19 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a7c0f941174ac3516a6bd63513705177.pdf 8d9519afa034977c417019bf7b10cf50 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Empirical Analysis of Turkish Financial Crises in the Early 2000’s. Đsmail ÖZSOY Prof. Dr., Fatih University, Dept.of Economics, Turkey iozsoy@fatih.edu.tr, ismailozsoy@yahoo.com Birol GÖRMEZ Research Asst., Fatih University, Dept.of Economics, Turkey bgormez@fatih.edu.tr, bgormez@hotmail.com Abstract: The financing scheme has a crucial function in an economy since it enables fundowners to transfer their funds to those in need. Unless the financing scheme operates effectively, economic growth is hampered severely due to the inadequacy or immobility of capital. The world finance history has experienced many financial crises, the case of malfunction of the financing scheme, repeatedly so far. Many theories and models have been developed to give an insight into the reasons and dissemination mechanisms of, and precautions against the financial crises. This paper is intended to find out the explanatory variables of the Turkish financial crises that took place in November 2000 and February 2001 with the help of the method of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and within the framework of the models of financial crises. To this effect, the models of financial crises are briefly dealt with; the Turkish financial crises in the early 2000’s are analyzed subsequently by making use of ANN. Key Words: Turkish Financial Crisis, Financial Crisis Models, Artificial Neural Network Introduction Nearly all people would like to have an uninterrupted prosperous life. This demand can only be met as long as some specific conditions are established. For instance, the efficient utilization of the existing scarce resources in the production of goods and services and the fair and uninterrupted distribution of the produced goods and services are two of the specific conditions that have to be established so as to ensure high and sustainable personal welfare. However, it is impossible to state that these conditions can be met any time since sometimes there may be such ups and downs in the economic activities as crisis, which may have drastic economic, social and political effects. Due to its devastating effects, foreseeing financial crises, a type of economic crisis, and taking measures to minimize the length and impacts of them are of crucial importance. Many financial crises models have been developed to guide the institutions that try to achieve these goals. Theoreticians have made different comments on the reasons and eruption processes of the crises, thus, they have suggested different solutions to this problem. The aim of the this paper is to find out the explanatory variables of the financial crises that took place in the early 2000’s in Turkey. To this end; after a short explanation about financial crisis, financial crisis models are explained very briefly, then the financial crises in question are examined empirically by making use of the method of Artificial Neural Network. Financial Crisis Theoreticians define financial crisis from their own perspective in different ways. To one of the definitions, financial crisis is the nonlinear disruption in which asymmetric information problems of adverse selection and moral hazard become much worse, so that financial markets are unable to channel funds to those with the most productive investment opportunities. (Mishkin 2003) However, in its broadest meaning, financial crises are the big problems suddenly arising in money, foreign debt and banking areas of the financial sector. In the light of this definition, it is possible to classify financial crises into groups of “banking crisis”, “monetary crisis” and “foreign debt crisis.” (Bastı 2006) The definitions of the concerned types of financial crises are as follows: “A banking crisis refers to a situation in which actual or potential bank runs or failures induce banks to suspend the internal convertibility of their liabilities or which compels the government to intervene to prevent this by extending assistance on a large scale.” (IMF 1998) 16 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A monetary crisis or a currency crisis erupts if the attacks on the national currency of a country end up with devaluation or a sharp depreciation or if the Central Bank is forced to protect the value of the currency by selling huge amount of reserves or increasing interest rates sharply. (Delice 2003) Foreign debt crisis is the declaration by a country of the fact that it can not pay “capital+interest” of the public or private foreign debt (that it can not pay debt service) due to the foreign payment problems it encounters. (Seyidoğlu 2001) Financial Crisis Models Some models and theories have been developed to explain the nature of financial crises. The classification of financial crisis models as First Generation Financial Crisis Models and Second Generation Financial Crisis Models has been widely accepted. Some models have also been introduced into the literature, which aim at explaining the financial crisis named as “Asian Financial Crisis”, which erupted on 2 July 1997 with the devaluation of Thailand’s national currency. These last group models are called Third Generation Financial Crisis Models or the Models Explaining Asian Crisis. First Generation Financial Crisis Models are named as Traditional Crisis Models, Canonical Crisis Models or Speculative Attack Models as well. Main starting point of these models is the fact that foreign currency can exhaust and its supply can not be increased easily. The first financial crisis modeling developed by Paul Krugman in 1979 has been considerably improved, and today it is named as “First Generation Financial Crisis Models”. According to the first generation models, main reasons behind monetary crises are macroeconomic structural imbalances and unsustainable policies. High and increasing budget deficits, high inflation, high domestic interest rates, high rates of money supply increase, huge current deficits, extremely valuable exchange rate and decreases in international reserves can be given as examples of macroeconomic structural imbalances. (Kuran 2006) Issuing money to finance budget deficits in a country where fixed exchange rate system is implemented can be given as an example for unsustainable and unstable policy. According to these models; covering of financial deficits while implementing a fixed exchange rate policy or increasing money supply drastically to balance a weak banking system causes financial crises. In other words, incompliance of economy policies -which are divided into two groups of monetary and fiscal policy- with foreign currency target results in financial crises.1 According to first generation models, financial crises erupt as follows: Assume that fixed exchange rate policy is implemented in an economy; that the budget of the economy has a deficit and; that the units implementing macroeconomic policies prefer issuing money to finance the budget deficit and the only tool they have to fix the deficit is to intervene in the foreign exchange market. In such case, interest rates fall on one hand and inflation rises on the other hand due to increase in money supply. The fall in interest rates and the rise in inflation cause reduction of economic reserves and, thus, result in crisis. First of all, foreign investors demand foreign currency (as the interest rates fall) and then export foreign currency. In addition, shadow price2 of the foreign currency exceeds the official foreign exchange rate due to increasing foreign currency demand. Secondly, national currency is valued due to fixed exchange rate policy. This has a decreasing effect on export and increasing effect on import. The rise of inflation has negative impacts on export as well. As a result, foreign trade deficit gradually increases. The increase in the foreign trade deficit means a reduction in economic reserves. Moreover, these two developments bring along another development that reduces reserves more: In an economy where foreign trade deficit increases (i.e., where balance of payment is deteriorating), speculators foresee that fixed exchange rate policy will be abandoned and, thus, foreign currency rate will increase. Therefore, speculators who want to maximize their profits sell their reserves in national currency and buy foreign currency. Together with the above-mentioned factors, this situation plays a role in the depletion of the reserves as well. Speculative Attack plays an important role in the first generation models. The most important characteristic of Speculative Attack is that investors decrease the relative share of the national currency and increase the share of the foreign currencies and foreign assets in their portfolios. Central Bank, which tries to maintain fixed exchange rate, puts its foreign currency reserves on the foreign currency market. Central Bank, the reserves of which decreases to a critical level, has to abandon fixed exchange rate regime. As a consequence of this process, a financial crisis (monetary crisis) erupts. To summarize according to Krugman’s approach; variables such as financial and monetary expansion result in reserve losses when there is no parity to prevent loss of foreign currency reserves. This situation creates an increasing pressure on the foreign exchange rate. (Kaminsky, et al 1998) 1 For more detailed information: See; Krugman, Paul (1979), “A Model of Balance of Payment Crises”, Journal of Money, Credit, Banking” pp: 311-325 2 Shadow price is the price determined by the supply-demand status of any good when the price is not fixed by the authorized institutions. Shadow price of any foreign currency is the price that is determined when the exchange rate is not fixed. 17 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Second Generation Financial Crisis Models suggest financial crises can erupt even when there is no deterioration in the economic indicators. These models explain how speculative attacks targeting national currency can result in crises even when the monetary and fiscal policies are consistent. (Özer 1999) Second generation models emphasize that when there are inconsistencies between fixed exchange rate and some important economic figures, politicians may prefer to float the exchange rate and not respond to the speculative attacks even when there is sufficient amount of foreign currency reserve. (Bilgin, et al 2002) To the second generation models pioneered by Maurice Obtsfel, governments have grounds both to continue and to abandon the fixed exchange rate policy. Governments make benefit-costs analysis when deciding on whether to continue or abandon the fixed exchange rate policy. The benefit of the fixed exchange rate system is that it decreases the inflation pressure and creates an economic environment that promotes trade and investment. On the other hand, the cost of the fixed exchange rate system is that it causes an increase in the real interest rates. In case downward inertia is observed together with the high interest rates, unemployment rate increases and growth rate decreases. As can be understood from the context, increasing real interest rates may lead to failure to sustain the fixed exchange rate system and, in turn, to eruption of crisis. Since it will not be rational to keep the exchange rate at its current level in case costs exceed benefits, the exchange rate is floated. To reduce unemployment and current transaction deficits and to promote growth; governments prefer to switch to the floating exchange rate system although foreign currency reserves are sufficient to protect the exchange rate. Third Generation Financial Crisis Models are also called “The Models Explaining Asian Crisis”. Two main suggestions have been made to explain the reasons of Asian Crisis. The first suggestion is that Asian Crisis can be explained on the basis of the second generation models. To this suggestion, the countries that faced crisis were exposed to a self-fulfilling pessimism by the international investors. That is, the pessimism of the creditors and investors created a pessimist atmosphere for the other investors as well. The resulting cycle caused the Asian Crisis. To the second suggestion, the weak economic structure produced by the wrong policies and structural problems resulted in the Asian Crisis. These structural problems can be summarized as follows: The first problem was the presence of the microeconomic problematic implementations such as implicit deposit insurances and confidential public guarantees. These implementations have been suggested to pave the way for the crisis due to moral hazard and excessive borrowing. The second problem was the insufficient auditing of the financial sector and particularly the banks. When the system is not properly audited, banks can enable use of funds by their affiliated companies at such huge amounts to increase financial fragility. In addition, in weak systems, huge amount of funds inflowing to the country result in not only high amount of domestic fund transfers via poorly-managed banks but also domestic demand boom. The loans granted without any risk analysis can not be paid back in economic shrinkage times and result in crises. The third problem was the unreliable balance sheets of the banks and non-bank financial institutions. The problems in the balance sheets of the banks mainly result from mismatch. When the banks borrow money in foreign currency and lend in national currency and when they make short-term borrowing and make lending for long-term investments; it means that they encounter both monetary and term mismatch problems. (Yay, et al 2001) Wrongly-valued foreign currencies and unpaid debts are the other balance sheet problems. Such situations create the appropriate environment for the financial crisis to occur. Empirical Analysis with Artificial Neural Network (ANN) “An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information.” (Stegiou, et al 2009) In the information processing system of ANN, there may be huge number of highly interconnected processing elements, neurons, just like in a brain. The neurons in question are organized into the layers of input, output and hidden. The input layer is connected to the output layer through junctions with a hidden layer. (Cravener, et al 2001) Input, hidden, output layers and the neurons constitute the network of ANN. The brief explanation of the learning process of ANN is as follows: Firstly, the network tries to find linear relationships between the inputs and the output. The links between the neurons in input and output layers are assigned weight values. At this phase, there is no hidden layer. After the linear relationships are found, non-linear relationships are found by adding neurons to the hidden layer. The values in the input layer, namely the inputs, are multiplied by the weights assigned by the system automatically and then sent to the hidden layer. The hidden layer produces some outputs, inputs of the output layer, and sends them to the output layer. Lastly, the output layer produces the predictions. The network of ANN is adaptive. Because the predicted values are compared with the actual values, and if there is any error, then the connecting weights are adjusted and/or new hidden neurons are added to capture all features of the data set and to make accurate predictions, namely to minimize the error. 18 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Inputs, Output (Variables) and the Dataset The studies analyzing the Turkish financial crisis of 1994, 2000 and 2001 empirically were examined to determine the inputs and output. The leading indicators that were found significant in the analysis were used as the inputs in our study besides the inputs emphasized by the financial crisis models. 96 pieces of monthly data of each input, between the dates of Janury, 1996 and December, 2003 were used in the analysis. The monthly percentage changes of each input were used. The data were collected from the Electronic Data Delivery System of Central Bank of Turkey and the website of Turkish Statistical Institute. About the Inputs The inputs used in the analysis are as follows: � M2 (Money Supply)/Gross Currency Reserves of Central Bank (M2/CBER): The rise of this rate means that the financial system is vulnerable to shocks. To the third generation financial crisis models, an increase in this rate increases the probability of financial crisis to occur. � Total Deposit of Commercial Banks (TDCP): It was observed that bank deposits had declined before the crisis. The fall in commercial bank deposits mean that bank balance sheets contract and the trust in banks decline. It is the crisis indicator of the third generation financial crisis models. � Domestic Credit Amount (DCA): Empirical findings obtained heretofore have proved that domestic credit amount increases before crisis. Before the financial crisis in November 2000, domestic credit amount, particularly the amount of consumer credits, increased substantially. � Consolidated Budget Income/ Consolidated Budget Expenditure (CBI/CBE): To the first generation financial crisis models, an increase in budget deficit raises the financial crisis risk. In other words, there is a positive relation between budget deficit and financial crisis risk. Therefore the probability of financial crisis risk is expected to increase as the value of this input declines. � Real Exchange Rate (RER): Overappreciation of local currency, that is, the change of exchange rate in favour of local currency is interpreted as a leading indicator of financial crisis. � Deposit Rate (DR): There is a positive relation between deposit rate and the probability of financial crisis. � Consumer Price Index (CPI): It was observed that inflation rates raised before financial crisis to have occured. � Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product (CAB/GDP): An increase in this ratio is accepted as an indicator of financial crisis. To the former president of IMF, Stanley Fischer, high current deficient and banking sector caused the November 2000 crisis. (Fischer 2001) To some international finance institutions, CAB/GDP ratio of Turkey was unsustainable as of fall of 2000. � Export Coverage Import Ratio (EX/IMP): In an economy implementing fixed exchange rate system, the fall of export and the rise of import effect the foreign trade balance, thus the current account balance negatively. Current account deficit increases the pressure on exchange rate and causes speculative attacks. About the Output To design the output, a pressure index and a threshold were calculated. The formulas used to find out the pressure index and the threshold are as follows:1 The pressure index used is Foreign Exchange Market Pressure Index (EMP). “EMP is calculated as the weighted average of the monthly percentage changes in the gross currency reserves of the central bank and of the monthly percentage changes in the devaluation rate of TL against US dollar.” (Şen 2005) EMP is formulated as follows: EMPT = %∆et − α 1 %∆rt Where e t denotes the nominal buying rate of TL/$ at time t rt % denotes the amount of gross foreign currencies of Central Bank at time t ∆ e t denotes the monthly percentage change in the nominal buying rate. 1 The formulas used to design the output were taken from the following dissertation: Şen, Ali (2005), Finansal Krizlerin Tahmin Edilebilirliği: Türkiye Uygulaması, Đstanbul University. 19 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ∆ r t denotes the monthly percentage change in the amount of the gross foreign currencies of Central Bank % α1 is the proportion of the standard deviation of the series of the monthly percentage changes in the nominal exchange rate to the standard deviation of the series of the monthly percentage changes in the amount of the gross foreign currencies of Central Bank. Namely, ( σ e /σ r ) The value of the threshold is calculated by making use of the following formula βσ emp + µ emp Where β denotes the coefficient of EMP σ denotes the standard deviation of EMP series µ denotes the mean of EMP series If If EMPit > βσ EMPit + µ EMPit , It is deemed that financial crisis occured in the corresponding month EMPit ≤ βσ EMPĐT + µ EMPĐT , It is deemed that no financial crisis occured in the corresponding month. In the light of these information, the values of the pressure index in November 2000 and February, March, April and June 2001 were found greater than the value of the threshold. That is to say, it is inferred from the data that financial crisis occured in the mentioned months. This inference highly overlaps with the conclusions of some other empirical studies and the crisis experience of Turkish economy. June 2001 crisis could be accepted as the aftershock of February 2001 crisis. In analysis, the values of the pressure index, changing from month to month naturally, were used as output. The values of threshold, standard deviation, mean of the pressure index, and the ratio of ( σ e / σ r ) were found equal to 2.514596, 1.6010, 0.4491, and 0.1172 respectively. The coefficient of “β” is 1.29. It is important to determine the value of the coefficient of the standard deviation of the pressure index series, namely “β” while calculating the value of the threshold. Because deciding whether the financial crisis occured is effected by this value. To determine the value of the threshold, the values of “σ” ve “µ” were calculated by making use of the data whereas we assigned the value of “β”. We calculated the value of “β” as 1.29. Because the financial crises dates found out in case of determining the value of “β” as 1.29 overlapped with the actual financial crisis mentioned above. It is possible to give various values to the coefficient of “β”. For instance, in some studies1, it was given the values of 1.5, 2.5, and 2.54 respectively. Model Building (Learning/Training Phase) In this subsection, an ANN model is built for November 2000 and February 2001 financial crises. All data were used for learning and validation purposes. The data were not separated as learning or validation data. That is, the data used to validate the built model was chosen within the sample. Testing phase was skipped. What desired to achieve with this model is only to find out the effects of inputs on the output, namely the pressure indice, which are used to specify whether financial crises occurred between 1996 and 2003. The number of the hidden neurons is 70. Because the model yielded lower R-squared values in case of the utilization of less number of hidden neuron. The model with the highest value of R-squared was chosen as the best model. NeuroShell ® Predictor software was used for the analysis. The summaries of the statistical outcomes of the built model and importance of the inputs are as follows: R-Squared: R-squared takes a value between 0 and 1. The closer the value is to 1, the better the net is able to make predictions. The closer the value is to 0, the net is not able to make good predictions. The Rsquared value of the neural network model is 0.966431, which confirms the closeness of fit between the actual and trained pressure index. Figure 1 in Appendix shows the plot between the actual and trained pressure indice. 1 Please refer to the following articles: Aziz, Jahangir, Caramazza, Francesco, Salgado, Ranil (2000), “Currency Crises: In Search of Common Elements”, IMF Working Paper, No.67; Edison, Hali J. (2000), “Do Indicators of Financial Crises Work? An Evaluation of an Early Warning System”, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, International Finance Discussion Paper No. 675; Esquivel, G., Larrin F. (1998), “Explaining Currency Crisis”, HIID, No.666 20 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The blue points represent the actual, the red points represent the predicted indice. From the figure, we infer that the model is very good at learning the indice, namely the existence or non-existence of the crises. Minimum Square Error (MSE): MSE is the statistical measure of the differences between the actual and predicted values of the output. MSE has the value of 0.002832 in our analysis, which is also a good indicator of the closeness of fit between the actual and trained pressure index. Relative Importance of Inputs: In Table 1 is given the relative importance of each input. Besides, Figure 2 in Appendix illustrates the importance of each input in predicting the value of output. The corresponding number of each input indicates the importance of the input in predicting the output. The relative importance numbers take a value between 0 and 1, The higher the number, the more important that input is in predicting the output. “The relative importance numbers are “normalized” so that for all inputs they add up to approximately 1. Therefore, we may think of these numbers as a percent contribution to the model of the respective inputs.” (Ward 1997) In view of the results, it is inferred that the input of domestic credit amount has the highest importance in predicting the output, whereas the input of CAB/GDP has the lowest. Table 1: Relative Importance of Inputs INPUT Domestic Credit Amount Export Coverage Import Ratio Real Exchange Rate Consumer Price Index Total Deposit of Commercial Banks Deposit Rate Consolidated Budget Income/Consolidated Budget Expenditure M2 (Money Supply)/Gross Currency Reserves of Central Bank Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product IMPORTANCE 0.242 0.240 0.208 0.153 0.092 0.047 0.008 0.005 0.004 Model Validation (Validation Phase) In this subsection, the built model is validated with the same data in order to check whether the built model is capable enough to predict the actual values of the outcome, pressure indice. R-Squared value and MSE were found as 0.917785 and 0.006935 respectively. These results prove that the model is strong enough to predict the values of outome. Figure 3 in Appendix shows the plot between the actual and trained pressure indice at validation phase. The blue points represent the actual, and the red points represent the predicted indice. The performance of the model at validation phase proves that the model can predict the pressure indice, namely the existence or non-existence of the crises almost accurately. Concluding Remarks Financial crises, whatever their types are, have been on the agenda of many economists for nearly three decades. Because they leave destructive affects on the social and economic structures of the countries. As a result of the studies, empirical and theoretical, to gain an insight into the nature of financial crises, many theories and models have been suggested. Artificial Neural Network is one of those empirical analysis tools that could be used. In this study, ANN was used to analyze the economic reasons of November 2000 and February 2001 Turkish financial crises. The inputs and output were determined by making use of the leading indicators of financial crisis models, and some empirical analyses related to the Turkish financial crises of interest. The variables found significant in the empirical analyses were added to our study. The time interval, January of 1996 and December of 2003, was selected on purpose to analyze the Turkish crisis in the early 2000’s particularly. If the time interval had been determined longer, it would have been improper to mention about the economic causes of the crisis in question due to the inclusion of causes of the Turkish financial crisis in 1994. To the results at learning and validation phases, a strong model is built to find out the explanatory variables of November 2000 and February 2001 financial crises. Because the R-squared values of the model at training/learning and validation phases are 0.966431 and 0.917785 respectively. Besides, MSE values are 0.002832 and 0.006935. Moreover, the plots in figure 1 and 3 also prove the power of the model. It is concluded that the trained network model is a good fit to explain the reasons of the financial crises in question. In addition, it is inferred that the input of domestic credit amount played the greatest role in the crises in question whereas the input of Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product played the smallest. 21 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Aziz, J., Caramazza, F.& Salgado, R. (2000). Currency Crises: In Search of Common elements. IMF Working Paper, No.67. Bastı, E. (2006). Kriz Teorileri Çerçevesinde 2001 Türkiye Finansal Krizi. Ankara: Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu Publications. Bilgin, M.H., Karabulut, G. & Ongan, H. (2002). Finansal Krizlerin Đşletmelerin Finansal Yapıları Üzerindeki Etkileri. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Publications, Publication No:2002-41. Cravener, T.L., Roush, W.B. (2001). Prediction of amino acid profiles in feed ingredients: Genetic algorithm calibration of artificial neural networks. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 90 (2001) 131-141. Delice, G. (2003). Finansal Krizler: Teorik ve Tarihsel Bir Perspektif. Erciyes University ĐĐBF Journal, No:20. Edison, H. J. (2000). Do Indicators of Financial Crises Work? An Evaluation of an Early Warning System. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, International Finance Discussion Paper, No. 675:1-74 Esquivel, G.& Larrin F. (1998). Explaining Currency Crisis. HIID, No.666 Fischer, S. (2001), Exchange Rate Regimes: Is the Bipolar View Correct. Symposium conducted at the meeting of American Economic Association Meeting. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598ch4.pdf (15 March 2009) Kaminsky, G.L., Saul L. & Carmen M.R. (1998). Leading Indicators of Currency Crises. International Monetary Fund Staff Papers, Vol.5, No.1. Kuran, Đ. (2006). Türkiye’de Ekonomik Krizler ve Đstikrar Programları (1980-2005). Unpublished MA Thesis. Harran University. Mishkin, F. (2003). Banking and Financial Crises. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/83724/mishkin.pdf (17 May 2009) Özer, M. (1999). Finansal Krizler, Piyasa Başarısızlıkları ve Finansal Đstikrarı Sağlamaya Yönelik Politikalar. Anadolu University Publications, No:1096. Stergiou C., Siganos, D. (2009). Neural Networks. http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_96/journal/vol4/cs11/report.html#Introduction%20to%20neural%20networks (12 May 2009) Şen, A.(2005). Finansal Krizlerin Tahmin Edilebilirliği: Türkiye Uygulaması. Đstanbul University. Ward Systems Group Inc. (1997). NeuroShell ® Predictor Instruction. USA: Ward Systems Group Inc. Yay,T., Yay,G.G. & Yılmaz,E. (2001). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Finansal Krizler ve Finansal Düzenlemeler. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Publications, Publication No:2001-47. Appendix Figure 1: Actual and Predicted Values at Training/Learning Phase 22 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Importance of Inputs at Training/Learning Phase Figure 3: Actual and Predicted Values at Validation Phase 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 130 Title A name given to the resource An Empirical Analysis of Turkish Financial Crises in the Early 2000’s. Author Author ÖZSOY, İsmail GÖRMEZ, Birol Abstract A summary of the resource. The financing scheme has a crucial function in an economy since it enables fundowners to transfer their funds to those in need. Unless the financing scheme operates effectively, economic growth is hampered severely due to the inadequacy or immobility of capital. The world finance history has experienced many financial crises, the case of malfunction of the financing scheme, repeatedly so far. Many theories and models have been developed to give an insight into the reasons and dissemination mechanisms of, and precautions against the financial crises. This paper is intended to find out the explanatory variables of the Turkish financial crises that took place in November 2000 and February 2001 with the help of the method of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and within the framework of the models of financial crises. To this effect, the models of financial crises are briefly dealt with; the Turkish financial crises in the early 2000’s are analyzed subsequently by making use of ANN. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36101d43ca55a718f60838f433ccd467.pdf b8bf9bd4b476aaf61f0c49dc75e4b384 PDF Text Text Sürekli ve Verimli Eğitimin Bireysel ve Toplumsal Gelişmeye Katkısı Şule Bilge ÖZKEÇECİ Sanatçı-Sosyolog/Türkiye Özet : Bu tebliğde bireylerin ve toplumun dünyaya bakış açısını kültürünü inançlarını ve yaşam tarzını belirleyen ve sosyalleşmesini sağlayan eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemi vurgulanacaktır. İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyet ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Öğretimden farklı, daha kapsamlı, değer yüklü bir terbiye yöntemi olan eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, insan hayatında kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir ve anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. İnsandaki enerjiyi, keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada önemli olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesidir. ayatı anlamlandıran, mana katan eğitimin amacını belirlemek asıldır. Bilmek; neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyan devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler. İyi insan olmayı hedefleyen kişinin talebeden birey, aktif öğrenici olması, alıcı, seçici ve istekli olması eğitimcileri de değiştirir, yönlendirir, daha verimli, gayretli, donanımlı olmaya teşvik eder. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli, mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Bu tebliğde genel olarak verimli ve başarılı sonuçlar için eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemine dikkat çekmek istiyorum. Eğitim Nedir, Önemi İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyetleri ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Bilgi ve yetenek bir güçtür ve eğitimle doğruya iyiye güzele yönlendirilmelidir. Eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, hayat boyu kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir. Eğitim, bireylerin dünyaya bakış açısını, kültürünü, inançlarını, yaşam tarzını belirlemesini ve sosyalleşmesini amaçlar. 408 �Öğretimden farklı ve daha kapsamlı olan eğitim anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. Eğitim giderek unutulan ama insan için hayati önem taşıyan, çok boyutlu ve değer yüklü bir kavram olan terbiye ile bağlantılıdır, değilse olmalıdır. Üzerine kurulmazsa hiçbir binanın başarılı olamayacağı bir temel teşkil eden terbiye, sadece çocukluk dönemi için değil tüm hayat boyunca süren bir eğitim yöntemidir. Büyüklerin; “Ehl-i irfan arasında aradım kıldım talep Her hüner makbul imiş, illâ edeb illâ edeb" dediği gibi “Adam gibi adam olabilmek” için, olmazsa olmaz yöntem iyi bir terbiye almaktır. Eğitimin Amacı Hayatın anlamını kavrama ve yaşadığının farkına varma, eğitilmiş insana ait bir özelliktir. Eğitilmemiş birey, toplum hayatındaki yerini, konumunu ve görevini kavrayamaz. Eğitimsiz bir toplumda düzen, uyum, huzur, birlik ve hedef olmaz. Sosyal refahın ve adaletin gerçekleşmesi, sorumluluk duygusu taşıyan fertlerin varlığına bağlıdır. Bu da ancak eğitilmiş insanla mümkün olduğundan, bireyin ve dolayısıyla toplumun eğitimine olan ihtiyacımız herşeyin önündedir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen, eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyuyor, devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Özellikle demokratik sistemlerde, insan eğitimi ya da eğitilmiş insan modeli ayrı bir önem taşır. Zira sorumluluk duygusu demokrasinin ön şartıdır. Özgürlük dahil, diğer bütün şartlar bundan sonra gelir. Sorumluluk duygusu taşımayan bireyler, demokrasinin değerini ve önemini anlayamayacağından okullar, demokrasinin kalesi olarak görülür. Ama toplumsal eylemlerde aktif olan insanların çoğunun ya üniversite öğrencisi, ya da üniversite mezunu olması eğitimde yönlendirmenin ne kadar önemli olduğunu gösterir. Bireyi özgür bırakan demokratik sistem, aynı bireyi istediği yönde eğitemezse kendi sonunu hazırlamış demektir. Dolayısıyla eğitimin biçimlendirme, yönlendirme boyutunun önemi ortaya çıkar ki, her toplum mutlaka bunun bilincinde olmalıdır. İnsandaki enerjiyi keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada asıl olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesi, yani hayatı şekillendiren eğitimin amacının belirlenmesidir: Bilmek; ama neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Bizim eğitim sistemimiz modernleşme projesi çerçevesinde ve tek tip insan yetiştirmek için oluşturulan kalıplarla biçimlenmiştir. Bilindiği gibi dünyamız uzunca bir süredir Batılı düşünürler tarafından geliştirilen ve “modernleşme, batılılaşma, çağdaşlaşma” gibi çeşitli adlarla nitelenen teorilerin yönlendirdiği bir dönüşüm yaşamaktadır. Dünyayı Doğu ve Batı olarak ikiye bölen, kadim uygarlıkları, köklü kültürleri, ekolojik sistemi bir kasırga gibi savurup altüst eden bu değişimin materyalist düşünsel temelleri evrim teorisine ve ilerleme fikrine dayalıdır. Postmodern yaklaşımlar içinde insana, ahlaki değerlere, tabiata verdiği zarar ve yıkımlarla ele alınıp kıyasıya eleştirilen modernleşme hareketleri Türkiye’de -ilk uygulamalardan günümüze kadar- Batıdan farklı olarak halkın talebi ve mücadelesi ile değil genelde Batılı toplumların zorlamasıyla yöneticiler eliyle gerçekleşmiştir. Modernleşme düşüncesi sürekli olarak değişime vurgu yapar, sanki eskiden her şey hiç değişmeden duruyormuş gibi. Değişim veya yenilik arzusu yeni icat edilmiş bir şey değil, her zaman var olan ve devamlı yinelenen bir gerçeklik, ama hayatımızda abartısız ilk insandan bu yana değişmeden gelen süreklilikler de vardır ve zannedildiğinin aksine bunlar değişimden çok daha temel unsurlardır. Bu açıdan baktığımızda insanlık tarihi boyunca kadın, erkek, anne baba rolleri, aile kurumu, mesleki konumlar, aşk, ölüm, kin, şefkat gibi yerleşik duygular her zaman vardır. Bu sahnede oyuncular sürekli değişir ama roller hep aynıdır. İnsan hayatındaki tüm bu süreklilikler modernleşme düşüncesinde gelenek olarak adlandırılıp daha çok tutucu, gelişmeleri engelleyen kalıplara hapseden ve değişime karşı bir kavram olarak sunulur. Değişmeler kaçınılmaz, hep vardır, olmalıdır ama değişme nötr bir kavramdır gelişmeyle, ilerlemeyle eşdeğer değildir. O halde geldiğimiz noktada değişimimizi ve gittiği yönü sorgulamalıyız. Değişim toplumun yararına ve doğru yönde bir değişim mi? Modernleşme teorilerinin dayattığı gibi alternatifsiz mi? “Daha iyi nasıl olabilir?” “İyi olan, doğru olan nedir?” diye düşünmediğimiz, sorgulamadığımız sürece hazır verilen modellerin milim dışına çıkmayı aklımızdan bile geçirmediğimiz sürece bunu göremeyiz. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle, sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli ve mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. 409 �Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken, inançlı, ahlaklı bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için insanın hem aklını, hem gönlü doyurmalı bunun için de mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Eğitimde Başarı İnsanı iyi eğitebilmek veya eğitememek bir toplumun kaderini ve geleceğini bilirler. Bu sebeple eğitim çok önemli, bir o kadar da zor bir ilimdir, hele bizim gibi nüfusunun yüzde 26,4'ü 0-14 yaş grubunda olan genç nüfusa sahip bir ülkede. Eğitimde başarıyı etkileyen aile, okul, yetenek, zekâ, çevre gibi temel unsurlar vardır. Kişinin başarısında öncelikle ailelerin yaklaşımı önemlidir. Bazı ebeveynler çocuklarının kendileri gibi başarılı olabilmeleri için veya kendi yapamadıklarını başarmaları için çırpınıp dururlar, büyük fedakârlıklar yaparak ne olursa olsun okusun isterler. Ancak çocukları beklentilerini karşılayamadığında onun yeteneksiz olduğunu düşünürler. Özellikle “Çocuğumuz mutlaka bir üniversite okusun, diploması olsun” veya “üniversite eğitimi hayata dair her şeyi kazandırır” gibi düşünceler çocukların hayatları boyunca yapamayacakları işlerin peşinden koşup başarısız ve mutsuz olmalarına neden olmaktadır. Bu sebeple çocukları yeteneği olmayan alanlara zorlamak veya yetenekli oldukları alanlarda engellemek başarısızlıklar doğurur. Unutmamak gerek ki, insanların bir kısmının elbette çok daha kalifiye ve yetenek gerektiren işleri olacaktır ve bazı kişiler mutlaka diğerlerine göre daha iyi şartlarda yaşayacaklardır ancak bunu kabullenmeyen insanlar hiçbir zaman ulaşamayacakları bu yerlere göz dikerek sadece zaman ve enerji kaybedeceklerdir. Altın pencereli ev masalındaki gibi insanlar elindekinin kıymetini bilip değerlendirmek yerine hep kendilerinde olmayana özenir, imrenir. Bu noktada ailenin çocuğu tanıması ve onunla sağlıklı diyalogu önemlidir. Hepimiz çocuklarımızı tanıdığımızı sanırız, ama nelerini tanırız, nelerini biliriz? Bir anne baba, çocuğunun hangi yemekleri sevdiğini, okuldaki dersler durumunu bilir de çocuğunun hayal kırıklıklarını bilir mi, gelecekten neler beklediğini, tutkularını, özlemlerini, korkularını, kaygılarını, kendisi hakkında neler hissettiğini bilir mi? Çağımızda yeni teknolojiler ve eğlence endüstrisi aile yapısını etkiliyor, değiştiriyor, ergen çağındaki gençler daha çok yalnızlık içinde kalıyor. Evlerimizdeki televizyonlar, bilgisayarlar, internet, giderek herkesin kendi beğenilerine, kendi değerlendirmesine dayalı "tekil uğraşlara" dönüşerek aile ilişkilerini zayıflatıyor. Bu durum giderek artan oranda bireyin yalnızlaşmasına ve aile üyelerinin birbirine yabancılaşmasına yol açıyor. Teknoloji ve iletişim araçları ile karakteri oluşmadan, hayatı tanımadan, bir değer sistemiyle güçlenmeden, tavrının, duruşunun, tutumunun, beklentilerinin ne olduğunu bilmeden karşısına çıkan erişimi kolay malumata boğulmuş bir bilgi ile karşılaşan gençler maalesef gafil avlanıyor. Denetimsiz, sorumsuz, değer ve kural bilmeyen bu körleştiren bilgi gençlerin coşkusuna, heyecana hitap ederek onun içindeki ateşi körüklüyor, kahramanlarını büyük ölçüde değiştiriyor ve ona "çıkar dünyasının", "şiddet ortamlarının", "hızlı zenginlerin" içinden yeni örnekler sunuyor. Buralardan gelen yoğun etkiler gençlerin inançlarını, çevrelerini ve -ailelerin geçmişten gelen değerleriyle çok farklı- yeni sosyal değerlerini oluşturmaktadır. Bu yolla aktarılan günümüzün yeni dünya düzeni değerleri rekabetçi yarışma ortamında "ne yolla olursa olsun, kimin olursa olsun sahip çıkma", "üstün olma" vb. fırsatçı, bencil yaklaşımlarla ortaya çıkmaktadır. Görüldüğü gibi ailenin birey üstündeki rolünü sınırlayan teknolojinin çocuk ve gençlere etkisi büyük ölçüde olumsuz olmaktadır. Okulun eğitim sistemdeki yeri ve önemi büyüktür. Sadece mesleki eğitim almak için gereken öğretim süreci hayatın ortalama yirmi yılını, yani en güzel, en verimli gençlik çağlarını kapsar. Ama eğitim için okul yeterli bir şart değildir, çünkü okulu başarılı yapan şeyler yalnız para ve onunla satın alınan veya yaptırılan güzel binalar, kaliteli eğitim teknolojileri değildir. Eğitim binalar kadar binaların dışında da verilir çünkü. Aslında toplumun kendisi bizzat eğitici bir faktördür. İnsanlar, eğitimlerinin çoğunu burada alır. Ancak eğitilmiş olan bir toplum, bireylerini eğitebilir. O halde "Eğitim, okulun eseri değildir. Okuldan ziyade toplumun içinde elde edilmesi gereken ve insanın kendinde mevcut faziletlerin eseridir" denilebilir. Eğitimde yaklaşımlar ve yöntemler önemlidir. Nitekim hiçbir zaman tek bir öğretim yöntemi yoktur. Geleceği yaşayacak yarının büyüklerini yetiştirmeyi hedef alan ülkelerin dünya çapında başarılı olmalarını sağlayacak ve onları geleceğe taşıyacak eğitim sistemi nasıl olmalıdır? Bu konuda yapılan araştırmalarda tarihi planda başarılı olmuş kurumlar da incelenir ve örnek alınır. Osmanlıyı yüzyıllarca ayakta tutan dinamiklerden olan, dünyada eşine rastlanmayan ve ilk defa Osmanlıların uyguladıkları Enderun Mektebi kısmen Amerika, İngiltere, Almanya ve Japonya gibi ileri ülkeler tarafından uygulanmaktadır. Varlıklarını 21. asra taşıyabilme gayretindeki devletlerin ilham kaynağı olan bu görkemli mirasımıza sahip çıkıp onu yeniden yorumlayarak çok daha verimli bir eğitim sistemi geliştirebiliriz. İnsan çok kompleks aynı zamanda çok değişken bir varlıktır, bu yüzden onu bir eşya veya makine gibi kategorize etmek doğru değildir. Allahın insana vermiş olduğu zekâ ve kabiliyetlerde insanların yüzleri gibi 410 �farklı farklıdır. Yeteneksiz insan yoktur, farklı yeteneklerde insan vardır. Herkes her şeyi yapamaz. İnsanın bu özelliği çoklu zekâ kuramlarıyla açıklanıyor şimdilerde. Bu konuda bireysel ayrıcalıkları gözeten en önemli yöntemlerden biri bireylerin birer birer eğitimidir. Çağları aşıp gelmiş olan bu yöntem yozlaşan toplumda kaybolan bireylerin yeniden tek tek kazanılmasını sağlayabilir. İnsanın en değerli varlık olduğunu düşünürsek ve her insanın başlı başına bir âlem olduğunu kabul edersek, böyle bir gayretin ne kadar gerekli ve önemli olduğu ortaya çıkar. Geniş kitleleri hedef alma, bireyin eğitiminde sanıldığı kadar faydalı ve kalıcı değildir. Bu bağlamda toplu mekânlar ve kalabalık ortamlar, eğitim adına verimin ve kalitenin göstergesi olamaz. İnsanın yetişmesinde kilit nokta saygıdır; farklılığına saygı, fikirlerine saygı, hayallerine saygı göstermek gerekir. Eğitimde başarı için kişinin yeteneğine, cinsiyetine, yaşına, ilgilerine, kapasitesine göre yönlendirilmesi ve sevdiği alanda uğraşması gerekir. Eğitimin her kademesinde kesintiye uğramadan yürütülecek çalışmalar, öğrencilerin özgün düşünce güçlerini ortaya çıkaracak, onları kalıplara sokmayacak, özgürce kendilerini ifade edebilecekleri şekilde olmalıdır. Öğrencilere beyinlerini bir sürü bilgi ile doldurmak yerine çocuğu görmeye, aramaya, sormaya, denemeye, sonuçlandırmaya alıştırmalı ve toplumda, hayatlarında kullanabilecekleri bilgileri vermelidir. Burada temel soru şu olmalı; başarı nedir? Para kazanmak mı, şöhret olmak mı, kariyer mi? Beklenen nedir, eğitim mi etiket mi? Temele hırslar, menfaatler, sadece maddi kazanç elde etme hedefi konursa sonuç ne olur? Topluma ve ülkeye hizmet etmek veya iyi insan olma hedefi ile inanarak, severek, kafa yorarak, çilesini çekerek, azimle çalışmak kişiyi başarıya taşır. Zira dehanın % 90’ı çalışmaktır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini, kişinin rehavete düşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler, medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Ömür Boyu Eğitim Verim ve başarı için sadece hayatın bir döneminde ve sadece okullarda veya kurumlarda alınan bilgi eğitim olarak yeterli olmaz, bu eğitimin sürekliliği, değişen şart ve ihtiyaçlara göre yenilenmesi de elzemdir. İnsanın kendini geliştirmesi çok önemlidir ve öğrenmenin sınırı yoktur ve bence en kalıcı ve etkili eğitim görkemli binalarda, en süslü sözlerle, en meşhur hocalarla verilenler değil, verenin bildiğini hissettiğini gönülden inanarak aktardığı eğitimdir. Bilmek aklın ihtiyacıdır ruhun ihtiyacı değil. Ruhun ihtiyacı hissetmektir, inanmaktır, sevmektir. Bu sebeple eğitimin muhakkak manalandırılması ve ahlaki bilgelikle beslenmesi gerekir. Dengeli, yeterli, sürekli beslenme diyebiliriz buna ve ancak bu dengeyle hakikate ulaşabiliriz. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Başta ilk kelimesi “oku” olan kutsal kitabımız olmak üzere bizim inanç sistemimiz insanı sürekli ilme, eğitime ve kendini geliştirmeye teşvik eder. Peygamberimiz beşikten mezara ilim öğrenmeyi öğütler, çünkü insanın kendini keşfi ömür boyu sürer. Yunus Emre’nin dizeleriyle: İlim ilim bilmektir, ilim kendin bilmektir Sen kendini bilmezsin, ya nice okumaktır Aslında okumak, ilim değil en zoru bu kendin bilmek. Bir öğreti, bir öğüt, bir vecize, bir hikmet olarak neredeyse varoluş kadar eski "Kendini bil!" düsturu çok uzun dönemlerden beri farklı dillerde ve medeniyetlerde söylenegelmiştir. Kendini bilmek kendini tanımak demektir. İnsanın kendisini bilmesi için sadece anatomisini, duygularını, ihtiyaçlarını, zaaflarını önyargılarını ve tutumlarını bilmesi yetmez. Şuurunu, hissini, iradesini bilmesi de yetmez. İnsanın kendini bilmesi bunlarla birlikte hergün kendini farklı bir nazarla yeniden okuması, sürekli kendisini yeniden tanıması demektir. Çünkü insan bir fotoğraf gibi tek bir karede tespit edilebilen bir varlık değildir. Dolayısıyla kendini bilmek durağan bir olgu değil, her an yeni bir bilmeyi gerektiren dinamik bir süreçtir. “Okunacak en büyük kitap insandır” der Hacı Bayram Veli. Gerçekten de daima değişen, tekrar tekrar okunması gereken, her seferinde başka şeyler söyleyen, çok karmaşık bir kitaptır insan. Hz. Muhammed bu nasihati bir aşama daha ilerletip şöyle der: “Kendini bilen Rabbi'ni bilir". Yunus Emre’de bu minvalde dizelerine şöyle devam eder; Okumaktan mana ne, kişi Hakkı bilmektir Çün okudun bilemedin, ha bir kuru emektir Baştan Hakk’ı bilmek bir mucize gibi kişiyi çok boyutlu bir bilme ve görme potansiyeline ulaştırıyor. Çünkü Hakkı bilmek kişiye bir yol haritası çiziyor. Hem öznel hem nesnel bilgiye sahip olmasını sağlıyor. Kendini bilme yolculuğunda insanın nereden gelip ne yaptığı ve tekrar nereye gideceği öğretiyor. 411 �Kendini bilmek; hakikati arama yolunda kişinin ibret nazarıyla bakmayı, kendini kontrol etmeyi, düşünce ve hareketlerinin sorumluluğunu üstlenmeyi bilmesi, kısaca kendini terbiye etmesidir. Kendini bilmeyen, hatta aramayan kişi hayatını boşa geçirmiş, bir eser verememiş ve kendini gerçekleştirememiştir. Kendini bilmek, haddini de bilmektir, aynı zamanda kıymetini de bilmektir. “Sen, kendini ufak bir nesne sanırsın, hâlbuki sende koca bir âlem dürülmüştür.” der Hz. Ali. Hayat okulunda başlıca görevimiz olan kendini bilme çabası süreklilik, cesaret, mücadele gerektiren, eline, beline, diline sahip olmayı da içeren çok çetin bir yoldur. Zorlu, zengin, sabır ve sebat gerektiren ama sonuçları mükemmel, sırlarla ve sürprizlerle dolu, maceralı bir seyahat gibi. Biz adına hayat diyoruz ve çok azımız bu boyutuyla farkına varıp yaşıyoruz. Kolay olmadığı kesin bu yolculukta günümüz insanı refaha ve rehavete düşmüş, bu amaçlardan uzaklaşmış görünüyor. Bu sebeple kendini bilme gayretinden gafil olduğundan beri toplum birçok şeyi kaybetti, bu şeyler adlarını manalarını ve hayata kattıklarını da alıp gidiyorlar. Haslet, hikmet, edep, meziyet, nezaket, zerafet, vekar, iz’an, dirayet, fazilet, asalet, metanet, vefakârlık gibi. Bunlar olumsuz gelişmeler gibi görünse de gençlerin, çocukların olduğu her yerde ümitte vardır, bu yüzden ben geleceğe ümitle ve çocukların gözlerindeki sevgiyle bakıyorum. Kendimizi bilmek dileğiyle. 412 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 431 Title A name given to the resource Sürekli ve Verimli Eğitimin Bireysel ve Toplumsal Gelişmeye Katkısı Author Author ÖZKEÇECİ, Şule Bilge Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu tebliğde bireylerin ve toplumun dünyaya bakış açısını kültürünü inançlarını ve yaşam tarzını belirleyen ve sosyalleşmesini sağlayan eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemi vurgulanacaktır. İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyet ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Öğretimden farklı, daha kapsamlı, değer yüklü bir terbiye yöntemi olan eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, insan hayatında kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir ve anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. İnsandaki enerjiyi, keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada önemli olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesidir. ayatı anlamlandıran, mana katan eğitimin amacını belirlemek asıldır. Bilmek; neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyan devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler. İyi insan olmayı hedefleyen kişinin talebeden birey, aktif öğrenici olması, alıcı, seçici ve istekli olması eğitimcileri de değiştirir, yönlendirir, daha verimli, gayretli, donanımlı olmaya teşvik eder. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli, mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Bu tebliğde genel olarak verimli ve başarılı sonuçlar için eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemine dikkat çekmek istiyorum. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0825fac41b835207ab2ea27060a2ea26.pdf 90101cf1f1ed844b7da7a72b377cdf4f PDF Text Text Eğitime Sanatın Katkıları ve Yansımaları İlhan ÖZKEÇECI Fatih Üniversitesi Öğretim Üyesi Istanbul//Türkiye Abstract: Sanat, tabiat ve çevre karşısında insan duygu ve düşüncelerinin renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu ona bir rahatlık sağlamaktan öte ayrıca farklı kazanımları elde etmesine ve daha başarılı sonuçlara ulaşmasına vesile olacaktır. Her şeyde olduğu gibi sanat eğitiminde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Sanat eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını biçimlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye, daha doğrusu tüketime hizmet etmektedir. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Sanat Hakkında Sanat, insanın tabiat ve çevre karşısında duygu ve düşüncelerini renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Sanat, bireyin sosyal ilişkilerini ayarlamasını, işbirliği ve yardımlaşmayı, doğruyu seçme ve ifade edebilmeyi, bir işe başlayıp bitirme sevincini tatmayı, üretken olmayı sağladığı için gereklidir. Sanat bir milleti başka milletlerden ayıran, bir milletin güzeli bulma tarzını ortaya koyan kültür unsurudur. İnsanoğlu sosyal ve ruhi ihtiyaçlarını söz, ses, renk, ışık, şekil ve anlayış zevkinin toplamı olan sanatla karşılar. 393 �-Sanat; önemli bir iletişim kurma aracıdır. -Sanat faaliyetlerinde bulunmak hayatı güzelleştirir. -Bu suretle sanat insanda var olan yetenekleri gün ışığına çıkartır, bunları harekete geçirerek kendine güven duygusunu arttırır. -Sanat insanın geçmişi, bugünü ve yarını arasında bağlantı kurmasını sağlar. Ona kendi kültürel geçmişini tanıtarak, ondan önemli ölçüde yararlanmasına vesile olur. -Sanat uğraşları ruhen tedavi edici özelliklere sahiptir. İnsan hayatının bütün seyrinde, bir yaşam değeri olarak sanatın izleri görülür. Hayata gözlerini açtığı andan itibaren gördüğü renkler, kavradığı biçimler, idrak ettiği formlar ve hacimler hep bu çizginin yansımaları olmuştur. Giydiği kıyafetin, yaşadığı mekânın, dolaşıp gezdiği çevrenin ve daha birçok unsurun yansıttığı duygular içerisinde insan, toplumda şekil alacak ve bir biçime girecektir. Bu biçimlenme temel manada bir algı ve duygu içerisinde gerçekleşecektir. Tarih öncesi çağların mağara duvarındaki resimleriyle birlikte insan hayatına giren, insanın acılarını, umutlarını, korku ve daha pek çok duygularını ifade etmede yararlandığı bir ana tema olmuştur sanat. Bu yönüyle insanların sözlü anlatımlarından çok daha önceleri dünyada yerini almış bir gerçek haline gelmiştir. Güzel sanatlar kişisel gelişimde güçlü ve etkin bir eğitim aracıdır. İnsanlar arasında estetik duyarlılığın kazanılması, ortak davranışların geliştirilmesi, ortak beğeni kazanımı, güzeli arama gibi değerlerin elde edilmesi hep bu yolda gerçekleşebilecektir. Toplumda nitelikli insanların yetişmesi, çevreye ülkeye faydalı, verimli insan profilinin oluşması, yaşadığı hayattan haz alma, duygularının gelişmesi yine güzel sanatların getirdiği olumlu sonuçlardır. Sanat ve Eğitim Eğitim de sanat gibi insanla birlikte var olan ve toplumun kültür ve cemiyet hayatını şekillendiren, insan hayatı için temel teşkil eden unsurlardan biridir. Eğitim, insana hayattaki iletişim süresince karşılaştığı farklı ihtiyaçlara faydalı çözümler bulabilme yeteneğinin kazandırır, toplumun standartlarını, inançlarını ve hayatı tanımasını öğreterek onun sosyalleşmesine katkıda bulunur. Eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan kapsamlı ve işlevsel bir süreçtir. İnsanoğlu bu süreç içerisinde yaşamış olduğu toplumun kültürel değerlerini, dünyaya bakış açısını ve bu bakış açısı etrafında şekillenen sanat anlayışını kavramaya çalışan sosyal bir varlıktır. Kuşaklar arasında sosyal devamlılık eğitim vasıtasıyla sağlanır. Eğitim yalnızca okullarla sınırlı olan bir olgu değildir. Okullar, üniversiteler dışında, kişinin eğitiminde kurslar, kültür ve sanat dernekleri, gençlik kuruluşları, kütüphaneler, müzeler, spor klüpleri, günümüz iletişim araçları (kitap, gazete, dergi, sinema, radyo ve televizyon, bilgisayar ve internet) gibi bir dizi etkenin de katkısıyla oluşan önemli bir birikim olduğunu kabul etmek gerekiyor. Ayrıca eğitim kurumlarının yanı sıra gelişen iletişim araçları sayesinde daha çok çevresel faktörlerle biçimlenen eğitim sürecinde toplumlararası temas ve alışverişlerle toplumların birbirinden aldığı etkiler kültür hayatına yansımaktadır. Yaşamın her safhasında süren eğitim özellikle yeni nesillerin hayata hazırlanması, topluma kazandırılması, çevreye ve ülkeye yararlı bireyler olması bakımından dün olduğu gibi bugün de önemlidir ve bu ehemmiyet sebebiyle eğitimin başarısı konusu sürekli üzerinde durulan, devamlı tartışılan bir konu olmaktadır. İlim Ahlak Estetik Ülkemizde (Türkiye) eğitim sistemi uzun yıllardan beri daha verimli daha başarılı nesiller yetiştirebilmek adına sürekli değişir ama beklenen ve istenen sonuçlar tam anlamıyla elde edilemediği görülebiliyor. Materyalist bir temelle, ısrarla tek yönlü olarak sürdürülen bu eğitim sistemi maalesef çocuklarımızın acımasız bir yarışa sürüklenip en verimli yıllarını bir meslek sahibi olabilmek adına harcamasına yol açıyor. Bilimin gerçek temellere dayandırılması esas alındığında eğitimin daha başarılı olabilmesi için gerekli bazı noktalara dikkat çekilmelidir. Günümüzde eğitim neredeyse bilimle özdeşleştirilmekte bilimse tamemen teknolojiye bağımlı hale gelmiştir. Bireyi yalnızca bilim ve teknoloji açısından bilgilendiren eğitim eksiktir, ona toplumdaki yerini hatırlatmak, ruhu incelten estetik kaygıları, hayata anlam katan insani değerleri öğretmek de gereklidir. Mekânlar (eğitim mekânlarının tertibi ve düzeni), konsantrasyonu sağlayacak bir ortam varlığı, eğitim malzemeleri yeterliliği ve desteği, program uyum ve dengeleri eğitimde başarıya götüren unsurlar arasında sayılabilir. Ancak, eğitimdeki asıl başarı bilim ve sanatın işbirliğinde aranmalıdır. Bu işbirliği olabildiğince gelişmiş ve bireyi kuşatıcı bir konumda gerçekleştirilmelidir. 394 �Her şeyde olduğu gibi eğitimde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Dolayısıyla insanın eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Sanatla meşgul olmak, bilimle uğraşan kişiler için soluklanma payları olarak düşünülebilir. Büyük insanların bir sanat faaliyeti ile meşgul olmaları veya ondan haz duymaları da bu hususu destekleyen önemli noktalardandır. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasını sağlayacaktır. Kişiye bir rahatlık ve huzur sağlamaktan öte farklı kazanımlar elde etmesine yol açan sanat eğitimi, estetik kişiliğin gelişmesini sağlar. Bu sebeple her yaşta birey için sanat eğitimi almak gereklidir. Bu sayede bireyin kişisel yetenek ve yaratıcı potansiyellerini eğitmek ve aynı zamanda da estetik düşünme bilinicini de belli bir sisteme kavuşturmak mümkün olacaktır. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Yaşadığımız çağda, hem Türkiye’ye, hem de tüm dünyaya genelleyebileceğimiz bir biçimde sanatsal üretimin etkinliğinden söz etmek zordur. Tüm dünyada teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı görülürken, estetik boyutun aynı oranda geliştiği söylenemez. Rönesans’taki gibi veya İslam aydınlanmasındaki güçlü sanatsal yükseliş, insanları sürükleyen sanat akımları yok bugün. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Ancak, teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye hizmet ediyor. Teknoloji üretmeye, özellikle de savaş ve silah teknolojisi üretmeye hizmet eden bir araç haline gelen bilim ile metal grileri parlatarak, beton grileri yumuşatarak modern dünyaya estetik kılıflar uydurmaya hizmet eden sanatın amacını da yeniden sorgulayabiliriz. Teknolojinin ise, kime veya neye hizmet ettiğini tekrar düşünebiliriz. Hayatla, doğayla bütünleşmiş bir teknoloji her toplumda vardır ve ona sahip olan toplumu, diğer toplumların yanında güçlü kılar. Fakat hayatı bir savaş, tabiatı da hakim olunacak bir düşman olarak algılayan bir zihniyetle üretilen ve bir araç olması gereken teknoloji, hayat için kullanılır olmaktan çıktı; neredeyse hayat teknoloji için yaşanır oldu. Teknolojinin hızı, rahatlığı, hayatı kolaylaştırması, problemlerin çözümüne katkısı ile teknoloji ile bilim bir anlamda giderek birleşti. Kendi başına buyruk teknoloji, görünürde kazandığı başarı ivmesiyle, sonucunu baştan kestiremeyecek projeleri gerçekleştirerek sorumsuzca ve tüm hızıyla yoluna devam etmektedir. Teknolojiyi üreten, yönlendiren, denetleyen ise sadece insan aklı. Tek bir mantık olduğunu sanma gafletindeki, erdemi olmayan, hayatı olmayan, canı olmayan, ham bilgiyi bilim kabul eden buyurgan, kıskanç, yeri geldiğinde zalim bir akıl. Teknoloji-yoğun yaşamımızda ahlâki sorumluluğun ve manevi değerlerin yeri, estetik ve sanatsal üretimin kıymeti bu noktada önem kazanıyor. Egemenliği ele geçirmiş olan bu akıl, insanın ve toplumun selameti için ahlaki manevi ve estetik değerlerle ile bütünleşmek zorundadır. Teknoloji, kontrol altına alınıp haddini bilecek insan hayatında kendine biçilen rolü oynayacaktır. Değerlerle beslenip estetik düzenlemelerle insan ruhuyla insicamlı bir ahlâk ve sanatla birlikte tabiata, insani ve kültürel değerlere saygılı onları destekler mahiyette bir araç olarak konumlanacaktır. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin 395 �gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını yönlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. Yani sanatçı toplum öğrettiği değerlerle, kültürle eser verir sonra onun tasarladığı eserler, yazdığı kitaplar, şiirler, mimari yapılar, bestelediği şarkılar toplumun hafızasını, dünya görüşünü, geleceğini şekillendirir, kısaca onu eğitir. Sanat, insanlar tarafından yüzyıllarca önemli bir hayat unsuru olarak yaşatılmıştır. Bu çerçevede, iletişim, tedavi ve rehabilitasyon maksatlarıyla yararlanılmış olup yalnızca bir eğlence vasıtası olarak düşünülmemiştir. Günümüzde sanatın iyileştirici gücü yeniden keşfedilerek insan hayatına olumlu katkıları yolunda bilimsel olarak sanattan yararlanma faaliyetleri de sürdürülmektedir. Profesyonel ya da amatör olarak sanatla ve müzikle uğraşmanın insanların zihinsel gelişmelerini olumlu etkilediği ve çocukların matematik ve bilim derslerindeki başarısını artırdığını, muhakeme gücünü geliştirdiğini belirlenmiştir. Çocuk genç ve yetişkinlerde bireysel olarak veya aile ve grup olarak uygulanan psikolojik tedavilerde sanat terapisi bir tedavi yöntemi olarak görülmektedir. Günlük stresten uzaklaşma, iç dünyamızı keşfetme, motivasyonunu arttırma, iletişimi güçlendirme, ergenlik dönemindeki gençlerin sorunlarına çözüm bulma, aile içi ilişkilerindeki sorunlara çözüm, öğrencinin derslere karşı ilgi ve başarısı vb. gibi çeşitli konularda sanat terapisinden faydalanılmaktadır. Sonuç Sanatın yapısındaki gelişme önce bilgilenme ile başlar. Sanat eğitiminin meydana getirdiği süreçte belli merhaleler söz konusudur. Algılama ile işe başlayan insan bilgilenerek etraftaki gerçeklerden haberdar olmaya baºlar. Bunu düºünme ile destekleyerek tasarlamaya yönelir. Bunun sonucu ortaya yorumlanan projeler çıkar. Bu tasarımların belli şekil ve tekniklerle ifade edilmesi bir iletişim aktivitesini doğurur. Aynı zamanda meydana getirilen proje ifadenin yanında eleştirmeye de tabi tutulacaktır. Bu merhalelerden geçerek özümsenen sanat eserleri ifadesi güçlü, etkileyici, duyguları harekete geçiren özelliklere de sahip olacaktır. Sanat eğitimi; gözlem yapma, özgün buluş ve kişisel yaklaşımları destekler, pratik düşünceyi geliştirir. Olayları, olmadan da beyinde gerçekleştirebilme gücünü arttırır. Bireyin becerilerini geliştirir ve sentez yapmasına yardımcı olur. Bu yönleriyle eğitim sistemine önemli katkılar sunar, çocukların eğitim almak adına hayatlarında hiç lazım olmayacak sadece sınavlar için kuru bilgiyle yüklenip, ayaklı birer ansiklopediye dönüşmesini engeller. Dolayısıyla çok değerli olan hayal gücünü geliştirmesini sağlar. Kültürlerin ön plana çıktığı, küreselleşme süreci olarak adlandırılan yeni dönemde yerel kimliklerin önem kazandığı, medeniyetler çatışması, uzlaşması vs. gibi kavramların tartışıldığı günümüz dünyasında, çok zengin sanat, kültür ve medeniyet mirası olan Türkiye’nin eğitim alanında çalışmalara çok daha fazla ihtiyacı vardır. Sanatla bilim işbirliği yapmalı, sanat eserine hem somut biçimler verip onu biçimlendirirken soyut manalar da katmalı, bir değer sistemiyle beslemeli bir olgunluk, bir bilgelik süzülmeli her sanat eserinden aynı zamanda da zekâ pırıltıları süzülmeli. Her dem taze kalan, her zaman yerini koruyan hiç modası geçmeyen her beğeniye insan olanın herkesin kendine bir pay çıkardığı eserler gerçek sanat eseri böyle eserlerdir. Sanatçı gezmeli, görmeli okumalı bilgisini görgüsünü artırmalı, insan çok yönlü eğitilmeli, bilmi, siyaseti teknolojiyi aşina olmalı içinde yaşadığı toplumu ve dünyayı iyi tanımalı, hissetmeli hayatla bütünleşen, hayatı kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlarıyla ona güzellikler katmalı. Sanatçının en farklı yönü güçlü hisleri ve onları farklı biçimlerde sunabilme becerisidir. Sanatçı topluma ne kadar değer verirse eseri de o kadar değerli olur. Bu birbirini doğuran, geliştiren bir dinamizmdir. Yapılmamış şey var mı dünyada, düşünülmemiş fikir, söylenmemiş söz, bestelenmemiş şarkı? Eğitim dünyamızın üç boyutlu donanımını dengeleyerek bizler de yeni ve güzel şeyler söyleriz ümit ediyorum. Yunus’un temennisi gibi: “Bir toy toylamak gerek Bir soy soylamak gerek Bir söz söylemek gerek Melekler de bilmez ola.” 396 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 428 Title A name given to the resource Eğitime Sanatın Katkıları ve Yansımaları Author Author ÖZKEÇECI, İlhan Abstract A summary of the resource. Sanat, tabiat ve çevre karşısında insan duygu ve düşüncelerinin renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu ona bir rahatlık sağlamaktan öte ayrıca farklı kazanımları elde etmesine ve daha başarılı sonuçlara ulaşmasına vesile olacaktır. Her şeyde olduğu gibi sanat eğitiminde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Sanat eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını biçimlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye, daha doğrusu tüketime hizmet etmektedir. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9157fbbada0c78689cbe87420f751e1e.pdf 985a5f38763abe0d7dab6eaefefd024b PDF Text Text Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Ömer Özkan Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Muharrem Aktaş Department of Civil Enginnering Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey muharrema@sakarya.edu.tr Mehmet Sarıbıyık Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Introduction Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems in the world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs. Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of iron and steel factories can be used as raw material in cement and concrete sectors. European Community (EU) has declared targets to protect the environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of natural resources. Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development. Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concrete industry. The BOF slag is a by-product that produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay et al, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine, merwinite, calcium silicates (C2S, C3S), C4AF, C2F, CaO–FeO–MnO–MgO in solid solution and free CaO are common minerals in steel slag (Shih et al, 2004). The attendance of C3S, C2S, C4AF and C2F confirms BOF slag cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the reactivity of the BOF slag (Shi and Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO content in BOF slag has been shown to produce volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It will need further intensive research work to decrease this rate as far as possible. The BFS, a kind of industrial by-product, is also currently used in cement and concrete industry. The BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an additive in the manufacture of Portland slag cements in countries where large amounts of BFS is available as by- 50 �product. When BFS is added to cement, it combines with the Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages (Sakai et al, 1993). Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete, resulting in major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007). This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as partial replacement of Portland cement clinker in different ratios of replacement. Specific weight, initial and final setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated. Materials and Procedure Materials Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli, Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical composition and particle size distribution of the sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009). Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %) Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO SO3 MATERIALS CaO SiO2 BFS 37.80 35.10 0.70 17.54 5.50 0.70 BOF slag 58.53 10.72 15.30 1.71 4.27 0.04 Clinker 66.11 21.57 3.17 5.09 1.74 1.35 Gypsum 32.57 0.67 0.24 0.21 2.20 46.56 (a) (b) Figure 1: SEM photograps of BOF slags 51 �Table 2: Sand gradient Chemical compositions % SiO2 93.05 Al2O3 3.11 Fe2O3 0.37 CaO 0.17 MgO 0.03 SO3 0.07 K 2O 1.5 Na2O 1.1 LOI 0.57 Griddle pore size (mm) 0.08 0.16 0.5 1 1.6 2 Humidity Remaining % 99.12 86.21 65.74 33.02 5.23 0.11 Procedure BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main groups of cement are established on the base of these substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as are the outputs of factory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ball mill to a specific surface area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each other in the amounts specified previously, and then grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr, thus yielding the cements used in the tests. The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixture is substituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixture is replaced with BFS in the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag composition that is arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a material that is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS and 30% BOF slag. Code C Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures Clinker Materials % 100% Clinker-Gypsum 95 Gyps. % 5 BFS % 0 BOF Slag % 0 C1a C1b C1c C1d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BOF Slag 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BOF Slag 20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BOF Slag 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80 C2a C2b C2c C2d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BFS 20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BFS 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 20 40 60 80 0 0 0 0 C3a C3b C3c C3d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag 76 57 38 57 4 3 2 3 12 24 36 24 8 16 24 16 The physical properties of the produced cements are first examined after the tests conducted and then the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). 52 �The ASTM C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar mix such as admixtures but solely to determine the reactivity of a given aggregate type (ASTM C-1260). Mortar bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively. Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours, remove the specimens from the molds, make an initial comparator reading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After remove from in water, take the zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 °C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with at least three readings. Result and Discussion Physical Properties of Cements The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and specific gravity are listed. Table 4: Physical properties of cements Cements C C1a C1b C1c C1d C2a C2b C2c C2d C3a C3b C3c C3c Fineness (wt.%) >32 µm 21.00 21.15 22.10 22.15 22.10 21.20 21.90 21.80 21.90 19.20 18.60 19.10 18.20 >90 µm 0.90 1.18 1.00 1.25 1.20 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.10 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.80 Specific surface Specific gravity cm2/g 3330 3214 3213 3152 3150 3115 3108 3090 3070 3450 3550 3650 3700 g/cm3 3.12 3.06 3.02 2.97 2.96 3.05 3.01 2.95 2.94 3.12 3.15 3.12 3.11 It is found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500 cm2/g reaches the required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hours for this degree of fineness. The reference cement (C) produced as Portland cement has a softer structure than the rest of specimens. Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size on the condition that they are grinded finely. When cement’s specific gravity results are examined, it is found that waste materials (BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values. Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is higher than that of other cements. In BOF slag, when the volume is stable, the rate of free CaO and MgO is of great importance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). Alkali Silica Reaction Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 °C during 14 days. The expansions of the mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5]. 53 �Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements ASR Expansion (%) 2 6 10 14 C0 0,096 0,146 0,176 0,184 C1a 0,094 0,137 0,169 0,186 C1b 0,096 0,149 0,187 0,208 C1c 0,110 0,163 0,182 0,222 C1d 0,114 0,169 0,192 0,212 C2a 0,040 0,066 0,086 0,107 C2b 0,034 0,056 0,080 0,104 C2c 0,032 0,052 0,080 0,097 C2d 0,032 0,061 0,075 0,100 C3a 0,083 0,123 0,154 0,170 C3b 0,089 0,112 0,143 0,160 C3c 0,098 0,125 0,136 0,160 C3d 0,109 0,134 0,156 0,170 The outcomes showed tht the ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit value on ASTM C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However, the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions of the BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 2]. 0,250 0,200 0,192 0,187 0,182 0,169 0,212 0,222 0,208 0,186 0,184 0,176 Expansion 0,163 0,137 0,150 0,146 0,149 0,169 0,114 0,110 0,100 0,096 0,096 0,094 0,050 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C1a C1b C1c C1d Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag When C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over than reference series. The reason for the high ASR expansion value is thought to be the ratio of CaO an MgO in BOF. BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important criterion is 54 �the volume stability, in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The expansions of the BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3]. 0,200 0,180 0,184 0,176 0,160 0,146 Expansion 0,140 0,120 0,107 0,100 0,104 0,100 0,096 0,080 0,060 0,040 0,080 0,075 0,066 0,061 0,080 0,097 0,086 0,052 0,056 0,032 0,034 0,032 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C2a C2b C2c C2d Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by ASTM-C 1260. It is known that the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans are less reactive and the reaction results include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus, the amount of alkali become more less, moreover puzzolans, decreases the amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions of the BOF slag and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4]. 0,200 0,180 0,160 0,146 0,136 Expansion 0,156 0,170 0,160 0,143 0,160 0,123 0,125 0,100 0,170 0,134 0,140 0,120 0,184 0,176 0,154 0,109 0,096 0,089 0,112 0,098 0,080 0,083 0,060 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C3a C3b C3c C3d Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS 55 �C3 Series resulted that existence of BFS eliminates the result of harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of ASTM C-1260. In the literature there are studies which points out the harmfull effects of free CaO and MgO on expansion. This result also observed in this study. On the contrary, the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important role in the damage of the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2 content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and expansion of the material. Expansion is related to the water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel, 2008). Conclusion BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous material and has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in other industries for sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. But it has also has positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability properties of cement are at the required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together. Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement material is very important in sustainability of waste management. References Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249. ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method. Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1291–1297. Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement concrete, ACI Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383. Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21 (3), pp. 285-293. Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials Science, 41 (21), 7130-7140. Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8. Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, İ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July, Dundee, Scotland. Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2), 38-40. Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207. Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste Management. 24, 1043-1047. Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370. TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. 56 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 649 Title A name given to the resource Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Author Author ÖZKAN, Ömer Aktas, Muharrem Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57db62bbdb5b5b9bebb0318fe430ff87.pdf ff8e81725c8104cf4e2397b79fee8e44 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Forecasting of Construction Growth and Investment in Turkey Filiz ÖZKAN Kaynarca Seyfettin Selim Vocational School Sakarya University, Kaynarca, Sakarya, Turkey fozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Ömer ÖZKAN Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The construction sector is regarded as a significant factor influencing economic policies in developing countries like Turkey. Construction investments play an important role in short term economic growth whereas infrastructure investments are vital in long term growth. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. In this study, forecasting of construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models were used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. It has been seen that, the variables taken at hand is explained at an important rate with their own delayed variables. Introduction Construction industry and investment is an important determinant in developing economies. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. These investments affected by the government policies as governments usually regulate the economy (Wigren and Wilhelmsson, 2007; Easterly and Rebelo,1999; Canning et al., 1994; Sanchez-Robles 1998). That is, they tend to lessen construction projects and cut off funds fostering this sector when the economy enters a very rapid growth pace and refresh the sector when the economy suffers from demand shortage and the unemployment rate increases. The construction sector relate to activities of capital investments in construction. Construction products are a function of investments made in other sectors. This sector has undertaken a key role in transition from economic stagnation to growth in terms of the inputs it utilizes and employment it creates, its contribution to the national revenue, its role in creating new employment fields and opportunities and its relation with other industries Öcal et al. (2007). Construction sector investments have been classified as Building+Residential (Government), Building+Residential (private) investment and infrastructure. Except from Building+Residential (private) these sectors investments have effects of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). There is a clear cointegration between “GDP-infrastructure investments” and “GDP-building+residental (government) investments”. It has been concluded that the long term relation in infrastructure investments are not affected by economic shocks in the short run; however building and residential (government) investments are affected by short term shocks (Ozkan and Ozkan, 2009). Because of this, the estimates of construction investments take place an important place at the economies in economical crisis. When it is reviewed that one of the important reasons of the economical crisis boomed in year 2008 is the mortgage financial system, its importance increases once more. In this study, forecasting of Construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models are used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. Construction growth and investment data (1987-2007 June periods) used in this study. Data and Economic Model Data collection In this study makes use of construction growth items. This items are Infrastructure Investment, Building+residental (government), Building+residental (private) investments monthly data. Data have been collected from statistics of Central Bank of Republic of Turkey. Construction growth, infrastructure, building and residential (government), building and residential (private) refers to current prices and 1987:01-2007:01 364 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo period level expenditure data. Values are given in New Turkish Lira. In the analysis stage, logarithmic values pertaining to series were used and series have been cleared off seasonal effects as well as the trend effect. Series’ stationary structures have been analyzed via Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test. ARIMA test has been employed in order to forecast. Unit Root Test The unit root test is executed by way of the following formulation. n ∆Yt = a + ρYt −1 + δT + ∑ b1i ∆Yt −i + ε t i =1 i= 1,2,…,n (1) ∆Yt=Yt-Yt-i, (2) α, is a drift term, and T is the time trend with the null hypothesis, n is the number of lags necessary to obtain white noise and ε is the error term. Note that failing to reject Ho implies the time series is non-stationary. Ho: ρ=0, H1: ρ≠0, (3) Arima Models ARIMA models are, in theory, the most general class of models for forecasting a time series which can be stationarized by transformations such as differencing and logging. In fact, the easiest way to think of ARIMA models is as fine-tuned versions of random-walk and random-trend models: the fine-tuning consists of adding lags of the differenced series and/or lags of the forecast errors to the prediction equation, as needed to remove any last traces of autocorrelation from the forecast errors. A common approach for modeling unvaried time series is the autoregressive (AR) model: Yt = αo + α1Yt-1 + α2Yt-2 + …+ αn Yt-n + ut (4) Another common approach for modeling unvaried time series models is the moving average (MA) model: Yt = αo + α1ut - α2ut-1 - …- αn ut-n (5) Where Yt is the time series, ao is the mean of the series, ut-i are white noise, and α1……. α n are the parameters of the model. The value of n is called the order of the MA model. Box and Jenkins detailed an approach that combines the moving average and the autoregressive approaches in the book (Box, Jenkins, and Reinsel, 1994). Box and Jenkins was in developing a systematic methodology for identifying and estimating models that could incorporate both approaches. This makes BoxJenkins models a powerful class of models. The most general Box-Jenkins model includes difference operators, autoregressive terms, moving average terms, seasonal difference operators, seasonal autoregressive terms, and seasonal moving average terms. This stage is founded on the study of autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation (Box, Jenkins, and Reinsel, 1994; Dobre and AnaMaria, 2008) The Box-Jenkins ARMA model is a combination of the AR and MA models as follows: Yt = ao + a1Yt-1 + a2Yt-2 + …+ an Yt-n + ut + b1ut-1 + … + bput-p (6) Forecasting Result and Discussion Unit Root Test Results Forecasting of construction growth and investment are analyzed in Macro-economic time series are generally characterized by unit root of the stochastic process which reveals the relevant datum. Generalized ADF unit roots tests were employed in this study to determine time series characteristics of data. The fixed term model with trend was used in ADF unit root test. The results of ADF unit root test on series are presented in [Table 1]. Table 1: Unit root test results Level Difference ADF Lag ADF Lag Construction Growth -0.34 3 -8.44 3 Private (Build.+Res.) -0.90 1 -6.91 6 Public (Build.+Res.) -0.631 4 -14.1 2 Infrastruture -1.19 6 -11.6 2 Note: Numbers in lag column represent lag numbers determined according to the Schwartz criteria. McKinnon critical values for fixed term ADF model with trend are as follows: -3.46for %1, -2.87 for %5, -2.57 for %10. 365 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to ADF test results, Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and Infrastruture investment series are not stationary [I(1)]. Series were differentiated of order one to become stationary. Graphics of series in non-stationary and stationary status are presented in [Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4]. 0.3 16 0.2 14 0.1 12 0.0 10 -0.1 8 -0.2 6 -0.3 4 -0.4 88 90 92 94 96 Non-stationary series 98 00 02 years 04 06 88 90 92 94 96 CONSTGROWTH 00 02 CONST GROW T H Figure1: Infrastructure investment Figure 2: Private (Build.+Res.) investment Figure 3: Public (Build.+Res.) investment 366 98 Non-stationary series 04 years 06 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Infrastructure investment ARIMA Test Results [Table 2] show ARIMA model results for Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments. Coefficients b0 AR(3) AR(9) AR(12) MA(3) MA(6) MA(9) MA(12) Table 2: ARIMA Model Regression Results Construction Private Public Growth (Build.+Res.) (Build.+Res.) Infrastruture -0.003 -0.01 -0.006 -0.001 (0.65) (0.39) (0.72) (0.85) 0.11 0.52 -0.50 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.11 (0.00) 0.58 0.79 0.34 -0.32 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.38 -1.01 0.21 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0.38 0.26 -0.21 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.19 (0.00) 0.35 0.75 (0.00) (0.00) Special Statistics Construction Private Public Coefficients Growth (Build.+Res.) (Build.+Res.) R2 0.50 0.71 0.32 DW 2.08 2.09 2.05 Fprob. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.31 0.09 LM Test (0.66) (0.72) (0.91) 4.25 1.68 1.25 ARCH Test (0.04) (0.19) (0.26) Infrastruture 0.36 2.09 0.00 0.13 (0.87) 1.46 (0.22) Models of estimates have been constructed for Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments. When the results are examined, it is seen in the construction growth variables’ forecasting models that it is usually the most explanatory variable the value of the variable 367 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo which explains best the period to be estimated related to its period of one year ago. Besides this, it is seen that the periods which are retarded from the period to be estimated of 3,6 and 9 months are also effective. When it is looked at the general construction growth results, R2 values are calculated as 0.50, 0.71, 0.32 and 0.36 in order. These results express that general construction growth is explained at the rate of R2 with its own retarded values. For the reason that Turkish economy does not have a completely stable structure, as the economical variables are affected from other external effects, only its retarded variables and explanation rate are at the values to be taken into consideration. Conclusion In the studies at where the relationship between economical growth and construction growth is examined, the existence of a strong mutual relationship is emphasized. It is clearly seen in the studies that construction growth is used as a regulator especially at countries which are developing. The assumption that the crisis experienced in the world is sourced by the mortgage financial crisis and that the exit from the crisis shall be with the normalization which shall be attained at the construction sector carries a quality to validate these studies. For this reason, in our study, an estimate model of the construction growth has been constructed. . In our study, the Construction growth, private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments estimate models of year 1987-2006 has been constructed. For this purpose, in our study, it is looked at the stagnancy structures of the series with ADF unit root test and ARIMA estimate model has been constructed. It is reached to the conclusion that the rate of explaining the data of which their estimate models have been constructed with their own variables is not very high and this result from the structure of the Turkish economy which is not completely stable and that it is affected from many other external factors. References Wigren, R. and Wilhelmsson, M. (2007). Construction investments and economic growth in Western Europe. Journal of Policy Modeling, 29, 439–451. Easterly, W. and Rebelo, S. (1993). Fiscal policy and economic growth: an empirical investigation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 32, 417– 458. Canning, D., Fay, M. and Perotti, R., (1994). Infrastructure and growth. In: Bsaldassarri, M., Paganetto, M., Phelps, E.S. (Eds.), International Differences in Growth Rates. St. Martins Press. New York. 285– 310. Sanchez-Robles, B. (1998). Infrastructure investment and growth: some empirical evidence. Contemporary Economic Policy, 16, 98–108. Ocal, M.E., Oral Laptali E., Erdis, E. & Vural, G. (2007). Industry financial ratios-application of factor analysis in Turkish Construction Industry. Building and Environment, 42, 385-392. Özkan, F., Özkan, Ö. (2009). Construction Investment And Economic Growth: Turkey. International Conference of Arts,Science,Management and Engineering. April 23-25, Goa, India. Box. G. E. P., Jenkins. G. M. and Reinsel. G. C. (1994). Time Series Analysis. Forecasting and Control. 3rd ed.. Prentice Hall. Englewood Clifs. Dobre, I. and AnaMaria, A.A. (2008). Modelling Unemployment Rate Using Box-Jenkins Procedure. Journal of Applied Quantitative Methods, 3 (2). 156-166. 368 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 259 Title A name given to the resource Forecasting of Construction Growth and Investment in Turkey Author Author ÖZKAN, Filiz ÖZKAN, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. The construction sector is regarded as a significant factor influencing economic policies in developing countries like Turkey. Construction investments play an important role in short term economic growth whereas infrastructure investments are vital in long term growth. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. In this study, forecasting of construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models were used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. It has been seen that, the variables taken at hand is explained at an important rate with their own delayed variables. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46ae62d9a14197c75121d576d4df98e0.pdf 9e1c7054938eb3806cdc7046044122dc PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Colouring Turkish Management Type: An Empirical Analysis on Supermarket Store Managers Rana ÖZEN KUTANIŞ Sakarya University, Economics and Administration Science Faculty, Management Department, TURKEY rkutanis@sakarya.edu.tr Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University, Economics and Administration Science Faculty, Management Department, TURKEY serkanb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This research presents Spectral Management Types and carrying out of these styles in Turkish managers. This approach leads to eight different kinds of management types. Spectral theory of personality consists of three important characteristics of a manager – cognitive, affective, and behavioural. In this research Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) is used for Turkish managers in a supermarket store. The research is conducted with mixed methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are conducted. At the end of the research, just five managerial types are determined. In terms of their colours, Turkish managers have large managerial perspectives. Keywords: Management, Management Types, Managers Managerial Types Managers have to have some developmental skills for being effective and successful in organisations. The abilities of experienced managers (like knowledge, skill, experience, personality) are emphasized in different ways (Eren, 1989; Koçel, 1999). In macro perspective, the most important external factors that affect the behaviours of managers are education, culture, economical and social environment. Managers are classified differently in the literature. The most popular classification is about democraticautocratic managers. In this study, firstly, Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) - developed by Baruch and Lessem (1995) and updated afterwards (Baruch & Lessem, 1997; Lessem & Baruch, 1999) - is practiced. The dominant dimensions of personality of managers are pointed out. The eight managerial types are: Innovative Manager, Developmental Manager, Analytical Manager, Enterprising Manager, Manager of Change, People Manager, Action Manager and Adoptive Manager. The detailed information on SMTI and explanations of this spectrum were given below: In this spectrum, the dimensions appeared to have effects on the personality of the managers. At the introduction of the spectrum it follows as “SMTI reflects your personal and cultural features as a manager. It is affected by your personal features, your personality, your age and your culture. Your cultural appearance is affected by your roles and status at the level of national, organisational and professional contexts. You can learn which type of manager you are as to fill in the questionnaire below. Although you may have all features of 8 manager types, one of them would be dominant. So there is no good or bad score in this spectrum”. The eight managerial types are summarised below (Lessem, and Baruch, 1999:11-13): Innovative Manager Innovative managers (violet) are total originals, able to create something out of seemingly nothing. They are propelled forward by an inner compulsion, which is projected onto others by a powerful and visually expressive imagination. They will be creative learners and while in a group will emerge as inspired team members. The innovator is probably the rarest of all managers, though s/he is probably more likely to be found in Silicon Valley than anywhere else. Such managers are the inventors and visionaries, pointing a group, in the most picturesque language, towards a promised land. Such team members, if their strengths go unrecognized, can become dogmatic, intolerant and intolerable. In fact often innovative managers consider themselves as idiosyncratic loners, incapable of being integrated into a team, and may need the patience and insight of a harmoniser to form a bridge between themselves and more conventional others. 316 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Developmental Manager Developmental managers (indigo) play a balancing role, more similar with that of enabler rather than fixer that is essentially developmental in nature. For the developmental manager is able to recognize and harness the forces of diversity. Co-operation and interdependence is to developmental managers what co-ordination and dependability is to the analytical manager. These types of managers learn through depth of insight and breadth of exposure rather than through focused instruction or personal challenge. As team members, then, harmonisers are essentially constructive where others are provocative or even destructive. Analytical Manager The analytical manager (blue) is the original executive. S/he fits comfortably into “role” or functionally based organizations where bureaucracy, in either its negative or positive sense, prevails. Impersonal, objective and honest in their dealings, such managers prefer certainty to uncertainty and well plans to different manoeuvres. Analytical managers are a force of law and order in their organizations and progress through the managerial hierarchy along conventional promotional lines. As a team member, s/he would best be the conventional chairperson or team leader. Analytical managers welcome authority and responsibility, and want roles, rules and routes to be closely prescribed. As team members, they are practically thoughtful, and are good organizers in the conventional sense of the word. Enterprising Manager Enterprising managers (green) can manage new markets, recognize and grasp new business opportunities, and generally enjoy the rough and tumble of business life. They are certainly gamesmen and women who love a good scrap, and respond immediately to a challenge, especially if it involves some personal and financial risk. Enterprising managers are at home in the sales-force, in charge of a profit centre or heading up a new venture. They may be ruthless and unscrupulous but also fun loving, larger than life characters. Such entrepreneurial characters learn from emotionally laden experiences. The enterprising managers take most of the responsibility on themselves. This type of manager is typically proactive, seizing every possible opportunity to steer the group in his/her desired direction. S/he is emotionally influential and commercially realistic. If his/her strength become overdone, such a person may sabotage group proceedings to retain influence. Manager of Change The manager of change (yellow) is intellectual rather than emotional or practical. Such managers need to work in a mentally stimulating environment, and will seek professional advancement within a particular organization. As a result managers of change can be prone to job hopping, for the sake of professional stimulus rather than, at least primarily, money or status. Managers of change will learn through trial and error, applying their minds to particular tasks and then learning from the consequences. As a team person then, s/he enjoys working with a wide variety of people. Such a person finds group problem solving stimulating and such a “networker” will use every opportunity available to involve people from outside the group with them. In that context this type of managers will seek to generate and share ideas with as wide a circle of contacts as possible; work, then, must be fun. Should his/her strengths be ignored s/he may become argumentative and stubbornly resistant to authority, thereby preferring varied consultancy based activity to ongoing, functionally based work. People Manager People managers (orange) are naturally friendly, sociable and warm. They characteristically emerge from the sales-force or from the shop floor, rather than through the graduate management ranks. Such a “people orientation” in Japan is a prerequisite for advancement across all management ranks. The people manager finds it difficult to acquire knowledge outside of concrete situations, in association with either people or things. S/he may be the one to remember, and to celebrate, birthdays both of individuals and also of critical events in the history of the group or company. If his/her strength is overdone s/he may spend all their time being nice to others. 317 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Action Manager Action manager (red) is at a premium in very fast moving industries, where the expression “work hard, play hard” has become commonplace. In a production or distribution context where an action speaks louder than words such a “red” management orientation is often called for. The ability to act fast, and to enact situations, can be at a premium. S/he learns best, and fastest, in crisis. Characteristically action managers need to react to external stimuli, in order to learn, and find that any from of management education that is divorced from action is meaningless. This type of manager values deeds far above words. For that reason s/he tends to be reactive rather than proactive, thriving on crises, where external stimuli provoke him or her to action. In fact the compulsive action wo/man can wreak harm by doing things at the wrong time and in the wrong place, not to mention a propensity to do battle, come hell or high water. Therefore, in a group context, s/he might try getting on with the job rather than thinking about it. Adoptive Manager Adoptive manager (grey) is virtually nonexistent in Western Europe and America. For this type of manager has such humility, and faith in the company or the creed, that s/he has minimal individual identity. This person manager immerses him or herself in the surrounding group and culture completely. Adoptive manager is able to carry out required tasks with a degree of persistence and precision, typified by the Japanese and the South Koreans. The Aim of The Research In this research, 24 stores of a National Supermarket Chain in Turkey, are included, and the theory is tested by standardized questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The managerial properties of the managers are meant to measure by the questionnaire. The research is a pre-test of SMTI in a supermarket chain in Turkey. In this research, following the theoretical explanation of the managerial types, questionnaires were issued and implemented within stores of well-known chain-stores in Turkey. Standard questionnaire form was used as to explore whether the participants are in line with the managerial types indicated in the literature. The Limitations of the Research The main limitation of this research is the replication of this study made possible in only one company. The research has been conducted within 5 months within the same sector. However, this research may be considered as a pilot study that the research framework can be applied to different sectors in Turkey. The Methodology For this research, the standardized questionnaire prepared by Baruch and Lessem (1999) is used with their written consent. There are additional 24 questions on measuring the managerial types of the managers qualitatively. During the quantitative research, frequency analyses, Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis and Reliability Tests are applied. The Sampling Method The sample of the research consists of 59 store managers. There are totally 79 store managers and hence replication rate is 74.68 % which is at acceptable level. In participant stores (one store manager and 2 or 3 deputy managers are employed). Within the retail sector in which competition is intensive the role of personnel and the management have been increasing. So retail sector may be a good choice to explore the managerial types. 318 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Findings The data are analysed by SPSS 15.0 at the end of the research. In addition to the management types, the relationships between the demographics and management types are sought. The managers are categorised according to personal characteristics at the end of the analyses. As it is seen in Table 1, managers are mostly male, young, married and collage graduates. They are also mostly deputy store managers having 1-5 years of work experience and they have chosen their jobs intentionally. Table 1. Demographic Findings n Gender Female Male -30 31-45 Married Single Collage Under- Age Marital Status Education Graduate Graduate Vice Manager Manager -1 year 1-5 years 5-10 years 10+ years Status Experience % 10 49 45 14 53 6 40 14 5 16,9 83,1 76,3 23,7 89,8 10,2 67,8 23,7 8,5 43 16 4 38 6 11 72,9 27,1 6,8 64,4 10,2 18,7 In terms of factor analysis (KMO=0,748) and cluster analysis, instead of eight managerial types, five managerial types are determined (78,223 % of variance is explained). Innovative (violet), Enterprising (green) and People (orange) Managers could not be determined at the end of the research. Table 2. Results of Reliability Tests Alpha-Cronbach (α) Action Manager (red) 0,71 Developmental Manager (indigo) 0,73 Manager of Change (yellow) 0,67 Analytical Manager (blue) 0,69 Adoptive Manager (grey) 0,79 In Lessem and Baruch’s research there were eight managerial types that was the inspiration of this study. However as a result of this study, five managerial types were found. Adoptive, developmental and action managerial types could be identified within the sample. However two of the apparent managerial types are not so explicit as change manager with (α=0,67) and analytical manager with (α=0,69) that the cronbach alpha levels are below 0.70. In terms of the results, the most valuable manager type is Adoptive Manager (α=0,79). The grey colour shows imitative aspects of learning. Learning process has the most important and general tendency in Turkish managers’ characteristics. First Learning and imitating, than developing (indigo) their knowledge and showing their experiences in action (red) are the most important behaviours of Turkish Managers. Analytical (blue) and change (yellow) managers are also be defined. Finally, in order, grey, indigo, and red are prior colours of Turkish managers. Secondly, blue and yellow colours are also available within these managers. 319 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion The SMTI, is a measure of managerial styles but not effectiveness. There are innumerable colour combinations which will affect the shading of a particular managerial type. Different combinations of colour can be seen in different cultures. Some “colours” are more prevalent in one culture than is to another. The managerial spectrum inevitably reflects the “surface structure” of a manager’s personality. His/her “deep structure” will be affected by the particular national, corporate and professional culture of which s/he forms a part. The eight “colours” of manager types can be “vertically” considered as eight sub-processes of learning or innovation. Yellow shows freedom loving person, the green shows entrepreneurship. Grey reflects imitative aspects of learning, at an early stage of information processing, as compared with indigo type insight at a later stage. Violet reflects a creative imagination, prior to the orange aspect of innovation, which incorporates closeness to the customer. Analytical blue shows more methodical managers. Red means more action and working hard. Managers may be liable to retain their basic managerial orientation throughout their career and their support colours might vary over time. In this research, five managerial types were found. In order, adoptive, developmental, action, change, and analytical managerial types could be identified within the sample. Innovative, entrepreneurial and humanistic managerial types could not be identified within the sample. As colour spectrum, grey, indigo, red, blue and yellow colours are important within Turkish managers. Both bright and pastel tones show a kind of managerial diversity in Turkish managerial style as its culture which is in between west and east. In the future researches, the same research might be conducted in different Supermarket Chains in retailing sectors in different cultures. It may be possible to define new types and colours of managers. References Baruch, Y. & Lessem, R. (1995). Managerial Development through self and group evaluation of managerial style. Journal of Management Development. 14(1): 34-39. Baruch, Y. & Lessem, R. (1997). The Spectral Management Type Inventory- a Validation Study. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 12(6): 365-382. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of Mind, Paladin, London. Kingsland, K. (1984). The personality spectrum, unpublished working paper. Lessem, R. (1987). Intrapreneurship; How to be an Enterprising Individual in a Successful Business, Wildwood House, Aldershot. Lessem, R. (1990). Developmental Management, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Lessem, R. (1991). Total Quality Learning, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Lessem, R. & Baruch, Y. (1999). Colour your Managerial type: Colour your Organization. Career Development International. 4(1): 11-18. Lessem, R. & Baruch, Y. (2000). Testing the SMTI and Belbin Inventories in Top Management Teams. Leadership and Organization Development. 21(2): 75-83. Steiner, R. (1966). Study of Man, London: Rudolf Steiner Press. 320 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 235 Title A name given to the resource Colouring Turkish Management Type: An Empirical Analysis on Supermarket Store Managers Author Author ÖZEN KUTANIS, Rana BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. This research presents Spectral Management Types and carrying out of these styles in Turkish managers. This approach leads to eight different kinds of management types. Spectral theory of personality consists of three important characteristics of a manager – cognitive, affective, and behavioural. In this research Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) is used for Turkish managers in a supermarket store. The research is conducted with mixed methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are conducted. At the end of the research, just five managerial types are determined. In terms of their colours, Turkish managers have large managerial perspectives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e2b5329bd2f2fa1ee7368274c8e2590.pdf e24e0bdad8a3ef387827fbd6d5245501 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Ergin ĐSMAĐL President of COFER, Macedonia e.ismail@coferweb.org Semi ŞAHĐN Finance Director of COFER, Macedonia s.sahin@coferweb.org Abstract: The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Keywords: global financial crisis; Balkans; growth; unemployment; remittances Financial Crisis in the World, Economic Crisis in the Balkans What started as a global financial crisis has become an economic crisis. The world financial crisis emerged from a property bubble and a credit boom. Bad debts soared and banking sector in the developed economies became insolvent. The implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Investments, remittances, industrial production, foreign exchange reserves and employment rates have fallen. As a result, growth has slowed down. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. The governments of the region of the western Balkans, when the crisis hit in September 2008, argued that they were immune to the crisis. However, as their export-oriented economies began to slump in the autumn of 2008 due to the slid in the world commodity prices, which resulted in tens of thousands of citizens of western Balkan countries loosing their jobs, the governments of the region became more open about the difficulties of their economic situation, although continuing to argue that the effects of the financial crisis are least to be felt in western Balkans in comparison with other regional economies of Europe such as that felt in Iceland, Baltic states or Ukraine. The culprit many of the governments have now settled on is the world out of Balkans. Even wider publics took comfort of this argument due to relatively low exposure of the local economies to the world financial markets. Although the governments continue to predict that the economies would show growth and small contraction in 2009, the economic indicators show that the economies are in some degree of trouble at the moment with industrial output, foreign investment and remittances falling and unemployment rising.1 Growth forecasts are down across the region from 5 to 3%, investors are slowing projects and governments are drawing up rescue plans.2 Independent economists think that 3% growth of GDP for 2009 is wildly optimistic. Depending on the world manufacturing and commodity prices, they could show growth by 2 or even 1% of GDP. For the small economies of a scale of western Balkans that have boomed for the past seven-eight years, following the end of conflicts in the region in 2001 - that last one being the conflict of Macedonia in 2001 - with 1 2 The Economist, "The Balkans: A year in the life of Kosovo", 14 February 2009, p. 14. The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 381 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo annual average GDP growth reaching 5%, economic slowdown and contraction in GDP that has started to be seen starting from the autumn of 2008 is a particularly harsh blow to western Balkans. The whole region, except Serbia and Croatia, has escaped the global financial crisis however it has run into economic crisis due to the recession in its export markets, including EU. As small open economies the western Balkan countries are uncomfortably exposed to the world crisis and particularly to EU as their trade with the EU member states comprises their largest trade volume. Since the global financial crisis hit in September 2008 growth has turned to contraction and unemployment is mounting in the region. Also, any lingering hopes that the western Balkans might escape relatively unscathed from the global financial storms were dashed when managers of the foreign banks in the region, mainly those of Austria and Greece, sought support from the international finance institutions. This shows that, although the economies are small and relatively well protected, they are exposed to the global financial crisis that has been replicated in the region in the form of economic crisis. The falling manufacturing and commodity prices in the world markets are causing problems. Depended on steel and metal exports, the region has been hit hard by the global slump in commodity prices and by the expensive imported electricity, sending metal prices into a tailspin. The price of the metals has fallen by almost two-thirds since mid-2008 leading to slowdown in the region's economies. More than a fifth of economic output and employment are based on exports, making them particularly vulnerable to a fall in global growth and trade. Manufacturing and exporting economies are grinding to a halt, as demand across the world melts away. The western Balkan economies contracted further in last quarter of 2008, as a dispute between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices reduced energy supply to the region and forced the countries' heavy industries to go slow, cutting production or even halting assembly lines. For example, Silmak, a significant producer of ferro-nickel in Jegunovce, in the western part of Macedonia, has cut production and has laid 700 workers due to the drastic fall of the ferro-nickel's price in the world markets.1 The nearby brick factory Kiro Kucuk in Veles, in the central part of Macedonia, also exemplifies the gravity of the setback. On 1 March 2009 the employees turned up for their final day's work. The factory will not reopen until the economy recovers.2 A similar story could be told in many countries of the region. Macedonia is not alone depended on exporting metallurgical industries. Serbia has suffered far more as global demand for the goods in which its industry specialises has evaporated. For example, US Steel, one of Serbia's leading exporters, closed one plant.3 These examples are reflection of the data released for January 2009 that industrial production, which accounts for a fifth of total value added in Macedonia4 and Serbia has plummeted by 17%, its steepest fall in years.5 The Macedonian State Statistics Office reported that the local companies have been operating by using 50% of their capacities in the course of January 2009 and their situation has deteriorated on a monthly basis, which has led to a drop in employment rate as well as a large fall in production due to the reduced foreign demand for Macedonian products, insufficient domestic demand, uncertain economic situation and the financial problems. These are hotbeds that might be transferred to other economic sectors, such as the textile and leather industry and to the construction sector, which comprise large share in the country's GDP. The gloom reflects growing worries about underlying weaknesses that make the countries especially vulnerable to recession happening in the EU and other economies to which Balkan economies are depended. So companies have announced big lay-offs as demand has fallen and factories have closed.6 The official unemployment figure of Macedonia already stands at 33% (unofficially it is probably 35% or more) and is set to rise as the new basic salary estimates will only count employed those who pay social security benefits. Unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo are more than 40%. The unofficial unemployment rate is, however, much higher and many who say that they have jobs are in fact on indefinite unpaid leave. The economists forecast that unemployment region-wide will rise. Most of that rise will be the result of fall in trade (many exporting companies have laid off workers), and due to declining investments. Coffee streets from Knjez Mihajlova in Belgrade to Kej Vardar in Skopje to Bash Charshija in Sarajevo are busy during sunlight as young people, forming more than 50% of the unemployed force in the region, sip their coffees. Unemployment rates are soaring and offices of the Employment Agencies in whole region are full with people looking for work. The stock markets have plunged as well. The Zagreb stock exchange index lost 42% during the last quarter of 2008 and others such as Sarajevo Stock Exchange, dropped by 19% during the same quarter, leading 1 Dnevnik, "Silmak prekina so rabota", 2 Mart 2009, p. 7. Utrinski, "Rabotnicite od Kucuk izvisija", 3 Mart 2009. 3 European Commission, DG ECFIN, EU Candidate and Pre-Accession Countries Economic Quarterly, 9 January 2009, p. 30. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Utrinski, "Pad na proizvodstvoto za 16.7%", 27 February 2009. 6 International Monetary Fund, "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Staff Report for the 2008 Article IV Consultation", Prepared by Staff Representatives for the 2008 Consultation with Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 11 November 2008, p. 11. 2 382 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to an annual decrease of 67% in 2008.1 The Belgrade Stock Exchange tumbled and its index lost 75% during 2008.2 An important sector that waits to be affected is the real estate market as the credits have gone down and the borrowers are unable to pay back their monthly loans. The scale of the bubble in the region is as big as in troubling EU cities. House prices rose further in Belgrade than they did in Tirana. So did commercial-property prices. As a result, demand for new homes has dried up although prices have remained stable and over inflated, with Belgrade topping the prices where average residential square meter is sold at 2000 euros. The housing boom in the region is among the extreme, measured by real price increases and resulting overvaluations. This is a bubble which is waiting to burst. Another bubble which is waiting to burst is commercial property where office blocks and shops are overvalued. Both these booms have been fuelled by debt, another reason why the region looks particularly vulnerable now. There is much to suggest that the pain is felt most by small enterprises, labelled as small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that are the backbone of the western Balkan economies. SMEs seem especially vulnerable to the downturn. Many specialise in textile and these are also the products whose orders are the first to be cancelled when economies slow and companies trim investment. These firms are finding themselves chronically short of orders and capital. The governments in the region have launched actions to stimulate their economies. Montenegrin government launched a plan with significant capital expenditures and other stimulus to businesses at some 10% of the projected GDP for 2009.3 In November 2008, the Macedonian government unveiled measures worth 5-6% of GDP.4 Other governments as well have unveiled packages that include extra billions to finance investment, infrastructure projects, extra benefits for poorer and tax cuts. The central banks as well have joined in tightening monetary policies and increasing controls of the credit markets. These measures mean the economy may suffer only a mild downturn. Tightening of control by the central banks has encouraged banks to drastically decrease the amount of lending. When there are no loans for companies and consumers, the consumption of domestic and foreign products decreases, leading towards economic stagnation. So officials are also trying to inject cash and confidence into the banking system, avoiding confidence crisis that in October 2008 hit Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia where the lack of confidence led to a withdrawal of deposits by population.5 They have done this in various ways. Croatian central bank has abolished reserve requirements. The Bank of Albania has limited Banks' exposure towards their foreign parent companies.6 The National Bank of Serbia has eliminated the tax on savings income to help boost foreign exchange liquidity.7 The Bosnian central bank has increased the level of guaranteed savings deposits from 3500 to 10.000 euros and the Montenegrin government has given full guarantee to deposits. The Montenegrin government has also given capital boost to ailing Prva Banka to allow it to expand landing, especially for small businesses.8 The global crisis has slowed down western Balkans' credit-fuelled boom. Estimates of output have slumped and currencies have dropped as capital inflows have dried up. The bad debts have raised as local customers default particularly those that have borrowed in foreign currencies that have since risen relative to their own. One of the dirty habits from the boom is that as local loan growth outpaced deposit growth.9 There is likelihood that one or more of the ex-communist Balkan countries will default on its debt. The biggest weakness lies in a financial system that has combined badly run local banks with loosely overseen subsidiaries of western ones. Some local banks now depend on their parents' willingness to keep financing them – and those parents have plenty of problems at home. The Greek government has told its banks to draw back from their lending in the Balkans. Debt burdens are high today because so much was borrowed in the recent past. This began as a logical response to declining interest rates, low inflation, rising asset prices and less frequent recessions. Some countries have an extra problem of big external government debts (in Croatia's case, the gross figure is near 85% of GDP). For other countries, the strong Euro is a problem; they have pegged their currencies to it.10 Tumbling exchange rates raised the real burden of foreign-currency loans, forced policymakers to keep interest rates high. However, by boosting exports, a weaker currency can offer a route to recovery. In Macedonia, by contrast, denar stays strong as the economy slumps, deflation setting in which will lead debts to grow and possibly banking problems to grow. Possible threat of financial crisis has led the Euro to be seen as a shelter for western Balkan economies from the storms. The local currencies dinar of Serbia, kuna of Croatia, lek 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 23. Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ibid, p. 26. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Ibid, p. 3. 6 Ibid, p. 18. 7 Ibid, p. 31. 8 Ibid, p. 27. 9 The Economist, "Eastern European banks: The ties that band", 21 February 2009, p. 73. 10 The Economist, "Eastern Europe: Argentina on the Danube?", 21 February 2009, p. 14. 2 383 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo of Albania have lost their value against the Euro. Kuna depreciated by 2.9% and lek 1% vis-à-vis the euro in the last quarter of 2008,1 where as the Serbia's dinar has lost close to 17% of its value against the Euro in the same period. The central bank of Macedonia has spent over 50 million euros of its reserves in January 2009 alone, largest since the introduction of denar in early 1990s, to cushion the devaluation of its currency and avoid public panic.2 Macedonia will suffer damages if the Euro loses its value in relation to the dollar as it would affect the Macedonian export to EU markets. The increase of the dollar value will also have negative implications for Macedonia as the country uses this foreign currency to purchase twice as much as it sells. The value of the Euro in comparison to the dollar has been declining since autumn 2008. The drop of the value of the Euro with this fixed course of the denar in relation to the Euro currency will damage the Macedonian economy and de-motivate exporters primarily exporting to EU states.3 The government in Macedonia also has shredded investor confidence by calling for decreasing the amounts given to private pension funds. Recovery is possible only through strong demand in the rest of the world (which is to lack for some time), that would lead exports to soar, allowing quick recovery. However, today demand is falling rapidly across the globe and most big developed economies buying Balkans products face simultaneous banking crises. With demand weak everywhere, the familiar route to recovery is blocked.4 For the largest trading partners of western Balkan economies, the EU countries, figures that came out in February 2009, showed that Euro-area GDP shrank at an annualised rate of around 5% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The IMF has forecasted that Euro-area GDP will decline by 2% in 2009 and barely recover in 2010. Countries with huge current-account deficits are most exposed in a credit drought. So the hope had been that weaker economies of Balkans would be offset by faster economic recovery in EU economies and support by the local banks mother banks' in EU. Unfortunately, the EU economies are facing recession and mother banks and mother countries have asked them to lend first to domestic businesses and households and not to transfer money to their subsidiaries in Balkans. The Greeks publicly advised banks to be more prudent about transferring bail-out funds to Balkan subsidiaries.5 The western Balkan countries face a current account deficit this year in average of around 14%. Nevertheless, the crisis for example has not stopped the Macedonian and Kosovar governments from doling out billions of euros' worth of cultural projects. Financial crisis is also having effect on remittances, a large share in GDP of the economies of Balkans. Foreign workers have been first to be laid off in the western economies. Remittances make up more than a tenth of the GDP of Balkan economies. Although they are likely to fall as a result of the slumping world economy, as it has been the case with Albania, where remittances' inflows have declined from 13% of GDP in 2007 to 11% of GDP in the last quarter of 2008,6 they may be less affected by the world economy.7 It is expected that people keep the cross border payments going even when their incomes fall. Migration from western Balkans to EU countries is expected to rise as the borders are getting opened through visa facilitation and liberalisation programmes. However, this rise will be balanced with the recession in the EU economies where it means fewer jobs for migrants. In surveys, the economy has leapt to the top of voters' concerns. Overall the public is scared and uncertain. So far, the Balkans has escaped the civic unrest seen in the Baltic States, Iceland, or elsewhere.8 There are not yet signs of discontent, except concerns expressed by politicians and economists. Thousands taking to the streets to protest against crises in Baltic States and Ukraine have not resembled in Balkans. However, pundits predict unrest in towns that rely entirely on one ailing factory or industry. But so far the signs are limited. The middle class in the whole region is under a great threat. The middle class flourished during communist times. As economy goes into reverse they may well be hit harder than the rich or poor. They work in export industries so their jobs are unsafe. The other part of the middle class, who are employed in the state administration, and whose jobs are relatively safe, they have started to borrow, so are hurt by the credit crunch. To End with a Negative and a Positive Note The economies of the Balkan region, except those of Serbia and Croatia, have escaped the financial crisis. However they are facing the biggest economic crisis since 1991, when they left the communism regime. Corporate profits have collapsed. Big manufacturers' output is down. Metal producers have halved or halted their 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 7. Biljana Krstevska, "Stopeni uste 53 milioni evra", Dnevnik, 27 February 2009; Utrinski, "Samo so dobra plata do kredit", 27 February 2009. 3 Abdulmenaf Bexheti, "Experts on Fixed Course of Denar", Skopjediem, 25 February 2009. 4 The Economist, "America's banking crisis: Worse than Japan?", 14 February 2009, p. 76. 5 The Economist, "Charlemagne: Single-market blues", 7 February 2009, p. 30. 6 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 19. 7 The Economist, "Remittances: Trickle-down economics", 21 February 2009, p. 74. 8 The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 2 384 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production. Companies have slashed jobs and investment. Industrial output and employment have fallen at record levels not seen since 1991. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers (workers remittances) during the spring and summer seasons. These seasonal effects are expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 279 Title A name given to the resource Collaboration of NGOs and Local Governments for a Sustainable Struggle against Urban Poverty in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEN, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. Poverty is among the significant issues that the governments should tackle with. This problem has social and cultural dimensions as well as the economic dimension. From day to day, so many international and national bodies apply policies to cope with this question. For the solution of urban poverty, two worldwide tendencies are critical turning points. One of them is that, throughout the world, there is a tendency that central governments delegate some of their duties and responsibilities to the local governments. This delegation of responsibilities requires the delegation of certain financial and administrative resources as well. Otherwise, a delegation of responsibility without necessary resources will result in growing crisis. Delegation of responsibility and resources, at the same time, to the local governments will prepare more successful solutions in coping with the problem of poverty. In general, local governments are closer to the citizens and therefore they may follow the needs and desires of citizens better than the central governments. Consequently, transfer of both responsibility and resources from central to local governments, most probably will solve the urban poverty problem more effectively. The other tendency is increasing role of NGOs in social issues including the elimination of urban poverty. In coping with poverty, local governments and NGOs engage in two kinds of main activities. One of them is the activities that directly produce a surplus value such as career creating courses. The second one is the solution seeking policies such as social aids in kind and in cash such as offering scholarship and free medical services. In this study, a general outlook for the poverty will be drawn and the “culture of poverty” will be briefly analyzed. Later, the policies of local governments and NGOs as dynamic actors in poverty alleviation will be discussed. Lastly, as a case study, a critical challenge to poverty, “Study Halls” established in the most underdeveloped region of Turkey will be analyzed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d4e830a2ab1dc26b6184a416dba1964.pdf 6bb19362bc54cb06b7e48181f3b333ad PDF Text Text The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey Ünal ÖZDEMİR Atatürk University, Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty Erzurum/Turkey uozdemir@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation, which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a geographical perspective. Keywords: Turkey, transportation, railways, mining Introduction Industrial Revolution was not only a processes that lead a new means of production but also brought about a considerable change in social, economic, and communal life. One of the areas in which these changes were felt strongest was the transportation sector. The new means of production required a large amount of row materials to be transported to the production facilities on one hand; and the products to market places on the other. The main means of transportation were waterways and inland roads. For the first time a new means of transportation was felt with the mass production of Industrial Revolution and it did not take a long to time for a new competitor to come about. The new competitor was the railroad. The railways are of special importance when it comes to long-distance transportation of goods and products. When the industrial and trade issues are considered, no other means of transportation can carry that mass amount of goods in a considerable short time with a reasonable price except for the waterways (Barda, 1964: 137). Therefore together with new urban areas, the railway was the external symbol of Industrial Revolution (Hobsbawm, 1995: 229). The first railways were made of wooden bars, and the cars were made of wood as well. These were used in Bath mines and coal extraction places in Cornwall in the 17th century (Braudel, 2004: 508). The first regular railway line was built between Stockton and Darlington in 1825 and used to transport the coal. The first railroad line in France, the one from St. Etienne to Roan was built in 1832 and used to carry coal and iron ore (Tümertekin, Özgüç, 1999: 594). This easy transportation of heavy material through railways lead the construction of railways first in England and the new innovation spread through a number of other parts of the world notably in Western Europe, the United States and Russia. The diffusion of this new technology was spread to the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman bureaucrats considered the rail roads as the solution to transportation within the large territory of the Empire. The railroads were considered important for not just transportation of commercial material but also for military and political reasons (Yıldırım, 2001: 5). However, due to financial difficulties, the construction of railroads was relegated to Western companies in return for operating rights for a certain period of time. In fact, the underlining motivation for the Ottomans and for the Western companies was not the same. The railroads were means of reinforcement of exploitation of the Ottoman economy resource base. That way, especially the agricultural products of fertile Aegean plains and Cukurova to the east, and other row materials would be carried to the European market. With that motivation in mind, the first railroad line in the Ottoman Empire was built between Izmir and Aydin in 1856. Although the colonialist intensions of Western countries were mentioned about the first railroads in Ottoman Empire, these railroads, no doubt that, helped to make a radical change in the traditional production 16 �methods and helped the economical development in a considerable manner (Gürbüz, 1999: 180-181). It was only after the establishment of these new railroads that the large geographical regions in Anatolia besides the Aegean and Marmara Regions that have the advantage of using marine transportation got the opportunity of cheap transportation of goods and this had changed the means of transportation in a fundamental way (Zarakolu, 1950: 573). These first initiatives by investment of the British, German, and French companies provided a railroad web of 4 100 kms for the young Republic. This was an important infrastructure and experience for the Republic. The Republic of Turkey, lead by Atatürk, had a number of projects with a purpose much different than the previous period: The priority would be given to railroads that would encourage the extraction of mines in different part of the country. Railways in the Republican Period With the aim of developing the country, the Republican government decided in the Izmir Economic Congress that as the most reliable and secure transportation method, the construction of railroads would be given priority (Ünsal, 1983:187). Different form the previous period, all railways construction was undertaken by the government as opposed to foreign companies. This is the most notable difference between the republican railways and the Ottoman railways (Barda, 1964: 188). The railway construction policy of the Republic developed in two different ways. The first one was to construct new railways that would support the development of other sectors in the newly established country; the second one was to buy the railroads built and managed by the foreign companies (Yıldırım, 2001: 40). The first Republican governments put a special emphasis on developing the coal and mine industry and this was emphasized in the first and second Industrial plans that covered a five year period each starting from 1933. The government officials thought that developing these kinds of industry was dependent upon a well established railway network because it was the most reliable and cheap means of carrying goods and products to and from markets. The officials developed slogans like reaching to coal (Zonguldak-Irmak), reaching to copper (Adana-Fevzipaşa-Ergani), reaching to iron (Sivas-Malatya), reaching to chrome (Kütahya-Balıkesir). These slogans helped to construct new railway networks in different parts of the country. These railways were not planned as a network covering the whole country but planned as connecting lines of important mining areas. This is in fact an indication of the importance of mining activities in developing the railway network in Turkey. In this research we will look at the development of Republican railways in two different periods: pre1950 period and after 1950 period. The reason for distinction is that the government decided to employ a policy that favoured to motorways over railroads under the Marshall Plan. In the Republican Period a network of 5 515 kms of railways was built. Almost 70 % (3877 kms) of them was built between the 1925-1950 periods, 29 % (1638 kms) was built between 1950- 2000 period. The length of the railways built in the first period more than doubled the railways built in the second period (see figure 1 and 2). The main reason in explaining that difference is the fact that the transportation policy changed radically to prioritize roads over railroads. Only a limited amount of railroads were built in the second period even for mining activities. This number was over 1 000 kms in the first period and it declined ever below 50 kms in the second period. Period Railroad built (km) Mining lines built (km) Percent 1925-1950 3 877 1 093 28.2 1951-2000 1 638 42 2.5 TOTAL 5 515 1 135 20.5 Table 1: Railroad construction in the republican period (1925-2000). Source. Republic of Turkey, State Railroads Company Statistics. When we continue analysing the railroads built with the purpose of mining, we notice that almost all lines with a mining purpose were either built or were in construction phase in 1932-1933. When we look at the Figure 1, we notice that a good proportion of coal line (Irmak-Filyos), copper line (Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani) and chrome line (Kütahya-Balıkesir) were constructed. Despite this early undertaking, the iron line between Malatya and Sivas was not built yet at that time. 17 �Figure 1: Railroad network in Turkey, 1931. (Source: İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, 1931). Figure 2: Railroad network in Turkey, 2008. (Source: TCDD). From the establishment of the Republic up until 1932, with the purpose of extracting mines 493 kms of railroad was built. This was the 28 % of the whole railroads which was 1751 kms built in the same period (Table 2). This means that 850 meters of every 3 000 meters of railroads was built for mine extracting. One of the lines built in that period was Irmak-Filyos Railroads. Called the coal line, this railroad would connect by following the Filyos valley the Zongludak-Ereğli coal basin to Karabük Iron-Steel Factory and to Ankara. The traffic got busy in this line when the line was connected to the iron line. The iron line following the city centers of Malatya, Sivas, and Kayseri, connected the iron ore located in Malatya and Sivas provinces in the central and east Anatolia to the Irmak-Filyos coal line. With these connections it was possible to transport and process the coal of Zonguldak and iron of Malatya and Sivas to the iron-steel factories in Karabük. The Irmak-Filyos line was built by a Sweden-Denmark joint group and the group was working on another project at the same time. This new line was Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani. Ergani has one of the oldest copper processing factories in Turkey. With the construction of this line it was possible to connect the copper valley the Mediterranean ports of Mersin and Iskenderun. Another line built at that time was Kütahya-Balıkesir Line. With the construction of this Chrome line, the chrome extraction of Turkey, which has a considerable proportion of the chrome reserves, reached an important level. 18 �Mine Chrome Copper Chrome Coal Chrome Copper Copper Coal Copper Coal Coal Iron Iron Iron Coal Lignite Coal Coal (closed) Lignite Total Name of the Line Kütahya-Emirler Fevzipaşa-Gölbaşı Emirler-Balıköy Irmak-Çankırı Balıköy-Balıkesir Fırat-Yolçatı-Elazığ Yolçatı- Maden Atkaracalar - Ortaköy Maden - Diyarbakır Bolkuş-Hisarönü Hisarönü-Çatalağzı Yazıhan-Hekimhan Çetinkaya-Divriği Hekimhan-Çetinkaya Çatalağzı-Zonguldak Tavşanlı-Tunçbilek Zonguldak - Kozlu Kozlu-Ereğli-Armutçuk Kütahya-Seyitömer Opening date 1929 1929 1930 1931 1932 1934 1935 1935 1935 1936 1936 1936 1937 1937 1937 1944 1945 1953 1962 Length (kms) 64 138 36 102 153 86 76 56 83 86 15 37 65 70 10 13 4 15 26 1 135 Table 2: The Mining railroads built during the republican period. (Source. Republic of Turkey, State Railroads Company Statistics, 2008). Eregli Iron and Steel Factory was established with the aim of producing the steel need for industry domestically in 1965. The steel was imported before that time. However, because the railway line reaching Kozlu could not be connected to Eregli because of geographical obstacles, the iron ore could not be able to be carried with through same line. Since the 26 kms long Kozlu-Armutcuk line could not be constructed, a new project called train ferry was developed. With this new project, the iron ore used in Eregli Iron and Steel Factory was carried with ferries through the sea from Zonguldak to Eregli. We need to note here that although mining related activities did not play an important role in the establishment of some early railway lines, some of these lines demonstrated an increased traffic in the following years. Examples for these lines are: iron ore in Sivas-Kayseri-Irmak line; boron in Balikesir-Bandirma line; chrome in Erzurum-Erzincan-Kayseri line; manganese and chrome in Irmak-Filyos line; lignite in Sivas-Samsun line. The point I want to emphasize here is that there were enough goods to manage these lines economically and without the mine transportation that would not have been possible at all. According to State Railroads Company’s Statistics, only some 5 percent of all goods were carried by railroads in Turkey in 2005. This percentage was 3 in Bosnia &Herzegovina, 11 in England, 12 in Italy, 18 in France, and 20 in Germany. Some other countries carry most of their goods through railroads and Slovakia with a percentage of 61, Switzerland with a percentage of 98 lead these countries (Table 3). It is important to note here that mines constitute 46 percent of all goods carried by railroads in Turkey (www.tcdd.org.tr/2005). This percent does not include metallurgic products. This point demonstrates clearly how important is the mining sector for the management of the railroad network. Country Percent carried by railroad Switzerland Slovakia Bulgaria Czech Rep. Austria Romania Hungary 97.9 61.4 48.1 47.0 46.7 40.0 36.1 Country Belgium Germany France Italy England Turkey Bosnia &Herzegovina Percent carried by railroad 22.7 19.9 17.8 12.3 11.1 5.5 3.7 Table 3: Transportation of goods by railroads in some European countries, 2005. (Source: UIC Statistics and European Union Transportation and Energy Statistics, 2005). 19 �Conclusion Although the first railroads were constructed by foreign company investments in the Ottoman Empire, the railroads had special meaning for young Republic. Railroads were considered to be a milestone in the economical and social development of the country that just came out of heavy warfare and faced the heavy burden brought by the wars. This vision was realized soon and as pointed out in some republican marches, the country were started to be woven with iron network by the tenth year celebrations of the young Republic. The newly established railroads, on one hand, helped to develop industry and commerce, and connected the interior of the Anatolia to the costal cities and towns. However, the new transportation policy put in effect in 1950 adversely affected the railroad construction. The new policy favoured inland motor roads, ignoring the need to modernize and maintain the old railroad lines. Thus the railroad lines that have been built since the Ottoman times left clumsy and without maintenance. In this period, no new lines were planned and the transportation of mines done increasingly by motor roads. In fact the transportation of mines with roads should have been integrated with railroads. In this case, the 90 percent share of motor roads today would have been kept in a certain level and a more environment friendly and more economic alternative, railroads, would have maintain its importance. References Barda, S. (1964). Münakale Ekonomisi. Istanbul Üniv. Yay. No: 1089. İktisat Fak. Yay. No: 154. Istanbul. Braudel, F. (2004). (Çev: Kılıçbay, M.A), Maddi Uygarlık. Dünyanın Zamanı. İmge Kitabevi, Ankara. Gürbüz, A.K. (1999). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Demiryollarının Rolü. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2 (3), 169-193. Hobsbawm, E. (1995). Sermaye Çağı 1848-1875. Dost Kitabevi. Ankara. İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, (1931). Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Diyarbakır ve Irmak-Çankırı-Filyos Demiryolları İnşaatı. Tümertekin, E., & Özgüç, N. (1999). Ekonomik Coğrafya. Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Ünsal, Y. (1983). Askeri Strateji Açısından Türkiye’deki Demiryolları (1856-1923). Birinci Askeri Tarih Semineri Bildiriler II.,1983, VA:179-187. Yıldırım, İ. (2001). Cumhuriyet Döneminde Demiryolları (1923-1950). Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yay. Ankara. Zarakolu, A. (1950). Memleketimizde Demiryolu Politikası. Ankara Üniv. Hukuk Fak. Dergisi, 573-589. http//www.mta.gov.tr (25 April 2009) http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2005 (01 May 2009) http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2008 (01 May 2009) 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 643 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Ünal Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation, which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a geographical perspective. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/300345dbf59a8ec6f36be0fc5f951c1f.pdf da0403fb66183bcbd7dabd1b142e7044 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Entrepreneurship Opportunities and Problems in Indonesia Selim ÖZDEMĐR Dr., Department of Business Administration, Qafqaz University, Baku / Azerbaıjan selim.tx@gmail.com Abstract: In 2008 when I visited to Jakarta for editorship of the book “Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Indonesia” two different survey studies with regard to entrepreneurs and companies were completed. In face to face meetings with company supervisors and official authorities more detailed information related to this subject was collected. In 2004 while visiting Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia during a 6-month academic study, I gathered background information on these countries, and no doubt that these data had made positive contributions to these studies. In this study four main topics were examined: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “potential problems” and “business relations rules”, which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Key words: Entrepreneurship, investment opportunities, Indonesia. Introduction Indonesia can be considered as one of the richest countries on Earth due to its biological diversity. The country is located between Asia and Australia, comprised of more than 17,000 islands that stretch 5,000 km from east to west. Because of its complex geographical make-up and unique biogeographic position Indonesia has enormous ecosystem diversity, as well as a fascinating history and heritage. In terms of human diversity, with more than 210 million inhabitants, the country ranks as the fourth most populous nation in the world and the third largest democratic country. It is also the world’s largest Islamic nation, where a constitutional freedom to practice other religions sees major groups of Christians, Buddhists, Hindus and other faiths existing side by side. There are approximately 336 distinct recognized cultures that share more than 250 spoken languages. The lingua franca, Bahasa Indonesia, was adopted only 77 years ago and is now widely used throughout this vast land, serving as a means of communication and as a unifying factor. Indonesia is a diverse country and it is among the culturally richest countries on Earth.1 In addition to this it has enormous mineral, marine and natural resources and it is evident that it ranks as a major economic force in the region. Following the economic and financial crisis that hit the country in 1997, the Indonesian government recognized the important role of foreign investment in the reconstruction of the Indonesian economy. During following years, the successive governments carried out legal and regulatory reforms designed to make Indonesia a competitive destination for foreign direct investment. From the socioeconomic point of view the development of entrepreneurship is very important for Indonesia, where the market economy is still in the process of development. The Encouragement Plan for Development of Entrepreneurship approved in 1995 by the president Soeharto is of great importance. By the effects of economical crisis, increasing level of unemployment caused the state to pay more attention to development of entrepreneurship. In Indonesia approximately 40 million people are in search of a job. Formulation of such a big number of unemployed people arise threats for the country such as increasing number of criminals and decreasing the social welfare. The growth of employment in the country will be possible through the encouragement of entrepreneurship by the government.2 1. Opportunities and Problems For Indonesia, which is in a development trend, healthy growth of the socio-economic structure depends on enterprises, mainly on SMEs. The SMEs share 99% of the total enterprises in Indonesia.3 Parallel to country’s large territory, there are many problems both in general and specific with regard to placing the entrepreneurship on the focus of attention. One can assume that in the future such a great country will have big 1 Doing Business in Indonesia, Urbach Hacker Young International Ltd (UHY), Indonesia, 2008, p.4 Selim Ozdemir, “Motivational Factors Influencing Entrepreneurship in Indonesia: An Empirical Study”, (not published) 3 The Ministry of Cooperative and SME Republic of Indonesia, Press release, 2003. p.1. 2 180 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo enterprises with their important contribution to its development, and also there will be local and foreign investors which can transform problems to opportunities and can utilize current potential of the country. The Government of Indonesia has signed contract with 56 countries, including Turkey for the purpose of protecting foreign investment. Indonesia takes the responsibility of protecting assets of these foreign investors and allows sending profit dividend to their countries. Indonesia also is the member of MIGA (Multinational Investment Guaranty Association). In relation with this, the government made a decision on protecting foreign investments against possible political crisis. Indonesia launched some loosing politics in the beginning of 1990s, such as decreasing tax rates in foreign trade policy, applying non-tariff barriers. The Government of Indonesia is decreasing the number of import restrictions and products which are under special license. Encouragement items about foreign investors can be listed as follows: • Foreign enterprise can be formed 100% by foreign share. But in infrastructure this is 95%. • For foreign investors there isn’t any necessity to sale shares to local companies. • There isn’t minimum capital amount. • Foreign investment procedure and confirmation is being completed within 5 days. • For the purpose of investment, custom taxes for machinery and raw materials have been decreased by 5%. • The depreciation period in foreign investments is short. Dividend tax is 10%. Despite the positive developments in the economy, Indonesia has smaller investment environment than other rival countries in this region, because of bureaucracy, corruption and chaos in country’s law structure. Although, there are noticed different developments, such as trade mark, copyrights, commercial secrets, protection of industrial designs, yet there isn’t sufficient protection in this area. Fighting piracy with respect to patents, trademarks and trade copyrights isn’t be successful. The Trade Mark Rights protects trademarks not based on first utilization, but first registration. Finally, it can be noticed that commercial secrets are not protected by the Indonesian laws. For industrial designs and models there isn’t enough protection either. The Indonesian Government is applying labeling policy for imported food products. According to this policy, for imported food products there must be used labels in Indonesian language. This application is making obstacles for Turkish companies which are exporting food products not only to Indonesia, but to other countries. In some sectors the existence of monopoly impedes development of entrepreneurship on the said sectors. For example, companies that operate in natural gas sector have licensed rights which allow them to derive benefits from different advantages, and this situation prevents other companies from entering these sectors.1 2. Entrepreneurship Survey Analysis in Indonesia for Foreign Investors Doing researches on entrepreneurship in Indonesia is important for foreign investors who desire to engage in entrepreneurial activities in this country. These studies, which analyze opportunities and problems in entrepreneurship, will be guidance for the business world. General evaluation according to the survey questions responded by approximately 100 Indonesian and Turkish entrepreneurs and official authorities are given below. Four question topics were examined here: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “probable problems” and “rules in business relations” which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Under the topic of “From the standpoint of foreign investors’ thoughts about current potential in the country” the given responds were like this: Indonesia is an attractive country which has much more potential for investors in different fields. Its geography, population and trade capacity is the most important potential. In 2007 there was 114 billion USD export and 74 billion USD import in this country. There are enough subsoil and surface resources. According to export of coconut palm oil Indonesia takes the leading position. The three largest companies of Indonesia are engaged in coconut palm oil production. The country’s second largest company SINARMAS is doing business in four sectors: coconut palm oil, paper production, construction and finance. Rapid development of Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Malaysia and their relations with Indonesia increases the potential of this region. There are about 48 million SMEs in Indonesia, and also there is the Ministry of SME and its subunits. Evaluations on the question “Which sectors in Indonesia are recommended for foreign investors and what opportunities they have?” are as follows: Every sector is important, but potential sectors are: textile, mill machinery, construction products, spare parts for cars, motorbikes, agriculture machinery, infrastructure and apartment building, construction of hydroelectric and thermal electric stations, navigation, food and 1 Selim Ozdemir, Endonezyada Girişimcilik Fırsatları, (not published). 181 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo consumption products, shop chains, mining (especially coal), electronic products, industrial agriculture products, airline business, recreation business, telecommunication, oil and natural gas sectors. It’s logical to provide raw materials and semi-finished products from Indonesia. “Container” fees are very low and it’s possible to export “zero custom” technologic machines from Europe to Indonesia. Mediterranean products like dry fruit, olive oil, greenery and fruit are important export products. Because of cheap labor force, it’s difficult to enter the sectors such oil and gas. Agricultural and industrial products with applied technical knowledge will be more suitable for foreign investors. There can be built a coconut palm oil factory. For those entrepreneurs who are engaged in small business, it’s recommended to open fast-food, candy shops, and building mini-sport complexes. Due to region’s population important brand strategies can be launched. Religion tourism is a potential business area which can bring much more benefits and returns on investments. Doing business in education sector, especially opening a university with international status and building education centers based on English language will be a strategic investment. Thoughts on “Problems awaiting foreign investors in Indonesia” are the following: There is not enough government incentive for foreign investors, the industry and infrastructure has not been developed well enough and there are no mining rights. Like in many countries there are corruption problems in the enforcement of adopted laws. Not forming of secure and healthy environment is an important obstacle. There are considerable bureaucratic problems due to weak synchronization of the central and regional government units. In Indonesia another important problem for foreign investors is the conflicts between local people in having rights on lands. Monopoly and protection, high costs, language based communication problems with local people, geographic adjacency of Australia are the main disadvantages. Traffic jams in Jakarta is an important problem for entrepreneurs who want to do business in this city. “Entrepreneurs who want to do business in Indonesia must pay attention to factors in work relations” are examined like this: One should possess special information about Indonesia. There were plenty of foreign investors who lost money by different ways, like advance. There must be gained enough information from individuals and entities that know this region well and then an action should be taken accordingly. With possibility of 100% foreign investment, investors who don’t know country’s environment should be guided by the state and other agencies which encourage foreign investments. Before doing investment it would be reasonable decision to see the region. Market researches will help to reduce costs. The support of consultants should be taken consultant in order to determine the investment costs exactly. It is necessary to take effective marketing activities. Personal relations are very important. For entering to market, short-term investments have more advantages than long-term one. Those who want to start up a midsize business should find long-term support. Such kind of support can be provided in three different forms: 1. Strong capital. 2. Company supported activity. 3. Cooperation with people who are well-informed about Indonesia. Paying attention to the distance between work place and home will solve traffic jam problems. There must be given standardized trainings and education to personnel and international exchange and development programs should be applied for increasing quality. One needs to understand Indonesia, its local people and culture. Those who want to open a business in this country must have patience at least like Indonesians. Because, phrases like “sebantar lagi” (soon), “gampang” (easy) are the signs of time waste habits of this country’s people. Conclusion and Suggestions In a country with 250 millions of population and rich natural resources, poorly developed industry and infrastructure, weakly synchronized central and regional government authorizes with bureaucratic problems directly affect the investments of foreign investors; trade relations are generally in import-export axis. In meetings with Indonesian and Turkish businessmen one can notice the formation of necessary resources for foreign investors to do business in important sectors. In comparison with China, India and the USA, Indonesia is more pure market for foreign investors. Indonesia is the country which conducts barter trade with other countries: exporting raw materials and importing finished goods. This shows that Indonesia can be a potential trade partner. In many countries there are very little advantages for small and middle size enterprises, however, in Indonesia there are many advantages for them. We can give the following suggestions for the formulation of effective entrepreneurial activities in Indonesia: 1. Increasing the state support to SMEs. 2. Development of laws for encouragement of foreign investors. 3. Decreasing the bureaucratic obstacles. 4. Effective struggle against corruption. 5. Development of investment consulting services for companies. 182 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. 7. Investors should start doing business with short-term investments. To attract foreign investors to the country through organization of exhibitions and job picnics. References Bird, Alan and Hitoshi Matsuhashi (2003). “Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurial Processes: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on Entrepreneurship in the Japanese Context”, Journal of Asian Perspective, Vol: 27, No: 3. Eren, Erol (2001). Yönetim ve Organizasyon, 5. bs., Đstanbul, Beta Yayınevi, Ertürk Mümin (1995). Đşletmelerde Yönetim ve Organizasyo, Beta Basım-Yayım-Dağıtım A.Ş., Đstanbul, Koçel Tamer (2005). Đşletme Yöneticiliği, 10 bs. Arıkan Yayınları, AS Maatbası, Đstanbul. Ozdemir, Selim (2009). Endonezyada Girişimcilik Fırsatları, (not published). Ozdemır, Selim (2009). “Motivational Factors Influencing Entrepreneuship in Indonesia: An Empirical Study”, (not published). Robbıns P. Stephen (2005). Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 8th edition, Prentice Hall, New York. Susando, Joseph (2005). “Creative Entrepreneurship in Indonesia :problems, strategies and challenges”, Asian Productivity Organization (APO). Analisis Kinerja Koperasi Tahun 2002-2006, Kementerian Negara, Jakarta, 2007 Bahan Sidang Ke-7 Komisi Bersama Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Teknik Antara Indonesia-Turki, Istanbul, 17-18 September 2008 Criteria and Requirements for the Determination and list of Business Fields Closed and Open with Conditions to Investment, the Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2008. Doing Business in Indonesia, Urbach Hacker Young International Ltd (UHY), Indonesia, 2008, p.4 Doing Business in Indonesia Indonesian Social and Business Culture, Communicaid Group Ltd., London 2008, p. 2 Doing Business-Indonesia Investment Guide, the Investment Coordinating Board of The Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007. Foreign Direct Investment in Indonesia, Bahar&Partners, Jakarta, 2007. Government Regulations on Investment Facilities, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Investment Opportunities-Indonesia Investment Guide, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Law of Investment of the Republic of Indonesia, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Profile of Indonesia- Indonesia Investment Guide, The Investment Coordinating Board of The Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007. Statistik Perkoperasian Tahun 2007, Kementerian Negara, Jakarta, 2008. The Ministry of Cooperative and SME Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2008 Indonesia-Turkey 7th Preparation Meeting to Economical and Technological Cooperation Council, Indonesia Republic Trade Ministry, Jakarta, 14.08.2008. Indonesia SMESCO (Small Medium Enterprozes and Cooperatives Ministry), Meeting with Ministry Consultant Ahmad Zabadi, Jakarta, 21.08.2008. Indonesia University, Meeting with director of post-graduate programme Prof. Dr. Mustafa Edwin Nasution and Director of Middle East Research Institute Prof. Dr. Muhammed Lutfi, Jakarta, 26.08.2008. Jakarta International Leather, Shoe, Cloth and Textil (Jakarta International Expo), 13.08.2008. Meetings with Foreign Trade and Investment Consultant Galip Kayar, Depok, 05-15.08.2008. PASIAD, Meetings with president of organization Demir Timurtaş, Jakarta, 30.07-29.08.2008. Small and Medium Enterprises Republic of Indonesia, meeting with Dr. Choirul Djamhari, Jakarta, 14.08.2008. SMEsCO Indonesia Company, Meeting with President of company Harun Kussuwardhono, Jakarta, 07.08.2008. T.R. Indonesia Embassy, Meeting with Trade Attache Gokhan Bayar, Indonesia Country Profiles Notes, Jakarta, 12.08.2008. http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/indonesia/Ind_chp6.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.uhy.com/media/PDFs/doing_business_guides/Doing%20Business%20in%20Indonesia.pdf, 10.05.2009 183 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo http://asiafoundation.org/pdf/SMEsurvey_Indo.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.prac.org/newsletters/Ali_2005.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/INO/rrp_ino_34113.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.communicaid.com/access/pdf/library/culture/doing-business-in/Doing%20Business%20in%20Indonesia.pdf, 10.05.2009 www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/sme/en/wipo_smes_cju_07/wipo_smes_cju_07_topic10_3.ppt, 10.05.2009 http://www.mondaq.com/article.asp?articleid=29859, 10.05.2009 184 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 168 Title A name given to the resource Entrepreneurship Opportunities and Problems in Indonesia Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. In 2008 when I visited to Jakarta for editorship of the book “Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Indonesia” two different survey studies with regard to entrepreneurs and companies were completed. In face to face meetings with company supervisors and official authorities more detailed information related to this subject was collected. In 2004 while visiting Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia during a 6-month academic study, I gathered background information on these countries, and no doubt that these data had made positive contributions to these studies. In this study four main topics were examined: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “potential problems” and “business relations rules”, which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8283c8b9be9391cee083570d6f5940c4.pdf 25b0cb13f6d2191f553373ef0bef2890 PDF Text Text Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Edebi Materyallerin Kullanımı Emre ÖZDEMİR Rusya Devlet Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi emrggu@gmail.com Özet:Bu çalışmada Rusya’da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde kullanılan edebi materyaller üzerinde durulmaktadır. Bu süreçte Rus Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınmış Türkçe Gramer ve Pratik Kitapları’nda edebi materyallerin kullanım biçimleri ve kullanım gerekçeleri incelenmektedir. Kullanılan edebi materyaller hakkında değerlendirme ve öneriler sunulmaktadır. Özellikle Rusya’da Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınan eserlere baktığımızda Türkçe edebi materyallerin hangi sebeplerle kullanıldığı ve ne gibi tasniflerden geçirilerek sunulduğu net bir biçimde ortaya konulmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın cevap aradığı temel soru da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde edebi materyallerin tasnif problemine çözüm önerisi sunmak olacaktır. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un eserleri dikkate alınarak Rusya’da Türkçe Öğretimi’nde edebi materyallerin kullanımı hakkında bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, yukarıda belirtilen eserlerin incelenmesinin ardından Yabancı Dil Türkçe’yi öğrenenlerin sınıf ve seviyeleri göz önünde bulundurularak Türkçe edebi materyallerin sunumunda uygulanabilir yöntemler üzerinde durulmuştur. Çalışmamızın konusunu teşkil eden, Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un Rusya’da Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılmak üzere yazdıkları eserler üzerine Rusya’da şu ana kadar herhangi bir inceleme ve çalışma yapılmamıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi, edebi materyaller . Giriş Dil, insanlar arasında anlaşmayı sağlayan tabiî bir vasıta, kendisine mahsus kanunları olan ve ancak bu kanunlar çerçevesinde gelişen canlı bir varlık, temeli bilinmeyen zamanlarda atılmış gizli antlaşmalar sistemi, seslerden örülmüş içtimaî bir müessesedir (Ergin, 1985:3). Dil, toplumsal kültürün öğelerinden biridir. İnsanların gözlemlerini, duygularını kısacası yaşamından çıkardığı tüm sonuçların yansımasını dilde görürüz. Ulusun bütün kültürü dile, dilden de edebiyatına yansır. Edebiyat, aracı ve ortamı dil olan güzel sanat dalıdır İnsanın kendisini, çevresini, doğayı ve dünyayı tanıması, kenisini ve çevresini sağlıklı bir biçimde değerlendirmesi ve duyarlık kazanması adına edebiyatın önemi büyüktür. Edebi eserler, bireye öğrendiği dilin geniş olanaklarının farkına vardırır, dil duyarlılığı, sevgisi ve bilinci kazandırır, bireyin düşüncelerinin sözlü ve yazılı olarak etkin bir biçimde anlatabilmesinin sağlayıcısı olur. Dil ve edebiyat eğitiminde temel hedef, bir şey belletmek ve öğrenciye bilgi yüklemek değil, dili sevdirmek, dilin düzgün kullanılmasını öğretmektir (Kavcar, 1994: 853). Dil ve edebiyat eğitiminde bireyin başka kültürlerle iletişim kurabilmesi, kendini ifade etme becerisini kazanması, kelime hazinesini genişletmesi dil eğitimindeki amaçlardandır. Bugün Türk dili, yaklasık 12 milyon kilometre karelik bir alanda 220 milyon nüfusun konuştuğu, yüze yakın ülkede öğretiminin yapıldığı, kökleri tarihin en eski dönemlerine kadar uzanan, 600 bini aşkın söz varlığına sahip bir dünya dilidir. Genel Türk dili olarak diğer dillere verdiğimiz sözcük sayısı ise 20 binin üzerindedir. Özellikle giyim, yiyecek, askerlik başta olmak üzere hemen her alanda çok sayıda Türk dili kökenli sözcük ile tarihte ve bugün Türk soylu halkların yaşadığı coğrafyalardaki Türk dili kökenli çok sayıda yer adı dünya dillerinde varlığını bugün de sürdürmektedir (Akalın, 2009:204). Rusya’da ilk Türkoloji faaliyetleri Pyotr I. Velikiy (1672-1725)’in 1716’da verdiği emir ile başlamıştır (Kononov, 1972:25). Rus Türkologlarının ilk merkezi XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında 1855 yılında Petersburg Üniversitesi’nde açılan Doğu Dilleri Fakültesi olmuştur. Rusya’da gerçek anlamda ilmî Türkolojinin kuruluşu ise XIX. yüzyılın sonu, XX. yüzyılın başına denk gelir (Kononov, 1972:25). XVIII. yüzyılda temeli atılan bu çalışmaların XIX. yüzyıldaki ilk ürünlerini V.V. Radlov, A.K. Kazembek, P.S. Savelyev, V.V. Grigoryev, Ö.N. 341 �Böhtlingsk, V.V. Veliaminov-Zernov, P. Desmuisons, N.I. Ilminski, I.N. Berezin, L.Z. Budagov, P.M. Melioranski, V.D. Smirnov ve V.V. Barthold vermiştir (Ataöv, 1972:90). Rusya’da Türkoloji çalışmaları önce dil incelemeleriyle başlamıştır. Bundan dolayıdır ki en geniş yayın da dil alanındadır. Örneğin Rus Türkologlar 1915 yılında Kaşgarlı Mahmud’un sözlüğünün metninin yayınlanmasının ardından 1920’li yılların ortalarında Rus diline tercümesine başlamış, Özbek bilim adamı Alibek Rustamov da 1967 yılında Kaşgarlı Mahmud’un sözlüğünün Rus diline tercümesini bitirmiştir (Kononov, 2004:162). Ayrıca, Türkiye’de ağız araştırmaları ile ilgili ilk yayın V.A. Maksimov tarafından 1867’de St. Petersburg’da basılmış olan Opıt İzsledovanija Tyurskich Dialektov v Chudanvendigarei Karamanii’dir (Akar, 2006:42). Yine Orhon-Yenisey Kitabeleri’ni önce S.E. Malov, sonra V.V. Radlov, P.M. Melioranski ve A.N. Samoiloviç inceleyerek kitabelerin büyük bir bölümünün ilk tecümelerini yapmışlardır. Çalışmamıza kaynak olarak seçtiğimiz; P.İ. Kzunetsov Uçebnik Turetskovo Yazıka, Naçalniy Kurs – Çast 1 / 2, Tükçe Ders Kitabı, Bölüm 1 / 2 , Vastok Zapad, / 2, 2007 (П. И. Кузнецов, Учебник турецкого языка-1. Начальный курс, Восток-Запад, ВКТ, 2009 г.) Y.V. Şeka İntensiviy Kurs Turetskovo Yazıka – YoğunTürkçe Kursu, AST, 2009 (Ю. В. Щека ,Интенсивный курс турецкого языка, АСТ Москва, 2008 г.) L.N. Dudina Turetsky Yazık, Uçebniy Yazık1 / 2, Türkçe Eğitim Kitabı 1 / 2, Bakü 1993 (Л. Н. Дудина, Турецкий язык 1-2, Учебное Пособие, Баку, 1993 г.) A.N. Kononov Gramatika Savremennovo Literaturnovo Turetskovo Yazıka, Çağdaş Türk Edebiyatı Grameri, , Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1956 (А.Н. Кононов, Грамматика современного литературного турецкого языка, Академии наук СССР, 1956 г.) adlı kitaplar bugün Rusya’da üniversitelerin Türkoloji bölümlerinde, eğitim ve araştırma merkezlerinde, kültür merkezlerinde ve kurslarında Türkçe öğreniminde kullanılan başlıca kaynaklardandır. Türkologların hazırladıkları Türkçe ders kitaplarına baktığımızda alıntı cümle ve metinlerin hemen hemen tamamının Türk Edebiyatı’na ait edebi metinler olduğunu görmekteyiz. Tanrı Misafiri,Çalıkuşu (Reşat Nuri Güntekin), İçimizdeki Şeytan (Sabahattin Ali), Memleket Hikayeleri (Refik Halit Karay), Yalnız Efe, Gizli Mabet, Diyet (Ömer Seyfettin), Beklenen Adam (Aziz Nesin), Salkım Söğüt (Nazım Hikmet), Velinimet, Üzüntü (Orhan Kemal) bunlardan bazılarıdır. Sadece P.İ. Kzunetsov, ders kitabında Aleksandr Sergeyeviç Puşkin (1799-1837), Anton Çehov (18601904), Buffon (1707-1788) ve Lermontof (1814-1841)’dan alıntı metinlere yer vermiştir. A. N. Kononov, Türk Edebiyatı’ndan yirmi altı farklı yazarın sekseni aşkın eserinden alıntı yaparak en fazla edebi metne yer veren Rus Türkologdur. Ders kitaplarına edebi metinlerden alıntı yapılırken bazı problemlerin ortaya çıktığı muhakkaktır. Bu problemlere kısaca değinmek isteriz: Edebi metinlerde belirli ortak isimlerin kullanılması: Bizler incelemeye aldığımız ders kitaplarında alıntı edebi metin ve cümlelerde belirli isimlere sıklıkla yer verildiğini görmekteyiz. Bu isimler Aziz Nesin (1915-1995), Sabahattin Ali (1907-1948), Nazım Hikmet (1901-1963), Orhan Kemal (1914-1970)’dir. L.N. Dudina, Türkçe ders kitabında metinlerin tümünü Aziz Nesin’den alıntı yapmıştır. Y.V. Şeka Aziz Nesin, Sabahattin Ali ve Orhan Kemal’den sıklıkla alıntı yapan bir başka yazardır. P. İ. Kzunetsov, Nazım Hikmet’in Salkım Söğüt ve Yanmış Cigara adlı şiirlerini, Orhan 342 �Kemal’den Baba Evi ve Velinimet, Aziz Nesin’in Mehmetçik adlı romanlarından alıntı yapmıştır. A.N. Kononov kitabında metin şeklinde alıntı bulunmasa da Nazım Hikmet’in Benerci Kendini Niçin Öldürdü, Kafatası, Taranta-Babu'ya Mektuplar, Sabahattin Ali’nin Kürk Mantolu Madonna, Kuyucaklı Yusuf, Kanal, Bir Skandal, Köpek, Asfalt Yol, Portakal, Sıcak Su, Köstence Güzellik Kraliçesi, Apartman adlı eserlerinden ve Değirmen, Kağnı, Ses eserinden alıntı yapmıştır. Sosyalist akım şair ve yazarlarının çoğu edebiyatımızda 1940’dan sonra görülmüştür. Roman ve hikayede Marksist görüşe dayalı ‘Sosyal Gerçekçilik” denilen akımın örneklerini veren sosyalist akımın en güçlü şair ve yazarı Nazım Hikmet ve Aziz Nesin, Sabahattin Ali, Orhan Kemal aynı sosyalist bir çizgide hayat sürdüren yazarlardır. Adaletsiz toplum yapısına karşı durmuş, ekmek uğruna her türlü zorluğa direnen, ırgatlıktan işçi sınıfına, ağalık düzeninden patronluğa geçişte çelişkilerle dolu insanoğlunun tanıklarıdır. Kısacası rejim tarafından ezilen sınıfın yanında olmuşlardır. Hayatlarında düzene karşı başkaldırış, ortaya koydukları eserlerde de düzeni tenkit vardır. Sovyet rejiminin taraftarı bu isimler, dönemin Rus devlet sistemi tarafından Türkoloji bölümlerinde okutulmuş ve eserleri üzerine sayısız çeviri ve çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Ne acıdır ki bugün Rusya’da halen Türk edebiyatı denilince ilk akla gelen isimlerdir. Aynı devirde yaşamış, Türk şiirine yeni ses ve söyleyiş imkanları getiren Necip Fazıl Kısakürek ve Ahmet Kutsi Tecer gibi şairlerin ve psikolojik roman tarzının ustası olan Peyami Safa’nın ders kitaplarında şiir ve metinlerine hiç yer verilmemesini ciddi bir eksiklik olarak görüyoruz. Edebiyatımızın bu çok zengin ürün yelpazesinden mahrum olan Türkoloji öğrencileri bu isimleri okumamakla kalmayıp, sosyalist rejim karşıtı oldukları gerekçesiyle de fikir ve düşüncelerine karşı bir duruş sergilemektedirler. Edebi metinlerin öğrencilerin seviyeleri gözardı edilerek verilmesi ve edebi metinlerin dil yönünden ele alınmaması: Dersin öğrenci merkezli yürütülebilmesi için, ders araç-gereçlerinin de buna göre hazırlanması gerekir. İncelememiz sonucunda karşılaştığımız bir başka problem de, alıntı cümle ve metinlerin öğrencilerin seviyeleri dikkate alınmadan verilmesidir. Bu ise öğretimi ve öğrenimi zorlaştırıcı etkenlerdendir. Örneğin Y. V. Şeka, Yoğun Türkçe Kursu adlı ders kitabında beşinci derse Ömer Seyfettin’e ait olan Bir Vasiyetname adlı edebi metin ile başlar (Şeka, 2008:67). Ders 1: Ses bilgisi; sesli-sessiz sesler, ünlü-ünsüz sesler, yuvarlak-düz ve dar-geniş ünlü sesler, sert sessizler ve yumuşak g, Ders 2: Bildirme ekleri -dır/-dir/-dur/-dür, soru eki mı/mi/mu/mü, kim?/nasıl?/ne? ve hece bilgisi, Ders 3: -(ı)yor şimdiki zaman eki, -cı/-ci/-cu/cü/-çı/-çi/-çu/-çü, -lı/-li/-lu/-lü, -sız/-siz/-suz/-süz isimden isim yapma eki, -la/-le, -al/-el/-ıl/-il/-l isimden fiil yapma eki, -lar/-ler çokluk eki sert ünsüzler ve -(y)ı,-(y)i,-(y)u,(y)ü belirtme hali, Ders 4: -mak/-mek mastar eki, şahıs çekim ekleri bulunmaktadır (Şeka, 2008:10-59). Bir Vasiyetname adlı metninin beşinci dersin başında verildiğini yukarıda belirtmiştik. Öğrenciler sadece ilk dört derste gördükleri dil bilgisi kuralları ile metni anlamaya ve çözümlemeye çalışacaklardır. “... dehşetli bir buhran geçirmek, doğru bir cevap verememek, tamlamalarını bulunduran yapılar; kendini öldürmek istemek, yapmak istemek, mektup yazmak istemek eylemsilerini bulunduran yapılar; dünya-da, dünya-dan, cehennem-de, Mısır’da, şehirler-de, oteller-de, ölmek-e, sualler-e türünden henüz ders içerisinde verilmemiş hal ekleri; taşıyamamak, verememek, takip edememek, yiyebilmek, bulundurmak türünden bileşik eylemler, henüz öğrenciler tarafından bilinmeyen dil bilgisi kurallarındandır. Bu ise metni anlamayı güçleştirmektedir. Yazar, alıntısını yaptığı metni gerekirse sadeleştirmelidir. Metin içinde ilgili dil bilgisi kurallarının olduğu sözcükler ve cümle yapıları farklı punto ve yazı karakterleriyle belirgin hale getirilmelidir. “İlim adamlarının nasıl çalıştıklarını hep merak etmişimdir. Ne cevap vereceğimi şaşırmıştım, sattıkları aletin bozuk olabileceğini söyledim, yapabileceğini ifade etti, ihtiyaç duyduğumu belirttim (Kzunetsov, 2007:7172). Yukarıda, Bir Tezin Hikayesi (Mehmet Kara) adlı metinden örnek cümleler vardır. Yazar, ders öncesi dil bilgisi bölümünde işlenen; -ecek/-acak, -dık/dik/-duk/-dük eylemsilerini belirgin hale getirerek öğrencinin dil öğrenimini kolaylaştırmış ve öğrenimine katkı sağlamıştır. Edebi tür ve ürünlere sınırlı sayıda yer verilmesi ve hikaye metinlerinin ağırlık kazanmaması: Rusya’da okutulan ve incelemeye aldığımız ders kitaplarında sınırlı edebi tür ve üründen alıntı yapılmıştır. P. İ. Kzunetsov hikaye, roman ve şiir türlerinde alıntı yaparken, Y.V. Şeka hikaye, roman, fıkra ve anı türünde; L. N. Dudina anı ve fıkra; A.N. Kononov ise hikaye, roman ve fıkra türlerinde alıntı yapmıştır. 343 �Bahçelerde saz olur, Gül açılır yaz olur, Ben yarıma gül demem, Gülün ömrü az olur. Gitti gelmez, geldi gitmez (gençlik, ihtiyarlık) Allah yapar yapısını, demir açar kapısını (karpuz), Ben giderim o gider, cebimde tık tık eder (saat) Dize kadar küçücük (çizme), Ben dururum, o gelir (ses) (Şeka, 2008:138). Y.V. Şeka; edebi tür olmasa da edebi ürün olan bilmece ve maniye yer vermiş, L. N. Dudina atasözlerine, Y. V. Şeka ve P. İ. Kzunetsov atasözü ve deyimlere yer vermiştir. Deveye ot lazımsa boynunu uzatır, davulun sesi uzaktan hoş gelir, her iple adam asılmaz, her ağaç kökünden çürür, baş gidince ayak durmaz, can baldan tatlıdır (Şeka, 2008:203) atasözleri, Kulak vermek, işin içinden çıkmak, dili açılmak, göze almak, içi fena olmak, sıkı fıkı olmak, bıyık altından gülmek (Kzunetsov, 2007, 348) deyimleri bunlardan bazılarıdır. Yazarların ortak özelliği, hikaye metinlerinden alıntı yaparken metni kısaltmış olmalarıdır. L. N. Dudina alıntı yaptığı Aziz Nesin metinlerinin tümünde kısaltmaya gitmiştir. P. İ. Kzunetsov, Böbrek (S. Ali) ve Mehmetçik (R. Nuri Güntekin) adlı romanlarda kısaltmalara giden başka bir yazardır. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde hikaye metinlerinin alıntı yapılması gereken türlerin başında geldiğini belitmek isteriz. Kısa, anlaşılır oluşu, kolay bir olay örgüsüne sahip oluşu dil öğretiminde en çok alıntı yapılan tür olmasına neden olmuştur. Genellikle kısaltılmış olarak verilen hikaye parçaları metnin bütününü anlamayı kolaylaştırmıştır. Sonrasında seviyeye uygun hazırlanmış roman parçalarından alıntılar yapmanın uygun olduğunu düşünüyoruz. Gezi yazısı, söyleşi, deneme, makale ve biyografilerden uygun parçalar seçilerek ders içerisinde tercüme, tahlil şeklinde ve önceden hazırlanan alıştırma metinleri ile ders zenginleştirilebilir. Şiir, bilmece, mani, atasözü ve deyim gibi edebi tür ve ürünler dil öğreniminin tamamlanmasına yakın süreçte verilmelidir. Sonuç Sonuç olarak, yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi için hazırlanan ders kitaplarında edebiyatımızın seçkin isimleri -oluşturulacak bir heyet tarafından- belirlenmeli ve farklı düşünce ve fikir akımının önemli temsilcilerinin eserlerinden alıntı yapılmalıdır. Böylece edebiyatımızı tek tip düşünen ve yazan isimler topluluğu olmaktan kurtarmış oluruz. Rus Türkologların tercih ettiği hikaye metinlerinden alıntılara ders kitaplarında daha fazla ağırlık verilmeli. Bunun dışında derste öğrenilen konuları destekleyecek ve pekiştirecek her seviyeye uygun hikaye kitapları oluşturulmalı; bu hikaye kitapları alıştırma, boşluk doldurma, tercüme bölümleriyle desteklenmelidir. Edebiyatımızın masal, bilmece, mani, atasözü, deyim gibi Türk irfanının seçkin tür ve ürünlerine ders kitaplarında mutlaka yer verilmelidir. Kaynakça Ergin, Muharrem. (1985). Türk Dil Bilgisi, Bayrak Yayınevi, İstanbul. Kavcar, Cahit. (1994). "Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Öğretimi" 1. Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Kuram-Uygulama-Araştırma (Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi 28-30 Nisan 1994, Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları, Adana. Akalin, Şükrü. (2009). Türk Dili, TDK Yayınları, Ankara Kononov, A. N. (1972). İstoriya İzuçeniya Turkish Yazıkov v Rossiy, Dooktyabrskiy Period, Leningrad 344 �Ataöv, Türkkaya. (1972). “Sovyetler Birliği’nde Türkoloji Çalışmaları”, A. Ü. SBFD 27, Ankara Kononov, A. N. (2004). Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Bişkek Akar, Ali. (2006). Türkoloji Dergisi 1, sayı:2 Seka, Y. V. (2008). İntensiviy Kurs Turetskovo Yazıka, AST, Moskova Kzunetsov, P.İ. (2007). Uçebnik Turetskovo Yazıka, AST, Moskova 345 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 391 Title A name given to the resource Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Edebi Materyallerin Kullanımı Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalışmada Rusya’da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde kullanılan edebi materyaller üzerinde durulmaktadır. Bu süreçte Rus Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınmış Türkçe Gramer ve Pratik Kitapları’nda edebi materyallerin kullanım biçimleri ve kullanım gerekçeleri incelenmektedir. Kullanılan edebi materyaller hakkında değerlendirme ve öneriler sunulmaktadır. Özellikle Rusya’da Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınan eserlere baktığımızda Türkçe edebi materyallerin hangi sebeplerle kullanıldığı ve ne gibi tasniflerden geçirilerek sunulduğu net bir biçimde ortaya konulmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın cevap aradığı temel soru da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde edebi materyallerin tasnif problemine çözüm önerisi sunmak olacaktır. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un eserleri dikkate alınarak Rusya’da Türkçe Öğretimi’nde edebi materyallerin kullanımı hakkında bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, yukarıda belirtilen eserlerin incelenmesinin ardından Yabancı Dil Türkçe’yi öğrenenlerin sınıf ve seviyeleri göz önünde bulundurularak Türkçe edebi materyallerin sunumunda uygulanabilir yöntemler üzerinde durulmuştur. Çalışmamızın konusunu teşkil eden, Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un Rusya’da Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılmak üzere yazdıkları eserler üzerine Rusya’da şu ana kadar herhangi bir inceleme ve çalışma yapılmamıştır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)