204 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4cf722d022ade8d0f772448180ed9514.docx fca283feefaaf01a05dbe5245bc35cba https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8308c3b837de31027dd3a1d370c1b88.pdf a68bb18cbac7631573603f87228bb11a PDF Text Text ÖZBEK CEDİT EDEBİYATINDA TEMA Hüseyin BAYDEMİR Atatürk Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Çağdaş Türk Lehçeleri ve Edebiyatları Bölümü, Erzurum / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Özbek Cedit Edebiyatı, tema, eğitim, din, bilim. ÖZET Bildiride, birçoğu 1937-1939 yılları arasında öldürülen Özbek cedit edebiyatı temsilcilerinin eserlerinde “eğitim, bilim, din ve toplumsal yozlaşma” teması ele alınmıştır. Özbek edebiyatında 1910 ve 1930 yıları arası, Cedit Edebiyatı Dönemi olarak adlandırılır. Edebiyat bu dönemde yönünü halka çevirir ve edebi eserler “millet için edebiyat” şuuruyla yazılır. Bu dönemin öne çıkan belli başlı şair ve yazarları Mahmud Hoca Behbudi, Münevverkari, Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi, Sıddıki Aczi, Sadriddin Ayni, Abdurauf Fıtrat, Abdulla Kadiri ve Çolpan’dır. Özbek edebiyatında hikaye, roman ve tiyatro gibi türlerin ilk örnekleri bu dönemde verilir. Bu dönemin şair ve yazarları eserlerinde daha çok toplumsal problemler üzerinde dururlar. Özbek ceditçilerin eserlerinde en çok işledikleri tema eğitim, bilim, din ve toplumsal yozlaşmadır. Onlar İslam dünyasındaki geri kalmışlığın başlıca nedeni olarak gördükleri eğitim sistemini masaya yatırırlar. Türkistan medreselerinde verilen eğitimin, son dönemlerde- çağın gereksinimlerini karşılayamadığını ileri sürerek, eğitim sisteminin nasıl olması gerektiği konusu üzerinde dururlar. Onlar için din ve bilim bir bedenin ayrılmaz uzuvlarıdır. Öyleyse sağlıklı nesiller yetiştirebilmenin ön şartlarından biri, eğitim kurumlarında dini ve dünyevi ilimlerin bir arada okutulmasıdır. Ancak bu sağlanırsa Türkistan’ın esaret zincirini parçalayabileceğini, toplumsal yozlaşmanın önünün kesilebileceğini, modern dünyanın seviyesine ulaşılabileceğini savunurlar. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2035 Title A name given to the resource ÖZBEK CEDİT EDEBİYATINDA TEMA Author Author BAYDEMİR, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Özbek Cedit Edebiyatı, tema, eğitim, din, bilim. ÖZET Bildiride, birçoğu 1937-1939 yılları arasında öldürülen Özbek cedit edebiyatı temsilcilerinin eserlerinde “eğitim, bilim, din ve toplumsal yozlaşma” teması ele alınmıştır. Özbek edebiyatında 1910 ve 1930 yıları arası, Cedit Edebiyatı Dönemi olarak adlandırılır. Edebiyat bu dönemde yönünü halka çevirir ve edebi eserler “millet için edebiyat” şuuruyla yazılır. Bu dönemin öne çıkan belli başlı şair ve yazarları Mahmud Hoca Behbudi, Münevverkari, Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi, Sıddıki Aczi, Sadriddin Ayni, Abdurauf Fıtrat, Abdulla Kadiri ve Çolpan’dır. Özbek edebiyatında hikaye, roman ve tiyatro gibi türlerin ilk örnekleri bu dönemde verilir. Bu dönemin şair ve yazarları eserlerinde daha çok toplumsal problemler üzerinde dururlar. Özbek ceditçilerin eserlerinde en çok işledikleri tema eğitim, bilim, din ve toplumsal yozlaşmadır. Onlar İslam dünyasındaki geri kalmışlığın başlıca nedeni olarak gördükleri eğitim sistemini masaya yatırırlar. Türkistan medreselerinde verilen eğitimin, - son dönemlerde- çağın gereksinimlerini karşılayamadığını ileri sürerek, eğitim sisteminin nasıl olması gerektiği konusu üzerinde dururlar. Onlar için din ve bilim bir bedenin ayrılmaz uzuvlarıdır. Öyleyse sağlıklı nesiller yetiştirebilmenin ön şartlarından biri, eğitim kurumlarında dini ve dünyevi ilimlerin bir arada okutulmasıdır. Ancak bu sağlanırsa Türkistan’ın esaret zincirini parçalayabileceğini, toplumsal yozlaşmanın önünün kesilebileceğini, modern dünyanın seviyesine ulaşılabileceğini savunurlar. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99403e24a15d0043f088020521269c0b.pdf 54ab3dd0e1d12b72c61d8456520a22fa PDF Text Text BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 ÖZBEK HALK EDEBİYATINDA DEVLET KIPTAN DESTANI Firuz FEVZİ Kabil devlet Üniversitesi / Afganistan Ahmet FAVAD Çağ eğitim Kurumu / Afganistan Said ASLAN Çağ eğitim Kurumu / Afganistan Anahtar Kelimeler: devlet kıptan destanı, Özbek halk edebiyatı, Afganistan ÖZET Afganistan’ın Kuzeyinde yaşayan Özbek Türkleri bu gün bölge Güney Türkistan adıyla anılmaktadır. Özbek Türkleri arasından çıkan Devlet Kıptan destanı sözlü olarak günümüze kadar varlığını sürdürmektedir. Devlet Kıptan yiğit, Cesur bir Özbek kahramanı olarak 20. yüz yılın başlarında Güney Türkistan’da bağımsızlık mücadelesi veren Özbekler arasından çıkmış, olağan üstü başarılar göstererek meşhur olmuştur. Dönemin Afgan devleti tarafından fecih şekilde şehit edilir. Ölüsü üç gün boyunca şehirde asılı kalır. Bildirimizde Devlet kıptan destanı ve bu yiğit kahramanın halk tarafından söylenen duygulu şiirleri hakkında durulacaktır. Ayrıca Devlet Kıptan hakkında yazılan kitaplar ve araştırmalar hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Afganistan Özbek Türklerinin destanları hakkında kısaca bilgi verilecektir. 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2703 Title A name given to the resource ÖZBEK HALK EDEBİYATINDA DEVLET KIPTAN DESTANI Author Author FEVZİ, Firuz FAVAD, Ahmet ASLAN, Said Abstract A summary of the resource. Afganistan’ın Kuzeyinde yaşayan Özbek Türkleri bu gün bölge Güney Türkistan adıyla anılmaktadır. Özbek Türkleri arasından çıkan Devlet Kıptan destanı sözlü olarak günümüze kadar varlığını sürdürmektedir. Devlet Kıptan yiğit, Cesur bir Özbek kahramanı olarak 20. yüz yılın başlarında Güney Türkistan’da bağımsızlık mücadelesi veren Özbekler arasından çıkmış, olağan üstü başarılar göstererek meşhur olmuştur. Dönemin Afgan devleti tarafından fecih şekilde şehit edilir. Ölüsü üç gün boyunca şehirde asılı kalır. Bildirimizde Devlet kıptan destanı ve bu yiğit kahramanın halk tarafından söylenen duygulu şiirleri hakkında durulacaktır. Ayrıca Devlet Kıptan hakkında yazılan kitaplar ve araştırmalar hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Afganistan Özbek Türklerinin destanları hakkında kısaca bilgi verilecektir. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-23 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-582X P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0dd2b1643b79986100e2dee81f05b552.pdf bd3f889aaf171b76889ae7284596deed PDF Text Text P53 Tumor Suppressor Gene and Cancer Abdul Razaque Memon, Mesut Karatas Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, International Burch Universiy, Sarajevo, BIH E-mails:armemon@ibu.edu.ba,mesutkara@yahoo.com Abstract Human cells face many dangers, including chemicals, viruses and ionizing radiation. If cells are damaged in sensitive places by these attackers the effect can be disastrous. Highly regulated processes become deregulated due to genetic alterations that lead to cellular transformation. Guardians of genomes (Tumour suppressor genes) play a crucial role in the protection of our cells. Tumour suppressor genes are involved in a diversity of cellular processes such as cell cycle control, replication, recombination, signal transduction, repair, differentiation and aging. One of our guardian genes is p53 Tumour suppressor gene; restrict cell cycle progression, p53 lost its function by genetic alteration (mutation) or some external factors. TP53 gene contribute to about half of the cases of human cancer. Most of the mutations that cause mutant p53 protein production are missense mutations, mutant p53 unable to stop multiplication in the damaged cell. The function of p53 protein can also be blocked by indirect factors. Some viral proteins form complexes with p53 protein thereby functionally inactivating it, accumulation of wild type p53 in the cytoplasm, over expression of mdm2 protein are also inactivate p53 protein, PTEN mutation leads to an increase of AKT activity, an increase of nuclear mdm2 and impairs p53 response Keywords: 317 TP53 gene, p53 inactivation, mutation, PTEN mutation, mdm2 protein. �1.INTRODUCTION p53 is a tumor suppressor protein and which is encoded by TP53 gene located on the human chromosome17 (17p13.1). Like other tumor suppressor, the function of p53 to prevent unregulated cell growth, to maintain genomic stability and plays an important role in the protection of our body from cancer [1]. In normal cells, the level of p53 protein is kept low by the combination of another protein called mdm2. This protein binds to p53 preventing its action and transports it from the nucleus to the cytosol and degraded by proteasome under non-stressed conditions[15].The level of p53 proportionally increases in the response to genotoxic insults such as DNA damage, hypoxia activation, ionizing radiation, oncogene activities, some chemical agents, ribonucleotide depletion, and telomere shortening. Active p53 protein take a role as transcription factor and binds to several genes including WAF1/CIP1 to stimulate the transcription of p21 WAF1/CIP1 protein. p21 / WAF1 also known as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor1. p21 binds to CDK/cyclin complexes (molecules important for the G1/S transition in the cell cycle) inhibiting their activity. This would allow time to repair the DNA. If repair is not possible, p53 stimulates the cell apoptosis (programmed cell death) [2]. In normal cells, regulation of cell division is done by these two proteins but in cancer cells the controls are no longer functioning properly. The mutation of the TP53 gene causes the genetic change and mostly seen in cancer cells. Approximately half of all cases of human cancer attributed to a mutant p53 protein. [2]. TP53 mutations can be within the p53 coding sequence and has a negative effect on the thermodynamic stability of the p53 protein. Unlike most other tumour suppressor genes that are inactivated by frameshift or nonsense mutations, almost 90% of p53 gene mutations are missense mutations in which a single nucleotide is substituted by another. As a result of this, a stable mutant p53 protein is produced with a defective DNA binding domain and accumulating in the nucleus of tumor cells [19]. In addition to the loss of normal regulatory function of p53 protein that a mutation in TP53 may cause, many p53 mutants have positive effects on the development of tumor by several ways [4]. In a heterozygous situation ( both wild type (WT) and mutant alleles exist), expressing both wild-type and mutp53, mutant p53 work against WTp53 tumor suppressor functions. The transcriptional activity of WT p53 is blocked by mutant p53[5]. Eventually, in the course of tumor progression, the remaining WT TP53 allele is often lost (mostly by deletion), further enhancing tumorigenesis. 2.MAJOR FACTORS THAT INACTIVATE p53 REGULATION P53 protein plays a crucial role in the cell cycle of multicellular organisms, where it is involved in transactivation of a variety of growth-inhibitory signals of cell cycle control, via specific mechanisms. Its inactivation may lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and a predisposition to abnormal proliferation. [10] There are several ways that inactivate p53. 1. Mutational Inactivation Inactivation of the p53 gene is essentially due to missense in which a single nucleotide is substituted by another which lead to either expression of a mutant protein (90% of cases) or absence of protein (10% of cases) In a high percentage of human tumors, p53 is always functionally impaired. ―The p53 mutational type differs among cancers of the colon, lung, esophagus, breast, liver, brain, reticuloendothelial tissues, and hemopoietic tissues. Transitions predominate in colon, brain, and lymphoid malignancies, whereas G:C to T:A 318 �transversions are the most frequent substitutions observed in cancers of the lung and liver. Mutations at A:T base pairs are seen more frequently in esophageal carcinomas than in other solid tumors. Most transitions in colorectal carcinomas, brain tumors, leukemias, and lymphomas are at CpG dinucleotide mutational hot spots. G to T transversions in lung, breast, and esophageal carcinomas are dispersed among numerous codons". [20] Figure : p53.free.fr 2.1. Indirect (Mutation-independent) Inactivation of p53 Viral oncoproteins such as E6 protein (HPV), SV40 Large T antigen, E1B protein (adenoviruas), IE84 protein (Human Cytomegalovirus) binds with P53 protein, and functionally inactivating it as a result p53 proteins are degraded [9], [11]. Certain HPV types such as HPV type 16 and type 18 lead to infection of cervix. If not treated they can cause irreversible changes leading to cervical cancer. [6] 2.2 Nuclear Exclusion of P53 Molecular and immunohistochemical analyses indicate that wild type p53 accumulates in the cytoplasm, such as, in the case of Inflammatory breast carcinomas (37%) and 95% of undifferentiated neuroblastomas tumour cells have these characteristics, this accumulation causes functional inactivation of p53 [7] [8]. In some breast cancers the wild-type p53 protein is accumulated in the cytoplasm and stabilized. The exclusion of the p53 protein from the cell nucleus inactivates the p53 function (unable to inhibit the cellular proliferation)[7]. Similar case is also observed in normal lactating breast tissue in which accumulation of p53 in the cytoplasm of ductal cells. This observation indicates that estrogen-mediated cell division could involve inactivation of p53 protein via exclusion from the cell nucleus. In this case, the cancer cells might use an altered version of a physiological mechanism to retain p53 in the cytoplasm. ―While the mechanism by which the wild-type p53 could be retained in the cytoplasm is not known, an interesting hypothesis derives from the fact that one of the nuclear localization signals is located between amino acid residues 316 and 321. Serine-315 can be 319 �phosphorylated by a cdc2-like kinase. It is therefore possible that a growth-regulatory signal, such as an active cdc2-like kinase, could alter p53 protein via phosphorylation and exclude it from the nucleus‖ [7]. ―The cytoplasmic (wild-type) p53 group had the longest overall survival, with an average of 38 monthsfrom the time of diagnosis (45 months if one patient who died immediately after diagnosis is not included), whereas the nuclear (mutant) p53 group had the shortest, with 20 months' survival. Although these data suggest that survival time and estrogen receptor status may correlate well with high levels of wild-type cytoplasmic p53 Protein‖[7].―Neuroblastoma cell lines with cytoplasmic p53 showed decreased cell cycle arrest response after DNA damaging treatments. This may result from p53 being excluded from the nuclear compartment, where it normally functions as a transcription factor. Therefore, exclusion of p53 from the nucleus may compromise the ability of p53 to exert its tumor suppressor function and may be an important alternative mechanism of p53 inactivation during tumor development‖. [8] 2.3 Accumulation of mdm2 Protein ―MDM2 gene (Murine Double Minute) encodes for a 90-kD protein that forms a complex with p53 protein and inhibits its transactivating properties‖. ―[10] ―The MDM2protein is one key regulator of p53 activity. MDM2 inhibits p53 activity by two way. First, MDM2 binds to the N-terminal trans-activation domain (TAD) of p53, preventing transcription of downstream targets. Second, MDM2 functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase to maintain low protein levels of p53 under non-stressed conditions and to return p53 to normal levels after a damage response is resolved‖[15]. ―Overexpression of MDM2 in tumor cells including leukemia and lymphomas is reported in several article , which allows its association with p53, is mainly due to MDM2 gene amplification, but other mechanisms have also been described, including an elevated level of MDM2 mRNA or enhanced levels of translation‖. [10]―Although these tumours would be expected to no longer express p53, the opposite situation is generally observed, with a large number of tumours overexpressing both p53 and mdm2. The reasons for this have not been clarified. No formal exclusion between p53 gene mutation and mdm2 accumulation has been clearly demonstrated, suggesting that this situation could be due to an oncogenic activity of mdm2 independent of p53‖. [10], [11] 2.4 PTEN Mutation ―Phosphotase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is a protein that, in humans is encoded by the PTEN gene. Mutations of this gene cause development of many cancers. PTEN is a lipid phosphatase that negatively regulates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway‖[13]. ―PI3K–PTEN signaling pathway promotes cell survival and proliferation, increases in cell size and chemoresistance. Each of these biological outcomes results from the interaction of this pathway with other signalling networks‖. [13] ―When PTEN is deleted, mutated or inactivated result in activation of PI3K effectors, particularly the activation of the key survival kinase protein kinase B (PKB, also known as AKT) can occur in the absence of any exogenous stimulus, and tumorigenesis can be initiated‖. [12,13] ―AKT kinase phosphorylates mdm2 protein and induces its migration into the nucleus where it binds and ubiquinates p53. Upon growth factor activation, mdm2 activation through 320 �AKT activation ensure proper cell growth. PTEN, a p53 regulated gene, down regulate the AKT pathway. PTEN deletion leads to an increase of AKT activity, an increase of nuclear mdm2 and impairs p53 response‖. [13] 2.5 AKT Alteration ―The p53 tumor suppressor protein and the Akt/PKB kinase play important roles in the transduction of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals, respectively. Phosphorylation of Mdm2 by AKT enables its translocation from the cytoplasm into the nucleus, and the subsequent inactivation of nuclear p53 by Mdm2, mdm2 activation through AKT activation ensure proper cell growth‖.[14],[ 15] ―Although no mutation of AKT has been found in human cancer, constitutive activation of its kinase activity has been observed via deregulation of the upstream pathway. An increase of AKT activity leads to an increase of nuclear mdm2 and incapacitates p53 and overcome its pro-apoptotic effects‖. [14] ―Akt has been implicated in the down-regulation of p53 via MDM2. Studies have shown that MDM2 is phosphorylated by AKT at different sites, resulting in its stabilization Other studies have shown nuclear translocation of MDM2 in response to phosphorylation by AKT. This results in decreased p53 transcriptional activity from MDM2 binding at the transactivation domain and increases the ubiquitylation of p53‖. [ 15] 2.5 AKT Alteration ―Two major effectors of cell cycle checkpoint responses are ATM and ATR, protein kinases that phosphorylate cellular substrates in response to various forms of genetic stress. In response to DNA damage , p53 and mdm2 are phosporylated by two protein kinases the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ATR serine/threonine kinases. This causes dissociation of p53 from mdm2, leading to increased p53 protein levels and transcription of genes leading to cell cycle arrest (p21) or apoptosis‖. [16], [17] ―One of the check point is G2 check point (during which the fidelity of DNA replication is assessed and errors are corrected. [17] The G2checkpoint system includes immediate and sustained signaling events to prevent cells from entering mitosis with damaged chromatids. Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) cells with inactivating mutations in ATM displays a defect in G2 checkpoint function, inactivation of G2 checkpoint function thus may contribute to the genetic instability that characterizes cancer‖. ―ATM is a high-molecular–weight protein kinase encoded at 11q22-23, ATM can associate with and phosphorylate p53 at serine 15 and is involved in the dephosphorylation of p53 at serine 376, both events are associated with p53 activation. Reduced levels of ATM protein have been detected in tumor cells from 30% to 40% of patients with Chronic Lymphocytic Leukomia‖. [18] 3.DISCUSSION TP53 gene contribute to about half of the cases of human cancer, so that mutation in TP53 gene may involve in the initiation of malignant transformation. Other data in other tumour tissue also suggest that Mdm2 is playing important role in p53 regulation. The results also indicate that MDM2 could be most important inhibitor of p53 321 �even when expressed at low levels. Therefore, MDM2 may play a broader role in the functional inactivation of p53 during tumor development. Normal lactating breast tissue accumulates p53 in the cytoplasm of ductal cells and similar case seen in some breast cancers the wild-type p53 protein is accumulated in the cytoplasmic compartment of the cell and stabilized. Lactating breast tissue may have some protective mechanism against cancer. 4.CONCLUSION Tumor suppressor genes are involved in a diversity of cellular processes such as cell cycle control, replication, recombination, signal transduction, repair, differentiation and aging. One of our guardian gene is p53 Tumor suppressor gene, restrict cell cycle progression, Its control over the cells division is lost with genetic alteration (mutation) or some external factors leading to its inactivation. TP53 gene contribute to about half of the cases of human cancer. Most of these are missense mutations, changing the information in the DNA at one position and causing the cell to build p53 with an error, mutant p53 unable to stop multiplication in the damaged cell. The function of p53 protein can also be blocked by indirect factors. Some viral proteins form complexes with p53 protein thereby functionally inactivating it. Another inactivation factor, accumulation of wild type p53 in the cytoplasm. While the mechanism by which the wild-type p53 could be retained in the cytoplasm is not known, 37%of inflammatory breast carcinomas and 95% of undifferentiated neuroblastomas tumour cells have this type of inactivation. Mdm2 is an important negative regulator of p53. Mdm2 protein functions both as an E3 ubiquitin ligase that recognizes N– terminal trans-activation domain (TAD) of the p53 and inhibitor of p53 transcriptional activity. Overexpression of MDM2 is observed in many tumours especially sarcomas, PTEN deletion leads to an increase of AKT activity, an increase of nuclear md REFERENCES [1] Hock AK, Vigneron AM, Carter S, Ludwig RL, Vousden KH. Regulation of p53 stability and function by the deubiquitinating enzyme USP42. EMBO J 2011;30:4921-30 [2] David Olle. The p53 tumor suppressor gene, Nov4,2004 [3] L Weisz, M Oren and V Rotter, Transcription regulation by mutant p53, 2007. [4] Noa Rivlin, , Ran Brosh, Moshe Oren, and Varda Rotter, 2011, Mutations in the p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene: Important Milestones at the Various Steps of Tumorigenesis, 2011. [5] Milner J, Medcalf EA, Cook A. Tumor suppressor p53: analysis of wild-type and mutant p53 complexes. Mol Cell Biol. 1991;11:12-9. [6] Angeletti PC, Zhang L, Wood C (2008). "The Viral Etiology of AIDS-Associated Malignancies". Adv. Pharmacol.. Advances in Pharmacology [7] Ute M. Moll, Guy Riou and Arnold J. Levine, Two distinct mechanisms alter p53 in breast cancer: Mutation and nuclear exclusion, April 15, 1992 322 �[8] Wenge Lu, Radhika Pochampally, Lihong Chen, Mullika Traidej, Yiliang Wang and Jiandong Chen, Nuclear exclusion of p53 in a subset of tumors requires MDM2 function, 2000 [9] UTE M. MOLL, ANNE G. OSTERMEYER, ROBERT HALADAY, BLONKA WINKFIELD, MARK FRAZIER, AND GERARD ZAMBETTI, Cytoplasmic Sequestration of Wild-Type p53 Protein Impairs the G1 Checkpoint after DNA Damage, 21 November 1995 [10] Saïd El Mansouri, Antoine Martin, Anne Mercadier, Corrine Capoulade, Vincent Maréchal, Joëlle Wiels, Jean Feuillard, and Martine Raphaël, High Expression of MDM2 Protein and Low Rate of p21WAF1/CIP1 Expression in SCID Mice Epstein Barr Virusinduced Lymphoproliferation Oct 1, 1999 [11] Pierre May and Evelyne May Twenty years of p53 research: structural and functional aspects of the p53 protein [12] Anna M. Puzio-Kuter, Mireia Castillo-Martin, Carolyn W. Kinkade, et al. Inactivation of p53 and Pten promotes invasive bladder cancer, Genes Dev. 2009 23: 675-680 originally published online March 4, 2009 [13] Megan Cully, Han You, Arnold J. Levine and Tak W. Mak Beyond PTEN mutations: the PI3K pathway as an integrator of multiple inputs during tumorigenesis, 2006 Nature Publishing Group [14] Tanya M Gottlieb, Juan Fernando Martinez Leal, Rony Seger, Yoichi Taya3 andMoshe Oren, Cross-talk between Akt, p53 and Mdm2: possible implications for the regulation of apoptosis, Oncogene (2002) 21, 1299 – 1303 [15] TVanessa Lopez-Pajares, Mihee M. Kim, and Zhi-Min Yuan, Phosphorylation of MDMX Mediated by Akt Leads to Stabilization and Induces 14-3-3 Binding March 20, 2008, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M710030200 [16] Robert G. Fenton, Dan L. Logo, Cancer Cell Biology and Angiogenesis [17] H. Christian Reinhardt, Aaron S. Aslanian,Jacqueline A. Lees, and Michael B. Yaffe, p53 deficient cells rely on ATM and ATR-mediated checkpoint signaling through the p38 MAPK/MK2pathway for survival after DNA damage [18] Andrew R. Pettitt, Paul D. Sherrington, Grant Stewart, John C. Cawley, A. Malcolm R. Taylor, and Tatjana Stankovic, p53 dysfunction in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia: inactivation of ATM as an alternative to TP53 mutation. [19] Thierry Soussi, Focus on the p53 Gene and Cancer: Advances in TP53 Mutation Research, 2003 [20] Hollstein M, Sidransky D, Vogelstein B, Harris CC. p53 mutations in human cancers.1991 Jul 5 323 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1262 Title A name given to the resource P53 Tumor Suppressor Gene and Cancer Author Author Abdul , Razaque Memon Abstract A summary of the resource. Human cells face many dangers, including chemicals, viruses and ionizing radiation. If cells are damaged in sensitive places by these attackers the effect can be disastrous. Highly regulated processes become deregulated due to genetic alterations that lead to cellular transformation. Guardians of genomes (Tumour suppressor genes) play a crucial role in the protection of our cells. Tumour suppressor genes are involved in a diversity of cellular processes such as cell cycle control, replication, recombination, signal transduction, repair, differentiation and aging. One of our guardian genes is p53 Tumour suppressor gene; restrict cell cycle progression, p53 lost its function by genetic alteration (mutation) or some external factors. TP53 gene contribute to about half of the cases of human cancer. Most of the mutations that cause mutant p53 protein production are missense mutations, mutant p53 unable to stop multiplication in the damaged cell. The function of p53 protein can also be blocked by indirect factors. Some viral proteins form complexes with p53 protein thereby functionally inactivating it, accumulation of wild type p53 in the cytoplasm, over expression of mdm2 protein are also inactivate p53 protein, PTEN mutation leads to an increase of AKT activity, an increase of nuclear mdm2 and impairs p53 response Keywords: TP53 gene, p53 inactivation, mutation, PTEN mutation, mdm2 protein. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2766 Title A name given to the resource Paper Submission Guide Author Author IBU, JST Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-06 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233 - 0054 T Technology (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 768 Title A name given to the resource Paradigm of Lemma Prose Author Author Kos-Lajtman, Andrijana Horvat, Jasna Abstract A summary of the resource. The initial premise of this paper is the existence of literary and literary-scientific discourses characterized by instruments and methodology typical for lexicographical texts: dictionaries, encyclopaedias and lexicons. These are the texts of hybrid character in which, analogous to lemmas (dictionary headwords) in said lexicographical works, fragmentary discourses characterized by a combination of literary and scientific themes, narrative procedures and metatextual devices are formed. Regardless of whether these are texts of lexicographical structure, equipment and intention filled with literarized content or whether they are primarily literary expressions modelled with the help of lexicographic instruments, the authors of this paper have found their representatives at the very beginning of the new era (Bible) stretching all the way to texts with dominant postmodernist intentions. The authors explain the acceptance of the initial premises by the results of a conducted analysis of chosen lemma discourses and their individual merits. The very term lemma has been taken over from lexicography which mostly uses it to denote a „lexicographical headword“. Lemma prose is a coinage made by the authors of this paper and hence the paper itself is directed at its scientific testing – at verifying and proving the possibility of accepting a paradigm that would confirm its existence. Thereat by lemma prose we mean those literary texts reaching for lexicographic techniques of lemmatization, as well as specific instruments, and use them in various ways and on various discourse levels (starting from the title level to entire textual structure). The analysis of individual texts shows that it is not only the case of peculiar discourses reaching deep into the literary history, but also that the possibilities that this mode of narrativization and text structuring offers were recognized in particular by literary authors from the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f43b49a2e7cfbe6f379294d80381be55.pdf 9edca5e109172d6859379d13400658cb PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics Z. Hafsa ORHAN ASTRÖM International University of Sarajevo (IUS), Strategic Analysis and Risk Assessment (SARA) Program, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. hafsaorhan82@hotmail.com ABSTRACT Sustainable development is a common concept of the 21st century. However, the expected changes towards sustainable development are slow. We believe every change starts with changes in understanding of the subject matter. If sustainable development is the aim, it should start with changes in understanding. This paper aims to explain the necessary paradigm shift for sustainable development by the contribution of Islamic economics. While doing this, the reasons of paradigm shift, the content of such a paradigm shift, and the possible contributions of Islamic economics will be analyzed. Keywords: Sustainable Development; Paradigm Shift; Islamic Economics Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 73 �Z. Hafsa ORHAN ASTRÖM Introduction The concept of ‘sustainable development’ started to appear in the 1970’s and became a frequent hot topic for discussions about world politics, economy and the environment. However, the fulfillment of the aim of sustainable development is yet to happen. There are different reasons for this unfulfillment, such as the lack of political will, the effect of financial crises, etc. But we believe the problem is at a deeper level, i.e., at the paradigm level. The aim of this paper is to discuss the possible contribution of Islamic economics to the necessary paradigm shift for the aim of sustainable development. In this sense, there are two hypotheses: H1: A paradigm shift is necessary for the aim of sustainable development H2: Islamic economics can contribute to the paradigm shift for the aim of sustainable development While trying to find out the validity of the above hypotheses, we will analyze the reasons for the necessity of a paradigm shift, the structure of a possible paradigm shift, and why and how Islamic economics can contribute to such a paradigm shift. The next section will give background information on sustainable development, the paradigm shift concept and Islamic economics. The third section will be about the relationship between sustainable development and Islamic economics. The last section will conclude the paper. Literature Review To be able to analyze the possible contributions of Islamic economics to the paradigm shift for sustainable development, some concepts should be clear first. The three basic concepts of this paper will be introduced. These concepts are sustainable development, paradigm shift and Islamic economics. The concept of sustainable development started to appear in the 1970s. The reason behind the emergence of such a concept was the growing awareness of the depletion of natural resources, and worsening environmental conditions on the one hand and increasing world population on the other hand, i.e., demand-supply discrepancy. Despite the common use of the concept, there is a lack of an explicit definition. One of the first attempts towards the definition of this concept was done by World Conservation Strategy (1980): “For development to be sustainable, it must take account of social and ecological factors, as well as economic ones; of the living and non-living resource base; and of the long-term as well as the short-term advantages and disadvantages of alternative action.” However, today the most commonly used definition is the one established by the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987): “Economic and social development that meets the needs of the current generation without undermining the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This definition can sound vague since it does not indicate what is meant by ‘meeting the needs of the current generation’ and ‘without undermining the future generations’ ability of meeting 74 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics their own needs’. At this point, Dalal-Clayton and Bass (2002) explain what they actually mean. According to them, meeting the needs of the present generation covers the economic needs, social, cultural and health needs plus the political needs. On the other hand, “without undermining the future generations’ ability to meet their own needs” refers to minimising usage, the sustainable use of renewable resources, and keeping within the absorptive capacity of local and global sinks for wastes. Efforts to maintain sustainable development include treaties and establishment of rules, laws and regulations. The actors taking part in these efforts are quite diverse, such as intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, nations, international organizations, the private sector and civil society. One of the earliest efforts in the global arena was the Stockholm Conference held in 1972. However, the first comprehensive attempt came with the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992), issued as a result of the United Nations Rio Conference. The declaration covers 27 principles. The following Earth Summit was in South Africa. It ended with the Johannesburg Declaration (2002) where the commitment to sustainable development is mentioned once more and the challenges were indicated. Additionally, three sets of goals were established due to the three different time horizons: the short-term (for 2015) goals of the Millennium Declaration of the United Nations; the two-generation goals (for 2050) of the Sustainability Transition of the Board on Sustainable Development; and the long-term (beyond 2050) goals of the Great Transition of the Global Scenario Group. Another declaration was released by the International Law Association Committee on the legal aspects of sustainable development, called the New Delhi Declaration on the Principles of International Law Related to Sustainable Development (2002). The declaration includes 7 principles which are based on the previous declarations mentioned above. Some of these principles are the duty of states to ensure sustainable use of natural resources, the principle of equity and the eradication of poverty, and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. Another important document is the Kyoto Protocol (1997) which was adopted with a direct focus on global warming. Heretofore, around 200 countries have signed the protocol, which includes 28 articles. Efforts are not limited to the global summits. There are also efforts at the regional or state level. The fourth Asia-Pacific Forum for Environment and Development (2003) summarizes the efforts done in the region, e.g., a sub-regional cooperation in Southeast Asia, the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation established in the Philippines in 1999 to coordinate ASEAN initiatives on biodiversity conservation, biodiversity loss and degradation in the region; and the Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) established in 1982 by the governments of the South Pacific region to protect the regional environment. According to the report of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services (2001), the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change outlines cost-effective measures that will take Canada one-third of the way to its Kyoto target. Despite all these efforts, there are different problems and challenges ahead for the aim of sustainable development. Some of the basic problems are lack of conformity among different actors who have their own agendas, properties and capabilities, financial inadequacies and lack of legal enforcement. However, there is another problem which we believe should attract basic concern, i.e. paradigmatic problems. Woods (2002) argues that sustainable development confers a contested paradigm since the term ‘sustainability’ is vague in itself and more importantly, it lacks an approach that tackles the Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 75 �Z. Hafsa ORHAN ASTRÖM irreconcilability among economic, social and environmental dimensions. Henceforth, we argue that to be able to tackle such a problem, a paradigmatic shift is necessary. Paradigm and Paradigm Shift Literally, a paradigm is “a typical example or pattern of something; a model” (Hobson, 2004). The prominent figure known for the idea of paradigm shift is Kuhn. He identifies paradigm as “... what the member of scientific community, and they alone, share” (Kuhn, 1970). The idea of paradigm shift is a cyclic process which starts with an already settled paradigm. In time, anomalies and crises emerge as a natural process. As a response to these crises, scientific discoveries begin which result in scientific revolutions through paradigmatic shift. A typical paradigm shift cycle follows the scheme below: Normal science--> Model Drift--> Model Crisis--> Model Revolution--> Paradigm Change Islamic Economics Islamic economics has medieval roots, including an immense literature from Muslim scholars such as Al-Ghazali, Ibn-Khaldun, and Ibn-Qayyim. On the other hand, a better-organized contemporary Islamic economics paradigm flourished in the second half of the twentieth century, especially with the de-colonization of Muslim countries. Islamic economics is built upon the knowledge coming from the basic sources of the religion of Islam which are Quran and sunnah -sayings and living habits of the prophet Mohammed-, plus the accumulated knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence generated by consensus (ijma), analogy (qıyas) and independent interpretation (ijtihad). According to the well-known contemporary definition, economics is the science of allocating scarce resources due to unlimited wants. The difference in Islamic economics starts from this point, where the assumption is the lack of absolute scarcity (stock) even if there is relative scarcity (flow) in this world. According to a comprehensive definition (Ahmed, 2002) “Islamic economics is the science that studies the best possible use of all available economic resources, endowed by Allah, for the production of maximum possible output of Halal goods and services that are needed for the community now and in future and the just distribution of this output within the framework of shariah and its intents.” Rules and regulations in Islam follow the objectives of public welfare (maslahah) which are categorized as preservation of life, property, religion, reason and procreation. Asutay (2007) describes Islamic economics as a ‘system’ which owns its framework paradigm, value system, foundational axioms – such as doctrine of oneness (tawhid), justice and charity (adl wa’l-ihsan), self-development (tazkiyah), responsibility (fardh) - operational principles, specific methodology and functional institutions. Because of these peculiarities, Islamic economics is seen as an alternative paradigm (Presley & Sessions, 1994; Zaman, 2005). The primary properties of Islamic economics can be seen below: 76 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics 1. Islamic multi-faceted point of view connecting the different parts of life together, e.g., social, economic, political and religious issues 2. Dominance of a normative approach 3. Importance of social altruism 4. The approach of connecting financial sector and real sector 5. Acceptance of no absolute ownership, no absolute scarcity 6. Criticism of waste Discussion According to the Kuhn cycle, paradigm shifts occur when there are anomalies which need novel explanations. When the concept of sustainable development came into existence, there were anomalies which necessitated a paradigm shift. Such anomalies were increasing inequalities within and among the nations, increasing poverty, especially in developing countries, depletion of the ozone layer, global warming, depletion of some species of animals and plants, water and air pollution, etc. Sustainable development was an effort to change the way of thinking towards the planet. That is why the concept of development is preferred instead of growth, which is believed to reflect only a quantitative aspect of countries without taking into account some other qualitative items such as education, health and equality. However, the success of sustainable development as a new paradigm is yet to be clear. The basic problem arises due to the inconsistencies between its rhetoric and the axioms of the entrenched economic paradigm. In that regard, here comes the possible contribution of Islamic economics which is pronounced as an alternative economic system. Below, the possible contributions of Islamic economics to the paradigm shift of sustainable development will be analyzed according to different issues. The first possible contribution can come from the normative approach of Islamic economics. It is one of the criticisms of contemporary economic theory that it identifies itself as a value-free science. One of the reflections of such an identity can be seen in the determination of efficiency in society. As it is known, in the classical economic theory, economic efficiency is described by Pareto optimality, where it is impossible to make one better without making another one worse off. The problematic part in that approach is the lack of any statement on equity or social well-being. Similar criticisms are made for utilitarianism, the social utility theory of classic economics. According to Van Wyk (2001), the basic criticisms of utilitarianism are the consequentalism where “… the rightness of actions is judged entirely by the goodness of the consequent state of affairs” and welfarism in which “… the goodness of the state of affairs must be judged entirely by the goodness of the set of individual utilities in the respective of state affairs.” It was mentioned before that one of the foundational axioms of Islamic economics is adl wa’l-ihsan, which can be named as just balance or equilibrium where “a ‘maximal’ rate of economic growth must be maintained to satisfy the requirement of intergenerational equity. By the same token, from the many growth paths available, the choice will be restricted to those which satisfy the Islamic ethical constraints.” (Naqvi, 1997) In order to show the difference of the welfare structure in Islamic economics, the below model of Naqvi (ibid.) can be followed. First of all, welfare (W) is a function of u (the average individual utility function) which depends on k(t) (the per capital Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 77 �Z. Hafsa ORHAN ASTRÖM consumption), C (the average commodity basket) which depends on k(t), x(t) (the per capita capital stock) and t (time). The welfare function can be seen below: (1) On the other hand, there are two constraints, motion and wealth: (2) (3) where, Q2 is the square of the difference of wealth holding in the society. The second constraint means that the tolerance for inequality is dependent on the level of per capita income. B is an upper limit in a constraint maximization problem. The next step is to maximize the first equation due to the constraints of 2 and 3. At the end, we get the equalities: below: (4) (5) According to Naqvi (ibid.), these equalities prove that “in order to maximize aggregate social welfare and the growth in the size of the commodity basket containing the wage goods in a growing economy, the inequality of wealth must be held at a minimum, while capital is priced efficiently.” Indeed, one of the problems with the paradigm of sustainable development is the Sisyphean effort of combining value free economic theory with non-value free social issues. Another possible contribution can be to adopt the altruistic point of view of Islamic economics instead of the self-interest driven, rational economic agent (homo-economicus) theory. In the economic dictionary, homo economicus or economic man is defined as “a person who makes rational decisions in order to achieve their most preferred outcome given the constraints upon choice” (Black, Hashimzade, & Myles, 2009). The most typical aspect of economic man is profit maximization ability. As a result of profit maximization, the equilibrium occurs where (Hasan, 1992): (6) (7) (8) when, (9) (10) 78 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics In these equations, a, b and c are positive constants and R refers to the profit. Meanwhile, equation 9 and 10 show the negative relationship between price (P) and output (Q) and the positive relationship between average cost (AC) and output (Q). It is quite a common criticism that the basic agent of the classic economics, homo-economicus, is a value-free agent. This was the basic reason why Kahneman and Tversky developed a new theory, called Prospect Theory later on, i.e., to include the ideas and values of the people into the economic decision-making system. On the other hand, there is another type of agent called homo-islamicus who “... is said to be both entrepreneurial and moral. He is an Islamic personality who defines his existence by combining private and public life and religious and economic activities through his Islamic ethical values and norms. He does not eschew economic activity and retreat to other-worldly asceticism because of his religion. Nor does he make concessions with regard to his religion and morals for his business activity. He is competitive, productive and innovative, rather than a rent-seeker and speculative. He thinks that being economically successful is a duty of any and every Muslim, as Islam condemns idleness, laziness and encourages hard work and resourcefulness” (Adas, 2006). According to the profit maximization results of a homo-islamicus agent (Hasan, 1992): (11) (12) (13) where, (14) The results of these two profit maximization calculations show that the equilibrium quantity and profit are higher for homo-islamicus agent, showing that the efficiency is higher, while the price is lower. The aforementioned properties of Islamic economics, normative and altruistic approaches, are especially the ones in which classic economic theory has problems with respect to becoming an alternative paradigm of sustainable development. Additional contributory properties of Islamic economics can be mentioned, such as the multi-faceted point of view where the coherence among the social, political, economic and environmental issues is not neglected, and the non-absolutist point of view. Non-absolutist point of view refers to the acceptance of not having absolute freedom and ownership. One of the problematic points of view of today’s generation is that they have the rights of limitless ownership without taking into account the responsibilities towards society and humanity. According to Islamic economy, what people earn is not immune from the rights of other people, e.g., according to the seventieth chapter, twenty third and fourth verses of the Holy Quran (Asad, 2006) “... And in whose wealth there is a right acknowledged for the beggar and the destitute...” It can be argued that there are limitations or constraints in terms of private ownership in other systems Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 79 �Z. Hafsa ORHAN ASTRÖM besides Islam. However, the sources and contents of such restrictions are different for Islam. For instance; because of the faith in God and the hereafter, Muslim people are obliged to pay a tax called zakah to the needy people as a proof that people have rights on other people’s earnings. On the other hand, as an Islamic law, a private ownership can be limited if there is concern for social well-being. Islam is unique in its idea of ownership since it is seen by many, e.g. A. Kia and M. S. Chaudhry, as lying between capitalism, where private ownership is almost sacred, and socialism, where private ownership is not accepted. The last contributory part can come from the criticism of wasting in Islamic economics in the age of massive commercialization and consumption, e.g., according to the Holy Quran (7:31) “O Children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters.” Conclusion In this paper, we discussed why the sustainable development paradigm has not been turned into a paradigmatic shift of Kuhnian cycles. In this regard, we indicated why Islamic economics can contribute such a paradigmatic shift. In doing this, we elaborated on the possible contributory points. At this point, it can be argued that the practice of Islamic economics is not promising, e.g., the backwardness of Muslim communities in terms of economic, political, social and environmental issues. However, the success of applications depends on different aspects such as different comprehensions by different authorities, political power, historical dynamics, necessary institutions etc. Presently, the rejection of Islamic economic paradigm due to the negativeness in applications seems hasty. Another issue is the universal applicability of Islamic economics. First of all, it should be indicated that to get contributions from Islamic economics for the paradigm of sustainable development does not necessarily mean to be Muslim. As can be seen, the above-mentioned possible contributory properties include universally acceptable aspects. The peculiarity of Islamic economics is the combination of these aspects with economic theories. It is true that there are some other alternative points of view trying to put value-based analysis into current economic theory, such as cognitive economics or prospect theory, but none is as comprehensive as Islamic economics yet. Moreover, the criticism of Islamic economics against the current one is deeper than these alternatives. As a comprehensive alternative, socialism can be mentioned. However, its practicality is a big question mark. It can be asked at this point why Islam as an economic system is more viable in practice than socialism. My quick answer is because the former one is more compatible with human nature where private ownership, family and faith are not neglected. References Adas, E. B. (2006). The Making of Entrepreneurial Islam and the Islamic Spirit of Capitalism, Journal for Cultural Research, 10, 113-137. Ahmed, H. (2002). A Microeconomic Model of an Islamic Bank. Jeddah: Islamic Development Bank. 80 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics Asad, M. (2006). The Message of the Quran. Istanbul: Isaret Yay. Asutay, M. (2007). A Political Economy Approach to Islamic Economics: Systemic Understanding for an Alternative Economic System, Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies, 1, 3-18. Black, J., & Hashimzade, N., & Myles, G. (2009). Oxford Dictionary of Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dalal-Clayton, B., & Bass, S. (2002). Sustainable Development Strategies: A Resource Book. London: Earthscan Ltd. Hasan, Z. (1992). Profit Maximisation: Secular versus Islamic. In S. Tahir et al (Eds.), Readings in Microeconomics: An Islamic Perspective (pp. 239-255). Malaysia: Longman. Hobson, A. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Difficult Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources & United Nations Environment Programme & World Wildlife Fund (1980). World Conservation Strategy. IUCNUNEP-WWF. United Nations Documents, Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from http://www.un-documents.net/jburgdec.htm Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1997). Retrieved on June 2010 from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html Government of Canada (2000). Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change (ISBN: 0-662-29444-0). Retrieved on June 2010 from file:///tmp/M22-135-2000E.pdf Naqvi, S. N. H. (1997). The Dimensions of an Islamic Economic Model, Islamic Economic Studies, 4, 1-24. International Law and Agreements (ILA) New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development (2002, April). International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 2, 211-216. Presley, J. R., & Sessions, J. G. (1994). Islamic Economics: The Emergence of a New Paradigm, The Economic Journal, 104, 584-596. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 81 �Retrieved on May 2010 from http://www.unep.org/Documents.multilingual/Default.asp?Documen tID=78&ArticleID=1163 Van Wyk, M. W. (2001). Equal Opportunity and Liberal Equality. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg. Woods, D. (2002). Sustainable Development A Contested Paradigm: Economics Forum of the Foundation for Water Research. Birmingham, UK. Zaman, A. (2005). Towards a New Paradigm for Economics, 18, 49-59. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1059 Title A name given to the resource Paradigm Shift for Sustainable Development: The Contribution of Islamic Economics Author Author ORHAN ASTRÖM, Z. Hafsa Abstract A summary of the resource. Sustainable development is a common concept of the 21st century. However, the expected changes towards sustainable development are slow. We believe every change starts with changes in understanding of the subject matter. If sustainable development is the aim, it should start with changes in understanding. This paper aims to explain the necessary paradigm shift for sustainable development by the contribution of Islamic economics. While doing this, the reasons of paradigm shift, the content of such a paradigm shift, and the possible contributions of Islamic economics will be analyzed. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0bbada79e018a523d08b14d84019c844.pdf 167fd802ad02d6190525d073009c7d45 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖ Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖ Ma. Rregjina Gokaj Depatment of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Education Lecturer of British Language and Literature University ―Aleksandër Moisiu‖ Durrës, Albania gokajrregji@yahoo.it Abstract: Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living, communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled. Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These and other issues will be browsed within this paper. Keywords: gender oppressions, ―problem plays‖, transformation of the individual, woman‘s role. Introduction ―Pygmalion‖ is one of the most famous plays of Bernard Shaw, the disciple of Henrik Ibsen, whose famous play ―A Doll‘s House‖ is also taken into consideration. Both playwrights have much in common as their plays are considered problem plays, and their characters and situations can be discussed from different points of view. Ibsen‘s masterpiece A Dolls‘ House published in 1879 in Italy is a realist play which reflects real life problems of unexceptional people. Although Pygmalion treats the problem of the reformation of the English speech, seems it does not have much in common with A Doll‘s House which treats the female role within a cage-house. But another point of view which permeates both plays is the transformation of the individual. This individual is the female character who lives under the power of the patriarchy or under the oppressions of social divisions. The two main characters of these plays, Nora of A Doll‘s House and Eliza of Pygmalion, have their peculiarities and similarities. The way the plays evolve are quite different from one another, the ways these women are transformed are also different, the target of the transformation is quite personal and self-centered from their men (one appears to be Nora‘s husband; the other is Eliza‘s professor), the inspiring goal of Nora and Eliza‘s transformation is their self-respect and their self-esteem; but anyway the attitudes and the behaviors of these two women are of much interest because they are not given the deserved place in family (Nora) or in society (Eliza). Nora is the kingpin of Ibsen‘s A Doll‘s House treated like a doll by her husband who lures her with flatters. All she does during her marriage is taking care of the family and her children. She is a very devoted wife, mother and household. Is that enough? Is she satisfied? She seems to be quite happy at the beginning and responds with great affection to her husband‘s teasing. Her husband, Torvald, sees her detached from the society and treats her as a precious thing in his life, but he does not estimate her. 1047 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo He calls her ―a silly girl‖ regarding her as a plaything. He thinks that Nora‘s capacities and duties lay only in the devotion to her husband and her children; while she discovers, as the play evolves, that she can go beyond mere wifehood bonds because she possesses capacities, intelligence, ambition and courage to go ahead in her self-realization. Nora‘s courage is seen in the loan she takes out secretly in order to preserve Torvald‘s health. She has lied to her husband by telling him to be her father‘s money and thus committing a forgery upon her father‘s signature in the contract. Her determination to pay off the debt by working and saving money in secret shows her ambition and her sacrifice for Torvald‘s health. Eliza is the main female character in Shaw‘s Pygmalion written in 1912 and produced in 1913. The story is about this lower-class flower girl who is trained by a priggish professor, Henry Higgins how to become a duchess and to speak pure English according to the rules of the phonetics scientist. As the play is browsed to us, Eliza stays for 6 months at Higgins‘ house to learn the good manners of a duchess. Meanwhile, Pickering, Higgins‘ friend, unknowingly has influenced on her self-respect and dignity so that Eliza can not just parrot the speech of a duchess. As Eliza is shown to other people, such as Higgins‘ mother or her friends, even at the ball, her speech and manners are those of a real duchess, but that is not enough. Higgins at last comes to understand that it is to be considered not only the way she pronounces, but what she pronounces. Thus, we do not have anymore a poor little flower girl who knows nothing else but selling flowers in the streets of London for two pence, but with a confident, well concerned grown up woman who aspires new ambitions for her life now on. In the final act of the play she makes a very remarkable observation that "the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she's treated" (SparkNotes Editors, n.d.)328 which transmits the very essence of her inner state through her transformation. The utilization of Nora and Eliza As the title itself suggests, A Doll‘s House, Nora is presented as a mere doll for her husband within the walls of her house. She is treated like a useful object, because everything Torvald needs is a wife, children and a family to be gazed at. His social position requires such an appearance no matter how it is inside. He is a man with some reputation in the town so he needs to present a well-devoted wife to her husband and children. Torvald holds that Nora needs not to think about anything, she can not take any responsibilities over the family. All she has to do is take care of the children and be a satisfactory toy for her husband. Being regarded as a doll makes her feel empty and unimportant inside, with no feelings or thoughts. In poor words Torvald thinks he is married to an object-wife underestimating Nora as a human being. It‘s more or less the same with Eliza with the big difference that Higgins is not her husband, but happens to be a phonetics scientist that she met by accident under the portico of St Paul's church in Covent Garden. When this prudish professor finds out that Eliza‘s way of speaking might be of special interest in his field, he decides to have her as a useful object for academic research. The superiority that upper class in the Victorian England takes ground upon lower ones proves the deepness of social strata divisions. The important thing is that this does not show the superiority in values or virtues between people, but superiority due only to social belongings. Higgins treats Eliza as plasticine in his hands, and it seems he is a little boy shaping it in different forms until he finds the perfect shape for his toy. In this sense, the finding of Pygmalion as a title is appropriate and meaningful, although Higgins‘ ―Galatea‖ is quite different and unpredicted from the source one. Galatea, being a statue, came to life from the love of her creater; while Eliza, being a flower girl from the slums of the city, was introduced to nobility from the ambition of Higgins to prove his scientific theories. Thus their relationship is based on reciprocal interests, but one taking advantage upon the other. One peculiarity of the plays of Shaw, turning everything topsy-turvy, is seen here among Higgins and Eliza, where she is being exploited which leads to her rebellion and to an open end. The idea of possession and materialization Both Nora and Eliza come to light in the play from their former continuous oppressions by male characters, a husband and a high class professor. Torvald did not think of Nora being a woman, but she was regarded only as a wife and a mother. Nobody noticed Eliza until that rainy evening under the portico of Saint Paul‘s church in Convent Garden. 328 SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/ 1048 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nora as a doll is owned by a model husband, father and citizen.329(Shaw, 1864) All the play is situated in only one room which shows the limited space Nora is disposed to, the cage she has been keyed in, the entrapment she finds herself; all those stressing the realistic aspect of the play. According to Torvald, social duties are divided into man affairs and woman devotions. He thinks he possesses a wife, not that he is married to her. Coming to know this Nora takes ambitious decisions for her life; she wants to find and develop her personality so she leaves home and refuses to meet her children again until she thinks she has the right dignity for doing it. Her rebellion seems to be a pure moral act. Her wrath brings to us the civil protest against the patriarchy and the prejudices of the society with sharp masculine thoughts. The wife in the family has no space to think freely, to cooperate in actions, to take decisions for her or for the family. Nora‘s rebellion was a surprise for the time it happened, because woman emancipation does not concern only wife-husband relationship, or mother-child links, but primarily determines the dimensions of her personality. (Papagjoni, 2004)330 Torvald is astonished to hear Nora talking about other concerns which seems impossible to him. This makes him think that Nora is insane, mad, ungrateful, childish, blind and incompetent. Her self-esteem is too low because of her husband who has treated her like a doll for eight years of marriage, and now suddenly like an unimportant thing at his house. All he is concerned to, is to save his reputation in the society, like many a moralist to keep up the appearances with the cost of having a double standard. All this is unacceptable for Nora, so she is going on her way trying to become a human being: Nora: What do you consider my holiest duties? Helmer: Do I need to tell you that? Your duties to your husband and to your children. Nora: I have other duties equally sacred. Helmer: Impossible! What duties do you mean? Nora: My duties toward myself. Helmer: Before all else you are a wife and a mother. Nora: That I no longer believe. I believe that before all else I am a human being, just as much as you are - or at least that I should try to become one. (A Doll‘s House, Act 3). (Goldman, 1914)331 What about Eliza? She is treated no better than Nora but she reacts differently. Eliza is more independent than Nora and has got self-esteem since the very beginning of the play. She believes in herself and her capacities ever since she accepts to being taught in becoming a duchess. Shaw‘s theory of the life‘s force which drives man to procreation is what all species aim at for their continuation. Thus the dominant agent of this impulse is the woman endowed with a subtle energy, will-power and sensitivity which goes beyond the intellect. (Ansaldo, Giuli, Zanichelli; 2006)332 Both Eliza and Higgins are gifted with intelligence and strong will-power, but only Eliza shows great sensitivity. Due to this sensitivity, a sharp conflict between them occurs and shows the traditional role of women‘s dependence on men. Considering this, Eliza goes through another form of gender discrimination, not within a family by one‘s husband but by social divisions into noble class and poor. Social roles in the Victorian era were viewed as natural and largely fixed: there was perceived to be something inherently, fundamentally unique about a noble versus an unskilled laborer and vice versa. (Napierkowski, 1998)333 As it will be considered later, Liza's ability to fool society about her "real" identity raises questions about appearances. She goes beyond the conventional notions of the society by disregarding them because she feels she can not fit to them. First she was an unimportant flower girl who tried to make a living, but no one traced her existence. Suddenly she became of interest to someone, not as a human being but as a species who utters words in a deplorable way. This man belongs to the noble class and thinks has the right to use Eliza for his research once she has agreed to be taught to speak like a lady in a flower shop. 2 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) pp.84-87 Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004 ( my translation) 331 Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by the SunSITE Manager) 332 Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006 pp. 220-227 330 333 "Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes 1049 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The social class divisions are present throughout the play: in the descriptions of poor lodgings of Eliza (end of Act I), Higgins‘ luxurious house (beginning of Act II), Mrs. Higgins‘ comfortable drawing room (beginning of Act III), contrasts in their outer appearance, differences in way of behaving and speaking. All these differences influence Higgins character and behavior, making him act like a selfish, spoiled child, careless about other people‘s feelings,(Kadija, 2001)334 and feeling disdainful over them. He does not care about Eliza‘s feelings or thoughts; he pretends superiority over her insulting her many times by saying ‗squashed cabbage leaf‘, ‗draggle-tailed‘ or ‗guttersnipe‘ etc. During her stay at Higgins‘ house she complains of having become a slave, she has been treated like an object all the time, like Higgins‘ property. She has worked so hard in learning Higgins‘ lessons meaning that she has the right stamina for doing thing right. So well she learns to behave like a lady that no one can recognize her even at the ambassador‘s party. At this point, acting like a duchess but not being a real one, treated like an object but being a woman, she is disappointed to feel herself a useless person. Higgins attitude towards her does not change even after his successful experiment. When he asks her to fetch his slippers for him, in a moment of rebellion she throws them away to his face showing that she belongs to nobody and decides to go away to make a life on her own. Higgins unwillingness to let her go means the recognition of her as a functional housemaid, thus she is once more materialized by him not only for his scientific purposes. The symbol of money Money is a symbol used in both plays to denote different attitudes towards it. Both Nora and Eliza have strange relationships with money throughout the plays. Nora does not run the family economically because she is not capable of it according to her husband, Torvald. On the other hand, Eliza is quite independent earning and spending her own money as a flower girl. When Nora‘s husband becomes ill they have to find a considerable amount of money to pay for their trip to Italy for his recover. Considering the importance of the case, Nora takes the risk to get a loan and making a forgery by signing the contract in the name of her father. This is only the beginning of a huge sacrifice for her, because she has to pay it in secret without Torvald‘s knowledge. How can she pay it? She does secret jobs and puts money apart to pay the loan on time. Here is another sacrifice of hers showing Nora‘s great attempt to put things right by herself. Torvald could never admit her wife‘s forgery even for such a sublime reason like his recovery from illness. This is a sign of love, compassion and respect from her, but this can be a very harmful stigma for Torvald‘s reputation. He does not want to lose the status, so he does not estimate her act but blames Nora for her wrongdoing. The shallowness of the society they live in is nothing more but to keep up the appearances in other people‘s eyes. That is why he pretends to be generous by permitting Nora stay home. As a sign of his forgiveness he happily exclaims: "There is something indescribably sweet and soothing to a man in having forgiven his wife - honestly forgiven her, from the bottom of his heart" (A Doll‘s House Act 3). Nora does not care about his generosity any more but decides to leave him then and there by going out into the real world to find out its reality for herself and to gain some position not fundamentally false, refusing to see her children again until she is fit to be in charge of them. (Shaw, 1964)335 Considering her decision, Nora is not concerned about the money and the belongings of her husband, so she leaves everything, any joy and luxury she had at her house in order to find her lost dignity. On the other side, money is something worth fighting for according to Eliza. Most of the characters in the play are concerned a great deal about money. The difference between social classes is mainly based on money and property. These people seem to depend on money in order to fulfill their needs. This causes Eliza to want to change her appearance and speech336 (Laweag, 2007) in order to have a better life than before. She is very pragmatic and 334 Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001, pp.68-82 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) p. 87 336 www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion 335 1050 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo level-headed so she admits to collaborate for the experiment since she has nothing to lose, but gains over poverty and social class discrimination. First, it is to be noticed the courage of Eliza asking for speech lessons at Higgins laboratory offering him a considerable sum regarding her incomes. This means that she is really a sassy flower girl from the slums, but she inspires to leave the place one day or at least tries to do so at all costs without losing her moral integrity. When she at last becomes a duchess according to the speech and clothes appearance, she claims to have some money to start the flower business. These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights, defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world. These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights, defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world. References Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006 Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by the SunSITE Manager) Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001 Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖ SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/ "Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes 1051 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 577 Title A name given to the resource Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖ Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖ Author Author Gokaj, Rregjina Abstract A summary of the resource. Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living, communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled. Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These and other issues will be browsed within this paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/247f190dcb39e56d280899848dbd2be7.docx 19ddac1a8270c94964fb3e6444e41429 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/334960071a2d7f4c71d59d44791007d2.pdf 753fc2b927c96c5e9a83c88645e812d3 PDF Text Text "Paralyzed in Winesburg, Ohio, or Grotesques in Dublin" Defining the Structure of Epicleti M.Kubra Ozturk & Eldin Milak International Burch University/ Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: epicleti, epiphany, short story, James Joyce, Sherwood Anderson ABSTRACT In a letter to Constantine Curran, in July 1904, James Joyce wrote: „I am writing a series of epicleti – ten – for a paper ... I call the series Dubliners.“ The term epicleti has been interpreted as a misspelled form of “epiclesis”, the process of transubstantiation as defined by the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church. This went hand in hand with Joyce’s interpretation of the role of an artist as „a priest of eternal imagination, transmuting the daily bread of experience into the radiant body of everliving life”. Wolfhard Steppe convincingly argued that epicleti was a misreading of Joyce’s handwriting and that in fact the word written is epiclets, but the notion of epiclesis still remains a valuable way of interpreting the works of James Joyce, and McDermott, in a study of Joyce and Raymond Carver, has argued that epicleti itself can be considered a genre of short story. Taking this perspective, the main focus of the paper is to define the very structure of epicleti by systematically examining each of the genre’s key features, including the notion of transubstantiation and epiphany, as well as setting and characters traits. To have a variation of samples, we will use a frequently pointed out similarity between Dubliners (1914) and Winesburg, Ohio (1919) written by Sherwood Anderson. A number of scholars, including Zlotnick and Curry, examined this relation, focusing mainly on the comparison of the works and/or disbanding the possibility of imitation, respectively. Studies such as these offer a useful framework, but do not go in depth with the notion of an epicleti, and what it means for a story to be regarded as one. Using the comparison we aim to isolate the main elements of the structure, examining at the same time the place of a single structure within the frame of the whole collection, defining a genre of short story writing which can be usefully called epicleti � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1824 Title A name given to the resource Paralyzed in Winesburg, Ohio, or Grotesques in Dublin" Defining the Structure of Epicleti Author Author OZTURK, M.Kubra MILAK, Eldin Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: epicleti, epiphany, short story, James Joyce, Sherwood Anderson ABSTRACT In a letter to Constantine Curran, in July 1904, James Joyce wrote: „I am writing a series of epicleti – ten – for a paper ... I call the series Dubliners.“ The term epicleti has been interpreted as a misspelled form of “epiclesis”, the process of transubstantiation as defined by the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church. This went hand in hand with Joyce’s interpretation of the role of an artist as „a priest of eternal imagination, transmuting the daily bread of experience into the radiant body of everliving life”. Wolfhard Steppe convincingly argued that epicleti was a misreading of Joyce’s handwriting and that in fact the word written is epiclets, but the notion of epiclesis still remains a valuable way of interpreting the works of James Joyce, and McDermott, in a study of Joyce and Raymond Carver, has argued that epicleti itself can be considered a genre of short story. Taking this perspective, the main focus of the paper is to define the very structure of epicleti by systematically examining each of the genre’s key features, including the notion of transubstantiation and epiphany, as well as setting and characters traits. To have a variation of samples, we will use a frequently pointed out similarity between Dubliners (1914) and Winesburg, Ohio (1919) written by Sherwood Anderson. A number of scholars, including Zlotnick and Curry, examined this relation, focusing mainly on the comparison of the works and/or disbanding the possibility of imitation, respectively. Studies such as these offer a useful framework, but do not go in depth with the notion of an epicleti, and what it means for a story to be regarded as one. Using the comparison we aim to isolate the main elements of the structure, examining at the same time the place of a single structure within the frame of the whole collection, defining a genre of short story writing which can be usefully called epicleti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cc524d044878f83b391a100c1ca39ee8.pdf cdee52142719ead2807d229c249f99d6 PDF Text Text Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal of Textile Wastewaters: An Overview Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Release of colored wastewaters represents a major environmental problem worldwide due to the toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of the dyes and their breakdown products. Therefore much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. The most widely used dyes in industries are azo dyes which require anaerobic and aerobic phases for their complete biodegradation. Color is removed under anaerobic conditions in which azo dyes act an electron acceptor. Further, aerobic conditions are essential for removal of breakdown products which are known resist to biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Thus using both anaerobic and aerobic stages represents both decolorization and mineralization of azo dyes. Anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, however; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with the factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency. Introduction Increased population and developments in industrialization have resulted in higher use of textile products leading to release of its huge amount of wastewaters to the environment. Actually the main problem related to the textile wastewaters is colored effluents. There are so many types of dyestuffs used in textile industry to give its color to the fabrics Dye is the most difficult constituent of the textile wastewater to treat since they are synthetic and typically derived from coal tar and petroleum based intermediates. It is estimated that almost 109 kg of dyes are produced annually in the word, of which azo dyes represent about 70% by weight (Dos Santos et al., 2007). Azo dyes are characterized by nitrogen to nitrogen double bonds (N=N). The major problem associated with the dyes and their breakdown products is their toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Their discharge into surface water leads to aesthetic problems and adversely affecting to aquatic life. To overcome this problem, much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. There are many reports on the use of chemical and physical methods for color removal (Cooper, 1993; Hao et al., 2000; Dos Santos et al., 2007). The most commonly used chemical and physical treatment methods for dye-containing textile-processing wastewaters are chemical oxidation, chemical flocculation and settling, adsorption, membrane filtration and ion exchange. By these existing physical and chemical color removal methods, color is generally concentrated in the sludge or colored molecules are partly removed. Moreover, formation of large amounts of sludge and economical limitations presents disadvantages of these methods. Alternatively, biological methods are commonly considered to be the most effective treatment applications since they present lower operating costs and improved applicability (Shaw et al., 2002; Lourenço et al., 2001). It is known that several microorganisms; such as fungi, bacteria and algae; can decolorize many azo dyes (Pandey et al., 2007). In this review we will focus on the bacterial decolorization. Bacterial decolorization applied for textile effluents are based on anaerobic and aerobic treatment. Under anaerobic conditions, azo dyes are readily cleaved generating aromatic amines. The required electrons are provided by electron donating carbon sources which can be glucose, acetate, volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Hence, azo dye acts as electron acceptor and organic matters act as electron donor under anaerobic conditions. Electrons released from oxidation of electron donor directly accepted by azo dyes which results in azo linkage and color removal. Although these process the 571 �remove color of the wide range of azo dyes dyes, they do not completely mineralize the aromatic amines generated in the anaerobic environment with few exceptions (Brown and Laboureur, 1983). However due to the carcinogenic effects treatment of the aromatic amines is essential. It is known that some of the aromatic amines can be biodegraded under aerobic conditions (Brown and Hamburger 1987; Seshadri et al. 1994; Carliell et al. 1995). Combination of anaerobic and aerobic conditions is therefore the most convenient concept for treating colored wastewaters (Haug et al., 1991; Zaoyan et al., 1992; Seshadri et al., 1994; Kudlich et al., 1996; Hu, 1998). This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with combined anaerobic-aerobic SBRs. Since anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, parameters affecting color removal should be determined to achieve desirable treatment. Therefore, this review study especially presents the problems dealing with anaerobic color removal. Anaerobic color removal can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. Therefore, factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency are briefly discussed in subsequent sections. Factors Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal Efficiency As mentioned before, anaerobic phase is the first stage of decolorization process starting with the formation of intermediary aromatic amines by reductive cleavage of the azo bond (Walker 1970; Wuhrmann et al., 1980; Haug et al., 1991; Blumel et al., 1998). The schematic diagram of enzymatic dye reduction is depicted in Figure 1. The research papers reviewed are proved that color removal is mainly associated with the anaerobic stage of the SBR, however; contribution of aerobic stage is almost none. Therefore, this review study especially presents the problems dealing with anaerobic phase of SBRs. Since most of the azo dyes can be decolorized under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic biodegradation seems to be nonspecific. Nevertheless; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. Therefore, factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency are briefly discussed in subsequent sections. Figure 1. Enzymatic azo dye reduction, adapted from Subst., substrate or primary electron donor; Subst.oxid, products of substrate oxidation (Dos Santos et al., 2007) Microorganism In most of the reported processes of azo dye biodegradation, a wide range of organisms are found to reduce azo compounds such as bacteria, algae, and fungi. Azo dyes are generally known to resist aerobic bacterial biodegradation with the exception of bacteria with specialized azo dye reducing enzymes. Bacterial strains which can anerobically reduce azo dyes, cannot utilize dye as the growth substrate, therefore; require organic carbon sources. There are only a few bacteria that are able to grow on azo dyes as the sole carbon source. Aromatic amines resulting from reductive cleavage of azo bond can be used as a carbon and energy source for bacterial growth. Like carbon source, a nitrogen source is also essential for decolorization process with exception of bacteria that can be used azo dyes as a nitrogen source. As reported before, ammonium chloride is the most suitable among all nitrogen sources for SBR studies, since nitrate is believed that it is a better electron acceptor than azo bond (Wang et al., 2008). Based on the previous publications, azo dye can be reduced by azoreductasecatalyzed reduction under anaerobic conditions. But still there is a speculation whether bacterial flavin reductases are responsible for the azo reductase activity observed with bacterial cell extracts. In a published report, it was reported that flavin reductases are indeed able to act as azo reductases (Russ et al., 2000). Bacteria produce extracellular oxidative enzymes which are relatively non-specific enzymes catalyzing the oxidation of a variety of dyes. It was reported that there are so many diverse groups of bacteria playing role in decolorization. It has been also reported that mixed microbial community could reduce various azo dyes and members of the γproteabacteria and sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) were found to prominent members of mixed bacterial population by using molecular methods to determine the microbial population dynamics (Pandey et al., 2007). 572 �Dye Structure It appears that almost every azo compound that has been tested is biologically reduced under anaerobic conditions, nevertheless; though similar conditions were provided, different color removal efficiencies were achieved. This indicates that, dye structure is important when investigating biological color removal by SBRs. It was reported that metal-ion containing dyes can have adverse effect on decolorization efficiency (Chung et al., 1978; Brown and De Vito 1993). It has been also reported that azo compounds with methyl, methoxy, sulpho or nitro groups being less likely to biodegrade than the others with a hydroxyl or amino group (Zimmermann et al., 1982; Claus et al., 2002). Azo dyes with a limited membrane permeability such as; sulfonated azo dyes, cannot be reduced by intracellularly (Stolz, 2001). Cycle Time Though cycle time plays an important role in the SBR for the decolorization process, not so many reports are found in literature. The long retention times are often applied in the anaerobic phase of the reactor studies such as 18h, 21h. In several studies, it was reported that there is a positive correlation between the anaerobic cycle time and color removal (Kapdan et al., 2003; Albuquerque et al., 2005). Indeed, in combined anaerobicaerobic SBRs, since bacteria shifted from aerobic to anaerobic conditions, or vice versa; anaerobic azo reductase enzyme can be adversely affected from aerobic conditions which are essential for aromatic amine removal, thereby resulting in insufficient color removal rate. To investigate the effect of cycle time on biodegradation of azo dyes, Çınar et al. (2008) operated SBR in three different total cycle times (48-h, 24-h and 12-h), fed with a synthetic textile wastewater. The results indicated that decrease in anaerobic cycle time, the system performance on color removal is not adversely affected; on the contrary, both color removal efficiency and COD removal efficiency are slightly improved. Sludge Age The sludge retention time (SRT) is known as very important operational parameter for color removal in SBR system. To obtain efficient color removal rate, adequate microbial population is desired. It was reported that 10 days sludge retention time remained insufficient to obtain adequate population, and to ensure the color removal, sludge retention time was increased to 15 day (Lourenço et al., 2001). Redox Mediators Since long retention times are often applied in the anaerobic phase of the SBR, it can be concluded that reduction of many azo dyes is a relatively slow process. Reactor studies indicate that however; by using redox mediators; which are compounds that accelerate electron transfer from a primary electron donor (co-substrate) to a terminal electron acceptor (azo dye), azo dye reduction can be increased (Keck et al., 2002; Kudlich et al., 1997). By this way, higher decolorization rates can be achieved in SBRs operated with a low hydraulic retention time (HRT) (Cervantes et al., 2001; Dos Santos et al., 2003). Flavin enzyme cofactors, such as flavin adenide dinucleotide (FAD), flavin adenide mononucleotide (FMN) and riboflavin as well as several quinone compounds such as AQS, AQDS and lawsone have been found as redox mediators (Semde et al., 1998; Cervantes et al., 2000; Rau et al.,2002a; Rau et al.,2002b).Though accelerating effect of redox mediators is proved, differences in electro-chemical factors between mediator and azo dye is limiting factor for this application. It was reported that redox mediator applied for biological azo dye reduction must have redox potential between the half reactions of the azo dye and the primary electron donor (van der Zee et al., 2003). The standard redox potential for different azo dyes is screened generally between -430 and -180 mV (Dubin and Wright 1975). Alternative Electron Acceptors Decolorization of azo dyes starts by reductive cleavage of azo bond. Electrons releasing from oxidation of organic compounds in the wastewaters goes through the azo dye and cleaves the azo bond. As anaerobic color removal occurs by the way of reduction of the azo dye which acts a final electron acceptor in the microbial electron transport chain, existing different electron acceptors in anaerobic zone can be assessed as limiting factor for the dye removal. Alternative electron acceptors such as oxygen, nitrate, sulfate and ferric ion; may compete with the azo dye for reducing equivalents, and resulting in insufficient color removals under anaerobic conditions. Electron flow preference as a function of the different electron couples is depicted in Figure 2. Among the electron acceptors involved in electron transport chain, oxygen is the most effective electron acceptor. Anaerobic reactors in full-scale treatment systems are designed as open to the atmosphere. The effect of oxygen entering anaerobic reactors through the surface is generally assumed to be negligible since surface area is small relative to 573 �the reactor volume. Oxygen can get into the anaerobic reactors of waste water treatment plants with the mixed liquor recirculated from the aerobic zone and mixing. The impact of oxygen on anaerobic color removal efficiency becomes progressively larger when it is thought that oxygen is the most effective electron acceptor on the electron transport chain. Researchers have reported that decolorization is significantly affected from the, high-redox-potential electron acceptor, dissolved oxygen. This is because; released electrons by oxidation of organic compounds are preferentially used to reduce oxygen rather than the azo dye. Oxygen has an adverse effect on decolorization under anaerobic conditions, therefore; facultative or obligate anaerobes are necessary for azo dye reduction (Chang and Kuo, 2000). Inhibition of azo reductase activity by oxygen was also reported for Pseudomonas luteola (Chung and Stevens, 1993; Blumel et al., 1998). Indeed, NADH leads to bacterial biodegradation of azo dyes by acting electron donor. In the case of the fact that oxygen is the electron acceptor, the consumption of NADH by oxidative phosphorylation can adversely affect the enzymatic decolorization of azo dye. In a recent study results also suggested that the presence of oxygen inhibits azo decolorization when the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium was higher than 0.5 mg/L (Xu et al, 2007). This is mainly due to the adverse effect of the molecular oxygen on anaerobic azo reductase enzyme. Figure 2. Electron flow preference as a function of the different electron couples, RM and RMreduc are the oxidized and the reduced form of the redox mediator, respectively (Dos Santos et al., 2007) Among the electron acceptors involved in electron transport chain, nitrate is the second effective electron acceptor. Nitrate is normally found in textile processing wastewaters and generally coming from the salts such as, sodium nitrate which is included in dye baths for the improvement of dye fixation to the textile fibers. Nitrate concentrations used during textile processing can reach 40–100 g/l (Carliell et al., 1998). The importance of nitrate in anaerobic phase of SBR is that nitrate can compete with the azo dye for the reducing equivalents formed and resulting in decreasing decolorization (Carliell et al., 1995; Carliell et al., 1998, Lourenço et al., 2001; Panswad et al., 2000; Wuhrmann et al., 1980). Wuhrmann et al (1980) was reported that azo dye cannot be decolorized until denitrification ends up. Like nitrate, sulfate is also a constitute of textile processing wastewaters. Sulfate is generally added to the dye baths for ionic strength adjustment or it may be formed by the oxidation of sulfur species used in dyeing processes, such as sulfide, hydrosulfide, and dithionite (van der Zee et al., 2003). There are so many reports highlighting different effects of sulfate on azo dye degradation. It seems that in the presence of sulfate, decolorization may be rather stimulated than competitively suppressed (Carliell et al., 1995; Carliell et al., 1998; Panswad and Luangdilok, 2000; van der zee, 2003; Albuquerque et al., 2005). It was reported that when inhibiting sulfate-reducing activity of microbial population in SBR by the addition of molybdate, anaerobic azo dye removal efficiency is decreased. Indeed, since sulfate acts as an electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions, may compete with the dyes for the electrons available, thus causing an adverse effect on the decolorizing process. However; microbial population and sulfate concentration is also important for the reactions taking place during anaerobic phase. High sulfate concentrations are found to adversely affect decolorization unless sufficient amount of substrate is supplied to overcome the negative effects of elevated concentrations of sulfate (Cervantes et al., 2007). Furthermore; when sulfate is reduced under these conditions by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB); sulfide, which is known as bulk reductant, is generated and can in turn serve as an electron donor. Sulfide generation is found to also contribute to the reduction of azo dyes. It is also reported that cofactors involved during microbial reduction of sulfate such as; cytochrome C3 (-205 mV) and NADH (-324 mV); have appropriate redox potential. Therefore, can channel the electrons to azo dyes. 574 �Meanwhile, the redox potentials with more positive of the dye reduction than the redox potential of biological sulfate reduction (-220 mV) can be accelerated by sulfate. It was also reported articles that ferric iron can act as an electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions in which azo dye reduction occurs. Like sulfate, it was found that addition of ferric iron to the reactor stimulates the azo dye reduction. Indeed, the reactions are dealing with the redox couple Fe (III)/Fe (II) which can act as an electron shuttle for transferring electrons from electron donor to the electron accepting azo dye. Meanwhile, reactions of both reduction of Fe (III) to Fe (II) and oxidation of Fe (II) to Fe (III) facilitate the electron transport from the substrate to azo dye, thus acting as an extracellular redox mediator (Albuquerque et al., 2005). Primary Electron Donor Type Since anaerobic azo dye reduction is an oxidation-reduction reaction, a liable electron donor is essential to achieve effective color removal rates. It is known that most of the bond reductions are occurred during active bacterial growth (Nigam et al., 1996). Therefore, anaerobic azo dye reduction is extremely depended on the type of primary electron donor. It was reported that ethanol, glucose, H2/CO2 and formate are effective electron donors, contrarily; acetate and other volatile fatty acids are normally known as poor electron donors (Dos Santos et al., 2003; Tan et al., 1999; Pearce et al., 2006). So far, because of the substrate itself or microorganisms involved, with some primary substrates better color removal rates have been obtained but with others no effective decolorization have been observed. Electron donor concentration is also important to achieve higher color removal rates. Since there are so many reactions involved in bioreactor, competition for reducing equivalents by other reactions may increase the required amount of primary substrate. Though in theory the amount of electron donor per mmol monoazo dye azo is 32 mg COD, it was reported in a study that even if 60300 times higher of the stoichiometric amount is used, more electron donor source is needed (O’Neill et al., 2000). Dye concentratıon In several studies, large variations in dye concentrations have been applied in the reactor studies and it was reported that dye concentration may play a role in the decolorization process. In the case of exceeding the reactor’s biological azo dye reduction capacity, high dye concentration may adversely affect the dye removal efficiency and COD removal efficiency. Kapdan and Özturk (2005) reported that increasing initial dyestuff concentration adversely affect the COD removal performance of SBR. Nevertheless; dye removal rate may be increased by increasing dye concentrations (Cruz and Buitron, 2001). Some of the reactor studies have been proved the possibility of azo dye toxicity to microorganisms involved in biodegradation. Though toxicity is related to dye concentration, dye type applied is also important (Luangdilok and Panswad 2000). Metal-complex dyes and reactive dyes are known to have toxicity effect on decolorization process from the literature (Libra et al., 2004). Conclusion Azo dye containing wastewaters seems one of the most polluted wastewaters which require efficient decolorization and subsequent aromatic amine metabolism. Based on the available literature, it can be concluded that anaerobic- aerobic SBR operations are quite convenient for the complete biodegradation of both azo dyes and their breakdown products. Nevertheless, like the other methods used for biological treatment, SBRs treating colored wastewaters have some limitations. Presence of forceful alternative electron acceptors such as nitrate and oxygen, availability of an electron donor, microorganisms, and cycle times of anaerobic and aerobic reaction phases can be evaluated as quite significant. Though treatment of azo dye containing wastewaters needs combined anaerobic-aerobic phases, microorganisms are subjected to continually alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Thus, it is presumable that anaerobic enzymes involved in the azo dye reduction may be adversely affected from aerobic conditions, as well as aerobic enzymes involved in the aromatic amine mineralization may be adversely affected from anaerobic conditions. Since little is known about the regulations of the enzymes involved in complete biodegradation of colored wastewaters, this approach seems to need advanced investigation to improve color removal and aromatic amine mineralization. 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Water Science and Technology 26: 2093–2096 Zimmermann T, Kulla H, Leisinger T, (1982) Properties of purified orange II-azoreductase, the enzyme initiating azo dye degradation by Pseudomonas KF46. European Journal of Biochemistry 129: 197–203 578 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 603 Title A name given to the resource Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal of Textile Wastewaters: An Overview Author Author Cırık, Kevser Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Release of colored wastewaters represents a major environmental problem worldwide due to the toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of the dyes and their breakdown products. Therefore much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. The most widely used dyes in industries are azo dyes which require anaerobic and aerobic phases for their complete biodegradation. Color is removed under anaerobic conditions in which azo dyes act an electron acceptor. Further, aerobic conditions are essential for removal of breakdown products which are known resist to biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Thus using both anaerobic and aerobic stages represents both decolorization and mineralization of azo dyes. Anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, however; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with the factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a2053553f2789df556ec7dea6f204df4.pdf da382aee3f43206f973b34757ef8c75d PDF Text Text Parameters Affecting Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthesis from Wastewaters Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Dilek Aydoğmuş Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey aydogmus86@hotmail.com Şebnem Özdemir Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey sebnemozdemir55@hotmail.com Mehmet Gezginci Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey mehmetgezginci@gmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Plastics used almost every manufacturing industry are resist to biodegradation. Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), known as a biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics. In recent years, researchers have focused on the processes to increase PHA production which involve in biological phosphorus removal (BPR). Normally, BPR can be achieved through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphateaccumulating organisms (PAOs). PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in PHA production from wastewaters and parameters effecting PHA production efficiency. 1. Introduction Plastics which are known to be widely used in almost every manufacturing industry are very much advantageous. Plastics are popular in many durable, disposal goods and as packaging materials. Beside a wide range of benefits, they are not desirable in the environment. Especially, plastics are known as hardly biodegradable even non-biodegradable due to the fact that they mainly have high molecular weights (Reedy et al., 2003). Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. An alternative approach to conventional plastics is Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) which are known as a completely biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics (Bengtsson et al., 2008). Additionally, Poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid (PHB) and hydroxyvalerate (PHV) are among the most common PHA monomers. The chemical structure of the PHAs is shown in Figure1. 579 �Figure 1. Chemical structure of PHAs (Lee, 1996) 2. PHA Production As mentioned before, the PHAs are non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable thermoplastics that can be produced from renewable resources such as biomass. These biopolymers accumulate as storage materials in microbial cells under stress conditions (Sudesh et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2001; Kadouri et al., 2005). Many grampositive and gram-negative bacteria are known to be able to synthesize PHAs (Reedy et al., 2003). PHAs can be produced through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs). Although PAOs are often present in a wide range of aerobic suspended growth cultures, they only have the ability to store large quantities of phosphate when they are subjected to alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions. PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions (Figure 2). Under aerobic conditions stored PHA or PHB within the cell is used as energy source for biomass growth, and glycogen synthesis. A B Figure 2. Anaerobic PHA production and phosphorus release (A), aerobic PHA utilization and phosphorus uptake (B) within the cell (Lee and Choi, 1999) Recently reported research articles have been performed to understand PAO metabolism (Seviour et al., 2003). Acetate has been used almost exclusively as the carbon source in these studies, partially explained by the fact that it is typically the largest volatile fatty acid (VFA) species present in the wastewater treatment plants. Metabolic PAO models for anaerobic acetate uptake and utilization and the subsequent aerobic processes have been proposed. As depicted in Figure 2, anaerobic process is based on fermentation in which poly-P degradation and phosphate release take part. Under anaerobic conditions with acetate as the carbon source, phosphate 580 �accumulating microorganisms can take up acetate rapidly, accumulate PHAs in the cell. The energy for this biotransformation is mainly generated by the cleavage of polyphosphate and release of phosphate from the cell. They consume previously stored intracellular carbohydrate, and release P as a result of utilization of stored polyP. Thus, wastewater from anaerobic process is rich in inorganic phosphate. In aerobic processes, oxygen is electron acceptor and microorganism use stored PHB as their carbon and energy source. PAOs are actually known as responsible for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) and have a key role with respect to both PHB accumulate within the cell and phosphorous removal. The process is one of the most commonly used and environmentally sounds methods for phosphorus (P) removal from wastewater. As mentioned before, VFAs are preferable substrates for PHA production. Anaerobic fermentation converts various organic compounds to VFAs hence increasing the potential to produce PHA from the wastewater. The composition of the VFAs produced during fermentation will influence the final polymer product. However, the number of literature reports for PHA production with mixed cultures enriched with real wastewaters is limited. • PHAs Extraction from the Cell Since PHAs are accumulated within the cell, it should be extracted to be able to be used as plastic polymers. However, the extraction of bioplastics from microorganism poses yet a challenge. There are two common protocols used for PHA extraction from bacteria. The first protocol is developed by taking into consideration of solubility in chloroform and insolubility in methanol. Harvested bacterial cells are exposed to warm chloroform to make PHAs soluble. Further, residuals from harvested bacteria such as lipids and other lipophilic components are removed by reflux in hot methanol. Purified PHA production efficiency of this protocol is high. However, requirements of a large amount of hazardous solvent make it not environmentally friendly (Lee, 1996). The second protocol developed for the aim of avoiding organic solvent usage. In this protocol, a mixture of enzymes are used such as proteases, nucleases and lysozymes, additionally to remove proteins, nucleic acids, and cell walls, detergents are used. 3. Factors Affecting PHB Production In the previous sections the importance of PAOs on PHB production and phosphorus removal from the wastewaters were emphasized. However, their production costs are much higher than the petrochemical- based plastics (Fang et al., 2009). Thus, it becomes inevitable to know parameters affecting PHA production efficiency within the cell such as; microorganisms involved, pH, substrate, solid retention time (SRT), availability of electron acceptors, and temperature. These will be briefly discussed by taking into account the published research articles that focus on increasing the cost-effectiveness of this process. a. Microbial Population Determination of microbial population that involve in PHB production and phosphorous removal is one of the most important factor to be able to make the process successful. It has been emphasized in so many articles that there is a competition between two microorganisms, PAOs and glycogen (non-polyphosphate) accumulating organisms (GAOs) respectively. Like PAOs, GAOs are able to proliferate under alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions but the problem is they do not contribute to P removal hence anaerobic P release or aerobic P uptake cannot be established. This constitutes a major challenge since PHA production without any phosphorous removal cannot be convenient according to discharge regulations. Additionally, the presence of GAOs increase the anaerobic VFA requirements of these plants, thus so many investigators have focused on the ways that minimize the growth of GAOs. Factors affecting GAOs and PAOs competitions can be summarized as: 6. One factor affecting the PHA accumulation is the ratio of organic carbon to P in the influent or the so-called COD: P ratio. In so many studies it was reported that a high COD/P ratio (e.g. 450mgCOD/mgP) in the wastewater feed tends to favorable the growth of GAOs instead of PAOs while a low COD/P ratio (e.g. 10– 20mgCOD/mgP) tends to favorable to the growth of PAOs (Oehmen et al., 2007). 7. Effect of pH has been reported in so many research articles. They have found that increase in pH from 6.57.5 is favorable for PAOs while is not favorable for GAO. Thus it is possible to eliminate GAOs by increasing pH. In a study performed by Filipe et al., (2001a) has shown that P uptake, PHA utilization and biomass growth were all inhibited by a low pH (6.5), and suggested that a higher aerobic pH (7–7.5) would be more beneficial for PAOs. 581 �8. Effect of temperature is also investigated by so many researches and they concluded that GAOs are inhibited at 10 ºC since PAOs are the dominant microorganisms at low temperature (Carlos et al., 2009). It was also noted that high temperatures (30 ºC) can suppress the proliferation of GAO in which operating conditions for pH is high (>7) and an adequate acetate to propionate ratio (75–25%) is supplied. The experimental evidence obtained thus far suggests that GAOs tend to become stronger competitors with PAOs at higher temperatures. b. pH In many studies it was shown that adjusting to pH higher levels results in a higher anaerobic P release (Smolders et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1996; Bond et al., 1999; Filipe et al., 2001b). Kasemsap et al., (2007) found that increasing the pH from 6 to 8 promoted the PHA production significantly. It was also reported in other study that the ratio of anaerobic P release to acetate uptake increase from 0.25 to 0.75 P-mol/C-mol by increasing pH from 5.5 to 8.5 (Smolders,1994). Actually, by adjusting pH GAOs can be eliminated, this is the reason for why so many researchers focus on its effects. Increase in pH makes the energy requirements for substrate uptake high. When external pH is high, more energy is needed for acetate uptake. This increased energy is generated through an increase in polyphosphate degradation. This scenario has been found ineffective for the acetate uptake, glycogen degradation and PHA accumulation rates of PAOs when the pH is over the range 6.5–8.0 (Filipe et al., 2001b). Nevertheless, this situation is rather different for the GAOs. It was reported that a higher pH results in a higher energy demand for acetate uptake, but negatively affects the ability of GAOs to take up acetate. This is obviously related to the differences between metabolic pathways of the microorganisms. The energy production pathways of GAOs and PAOs are dissimilar since PAOs use the energy required for the substrate uptake from the hydrolysis of poly-P while GAOs from the hydrolysis of glycogen (Smolders et al., 1994; Filipe et al., 2001a,b). That means PAOs have poly-P as an extra energy source as compared to GAOs and they deplete it to meet higher energy demand. In a published report performed by Chua et al.(2003) studied the effect of pH on the PHA content using acetate as the substrate. They found that, through controlling the pH at 6 or 7, the PHA content (less than 5%) was lower than at pH 8 or 9 (25–32%). Like this record, Serafim et al., (2004) was found that polymer yield per substrate and the intracellular PHB content were higher at pH 8 than at pH 7. c. Substrate It is a prerequisite to optimize all the fermentation conditions for the successful implementation of commercial PHA production systems. Actually there is a major challenge to reduce PHA production costs. Carbon source has a large impact on production cost of the PHA produced. Hence, recent studies have been focused on reducing costs. The price of the product ultimately depends on the substrate cost, PHA yield on the substrate, and the efficiency of product formulation in the downstream processing. In so many studies different substrates were used to improve the predictability of the metabolism of both PAOs and GAOs. Acetate has been used almost exclusively as the carbon source. It has been well known that short chain fatty acids like acetate are favorable carbon sources for PAOs. Beside acetate, there are so many carbon sources used in order to investigate PHA production pathway, such as; lactate, propionate, sucrose, glucose, cheese whey, cane molasses, methanol, and hemicelluloses hydrolsate (Quillaguaman et al., 2007; Ahn et al., 2000; Wong and Lee, 1998; Rhu et al., 2003; Hong et al., 2000). Waste materials or industrial by-products can also be used for PHA production. However it was reported that carbohydrates are not directly stored as PHA and they are tend to be preferentially accumulated as glycogen (Dircks et al., 2001; Karahan et al., 2006). PHA production from raw materials requires a previous anaerobic fermentation step for their transformation into volatile fatty acids (VFA). This is the reason why the majority of the studies related to PHA production are based on the use of organic acids. The effect of various substrate costs, the yield on the P (3HB) and production cost are summarized in Table 1. Wastewater contains a much more diverse mixture of substrates other than acetate and investigations were conducted with other compounds, alone or in mixtures, including: propionate, butyrate, valerate, isovalerate, formate, lactate, malate, pyruvate, glucose, citrate, succinate but glutamate but the metabolism of these organic substrates have not yet been well understood (Wang et al., 2002). Several studies concluded that glucose as sole carbon source led to deterioration of the EBPR process, as glucose promoted the growth of GAOs which do not accumulate polyphosphate and therefore capable of utilizing glucose without the release of phosphate (Cech and Hartman, 1993; Mino et al., 1994; Satoh et al., 1994; Tasli et al., 1997). However, there are also opposite research results where a stable EBPR performance could be maintained with glucose as the major organic substrate, with no appreciable proliferation of GAOs (Carucci et al., 1999; Jeon and Park, 2000; Wang et al., 2002). 582 �Substrate Glucose Sucrose Methanol Acetic acid Ethanol Cane molasses Cheese whey Hemicellulose hydrolysate Substrate Price (US$ kg_1) 0.493 0.290 0.180 0.595 0.502 0.220 0.071 0.069 P(3HB) yield (g P(3HB) (g substrate)_1) 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.38 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.20 Product cost (US$(kg P(3HB))_1) 1.30 0.72 0.42 1.56 1.00 0.52 0.22 0.34 Table 1. Effect of various carbon sources on PHB yield and production cost (Reddy et al., 2003) In the past, there have been relatively few studies on EBPR systems involving propionate as a carbon source (Satoh et al., 1992,). In recent years, however, the metabolism of propionate by PAOs (Lemos et al., 2003) and its effect on EBPR performance has attracted considerable attention. Several studies have suggested that propionate could be a more favorable substrate for EBPR (Chen et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2003), likely providing a selective advantage to PAOs over GAOs (Oehmen et al., 2004a, 2004b; Pijuan et al., 2004). In the studies used other single substrates such as lactate, ethanol, and glutamate which can be converted into PHB, very low storage yield has been obtained. When lactate used for carbon source, 0.20 g PHA g-1 substrate accumulation was obtained, it was 0.25 g PHA g-1 substrate for ethanol, and 0.058 g PHA g-1 substrate for glutamate (Dionisi et al., 2004; Doi et al.,1987). Lactate is taken up by PAO cells and converted to propionylCoA, using both poly-P and glycogen hydrolysis as energy sources. Poly-P is hydrolyzed to orthophosphate and released from the cells, while glycogen is hydrolyzed to acetyl-CoA and CO2. Acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA are reduced and condensed to form PHA, with the reducing power provided by glycogen hydrolysis. This mechanism is compared to the situation in which acetate is used as sole carbon source in Figure 3. A B Figure 3. Control of redox balance of different carbon source in PHA production under anaerobic conditions (Mino and Satoh, 2006). H, reducing power or hydrogen in such forms as NAD(P)H and FADH2; S, molar amount of acetate or lactate taken up; G, molar amount of glucose unit in glycogen consumed; P, molar amount of monomeric units of PHA produced. In Figure 3, redox balance regulation is depicted which is the key mechanism for anaerobic carbon uptake and hence proliferation of PAOs. Glycolysis via Embden Meyerhof pathway (EMP) and acetate oxidation through the TCA cycle provides the required reducing power for the conversion of acetate into 3hydroxybutyrate for PHA synthesis (Figure 3A). Mino reported in this study that the ratio S/G/P will be 1:(1/6):(2/3) and 1:0:(4/9) if all reducing power is supplied by glycolysis and by the TCA cycle, respectively. In Figure 3 B, lactate is taken up within the cell as carbon source. By this way, ratio of S/P is increased to 2. During conversion of lactate into acetyl-CoA the reverse operation of the TCA cycle is needed to consume excess reducing power produced. 583 �d. Solid Retention Time (SRT) and Temperature It is obvious from the published reports that SRT has important impact on PHA production yield for a given organic loading rate (OLR) .Short SRT sludge acquires higher PHA production capability, hence sludge acclimatization with a short SRT may also be preferable for PHA production purpose. This approach is confirmed since the sludge yield under a shorter SRT is higher than that under a longer SRT. So it can be concluded that with a short SRT can supply sufficient amount of sludge for PHA production compared to that with a long SRT. It was found that sludge with a short SRT (3 days) could achieve PHA content about 10% more than sludge with a long SRT (10 days) (Chua et al, 2003). However, it was reported that higher cell growth rates resulted in a lower PHB content higher PHB yields were produced at longer SRT when the cells were growing more slowly (Dias et al 2006). Beun et al. (2000) reported that the PHB yield per substrate and specific productivity were almost constant when vary the SRT from 3.8 to 19.8 day. Dionisi et al. (2001) obtained a relatively constant storage yield in a SRT range of 0.37–3 day. Temperature also appears to be a factor that has an important impact on the PHA production. It was reported that temperature has actually directly affected microorganism competition which is known as GAO and PAO. In a published report, it was mentioned that a lower temperature decrease the rates of P release/uptake, acetate uptake, PHA oxidation, growth (Brdjanovic et al., 1998). Panswad et al. (2003) found that the rate of P release increased with increasing temperature from 20 to 35 ºC, while the rate of P uptake decreased. Aditionally,it was reported in a study that the increase of temperature from 15 to 35 ºC result in decrease in the yield of PHB on acetate from 0.43 to 0.072 g PHA g-1 substrate and a decrease in the specific productivity from 0.12 to 0.060 g PHA g-1 cell dry weight h-1 (Krishna and van Loosdrecht, 1999). The yield of biomass also decreased with temperature increase. Low temperatures (between 15 and 20 ºC) allow for a less costly process thus increasing the PHA productivity. e. Availibity of Electron Acceptors Since anaerobic P release based on fermentation process, availability of electron acceptors, such as; oxygen, nitrate and sulphate, is not desired since this will eliminate the fermentation process. For example availability of nitrate will result in denitrification process and nitrate reduction will take place other than fermentation process in which organic compounds are usually used as electron acceptors. Additionally, it has been observed that aerobic P uptake is inhibited by the presence of nitrite (Kuba et al., 1996). Saito (2004) also reported that the presence and accumulation of nitrite inhibits PAOs, thereby favoring the growth of GAOs. Third et al. (2003) was studied the effect of dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) on PHA production. They found that when oxygen was limited PHA yield was 0.49 g PHA g-1 substrate using acetate as sole carbon source. They have found that PHA yield was decreased to 0.34 g PHA g-1 substrate under excess oxygen. 4. Conclusion Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) have gained major importance because of their similar properties to conventional plastics and their complete biodegradability. PHA can be produced from renewable carbon sources, allowing for a sustainable process for the production and use of such polymers. PHA can be synthesized by polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO) under anaerobic conditions from external carbon sources and internal glycogen. Glycogen-accumulating organisms (GAO) are also present in EBPR systems and compete for carbon substrates with PAO. They also cycle PHA and glycogen in a fashion similar to PAO, but GAO do not cycle polyphosphate. Hovewer, much more effort is required in this area to increase the production of bioplastics to successfully replace the non-degradable plastics. Thus the future of bioplastics depends on the efforts towards fulfilling requirements of price and performance. This review shows the parameters affecting PHA production efficiency. Process monitoring and control are important factors for achieving high productivity. Since carbon source has a large impact on production cost of the PHA produced recent studies have been focused on reducing its costs. Besides carbon source, some other factors such as SRT, temperature, pH, availability of electron acceptors in the anaerobic phase are proved to have important affect on PHA production yield. It can be concluded that, low SRT, temperature ranging between 15-25 ºC, pH above 7 can be preferable for higher PHA production efficiency. Indeed, the main challenge regarding the bioreactor operation and control is the development of culture selection strategies of fast growing organisms that have a high PHA storage capacity. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 604 Title A name given to the resource Parameters Affecting Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthesis from Wastewaters Author Author Cırık, Kevser Aydoğmus, Dilek Aydoğmus Özdemir, Sebnem Gezginci, Mehmet Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Plastics used almost every manufacturing industry are resist to biodegradation. Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), known as a biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics. In recent years, researchers have focused on the processes to increase PHA production which involve in biological phosphorus removal (BPR). Normally, BPR can be achieved through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphateaccumulating organisms (PAOs). PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in PHA production from wastewaters and parameters effecting PHA production efficiency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)