10 (totally different) to 100 (completely the same) as in the study of lexical similarity perception between Swedish and English by Utgof (2008). The usage of ciphers was abandoned in hope that the students would place a mark after their intuition rather than concentrate on mechanically choosing a number. The respondents were asked to place a cross on the line to reflect how similar they considered the word pairs to be. Language biography is the second part of the questionnaire supplying information about the biographical characteristics of the informants, context of acquisition and use of L2 Italian and L3 English. Findings and Discussion In order to establish and differentiate the effects of formal and semantic similarity on the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and verify the effects of the grade the subjects attend, i.e. the level of L3 proficiency, a threeway ANOVA with repeated measurements on 2 factors was performed followed by post hoc Scheffé tests where appropriate (i.e. if the F score was statistically significant) (Table 1.). The word pairs have been divided into two categories according to the degree of their formal and semantic similarity with values ranging from 0 – 0.50 for 142 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low similarity and 0.51 – 1 for high similarity. The alpha for achieving statistical significance was set at .05. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated to examine the strength of the relationship between the variables. Table 1. Effects of formal similarity, semantic similarity, grade and their interaction on English-Italian word pair similarity judgements η Factor F1,67 formal similarity 19.23** .22 semantic similarity 25.51** .28 Grade 0.70 .01 formal similarity * semantic similarity 0.01 .00 formal similarity * grade 2.56 .04 semantic similarity * grade 4.46* .06 formal similarity. * semantic similarity * grade 0.19 .00 *p<.05; ** p<.01 As can be seen from Table 1., in analyzing the role of formal similarity and the role of English proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, the only statistically significant effect is that of formal similarity. What is interesting is that there is a negative relationship between formal similarity and similarity judgments, i.e. formally more similar word pairs are perceived as less similar. Based on the size of the effect, 28% of the answers‘ variance can be explained on the basis of semantic similarity and 22% on the basis of formal similarity. As to the effects of formal similarity, English language proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, there is a statistically significant effect of semantic similarity. In other words, highly similar lexical items have received higher similarity ratings. Grade hasn‘t been found statistically significant, whereas there is a statistically significant interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgments although the effect size is relatively small. While the ratings of the grade 1 subjects tend to be more uniform, grade 4 students rely more on semantic similarity when expressing their similarity judgments. Although the strength of the effect of the interaction between semantic similarity and age on similarity ratings is relatively small, it is interesting to note that the effects of semantic similarity on similarity ratings are different with age. As shown in Picture 1., the range of semantic similarity ratings is larger in the ratings of older students (grade 4) than of the younger ones (grade 1), which is in accordance with the finding that crosslinguistic similarity perception on more advanced levels is based on previously acquired lexical knowledge. The first grade students‘ ratings, whose lexical knowledge is on a lower level compared to that of the fourth grade students, are similar to those of the older students, since they have given low similarity ratings for semantically different words and higher ratings for semantically more similar words, but their ratings are in a smaller range, around the middle values on the rating scale, probably due to their fear of giving the ―wrong‖ rating. 143 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 0.70 Similarity rating 0.65 Grade 0.60 first 0.55 fourth 0.50 0.45 0.40 low high Semantic similarity Picture 1. Effects of the interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgements In order to test the correlation between similarity ratings and the subjects' first language, a one-way ANOVA was performed, whereby no significant effect of the first language on the overall similarity rating was found (Table 2.). The subjects gave uniform ratings of crosslinguistic similarity regardless of their L1 since the majority of them have Croatian as their L1 and use Italian as an L2 in the schooling context. However, even when they speak Italian in their family, they use Croatian in everyday communication in the broader community. In view of the language specificity of our subjects, this finding is in line with the results of previous studies indicating semantic transfer taking place from the first language or, in the case of high proficiency, from the second language. Table 2. ANOVA results for the effects of L1 on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor first language F1,67 η2 1.11 .02 In the analysis of variance of the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the experience of the learning of the Italian language, no significant effect of the L2 learning experience on the ratings of the similarity of lexical pairs was found (Table 3.). All informants evaluated their experience of learning Italian as very positive or neutral, and no one expressed any negative experiences connected to the acquisition of their L2. Out of 69 students, 29 of them rated the experience of learning Italian as very positive, 20 positive and 20 neutral. Table 3. ANOVA results for the effects of L2 learning experience on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor Italian language learning experience F2,66 0.46 η2 .01 The correlation between the ratings of crosslinguistic similarity and the use of the Italian language in the formal (school, church) and informal (family, friends) context has been analysed using the linear regression analysis. As can be seen from Table 4., the model can't be regarded as statistically significant. The formal context is generally irrelevant with respect to the similarity ratings, while the use of L2 Italian in the informal 144 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo context is a negative predictor, although on the limit of statistical significance, of similarity ratings. In other words, the subjects rate lexical pairs as less similar the more they use Italian in informal situations. This could be explained by the fact that those speakers that use Italian with family and friends have Italian as their dominant language, whereby there is no effect of the second language which has been recognised as one of the most influential factors of crosslinguistic influence, and a high language proficiency implies a greater attention given to semantic, and not to formal features of a word. Table 4. Regression analysis results for the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the context of use of L2 Italian (formal and informal context). Predictor Formal Informal  p .18 .18 -.26 .05 R2*.0.6; F2,66=2.12, p>.05 As shown in Table 5., no statistically significant correlation between lexical pairs similarity rating and self-rated knowledge of Italian was found. However, it is significantly connected to the mark at the end of the school year in that subject. In fact, L2 proficiency has been recognised as one of the relevant factors in crosslinguistic influence. Table 5. Connection between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in Italian and the mark in the subject Italian language and literature at the end of the school year. 1 1. similarity rating 2. self-rated knowledge of Italian 3. formal evaluation in Italian 2 .15 3 .28* .33** *p<.05; ** p<.01 Similarity ratings don't show a correlation neither with the self-rated knowledge of English nor with the mark at the end of the school year in that subject (Table 6.). However, it is interesting to note that the correlation between self-rated knowledge and the mark at the end of the school year is bigger in the case of L3 English than L2 Italian. This can be explained by the fact that Italian is regarded as the students‘ first language, so the teachers set higher expectations and the students themselves are more self-critical with respect to their knowledge of Italian and rate it lower than is the case with English. Table 6. Correlation between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in English and the mark in the subject English language at the end of the school year. 1 4. similarity rating 5. self-rated knowledge of English 6. formal evaluation in English 2 -.08 3 .01 .70** ** p<.01 145 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In order to test the effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal and semantic similarity on English-Italian word pairs‘ similarity judgments, a series of one-way ANOVAs with repeated measurements on one factor was performed. Word pairs have been divided into two groups according to grammatical category (the same – different), genetic relatedness (the same – different), and membership of the category of deceptive cognates. Effects of all the mentioned variables have been found statistically significant. Words belonging to the same word class are rated as more similar than words belonging to different grammatical categories. Likewise, a statistically significant effect of etymological similarity has been established and in this case the effect size is the largest. True cognates are perceived as more similar than words having a different etymological origin. The effect of the deceptive cognates is also statistically significant. Words of high formal similarity but semantically completely or partially different are rated as less similar (Table.7.). This finding can be brought into relationship with the first finding (Table 1.) regarding low similarity ratings for formally similar items indicating that the subjects rely more on semantic than formal similarity which is in line with the results of the study we took as our starting point (Utgof, 2008). Table 7. Effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal-semantic similarity on English- Italian word pairs similarity judgements η2 Factor F1,68 word class similarity 14.97** .18 etymological similarity 61.54** .48 deceptive cognates 13.84** .17 ** p<.01 The results of this study indicate a statistically significant correlation between crosslinguistic similarity and the experience of learning the Italian language, the context and frequency of use of the Italian language, the length of learning and proficiency in English, self-rated language proficiency in L2 and L3 and formal evaluation. Words belonging to the same word class and of the same etymological origin have been rated as more similar. Whereas in the case of word class membership results can be brought into connection with the lexemes being contextualized and thus facilitating comprehension, explicit knowledge of the etymological origin isn‘t available to high school students since at this level the learning and teaching of both English and Italian is approached from a synchronic view, and the mechanism of forming interlingual associations doesn‘t depend on the origin of a lexical item but on the perception of lexemes as analogous in the mind of the language user (OlujiĤ and Bońnjak Botica, 2007). However, what should be remembered is that transfer is an internal phenomenon that exists in the minds of individual language users and springs from the interaction of languages stored and processed within the same mind. Perceived crosslinguistic similarity also depends on individual learning styles and the characteristics of each individual learner (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, the conclusion is that Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers perceive crosslinguistic similarities between the English and the Italian language, and that their perception is related to both formal and semantic crosslinguistic similarity. As to the words which coincide in both meaning and form, the first grade students rate these words as less similar than fourth grade students since it is necessary to acquire a certain level of language proficiency for transfer to occur and crosslinguistic influence is manifested on more advanced levels of language learning when the learner has acquired additional competences and recognizes similarities between the source language and the recipient language (Wode, 1976; in Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). In the case of deceptive cognates the students on the more advanced level of language proficiency rely more on their lexical knowledge and rate deceptive cognates as more different although they are words of high formal similarity, as opposed to first grade students who rely more on formal similarity. In order to facilitate L3 acquisition, an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity should be adopted so that the knowledge of all previously acquired languages might get activated with the purpose of promoting positive transfer, enhancing learners‘ receptive strategies for inferring word meanings and developing metalinguistic awareness. On the other hand, in the case of deceptive cognates and partial 146 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo translation equivalents there is the need to emphasize semantic and conceptual crosslinguistic differences and to use interlingual comparisons so as to make the students aware of negative transfer. Therefore, CLI implicitly as a reciprocal, multi-directional influence of all the language systems possessed by an individual, and explicitly as a learning strategy, facilitates the process of learning not only the English language, but also for those bilingual speakers whose dominant language is Croatian, the learning of Italian vocabulary by means of lexical similarities with English. Since this study has included a limited sample it is clear that the findings have a limited generalizability and there is a need for replication that would address a wider range of contexts and include appropriate monolingual controls, especially monolingual speakers whose L1 is Croatian and who study both Italian and English in a formal context as foreign languages and are similar to the subjects of this study on a range of sociodemographic variables. 147 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References British National Corpus. Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ Browne, V., Mendes, E. and Natali, G. (2009). More and more False Friends, Bugs & Bugbears. Dizionario di ambigue affinità e tranelli nella traduzione tra inglese e italiano (seconda edizione). Bologna: Zanichelli. Cenoz, J. (2001). 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 25 Title A name given to the resource Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Author Author Bradičić, Ana Abstract A summary of the resource. Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics