205 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1027350b8ad07f075df4b003ac2e067a.pdf da104684109213ab1a362559245fc153 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Mehmet CAN International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Engineering Paromlinska 66, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Keywords: Islamic Finance, Parameters 1. Introduction Recently the Vatican advised Islamic finance principles to Western banks as a solution for worldwide economic crisis. Daily Vatican newspaper, 'L'Osservatore Romano, reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. "The ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based may bring banks closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service," the Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of march 4, 2009 (see webpage rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it). Author Loretta Napoleoni and Abaxbank Spa fixed income strategist, Claudia Segre, say in the article that "Western banks could use tools such as the Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral". Sukuk may be used to fund the "'car industry or the next Olympic Games in London," they said. They also said that profit share, gained from sukuk, may be an alternative to the interest. They underlined that sukuk system could help automotive sector and support investments in infrastructure area. Islamic sukuk system is similar to bonos of capitalist system. But in sukuk, money is invested concrete projects and profit share is distributed to clients instead of interest earned. Pope Benedict XVI in an October 7, 2008 speech reflected on crashing financial markets saying that "money vanishes, it is nothing" and concluded that "the only solid reality is the word of God." The Vatican has been paying attention to the global financial meltdown and publishing articles in its official newspaper that criticize the free-market model for having "grown too much and badly in the past two decades." Islamic finance is not only a remedy for the crises of capitalism, for countries with Muslim majority; it is also the most beneficiary financial system to be adopted by administrative and legislative bodies of the states. For the Muslim minorities in Europe and in all other continents in which the followers of various religions live in intermingled communities without physical political borders, for Muslims and others who may choose it as a better option, there must be alternative Islamic financial institutions. The need for alternative Islamic financial legislations and institutions necessitates a broad religious freedom that supports a life along the Shariah. Starting from this post modern era, believers will not be satisfied by any level of religious freedom that supports less than living in accordance with the Shariah of their religion. For the Muslims scattered throughout the world as minorities, the minimums of living in accordance with the Shariah are 1. Alternative education at all levels, 24 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Alternative jurisprudence, Shariah courts, 3. Alternative financial system, and supporting financial institutions, 4. Alternative health care. This global need necessitates the evolution of a system that could lead to a balanced, sustainable and equitable economic order in the world at large for the benefit of individuals and societies. Islamic economic principles are a basis for promoting a balance between the social and economic aspects of human society, the self and social interests, and between the individual, family, society and the State. Islamic finance has to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law that regulates the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives along Islam. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of this code which are: Aqaid, or matters of belief and worship; Akhlaq, or matters for disciplining one's self; Ahkam, or socio-economic and legal systems; Fraidh, or obligations; and Nawahi, or prohibitions. Islamic economics directly or indirectly deals with all these disciplines (see Eyub 2007). 2. Sources of the Shariah The primary source of the Sharia is the Qur'an and Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuh). The Holy Qur'an says: “Whoever obeys the Messenger, he indeed obeys Allah, and whoever turns back, so We have not sent you as a keeper over them. (4: 80).” The other sources are Ijma'a (consensus) and Qiyas (analogy). Ijma'a of the Companions of the holy Prophet is considered by the Muslims an important source for the derivation of laws subsequently. The general welfare/interest (Maslaha-e-Mursalah) of human beings and Urf (tradition) are also important tools in the hands of Islamic jurists that are kept in mind for deciding the Shariah position of various contracts and activities without compromising on the basic principles contained in the Qur'an and Sunnah. Shariah rules can be divided into Dos, orders to undertake any act; and Don'ts, prohibition from some acts, which can further be divided into the rituals (matters of worship) that are considered as rights of Allah (SWT) and the matters for disciplining human life that constitute the rights of human beings. While the former acts, rituals or matters relating to belief and worship in the form of Fraidh or obligations have to be accomplished strictly according to the Shariah codes, the latter matters that pertain to socio-economic rights and obligations are governed by the rule of "General Permissibility", Ibahatul Asliyah, which means that all acts and things which have not been openly prohibited by the original sources of Shariah are permissible. It is pertinent to observe, however, that while Allah (SWT) may like to forgive any of the lapses by Muslims in respect of His rights (first category), lapses in respect of the rights of human beings would have to be forgiven only by the aggrieved person(s). Further, it is a cardinal principle of Islam that everyone is accountable for his acts and the accountability is individual, both in rituals and in socio-economic contracts. The Holy Qur'an says: “Namely, that no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another. That man can have nothing but what he strives for (53:38-39).” Knowing the objectives of the Shariah helps jurists in determining the prohibition or permissibility of any matters on the basis of Ijtihad and Qiyas. The primary objectives that Shariah tends to realize are the protection and preservation of: 1. Religion. 2. Life. 3. Progeny - family unit. 4. Property. 5. Intellect. 6. Honor. The above primary objectives of Shariah lead to a number of secondary objectives, which are: 1. The establishment of justice and equity in society. 2. The promotion of social security, mutual help and solidarity, particularly to help the poor. 3. The maintenance of peace and security. 4. The promotion of cooperation in matters of goodness and prohibition of evil deeds and actions. 5. The promotion of moral values and all actions necessary for the preservation of the nature (see Chapra 2000). Hence, from the study of the Qur'an and Sunnah, some basic socio-economic rights of human beings have been identified. These rights are: 1. The right to safety. 2. The right to be informed. 3. The right to choose. 4. The right to be heard. 5. The right to satisfaction of basic needs. 25 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. The right to redress. 7. The right to education. 8. The right to a healthy environment (see Eyub 2007). Islam requires rulers and various regulators in the system to protect the masses from harm and hardship caused by unscrupulous factors in society through strong and effective laws, and they should be respected in the sense of fulfillment of all socio-economic rights. The State must also curb institutional and other malpractices. 3. The Necessity for Islamic Finance and Economics Studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and religious imperatives. Islam does not separate "pious" and "worldly" life. Holy Qur'an says: "But seek, with the (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on thee, the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget thy portion in this world: but do thou good, as Allah has been good to thee, and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: for Allah loves not those who do mischief." (28:77) As the main theme of the Islamic economic system revolves around care for the poor and socioeconomic justice, studying Islamic economics should be a strategic activity for Muslim economists and policymakers. The Islamic economic system can be studied properly only in the context of the Islamic way of life as a whole. The Holy Qur'an gives broad principles of values regarding the economic aspects of man's life, like an owner's attitude towards his property, society's attitude towards the needy, the cooperative basis of the economic relationship and the bias against a concentration of wealth. The individual must be mindful of other ends while planning for economic ends. He has to subject each and every activity to thorough scrutiny, avoiding all those forms which are injurious to social interest. The early Islamic jurists mainly advised individuals and rulers on behavior in economic matters and economic policies (see Yusuf 969). In the later period, they also analyzed such economic thoughts as trading, prices, money, profit-sharing, taxes, development, etc. They gave special importance to ethics and moral purposes and focused on justice, need fulfillment, efficiency, freedom, growth and development. Those who did work of outstanding nature included Imams of juristic schools of thought like Abu Hanifa (see Makhnisawi 2007 ), Malik (see Abdarahman 2007), Shafii, Ahmad ibn-e-Hanbal, Zaid bin Ali, and others like Muhammad bin Hasan al Sheibani, Abu Yusuf (see Yusuf 1969), Yahya bin Adam, Abu Ubaid, Qudama bin Jafar, Ali ibn Muhammad Al Mawardi, Nizamul Mulk Tusi, Nasiruddin Tusi, Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyah, Ibn Qayyim, Ibn Khaldun (see Dawood 1989), al Maqrizi and Shah Waliullah. Abu-Yusuf's book of al-Kharaj is important for various reasons: (a) it was the first book to be published on Islamic economics, (b) it was necessary to look, in some detail, into the work to gain an insight into the thinking of the first Muslim writer in the field, especially as (c) the book was a first serious work on Islamic economics, particularly when (d) the book provided a comprehensive framework, almost a constitution, on the state finance and public administration, of (e) a considerable magnitude, and (f) the book could still be regarded as a reference book by the standards of today. (As an example) “Abu-Yusuf focused on leasing of fields and palm orchards, with a particular reference to the cultivation of barren land on a lease basis. Abu-Yusuf explained that the jurists in al-Hijaz (the Màlikì) had a different view from that of the jurists in al-Kufa. In al-Hijaz and al-Medìnah, jurists, did not allow the lease of barren land on a sharing basis, one half or one third, as they argued that barren land was not like orchards and other gardens for which they allowed sharing leases. Some of the jurists in al-Kufa allowed sharing in orchards and other trees and permitted sharing of crops in barren land at a half and one-third ratio, while others did not allow sharing in orchards or other fruit trees and did not permit sharing of crops in a barren land. Abù-Hanìfah was against the validity of the lease. Those jurists who did not allow the transaction relied on the juridical argument against uncertainty; the yield from the lease of the barren land was uncertain and any involvement in such a transaction could be harmful to either partner. On the other hand, those who allowed leasing depended strictly on the practice of the Prophet when he let the lands of Khyber to the inhabitants of Khyber on a yield sharing basis. Abu-Yusuf's view was that all such leases were allowed and valid. He regarded them as sharing in partnership contracts in which one partner participates in the partnership with his capital and the other with his labor and expertise. The profit, even if it was still unknown to them, was divided on the basis of profit-and-losssharing. This form of partnership is unanimously acceptable by jurists. In Abu-Yusuf's view, leasing of barren land, orchards and other trees was like a partnership: the land was similar to the capital in the partnership contract. To enforce his view, Abu-Yusuf relied on the precedent of the Prophet in the lands of Khyber. The ahadith in support of permission were more reliable and general than the ahadith in support of inhibition, he argued. Abu-Yusuf elucidated different forms of lease contracts in which he clarified the relationship between 26 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the partners in the contract, and the tax position of each. It is apparent from his classification that Abu-Yusuf widened the scope of leasing by allowing several structures. He perhaps had in mind a special consideration for public interest without sacrificing the basic principle that the partners should be clear before the start of the transaction as to the conditions of the contract. His thought on the classification coincides with the classification as known in modern time and the differentiation between a financial lease and other types of lease”. (see elAshker and Wilson 2006). After the start of the Renaissance movement in the late 19th century, Islamic economics started reemerging as an intelligent academic pursuit. Scholars like Syed Qutb (see Qutb 1953), Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (see Mawdudi 1996) , Hifzurrehman Sweharvi, Muhammad Yusufuddin, Syed Baqar Sadre, and Dr M. Hamidullah (see Hamidullah 1992) can be considered pioneers and scholars of the first generation in the Modern World who initiated the process of defining modern economic thought in the light of the principles of Islam. Formal work on Islamic economics in the modern world that has led to a vigorous revival of Islamic economic thought has been done by a large number of economists, notable among which are Anwar Iqbal Qureshi, Ahmad al Najjar, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Sheikh Mahmud Ahmad, Mahmud Abud Saud, Muhammad Umar Zubair, Monzar Kahaf, S.M. Hasanuz Zaman, Anas Zarqa, M.A. Mannan, Mohamed Ali Elgari, M. Umer Chapra (see Chapra 2000), Abbas Mirakhor, Mohsin S. Khan, Fahim Khan, Munawar Iqbal, Khurshid Ahmad and many others. Considerable work has been done by well-known economists including Mohsin Khan (See Khan and Abbas 1987), Abbas Mirakhor, Zuber Iqbal, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Anas Zarqa, Monzar Kahaf and other Islamic economists of the second and third generations, as mentioned above, on various segments of economic management. These works largely pertain to interest-free banking and interest-free investment and production. Also, a good deal of work has been done on fiscal policy, Zakat, auditing and accounting, banking regulations and supervision. But all of these are segments and have not been put together into a comprehensive model. These segments (with variations) are being practiced/implemented in several countries. However, even in the contents and implementation of these segments, there is a lack of uniformity. This is yet another problem which needs to be addressed both at scholarly and operational levels. Therefore, Islamic rules of economics make it binding for human beings not only to abide by the Shariah codes relating to dos and don'ts but also to keep in mind the impact of their activities on others and society as a whole. To realize the goal, the State should try to control the requirements and needs of the people through a filtering process, motivate the people to abstain from activities injurious to others and restructure the socio-economic system for the transfer of resources from one use/sector to others to ultimately realize the dual objective (see Chapra 2000). The vision of Islam in this regard is different from the role models of present market systems which have become outdated with the march of events. The Shariah indicates the directions of transformation towards a social order of justice, well-being, security and knowledge, but it does not impose these laws. It tends to provide equal chances to all for earning a livelihood leading to equitable, not equal, distribution of income and wealth. It is also because of the no coercive nature of Shariah that the market is relied upon as a natural phenomenon of ethical human transformation. The holy Prophet (pbuh) categorically discouraged intervention for price fixation as long as price fluctuations occurred due to market forces alone. But when undue monopolistic and unjust pricing, production and distributional practices were existent, Al-Hisbah (the institution of the ombudsman) was empowered as a social regulatory body to check these imbalances for purposes of reestablishing a better semblance of market-driven exchanges in the light of the just order that Shariah aims at in society at large. Islamic economics has been defined differently by different economists/scholars, keeping in mind specific aspects of human life. To Ibn Khaldun, economics meant the desire for food and other requirements and efforts to obtain them; and a science which deals with management of households and cities in accordance with dictates of reason as well as ethics, so that the masses may be directed towards a behavior that leads to the preservation and performance of their species (see Dawood 1989). Mohsin S. Khan, a senior economist at the IMF, says: "Broadly speaking, the term 'Islamic Economics' defines a complete system that prescribes a specific pattern of social and economic behavior for all individuals. It deals with a wide-ranging set of issues, such as property rights, incentive system, allocation of resources, types of economic freedom, system of economic decision-making and proper role of the government. The overriding objective of the system is social justice and specific patterns of income and wealth distribution and consequently economic policies are to be designed to achieve these ends. (see Khan and Abbas 1987)" Zaman gives his own definition: "Islamic Economics is the knowledge of application of injunctions and rules of the Shariah that stop injustice in the acquisition and disposition of material resources in order to 27 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo provide satisfaction to individuals and enable them to perform their obligations to Allah and society (see Zaman 1991)." This implies that Islamic economics is a social science which studies the economic problems of people in the light of the values of Islam. One way of looking at Islamic economics would be the use of resources for the welfare of the people within the framework of Shariah. Once a framework of the Shariah has been adopted, it will determine various aspects of economic management like the contents of production, trade, finance, distribution. The integrated model of the Islamic social framework is based, among other things, on the following criteria, which provide a positive motivation for economic activities, steered by the concept of a fair balance between material and spiritual needs and between the individual's and social needs: 1. Equilibrium between work and worship. 2. Human equality. 3. Mutual responsibilities in society. 4. Distributive justice. 5. Balanced and beneficent use of the "bounties of God". 6. Limited sovereignty of individuals in terms of "self interest" for the benefit of fellow beings and society. 7. The principle of co-existence. 8. The freedom of conscience. 4. Objectives of Islamic Economics The objective of the Islamic economic system, like any other economic system, is the realization of efficiency and equity in allocation and distribution of resources, for which it recognizes the role of market forces and the freedom of individuals. But it also recognizes the possible adverse impact of the totally unregulated market on various sections of society, particularly the poor and the disadvantaged. Thus, the system comprises the following three main elements: 1. Ownership of commodities and wealth. 2. Transfer of the ownership. 3. Distribution of wealth among the people (see Nabbani 1997). The abolition of interest (Riba), promotion of trading and other real business activities, establishment of profit-sharing as a tool, the application of Zakat and avoidance of wasteful consumption (Israf) along with an effective overseeing role of the State constitute the key macroeconomic features of an ideal Islamic economy. The Holy Qur'an says: "Those who swallow down usury cannot arise except as one whom Shaitan has prostrated by (his) touch does rise. That is because they say, trading is only like usury; and Allah has allowed trading and forbidden usury. To whomsoever then the admonition has come from his Lord, then he desists, he shall have what has already passed, and his affair is in the hands of Allah; and whoever returns (to it) these are the inmates of the fire; they shall abide in it." (2:275). “Men whom neither merchandise nor sale beguileth from remembrance of Allah and constancy in prayer and paying to the poor their due; who fear a day when hearts and eyeballs will be overturned." (24:37). “O Children of Adam! wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters." (7:31). Study of these variables would indicate the state of any Islamic economy, its stability, weaknesses and strengths and various relationships among producers and users of resources. Ownership by man is thus Divine permission for utilizing the goods and assets. The Holy Qur'an says: "And give them from the Mai of Allah, which He gave to you." (24: 33). It also says: "And spend from what He put you in charge of" (57: 7). As such, Islam has set the limits and the means through which individuals, groups, the public and the State can possess property in such a way that acquisition in varying degree is within reach of all the people, despite disparities in their abilities. These limits are in terms of the quality or the means of acquiring and not in terms of quantity of wealth, as this resists human beings' strife to work diligently. Limits in terms of quality are necessary; otherwise human greed could corrupt the economy and cause chaotic relationships in society. It also conforms to human nature so as to satisfy their basic needs and enable people to benefit from comforts (see Eyub 2007). The following are the means of possessing goods: work, inheritance, and purchasing/obtaining property for sustenance, properties granted as gifts and the State granting possession of something to the citizens. To facilitate the acquisition of property and wealth, Islam has indicated legal means of ownership and its transfer through a variety of contracts. General rules for these contracts have also been defined in detail with the possibility of resolving any contemporary issues through Ijtihad, subject to observance of allowed limits. These rules allow man to utilize the resources by consuming them, benefiting from them or exchanging them via a number of contracts like sale, loan, lease (see Yusuf 1969) or gift. Rules pertaining to investment of wealth/property have also been laid down. The Holy Qur'an says: "Allah (thus) directs you as regards your 28 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise." (4:11). Along with property rights, income and profit entitlement are established in Islamic economics. This must occur through the effort, work or taking responsibility (Dhaman) and distribution by means like partnership, trade, joint ventures, loans, and various vehicles of transfer incomes like grants and Zakat and the control of waste. The Holy Qur'an says: “O ye who believe! When ye deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties: let not the scribe refuse to write: as Allah Has taught him, so let him write. Let him who incurs the liability dictate, but let him fear His Lord Allah, and not diminish aught of what he owes. If they party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable Himself to dictate, Let his guardian dictate faithfully, and get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. The witnesses should not refuse when they are called on (For evidence). Disdain not to reduce to writing (your contract) for a future period, whether it be small or big: it is juster in the sight of Allah, More suitable as evidence, and more convenient to prevent doubts among yourselves but if it be a transaction which ye carry out on the spot among yourselves, there is no blame on you if ye reduce it not to writing. But take witness whenever ye make a commercial contract; and let neither scribe nor witness suffer harm. If ye do (such harm), it would be wickedness in you. So fear Allah; For it is Good that teaches you. And Allah is well acquainted with all things. If ye are on a journey, and cannot find a scribe, a pledge with possession (may serve the purpose). And if one of you deposits a thing on trust with another, let the trustee (faithfully) discharge his trust, and let him Fear his Lord conceal not evidence; for whoever conceals it, - his heart is tainted with sin. And Allah knoweth all that ye do. (2:282)” Hence, the Islamic economy has a linkage between the market functions of productive involvement and growth and the institutional functions of policy and control. 4.1 Islamic Welfare Approach The concept of welfare in Islam is neither exclusively materialistic nor absolutely spiritual. It has rather dovetailed the spiritual and material aspects of life so that they may serve as a source of mutual strength and as the foundation of true human welfare and happiness. In order to meet the basic needs of each and every member of a society, Islam urges all to earn and seek the provisions for use by mankind. Islamic economy achieves this objective by obliging each capable person to work, enabling him to fulfill his and his dependents' basic needs. A number of verses of the Holy Qur'an and traditions of the holy Prophet (pbuh) reveal that Islam obliges individuals to earn and use the wealth so as to develop the economy for the betterment of society. It is the State's responsibility to take measures and adopt policies to enable those who are willing to work and anxious to work to find employment. As regards basic needs, there is total agreement among Islamic economists that it is the most important objective of the Islamic distributive policy. However, there may be some difference of opinion as to which needs should be guaranteed and how these should be fulfilled. Nevertheless, maximization of Falah (welfare in this world and the Hereafter) has firm relevance with the Islamic concept of development, which can be achieved through obedience to Allah (SWT) in worship (Ibadat) as well as Mu'amalat, including all kinds of economic activities related to production, consumption, exchange and distribution. As long as seeking the pleasure of Allah is set as the final goal, the latter will be in perfect conformity with the former (see Eyub 2007). 4.2 The Factors of Production Land, labor and capital jointly create value. As a result, the land-owner, the laborer and the owner of capital should jointly share the produce. The distinctive feature of the Islamic system is that capital has to bear the loss, if any. In addition to this, Islam compulsorily retains a portion of the produced wealth as Zakat for those who are prevented from contributing their share in production due to any social, physical or economic handicap. The factors of production in Islamic economics are: 1. Capital - includes those means of production which cannot be used in the process of production until and unless they are either wholly consumed or completely altered in form during the production process; it cannot fetch any rent. "Profit" is compensation of capital in the Islamic framework, but it comes with 29 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo responsibility or liability. So the profit on any capital is the residual revenue of a business conducted with that capital after making payment to all other parties; if the residual is negative, the capital owner has to suffer a loss that is the shortfall in the principal employed in the business. 2. Land - all such means of production which is used in the process of production in such a way that their corpus and original form remains unaltered. Their compensation is rental; these can be lent or leased. For example, an owner of a factory would claim rent of land and that of the installed machinery and plant; similarly, owners of houses, vehicles, machines, etc. are entitled to rent. 3. Labor - that is, human exertion, whether physical or mental and also includes organization and planning. Its compensation is wages (see Eyub 2007). 4.3 Restrained Individual Freedom There are certain curbs and some checks imposed by Shariah on consumers' behavior. Individuals are not at large to exercise their own will in terms of choice. Some basic rules have been laid down to govern intensity of wealth-gaining and income-consuming activities of society. It does not stand neutral as regards ends and means. It is religion-based, valuation-oriented, morality-judged and spiritually-bound. It is positive and normative science, as it links materialistic and moralistic requirements of changing nature. Thus, the scope of Islamic economics is the administration of scarce resources in human society in the light of the ethical concept of welfare in Islam. All types of work except those leading to indecency or socio-economic loss to other individuals and society are permissible. A basic principle of the Islamic legal system is that an activity or a commodity that is not prohibited through the Shariah texts is permissible. Thus, man has to observe the prohibitions only. Islamic economics would mean undertaking all activities individually or collectively that are not prohibited and that could add to the welfare and happiness of human beings (see Eyub 2007). Holy Qur'an says: " O ye who believe! Squander not your wealth among yourselves in vanity, except it be a trade by mutual consent, and kill not one another. Lo! Allah is ever Merciful unto you" (4:29). The most important prohibitions in the field of economics are the prohibition of interest, hazard and gambling due to their extremely harmful impacts on society. Such limitations are necessary for the fulfillment of the overall objectives of the Shariah for making society happy and satisfied, both materially and spiritually. The Holy Qur'an says: "O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance and idols and divining arrows are only an infamy of Satan's handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed." (5:90). 4.4 Liberalism versus State Intervention The literature on Islamic economics emphasizes four types of action by government in economic life. These are: 1. Ensuring compliance with the Islamic code of conduct by individuals through education and, whenever necessary, through compulsion. 2. The maintenance of healthy conditions in the market to ensure its proper functioning. 3. Modification of the allocation of resources and distribution of income affected by the market mechanism by guiding and regulating it as well as direct intervention and participation, if needed, in the process. 4. Taking positive steps in the field of production and capital formation to accelerate growth. The Islamic State can impose some limitations with a view to avoiding distortions and keeping in mind the well-being of society as a whole. All members of a society, regardless of differences in gender and religion, are allowed to undertake any of the permissible (Halal) businesses, but this is subject to the condition that it should not harm others. Once the Pious Caliph, Umar Farooq (Allah be pleased with him) asked a person who was selling a commodity at a much lower price than the market price to increase the price/rate or to leave the market (see Eyub 2007). 5. Summary All economic and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules, with the objective of helping to achieve the well-being of people in the worldly life as well as in the Hereafter. Hence, studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and the religious imperatives. The sources of rules dealing with economic aspects of human beings are the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah of His last Messenger, Muhammad (pbuh). In addition to the Qur'an and Sunnah, Ijma'a, Qiyas and Ijtihad provide a hierarchical framework of sources of rules governing Islamic economics and finance. 30 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References http://rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it/mefnazionale/PDF/2009/2009-03-04/200903... Eyub, M. (2007). Understanding Islamic Finance. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Chapra, M. U. (2000) The Future of Economics: An Islamic Perspective, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester. Makhnisawi A. I. M. (2007) Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, Al-Rashad Books. Abdarahman A. (2007) Translation of Malik's Muwatta, http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muwatta/ Yusuf A. Y. (1969) Abu Yusuf's Kitab al-kharaj (Taxation in Islam), Luzac. Dawood, N. J. (1989) The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History by Ibn Khaldun (Author), Princeton Univ. Press. El-Ashker A. A. F. and Wilson R. (2007) Islamic Economics a Short History, Leiden Boston. Qutb S., Tr: Algar H. (1953) Social Justice in Islam, Islamic Publications International, NJ. Mavdudi, S. A. A. (1996) Economic System of Islam, Kazi Publications. Hamidullah M. (1992) The Muslim Conduct of State, Kazi Pubns Inc. Khan M. S. and Abbas, M. (1987) Theoretical Studies in Islamic Banking and Finance, Iris Books. Abbas, M. (2007) An Introduction to Islamic Finance: Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Nabhani, T. (1997) The Economic System of Islam. Al-Khilafah Publications, London. Zaman S. M. H. (1991) Economic Functions of an Islamic State, The Islamic Foundation. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 131 Title A name given to the resource Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Author Author CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9e3d3e71d30efd54c99963097aa79973.pdf 9c0077332787dec126ee0fe786dd3570 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Kobya M. (2004) Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr (VI) by hazelnut shell activated carbon. Adsorption Science and Technology 22, 51–64. Köhler S.J., Cubillas P., Rodríguez-Blanco J.D., Bauer C. and Prieto M. (2007) Removal of cadmium from wastewaters by aragonite shells and the influence of other divalent cations. Environmental Science & Technology 41, 112–118. Low K.S., Lee C.K., Mak S.M. (2004) Sorption of copper and lead by citric acid modified wood. Wood Science and Technology 38, 629–640. Marshall W.E., Chatters A.Z., Wartelle L.H., McAloon (2001) A., Optimization and estimated production cost of a citric acid-modified soybean hull ion exchanger. Industrial Crops and Products 14, 191–199. Marshall W.E. and Wartella L.H. (2003) Acid recycling to optimize citric acid-modified soybean hull production. Industrial Crops and Products 18, 177–182. Mohanty K., Jha M., Biswas M.N., Meikap B.C. (2005) Removal of chromium (VI) from dilute aqueous solutions by activated carbon developed from Terminalia Arjuna nuts activated with zinc chloride. Chemical Engineering Science 60, 3049–3059. Pehlivan E., Pehlivan E., Kahraman H. (2012) Hexavalent chromium removal by Osage Orange. Food Chemistry, (Accepted). Raji C. and Anirudhan T.S. (1997) Chromium (VI) adsorption by sawdust: kinetics and equilibrium. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology 4, 228–236. Sud D., Mahajan G., Kaur M.P. (2008) Agricultural waste material as potential adsorbent for sequestering heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions-a review. Bioresource Technology 99(14), 6017–6027. Yu B., Zhang Y., Shukla A., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L. (2001) The removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution by saw dust adsorption. Removal of Pb(II) and comparison of its adsorption with copper. Journal of Hazardous Materials B84, 83–94. Zhu B., Fan T., Zhang D. (2008) Adsorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by citric acid modified soybean straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials 153, 300–308. Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus) Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr, ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr Abstract In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.). 41 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina, mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment. 1.INTRODUCTION Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industries in Turkey having grown in volume by over 20 percent for the past ten years (Table 1). Production of the three major species, namely rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and seabream (Sparus aurata) increased rapidly during the 1990s, with efforts having been given to the development of new species, such as the Black Sea turbot (Scophthalmus maeoticus) and some Mediterranean species such as sharpsnout seabream (Diplodus puntazzo), common seabream (Pagrus pagrus), common dentex (Dentex dentex) and groupers (Epinephelus spp.). Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) fattening, which started at the turn of the millennium has been the latest development in terms of species diversity. Species Seabass/seabream Trout Shell Tuna Trout & seabass Seabass & bream & new species Trout Seabass & bream & trout Seabass Total Farm number Rate (%) Rate (%) 87 1 1 2 4 4 Capacity (tonnes) 99 869 820 1 925 7 440 9 613 9 529 309 5 4 8 14 13 1 1 0 0 4 800 100 3.6 0.1 1 356 0 100 25 134 121 0 100 74 0.6 1.4 5.5 7.2 7.1 Table 1. Number of marine fish farm, capacities and production in 2009. (http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_turkey/en) Tuna aquaculture is presently in its early stages of development and will likely continue to expand, but with this expansion, parasitic disease will become increasingly important. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Diseases problems including parasitic organisms are the 42 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo main threat to further increas of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on tuna fish. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in tuna fish. Each section is presented with 1.aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2.epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3.pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4.symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5.diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6.treatment, how the infection can be controlled. 2. Coccidiosis 2.1. Aetiology. Goussia auxidis Mature oocysts (18-28 µm diameter) occur in the splenic pulp and in melanomacrophage centres in the spleen and liver, and in the peribiliary connective tissues of the liver. The oocyst has a thin membranous wall, and each contains four sporocysts but no oocyst residuum. Sporocysts (length 8-12 x 6-7 µm) have a thickened wall with a faint dehiscence suture occasionally visible (Jones 1990). 2.2. Epizootiology: The method of transmission of infection is unknown. 98 % (140 of 143) of albacore, T. alalunga, and an individual yellowfin tuna, T. albacares, from the South Pacific were found be infected (Jones 1990). 2.3. Pathogenicity: Oocysts occurred in both the liver and spleen where they produced minimal host response. Host response appears to be minimal with slight proliferation of fibroblasts around the oocyst in some fish. The spores are positively associated with melanomacrophage centres but the degree of association varies from fish to fish (Jones 1990). 2.4. Symptoms: No clinical signs have been reported. 2.5. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Not required. 3. Uronemosis 3.1. Aetiology: Uronema nigricans Fixed and stained parasite is variable in size ranging from 19.8-34 µm in length by 7.1-20 µm in width. They contained distinctive somatic ciliature consisting of 12-14 longitudinal kineties arranged in meridional rows (Munday et al. 1997). 3.2. Epizootiology: Until recently, infections of fish with Uronema sp. had been mainly reported in aquarium species in which they were invasive and resulted in severe tissue damage and subsequent mortalities (Cheung et al. 1980, Bassleer 1983). More recently the potential for scuticociliatids to be a problem in mariculture has been highlighted by reports of serious disease of larval and juvenile fish in Japan and Spain attributed to infection with Uronema sp. (Yoshinaga and Nakazoe 1993, Dykova and Figueras 1994) and of mature sea bass in the Mediterranean, where parasite was described as Philasterides dicentrarchi (Dragesco et al. 1995). In Australia mortalities of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii in growout seacages have also been reported with the causative agent being identified as Uronema nigricans (Munday et al. 1997). Epizootiological factors which may be implicated in the initiation of the disease in SBT are water temperature and host immune status. The "swimmer" syndrome has not occurred when water temperatures have exceeded 18°C. SBT maintain a body temperature of about 24°C, even in much colder water, so it is possible that 43 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo the parasite, which would be expected to have an optimum growth temperature of about 25°C (Parker 1976), would be preferentially attracted to the fish under conditions of relatively low water temperatures (< 18°C). 3.3. Pathogenicity: U. nigricans initially parasitizes the olfactory rosette at which stage the host mounts a vigorous inflammatory response. If the host response is inadequate, the ciliate then invades branches of the olfactory nerve present in the axis of the olfactory rosette. Even though there is still some host response to invasion of the olfactory nerve the migration of U. nigricans is probably then inexorable, ending in invasion of the brain, which causes locomotor dysfunction and, ultimately, death. Generalised infections leading to severe mortalities in larval marine fish were reported (Munday 1996). 3.4. Symptoms: Typically, affected tuna fish came to the surface, turned light blue and swam vigorously around the cage. Eventually, the fish ceased compulsive swimming and exhibited short bursts of forward motion with their heads out of water, followed by periods of sinking, before once again coming to the surface and then repeating the process. Finally, the fish sank and died at the bottom of the netpen (Munday et al. 1997). 3.5. Diagnosis: Presumptive diagnosis of the disease in SBT can be made by examining wet preparations of CSF and brain. However, although a fluorescent antibody test has been developed for cultured and environmental organisms (Watts 1995), this is not suitable for clinical material because of autofluorescence of host tissues. Definitive diagnosis can be made by microscopic examination of histological slides of nervous tissues. As clinical pathology only reflects general stress and perturbed osmoregulation, it is of no specific diagnostic value. 3.6. Treatment: The most effective concentrations of formalin were 100 and 200 ppm where total cell lysis occurred after 120 and 60 min respectively. Hydrogen peroxide was lethal to the ciliate at all concentrations (Crosbie and Munday, 1999). 4. Kudoasis 4.1. Aetiology: Kudoa prunusi, K. crumena Typical Kudoa crumena spores measuring 7.5 x 9.9 µm and 4.4-5.6 x 7.8-10.0 µm. Average spore size of Kudoa prunusi is 9.63 μm in width and 7.50 μm in length (Meng et al., 2011). 4.2. Epizootiyology: K. crumena was reported in a yellowfin tuna (Kent et al. 2001). The infections described by Langdon (1990) were in southern bluefin tuna caught off southwestern Western Australia when the fish would have been 1-3 years of age and feeding on cephalopods, crustaceans and salps (Kailola et al. 1993). Infections have also been reported in southern bluefin tuna in South Australia (Rough 2000) and wild fish caught off the New South Wales coast where the prevalence of about 1% affected fish was a cause of commercial loss. The prevalence of K. crumena in albacore was reported as 5%. Kudoa sp. infection of northern and southern bluefin tuna producing lesions in the flesh. 4.3. Pathogenicity: The infection in southern bluefin tuna produces white cysts 1-10 mm in diameter which are apparently in the muscle (Rough 2000) although Langdon (1990) produced evidence to suggest that most, if not all, cysts in southern bluefin tuna were in peripheral nerves, especially the intercostal nerves. Histologically the cysts are found to consist of numerous Kudoa spores surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Similar lesions because of an unidentified Kudoa sp. have been reported in southern bluefin tuna and Langdon (1990) suggested that the parasite could be K. nova, but as it does not produce myoliquefaction, this seems unlikely. 44 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4.4. Symptoms. None reported. 4.5. Diagnosis. Kudoa sp. can be seen in wet preparations or histological sections. Numerous plasmodia were localized not only in the cavity of the optic tectum but also in the tissue of cerebellum. Host inflammatory response and gliosis were occasionally found around plasmodia (Meng et al. 2011). 4.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention are practicable. 5. Hexacapsulosis 5.1. Aetiology: Hexacapsula neothunni Spores measure 6.2-11.0 µm and have six shell valves each containing one polar capsule (Lom and Dykova 1992). Kudoa nova spores measure 5.3-6.5 x 8.5-9.8 µm and have four shell valves each containing one polar capsule. 5.2. Epizotiology: Most myxosporeans, for which life cycles are known, have a two-host cycle with the myxosporean in a fish and an actinosporean in an invertebrate (Kent et al. 2001). As most juvenile tuna consume invertebrates such as squid and crustaceans (Kailola et al. 1993), it is conceivable that these prey species could be alternative hosts. 5.3. Pathogenicity: The postmortem liquefaction of the muscle caused by the release of proteases from the parasites that is the most dramatic result of the infection (Ogawa 1996). Histologically, the myxosporean spores are found aggregated in the cystic structures and usually produce minimal host response. 5.4. Symptoms: The parasites produce no clinical signs, and, while with heavy infections cysts may be visible in the musculature 5.5. Diagnosis: Typical myxosporean spores can be easily found in wet preparations or histological sections of affected muscles. 5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention is practicable. 6. Cardicolosis 6.1. Aetiology: Cardicola ahi, Cardicola forsteri Adult flukes are dorsoventrally compressed and 100-150 μm in width, with marginal tegumental spines, parenchymous body cavity, and indistinct reproductive and digestive tracts (Cribb et al. 2000). 6.2 Epizootiyology: C. ahi has been reported from yellowfin and bigeye tunas (Smith 1997). C. forsteri (Cribb et al. 2000) occurs in southern bluefin tuna. The intermediate hosts of Cardicola ahi and C. forsteri are not known. It is also not known if teleosts, other than Thunnus spp., act as final hosts. Colquitt et al. (2001) reported that the prevalence and severity of the infection increased with the time that southern bluefin tuna were held in captivity suggesting that the life cycle was maintained in the vicinity of the cages. Additionally, tuna farmers have reported that infections tend to be more severe at new cage sites suggesting that the parasite may also have a deleterious effect on the intermediate host. 6.3. Pathogenicity: Multifocal, white to yellow lesions involving the gills of infected southern bluefin tuna are described. The lesions ranged in size from 2 to 12 mm and often extended in an arc across the gills. The lesions appeared to be the result of the fluke ova impacting in the 45 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo afferent filamentary arteries where they stimulated a host response. Cardiac lesions were also reported and noted many ova surrounded by granulomas. There was marked hypertrophy of the cardiac spongiosa, presumably because of increased resistance to blood passing through the partly occluded branchial vasculature (Colquitt et al. 2001). It may not be a coincidence that bigeye tuna, which are known to be infected with C. ahi, have a much more compact ventricular myocardium (74%) compared with northern bluefin tuna (30–50%) which have not been reported to be to be infected with blood flukes (Santer and Greer-Walker 1980, Smith 1997). 6.4. Symptoms: C. forsteri infections of cultured southern bluefin tuna lead to increased mucus on the gills and have been associated with signs of respiratory distress, lethargy and slightly increased mortality (Rough 2000). 6.5. Diagnosis: In southern bluefin tuna the gross lesions are characteristic enough to enable a presumptive diagnosis. Histopathology is even more diagnostic, but definitive diagnosis depends upon flushing the adults from the heart and identifying them. 5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Prevention of blood fluke infections depends upon an understanding of the parasites life cycle and, therefore, is not possible at present. 7. Didymocystiasis 7.1. Aetiology: Didymocystis wedli The membranous cysts on the gill filament are oval in shape and measure 3-6 mm in length by 1.5-2.8 mm in width, depending on the stage of development and contain two similar worms applied closely against each other with opposite extremities. Under higher magnification we can observe the porous surface of the cyst. The characteristic feature of the body shape of D. wedli, with two distinct parts, can be well observed by light and scanning electron microscopy. The forebody is elongate, cylindrical, and slender, measures 1-2.2 mm long by 00.1-0.3 mm wide. The tegument of ventral and dorsal surfaces of forebody is wrinkled cobblestone-like, without spines or papillae. At higher magnification the oral opening is seen in the retractil tip of the forebody. Sensory papillae were not observed around the oral opening. The large hindbody has two symmetrical rounded lobes on the anterior end, forming a groove, from which emerges the elongated forebody; the posterior third of the hindbody is curved ventrally forming a somewhat pointed tail. The hindbody measure 3.4-10.2 mm in length by 0.9-3.1mm largest widht. The dorsal surface is more prominent than the ventral, forming a cover with tegumental transversal striations. There are no spines or papillae on either the ventral or the dorsal tegumentary surface of the hindbbody, which presents the same wrinkled cobblestone-like appearance (Kohn et al. 2001) 8. Anisakisasis 8.1. Aetiology: Anisakis simplex and Hysterothylacium cornutum (Williams and BunkleyWilliams 1996). 8.2. Epizootiyology: The definitive hosts of these parasites are marine mammals. Many other species of fish can act as intermediate hosts. 8.3. Pathogenicity: The small third-stage larvae are found encapsulated in the peritoneal mesenteries and, sometimes, the liver. If the fish are not quickly eviscerated it is possible for 46 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo the larvae to migrate to the abdominal muscles. Anisakis sp. infections are of importance because they can potentially infect humans. 8.4. Symptoms: The infections are covert. 8.5. Diagnosis: The presence of tightly coiled, encapsulated larval nematodes in the mesenteries of tunas is suggestive of anisakid nematode infection, but definitive identification of the larvae can be difficult. 8.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Human infection can be prevented by rapid evisceration of the fish and/or cooking of the flesh. In most instances tuna destined for sashimi are eviscerated soon after capture. There is no practicable treatment. 9. Copepodiasis 9.1. Aetiology: C. elongatus, Euryphros brachypterus, Penella filosa and Pseudocycnus appendiculatus Overall length of female of Pseudocycnus appendiculatus is 13.7 mm-15.6 mm. Anterior quarter of ventral length bright red, rest of body yellowbrown, the red pigment persistent in alcohol for at least several months. Cephalothorax subovate, (1.2 mm-1.3 mm x 1.2 mm), greatest width a little posterior to midpaint. Second thoracic segment subovate, length/width (0.6 mm-0.8 mm x 1.1 mm). Third thoracic segment, length/width (0.5 mm-0.6 mm x 1.0 mm-1.2 mm). Fourth thoracic segment subovate, length/width (1.7 mm x 1.2 mm-1.3 mm). Trunk, excluding the anterior swollen portion, cylindrical, length more than 6 times width (6.6 mm-7.9 mm x 1.0 mm-1.1 mm), lateral margins parallel with 2 plate-like subsemicircular dorsal projections, % trunk width, length % width, carried laterally on posterior margin. Abdomen, length % width (0.6 mm-0.7 mm x 0.9 mm-l.0 mm), caudal laminae borne laterally on posterior margin of abdomen, length 12 times basal width (3.4 mm-3.8 mm x 0.3 mm-0.4 mm). Egg strings extending from posterior margin of trunk, beneath platelike projections dorsal to abdomen, present on only 1 specimen, as long as body, eggs uniserial, length 13.7 mm, posterior of egg strings empty of eggs in this individual (Hewitt 1969, Purivirojkul 2011). 9.2. Epizootiyology: As C. elongatus and Penella filosa have multiple hosts, tuna may become infected from a variety of sources. However, Euryphorus brachypterus is almost genus specific for Thunnus spp. (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996). In the case of C. elongatus infecting captive southern bluefin tuna, capture trauma and high stocking densities are believed to predispose to heavy infections (Rough et al. 1999). 9.3. Pathogenicity: Lesions because of the copepods are related to their grazing behaviour (C. elongatus) or the damage caused by their attachment to the host (Euryphorus brachypterus and Penella filosa). Opportunistic infections of the bacterium Aeromonas sp. have also been reported in association with louse-associated damage to tuna eyes (Munday et al. 2003). 9.4. Symptoms: C. elongatus grazes on the integument of southern bluefin tuna and may produce grazing trails including over ocular tissues. Damage to the eye results in keratitis, panopthalmitis, cataract formation and blindness, leading to significant production losses (Rough 2000, Munday et al. 2003). Very heavy infections of Euryphorus brachypterus have been reported in northern bluefin tuna in which the pseudobranch has been carpeted with the parasite leading to ulceration and bleeding (Rough et al. 1999). Similar, but less severe lesions may be present on the gills and skin. The very large copepod Penella filosa penetrates into the 47 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo muscles of a number of tuna species. It has been reported to cause the fish considerable discomfort (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996). 9.5. Diagnosis: Experts can make a presumptive diagnosis of these copepod infections based on the morphology of the parasites and the types of lesions induced by their activities. However, definitive diagnosis is only possible by a scientist skilled in identifying the parasites. 9.6. Prophylaxis: Trauma may predispose to C. elongatus infections then reduction of damage because of capture, towing and harvesting should simultaneously reduce the level of infestation/damage caused by this copepod. Additionally, as this parasite and Penella filosa are carried by other species of fish, it would be appropriate to keep other forms of aquaculture separate from tuna farms (Rough et al. 1999). 9.7. 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(1969) Pseudocycnus appendiculatus Heller, 1868 (copepoda, dichelesthiidae) in New Zealand waters, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 3, 169176. 48 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Jones, J.B. (1990) Goussia auxidis (Dogiel, 1984) (Apicomplexa: Calyptosporidae) from tuna (Pisces: Scombridae) in the South Pacific, Journal of Fish Diseases 13, 215–223. Kailola, P.J., Williams, M.J., Stewart, P.C., Reichelt, R.E., McNee, A. and Grieve, C. (1993) "Australian Fisheries Resources" Commonwealth of Australia, Brisbane. Kent, M.L., Andree, K.B., Bartholomew, J.L., El-Matbouli, M., Desse,r S.S., Devlin, R.H., Feist, S.W., Hedrick, R.P., Hoffman, R.W., Khattra, J., Hallett, S.L., Leste,r R.J.G., Longshaw, M., Palenzeula, O., Siddall, M.E. and Xiao, C. (2001) Recent advances in our knowledge of Myxozoa. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48, 395-413. Kohn, A., Santos, A.L. and Baptista-Farias, M.F.D. 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In: Bryden D (ed) Fish health workshop. Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, p 81-123. Munday BL, Sawada Y, Cribb T, Hayward CJ (2003) Diseases of tunas, Thunnus spp. J Fish Dis 26:187–206 Munday BL. O'Donoghue PJ, Rough K, Watts M, Hawkesford T (1997) Fatal encephalitis due to the scuticociliate Uronerna nigncans (Mueller) in sea-caged, southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus rnaccoyii (Castelnau). Dis Aquat Org 30:17-25. Munday, B L., Sawada, Y. Cribb, T. and Hayward, C.J. (2003) Diseases of tunas, Thunnus spp. Journal of Fish Diseases, 26, 187–206 Ogawa K. (1996) Marine parasitology with special reference to Japanese fisheries and mariculture. Veterinary Parasitology 64, 95–105. Parker, JG (1976) Cultural characteristics of the marine ciliated protozoan Uronema marinum Dujardin. J Exp Mar Biol Eco124:213-226. Purivirojkul, W. Chaidee P. and Thapanand-Chaıdee, T. (2011) New Record Of Pseudocycnus Appendiculatus Heller, 1868 Parasites Of Yellowfin Tuna Thunnus Albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788) in The Andaman Sea, Thailand, Walailak J Sci & Tech 2011; 8(1): 81‐85. Rough KM (2000) An illustrated guide to the parasites of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii. South Australian Research and Development Institute, Adelaide. Rough K.M., Lester R.J.G. and Reuter R.E. (1999) Caligus elongatus a significant parasite of cultured southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii. Book of Abstracts, World Aquaculture, 99, 26 April–2 May 1999, Sydney, p. 655. World Aquaculture Society. 49 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272. Smith J.W. (1997) The blood flukes (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae and Spirorchidae) of coldblooded vertebrates: Part 2. Helminthological Abstracts 66, 329–344. Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp. (Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston. Williams E.H. & Bunkley-Williams L. (1996) Parasites of Offshore Big Game Fishes of Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental Resources and the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez. Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu 28:131-134. Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2 1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir, Turkey 2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin, Turkey E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Abstract Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp., Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp., Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey, First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum 50 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1226 Title A name given to the resource Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus) Author Author Erol, Tokşen Abstract A summary of the resource. In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina, mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/faef0dea82b11e22b2fc9a153ecdc9ae.pdf 2a121ad6e1d277acfeed98d3c88b6304 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272. Smith J.W. (1997) The blood flukes (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae and Spirorchidae) of coldblooded vertebrates: Part 2. Helminthological Abstracts 66, 329–344. Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp. (Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston. Williams E.H. & Bunkley-Williams L. (1996) Parasites of Offshore Big Game Fishes of Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental Resources and the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez. Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu 28:131-134. Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2 1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir, Turkey 2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin, Turkey E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Abstract Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp., Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp., Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey, First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum 50 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment 1.INTRODUCTION Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to 68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK 2012). Type of fish 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Inland water Trout 56 026 58 433 65 928 75 657 78 165 Marine Trout 1 633 2 740 2 721 5 229 7 079 Total 57 659 61 173 68 649 80 886 85 244 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (Ton) (TUIK 2012) The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites 51 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo in fish have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. The Plathelminthes typically are slightly dorso-ventrally flatted, witth a few exceptions hermophroditic worms without an anus and some of them without a mouth and intestine. Their surface layer is a tegument which is made of a syncytium. This Phylum comprise monogeneans, digeneans and cestodes Monogeneans are flatworms with representatives in freshwater, brackish and marine habitatts. The most of species are ectoparasitic and they all have a direct life cycle. A few species have adopted an endoparasitic life. They have a characteristic posterior attachment organ called an opisthaptor. This organ is equipped with sclerotiinized structures as large hooks, clamps and marginal hooklets. Also the fore part of the parasite has adhesive pads. Using these adhesive structures he flatworm can move in a leech-like manner on the host. 2. Tetraonchosis: 2.1. Aetiology: Tetraonchus alaskensis, T. awakurai. T. oncorhynchi The lenght of the T. awakurai is 650-1080 µm and width is 250-415 µm (Ogawa and Egusa 1978). 2.2. Epizootiology: Tha adult parasite attaches to the gill epithelium with its two pairs of anchors and their associated marginal hooklets, then produce eggs. These are liberated to the aquatic enviroment where they develop and hatch. The ciliated larva called oncomiracidium seeks the its host, attaches, sheds the ciliated cells and moves to the gill filaments. Depending on the ambient temperature the post larva develops to the adult stage on the gills (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). Oncomiracidia hatch from embryonated eggs and transmission occurs when the temperature is above 10 °C (Ogawa and Egusa 1985). 2.3.Pathogenicity: Heavy infections mat elicit inflamatorry reactions in the gills, hyperplasia of epithelial and mucous cella and haemorrhages. 2.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause hyperventilation, lethargy and mortality. 2.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasite on the gills of the host. The parasite has four eye spots, four large hooks in the opisthahaptor. 2.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures, mechanical filtration of fish tank water to remove oncomiracidia. 2.7. Treatment: Formalin, mebendazole and praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 52 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3. Gyrodactylosis: 3.1. Aetiology: Gyrodactylus salmonis, G. salaris, G. derjavini, G. truttae, G. colemanensis, Gyrodactylus elegans, G. cobitis. G. salmonis measures 0.5 mm in length and 0.15 mm in width. The hamuli are stout and 53-65 um long. 3.2. Epizotiyology: They are vivipourus hermophroditic parasites. The female parasite give birth to an almost fully developed daughter which already has a growing embryo in its uterus. The parasites attcches to thebody surface, fins, buccal cavity. At a farm nets and buckets are potential vehicles of transmission. Water-borne transmission occurs in spring when melting ice frequently causes flooding between holding units. Shipment of fish from other facilities are also potential sources of infeciton and so is the water supply of the farm. 3.3. Pathogenicity: Due to penetration of the epithelium by the marginal hooklets and the feeding activitiy the fish may suffer from osmoregulatory distress. Opportunistic infections may arise in the injured epidermis. 3.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish with parasite are cachexic, lethargic and overall dark in clour (Cone and Cusack 1988). 3.5. Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of slides with the parasite shows the approximately 0.5 mm platyhelminth without eyespot but with two large ventral hamuli, connected by a dorsal and ventral bar and 16 marginal hooklets. The shape and size of the hamuli and hooklets are species characteristic. 3.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures. Strict prevention of the introduction of specific gyrodactylids may be necesssary in farms with susceptible fish species. 3.7. Treatment: 4.5-5 % solution of NaCl for 1.5 to 2.5 min and then transfer immediately to fresh runnig water. A second bath may be necessary after several days (Cone 1991). Triclabendazole and nitroscanate are effective at dosages 40 g/kg of feed for 10 d and 0.6 g/kg of feed for 1 d, respectively (Tojo and Santamarina 1988). Formalin, copper sulphate, hydrogen peroxide, sodium per carbonate, mebendazole, praziquantel may use. 4. Discocotylosis: 4.1. Aetiology: Discocotyle sagittata, D. ohridana. D. sagittata is up to 12 mm length, 3-4 mm width. The rectangular opisthaptor is equipped with four pairs of clamps for attachment to gill. 4.2. Epizotiyology: Sanguinivorous polyopisthocotylean monogenean occur on the gills of freshwater salmonid fishes, with an extensive geographical distribution in the Northern Hemisphere. It occurs at low intensities in the wild (Valtonen et al. 1990). Eggs are produced by the harmaphroditic worm. The egg embryonate and hatch. The larva seek the host and develops into the adult stage. 4.3. Pathogenicity: The parasite feed on host blood and may cause anameia. Inflammatory reactions may impair respiration. Heavy infection by D. sagittata can result in deleterious effects on the host, especially in the context of fish farms. Rainbow trout reared in the Isle of Man have been shown to harbourhigh parasite burdens (˃1000/fish) and exibit high mortality rates due toparasite-induced anaemia (Gannicott 1997). 4.4. Symtomps: Anameia, morbiditiy, hyperventilation. 53 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the up to 12 mm long worm on the gills of the host. They are charecterized by the clamps on the opisthaptor. 4.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures should be applicated. 4.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Rubio-Godoy and Tinsley 2004) Digeneans are heteroxenous and their adult stages are parasitic in vertebrates. They need more than one host in their life cycles. Molluscs serve as first intermediate host. Bivalves are also the fisrt intermediate host of Fellodistomatidae, Gorgoderidae (Phyllodistomum) and Allocreadiidae (Crepidostomum). Adult digeneans usually have a dorsoventrally flattened oval body with a smooth, spiny or corrugated surface, a sucker around the anteroventral mouth and an additional ventral sucker, or acetabulum. Both suckers are used for attachment and locomotion (Paperna 2006). 5. Crepidostomosis: 5.1. Aetiology: Crepidistomum farionis, C. metoecus 5.2. Epizotiyology: The first intermediate hosts in the life history of this trematode are Pisidium amnicum and Sphaerium corneum. Although the latter is unusual, the second intermediate host is the larva of the mayfly, Ephemera danica. There are two generations of rediae, the first gives rise to daughter rediae, which in turn produce cercariae. Final host is trout (Brown, 2009). 5.3. Pathogenicity. The parasites cause swelling of the intestine. Inflammation of the intestinal wall may cause malabsorption. Parasite reduce the hemoglobin and hematocrit levels in the fish (Klein et al. 1969). 5.4. Symtomps: Inflammatory state of intestinal wall, haemorrhages. 5.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite in the intestine. The charecteristic cephalic lobes and the two suckers are found in both species. 5.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate host. 5.7. Treatment: Praziquantel is liable to have effect when used in feed oral treatmenta. Articles 6. Phyllodistomosis: 6.1. Aetiology: Phyllodistomum simile 6.2. Epizotiyology: Brown trout, salmon parr. Large numbers of Phyllodistomum simile were found in the urinary bladder of the trout from the River Teify. There was no evidence of a seasonal variation in the occurrence of P. simile in trout aged two years or more.Trout aged four or more years were more heavily infested than young trout and there was no indication of the development of a total immunity with increase in the age of fishes. The life history of P. simile was elucidated under experimental conditions by feeding the trout precocious metacercariae present in daughter sporocysts obtained from the gill lamellae and epibranchial cavity of the freshwater bi-valve, Sphaerium corneum (Thomas 1958). 6.3. Pathogenicity: Extension of urethrae. 54 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 6.4. Symtomps: Not clear. 6.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasites in the urethrae or bladder. 6.6. Prophylaxis: Removal intermediate hosts. 6.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 7. Nanophyetosis: 7.1. Aetiology: Nanophyetus salmincola is a digenic trematode, which means that it is an unsegmented worm that is flattened dorsoventrally. Adult worms alternate shape from “a sphere to a long blunt rod. The worms are 0.8 to 1.1mm long and 0.3 to 0.5 mm wide and are hermaphroditic, having both male and female reproductive organs in the same organism. (Bennington and Pratt 1960). 7.2. Epizzotiyology: The life cycle of the N. salmincola requires three hosts. The first intermediate host is an Oxytrema silicula stream snail. The second intermediate host is a salmonid fish, though some non-salmonid fishes also play a role. Lastly, the definitive host is most commonly a canid, though many other mammals are also definitive hosts, including humans. Transmission of N. salmincola to the definitive host occurs upon ingestion of parasite-infected fish (Bennington and Pratt 1960). 7.3.Pathogenicity: Cercariae invading fish fry may kill the fish probably due toimpairment of the osmoregulatory system. The parasite can transmit bacterial infection (Neorickettsia helminthoeca) to the dog. 7.4. Symtomps: Lethargy, morbidity, mortality of fish. 7.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metaacercariae in fish tissue. These are pyriform, unspined, large oral sucker of same size as ventral sucker, short oesaphagus. 7.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts. 7.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect in the early stage of infection but this has not been documented (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 8. Sanguinicolosis: 8.1. Aetiology: Sanguinicola alsea, S. davisi, S. fontinalis, S. idahoensis, S. klamathensis. Sanguinicola fontinalis body very flat, elongate when fixed relaxed, colourless, translucent, 0.90 mm long, 0.21 mm wide after hot fixation, staining and mounting (Hoffman et al. 1985). 8.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite lives blood vessels of the fish. Eggs are produced wich hatch to release the first larval stage called the miracidum.. These larvae from the eggs pass out of the gills into the pond water. In the pond miracidia infect the intermediate host as snails of the genus Oxytrema or Fluminicola. In the intermediate host sporocysts are developed and release cercariae which are infective for the fish. Then parasite penetrate into the blood vessel and develop there. 8.3. Pathogenicity: The release of eggs and penetrating miracidia mat elicit pathological reactions in the gill and blood vessels. 8.4. Symtomps: Branchitis (diseased gill), swollaen kidney, mortality, morbidity, lowered haematocrit. 55 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 8.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite (length 0.5-0.9 mm) in the blood vessels (branchial, renal, cardiac vessels). The adultfluke is lanceolate withour suckers and a narrow oesophaagus. Eggs are thin-shelled. 8.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of snails from ponds and the environment. Filtration of pond water to clear infective cercariae. 8.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have a effect but this has not been documented (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 9. Diplostomosis: 9.1. Aetiology: Larvae (metacercariae) of Diplostomum spathaceum (Diplostomatidae, Digenea). Body length of cercariae is 160-260 µm and the bifurcated tail stem is as long as the body. The established metacercariae are flattened, about 400 µm in length, and possess two suckers and an attachment organ (Hoglund 1999). 9.2. Epizotiyology: The life cycle involves pulmonate snails as first intermediate hosts, fish as second intermediate hosts, and piscivorous birds as final hosts harbouring the adult worms. Fish are infected with cercariae. The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish eating bird releases eggs. These pass with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they hatch and release free swimming miracidia. These infect the first intermediate host, a pulmonate snail, Lymnaea pereger or L. stagnalis. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst, develops. Tail bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocysts and are liberated to the water where tthey seek a fish host. When attached to the skin the tail is lost and the invasion process is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates through the lymphatic ducts to the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva develops into the metacercarial stage (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 9.3. Pathogenicity: The free-living feeding metacercariae lie in the cortex of the lens. Rupture of the lens and proliferating lens epithelium are sometimes observed at the site of parasite entry (Hoglund 1999). Cercarial penetration of skin may compromise osmoregulation (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 9.4. Symtomps: Infection may result in cataract formation within the lens, leading to partial or total blindness. Starvation may cause a significant reduction in condition, or even death. After penetration of the cercariae, lesions may form on the gills, body surface, and fins, which can cause death, especially in young fish, at high infection rates (Hoglund, 1999). 9.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the metacercaria in the lens of the fish. 9.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts. Preventing access of final host (fish eating birds) because they release parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may reduce density of cercariae. Increrase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positevely phototactic cercariae. 9.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) has been used orally in feed (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 56 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 10. Apatemonosis: 10.1. Aetiology: Apatemon gracilis 10.2. Epizotiyology: Adult trematodes live in birds. First intermediate host is a freswater snail, the trout is the second intermediate with infective metracercariae. When the fish-eating birds eats the fish it will result in maturation of tehe metacercaria into the adult stage in the intestine of the bird. 10.3.Pathogenicity: The presence of metaccercariae in host tissue produce inflammatory reactions which may affect physiological function of the organ. Trout infection with Apatemon gracilis resulted in fibrogranulomatosis of the epicardium and failure in in-vitro pumping performance (Tort et al. 1987, Watson et al. 1992). 10.4. Symtomps: Heavy infections associated witth lethargic fish. Heart function may decrease. 10.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the fish tissue. 10.6. Prophylaxis: Eradication of intermediate host snails in the culture system and surroundeings. Prevention of bird entry. 10.7. Treatment: Anthelmintic such as praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 11. Tylodelphysosis: 11.1. Aetiology: Tylodelphys clavata, metacercariae; body lenght is 0.28-0.69 mm, width is 0.8-0.21 mm. Diameter of oral sucker is 0.025–0.047 x 0.021–0.039 mm, ventral sucker is 0.016–0.029 x 0.020-0.029 mm. Brandes's organ 0.048-0.079 x 0.021–0.045 mm (Karatoy and Soylu 2006). 11.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish-eating bird sheds parasite eggs. these are delivered with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they hatch and release free awimminng miracida. The first intermediate host, a pulmonate snail,become infected by penetration. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst, develops. Tail-bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocyst and are liberated to the water where they seek a fish host. When attached to the skinthe tail is lost and the invading process is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates in the lymphatic ducts to the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva develops into the metacercarial stage. 11.3. Pathogenicity: The movements and excretion from the metracercaria may cause disturbances of the eye function. 11.4. Symtomps: Normally metacercariae do not cause serious disease. However, penetration of cercaria into small fish ma elicit mortality. 11.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the vitreous humour of the fish. 11.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediaate snail hosts. Preventing access of final fisheating hosts releasing parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may reduce density of cercariae. Increase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positively phototactic cercariae. 11.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) may be used orally in feed (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 57 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The cestoda or tapeworms are exclusively endoparasitc and hermoaphroditic with no asexual propagation in the intermediate host. Cestodes are oviparaous and have complicated life cycles which in many cases include free-swimming ciliated larvae called coracidia. Other cestode eggs infectt the host by hatching after ingestion. They have no mouth nor intestine. They feed by absorbing of substances through their tegument. 12. Cyathocephalosis 12.1. Aetiology: Cyathocephalus truncatus 12.2. Epizootiyology: Hexacanth embryos of C. truncatus were found to develop optimally in eggs cultured at between 15 °C and 20 °C for about 25 days. Gammarus pulex became infected only by swallowing egg capsules a containing hexacanth embryos fed to them. The young developing embryo grows over a period of about 10 weeks to the infective procercoid stage in the body cavity of the amphipod. In fish, the tapeworm forms an attachment in the distal end of a pyloric caecum 3 days after infection and matures in 8-10 days with production of eggs. By the 15th day the attachment to host tissue has become so firm that it is impossible to separate the worm from it. The tapeworm's hold on the caecal wall is probably achieved by the sucking effect of the funnel-shaped scolex supplemented by the spike-like microtriches of the inner scolex surface (Okaka 1984). 12.3. Pathogenicity: In heavily infected fish, the entire region of the pyloric caeca becomes fused into a single mass which may additionally fuse with the abdominal body wall immediately adjacent to it. In some cases, tapeworms were seen to have penetrated through the caecal wall and were attached directly to the muscles of the abdominal wall with the strobila still within the caecum. In other cases the whole tapeworm had moved through the perforated distal tip of the caecum and was found free in the body cavity. Worms could also be discharged into the intestinal tract with the detached distal, end of the caecum still held in the soolex as described previously. Caeca with perforated tips are common in heavily infected fish. 12.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish are often pale in colour, appearing very anaemic and showed blister-like pustules on the skin of the abdomen. Light infections do not elicit symptoms but mass mortalities in association with heavy infections have beeen described (Okaka 1984). 12.5.Diagnosis: Unsegmented cestode with a maximum length of 5 cm. The scolex is cupshaped. 12.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate snail hosts. 12.7. Treatment: Praziquantel, mebendazole or albendazole may have effect due to their anticestodal activity (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 13. Proteocephalosis 13.1. Aetiology: Procephalus longicollis 13.2. Epizootiyology: The adult hermaphroditic cestode produce eggs which are liberated to the water. Following hatching the larava (coracidium) will be ingested by a copepode which in turn becomes infected with the procercoid stage. When the fish eats the copepod this 58 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo crustacean will get deigested whereas the cestode larva develops into the adult stage in the fish intestine. Adult cestodes are usually located in the anterior part of the intestine or caeca, while juveniles may be found throughout the intestine (Scholz 1999). Parasite abundance is highest in the period mid June - mid July 13.3. Pathogenicity: Mainly due to absorption of nutritive substances in the host intestine. Inflammation of intestinalepitthelium due to cestode attachment. 13.4. Symtomps: It has been suggested that infections with P. longicollis reduce the growth of rainbow trout (Priemer and Goltz 1986, Engelhardt et al. 1988). 13.5. Diagnosis: Detection in intestine of cestodes with four suckers. 13.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts. 13.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 14. Eubothriosis 14.1. Aetiology: Eubothrium crassum E. salvelini 14.2. Epizootiyology: Transmission of E. crassum occurs when fish ingest infected copepods, and the first site of E. crassum is either the stomach or intestine, where digestion of the copepod happens. Growth only commences when a plerocerciform worm moves into a caecum, and larger worms are more likely to be found in anterior caeca, the preferred site of E. crassum (Kennedy 1996). The increase in prevalence and abundance of E. crassum occur from late March to mid May. 14.3. Pathogenicity: The presence of the cup-shaped scolex in the tip of the pyloric caecum induces an extensive ball-shaped tissue reaction. 14.4. Symtomps: infection by E. crassum may have a negative effect on host condition factor.. Parasite cause direct mortalities among the heavily infected fish, and indirect mortalities by predation from reduced growth, poor swimming performance and aberrant behaviour. The negative growth effects highlighted are considered caused either by poor host nutrition due to demands of the parasite or from reduced food gathering capabilities (Smith 1973). 14.5. Diagnosis: Detection of cestodes in the pyloric caeca and intestine. 14.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepos hosts. Filtration of water. 14.7. Treatment: Di-n-butyl tin oxide 80-160 mg/kg three days (Mitchell 1993) 15. Diphyllobothriosis 15.1. Aetiology: Diphyllobothrium is a genus of tapeworm which can cause Diphyllobothriasis in humans through consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The principal species causing diphyllobothriosis is Diphyllobothrium latum, known as the broad or fish tapeworm, or broad fish tapeworm. D. latum is a pseudophyllid cestode that infects fish and mammals. D. latum is native to Scandinavia, western Russia, and the Baltics, though it is now also present in North America, especially the Pacific Northwest. In Far East Russia, D. klebanovskii, having Pacific salmon as its second intermediate host, was identified (Muratov and Posokhov 1988). 59 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 15.2. Epizootiyology: Adult tapeworms may infect humans, canids, felines, bears, pinnipeds, and mustelids. Immature eggs are passed in feaces of the mammal host. After ingestion by a suitable freshwater crustacean such as a copepod (the first intermediate host), the coracidia develop into procercoid larvae. Following ingestion of the copepod by a suitable second intermediate host, typically a minnow or other small freshwater fish, the procercoid larvae are released from the crustacean and migrate into the fish's flesh where they develop into a plerocercoid larvae. The plerocercoid larvae are the infective stage for the definitive host. 15.3. Pathogenicity: Inflammatory reactions in the affected tissue. 15.4. Symtomps: Clinical signs of diphyllobothriasis are generally mild, and can include diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, weight loss, fatigue, constipation and discomfort in human. Approximately four out of five cases are asymptomatic and may go many years without being detected (Scholz et al. 2009). In a small number of cases, this leads to severe vitamin B12 deficiency due to the parasite absorbing 80% or more of the host’s B12 intake, and a megaloblastic anemia indistinguishable from pernicious anemia (David and William 2006). 15.5. Diagnosis: Detection of pleurocercoids in the fish viscera of flesh. 15.6. Prophylaxis: Contamination of the environment with worm eggs should be prevented. 15.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001) 16. Triaenophorosis 16.1. Aetiology: Triaenophorus crassus, T. nodulosus 16.2. Epizootiyology: Adults of T. crassus and T. nodulosus occur in the intestine of the pike, Esox lucius L. The first intermediate hosts of Triaenophorus spp. are cyclopoid copepods and in European waters Cyclops vicinus and C. strenuus are the most important first hosts of T. crassus (Kuperman 1973). Plerocercoids of T. crassus occur in the musculature of the fish host, and in wild populations of salmonids and coregonids may cause loss of quality in fish products. Infection first occurs in early June when the trout fry have been moved into the cages (Bauer and Solomatova 1984). 16.3. Pathogenicity: Severe inflamatory reactions in muscles due to infectins with T. crassus. The plerocercoids may exert pressure on organs and thereby disturb normal physiological function. 16.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause letthargy and mortality of fingerlings. 16.5. Diagnosis: Detection of plerocercoids in the organs or muscles of the intermaediate host. The worms have four characteristic hooks shaped as three-toothed combs in the scolex. 16.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts. Any pike in the surrondings should be removed. Water filtration prevent to contaminate of copepods. 16.7. Treatment: Anticestodal drugs such as praziquantel mat have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001). 60 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo REFERENCES: Bauer, O.N. and Solomatova, V.P. (1984) The cestode Triaenophorus crassus (Pallas) (Pseudophyllidea: Triaenophoridae) as a pathogen of cage-reared salmonids, Journal of Fish Diseases, 7, 501-504. Bennington, E. and Pratt, I. (1960) The Life History of the Salmon-Poisoning Fluke, Nanophyetus salmincola (Chapin). Journal of Parasitology, 46, 91-100. Brown, F.J. (2009) On Crepidostomum farionis O. F. Müll. (Stephanophiala laureata Zeder), a Distome Parasite of the Trout and Grayling. I. The Life History, Parasitology, 19, 86-99. Buchmann, K. and Bresciani, J. (2001) An Introduction to Parasitic Diseases of Freshwater Trout. DSR Publishers, 76 p. Cone, D.K. (1991) "Monogenea (Phylum Platyhelminthes)" in: P.T.K. Woo (ed), Fish Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. CAB International, Wallingford, U.K. Cone, D.K. and Cusack, R. (1988) A study of Gyrodactylus colemanensis Mizelle and Kritsky. 1967 and Gyrodactylus salmonis (Yin and Sproston, 1948) (Monogenea) parasitizing captive salmonids in Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 66, 409-415. David T. John & William A. Petri (2006) The blood- and tissue-dwelling nematodes. Markell and Voge's Medical Parasitology (9th ed.), Elsevier, 274–321. Dörücü, M. (2000) Occurrence and first record of Crepidostomum farionis, Müller 1784 (Trematoda: Digenea) in Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in a Fish Farm, Elazığ, Turkey, Fırat Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 12 (1), 323-327. Engelhardt, A., Mirle, C., Granitza, I. and Petermann, H. (1988) Studies into Proteocephalus neglectus in rainbow trout in cages-occurrence, damage, and control. Monatshefte fur Veterinarmedizin, 43, 169-172. Gannicott, A.M. (1997) The biology of Discocotyle sagittata (Monogenea) infecting trout, University of Bristol, Bristol. Hoglund, J. (1999) Proceedings of International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. ICES Identificaiton Leaflets for Diseases and Parasites of Fish and Shellfish. 61 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Hoffman, G. L., Fried, B. and Harvey J. E. (1985) Sanguiiucola fonthialis sp. nov. (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae): a blood parasite of brook trout, Salveliniis fontinalis (Mitchill), and longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae (Valenciennes), Journal of Fish Diseases, 8, 529-538. Karatoy, E. and Soylu, E. (2006) Durusu (Terkos) Gölü Çapak Balıkları (Abramis brama Linnaeus, 1758)’nın Metazoan Parazitleri, Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi, 30 (3): 233-238. Kennedy CR (1996) Establishment, survival and site selection of the cestode Eubothrium crassum in brown trout, Salmo trutta. Parasitology, 112, 347-355. Klein, W.D., Olsen, O.W. and Bowden, D.C. (1969) Effects of Intestinal Fluke, Crepidostomum farionis, on Rainbow Trout, Salmo gairdnerii, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society; 98, 1-6. Kuperman B.I. (1973) Tapeworms of the Genus Triaenophorus, Parasites of Fish. Experimental Systematics, Ecology. Nauka, Leningrad, 208 pp. Mitchell, C.G. (1993) Eubothrium, The Scottish Office Agriculture and Fisheries Department, Aquaculture Information Series, No:14. Muratov, I.V. and Posokhov, P.S. (1988). Causative agent of human DiphyllobothriasisDiphyllobothrium klebanovskii sp. n.. Parazitologiia, 22, 165–70. Ogawa, K. and Egusa, S. (1978) Two new species of the Genus Tetraonchus (Monogenea: Tetraonchidae) from cultured Onchorhynchus masou, Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 44, 305-312. Ogawa, K. and Egusa, S. (1985) Tetraonchus infections of mosou salmon, Oncorhynchus masou. Fish Pathology, 19, 215-223. Okaka, C.E. (1984) Studies on the biology of Cyathocephalus truncatus (Pallas, 1781) (Cestoda: Spathebothridea) in its fish and crustacean hosts. Thesis of doctorate, Department of Pure and Applied Zoology, University of Leeds. Paperna, I. and Dzikowski, R. (2006) "Digenea (Phylum Platyhelminthes)" in: P.T.K. Woo (ed) Fish Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Second Edition, CAB International, Wallingford, U.K., 345-390. Priemer, J. and Goltz, A. (1986) Proteocephalus exiguus (Cestoda) als parasit von Salmo gairdneri (Pisces), Angewandte Parasitologie, 27, 157-168. 62 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Rubio-Godoy, M. and Tinsley, R.C. (2004) Immunity in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, against the monogenean Discocotyle sagittata following primary infection, Parasitology Research, 92, 367–374. Rubio-Godoy, M. and Tinsley, R.C. (2008) Recruitment and effects of Discocotyle sagittata (Monogenea) infection on farmed trout, Aquaculture, 274, 15–23. Scholz, T. (1999) Life cycles of species of Proteocephalus, parasites of fishes in the Palearctic Region: a review, Journal of Helminthology, 73, 1-19. Scholz, T., Garcia, H.H., Kucha, R. and Wicht, B. (2009) Update on the Human Broad Tapeworm (Genus Diphyllobothrium), Including Clinical Relevance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 22, 146–160. Smith, H.D. (1973) Observations on the cestode Eubothrium salvelini in juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) at Babine Lake, British Columbia, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 30, 947-964. Tojo, J.L. and Santamarina, M.T. (1988) Oral pharmacological treatments for parasitic diseases of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. II: Gyrodactylus sp., Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 33, 187-193. Thomas, J.D. (1958) Studies On The Structure, Life History And Ecology Of The Trematode Phyllodistomum Simile Nybelin, 1926 (Gorgoderidae: Gorgoderinae) From The Urinary Bladder Of Brown Trout, Salmo Trutta L. Journal of Zoology, 130, 397–435. Tort, L., Watson, J.J. and Priede, I.G. (1987) Changes in-vitro heart performance in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson, infected with Aphatemon gracilis (Digenea), Journal of Fish Biology, 30, 341–347. TUIK (2012) Fisheries Statistics, Ankara, Turkey. Valtonen, E., Prost, M. and Rahkonen, R. (1990) Seasonality of two gill monogeneans from two freshwater fish from an oligotrophic lake in Northeast Finland, International Journal for Parasitology, 20, 101–107. Watson, J.J., Pike, A.W. and Priede, I.G. (1992) Cardiac pathology associated with the infection of Onchorhynchus mykiss Walbaum with Aphatemon gracilis Rud, Journal of Fish Biology, 41: 163–167. 63 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1227 Title A name given to the resource Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes Author Author Erol, Tokşen Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp., Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp., Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey, First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da2d5c18446084740443447b0c620514.pdf 7955c2837ca681c1420b6d04e9f82493 PDF Text Text Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Egemen NEMLĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr Uğur DEĞĐRMENCĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr Ulviye KARACALAR Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to 68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites in fish have become increasingly visible 256 �during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Type of fish Inland water Trout Marine water Trout Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 48 033 56 026 58 433 65 928 1 650 1 249 1 633 2 740 2 721 45 082 49 282 57 659 61 173 68 649 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. 1. Lernaea spp. Lernaeosis is caused by parasitic copepods (Lernaea spp.) that infect many freshwater fish important to aquacutture and recreation. Lernaea spp or anchor worms are common pests in cyprinids and to a lesse extent of salmonids and other fish. Epizootics in cultured fish are often associated with high mortality. The paraistes also cause problems in man-made lakes (Anon, 1980; Berry et al., 1991) and in commercial aquaria (Shariff et al., 1986; Dempster et al., 1988). The parasite particularly pathogenic to small fish because of their relatively large size. 1.1. Aetiyology: In the genus of Lernae of Lernaeidae family, there are over 40 species. The taxonomy is based on the shape of the anchors. L. cyprinacea is specific to Carassius species. L. cruciata, a parasite of Lepomis, Ambloplites, Micropterus and Morone spp. in North America (Kabata, 1988). L. elegans is found on a range of fishes. L. cyprinacea was found on rainbow tout (Berry et al., 1991). The adult female L. cyprinacea has a small semispherical cephalothorax which contains the mouth. Behind it is a well-developed holdfast normally consisting of a birfurcate dorsal process and a simple ventral process. The elongate neck and trunk carrythe four pairs of legs of the premetamorphosed female. The abdomen is short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 1.2. Epizootiology: L. cyprinacea requires only one host to complete its life cycle. It has three free-living naupliar stages and five copepodid stages which are usally on the gill and are relatively immobile although they are not permanently attached. The male is fre-moving and the post-metamorphosed female attached. At 27 ºC the larval stages take 12 to 17 days to develop into adult male or premetamorphosed females. Adult male die within 24 hours. Females are fertilized and either attack the same host or swim to another host short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). Trout in the United States are infected by L. cyprinacea, whereas L. esocina and L. minima are of concern in salmonid fisheries in Europe (Kabata, 1970; Hoffman, 1973). The disease is enzootic in several Utah reservoirs (USA) where fingerling rainbow trout (7 cm long) are stocked, and the fisheryis managed to maximize the return of stocked fish to the angler. On the premise that stocking the best-performing rainbow trout strain might be an economical means of improving the fishery, Anchorworms were first detected in midsummer each year and were most abundant in the fall. The mean parasite intensity was highest in October 1982 (19 anchorworms per fish); in other years, maximum density was 7 to 9. The dorsal and caudal areas of the fish were the most heavily parasitized. 1.3. Pathogenicity: Fish less than 20 mm long may be killed by the parasites if vital organs are penetrated by the anchors (Khalifa and Post, 1976). Uzmann and Rayner (1958) reported that “heavy” infections of L. cyprinacea caused death of yearling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Copepods may open routes for secondary infection; however, quantitative data on these secondary effects are scant (Hoffman, 1976; Dempster et at., 1988). 257 �Moreover, the attached copepods may make the fish undesirable to anglers, thus affecting fishery management goals. The histological response to parasite attachment included an infectious granuloma similar to that reported in other fish hosts. Bacteria were not found in the kidneys of fish before stocking, but afterward bacteria that were presumptively identified as belonging to the genus Aeromonas, were found in the kidneys of up to 45% of the parasitized fish. Most (94%) anglers noticed the anchorworms, but few (8%) discarded parasitized fish. Some 28% used special cleaning techniques to prepare fish but 49% did nothing special to clean them. Lernaeosis probably had little effect on the fishery management goals for the reservoir. fishing, Oncorhynchus mykiss, copepoda. The mechanical destruction of epidermis and dermis caused by grazing copepodids stimulates inflammation (Shields and Tidd, 1974). When tha parasites abundant on the gills, this presumably precipitates distress trough oedema and slowed blood circulation in the lamellae. Host mortality caused by adult females is generally the result of the physical destruction of tissues. They also induce prssure necrosis and may secrete a histolytic and digestive anzyme (Shields and Goode, 1978). Small fish (4-6 cm) suffer more than large fish because the head of the parasite often enters the body cavity and penetrates the liver, or brain, spinal cord, or other vital organs. 1.4. Symptoms: The bases of the dorsal and anal fins were common attachment sites. Ulcers are commonly observed with and without an attached parasite. The loss of scales and skin resulted in circular ulcers that averaged about 1.4 mm (diameter). Sometimes ulcerations are not observed around some parasites. The parasite cause disruption and necrosis of gill epithelium and large numbers of larvae on the gills cause the death of fish. The embedded anchors are surrounded by fibrous granulation tissue, and there are considerable leucocytic response below the dermis. Myofibril degeneration and hemorrhage are noted in most sections, but these reactions were not extensive. Bacteria were occasionally seen in histological sections. Fish were initially free of bacteria in the kidney but bacteria appeared in the kidney when parasites appeared on the skin. Bacteria were presumptively identified as a species of the genus Aeromonas. The number of ulcers declined and the number of scars increased in the fall. Scars were whitish, scaleless pockets that could not be penetrated by gentle probing with a blunt instrument. Microscopic examination revealed epidermal regeneration. Dermal collagen bridged the wound below the basal epidermal tissue, but was thinner than that in the adjacent stratum compactum layer. The amount of granulation tissue under scars was less than that observed in lesions. Melanocytes were scattered throughout the fibrotic tissue but were not abundant. Muscle bundles under most scars appeared normal (Berry et al., 1991). 1.5. Diagnosis: Adult female can be seen macroscopically; copepodids require the use of a dissecting microscope. 1.6. Treatment: To eliminate of the parasite requires treatment over several weeks to break the life cycle at the larval stage because embedded females are difficult to kill. To treatment, Organophosphate insecticides, particularly trichlorfon are commonly employed. Trichlorphon at 0.25 ppm will kill the copepodid stage but not the nauplii or adults. Bromexs at 0.12-0.15 ppm kils both nauplii and copepodids (Sarig, 1971). NaCl at 20-40 ppm eradicate L. cyprinacea. Dimilin at 0.03 ppm eradicate parasite (Hoffman and Lester, 1987). 2. Caligus rogercressyi Caligus Müller, 1785 is the largest genus of parasitic copepods, containing more than 250 species. In recent years, epizootics of sea lice Caligus elongatus and Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a common marine ectoparasitic copepod of salmonids, have resulted in heavy losses and millions of dollars worth of damage to aquaculture throughout the northern hemisphere (Pike, 1989). L. salmonis feed on mucus, skin and blood of salmonids causing osmoregulatory stress and death in extreme cases (Grimnes & Jakobsen 1996, Björn & Finstad 1997). 2.1. Aetiyology: Caligus rogercressyi (originally identified as C. flexispina) is the most common species and Caligus teres is occasionally found on farmed trout in Chile. Adult caligids usally show sexual dimorphisim; the female is usally larger then thr male. The average length of adult females is 4.96 mm, (range: 4.46–5.49 mm) (Boxshall and Bravo, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: The parasite was transmitted to the farmed fish by the native rock cod Eleginops maclovinus and Odonthestes regia (Carvajal et al. 1998). Caligus flexispina have a life cycle consisting of the following stages: two nauplius, one infectious copepodid, four attached chalimus stages, one pre-adult and the adult. The life cycle of C. rogercresseyi has eight development stages, three planktonic and five parasitic. The planktonic stages comprise two nauplius and a copepodid, the infective stage. The copepodid settles on the host, holding on with its hooked pair of antennae. During moulting, the copepodid extrudes its frontal filament to 258 �attach itself permanently to the fish. The parasite moults into the four different chalimus stages always attached by a frontal filament. The size of the parasite increases at each stage. The planktonic stage begins with the first nauplius whose average length was 425 µm that moults in the second nauplius with an average length of 463 µm and then to the copepodid of 658 µm in average length. The parasitic stage begins with first chalimus up to fourth chalimus ending in the adult females and males (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 2003). 2.3. Pathogenicity: Caligus rogercresseyi Boxshall and Bravo (2000) is the dominant sea lice parasite affecting the salmon and trout industry in Southern Chile. At the beginning of salmon production in the country, Reyes and Bravo (1983) reported the presence of Caligus teres Wilson (1905) in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum). Another species, initially identified as Caligus flexispina, but now identified as a new species, C. rogercresseyi by Boxshall and Bravo (2000) was also reported in 1992 (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994) on rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). In Chile, Caligus has become a threat for the farmers, producing economic losses of US$ 0.30/kg due to the costs of delousing the fish in the processing plant and the slower growth of the fish, because of the presence of the copepods which stress them (Sievers et al., 1996). The excessive use of expensive drugs as bath or oral treatments to control the parasite is producing economic impact as well as pollution in coastal areas. Because this parasite causes less impact in farmed fish than microbial diseases (BKD), few studies on this Chilean parasitosis exist (Reyes and Bravo, 1983; Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). With the exception of the naupliar stages, sea lice feed on host mucus, skin and blood. Sea lice have been reported to reduced productivity and cause disease outbreaks in a variety of farmed fish species (Pike, 1989; Berland, 1993; Grimnes and Jakobsen, 1996). 2.4. Symptoms: Salmon lice are caligid parasitic copepod species that have been reported to cause skin lesions in fish and losses in productivity in several farmed species in different parts of the world (Boxshall and Defaye, 1993). 2.5. Diagnosis: Tee large female parasites are usally visible to the dicerning eye on the gill, fins or body of fish or in the buccal and opercular cavities. The main characteristics used to identify the first chalimus of Caligus rogercresseyi is the cephalothorax with rounded posterior margins and frontal filament with a rounded base as defined by Kim (1993) and Piasecki and MacKinnon (1993) for other species of Caligus. The average length was 830 µm (range: 700–900) based on 21 specimens. The cephalothorax of the second chalimus has posterolateral corners. The frontal filament has two bases: a distal one corresponding to the first chalimus and a proximal one, newly formed and bilobed (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). . 2.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 mg/kg a day, for seven day (Stone et al., 1999). Ivermectin in feed, dosage of 0.05 mg kg-l, every third day for either 3 or 6 doses (Johnson and Margolis, 1993). 3. Ergasilus spp. Ergasilid copepods damage the gills and cause commercially significant epizootics in cultured and wild fish. Ergasilus sieboldi affects tench, pike, whitefish, ell, flounder (Woo, 1995) and trout (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). Recenly, E. labracis killed large numbers of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, parr (85-125 mm long) over a 4 day period in New Brunswick, Canada (Hogans, 1989). 3.1. Aetiyology: Ergasilids copepods are less modified than fish-parasitic copepods and resemble free-living copepods in segmentation. Only fertilized females are parasitic; males and developmental stages live in the water column. The mature female of Ergasilus sieboldi is 1.5 mm long, Body, cyclopiform, has a cephalothorax formed from the cephalosome and the firt leg-bearing segment (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.2. Epizootiology: Adult females are external parasites, infesting the gills of a wide range of freshwater fishes and attaching to the gill filaments. Developmental stages are planktonic and occur in the water column of freshwater bodies. Parasites have unique lifecycle: eggs hatch into free-swimming naupliar phase. Only adult female is parasitic, seeking and attaching to a wide variety of freshwater fishes. Female attaches to gill filament of host, using clawed antennae that penetrate host gill epithelium. The life cycle of E. sieboldiconsist of six nauplii and five copepodid stages and adultr stage. It takes 22 days forth eggs of E. sieboldi to develop into freeliving males and females at 17-20 ºC. After fertilization, the female attaches to a fish (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: There is extensive gill damage and severe haemorrhage with inflammation and exsanguination associated with the attachment and feeding of the parasite. Blood vessels in the gill filaments are blocked and this leads to atrophy of gill tips (Paperna and Zwerner, 1981). Gill damage resulted in loss of gill 259 �surface area for respiration and led to suffocatio, particularly at high water temperatures. Heavy infections cause death (Grabda, 1991; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 3.4. Diagnosis: Detection of parasites attached to the fish gill. 3.5. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 0.15 ppm 6 h. , malathion at 0.2 ppm 6 h. are suggested (Kabata, 1985). 4. Argulus spp Argulids have been recognized as pest of cultured trout in Europe (Kabata, 1985). They cause mortalities of fish in aquaria (Toksen, 2006), in lakes and estuarines and occasionally cause problem in sea caged salmonids (Stuart, 1990). The three best known species are Argulus foliaceus, A. coregoni, A. japonicus. 4.1. Aetiyology: The genus Argulus spp (Crustacea: Branchiura), or fish louse, are 5-10 mm in size. The general body-form of Argulus is a dorso-ventrally flattened and covered by a large chitinous carapace. The body can be divided into 3 distinct regions: cephalothorax; thorax and abdomen (Soulsby 1982; Fryer, 1982; Lester and Roubal, 1995). 4.2. Epizootiology: Argulus spp. have direct life cycle (Mikheev et al., 2001). The female is clasped by the smaller male and his genital opening is brougth into contact with the female spermatheca where the female deposits the sperm. The female then lay eggs on different objects in the water and they are fertilized at the time of deposition. Just after hatching the larva isable to parasitize the host. The first stage larvae which has a resemblance to adults but without suckers. Following 5-8 moults the adult stage is reached. The development is highly temperature dependent. The parasite feeds by puncturing host cells with its ventral stylet and susbsequently suckink up extracellulary digested cell debris (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 4.3. Pathogenicity: The direct effects of this parasite on its host depend on the number of parasites and the size of the host. One or two parasites on a small fish cause the local damage on the epithelia. Several parasites have a very significant effect. 4.4. Clinical Signs: Fish with heavy infestations become lethargic, can cease feeding and show a general deterioration in their condition as reduced pigmentation, fins drooping (Lester and Roubal 1995). As well as the damage and stress caused by Argulus itself, one of the main worries for fish producers is the associated secondary infestations that can result from infestations with parasite. Several studies have examined the role of parasites as vectors for other diseases such as Aeromoniasis or Pseudomoniasis (Bauer 1991, Richards 1977). 4.5. Diagnosis: Argulus spp. can be seen scuttling over the surface of the fish with the naked eye. 4.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 µg/kg for a period of 7 d. (Hakalahti et al., 2004), potassium permanganate (2-5 mg/lt, bath) or dimilin (0.01 mg/lt, bath) (Öge 2002), pyrethrum (20-100 ppm for 10-20 minutes); malathion (0.25 ppm for 6 hours); dipterex (100 ppm for 1 hour); trichlorfon (0.25 ppm for several hours); quinine hydrochloride (13.5 ppm for several days); atebrine (10 ppm for sevaral days) (Kabata 1985); DTHP (2.5 ppm 1 hour) (Puffer and Beal 1981), DDVP (1 ppm 1 h.) (Toksen, 2006) are effective againt to Argulus spp. 5. Salmincola spp. Members of genus Salmincola, especially, Salmincola californiensis are potential threat to salmonids farmed freshwater (Woo, 1995). Salmincola edwardsii is found mainly in cold northern climates. It has a holarctic distribution and infects only fish of the genis Salvelinus. Salmincola edwardsii is limited to the locations that Salvelinus exists. A few places in which Salmincola edwardsii have been reported are northern North America, Britain, and Scandinavia. Common places for Salmincola edwardsii to exist are in rivers with free access to the sea (Black, 1982; Black et al., 1983). 5.1. Aetiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is a relatively small organism. The average length of an adult male is 718.6 µm. The females are considerably larger averaging around 2055.8 µm. Size of the organism may be directly related to the site of attachment on the host fish. The gills of the fish offer protection and a more nutritious food supply; this location may support larger and more rapid development. The larvae are smaller than the adults approximately 512.4 µm. The adult female has an impermeable cuticle. Salmincola edwardsii body structure is modified away from the ancestral copepod. In the adult all external signs of segmentation have disappeared. Adult females are permanently anchored to the host's flesh. They are attached by a structure called a "bulla". The bulla is nonliving. It is formed from head and maxillary gland secretions. This structure is the 260 �anchor that holds the female onto the host. The females of this family, Lernaeopodidae, are attached almost completely outside the host, which is different than most other parasitic copepod families. Salmincola edwardsii have huge maxillae that are fused to the bulla. Located and functioning anteriorly Salmincola edwardsii has modified maxillipeds for a grasping structure. The swimming legs and abdomen that is seen in most copepods is absent or vestigial in adult female Salmincola edwardsii (Conley and Curtis, 1992; Conley and Curtis, 1994; Roberts and Janovy, 2000). 5.2. Epizootiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is found in aquatic habitats. The first larval stage of S. edwardsii swims in the water to find a host. Salmincola edwardsii need to be where its host genus Salvelinus lives, which is in lakes, and rivers that usually have outlets to the sea. Salmincola edwardsii spends most of its time near the bottom of the water column prior to attaching to a host. (Poulin et al., 1990). 5.3. Pathogenicity: Salmonid fish, such as trout that are raised in commercial hatcheries are at high risk for heavy infestations of S. edwardsii. Salmincola edwardsii can cause infections and create serious health problems for fish in cage culture. Larger fish circulate more water over their gills and thus bring more S. edwardsii (also other copepodids) in contact with them. Ironically, in natural fish populations the occurrence and intensity of the infection of S. edwardsii are usually low and have little impact of the fish. The fish is only vulnerable for the period of time when S. edwardsii is in its infective, free-living stage looking for a host. If the timing of egg hatching and the release of the free-living stage can be timed, hatcheries will know when the fish can become infected and hopefully in the future control S. edwardsii infection. In times of high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen, fish with many S. edwardsii attached to their gills have an especially difficult time. Also as a result of high infestation, growth and sexual maturation is stunted. (Amundsen et al., 1997; Conley and Curtis, 1992; Poulin et al., 1989). 5.4. Clinical Signs: The parasitized fish were found to develop anemia, expressed by the reduction in red cell counts, hemoglobin concentrations and hematocrit values. This anemic condition is attributed to hemodilution of the blood, resulting from damage to the gill and skin epithelia, and, in turn, leading to an osmotic imbalance between the water and the internal fluids. In addition, the progressive reduction of the red cells in the circulating blood may be a result of the absorption of parasite metabolic secretions through the gills or the bulla. Such absorption seems likely because of the observed variations of the cells in the leucocytic system and the significant increase in lymphocytes, neutrophils and "granulocyte cells" in relation to infection time. Furthermore, the blood of the infected fish clotted faster than that of the non-infected fish. During the course of infection a marked increase was also observed in the number of thrombocytes. Parasitized fish were less able to cope with environmental stresses. A water temperature of 21°C was found to be the median lethal temperature o infected fish. The swimming ability of infected fish was also reduced. The parasitized fish reached 50% fatigue when they swam in water of a velocity of 65 cm/sec for only 250 min. The chance of survival for the infected fish in this high water velocity is only 6.6% over the period of 600 min. The ability of the infected fish to transfer from fresh water to salt water was also affected. Mortality of the infected fish increased during this transition and these fish, as indicated by the salinity preference test, also avoided high salinity, suggesting that they may not have been ready to migrate. The critical period of infection where marked differences were found in all the parameters was that period when the parasites reached maximum size and a second infection took place with copepodids hatched from the original group (Pawaputanon, 1980; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 5.5. Treatment: Ivermectin is intubated with 0.2 mg/kg fish, orally. A second treatment is administered after a further 14 days (Roberts et al., 2004). Conclusion: Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in frehwater aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on trout aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. Husbandry practices as well as a variety of engineering, environmental, and biological factors can have an impact on the level of 261 �infection by parasitic copepods. However, the relative importance of these factors in controlling parasite abundance varies between sites. There is no evidence from field studies to support the suggestion that parasites can act as vectors for fish diseases. The aim of this paper is to present general overview of parasitic diseases occured on trout. References Amundsen, P., R. Kristoffersen, R. Knudsen, A. Klemetsen. (1997). Infection of Salmincola edwardsii (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae) in an age-structured population of Artic charr-a long term study. Journal of Fish Biology, 51: 1033-1046. Anonymous. (1980). ACT lake fish killed by parasite. Australian Fisheries, 39(6), 13. Bauer, R. (1991). Erkrankungen der Aquarienfishe. Verlag Paul Parey. Berlin und Hamburg. Berland, B. (1993). Salmon lice on wild salmon (Salmo salar L.) in western Norway. In: Boxshall, G.A., Defaye, D. (Eds.), Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, pp. 179–187. Berry, C.R. Jr., Babey, G.J. and Shrader, T. (1991). Effects of Lernaea cyprinacea (Crustacea:Copepoda) on stocked rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss), Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 27, 206-213. Bjorn P.A. and Finstad B. (1997). The physiological effects of salmon lice infection on sea trout post smolts. Nordic J. Freshwat. Res., 73: 60-72. Black, G. (1982). Gills as an attachment site for Salmincola edwardsii (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae). Journal of Parasitology, 68 (6): 1172-1173. Black, G. (1983). Abundance and distribution of Salmincola edwardsii on anadromous brook tout, Salvelinus fontinalis in the Moisie River system, Quebec. The Fisheries Society of the British Isles, 22 (5): 567-575. Boxshall, G.A. and Bravo, S. (2000). On the identity of the common Caligus (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida: Caligidae) from salmonid netpen systems in southern Chile. Contributions to Zoology 69 (1/2): 137-146. Boxshall, G.A. and Defaye, D. (1993). Pathogens of wild and farmed fish: sea lice. Ellis Horwood: Chchester, UK. 374 pp. Buchmann, K. and Bresciani, J. (2001). An Introduction to Parasitic Diseases of Freshwater Trout. DSR Publishers, 76 p. Carvajal, J., Gonzalez, L. and George-Nascimento, M. (1998). Native sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae) infestation of salmonids reared in netpen systems in southern Chile. Aquaculture, 166: 241–246. Conley, D. and Curtis, M. (1992). Effects of temperature and photoperiod on the duration of hatching, swimming, and copepodid survival of the parasitic copepod Salmincola edwardsii. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71 (5): 972-976. Conley, D. and Curtis, M. (1994). Larval development of the parasitic copepod Salmincola edwardsii on brook trout (Salvelinus frontinalis). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 72 (1): 154-159. Dempster, R.P., Morales, P. and Glennon, F.X. (1988). Use of sodium chlorite to combat anchorworm infestations of fish. Progressive Fish-Culturist 50: 51-55. Fryer G. (1982). The Parasitic Copepoda and Branchiura of British Freshwater Fishes: A handbook and key. Freshwater Biological Association, Scientific Publication, 46 Gonzalez, L. and Carvajal, J. (1994). Parasitos en los cultivos marinos de salmo´nidos en el Sur de Chile. Investigacion Pesquera (Chile) 38, 87– 96 Gonzalez, L. and Carvajal, J. (2003) Life cycle of Caligus rogercresseyi, (Copepoda: Caligidae) parasite of Chilean reared salmonids, Aquaculture, 220, 101– 117 Grabda, J. (1991). Marine Parasitology. Polish Scientific Publishers,Warszawa, 304 p. Grimnes, A. and Jakobsen, P.J. (1996). The physiological effects of salmon lice infection on post-smolt of Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 48: 1179-1194. Hakalahti, T., Y. Lankinen and E.T. Valtonen. (2004). 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(1993). Efficacy of ivermectin for control of the salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, on Atlantic salmon. Dis. Aquat. Org., 17: 101-105. Kabata, Z. (1970). Diseases of fishes,Book I: Crustacea as enemies of fishes. TFH Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey, 171 pp. Kabata, Z. (1985). Parasites and Diseases of Fish Cultured in the Tropics. Taylor & Francis, London. Kabata, Z. (1988). Copepoda and Branchiura. In L Margolis, Z Kabata, eds. Guide to the parasites of fishes of Canada. Part II-Crustacea. Can. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 101, 184. Khalifa, A.K. and Post, C. (1976). Histopathological effect of Lernaea cyprinacea (a copepod parasite) on fish. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 38: 110-1 13. Kim, I.H. (1993). Developmental stages of Caligus punctatus Shiino, 1955 (Copepoda: Caligidae). In: Boxshall, G.A., Defaye, D. (Eds.), Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 16–29. Lester, R.J.G. and Roubal, F.R. (1995). Phylum Arthropoda, In: Fish Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Woo, P.T.K. (ed), CAB International, Wallingford, U.K. Mikheev, V.N., A.F. Pasternak, E.T. Valtonen, Y.A.N. Lankinen. 2001. Spatial distribution and hatching of overwintered eggs of a fish ectoparasite, Argulus coregoni (Crustacea: Branchiura). Diseases of Aquatic Organisims, 46: 123–128. Öge, S. (2002). Chemotherapy for parasites of freshwater fish. Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 26: 113-118. Paperna I. and Zwerner, D.E. (1981). Host–parasite relationship of Ergasilus labracis Kroyer (Cyclopidea, Ergasilidae) and the striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum) from the lower Chesapeake Bay. Annales de Parasit. Humaine et Comparee, 57, pp. 393–405. Pawaputanon, K. (1980). Effects of parasitic copepod, Salmincola californiensis (Dana, 1852) on juvenile sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum), Thesis of PhD, The University of British Colombia, Dep. Zoology, 181 p. 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Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, University Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Journal of Fish Diseases, 9: 393–401. Shields R. J., Tidd, W.M. (1974). Effect of temperature on the development of larval and transformed females of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Lernaeidae). Crustaceana, 15 (Suppl 1): 87.95. Shields, R.J. and Goode, R.P. (1978). Host rejection of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Copepoda). Crustaceana, 35: 301-307. Sievers, G., Lobos, C., Inostroza, R. anf Erns, S. (1996). The effect of the isopod parasite Ceratothoa gaudichaudii on the body weight of farmed Salmo salar in southern Chile. Aquaculture, 143: 1–6. Soulsby, E.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. 7th Ed. Baillière Tindall, London, U.K. Stone, J., Sutherland, I.H., Sommerville, C.S., Richards, R.H., Varma, K.J. (1999). The efficacy of emamectin benzoate as an oral treatment of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer), infestations in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Journal of Fish Diseases, 22: 261-270. Stuart, (1990). Sea lice, a maritime perspective. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of Canada, 1:18-24. Toksen, E. (2006). Argulus foliacesus (Crustacea: Branchiura) Infestation on Oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier, 1829) and Its Treatment, E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences , 23(1-2): 177–179 Uzmann, J.R. and Rayner, H.J. (1958). Record of the parasitic copepod Lernaea cyprinacea L. in Oregon and Washington fishes. Journal of Parasitology 44, 452–453 Woo, P.T.K. (1995). Fish Diseases and Disorders, CAB International, 808 p. 264 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 438 Title A name given to the resource Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Author Author TOKSEN, Erol NEMLİ, Egemen DEĞİRMENCİ, Uğur KARACALAR, Ulviye Abstract A summary of the resource. Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92ee024af420781f090aee6e857902ea.docx 4909d1e7dc3546ea2c3a9c81c2b56fb9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0ef725fea58f82cc5ba39fdcef0806a4.pdf d29bf830567c1de41f290e302351fede PDF Text Text PARASITIC DISEASES OF TROUT AND THEIR CONTROLS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE: NEMATHELMINTHES Erol Tokşen Ege University, Izmir, Turkey erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Caner Şirin Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Mehmet Arif Zoral Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, nemathelminthes, diagnosis, treatment. ABSTRACT Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Among the agents of fish diseases, parasitic worms occupied an important position.They attack most body organs of fishes, parasitizing them as adult or as larvae. The nematodes are not only common parasite fauna of freshwater fishes, but they also constitute a significant part of the parasite fauna of marine and brackish water fishes where their importance. Camallanus lacutris, Philonema oncorhynchi, Cystidicoloides ephemeridarum, Cystidicola farionis, Pseudocapillaria salvelini, Raphidascarus acus, Anisakis simplex, Pseudoterranova decipiens, Cucullanus truttae are observed in freswater trouts. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trou as fish pathogens is increasaing.t caused by phylum Plathyhelmin tes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2078 Title A name given to the resource PARASITIC DISEASES OF TROUT AND THEIR CONTROLS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE: NEMATHELMINTHES Author Author TOKSEN, Erol SIRIN, Caner ZORAL, Mehmet Arif Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, nemathelminthes, diagnosis, treatment. ABSTRACT Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Among the agents of fish diseases, parasitic worms occupied an important position.They attack most body organs of fishes, parasitizing them as adult or as larvae. The nematodes are not only common parasite fauna of freshwater fishes, but they also constitute a significant part of the parasite fauna of marine and brackish water fishes where their importance. Camallanus lacutris, Philonema oncorhynchi, Cystidicoloides ephemeridarum, Cystidicola farionis, Pseudocapillaria salvelini, Raphidascarus acus, Anisakis simplex, Pseudoterranova decipiens, Cucullanus truttae are observed in freswater trouts. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trou as fish pathogens is increasaing.t caused by phylum Plathyhelmin tes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7d3374608c4a3495341baf22cd9bb7a2.docx 77744a7148234ad5a0cfd2720a1cb41c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d68e4326bd4e33cc5258408924af751b.pdf 5548928571555016780a07c8d6aedca0 PDF Text Text Parasocial Interaction in Twitter Context Lola Turker Universidad de Belgrano/ Buenos Aires,Argentina Key words: CMC,Netspeak,Parasocial Interaction, Microblogging,Twitter ABSTRACT Internet, being the most significant advent of new technologies, has fundamentally changed the way people interact. The purpose of the Internet goes beyond communication into virtual social spaces or third places. Some of the third places where socialization takes place are chatrooms, social networks and microblogging services. Among the latter,one of the most popular is Twitter, an online microblogging site. The present study aims to explore the complexities that a computer-mediated , Internet based platform for communication and socialization such as Twitter presents. By problematizing follower- followed asymmetrical parasocial relationship, it is argued that through the use of hashtags and re-tweets, which is intertextual and dialogic. It has mainly been contended Twitter features instantiate Parasocial Interaction Theory, elaborated means being Internet lingo or Netspeak. In order to explore the Parasocial Interaction Theory and the employment of Internet lingo in Twitter context, a digital corpus of 1000 tweets was built (around 25, 900 words approximately) by taking screenshots of Twitter timeline. In order to carry out the analysis, the sample under scrutiny was tabulated and finally classified according to the categories of analysis. Two criteria have been looked into, Netspeak features elaborated and functions of Twitter features like Hashtag and re-tweet in constructing and maintaning a parasocial interaction. The variables selected within each system have been explored both quantitatively and qualitatively. As a result of the analysis, it is seen that Twitter context encourages the use of Netspeak features, like abbreviations, acronyms and letter homophones. And features like RT and # serve to carry on the parasocial interaction. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1884 Title A name given to the resource Parasocial Interaction in Twitter Context Author Author TURKER, Lola Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: CMC,Netspeak,Parasocial Interaction, Microblogging,Twitter ABSTRACT Internet, being the most significant advent of new technologies, has fundamentally changed the way people interact. The purpose of the Internet goes beyond communication into virtual social spaces or third places. Some of the third places where socialization takes place are chatrooms, social networks and microblogging services. Among the latter,one of the most popular is Twitter, an online microblogging site. The present study aims to explore the complexities that a computer-mediated , Internet based platform for communication and socialization such as Twitter presents. By problematizing follower- followed asymmetrical parasocial relationship, it is argued that through the use of hashtags and re-tweets, which is intertextual and dialogic. It has mainly been contended Twitter features instantiate Parasocial Interaction Theory, elaborated means being Internet lingo or Netspeak. In order to explore the Parasocial Interaction Theory and the employment of Internet lingo in Twitter context, a digital corpus of 1000 tweets was built (around 25, 900 words approximately) by taking screenshots of Twitter timeline. In order to carry out the analysis, the sample under scrutiny was tabulated and finally classified according to the categories of analysis. Two criteria have been looked into, Netspeak features elaborated and functions of Twitter features like Hashtag and re-tweet in constructing and maintaning a parasocial interaction. The variables selected within each system have been explored both quantitatively and qualitatively. As a result of the analysis, it is seen that Twitter context encourages the use of Netspeak features, like abbreviations, acronyms and letter homophones. And features like RT and # serve to carry on the parasocial interaction. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3488 Title A name given to the resource PARENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING Author Author Dagarin Fojkar, Mateja Pižorn, Karmen Abstract A summary of the resource. It has already been indicated that parents have a significant impact on their children’s learning of a foreign language (among others,Desforges and Abouchaar, 2003, Gardner, 1985; Lindgren &Muňoz, 2013; MihaljevićDjigunović, 2009; and Xuesong, 2006). The main aim of the present study was to research and compare parents’ and teachers’ attitudes towards children learning a foreign language in the first three years of formal education (ages 6–8). Within the scope of the study, we investigated some further issues, including children’s attitudes to foreign language learning, materials used in teaching a foreign language to children and similar. The study included the main stakeholders in early foreign language learning: parents, teachers and pupils. The data were collected from a sample of 150 parents whose children attended preschools and 263 parents whose children had just finished Year 3 of primary education (age 8) in Slovenia (a total of 413 parents); 104 teachers who teach English to children in the lower grades of primary school; 58 primary school children (age 6–8) who already had experience in early foreign language learning and 62 primary school pupils (age 6–8) who did not yet have such experience. Questionnaires were administered to all of the participants in the study (i.e., parents, teachers and primary school pupils). The findings from the study confirm that parents believe that foreign language learning is important. This is especially true of parents who have themselves learnt several foreign languages over a longer period of time. However, the methodology of teaching children is still not sufficiently creative, which suggests that more teacher training in teaching foreign languages to young children is needed. Furthermore, there is a discrepancy betweenparents’ and teachers’ expectations regardingthe level of foreign language proficiency achieved by children, indicating that in the future more will need to be done in educating parents about the nature of foreign language learning among children and the achievements that can be realistically expected. Keywords: young learners, foreign language learning, parent and teacher attitudes Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3361 Title A name given to the resource PARENTS’ ROLE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN SERBIA Author Author Jovanović, Ana Abstract A summary of the resource. Foreign language education in Serbia has always been a direct reflection of socio-cultural factors specific for the historic period in question. It does not come as a surprise, then, that the educational reform initiated in Serbia in the early 2000s brought new curriculum framework for foreign language learning in the institutions of formal education. By being learner centered, interdisciplinary, and oriented toward the development of multilingual competence, the main goal of the curriculum has been the creation of learners who could be easily integrated into larger global communities of students and professionals. This paper explores the role of parents in the foreign language education since it is repeatedly argued that they have strong effect on students’ performance and, by extension, on the educational outcomes. The analysis is based on the data from 3459 surveys administered to the parents of children in elementary Serbian schools with the intention to explore their attitudes toward the foreign language instruction in compulsory education. According to our analysis, three factors strongly influence parents’ attitudes, that is, extrinsic value (how well a task relates to future goals of their children), integrativeness (a positive disposition toward different aspects of foreign cultures), and perceived influence of foreign cultures in Serbia. A closer look at the data, however, suggests that the foreign language requirement is mainly seen as a vehicle for improving child’s social status and greater mobility. In light of these findings, it is important to reconsider parents’ roles in the implementation of multilingual education and to evaluate responsibilities they take on in the development of their children’s intercultural and multilingual identity. Keywords: attitudes, extrinsic value, foreign language education, integrativeness, parents’ role Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9938b79f1e9955c8f0571974d3faad9e.docx 02073b55f5942eb112b653a057ac68fd https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0314aa487d3994c47f37059f65d45799.pdf 6f7c2cd0057b9b3d61563dcb6263aa47 PDF Text Text Dr. sci. Faruk Sinanović Pravni fakultet Zenica PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI Sažetak Pravo na participaciju zaposlenih jedno je od temeljnih kolektivnih prava koje podrazumijeva pravo na odlučivanje, pravo na učešće u raspodjeli dobiti i pravo učešća u vlasništvu kod poslodavca ili radničko dioničarstvo. Pravo na participaciju uređeno je univerzalnim međunarodnim pravnim aktima – Konvencijama Međunarodne organizacije rada, regionalnim – evropskim pravnim aktima – Revidiranom evropskom socijalnom poveljom i nacionalnim zakonodavstvima država. U Bosni i Hercegovini pravo na participaciju uređeno je entitetskim zakonima, a ostvaruje se kako institucionalno, tako i vaninstitucionalno. Temeljna prava zaposlenih koja proističu iz participacije jesu pravo na informisanje od strane poslodavca, pravo na konsultovanje – savjetovanje sa poslodavcem i pravo saodlučivanja sa poslodavcem, odnosno davanja prethodne saglasnosti poslodavcu na određene odluke. U radu se razmatraju temeljna pitanja participacije vezana za sam pojam i pravni režim participacije, obaveze poslodavaca, odnosno prava zaposlenih iz participacije, modele participacije, legitimnost participacije i oblike učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca. Metodologija korištena prilikom izrade ovog rada zasnivala se normativnom, sociološkom, komparativnom i dogmatskom metodu. Prava zaposlenih koja proističu iz participacije u Bosni i Hercegovini veoma su značajni i jaki institucionalno zakonski instrumenti u ostvarivanju i zaštiti njihovih prava u radnom odnosu i prava iz radnog odnosa. Ključne riječi: Pravo na rad, kolektivna prava, pravo na participaciju, zaposleni, poslodavci, vijeće zaposlenika, sindikat, ekonomsko socijalna prava, ostvarivanje prava i zaštita prava i pravnih interesa. 305 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI PARTICIPATION OF EMPLOYEES IN THE EXERCISE AND PROTECTION OF LABOR RIGHTS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Abstract The right of participation of employees is one of the fundamental collective rights which includes the right to decide for the employer, the right to participate in the distribution of profits and the right to participate in the property of the employer or employee shareholding. The right to participation is regulated by universal international legal acts - International Labour Organization conventions, regional - European legal acts - the revised European Social Charter and the national legislation of the state. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the right to participation is regulated by entity laws, and it is institutional and extra-institutional. The fundamental rights of employees arising out of participation are right to be informed by the employer, the right to consultation with the employer and the right to codecision with the employer or the employer giving preliminary approval to certain decisions. This paper discusses the fundamental issues related to the participation of the very concept of the legal regime of participation, obligations of employers and the rights of employees from participation, models of participation, the legitimacy of participation and forms of participation of employees in decision-making with the employer. The methodology used in the preparation of this work was based on normative, sociological, comparative and dogmatic method. Right to information by the employer, the right to co-decision with the employer and the right to grant preliminary approval to the employer to certain decisions arising from the rights of employee participation are very important and powerful legal instruments in the realization and protection behavior of their rights in employment and labor rights. Key words: The right to work, collective rights, the right to participation, employees, employer, employee council, trade union, economic and social rights, the realization of rights, the protection of rights and legal interests. 306 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ UVOD Kolektivno radno pravo predstavlja dio radnog prava koje obuhvata pravne norme koje uređuju kolektivne radne odnose, odnosno koje uređuju one kategorije i institucije radnog prava koje utemeljuju sticanje, ostvarivanje i zaštitu kolektivnih prava i kolektivnih interesa poslodavaca i predstavnika zaposlenih. Kolektivno radno pravo od individualnog radnog prava razlikuje se kako po predmetu tako i po subjektima. Predmet individualnog radnog prava jesu individualni radni odnosi koji se uspostavljaju između pojedinačnog poslodavca i pojedinačnog zaposlenika na temelju zaključenog ugovora o radu ili drugog pravnog osnova koji nisu konfliktne naravi jer se uspostavljaju na temelju autonomije volja ugovornih strana i postignutog konsenzusa o svim, ili bar o ključnim pitanjima kojima su uređena međusobna prava, obaveze i odgovornosti iz radnog odnosa. Nasuprot tome, predmet kolektivnog radnog prava jesu kolektivni radni odnosi koji su isključivo od interesa posebnih kolektiviteta koji su institucionalizirani kao socijalni partneri, na jednoj strani poslodavac, više poslodavaca ili udruženje poslodavaca i na drugoj strani institucionalizirani predstavnici zaposlenika; sindikat i vijeće zaposlenika, ili neposredno svi zaposlenici ili njihovi izabrani predstavnici. Karakteristika i individualnih i kolektivnih radnih odnosa jeste da je to odnos između, na jednoj strani predstavnika kapitala – poslodavaca, i na drugoj strani predstavnika rada – zaposlenika. Međutim, kod kolektivnih radnih odnosa pojedinačni zaposlenik nije predstavnik rada već je to kolektivitet radnika, ili njihovo kolektivno tijelo, ili, što je najčešći slučaj, njihovo profesionalno udruženje – sindikat. Iako je odnos kapitala i rada nužan, pa čak i prirodan odnos u sferi, kako individualnih tako i kolektivnih radnih odnosa, u kolektivnim radnim odnosima taj odnos je dijametralno suprotan jedan drugom zbog toga što u svakom svom segmentu predstavnici kapitala i rada imaju potpuno suprotne interese koji su uvijek izvor kako mogućnosti tako i vjerovatnoće tog sukoba. 307 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI Kolektivno radno pravo nastalo je i razvilo se kao rezultat kombinacije elemenata neizbježnih sukoba s jedne strane, i, s druge strane elemenata nužne saradnje između socijalnih partnera u rješavanju kolektivnih radnih odnosa. Jedan od veoma bitnih, ako ne i ključnih dijelova ili stubova kolektivnog radnog prava kojim se nastoje riješiti i kojim se rješavaju konfliktni interesi socijalnih partnera iz kolektivnih radnih odnosa jeste pravo na participaciju zaposlenih u upravljanju u određenoj radnoj sredini koje je kao najmlađe kolektivno radno pravo nastalo i razvijalo se uslijed industrijskog razvoja s jedne strane i stalnog jačanja sindikalnog i radničkog pokreta s druge strane, odnosno koje je nastalo i razvijalo se kao izraz više faze u razvoju industrijske demokratije. Kao jedno od temeljnih kolektivnih prava, pravo na participaciju zaposlenih obuhvata pravo na odlučivanje, pravo na učešće u raspodjeli dobiti i pravo učešća u vlasništvu kod poslodavca ili radničko dioničarstvo. Participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca direktno je vezana za slobodu udruživanja, i svakako slobodu izražavanja. Bez slobode udruživanja i sindikalnog organiziranja nema ni ostvarenja prava na participaciju zbog toga što pravo na participaciju ne samo da pretpostavlja priznavanje sindikalnog pokreta i sistema slobodnog kolektivnog pregovaranja, već osigurava i njihovu integraciju i očuvanje. Zbog izuzetnog značaja u ostvarivanju i zaštiti prava iz radnog odnosa i prava u vezi sa radnim odnosom, participacija zaposlenih uređena je univerzalno na međunarodnom nivou Konvencijama Međunarodne organizacije rada i regionalno na evropskom kontinentu Evropskom socijalnom poveljom i Revidiranom evropskom socijalnom poveljom, dok je u Bosni i Hercegovini participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju uređena heteronomnim pravnim propisima. 1. Pojam i pravni režim participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca „Termin participacija zaposlenih često je korišten termin u različitim značenjima, oblicima i kontekstima kolektivnog radnog prava, ali se danas taj 308 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ termin koristi u tri osnovna značenja: participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju; participacija zaposlenih u raspodjeli dobiti, tj. u rezultatima preduzeća i participacija zaposlenih u svojini – radničko dioničarstvo. Zajedničko svim ovim oblicima participacije, u većoj ili manjoj mjeri, je obezbjeđivanje uslova za razvoj industrijske demokratije i socijalno odgovornog poslodavca“.1 Pravo na participaciju zaposlenih određuje se u širem i užem smislu. U širem smislu ovaj termin se koristi da označi sve oblike institucionalnog2 i vaninstitucionalnog3 uključivanja zaposlenih u odlučivanje kod poslodavca, dok se u užem smislu termin participacija koristi da označi samo institucionalne oblike učešća zaposlenih, odnosno njihovih predstavnika u odlučivanju kod poslodavca.4 Prema obimu ovlaštenja i obimu učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca, participacija se pojavljuje i kao pseudoparticipacija, djelimična participacija i puna participacija. Pseudoparticipacija se pojavljuje kao oblik pritiska menadžmenta na zaposlene kada menadžment koristi participaciju da uvjeri zaposlene da prihvate njegove odluke u cilju njihovog izvršavanja. Djelimična participacija predstavlja oblik participacije kojim se omogućava zaposlenima ili njihovim predstavnicima da utiču na donošenje odluka, pri čemu donošenje odluke i dalje ostaje u djelokrugu poslodavca. Puna participacija daje pravo predstavniku zaposlenih kao članu uprave, odnosno članu upravnog ili nadzornog odbora, da jednako i punopravno odlučuje sa predstavnicima poslodavca. 1 Lubarda Branko A. (2012) Radno pravo, Rasprava o dostojanstvu na radu i socijalnom dijalogu, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Centar za izdavaštvo i informisanje, str. 1065. 2 Institucionalizirani oblici participacije su npr., radnički savjeti (zaposlenička vijeća), upravni odbori, nadzorni odbori. Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. (2005) Radno pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, str. 115. 3 Neinstitucionalizirani oblici participacije su zajedničko konsultiranje, razni oblici pseudoparticipacije, kružoci za kvalitet. Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. isto, str. 115. 4 Participacija u užem smislu obuhvata samo pravo na učešće predstavnika zaposlenih u nadzornom ili upravnom odboru poslodavca i pravo da se preporuči ili usprotivi imenovanju nekog ili svih članova nadzornog ili upravnog odbora. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1065. 309 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI Prema obliku organiziranja poslodavca participacija se može vršiti na nižem nivou, tj. na nivou organizacione jedinice kao dijela privrednog društva i na višem nivou, tj. na nivou privrednog društva kao cjeline. U komparativnom radnom pravu pravni režim participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca uređuje se na tri načina: 1. heteronomnim propisima – zakonskim putem u skladu sa ustavom i rjeđe podzakonskim općim aktima; 2. kolektivnim ugovorima i 3. autonomnim općim pravnim aktima poslodavca. Zakonsko uređivanje, odnosno priznavanje prava na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju ima svoje prednosti u odnosu autonomno uređivanje. Zakonskim uređivanjem participacija postaje integralni dio radno pravnog sistema jedne zemlje,5 a ostvarivanje prava na participaciju ne zavisi od snage sindikata6 ili „ćudi tržišta rada“ pri čemu veća nezaposlenost uvijek utiče kao nepovoljni faktor za zaposlene. Međutim, bez obzira na ove okolnosti koje prate zaposlene u ostvarivanju i zaštiti njihovih prava iz radnog odnosa i prava koja prate radni odnos, kod zakonskog uređivanja participacije poslodavci ne mogu izbjeći obaveze u pogledu institucionaliziranih oblika učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju. U Bosni i Hercegovini pravo na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca zakonski je uređeno na nivou entiteta i Brčko distrikta BiH Zakonima o radu: Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine,7 Republike Srpske8 i Brčko distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine,9 Zakonima o vijeću zaposlenika, Zakonom o savjetima radnika kao i Konvencijom Međunarodne organizacije rada o zaštiti i olakšicama koje se daju radničkim predstavnicima u preduzećima: 1. sindikalnim predstavnicima i 2. predstavnicima koje su na slobodnim izborima izabrali radnici kod 5 Iako se participacija radnika u odlučivanju može vršiti i bez zakonskih odredbi, ipak se u savremenim zemljama industrijska demokratija, pa time i participacija zaposlenih u upravljanju preduzećima, u pravilu uspostavlja zakonskim putem. Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J., isto, str. 118. 6 Isto tako, sindikati, čak i u slučaju pada stope sindikalizacije, zadržavaju svoj određeni uticaj zahvaljujući institucionalizaciji participacije, pošto imaju pravo kandidovanja članova savjeta zaposlenih ili članova za nadzorni ili upravni odbor poslodavca. Otuda, učešće zaposlenih u odlučivanju, predviđeno kao zakonsko pravo, predstavlja element stabilnosti kolektivnih radnih odnosa i očuvanja uticaja sindikata. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1080. 7 („Službene novine F BiH“ broj 43/99, 32/00 i 29/03) 8 („Službeni glasnik RS“ broj 38/00, 40/00, 41/00, 47/02, 38/03 i 66/03) 9 („Službeni glasnik Brčko distrikta BiH“ broj 7/00, 08/03, 33/04 i 29/05). 310 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ konkretnog poslodavca, a koja je sastavni dio pravnog poretka Bosne i Hercegovine. Autonomno uređivanje participacije nastalo je i razvija se zaključivanjem kolektivnih ugovora o radu, kao sui generis pravnih akata kojima se uređuju kolektivni radni odnosi između socijalnih partnera, prije svega pod uticajem sindikata koji su svojom snagom proširili sadržaj kolektivnih prava i na ovo područje,10 kao i donošenjem drugih pravnih akata autonomnog prava u formi posebnih planova i programa participacije. Nedostaci autonomnog uređivanja participacije zaključivanjem kolektivnih ugovora o radu ogledaju se u tome što uvođenje pojedinih oblika participacije isključivo zavisi od konkretne moći sindikata da uvjere i privole poslodavca na određene ustupke i prihvatanje određenih oblika participacije. Isto tako, „uvođenje participacije na inicijativu samog poslodavca određenim planovima učešća (predstavnika) zaposlenih može da ima za cilj supstituisanje kolektivnih ugovora o radu, tj. otežavanje osnivanja sindikata kod poslodavca što je praksa u SAD, ili barem slabljenje moći sindikata što je praksa u Velikoj Britaniji, a ne nužno razvijanje industrijske demokratije.“11 2. Obaveze poslodavca prema zaposlenima iz prava participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju u zakonodavstvu Bosne i Hercegovine Ostvarivanje i zaštita prava radnika iz radnog odnosa i prava u vezi sa radnim odnosom između ostalog vrši se i pravom na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca. Zbog važnosti participacije zaposlenika u rješavanju osnovnih pitanja vezanih za: radnopravni status, primjenu relevantnih propisa odnosno pitanja od interesa za ekonomski i socijalni položaj zaposlenika, pozitivno zakonodavstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini utvrđuje slijedeće obaveze poslodavca prema institucionalnim oblicima participacije (vijeću zaposlenika / savjetu radnika)12: 10 Kolektivni ugovor o savjetima zaposlenika zaključen u Švedskoj 1946. godine i dopunjen 1996. godine, Kolektivni sporazum o uspostavljanju zajedničkih komiteta u preduzećima koja zapošljavaju više od 50 radnika zaključne u Danskoj 1947. godine. 11 Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1079. 12 Polazeći od naprijed navedenih kritika institucionalnog ostvarivanja prava na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca u Bosni i Hercegovini, u daljem tekstu će se ovo pravo analizirati 311 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI - obaveza obavještavanja / informiranja obaveza konsultovanja / savjetovanja obaveza suodlučivanja / pribavljanja prethodne suglasnosti.13 Iz ovakvog zakonskog određenja participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavaca proizilazi da participacija predstavlja dvostrani pravni odnos između socijalnih partnera – poslodavaca i institucionalnih ili neinstitucionalnih oblika zaposlenih u ostvarivanju ovog prava, u kojem zaposlenici imaju samo prava, a poslodavci samo obaveze. 2.1. Obaveza informisanja Uzajamna uslovljenost i nedjeljivost osnovnih ljudskih prava i sloboda izražava se i u pogledu slobode i prava na informisanje, kao osnovnog političkog prava, sjedne strane, i prava na informisanje zaposlenih,14 kao osnovnog socijalnog prava, s druge strane. Na temelju ovako određene obaveze informisanja, zaposleni u radnim sredinama imaju pravo da od strane poslodavca najmanje svakih šest mjeseci budu obaviješteni o: - stanju i rezultatima poslovanja razvojnim planovima i njihovim uticajem na ekonomski i socijalni položaj zaposlenih kretanju i promjenama u platama zaštiti na radu i mjerama za poboljšanje uvjeta rada drugim pitanjima koja su važna za prava i interese zaposlenih iz radnog odnosa15 kao što su politika zapošljavanja, uvođenje novih tehnologija, promjena u organizaciji i načinu rada, moguća reorganizacija i sl. identično kako prema institucionalnim, tako i prema neinstitucionalnim oblicima sa napomenom da se pod neinstitucionalnim oblicima podrazumijevaju valjano izabrani predstavnici zaposlenih ili svi zaposleni neposredno. 13 Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. isto, str. 124. 14 Informisanje znači obavještavanje predstavnika zaposlenih od strane nadležnog organa poslodavca o pitanjima koja se tiču poslodavca i koja omogućavaju predstavnicima zaposlenih dulju procjenu situacije i, kad je to potrebno, pripreme za konsultovanje sa nadležnim organima poslodavca. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1066. 15 Član 22. Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika „Službene novine Federacije BiH“ isto. 312 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Informisanje zaposlenih, iako neinformisanje zaposlenih nema pravnih posljedica po poslodavca, ima veliki značaj, s jedne strane, za zaposlene zbog toga što na temelju blagovremenih, istinitih i cjelovitih obavještenja zaposleni mogu blagovremeno i kvalitetno da donose svoje odluke koje se tiču njihove profesije i daljeg radnog angažiranja, i s druge strane, za poslodavce koji pravilno izvršavajući ovu zakonsku obavezu mogu izbjeći mnoge nepotrebne radne sporove i posljedice bilo koje prirode koje donose ti sporovi. 2.2. Obaveza konsultovanja Obaveza konsultovanja16 obavezuje poslodavca da prije donošenja posebno važnih odluka za prava i interese zaposlenih podatke o namjeravanim odlukama dostavi na izjašnjavanje vijeću zaposlenika. Vijeće zaposlenika može se očitovati o namjeravanoj odluci poslodavca tako što će prihvatiti njegovu odluku, usprotiviti se odluci stavljanjem primjedbi, prijedloga i mišljenja,17 ili se uopće ne izjašnjavati čime se smatra da je vijeće zaposlenika saglasno sa predloženom odlukom, što je za zaposlene najnepovoljniji način korištenja ovog participativnog prava. Za razliku od obaveze informisanja, čije nepoštivanje ne proizvodi nikakve štetne posljedice po poslodavca, obaveza konsultovanja uvjet je punovažnosti odluka koje poslodavac namjerava da donese,18 bez obzira što poslodavac nije vezan mišljenjem vijeća zaposlenika. Prije donošenja odluke značajne za prava i interese zaposlenika poslodavac se obavezno konsultuje sa vijećem zaposlenika o namjeravanoj odluci,19 a naročito kada se radi o: 16 Konsultovanje znači uspostavljanje dijaloga i razmjenu mišljenja između predstavnika zaposlenih i nadležnih organa poslodavca, koje blagovremeno, na osnovu dostavljenih informacija, omogućuju predstavnicima zaposlenih izražavanje mišljenja o mjerama koje treba da uzme u obzir pri odlučivanju nadležni organ poslodavca. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1067. 17 Iako poslodavac nije obavezan da prihvati mišljenje, stavovi predstavnika zaposlenih mogu doprinijeti donošenju ispravnih odluka kako za poslodavaca tako i za zaposlene. 18 Odluka poslodavca donesena suprotno odredbama Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika o obavezi konsultovanja sa vijećem zaposlenika ništavna je. Član 25. Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika, isto. 19 Značaj obaveze konsultovanja poslodavca sa predstavnicima zaposlenih potvrdila je i sudska praksa svojim odlukama. Presuda Općinskog suda u Tuzli broj 032 0 P 09 001404 od 05.02.2010. godine koja 313 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI 1. donošenju pravilnika o radu 2. namjeri poslodavca da zbog ekonomskih, tehničkih ili organizacijskih razloga otkaže ugovor o radu za više od 10 % zaposlenika, a najmanje petorici 3. planu zapošljavanja, premještaju i otkazu 4. mjerama u vezi sa zaštitom zdravlja i zaštitom na radu 5. značajnim promjenama ili uvođenju nove tehnologije 6. planu godišnjih odmora 7. rasporedu radnog vremena 8. noćnom radu 9. naknadama za izume i tehnička unapređenja 10. drugim odlukama za koje je kolektivnim ugovorom predviđeno konsultovanje vijeća zaposlenika u njihovom donošenju.20 Obaveza konsultovanja vezana je za fiksne rokove i na strani poslodavca i na strani zaposlenika. Poslodavac mora predstavnicima zaposlenih podatke o namjeravanoj odluci dostaviti najmanje 30 dana prije donošenja odluke. Rok od najmanje 30 dana bitan je element obaveze poslodavca iz prava participacije zaposlenih i njegovo nepoštivanje povlači za sobom apsolutnu ništavost svake odluke donesene suprotno ovoj obavezi.21 Nasuprot tome, vijeće zaposlenika može, ali ne mora, u roku od 7 dana od dana dostavljanja navedenih podataka dostaviti poslodavcu svoje mišljenje, primjedbe i prijedloge. 2.3. Obaveza saodlučivanja odnosno pribavljanja prethodne saglasnosti I na kraju treći, po pravnoj snazi najjači, a po obimu najmanji oblik participacije zaposlenih u ostvarivanju i zaštiti prava i interesa iz radnog odnosa odnosi se na obavezu poslodavca na saodlučivanje sa predstavnicima je potvrđena presudom Kantonalnog suda u Tuzli broj 03 0 P 002759 10 Gž od 12.01.2012. godine, a ova potvrđena u revizijskom postupku odlukom Vrhovnog suda Federacije BiH broj 32 0 P 121904 12 Rev od 06.12.2012. godine, u kojoj se navodi „u konkretnom slučaju konsultovanje sa Sindikalnom organizacijom je bila obavezna radnja prije donošenja predmetne odluke, jer u protivnom takva odluka radi svoje ništavosti ne egzistira“ str. 7. 20 član 23. Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika, isto. 21 Sud je utvrdio da je rješenje tužene o otkazu ugovora o radu nezakonito iz slijedećih razloga: „dakle, tuženi nije dostavio akt u pismenoj formi sindikatu i nije ga dostavio najmanje u roku od 30 dana prije davanja obavijesti o otkazu ugovora o radu zaposlenicima. Presuda Općinskog suda u Tuzli broj 32 0 P 005288 09 P od 07.07.2010. godine koja je potvrđena presudom Kantonalnog suda u Tuzli broj 32 0 P 005288 10 Gž od 14.02.2013. godine. 314 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ zaposlenika, odnosno na obavezu pribavljanja prethodne saglasnosti vijeća zaposlenika za preduzimanje odgovarajućih radnji, odnosno donošenja određenih odluka.22 Prema ovoj obavezi iz participacije, poslodavac može samo uz prethodnu saglasnost vijeća zaposlenika donijeti odluku o: 1. otkazu ugovora o radu članu vijeća zaposlenika, 2. otkazu ugovora o radu zaposleniku kod kojeg postoji promijenjena radna sposobnost (invalidi II kategorije invalidnosti), ili postoji neposredna opasnost od nastanka invalidnosti, 3. otkazu ugovora o radu zaposleniku muškarcu starijem od 55 godina života i ženi starijoj od 50 godina života, 4. prikupljanju, obrađivanju, korištenju i dostavljanju podataka trećim licima o zaposleniku (ovdje se svakako isključuje radnja dostavljanja podataka sudu i drugim nadležnim državnim organima na njihov zahtjev). Vijeće zaposlenika se može, a ne mora izjasniti na tražene saglasnosti poslodavca u roku od 10 dana od dana njenog traženja, a ako se vijeće zaposlenika u tom roku pisano ne izjasni, smatra se da je vijeće zaposlenika saglasno sa odlukom poslodavca. Međutim, ako vijeće zaposlenika uskrati traženu saglasnost na odluku poslodavca o navedenim pitanjima, u tom slučaju rješavanje tako nastalog spora povjerava se arbitraži.23 22 Pravo na saodlučivanje predstavnika zaposlenika sa poslodavcem svakodnevno potvrđuje i sudska praksa u BiH svojim odlukama kojima štiti pojedinačna prava zaposlenika. Npr. zaštita prava zaposlenika kod kojih postoji promijenjena radna sposobnost gdje sud u svojoj odluci navodi „uvidom u rješenje FZ PIO/MIO od 19.04.2004. godine sud je utvrdio da je kod tužitelja utvrđena invalidnost II kategorije zbog bolesti, te mu je priznato pravo na raspored na drugo radno mjesto...ne stoji tvrdnja tužitelja i svjedoka da je tužitelj invalid rada, te ne stoji tvrdnja tuženog da je tužitelju mogao otkazati ugovor or adu bez obzira što je invalid. Naime, tuženi je mogao otkazati ugovor o radu tužitelju, iako je invalid ali samo uz prethodnu saglasnost vijeća zaposlenika a u smislu člana 26. Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika.“ Presuda Općinskog suda u Tuzli, isto i presuda Kantonalnog suda u Tuzli, isto. 23 1) Arbitraža, kao jedan od načina rješavanja kolektivnih radnih sporova u našem radnom zakonodavstvu je utemeljena na dosljedno primijenjenom i poštovanom principu dobrovoljnosti socijalnih partnera. Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. isto, str. 446. 2) Ovdje je učinjen izuzetak pa je to zakonska obaveza socijalnih partnera. Takođe treba istaći da bi češće u rješavanju kolektivnih radnih sporova, ali i individualnih, trebalo pribjegavati arbitraži zbog 315 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI 3. Modeli participacije Industrijski razvoj i konkretni uslovi sindikalnog i radničkog pokreta uslovili su stvaranje dva glavna sistema participacije zaposlenih. Postojanje ta dva sistema označava se duplim kolosijekom učešća radnika u upravljanju.24 Model jednog kolosijeka predstavljanja zaposlenih zasnovan je na kolektivnom pregovaranju tj. na ugovornoj osnovi25 koji se realizira preko sindikata kao jedinih sagovornika / partnera poslodavcima. Sistem odlikuje jednostavnost koja se ogleda u jedinstvenoj ulozi sindikata i vijeća zaposlenika. Nedostatak ovog modela je u tome što sindikalno neorganizirani zaposlenici ostaju van mogućnosti predstavljanja pošto su sindikalni predstavnici „vezani za oblike predstavljanja zaposlenih koji potiču iz sindikalne akcije i zaštite članstva.“26 Nedostatak modela jednog kolosijeka sve se više gubi zbog toga što „vremenom djelatnost sindikata u ovom smislu, pa i njenih predstavnika, u bitnom pokriva sve zaposlene; članovi sindikata imaju privilegije, odnosno prava koja su vezana za članstvo u sindikatu a ne za zaposlenje, tj. za obaveze poslodavca; načelno i formalno sindikati zastupaju sindikalno članstvo ali utvrđujući pravila u kolektivnim ugovorima, i štiteći pojedinačna prava, sindikati predstavljaju zaštitu svih 27 zaposlenih.“ Model duplog sistema predstavljanja sprovodi se u posebno izabranom tijelu koje se po pravilu naziva vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika pri čemu izabrani predstavnici u vijeće zaposlenika predstavljaju sve zaposlene bez obzira na sindikalno članstvo koje ima ovlaštenje i obaveze van odnosa i aktivnosti koje se smatraju samo sindikalnim.28 toga što arbitraža derogira sudsku nadležnost, što je brža, jeftinija i efikasnija, i što su odluke arbitraže obavezujuće, konačne i izvršene. 24 Brajić V. (2001.), Radno pravo, Savremena administracija a.d. Beograd, str. 491. 25 Nedostatak ovog sistema naročito dolazi do izražaja u zemljama u kojima nije postignut visok stepen sindikalizacije, koji se može otkloniti njegovom zakonskom uspostavom. 26 Brajić V. isto str. 491. 27 Brajić V. isto, str. 491. 28 Model duplog kolosijeka predstavljanja zaposlenih zasnovan je na predstavljanju svih zaposlenih nezavisno od sindikalnog organizovanja u izabranom tijelu od strane svih zaposlenih koje se po pravilu naziva savjet zaposlenih, koje postoji i djeluje paralelno sa sindikatom kod poslodavca – npr. u Njemačkoj, Austriji, Mađarskoj, Francuskoj... Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1071. 316 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Model duplog sistema predstavljanja zaposlenih iz prava participacije dovodi do svojevrsne konkurencije između vijeća zaposlenika i sindikata. Međutim, u stvarnosti to i ne izgleda tako zbog toga što je najveći broj članova vijeća zaposlenika sindikalno organiziran tako da sindikalno organizirani članovi vijeća zaposlenika u praksi vode glavnu riječ,29 i zbog toga što i sindikat u svim bitnim i najvažnijim pitanjima (npr. kod zaključivanja kolektivnih ugovora, kod organiziranja štrajka i slično) štiti interese ne samo svog članstva, već i ostalih zaposlenih, pri čemu se ova dva načina predstavljanja zaposlenika s jedne strane približavaju, i s druge strane prepliću u najvažnijim pravima i interesima svih zaposlenih.30 Mješoviti sistem predstavljanja zaposlenih iz prava participacije karakterizira predstavljanje zaposlenika od strane sindikata kao njihovog institucionalnog oblika organiziranja, s tim da su predstavnici sindikalno neorganiziranih zaposlenika direktno uključeni u ovaj sistem, ili kroz dopunski kolosijek u preduzećima u kojima nema sindikata.31 U pozitivnom radnom zakonodavstvu Bosne i Hercegovine alternativno je primijenjen model duplog sistema predstavljanja zaposlenih u ostvarivanja prava na participaciju. Prema odredbama entitetskih zakona vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika ovlašten je da predstavlja sve zaposlene u ostvarivanju ovog prava, a tamo gdje nije formirano vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika, njegovo mjesto i ulogu u cijelosti preuzima sindikat sa posebnom napomenom da tamo gdje nema organiziranog sindikata, poslodavci treba da komuniciraju: ili sa granskim sindikatima; ili sa Savezom 29 Ovaj model poznaje dva osnovna varijeteta: njemački – svi članovi vijeća zaposlenih se biraju od strane zaposlenih; francuski – pored neposredno, direktno izabranih članova vijeća zaposlenih, jedan broj članova vijeća zaposlenih imenuju (reprezentativni) sindikati kod poslodavca. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1071. 30 Bitni zahtjevi u pogledu socijalnih i ekonomskih prava i interesa su zajednički i neodvojivi. Događa se da se sindikat i radnici ne slažu u pitanjima taktike i strategije, ali kada jedan od ova dva subjekta nudi i čini izvjesnim, zaštitu važnih socijalno ekonomskih prava i interesa, onda ovaj drugi ne može tome oponirati, naprotiv to bi morao podržati. U slučajevima kada nema sindikata kod poslodavca (ili sindikat npr. nije za organizaciju štrajka, većina radnika može odlučiti da stupi u štrajk). Ako zakon priznaje, a u našem pravu priznaje, onda će učešće radnika u štrajku biti legalno bez obzir ana stav sindikata. Sve što učini jedan od ova dva subjekta u okviru svojih ovlaštenja legalno je bez obzira na stav onog drugog. Drugoj e pitanje koje su posljedice eventualnog sukoba sindikata i predstavnika radnika. Brajić V. isto str. 492. 31 U češkom pravu vijeće zaposlenih može da se osnuje samo u preduzećima određene veličine u kojima nije osnovan sindikat – ukoliko dođe do osnivanja sindikata, vijeće zaposlenih se raspušta. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1071. i 1072. 317 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI samostalnih sindikata Bosne i Hercegovine;32 ili sa izabranim predstavnicima zaposlenih ili svim zaposlenim neposredno. 4. Legitimnost participacije zaposlenih Legitimnost participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca u ostvarivanju i zaštiti prava i interesa ekonomsko socijalne prirode posmatra se dvojako: ili kao opravdanje učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju ili kao osporavanje učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju. Argumenti kojima se opravdava participacija zaposlenih su ekonomske, radno socijalne i psihološke prirode, a argumenti kojima osporava učešće zaposlenih u odlučivanju su ekonomske i organizacijske prirode. Sa ekonomskog aspekta participacija se opravdava time što doprinosi rastu produktivnosti rada, većoj efikasnosti i organizacijskoj harmoničnosti jer doprinosi poboljšanju motiviranosti zaposlenih i stabilnosti radnog morala.33 Sa radno socijalnog aspekta participacija „se javlja kao svojevrsna kompenzacija za inkorporativnost zaposlenih kod poslodavca i opštu društvenu integraciju u postojeći sistem“ pošto je „cilj participacije integracija zaposlenih u preduzeću, unapređenje uzajamnog razumijevanja, podrška menadžerskim prerogativima poslodavca, uz socijalne korekcije tržišne ekonomije“ jer na taj način participacija „doprinosi razvoju socijalnog dijaloga i industrijske demokratije uopšte pošto se ne ograničava samo na nivo preduzeća, već uključuje demokratizaciju kolektivnih radnih interesa uopšte, na nacionalnom nivou.“ Prednost participativnog menadžmenta u odnosu na autoritarni, ogleda se i u izglednijem zadobijanju podrške zaposlenih i samih sindikata u implementaciji poslovne politike poslodavca, 32 Stav sudske prakse u Bosni i Hercegovini (Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine) u sporovima iz radnih odnosa. 33 Empirijska istraživanja pokazuju da participacija obično vodi izvjesnom, makar kratkotrajnom poboljšanju poslovnih rezultata, a ponekad značajnijem i dugotrajnijem poboljšanju poslovnih rezultata, drugim riječima redovno ima pozitivan efekat na produktivnost i gotovo nikad negativan efekat...uostalom sami poslodavci priznaju da je zajednica interesa između poslodavaca i zaposlenih u dugoročnom interesu razvoja preduzeća. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1073. i 1074. 318 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ tako da poslodavci uvođenjem određenih oblika participacije (ugovornim putem ili neformalnim oblicima) nastoje da oslabe sindikate.34 Sa psihološkog aspekta participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju dovodi do smanjenja osjećaja otuđenosti i ublažavanja osjećaja podređenosti kod poslodavca, što se povoljno odražava na njihov radni moral, motiviranost i zadovoljstvo na radu, odnosno „participacija kod zaposlenih razvija osjećaj zajedničkog cilja“ a to je opstanak privrednog društva i razvoj u uvjetima konkurencije, posebno motivirajući zaposlene na njihov veći doprinos uspjehu poslodavca na tržištu. Ekonomsko osporavanje participacije vrši se prije svega od strane neoliberalnih ekonomista koji izražavaju svoje rezerve prema nekim oblicima participacije tvrdeći da je autoritarni menadžment ekonomski opravdanija i efikasnija strategija od kooperativnog menadžmenta koji se zasniva na demokratskoj participaciji uz sudjelovanje predstavnika zaposlenih, posebno navodeći da „predstavnici zaposlenih (u institucionalizovanim oblicima participacije – npr. u nadzornom ili upravnom odboru) nisu dovoljno kompetentni za odlučivanje, dok su, njima nasuprot, predstavnici poslodavaca visokospecijalizovani eksperti u finansijskim i ekonomskim pitanjima“,35 što se ne može prihvatiti opravdanim razlogom zbog tog što ovlašteni predstavnici zaposlenih imaju pravnu mogućnost angažiranja eksperata – vanjskih saradnika. Organizacijsko osporavanje participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca svodi se na pravo poslodavca da po osnovu vlasničkih ovlaštenja i slobode preduzetništva sam odlučuje da li će u utvrđivanje organizacije rada uključiti ili ne uključiti predstavnike zaposlenih.36 Dosadašnja iskustva u mnogim državama pokazala su opravdanost uključivanja predstavnika zaposlenih u ovu problematiku čime se uveliko smanjuju tenzije, ali i radni sporovi naročito kod iskazivanja prekobrojnosti zaposlenih iz ekonomskih, tehničkih i organizacijskih razloga. 34 Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1074. i 1075. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1076. 36 Poslodavac dima dvije opcije: a) da se procesi odlučivanja i organizacije rada odvijaju bez uvođenja participacije zaposlenih, odnosno nastojanjem poslodavca da slabi, marginalizuje, izbjegava ili isključi predstavnike zaposlenih (sindikat, vijeće zaposlenika i sl.); b) da se pomoću participacije predstavnici zaposlenih uključe u proces odlučivanja o organizaciji rada. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1076. 35 319 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI U pozitivnom zakonodavstvu Bosne i Hercegovine ne postoji niti heteronomno niti autonomno pravno ograničenje slobode poslodavca u utvrđivanju unutrašnje organizacije rada37 jer je autonomno pravo poslodavca da sam odlučuje da li će pristupiti reorganizaciji procesa rada radi efikasnijeg korištenja sredstava rada, opreme i ljudskih resursa u cilju smanjenja troškova poslovanja, odnosno jačanja konkurentske sposobnosti na tržištu, koji se opet manifestiraju kao razlozi ekonomske i tehničke – tehnološke prirode, zbog toga što su organizacijske promjene sastavni dio upravljačkih ovlaštenja poslodavca, pa samim tim te aktivnosti poslodavca i ne mogu biti predmet sudske kontrole niti pitanje cjelishodnosti takve odluke (spor pune jurisdikcije), već mogu biti samo predmet kontrole zakonitosti donošenja takve odluke.38 5. Oblici učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca Participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca vrši se na dva temeljna načina: 1. neposredno i posredno i 2. institucionalno i vaninstitucionalno. Neposredni ili direktni oblici participacije vrše se neposrednim uključivanjem zaposlenih u proces odlučivanja na konsultativnim sastancima zaposlenih ili njihovih izabranih predstavnika sa poslodavcem ili njegovim predstavnicima, na sastancima radnih timova , autonomnih radnih grupa i drugim oblicima, pri čemu se posebno naglašava uloga pojedinačnog zaposlenika ili radne grupe i njegove neposredne radne situacije.39 37 Naročito u SAD, poslodavac, odnosno uprava (odbor direktora) nerado odustaju od svog prava da odluke donose jednostrano, mada nije pravno isključeno iz predmeta kolektivnog pregovaranja na nivou poslodavca pitanje tzv. menadžerskih klauzula (organizacije rada – menadžment ljudskih resursa), koje se u praksi rijetko ugovaraju. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1076. 38 U skladu sa članom 23. stav 1. alineja 2. Zakona o vijeću zaposlenika obaveza poslodavca je da izvrši konsultovanje sa vijećem zaposlenika u slučaju donošenja odluke kojom se uslijed organizacijskih razloga – promjena otkazuje ugovor o radu za više od 10 % zaposlenih, a najmanje petorici, prema kojoj odredbi sud ima ovlaštenje da kontrolira samo da li je izvršeno konsultovanje sa vijećem zaposlenika, a ne i da cijeni opravdanost ili neopravdanost organizacijskih promjena – razloga kod poslodavca. 39 Ovdje se radi o tzv. silaznoj participaciji jer se odlučivanje prenosi sa menadžmenta na same zaposlene, mada samo u pogledu veoma ograničenog kruga pitanja u vezi sa radom zaposlenog kao što su raspodjela radnih zadataka; metode rada; održavanje kvaliteta proizvodnje i td. Na ovaj način se zaposleni direktno motiviše da bolje radi, poistovjećuje sa ciljevima poslovne politike poslodavca, dok glavne poluge ostaju upravi poslodavca. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1084. 320 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Posredni ili indirektni oblici participacije vrše se uključivanjem zaposlenih u proces odlučivanja posredstvom izabranih predstavnika zaposlenih u vijeće zaposlenika, u upravni ili nadzorni odbor preduzeća, u učešću u predlaganju izbora direktora rada.40 Pod institucionalnim oblicima participacije podrazumijevaju se trajni sistemski oblici participacije uvedeni u sistem kolektivnih radnih odnosa, prvenstveno zakonskim putem kao obavezni oblici participacije. Institucionalni oblici participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca podrazumijevaju učešće izabranih predstavnika zaposlenih u informisanju, konsultovanju i saodlučivanju. Ovdje se ima u vidu institucionalna participacija koja se ostvaruje posredstvom vijeća zaposlenih, kao najraširenijeg i najznačajnijeg institucionalnog oblika participacije. Pod vaninstitucionalnim oblicima participacije zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca podrazumijevaju oni oblici koji se uvode u pojedinim privrednim društvima ili određenim privrednim granama kao dobrovoljno – unilateralno učešće utvrđeno određenim planovima i programima participacije i to za određeno vrijeme, ili kao bilateralno učešće utvrđeno kolektivnim ugovorom o radu. Vaninstitucionalni oblici participacije predstavljaju informisanje zaposlenih od strane poslodavca isticanjem određenih obavještenja na oglasnim tablama privrednog društva, u novinama i drugim medijima u svrhu upoznavanja zaposlenih sa tekućim poslovima i problemima u poslovanju; održavanje sastanaka radnih timova kao posebnog oblika kratkotrajnog informisanja zaposlenih u svrhu njihovog potpunijeg upoznavanja sa posebno važnim pitanjima i problemima u poslovanju i njihovom uticaju na poslove i rad zaposlenih bez otvaranja diskusije; rad radnih grupa bez nadzora pretpostavljenih kojima je svrha pronalaženje načina za izvršavanje radnih zadataka na najprimjereniji način radi postizanja postavljenih radnih i ekonomskih ciljeva kroz koji se razvija takmičarski duh i postiže veća kooperativnost, odgovornost i efikasnost i sl. Participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca u Bosni i Hercegovini sprovodi se institucionalno i institucionalno – organizacijski. 40 Ovdje se radi o svojevrsnoj „uzlaznoj participaciji“ zaposlenih u odlučivanju, jer je u pitanju participacija zaposlenih na višim nivoima odlučivanju u preduzeću. Lubarda Branko A. isto, str. 1084. 321 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI Institucionalno participacija se provodi posredstvom vijeća zaposlenika / savjeta radnika i sindikata41 ako kod poslodavca nije formirano vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika. Da bi se formiralo vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika kao primarni institucionalni oblik ostvarivanja participacije u odlučivanju kod poslodavca, uvjet je da poslodavac zapošljava najmanje 15 zaposlenika bez obzira da li su svi u radnom odnosu na neodređeno ili određeno vrijeme i bez obzira da li rade puno ili nepuno radno vrijeme. Organizacijski participacija se sprovodi kod poslodavca koji registrirane djelatnosti obavlja po organizacionim dijelovima pod uvjetom da zaposleni u organizacionim dijelovima koriste ovo pravo u skladu sa Zakonom o vijeću zaposlenika. Ako je poslovanje poslodavca organizirano u više organizacionih jedinica koje djelatnost obavljaju izvan sjedišta poslodavca, u tom slučaju zaposleni mogu organizirati vijeće zaposlenika u svakoj od tih organizacionih jedinica pod uvjetom da se u svakoj organizacionoj jedinici vijeće zaposlenika formira na prijedlog sindikata ili najmanje 20 % zaposlenih od ukupnog broja zaposlenih koji su u radnom odnosu kod poslodavca i pod uvjetom da vijeće zaposlenika ne može imati manje od tri i više od devet članova. U ovom slučaju formira se glavno vijeće zaposlenika koje se sastoji od predstavnika vijeća zaposlenika organizacionih jedinica.42 Polazeći od činjenice da se participacija zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca u Bosni i Hercegovini vrši institucionalno i institucionalno – organizacijski, potpuno opravdano se postavlja pitanje na koji način će zaposlenici kojih je u radnom odnosu kod poslodavca manje od 15 ostvariti pravo na participaciju u ostvarivanju i zaštiti svojih opravdanih ekonomsko socijalnih prava i interesa. 41 a) Nadležnosti sindikata šire su od nadležnosti vijeća zaposlenika. Nadležnosti sindikata obuhvataju i nadležnosti vijeća zaposlenika ako kod poslodavaca nije formirano vijeće zaposlenika. Vijeće zaposlenika ne može učestvovati u pripremanju štrajka, isključenju sa rada zaposlenika i ne može učestvovati u kolektivnom radnom sporu koji može dovesti do štrajka, što su isključiva ovlaštenja sindikata. Zakon o vijeću zaposlenika, Obaveze i ovlaštenja zaposlenika, „Službene novine Federacije BiH“ broj 38/04. b) Poseban značaj i ulogu u kontekstu pozitivnopravnih rješenja u radnom zakonodavstvu BiH vezano za participaciju imaju odnosi koji se uspostavljaju između sindikata i vijeća zaposlenika, odnosno savjeta radnika. Radi se o odnosima saradnje,, odnosno član vijeća može biti istovremeno i član sindikata. Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. isto, str. 125. 42 Zakon o vijeću zaposlenika, Odredbe o formiranju vijeća zaposlenika, isto. 322 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Odgovor na ovo pitanje treba posmatrati u kontekstu prava zaposlenih da organiziraju ili neorganiziraju sindikat kao svoju profesionalnu asocijaciju za ostvarivanje i zaštitu kako individualnih tako i kolektivnih prava iz radnog odnosa. Iz toga bi potpuno utemeljeno proizilazilo i pravo zaposlenika da tamo, gdje nema formiranog vijeća zaposlenika / savjeta radnika pa ni sindikata, ovo pravo ostvaruju ili sa pravovaljano izabranim predstavnikom / predstavnicima zaposlenih ili neposredno učešćem svih zaposlenih na zboru radnika. ZAKLJUČAK Kolektivno radno pravo kao dio radnog prava obuhvata norme koje reguliraju kolektivne radne odnose. Predmet proučavanja kolektivnog radnog prava jesu odnosi koji se uspostavljaju u izvršavanju zavisnog rada pod uvjetom da izvršavanje takvog rada, pored uspostave pravnih odnosa individualne prirode, povlači za sobom i uspostavljanje pravnih odnosa kolektivne prirode. Temeljna karakteristika kolektivnih radnih odnosa jeste da se ovi odnosi razlikuju od individualnih radnih odnosa po subjektima, predmetu reguliranja i načinu rješavanja sporova. Subjekti kolektivnih radnih odnosa su, na jednoj strani zaposlenici čija se prava i interesi ostvaruju i štite kroz institucionalne oblike predstavljanja posredstvom sindikata i vijeća zaposlenika, i na drugoj strani poslodavac, više poslodavaca ili udruženje poslodavaca. Predmet reguliranja kolektivnog radnog prava predstavljaju one institucije i kategorije radnog prava koje utemeljuju sticanje, ostvarivanje i zaštitu kolektivnih prava i interesa socijalnih partnera. Te kategorije i institucije predstavljaju stubove kolektivnog radnog prava kao predmeta proučavanja. Ne može se klasificirati ili reći koji je od tih stubova značajniji za kolektivno radno pravo, odnosno prije svega za prava i interese zaposlenih zbog toga što svi ti stubovi kolektivnog radnog prava zajedno čine jednu kontinuiranu, nedjeljivu i hronološki postavljenu i uvjetovanu cjelinu u ostvarivanju i zaštiti prava i interesa zaposlenih. Sva kolektivna radna prava: sloboda udruživanja – pravo na osnivanje i organiziranje udruženja radnika i poslodavaca; pravo na kolektivno pregovaranje i kolektivno dogovaranje; 323 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI pravo na participaciju, pravo rješavanja kolektivnih radnih sporova, pravo na štrajk i pravo učešća u postupku donošenja autonomnih općih akata kojima se uređuju prava, obaveze i odgovornosti na radu i u vezi sa radom predstavljaju institucionalne oblike za ostvarivanje i zaštitu individualnih prava na radu, u vezi sa radom i povodom rada. Način rješavanja kolektivnih radnih sporova razlikuje se od načina rješavanja individualnih radnih sporova po tome što samo institucionalni kolektiviteti zaposlenih ili svi zaposleni neposredno mogu preduzimati određene mjere i akcije kolektivnog karaktera radi ostvarivanja i zaštite kolektivnih radnih prava kao što je pravo na štrajk. Kolektivne radne odnose kao dio modela industrijskih odnosa karakterizira sukob interesa i kao mogućnost i kao vjerovatnoća zbog toga što su interesi subjekata kolektivnog radnog prava uvijek suprotni. Upravo, ta suprotnost interesa dovodi do uspostavljanja kolektivnih radnih odnosa na temelju akata koji predstavljaju rezultat sporazumijevanja u cilju ostvarenja kolektivnih prava i interesa na radu, u vezi sa radom i povodom rada. Jedan od pravnih mehanizama koji služi ostvarenju ovog cilja socijalnih partnera jeste pravo na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca. Pravo na participaciju jedno je od temeljnih kolektivnih radnih prava kojim se osigurava pravo zaposlenih da putem svojih institucionalnih oblika predstavljanja učestvuju u odlučivanju kod poslodavca kada poslodavac donosi odluke koje su značajne za njihova prava i interese iz radnog odnosa. Zbog izuzetnog značaja i važnosti ovog prava zaposlenih u ostvarivanju i zaštiti prava i interesa zaposlenih iz radnog odnosa, pravo na participaciju uređeno je univerzalnim pravnim aktima – konvencijama Međunarodne organizacije rada, regionalnim evropskim pravnim aktima od kojih je od posebnog značaja Revidirana evropska socijalna povelja i nacionalnim pravnim aktima svake države. Pravo na participaciju različito je uređeno u pojedinim državama u skladu sa njihovim specifičnostima unutrašnjeg karaktera na koje posebno 324 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ utiče tradicija s jedne strane, i ,s druge strane jačina radničkog i sindikalnog pokreta. Pravo na participaciju uređeno je heteronomnim pravnim propisima, kolektivnim ugovorima i autonomnim općim aktima poslodavaca. Svakako najjaču garanciju ostvarenju i zaštiti ovog prava daje heteronomno pravno uređenje, ali tone mora biti odlučujući faktor jer u razvijenim državama sa jakim sindikalnim i radničkim pokretom ovo pravo je potpuno efikasno iako je uređeno ili kolektivnim ugovorima ili autonomnim općim aktima poslodavca. Pravo na participaciju zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca ostvaruje se informisanjem od strane poslodavca, konsultovanjem sa poslodavcem i saodlučivanjem sa poslodavcem. Ova tri mehanizma u rukama zaposlenih, odnosno njihovih institucionalnih predstavnika predstavljaju izuzetno jaka pravna sredstva za potpuno ostvarenje i zaštitu temeljnih, ali i svih prava iz radnog odnosa, tj. prava na radu, u vezi sa radom u povodom rada. Pravo na participaciju u Bosni i Hercegovini uređeno je na entitetskom nivou i nivou Brčko Distrikta BiH heteronomnim pravnim propisima, a ostvaruje se institucionalnim oblicima predstavljanja zaposlenih posredstvom vijeća zaposlenika / savjeta radnika ili sindikata ako vijeće zaposlenika /savjet radnika nije formiran kod poslodavca. Pravo na participaciju ostvaruje se zakonski utvrđenim mehanizmima koji istovremeno predstavljaju prava zaposlenih i obaveze poslodavca na informisanje, na konsultovanje sa poslodavcem i saodlučivanje sa poslodavcem. Koristeći se navedenim participativnim pravima zaposlenici mogu potpuno i efikasno ostvariti i zaštiti svoja individualna prava iz radnog odnosa. Zbog toga je neophodno svakodnevno uticati na zaposlene da koriste svoja zakonom utvrđena prava i da obavezno osnivaju i organiziraju sindikat u svojoj radnoj sredini ili da se pridruže već postojećim sindikalnim organizacijama, da tamo gdje ispunjavaju uvjete za formiranje vijeća zaposlenika / savjeta radnika obavezno formiraju vijeće zaposlenika / savjet radnika i da putem tih institucija predstavljanja vrše konstantan pritisak na poslodavaca da ispunjava obaveze iz participacije. 325 �Faruk Sinanović: PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI LITERATURA Brajić V. (2001) Radno pravo, Beograd, Savremena administracija Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. (2005) Radno pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Dedić S. Gradaščević Sijerčić J. (2000) Temelji međunarodnog radnog prava, Sarajevo, Pravni centar Fond otvoreno društvo BiH Lubarda B. A. (2004) Evropsko radno pravo, Podgorica, CID Milićević N. (2007) Ljudska prava, Sarajevo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Trnka K. Ustavno pravo, (2000) Sarajevo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Studentska štamparija Univerziteta Sarajevo Trnka K. Milićević N., Simović M., Dmičić M.S. (2004) Ustav Federacije Bosne i Hecegovine, Ustav Republike Srpske, Evropska povelja o lokalnoj samoupravi, Komentar, Centar za promociju civilnog društva Sarajevo, Žilić A. (1996) Bosna i Hercegovina Kodeks ljudskih prava, Slavonski Brod, Amadeus Propisi i sudska praksa Opći kolektivni ugovor za teritoriju Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine Opšti kolektivni ugovor Republike Srpske Presuda Općinskog suda u Tuzli broj 032 0 P 09 001404 od 05.02.2010. godine Presuda Kantonalnog suda u Tuzli broj 03 0 P 002759 10 Gž od 12.01.2012. godine, 326 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije BiH broj 32 0 P 121904 12 Rev od 06.12.2012. godine Presuda Općinskog suda u Tuzli broj 32 0 P 005288 09 P od 07.07.2010. godine Presuda Kantonalnog suda u Tuzli broj 32 0 P 005288 10 Gž od 14.02.2013. godine Zakon o radu Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Zakon o radu Republike Srpske Zakon o radu Brčko distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine, Zakonima o vijeću zaposlenika Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine Zakonom o savjetima radnika Republike Srpske Zakon o radu Republike Hrvatske 327 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3067 Title A name given to the resource PARTICIPACIJA ZAPOSLENIH U OSTVARIVANJU I ZAŠTITI PRAVA IZ RADNOG ODNOSA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI Author Author SINANOVIĆ, Faruk Abstract A summary of the resource. Pravo na participaciju zaposlenih jedno je od temeljnih kolektivnih prava koje podrazumijeva pravo na odlučivanje, pravo na učešće u raspodjeli dobiti i pravo učešća u vlasništvu kod poslodavca ili radničko dioničarstvo. Pravo na participaciju uređeno je univerzalnim međunarodnim pravnim aktima – Konvencijama Međunarodne organizacije rada, regionalnim – evropskim pravnim aktima – Revidiranom evropskom socijalnom poveljom i nacionalnim zakonodavstvima država. U Bosni i Hercegovini pravo na participaciju uređeno je entitetskim zakonima, a ostvaruje se kako institucionalno, tako i vaninstitucionalno. Temeljna prava zaposlenih koja proističu iz participacije jesu pravo na informisanje od strane poslodavca, pravo na konsultovanje – savjetovanje sa poslodavcem i pravo saodlučivanja sa poslodavcem, odnosno davanja prethodne saglasnosti poslodavcu na određene odluke. U radu se razmatraju temeljna pitanja participacije vezana za sam pojam i pravni režim participacije, obaveze poslodavaca, odnosno prava zaposlenih iz participacije, modele participacije, legitimnost participacije i oblike učešća zaposlenih u odlučivanju kod poslodavca. Metodologija korištena prilikom izrade ovog rada zasnivala se normativnom, sociološkom, komparativnom i dogmatskom metodu. Prava zaposlenih koja proističu iz participacije u Bosni i Hercegovini veoma su značajni i jaki institucionalno zakonski instrumenti u ostvarivanju i zaštiti njihovih prava u radnom odnosu i prava iz radnog odnosa. Ključne riječi: Pravo na rad, kolektivna prava, pravo na participaciju, zaposleni, poslodavci, vijeće zaposlenika, sindikat, ekonomsko socijalna prava, ostvarivanje prava i zaštita prava i pravnih interesa. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/beeba85bdadf8fc0c0353c12c55e77eb.pdf 1c87d89725ec6dedc50745a035250991 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Participation Banking in European Context Šukrija RAMIĆ Islamic Pedagogical Faculty, University in Zenica, Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina sukriramic@hotmail.com Abstract The purpose of this study is to find a common ground for participation KEYWORDS banking in Europe, by explaining a new way of banking practice Participation banking, Usury, which has its roots in the European business tradition of partnership, Sharia, Murabaha, Musharaka, investment, trading and providing services, as well as the status of Mudaraba, Salam, Istisna, Ijara usury in Christian, Jewish and other traditions. It deals with questions related to the openness of European societies to this invention of Islamic culture, the main characteristics of participation banking, its benefits, the chances for building better relations with the Muslim world, and the possibilities of participation banking in non-Muslim environments. It is concluded that participation banking is an opportunity for rather ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 21 October 2011 Resubmitted: 4 Spring 2012 Resubmitted: 12 February 2012 Accepted: 25 March 2012 than a threat to, Europe which will open new dimensions for the banking industry, diverse responsibility, bring people together, increase competition and bring better services with more competitive prices and, what is quite important is that it might activate the savings of European Muslims that are currently out of the banking system. JEL Code: G29 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 91 �Šukrija RAMIĆ Introduction The biggest success of European society is reflected in the fact that it has largely managed to build a pluralistic society that accepts and respects differences among people. This achievement has opened the road to new success in the political and economic fields, so that today we have the European Union in front of which are great opportunities if it succeeds to maintain the direction towards pluralism and respect for diversity among its citizens. The principle of pluralism is consistent with the natural law of Allah Almighty because He has created people different and prescribed to them to meet and know each other: “O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made​​you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another “(Qur’an, Al-Hujurat 13). Whatever is natural, whatever is consistent with the natural law of God, has a chance of success, because it brings to human beings what is in harmony with their nature, what is good and useful for them. Although, as noted, European society is pluralistic, although it respects pluralism, some people within society, sometimes, reluctantly accept when something comes from the Islamic culture. There is prejudice, and even open opposition, at the first glance, just because it comes from Islamic culture. Given the objectives that European society proclaims, it would be fair to give participation banking fair treatment and a chance to participate and compete in the European market. Thus, the revival of the following universal values and ​​ principles on which European society is built is necessary: 1. A universal attitude toward human beings: that all human beings are bloodbrothers and sisters with the same rights and obligations.1 People should be valued according to their actions-how beneficial or harmful their deeds and actions are to themselves, to other people and to the environment, but not based on their ethnic origin or religion. 2. The freedom of expression of ideas should be fully implemented. Restriction should only be on the usage of insulting words and expressions. It will enable people to present their products and ideas freely.2 3. Equal rights and obligations in society and equal rights in front of the law: This principal requires European secular states to revive the original idea of secularism, according to which all citizens are equal in their rights and obligations and equal in front of the law.3 4. Equal opportunity for all human achievements: It can be achieved if the cultural and other achievements of all Europeans are equally treated and given equal opportunity to compete in the field of ideas and products.4 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context Rational Behind Prohibition of Interest The Qur’an and the Sunnah do not provide any detailed rational for the prohibition of interest (riba). However, the implicit meaning of Qur’anic verses and sayings of the Prophet, p.b.u.h., about interest may suggest that the charging of interest is an act of injustice. This is why Muslim scholars, when speaking about reasons why Islam has prohibited interest, say that the main reason behind the prohibition of interest is the prevention of injustice. The injustice in dealing on the basis of interest can be observed at different levels. For example, the fact is that the lender is guaranteed a positive return while the borrower takes all the risks. Therefore, taking interest represents akl amwal an-nas bi-l-batil because the lender and the borrower are in an unequal position. “Such injustice may result based on significant price fluctuations, or any of a number of other considerations. Moreover, there is a very real danger of exploitation of poor debtors by creditors, which Islam strives to eliminate.” (Zuhayli, 2001:1/337) Furthermore, it opens the way for the accumulation of wealth in a few hands. After explaining that as a whole, socio-economic and distributive justice, intergenerational equity, economic instability and ecological destruction are considered the basis of the prohibition of interest, Muhammad Ayub concludes: “Keeping in mind all relevant texts and the principles of Islamic law, the only reason that appears convincing is that of distributive justice, because the prohibition of Riba is intended to prevent the accumulation of wealth in a few hands; that is, it is not to be allowed to “circulate among the rich” (Holy Qur’an, 59: 7). Therefore, the major purpose of Riba prohibition is to block the means that lead to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, whether they are banks or individuals.” (Ayub, 2007:54-55). The way to go out, without stopping economic activities, is partnership financing through products of participation banking. Main Characteristics of Participation Banking The main characteristic of participation banking and finance are: 1. Dealing on non-interest basis. The Qur’an says: “…whereas Allah has permitted trading and forbidden usury” (Qur’an, Al-Baqara: 275). Due to this revelation Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 93 �Šukrija RAMIĆ and some other verses and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, p.b.u.h., Muslim scholars are unanimous that usury is forbidden in Islam. Zuhayli says: “The Islamic nation is in consensus over the prohibition of riba. In this regard, Al-Mawardi said: “To the point that no legal system (sharia) has ever permitted it”, as evidenced by the verse “That they took riba, thou they ere forbidden to do so” (4:161), meaning in the previous revelations (Zuhayli, 2001:1/311). It is considered to be a way of unjustified taking possessions of others (akl amwal al-nas bi al-baṭil) by receiving monetary advantage in a business transaction without giving a just counter value. “The principal reason why the Qur’an has delivered such a harsh verdict against interest is that Islam wishes to establish an economic system where all forms of exploitation are eliminated, and particularly, the injustice perpetuated in the form of the financier being assured of a positive return without doing any work or sharing in the risk, while the entrepreneur, in spite of his management and hard work, is not assured of such a positive return. Islam wishes to establish justice between the financier and the entrepreneur (Chapra, 1995). 2. Partnership. The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said that Allah Almighty promised His support to humans who work together in partnership till one of them starts to cheat the other (Abu Dawud, 2000). This is why business in Islam is partnership oriented. Because of the same reason participation banking is partnership oriented on the basis of profit and loss sharing. The main products musharaka and mudaraba are pure partnerships, while all other products like salam, istisna, ijara and, even, murabaha have some elements of partnership. 3. Asset backed financing. Islam does not recognize money and monetary paper as a subject-matter for trade except in the trading of different currencies. “Profit is generated when something having intrinsic utility is sold for money or when different currencies are exchanged one for another. The profit earned through dealing in money (of the same currency) or the papers representing them is interest, hence prohibited. Therefore, unlike conventional financial institutions, financing in Islam is always in illiquid assets which create real assets and inventories (Usmani, 2002). 4. Transparency. There is no hidden costs, no small letters in the contract. Uncertainty (gharar), including deception or ignorance is prohibited. One of conditions for the contract to be valid in Islamic law is clearness, transparency, explicitness and non existence of doubtful and uncertain matters that can cause disagreement in the future. 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context 5. Care for the society. This care is evident in many aspects. Islam prohibits everything that is harmful to human beings like alcohol, tobacco, gambling, prostitution, etc. Islam has prohibited maisir (gains made from speculative activity, or ‘unfairly earned income’) because it harms society. Therefore, participation banks do not finance those products and activities or anything else that is harmful to human beings. Participation banks help poor people through a product called qarḍ ḥasan (benevolent loan). Through special funds they try to find solutions for the micro financing of poor people on terms that are suitable for them. If a partner of a participation bank experiences hardship the bank has the obligation to help because the Qur’an says: “And if the debtor is in hard time, then grant him time till it is easy for him to repay, but if you remit it by a way of charity, that is better for you if you did but know (Qur’an, Al-Baqara: 280). In all cases participation banking is keen for the successes of its clients, because it is the only way that the bank can be successful. 6. Real economic activities. Participation banking is not the mere lending of money, but rather a very large spectrum of economic activities that represents an alternative method to profit making in trade, partnership in project financing and providing all banking services that modern customers require. It is widening the ways of financing and opening new opportunities. These are the main characteristics of participation banking. All of them should be evident in practice if participation banking is implemented according to the teachings of Islam. Expected Standing of Europeans about Participation Banking In Europe Participation banking has a religious dimension for Muslims5, but for non-Muslims it would be, at least, a human product, like other human products. Most Europeans certainly have a positive attitude toward the previously mentioned values and principles and as a result of that they should accept participation banking as a human product and achievement. Sharia is the religious law for Muslims that regulates their daily activities, and for those who don’t believe in Islam as sense of divine source, it should be a cultural achievement of their fellow human beings. That cultural achievement has the right to be treated equally alongside the cultural achievements of others. Therefore, Muslims Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 95 �Šukrija RAMIĆ in Europe and elsewhere are expecting that kind of treatment towards their cultural achievements. Any treatment by which Muslim culture is placed in a second-rate position may be a sign of intolerance, prejudice, or lack of knowledge. All products of human beings have to be judged according to their usefulness or harm to society, not on the cultural background of a certain product. Therefore, when discussing participation banking in Europe what should be discussed is whether it would work properly in a certain European environment, how it can be incorporated in the European legal system, whether it will improve economic activities, bring benefits to the society and so forth. Is Participation Banking for Muslims only? Certainly, it is not. These products can be used by all people, Muslims and nonMuslims6, by participation and conventional banks. Participation banking does not require the introduction of Sharia law on the state level and participation banks can be run by non-Muslims, too.7 Even more, conventional banks can, under certain conditions, have windows which operate in accordance with Sharia standards8. Therefore, correct and impartial relation to the products of participation banking requires a discussion of it in the light of its benefits to society, possibility of its implementation in different environments, not in the sense of imposing Islam and Sharia law on non-Muslims.9 Usury in the Past and Contemporary World The practice of usury - lending money with interest can be traced back 4,000 years10. This activity has always been condemned, restricted or banned by moral, ethical, legal or religious entities. In the Hindu Sutra (700-100 BC), as well as in the Buddhist Jatakas (600-400 BC), the payment of interest is mentioned along with expressions of disdain for the practice. Vasishtha, a prominent lawmaker of the era, drafted a law that banned the high caste Brahmans and Kshatryas from being usurers or money-lenders. 96 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context Western philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Cato, Cicero, Seneca and Plutarch were critics of usury. Judaism, Christianity and Islam all forbid usury. The Torah discusses the prohibition against taking interest in many places: Exodus 22:24; Leviticus 25:36-37; and Deuteronomy 23:20-21. The verses in Deuteronomy says: “You must not make your brother pay interest, interest on money, interest on food, interest on anything on which one may claim interest. You may make a foreigner pay interest, but your brother you must not make pay interest” (Deuteronomy, 23:19-20)11. The Qur’an states: “That is because they say: “Trading is like usury,” whereas Allah has permitted trading and forbidden usury” (Qur’an, Al-Baqara : 275). Despite these facts, only Muslims, and some non-Muslim individuals and smaller groups and organizations stand firmly against interest, and try to avoid it in their everyday life. On other side churches like the Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox churches do not object anymore to the interest charged by conventional banks12. However, after the last prime mortgage crisis in America which affected most countries worldwide it seems that the Catholic Church has started opening its doors to the idea of participation banking. One article in the Brussels Journal on this subject is clear about the changes which can be expected in the future. The Journal states: In yet another act of conciliation on the part of Western religions towards Islam, the Vatican newspaper L’Osservatore Romano has voiced its approval of Islamic finance. The Vatican paper wrote that banks should look at the rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. “The ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based may bring banks closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service,” the L’Osservatore Romano said. “Western banks could use tools such as Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral”. Sukuk may be used to fund the “‘car industry or the next Olympic Games in London,” the article says. The Vatican article is only one of many articles that have recently appeared on the acceptance by Western governments and bankers of an Islamic financing system. More than accepting it, they seem to be welcoming it, though they are certainly being pressured into this by unnamed forces bowing to the dictates of Islam (Tiberge, 2009). France, which has opposed Paricipation banking for a long time, has eliminated legal hurdles, particularly levies, for Islamic financial services and products and enabled listing companies on the Paris Stock Exchange. French Finance Minister Christine Lagarde announced in 2009 France’s intention to make Paris “the capital of Islamic finance” and said that several Islamic banks would open branches in the French capital in 2009 (Aki, 2011). Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 97 �Šukrija RAMIĆ On 17.01.2011, The Bloomberg news has quoted the statement of State Secretary for Foreign Trade Pierre Lellouche that France is going to develop Islamic finance and attract investment from the Gulf to its economy: “We’ve had some delay, compared to the British particularly,” Lellouche said in an interview in Abu Dhabi today, “The legal mechanisms are getting in place and French banks are very capable and they are at it.” The Bloomberg reported that the first Islamic bond from France could be sold in early 2011 after the government introduced guidelines for sukuk offerings, Thierry Dissaux, chief executive officer of the French Deposit Guarantee Fund said in an interview Dec.15. Reuters reported on 27 October 2011 that French lender Credit Agricola (CAGR. PA) is considering either issuing an Islamic bond or creating a wider sukuk program that could lead to several issues, as European banks seek to diversify funding, a senior executive said on Thursday. “It’s something that we’re always looking at but it’s probably more on the agenda today than yesterday because banks need to diversify funding,” Simon Eedle, managing director and global head of Islamic banking, told the Reuters Middle East Investment Summit. “I believe it’s something that we will do. It’s only a question of time,” he said. “If Credit Agricole were to issue a sukuk, it would be an ijara structure with real Islamic assets to justify to the investors that we are using the financing to divide the liabilities to match the Islamic assets we have,” he said (Pasha& Uppal, 2011). Despite the fact that the preparation of the legal framework and the introduction of the instruments of Islamic banking seem slow, these developments in Europe are a good sign which Muslims worldwide applaud and encourage. Participation Banking Products Participation banking is enjoining permanent development. It comes with new products and improves existing ones. Today, the most popular products of participation banking are the following: 98 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context 1. Murabaha “Murabaha is a particular kind of sale where the seller expressly mentions the cost of the sold commodity he/she has incurred, and sells it to another person by adding some profit thereon” (Usmani, 2002)13. The murabaha transaction exists between three parties: the financier (the bank), the vendor from whom the bank purchased the goods, and the client of the bank who will buy the goods on deferred payment basis. More than eighty percent of participation banking financing is done through this product and due to this fact murabaha is known as a method of banking operations, while in the essence it is a kind of trade with a disclosed profit margin. 2. Musharaka Musharaka means a joint enterprise formed for conducting some business activities in which all partners share the profit according to a specific ratio, while the loss is shared according to the ratio of the contribution (Usmani, 2002). This mode is represented in the contribution of partners of equal or unequal ratios of capital to establish a new or to take part in an existing project, whereby each participant owns a share in the capital and deserves his share of the profit. The partnership originally is intended to continue up to the dissolution of the company. It is possible, though, for one of the partners to sell his share in the capital and to withdraw from the project one for reason or another,. The participation banks use this mode in different projects. They finance their customers with part of the capital in exchange for a share of the output that they agree upon. Mostly, they leave the responsibility of management to the customer partner and retain the right of supervision and follow up. 3. Musharaka Mutanaqisa “According to this concept, a financier and his client participate either in the joint ownership of property, or equipment, or in a joint commercial enterprise. The share of the financier is further divided into a number of units. It is understood that the client will purchase the units of the share of the financier one by one periodically. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 99 �Šukrija RAMIĆ By doing that, the client is increasing his own share, till all the units of the financier are purchased by him so as to make him the sole owner of the property, or the commercial enterprise, as the case may be” (Usmani, 2002). Decreasing or diminishing partnership differs from permanent partnership in terms of continuity. In the decreasing partnership the bank intends, from the beginning, to remain associated with the client for a defined period of time, not indefinitely. According to this concept, the bank has all the rights and obligations of the ordinary partner. The client uses the shared property or the equipment and pays rent for the part owned by the bank. The collected rent is what the participation bank earns from this kind of partnership. 4. Mudaraba “This is a kind of partnership where one partner gives money to another one for investing in a commercial enterprise. The investment comes from the first partner who is called rabb al-mal whiles the management and work is an exclusive responsibility of the other, who is called mudarib and the profit generated are shared in a predetermined ratio” (Usmani, 2002). Mudaraba in the banking industry is a finance process whereby the participation bank contributes funds and a client contributes expertise and works to execute a potentially successful project. Profits are distributed in a percentage agreed upon beforehand. The bank shall bear any loss if the client is not negligent or in violation of the terms. Mudaraba can cover one deal, several deals, or a specified period of time up to a specified ceiling (Archer & Karim, R: 2002). 5. Salam “In salam, the seller undertakes to supply specific goods to the buyer at a future date in exchange for an advanced price fully paid at spot” (Usmani, 2002). Therefore, salam is a financial transaction in which price is advanced in cash to the seller who abides the delivery of commodity of determined specification on a definite due date and place. The bank can, on parallel salam, sell a commodity of the same kind as it has previously purchased with the first salam, without making one contract depend on the other. The bank also has the option of waiting to receive the commodity and then selingl it for cash or deferred payment.14 100 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context 6. Istisna It is a contract with a manufacturer who is to make something for the purchaser, for a defined price, which can be paid in advance or later. Therefore, istisna is a sale transaction where a commodity is transacted before it comes into existence. In this kind of transaction the price and all necessary specifications of the commodity and other terms must be fixed and fully settled. Participation banks frequently use istisna to finance building and constructing projects. The majority of the jurists consider istisna to be one of the divisions of salam. 7. Ijara (Operating Lease) “In leasing an owner transfers its usufruct to another person for an agreed period, at an agreed consideration (Usmani, 2002). Leased subject must have usufruct, must be identified and quantified. It remains in the ownership of the lesser. According to this mode, the participation bank maintains a number of various assets as its property to respond to the needs of different customers. These assets usually have a high degree of marketability. The bank lends these assets to any party and after the end of the lease period the assets are returned to the bank, which looks for a new lessee. The collected rent is what the participation bank earns from this activity. 8. Ijara wa iqtina’ (Lease purchase) Lease purchase, or lease that ends with possession, is a new mode tailored by participation banks. The bank purchases an asset on behalf of a customer who is interested in owning it by means of lease that ends with possession. At the end of the lease period, ownership is transferred to the lessee. Generally, the bank calculates total rentals on the basis of the cost of asset plus the profit. Rentals are paid over a period of time as agreed between the bank and the customer (Usmani, Archer & Kerim, 2002). 9. Qard hasan (Benevolent loan) “Qarḍ ḥasan is a loan which is returned at the end of the agreed period without any interest or share in the profit or loss of the business.” (Chapra,1995:68). Every participation bank has a special account for the qard hasan fund. They normally put Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 101 �Šukrija RAMIĆ some of their annual profit in that fund and channel to that account all income that is forbidden in Sharia, like penalties etc. These funds are limited. Therefore, qard hasan financing is available to a limited extent. It is provided for financing of small businesses or to help those people who face personal hardships and need financial help. Participation Banking in the European Tradition and Opposition to it The above mentioned products may be traced and found in the European tradition, as well as in temporary practice15. Europeans have long traded with known and unknown profit margins; they have been establishing joint ventures, investing in different businesses, leasing properties etc. Europeans had and they still have co-operative, interest-free banks. A well known bank of this type is the JAK bank in Sweden. JAK has been operating an interest-free savings and loan system since 1970. It was licensed in 1997. It has 36,300 members and annual growth of 7 percent16 (Jak, 2011). Despite the fact that the products of participation banking are widely practiced in the everyday lives of Europeans, it still faces some opposition, sometimes because of prejudice and mostly due to ignorance regarding the intentions of Shariah which are reflected primarily in the protection of the five core values: protection of life, religion, wealth, honour, and offspring. It can be said that the great majority of Europeans support these values as Muslims which practise Islam do. Therefore, they can, for certain, find common ground when participation banking is in question. The best proof for such a claim are European banks, many of which are trying to benefit from participation banking system by opening windows for participation banking. This trend is supposed to continue more vividly in the future. If it becomes a success story, it will remove some suspicions that still circle in Europe about participation banking. European Experience in Participation Banking The UK has the most and the longest experience in participation banking amongst European countries, despite the fact that it does not have the biggest Muslim population. The UK has 1.8 million, while France has 5 million Muslims. Participation banking in the UK started a quarter of a century ago, and France actively started preparations for the introduction of participation banking in 2009. 102 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context The UK has become a centre for participation banking because London, as the most influential financial centre in Europe, has became the centre for Islamic finance. The beginning was with Al-Baraka International Bank in 1982, then United Bank of Kuwait, which later became Al-Ahli United Bank. This bank still operates. The first dedicated participation bank in the UK is the Islamic Bank of Britain, which was licensed in 2004. The first participation investment bank, the European Islamic Investment Bank, was opened in UK as well. Participation banks in the eighties had an excessive liquidity and London took advantage of this to channel money into its market and businesses. The excessive liquidity is obvious nowadays, and, maybe it is the main reason why Gordon Brown, while speaking in the conference on participation banking and finance held in London in 2006, said: “It is the vibrancy and dynamism of Britain’s Muslims, combined with Britain’s openness to the world and our historic ties with Muslim countries, that means the ambition you have set for yourselves - to make Britain the gateway to Islamic finance and trade - is one I believe Britain is well placed to achieve” (Adfero, 2006). In his speech related to this subject Financial Services Authority (FSA) Chairman Sir Callum McCarthy laid out the UK position, saying, “It is important that we showed we were able to accommodate Islamic banking practices alongside traditional non-Islamic banking, for reasons both of principle and of practical importance” (McCarthy, 2006). There is a need to emphasize a great potential in liquid money owned by European Muslims, who are out of the banking system due to the fact that they are trying to avoid dealing in interest. If a ḥalal system is provided, they will invest, especially if they know that keeping liquid money as kanz (unused money) is blame worthy in Islam. When Turkey becomes a full member of the European Union, the participation banking which is growing rapidly in this Euro-Asian state will gain new dimensions. The Participation Banking Experience in Bosnia & Herzegovina Vakufska banka d.d. Sarajevo, founded in 1992, was the first bank in Bosnia & Herzegovina that was established to work according to the participation banking principles. However, it never introduced that practice and their business has included interest from the beginning, due to a lack of skilful professionals in participation banking. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 103 �Šukrija RAMIĆ Orient banka d.d. Sarajevo – founded in 1996, was the very first bank that provided loans on a non-interest basis. In January 2000, this bank was forced to merge with the conventional ABS banka d.d. Sarajevo and, accordingly, lost its identity as a participation bank. In October 2000 Bosna Bank International d.d. Sarajevo was founded. It is the only bank in Bosnia and Herzegovina that operates under the principles of participation banking. The founders of BBI are: the Islamic Development Bank 45, 46%, the Dubai Islamic Bank 27,27%, and the Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank 27,27%. BBI provides all banking services, but it faces limitations because of the local legal system, which does not recognize “interest-free” business models. Therefore, the main products of participation banking like murābaha, mushāraka and ijāra cannot be used in their “classical” forms. There are some other difficulties that the bank is facing, like double taxation due to tax on profit obligations at the end of the business year (participation in sharing of profit represents income for the bank, while interest represents costs charged as expenses). Since 2006, BBI is trying to amend the Law on Banking. The amendment past successfully through the House of Representatives, but it did not go to the House of People because there was not enough support from Croat representatives. In order to remove some doubts about participation banking, BBI is organizing seminars and promoting the idea of participation banking in different ways. One seminar was organised in 2006 for the Federal Government and the Banking Agency. The speakers were Professor Rodney Wilson from Durham University, UK, Dr. Murad W. Hofmann from Germany and Sheikh Nizam Ya’qubi from Bahrain. Their presentations were well received by the Prime Minister and his cabinet ministers at that time, but the law remains unchanged until now. The last effort was made on 19.12.2011. The Association of Banks of Bosnia and Herzegovina drafted some amendments to the Draft Law on Amendments to the Banking Act proposed by the Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. One of amendments is: “Banks can in its business use products based on partnership and the sale with profit margin, but only for the purpose of lendingfinancing banks customers.” Participation Banking in the Global Finance Industry Participation banking is relatively small in the global finance industry. Alexander Lis, managing director at Oliver Wyman, the consultancy, calculates that there is 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Participation Banking in European Context $300bn of assets managed according to participation principles, and more than 280 institutions providing participation products (Khalaf, & Tett 2007). Other experts estimate these numbers to be much higher. The Future of Participation Banking in Europe Participation banking today shares only 1% of the global banking industry. However, keeping in mind the great potential of Muslim countries and the annual growth of the participation banking industry by 15%, there is no doubt that it is going to play a greater role in the future. In last two decades participation banking has developed rapidly. This quick and sudden development is an un-believable phenomenon. One of pioneers in the industry and a renowned expert in participation banking Hussein Hassan from the Dubai Islamic Bank says: “What has happened has been extraordinary – no one would have believed this growth was possible a decade or two ago” (Khalaf & Tett, 2007). This is a growth that is supposed to continue even faster in the foreseeable future and it will affect the development of the participation banking industry in Europe. European banks will continue to introduce participation banking17 and more institutions will be involved in this sector. Participation banks from the Gulf will continue coming to European countries, especially if these countries adapt their laws by skipping double taxation and allowing banks to trade in commodities. European countries will move in that direction because the market seems to be heading that way. Because of the huge interest in participation banking, European universities will open new courses on the subject and postgraduate studies in participation banking will become very popular.18 New centres for participation banking will emerge outside London, like Luxemburg, Sarajevo, Paris and Vienna. As the money flows, some existing opposition to participation banking will die away. The European continent will host new conferences on participation banking and finance. The liquid savings of Muslims, which are outside of the banking system at the moment, will be invested through European participation banks and it will give new incentive to the European economy. In order to meet the expectations of Muslims and others who support participation banking, participation banks have to develop more transparency, educate their employees and clients, harmonize their Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 105 �Šukrija RAMIĆ products, and improve mechanisms of internal and external control etc. They have to work on the development of new products, which will meet modern human needs, like insurance, pension schemes, investment funds etc. Conclusion Participation banking is an opportunity rather than a threat to Europe. It revives European traditions of partnership and cooperation. It opens new dimensions for the banking industry, diverse responsibility and brings people together. Participation banking will increase competition and bring better services with more competitive prices. Participation banking in Europe will open new opportunities for cooperation with the Muslim world and enable European banks to enter new markets. The cooperation is the best way for preventing hostilities that are, unfortunately, still floating in the air between some European countries and the Muslim world. Participation banking is a big opportunity for European banks to activate the savings of European Muslims that are currently outside of banking system. All that has been mentioned gives us the right to predict a bright future for the participation banking industry in Europe. References Abu Dawud, S. (2000). Sunan Abu Dawud, Hadith Encyclopedia (on compact disc), Version 2,1 Harf Information Tecnology, Egipat. Accounting and Auditing Organization for Participation Financial Institutions (AAOIFI) (2002). Sharia Standards, Manama, Bahrain. Adfero, L. (2006). Brown pledges support for Islamic finance, http://www.viewlondon.co.uk/news/brown-pledges-support-for-islamic-finance-17160286.html. Archer, S. & Abdel Karim, R. (2002). Participation Finance Innovation and Growth, Euromoney Books and AAOIFI. Ayub, M. (2007). Understanding Islamic Finance, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, England. 106 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Business Times, (2008). More non-Muslims trying Islamic banking: OCBC. The New Straits Times Press Malaysia. http://www.btimes.com.my/Current_News/ BTIMES/arti cles/20081201152232/Article/. Chapra, M. (1992). Islam and the Economic Challenge, The Islamic Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya. Chapra, M. (1995). Towards a Just Monetary System, the Islamic Foundation, Leicester, UK. Doi, A. (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law, Ta-ha Publishers Ltd. London, United Kingdom. Fahey, C. (2011). Churches Came to Terms with Money Lending, Dossier, Volume 14, 5. http://gvanv.com/compass/arch/v1405/fahey.html. Gamal, M. A. (2006). Islamic Finance Law, Economics, and Practice, Cambrige University Press, Cambrige, UK. Guia, M. (2011). The morals of money-lending, World Guide. http://www.henciclopedia. org.uy/autores/Laguiadelmundo/Usury.htm. Hassan, M. K. & Mervyn K. L. (2007). Handbook of Islamic Banking,Published byEdward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK. Iqbal, M. & Llewellyn, D. T. (2002). Islamic Banking and Finance - New Perspectives on Profit-Sharing and Risk,Published byEdward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK. Izzi Dien, M. (2004). Islamic Law From Historic Foundations to Contemporary Practice, Edinburgh University Press, United Kingdom. Khalaf, R. & Tett G. (2007). Backwater sector moves into global mainstream, Financial Times, Special Report. McCarthy, C. (2006). Regulation and Islamic finance, MCBIF and Trade Conference. http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Communication/Speeches/2006/0613_ cm.shtml. Nairobi, Kenya and the International Institute of Islamic Thought, Hemdon, USA. Qudama, A. (1367. H). Al-Mugni, Daru-l-Manar, Cairo.Thrd edition. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 107 �Ramic, S. (2003). Language and the Interpretation of Islamic Law, Islamic Texts Society, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Sarakhsi, M. (1324. H). Al-Mabsut, Matbaatus-saadah, Cairo, First edition. Taylor, P. (2005). Freedom of Religion, Cambridge University Press, UK. Thomas, A. (2006). Interest in Islamic Economics-Understanding riba, simultaneously published 2006 in the USA and Canada by Routledge. Usmani, M. I. (2002). Meezanbank’s Guide to Islamic Banking, Darul Ishaat, Karachi, Pakistan, First edition. Usmani, M. T. (2002). An Introduction to Islamic Finance, Maktaba Ma’ariful Qur’an, Karachi, Pakistan. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (1984). New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A. Zuhayli, W. (2001). Financial Transactions in Islamic Jurisprudence, Daru-l-fikr, Damascus, Syria. (Endnotes) 1 First article of Universal Declaration of Human Rights says: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” (Taylor, 2005:353) The Qur’an says: “O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another.” (Qur’an, Al-Hujurat: 13) 2 This principal will allow the best ideas to be recognized pursuant to the rule, “The essence of the things is recognized through their opposites.” 3 The fact is that in secular states of Europe, frequently, on the scene are atheistic, religious or nationalistic secularisms, where a group has privileges because of its beliefs or national belonging. The culture and products of that privileged group have advantage and that group is better protected and enjoys certain privileges in front of the law. All this is done in the name of secularism. The main condition for having people live in love and peace is to give them equal opportunity in everyday life and make them feel equal in front of the law. Practices of European courts do not give us impression that people are always equal and that they have always equal treatment. This assertion is obvious from examples provided by Taylor in his book Freedom of Religion - UN and European Human Rights Law and Practice. 4 The products of human beings should be judged according to their usefulness or harm to the society, not on the cultural background of the product. Therefore, the idea of participation banking should be discussed on the basis whether it will be working properly in a certain European environment, whether it will improve economic activities, bring benefits to the society and so forth. 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �5 Because, according to Islam, everyday life is not separated from Sharia. Sharia provides rulings for every human activity. 6 “Non-Muslims now make up half of the OCBC Al-Amin Bank’s Islamic banking customers, says its chief executive. ISLAMIC banking is gaining ground with non-Muslims worldwide due to its strict lending principles, Singapore’s third-largest lender OCBC said today, reflecting industry efforts to transcend religious beliefs to gain market share.” (http://www.btimes.com.my/Current_News/BTIMES/articles/20081201152232/Article/ Accesed: 30. 12. 2011.) 7 The CEO of Islamic Bank of Britain was Christian Michael Hanlon, and CEO of Bosna Bank International in Bosnia & Herzegovina for a period of time was Mr. Andre van Howe, who is Christian too. 8 Many European banks have such windows: HSBC, Barclays Capital, ANZ Grindlays, Lloyds TSB, BNP Paribas, Societe Generale, Commerzbank, Deutsche Bank, ABN Amro, Mežkobank, UBS, etc. 9 In my free assessment eighty to ninety percent of European laws are in spirit of Sharia. In other words, all European laws that aim to establish and upheld justice, protect human lives, dignity, property, religion and offspring, have the very same goals that Sharia wants to achieve. Indeed, some of these laws do not always reach the high standards of Sharia, so that they do not protect enough these categories, but, nonetheless, they represent wonderful efforts on the part of human beings. These efforts deserve to be praised, because they protect mentioned categories in a great manner. It can be noticed that recently the European legislature on alcohol, prostitution, tobacco, is coming closer to Sharia standards, but that process is moving slowly due to the fact that it was not preceded by spiritual preparation and superstructure, and the fact that the groups behind alcohol, tobacco and prostitution are very powerful. 10 See: http://www.henciclopedia.org.uy/autores/Laguiadelmundo/Usury.htm, http://gvanv.com/compass/arch/v1405/fahey.html Accessed: 23. 09. 2011.) 11 See also: Ezekiel 18:8-17; 22:12; Psalms 15:5; and Proverbs 28:8. 12 An extensive article on this subject entitled In the Shadow of Deuteronomy - Approaches to interest and usury in Judaism and Christianity by Vincent J. Cornell, can be found in the book Interest in Islamic Economics - Understanding riba p. 13-25 edited by Abdulkader Thomas, simultaneously published 2006 in the USA and Canada by Routledge. Another article ComparingIslamic and Christian attitudes to usury by Mervyn K. Lewis can be found in the book Handbook of Islamic Banking p. 64-81, published by Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK & USA. 13 See also: Archer, S. & Abdel Karim, R. (2002:90-97) 14 Due to the fact that banks are normally not interested in those commodities they use parallel salam very much. 15 Professor Rodney Wilson wrote an interesting article on The interface between Islamic and conventional banking, published in the book Islamic Banking and Finance - New Perspectives on Profit-Sharing and Risk, p.196-214. He concludes that: “Islamic banks and conventional banks should not regard each other as a threat. They of course compete with each other, but not usually by the pricing of their services. Instead Islamic banks compete by offering differentiated products that they believe will appeal to Muslim clients given their Shariah compliance.” (Iqbal, 2002:211) 16 In 2005 I was invited by JAK bank to attend a seminar on their operations. In two days they presented how the Bank operates. I did not have any remarks from the Sharia point of view, as far as no-interest loans were in question. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 109 �17 They will do it because it is a world trend. Many leading banks in the world introduced participation banking like American: Citibank, JP Morgan/Chase,Goldman Sache i UBS Warburg, British: HSBC, Barclays Capital, ANZ Grindlays, Lloyds TSB, French: BNP Paribas, Societe Generale, German: Germany’s Commerzbank i Deutsche Bank, Dutch ABN Amro, Russian Mežkobank, Japanese Nomura Securities, Swiss UBS, etc. 18 The biggest problem which participation banks are facing is lack of employees skilful in this industry. It is a problem for the banks that are in the industry for quarter of a century, like Abu Dhabi Islamic bank. In 2002 I visited UAE. The CEO of Abu Dhabi Islamic bank Mr. Abdurrahman Abdulmalik, raḥmetullahi alayhi, mentioned to me the lack of skilful employees as a big problem for the Bank. We can imagine the situation of the conventional banks which have been transformed into participation in the past few years, or transforming itself these days. They are in dear need for people knowledgeable in participation banking. 110 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1069 Title A name given to the resource Participation Banking in European Context Author Author Ramic, Sukrija Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to find a common ground for participation banking in Europe, by explaining a new way of banking practice which has its roots in the European business tradition of partnership, investment, trading and providing services, as well as the status of usury in Christian, Jewish and other traditions. It deals with questions related to the openness of European societies to this invention of Islamic culture, the main characteristics of participation banking, its benefits, the chances for building better relations with the Muslim world, and the possibilities of participation banking in non-Muslim environments. It is concluded that participation banking is an opportunity for rather than a threat to, Europe which will open new dimensions for the banking industry, diverse responsibility, bring people together, increase competition and bring better services with more competitive prices and, what is quite important is that it might activate the savings of European Muslims that are currently out of the banking system. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance