18 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f9af7c2b99f96b2db79ef812231ec2dd.pdf f5afc7dd2718650464eedcdd90f90139 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkey Forest with Respect to Sustainability Đbrahim Fevzi ŞAHĐN Atatürk University, Turkey ifevzi@atauni.edu.tr Ramazan SEVER Atatürk University, Turkey rsever@atauni.edu.tr Halil KOCA Atatürk University, Turkey hkoca@atauni.edu.tr Alperen KAYSERĐLĐ Atatürk University, Turkey alperenkayserili@atauni.edu.tr Namık Tanfer ALTAŞ Atatürk University, Turkey ntanfer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: As a natural part of global ecosystem, forests have been destroyed continuously despite sustainable principles. In Turkey, forestation has started as utility forestation and production forestation just as everywhere in the world and later on the type of forestation suiting nature as well as multifunctional forestation has been prefered. At present, according to the decision taken at United Nations Environment and Development Conference (1992) the principles of sustainability have come to the fore. The main objective here is to provide means for those settling in rural areas to make their living without destroying forest and within the limits of protecting nature and maintaining development. In the light of this, forest in Turkey are to be sustained in spite of lack of application, destroying forest to make fields, irregular grazing, unlawful cutting, improper use of land and biological threats. It is inevitable to put in practice regular production techniques and to organize peasant-forest relation in order to determine the reproductivity capacity and limitations of Turkey forest, which have rare natural, old forests environment of our country. Key Words: Turkey, Forest, Sustainability, Environment Introduction The total amount of forested areas in the world is approximately 4.3 billion hectares according to the information about the forests of the world, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The ratio of the forested areas to other areas is 32.3%. The distribution of the forests over the world is unbalanced and only 20% of the forests are fertile. The forested areas, which shrank because of a variety of reasons, are facing similar problems. According to the FAO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 17.5 million hectares of land is deforested every year beginning from 1990’s. However, only 1 hectare of land is forested for each 10 hectares of land deforested. This situation seen all over the world is also the case for Turkey. According to historical data, in the last 4000 years Anatolia has been largely deforested because of excess and improper utilization of forests, land clearing, wars, forest fires and improper grazing, and the quality of the forests has been partially impaired. What causes people to behave so irresponsibly while it is known that lack of forest leads to economic constriction and ecological imbalance? It is not difficult to answer this question. Forests are natural and they mostly grow on their own without requiring any human labour. It is easy to access forests and trees are used in many fields. Therefore, they are sometimes used as a source of revenue and demolished by illegal and excess cuts. At the same time, grazing animals in forests and turning these areas into agricultural lands inconveniently also destroy forests. 191 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Geographical Position and Forests of Turkey Turkey is located in the Northern Hemisphere at the junction of Europe and Asia. The Europen side is called Thrace and the Asian part is known as Anatolia. It shares boundaries with Greece, Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq and Syria with a total lentgh of 2753 km. It holds a coastal lentgh of 8333 km. This coastal zone includes the shores of Black Sea, The Sea of Marmara, Agean Sea, Mediterranean Sea and the passages of Bosphorus and Dardanelles (Figure 1). It has a total area of 78 million hectares of which 20,8 million hectares are designated as forest land. The topography is very rough and steep. Figure 1. Location map of Turkey Turkey is a country which cannot be deemed as poor in plant diversity and forested lands. Total forested area of our country covers 20.7 million hectares. 10 million hectares of these forests are highly fertile (Table 1). In other words, 48% of our forests are fertile. Our fertile forests cover 12.7% of the area of our country. This means 0.14 hectares of fertile forest per capita. Especially the Black Sea Region is in good condition with regards to forests. However, the Central Anatolia and the South-eastern Anatolia Regions are poor in forests. The forested areas in these two regions are equal to only 10% of all the other forests in the country. Table 1: Forest resources of Turkey ( Turkey General Directorate of Forest). Forest Area High Forest (ha) Coppice (ha) Total (ha) % Productive 8 237 753 1 789 815 10 027 568 48,3 Degraded 6 180 587 4 555 093 10 735 680 51,7 TOTAL 14 418 340 6 344 908 20 763 248 100,0 In 1950’s, 25% of the world was covered with fertile forests. This ratio fell to 20% in 1970’s. Unless effective measures are taken, the ratio of the fertile forests in the world will be only 14% towards 2020’s. Forest with Respect to Sustainability Forests, which are the capital of the global ecosystem, are rapidly destroyed despite the sustainable forestry principles. As it is the case all over the world, forest management began in our country began as exploitation forestry and production forestry; and then multifunction forestry and natural forestry began to be applied. Today, they are trying to be applied according to the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference 192 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo on Environment and Development (1992) adhering to sustainability. However, there is not much success in practice because of different reasons. Preserving, maintaining and improving the forest, making them fertile and cultivating, and using them without preventing the future generations’ development created the concept of sustainable forestry. However, this concept could not go beyond being a concept. In addition, this concept of sustainable forestry is the reason for all of the forestry sciences, especially the Forest Management Sciences to emerge (Asan 1995:17). ASAN also asserts that, this concept has been applied in all planning operations since 1700’s. In the forest management, what the concept is or when it is used is not important. What is important is its purpose. The common purpose should be developing the villagers [1] living in or next to forests with rational plans and projects which are based on appropriate examinations, without exhausting the natural supplies in question and getting into the dilemma of preserving the environment or developing. In other words, the evolution of economical system and environmental system should be maintained together (Tekeli 2000:10). Turkey’s situation is relatively good in the quantity of forests it has. However, we do not have enough fertile forests. Although certain efforts are made to preserve and improve forests, forest management cannot be efficient because of socio-economic problems. This reduces the quality and the quantity of our forests. For example, usage of the forests in our country as pastures for animals, illegal cuts and land clearing are the major reasons for hazards (Figure 1). Figure 1: Turkey forests to be destroyed for various reasons. The regulations that govern forestry should also be examined in order to correctly understand the importance of sustainability in the sector of forestry in Turkey. Turkish Constitution is different from the constitutions of many other countries in that, it includes provisions about forestry. In the process from 1937, when regular forestry studies began, until 1960, when the provisions about forestry were first included in the constitution, many political activities were held, which caused hazards to forests. That is why, Turkish Constitution of 1961 included forestry. Turkish Constitution of 1982 also included provisions about forestry. However, there are remarkable expressions about the subject. One of the provisions of the article is a commentary about sustainability peculiar to Turkey. Whereas this provision indicates that the borders of forests cannot be shrunk, it makes it possible to exclude some forested lands from forest regime. This provision, which is included in the Article 2 of the Constitution, is the base for the applications called 2-B and enforced according to the Provision B of Article 2 of the Law of the Jungle no: 6831. The sustainability of the parts of forests that are exposed to the 2-B application becomes eternally impossible. This situation seems to be a ground for many problems in the future. Hazards to forests by the enlargement of cities and tourism investments result from the 2-B application. Firstly, a regional planning based on sustainability should be designed. It should be considered in every stage of forestry that there is an organic link between forests and the villagers living in forested lands. That is why, a public strategy should be followed which will enable social plan integration necessary for improving the level of education and awareness of the villagers who live in the countryside and have the economic structure principally based on natural sources. At the beginning, forests in the whole country should be divided into parts of a certain size and they should be given to those villagers. Thus, passage to forest management should be achieved and legal regulations should be issued for this purpose. Activities like maintenance, tree planting, preserving and management should be carried out by the villagers under the supervision and control of experts from Forest Managements. When such a legal regulation is applied, hazards to forests will decrease and the [1] According to the results of the census in 2000, about 7.544.000 people live in 20.314 forest villages (7.302 in forests, 13.012 next to forests), and they form the 11% of the total population and nearly half of the rural population. 193 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo villagers’ level of welfare will improve undoubtedly. However, this precaution should not be enough, and solutions for different conditions of different regions should be provided. The basic factor that draws the villagers living in forested areas to forests is their low standard of life in socio-economic terms. That is why, the level of life standard of the villagers, whose economic problems gradually increase, should be improved and it should be aimed that they will have high level of education, natural and environmental consciousness. Social forestry should increase countrywide in order to decrease the villagers’ pressure on the forests. The participation of the public should absolutely be ensured in this process. While announcing the aims and studies of Forest Area Managements, General Directorate of A forestation, OrKöy (General Directorate of Forest-Village Relations), and Directorate of National Parks, Game and Wildlife with various activities, participatory plans and projects that consider socio-cultural and economic standards of villagers should be applied. Otherwise, the inclination towards forests will continue. On the one hand, minimum benefits will be obtained like cutting trees in the forests and selling them, land clearing and illegal provision of trees as fuel and raw material. On the other hand, this inclination will create problems which will obstruct sustainability of forests and spoil ecological systems. Moreover, as a result of spoiling ecological systems, irreparable problems will arise such as the extinction of endemic plants in the forest (Sever 2002:95-97). In order to manage the forests of Turkey within the framework of sustainability, completing the management studies is one of the works to be primarily done. Awareness of the socio-economic conditions of the villagers in forested areas is possible by implementing improvements. The organic link between forests and the villagers living in forested lands is the most important think that should be considered in every stage of forestry. However, it is quite difficult to say that it is followed. Turkey has acceded to some international conventions like Convention on Biological Diversity, Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, United Nations Forum on Forests. However, it cannot always manage to meet the requirements of those conventions. This usually results from conflicts between the authorities of local governments and national government, and inadequate representation of communities of interest and decision-makers. This complexity of authority should absolutely be removed and the exact limits of authorities should be determined. Conclusion Forests should be preserved according to the principle of sustainable forestry and should be improved. Their fertility should be increased and be cultivated constantly. They should be used without preventing the future generations’ development. Accordingly, the forests in our country should be managed including the above suggestions, according to the principles of sustainable forestry. References Asan, Ü. (1995). Orman Kaynaklarının Rasyonel Kullanımı ve Ülkemizdeki Durumu. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 45 (2), 68-92. Çağlar, Y. (1990). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Đçin Ormanlar ve Ormancılığımız. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Konferansı, 1989, VA:135-159. Çağlar, Y. (1998). Sürdürülebilirlik ve Türkiye Ormancılığı. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Uygulanması-Tartışma Toplantısı,1997, VA:61-75. Erdem, R. (1982). Türkiye’de Orman Korumasının Ana Sorunları ve Çareleri. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 32 (1),716. Gülen, Đ. Özdönmez, M. (1981). Türkiye’de Orman ve Ormancılık. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fakültesi. Dergisi,31 (2), 1-13. Odabaşı, T. Özalp, G. (1994). Ormanların Đşletilmesi Yöntemleri ve Doğaya Uygun Ormancılık Anlayışı. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 44 (1-2), 35-47. Pamay, B. (1980). Türkiye Ormancılığının Ana Sorunları. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 30 (2), 68-92. Sever, R. (2002). Sürdürülebilirlik Bakımından Şavşat Ormanları. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8, 75- 99. Tekeli, Đ. (2000). Türkiye Çevre Tarihçiliğine Açılırken. Türkiye’de Çevrenin ve Çevre Korumanın Tarihi Sempozyumu, 2000, VA:1-14. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 174 Title A name given to the resource Turkey Forest with Respect to Sustainability Author Author ŞAHİN, İbrahim Fevzi SEVER, Ramazan KOCA, Halil KAYSERİLİ, Alperen ALTAŞ, Namık Tanfer Abstract A summary of the resource. As a natural part of global ecosystem, forests have been destroyed continuously despite sustainable principles. In Turkey, forestation has started as utility forestation and production forestation just as everywhere in the world and later on the type of forestation suiting nature as well as multifunctional forestation has been prefered. At present, according to the decision taken at United Nations Environment and Development Conference (1992) the principles of sustainability have come to the fore. The main objective here is to provide means for those settling in rural areas to make their living without destroying forest and within the limits of protecting nature and maintaining development. In the light of this, forest in Turkey are to be sustained in spite of lack of application, destroying forest to make fields, irregular grazing, unlawful cutting, improper use of land and biological threats. It is inevitable to put in practice regular production techniques and to organize peasant-forest relation in order to determine the reproductivity capacity and limitations of Turkey forest, which have rare natural, old forests environment of our country Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a13f9d3e0cacf3630a4578f317d81914.pdf dfef6e20e7f90cf387e1e80fbe70e321 PDF Text Text Türkiye - Bosna Hersek İlişkilerinin Gelişmesinde Halk Kültürünün Rolü Fatih İYİYOL International Burch Univesity Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek fatihiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba Özet: Bu çalışmada, Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki ilişkilerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün yapabileceği katkılar ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmada, saha araştırması(derleme) ve anket tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Bildiride, Bosna-Hersek’teki etnik unsurlara genel olarak değinilmekle birlikte; nüfus yoğunluğu açısından Bosna-Hersek’te ana kitleye sahip Boşnaklar ve Boşnak kültürü ile Türk kültürü açısından kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesi değerlerdirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel unsurlardan daha kapsamlı bir şekilde yararlanılması gerektiği kanaatine varılmış ve bununla ilgili çeşitli tekliflerde bulunulmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türkiye, Bosna- Hersek, halk kültürü 1. Giriş Türkler ile Balkan coğrafyasını oluşturan topluluklar arasında tarihi, kültürel ve sosyal ilişkiler kadim dönemlere dayanmaktadır. Balkan kelimesi sıra- dağ veya dağlık anlamında Türkçe bir kelimedir. Balkan yarımadası, VI. yüzyıldan itibaren Türk kavimlerinin gelip yerleştiği bir yurt olmuştur (İnalcık, 2005: 20). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bölgeyi fethinden önce Avarlar, Kumanlar Peçenekler, Kırpçaklar; Balkan coğrafyasına yerleşmiş olan Türk kavimleridir. Türk boyları, Balkanlara hızla yerleşmiş ve arkalarında birçok kültürel unsur bırakmışlardır (Artun, 2000; Öztuna, 1990: 15). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bölgeyi fethinden önce binlerce Türk dervişi Balkan coğrafyasına yayılmıştır. Bu dervişler, Balkanlara Türk- İslam kültürünü taşıyarak yerli Balkan topluluklarının Türk ve İslam kültürü tanımalarını sağlamıştır. “Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri”1 olarak tamınlanan bu gönüllü tasavvuf erbabları gittikleri yerlerde, tekkelerini kurarak Osmanlı İmparatorlu’ğunun Balkanlardaki fetihlerine zemin hazırlamışlardır (Barkan, 1942: 282). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Bosna- Hersek’i fethinden önce bölgeye yerleşen Türk dervişleri fetih öncesi tekkelerini kurmuş ve müesseseleşme yoluna gitmeşlerdir. 1462 yılında Saraybosna’da İsa Bey Mevlevi tekkesi açılmıştır (Ćehajić, 1986: 61). 1463 yılında Bosna, Fatih Sultan Mehmet tarafından fethedilmiş ve bu tarihten sonra Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’na bağlanmıştır (Imamović, 1998: 82-83). Fetihten sonra Bogomil Boşnaklar, uzun zamana yayılan bir süreç içerisinde gönüllü olarak Müslüman olmuşlardır2 (Malcolm, 1996: 52-55). Fetih ve İslamlaşma ile birlikte Boşnaklar ile Türkler arasında doğrudan kültürel iletişim başlamıştır. Bu kültürel iletişimi yeniçeriler, Osmanlı’nın İstanbul, Bursa ve Konya gibi kültür merkezlerinden yetişen Boşnaklar, bölgede aktif rol oynayandervişler- tekkelerin etkisi gibi birçok unsuru saymak mümkündür. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde özellikle Türk kültürünün Boşnak, Hırvat ve Sırp kültürü üzerinde etkili olduğunu Batılı seyyahlar ve sözkonusu toplulukların kendi araştırmacıları ifade etmektedir.1829’da Vuk Karadzic, Ortodoks Sırpların Müslüman gibi giyindikleri, özellikle şehirde yaşayanların Türk adetlerine göre yaşadıkları, Sırp kadınların çarşaf giydikleri, erkeklerin sarık takıp nargile içtikerini ifade eder (Artun, 2002: 99105). 1878 yılında fiilen, 1908 yılında ise resmen Avusturya- Macaristan İmparatorluğu Bosna- Hersek’i ilhak etmiştir. Bosna- Hersek’in Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’ndan ayrılmasıyla ilişkilerin kısmen koptuğu görülse de 1 Prof. Dr. Ömer Lütfi Barkan, İstila Devri’nin Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri ve Zaviyeler isimli makelesinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Balkanları fethetmeden önce bölgeye Selçuklu, Karahanlı, Türkistan coğrafyasından binlerce gönüllü Alperenin yerleştiği ve bunların Osmanlı fetihleri öncesi bölgede zemin hazırladıklarını ifade etmektedir. 2 Bosna’daki İslamlaşma süreci ve Müslüman nufus hakkındaki en sağlıklı bilgiler, Osmanlı vergi sicillerinden alınabilir. 1468-69 yılına ait defterlerde, Bosna’da Hıristiyan hane sayısı 37.125, Müslüman hane sayısı ise 332 idi. 1485 yılına ait defterlerde, Hristiyan hane sayısı 30.552 ve 2491 bekar ya da dul Hristiyan mevcuttu. 4134 Müslaman hane ve 1064 kişi de dul ve bekar Müslaman mevcuttu. 1520’ye ait defterde ise 98.095 Hristiyan hane, 84.675 Müslüman hane mevcuttu. Daha sonraki vergi sicil defterlerinde sürekli olarak Müslüman hane sayısında artış gözlenlenmektedir. 380 �450 yıllık birlikte yaşamanın getirdiği etkileşimi silmek mümkün değildir. Nitekim, 1965 yılında Abdullah Škaljić, Turcizmi u Srpskohrvatskom Jeziku, çalışmasıyla; Sırp, Hırvat ve Boşnak dillerinde halkın kullandığı 8742 Türkçe kelime tespit etmiştir. Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasında Yugoslavya dönemindeki ilişkilerin Osmanlı dönemi kadar güçlü olmadığı aşikardır. Yugoslovya döneminde, özellikle Türk-İslam kültür mirasının Bosna- Hersek topraklarında silinmesi adına çalışmalar yapılmıştır. 1952 yılında tekke, vakıf ve dernekler kapatılmış, Bazı raporlara göre ordudaki Müslüman subayların çocuklarını sünnet ettirmeleri yasaklanmış, Müslüman asker ve subaylar domuz eti yemeye zorlanmışlardır (Malcolm, 1996: 195) Yugoslavya’nın dağılması, Bosna’daki iç savaş ve sonrasında Bosna- Hersek Cumhuriyetinin kurulması ve küreselleşme ile birlikte Türkiye Bosna-Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde yeni bir dönem başlamıştır. Bu çalışma yeni dönem ilişkelerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün katkısı ele almaktadır.3 2. Halk Kültürünün Bosna- Hersek Türkiye İlişkilerinin Gelişmesine Katkısı 2.1. Turizm ve folklor Türkiye ile Bosna Hersek arasındaki tarihi- kültürel bağların köklü olması ve küreselleşmenin etkisi iki ülke arasında turizmin gelişmesini sağlamıştır. Özellikle, Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’e her geçen yıl artan bir ilgi görülmektedir. Aşağıdaki tabloda, bir turizm firması vasıtasıyla Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısı verilmiştir. Tablo-1’deki verilerden hareketle Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden Türk turistlerin oranında beş yıl içerisinde yaklaşık olarak bir buçuk kat arttığı gözlenmektedir. 4 Turist Sayısı 9000 8500 8000 7000 7000 6300 6000 5000 5000 4000 3000 3600 Turist Sayısı 4200 2000 1000 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Yıllar Tablo-1. Türkiye'den Bosna- Hersek'i ziyaret eden turist sayısı 1-15 Mayıs 2009 tarihleri arasında Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden 500 turist üzerinde düzenlediğimiz ankette, Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret etmelerini sağlayan en etkili sebep ne olduğunu soruldu. Anket 3 Bosna-Hersek Devleti, Boşnak ve Hırvat Fedarasyonu ve Sırp Cumhuriyeti olarak iki yapıdan oluşmaktadır. Boşnak ve Hırvat Fedarasyonu devletin % 51’lik bölümüne; Sırp Cumhuriyeti ise % 49’luk kısmına sahiptir. Her iki yapı etnik ve kültürel açıdan birbirinden farklıdır. Dolayısıyla Türkiye ile Bosna – Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde Halk Kültürü’nün Rolü başlıklı çalışmamızda Boşnak- Hırvat Federasyonu ele alınmıştır. Kanaatimizce, Türkler ile Bosna’daki ve Balkanlardaki Sırplar arasındaki kültürel ilişkiler ayrıca ele alınması gerekmektedir. 4 Türkiye’den Bosna- Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısıyla ilgili bilgiler (tablo-1 sayılar ve yıllara göre dağılımı) BosnaHersek’teki Fidan Turizm yetkilerinden alınmıştır. Bu sayı Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısı değildir; söz konusu turizm firması vasıtasıyla Türkiye’den, Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısıdır. 381 �verileri, Türk turistlerin Bosna-Hersek’i, Türk kültür ve tarihinin birçok unsurunu barındırması nedeniyle ziyaret ettiklerini göstermiştir.5 Bu durum, iki ülke ilişkilerinin gelişmesi açısından önemli bir rol üstlenebilir. Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek, tarihi ve kültürel bağların sağladığı yakın ilgiyi turizmin gelişmesi için önemli bir fırsat olarak görmeli ve kültür turizmini teşvik edecek ekonomik ve hukuki kolaylıklar tanımalıdır. Bosna-Hersek’te her yıl haziran ayının son hafta sonunda Akhisar(Prusac)’da Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri düzenlenmektedir. Boşnak halk kültürünün önemli bir unsuru olan Ayvaz Dedo( Ayvaz Dede)’nun Türk olduğu ve Boşnakların Müslüman olmasında büyük payı olduğuna inanılmaktadır. Halkın Ayvaz Dede’yi büyük bir velî olarak görmesi, onu itibar ve saygınlık yönüyle bir halk kahramanı yapmıştır (K1), (K2), (K3), (K4), (K5). Boşnak halk kültüründe, Ayvaz Dedo(Dede) olarak ifade edilen şahıs, XVI. asırın ikinci yarısında yaşayan Akhisarlı Hasan Kâfî’dir, Halveti şeyhi olan Hasan Kâfî, Osmanlı İmparatoluğu döneminde BosnaHersek’te yetişen önemli ilim adamlarından biridir (İzeti; 2004: 170). Halkın Ayvaz Dede’ye duyduğu büyük sevgi Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri çerçevesinde geniş çaplı kültürel organizasyonların yapılmasını sağlamıştır. Bosna- Hersek’te geniş bir katılımla düzenlenen Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri’ne Türkiye’den katılımlar olsa da, bu oran çok sınırlı sayıdadır. Türkiye’de geleneksel olarak düzenlenen Şeb-i Arus Etkinlikleri, Bosna-Hersek’te bilinmektedir. Müslüman Boşnaklar Mevlana ile ilgili bu etkinleri takip etmektedirler, özellikle tasavvufa ilgi duyan Boşnaklar arasından Şeb-i Arus etkinlerine katılanlar olmaktadır. Boşnaklar, Mevlana’yı kendi kültür unsurlarının bir parçası olarak gördüklerinden özellikle Saraybosna’da 1957 yılından itibaren Şeb-i Arus Etkinlikleri yapılmaktadır (Halilagić, 2008: 1-2). Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasında gerek kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesinde gerek turizmin ilerlemesine katkı sağlamak için bu iki kültürel etkinlikten yararlanmalıdır. Ayvaz Dede ve Mevlana her iki devletin halkları açısından öneme sahip kişilerdir. Bu tarihi şahsiyetlerin iki ülke ilişkilerin gelişmesine katkı yapması adına Türkiye, Bosna-Hersek’ten her yıl Şeb-i Arus etkinliklerine, Mevlana ve Konya ziyaretlerine katılımı artırmak için tanıtım yapmalı ve turizm firmalarını bu yönde teşvik etmelidir. Bosna- Hersek ise Türkiye’de bilinmeyen Ayvaz Dede’yi tanıtmalı ve Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri’ne katılımı arttırmak için gerek Türk turizm firmalarını gerek Boşnak turizm firmalarını teşvik etmelidir. Bosna-Hersek’te Türk tarih ve kültür mirası adına birçok mekanı saymak mümkündür. Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in Hıristiyan tebaaya Ahitname verdiği yer, Foynitsa’da bulunan Boşnak halk kültüründe Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in ordusuyla geldiği ifade edilen ve Derviş-i Horasani olarak bilinen şahsın türbesi, Osmanlı döneminde kalan Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi, Mostar köprüsü gibi onlarca yapı ve onun etrafında gelişen halk anlatıları Türkiye- Bosna Hersek arasındaki turizminin gelişmesine katkıda bulunabilir. Halk kültürü açısından Türkiye -Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde maddi kültür unsurlarından yararlanılabilir. Türk ve Boşnak mutfak kültürü büyük benzerlikler göstermekle birlikte her iki coğrafyaya has yemekler de bulunmaktadır. Her iki ülkenin mutfak kültürünün ortak ve farklılıklara tanıtılmalı bu maddi kültür unsurlarından turizmde istifade edilmelidir. Boşnak halk kültüründe tekke tasavvuf geleneği canlılığını korumaktadır. Türk tekkelerinin Balkanlardaki yansıması olan bu ekoller, Türk kültüründen tema, motif ve içerik olarak güçlü izler taşımaktadır. Özellikle, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminden kalan Sinanova Kadiri Tekkesi; Blagay Halveti Tekkesi’nde Türkçe ilahiler eşliğinde dini- mistik ritüeller icra edilmektedir. Günümüzde Türk nufusunun hemen hiç olmadığı Bosna-Hersek’te Türkçe unsurların olması turizm açısından dikkat çekicidir. Gerek sosyal ve kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesinde gerek turizmin güçlenmesinde dini- mistik folklorun sözkonusu unsurlarından yararlanılmalıdır. 2.2 Halk Oyunları Halk oyunları ülke tanıtımlarında ön planda olan önemli bir folklor ürünüdür. Halk oyunları sadece bazı hareketlerin oyun içerisinde düzenli bir şekilde tekrarlanması değil aynı zaman o kültürün giyim, müzik, gelenek, inanış vb. birçok unsurunu içinde barındırmaktadır (Değerli, 2000). Bu yönüyle, ülkeler kendi kültürel yapılarını tanıtmak için halk oyunlarına tanıtım ve organizasyonlarda sık sık yer vermektedirler. Türkiye’de birçok üniversitenin bünyesinde halk oyunları festivalleri düzenlenmektedir. Birçok belediye ve sivil toplum örgütü etkinlik, festival ve şenliklerde halk oyunlarına yer vermektedir. BosnaHersek’te de Başçarşı Geceleri Kültür Etkinlikleri çerçevesinde halk oyunları festivalleri de yapılmaktadır. Gerek Türkiye’deki kültürel etkinliklerde gerek Bosna- Hersek’teki kültürel organizasyonlarda her iki ülkenin halk oyunları ekipleri sahne almaktadır. Kültürel etkinliklere katılımlar belirli bir kültür politikası içerisinde 5 Anket soruları ve sonuçları ekler bölümünde verilmiştir. 382 �yapılanlan etkinlikler değildir.6 Bazı dernek ve şahısların özel gayretlerinden ibaret kalan bu çalışmalar amatör ve sürekliliği olmayan iştirakler olarak kalmaktadır.7 Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde, kapsamlı ve geleneksel hale gelecek halk oyunları festivallerinin düzenlenmesi iki ülke insanının birbirlerini tanımasına kültürel etkileşim imkanın doğmasını sağlayacaktır. Türkiye’nin ya da Bosna- Hersek’in ev sahipliği yapacağı ve diğer Balkan ülkelerini de dahil edecek “Balkan Ülkeleri Halk Oyunları Festivali” ülkeler arasında ilişkilerin gelişmesine katkıda bulunacaktır. 2.3 Türk- Boşnak Halk Kültürleri’nin Ortak Şahsiyetleri Yunus Emre, Mevlana, Nasreddin Hoca, Fatih Sultan Mehmet gibi Türk kültüründeki önemli şahsiyetler Boşnak kültürünün önemli şahsiyetleridir. Yunus Emre’nin birçok Türkçe ilahisi Boşnaklar tarafından bilinip okunmaktadır. Yunus Emre’nin bazı ilahileri Boşnakça’ya çevrilmiş ve Boşnak Halk Edebiyatı’nın önemli metinleri olmuşlardır. Asıl metnine göre biraz değişmiş olan Yunus Emre’nin aşağıdaki ilahisi Boşnak halk kültüründe okunan bir ilahidir. Seni ben severim džandan ićeru Jolum vardir bu erkandan ićeru Šeriat tarikat joldur varana Hakikat marifet andan ićeru Kesildi takatim dizde derman jok Bun ne mezhep imiş dinden ićeru Sülejman kuş dili bilir didiler Sulejman var sulejmandan ićeru Teđželliden nasib erdi kimine Kimin maksudu andan ićeru Beni bende demen bende degilim Bir ben vardir bende benden ićeru Senin aşkın beni benden aliptir Ne şirin derd bu dermandan ićeru Junus’un gjozleri hundur aćilmaz Kapida kul var sultandan ićeru(K1), (K2), (K3), (K4), (K5). Mevlana, Boşnak tekke-tasavvuf geleneğinin çok önemli bir temsilcisidir. Günümüzde Boşnak tekkelerinin genelinde aşağıdaki ilahi okunur. Boşnakça Metin: Dođi Svijetla Konyo, slavna li si Zbog imena Mevlanina, Riječ njegova poziv srca Na svim tvojim je vratima. Türkçe Tercümesi: Gel Ey şerefli Konya namın yücedir. Mevlana’dan dolayı, Sözü(Mevlananın) kalbinin çağrısı Tüm kapılarındadır senin Dođi, dođi! Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel! Gel, gel. Ma ko da si, ma gdje da si, Makar da si i sto puta Obećanje prekršio, Opet dođi, Samo dođi. Prekrio te nur Mavlane, I bejtovi Mesnevije, Ko god dođe, jecaj naja Kim olursan ol, nerede olursan ol Tövbeni yüz defa Bozmuş olsan da yine gel Sadece gel Sarmış seni Mevlana’nın nuru Ve Mesnevinin beyitleri, Kim gelirse oraya ney inlemeleri 6 Türk İşbirliği Kalkınma İdaresi’nin 2008 yılı (TİKA) faaliyet raporlarını incelediğimizde kültürel çalışmaların yapıldığı ancak bu çalışmaların daha planlı ve sistematik yapılması gerektiği kanaatine vardık. 7 Küçükçekmece Belediyesi’nin düzenlediği Kültür Festivali’nde Bosna-Hersek’ten her yıl Lola adlı halk oyunları ekibi katılmaktadır. 383 �Srce će mu da otkrije. Kalbini açacak. Tvoje kuće ko bejtovi Svaka tajnu svoju ima, Postala si sama srce Uplakano rastancima. Evlerin beyitler gibi Her biri kendi sırrını saklar. sen bir gönül oldun Ayrılıklara ağlayan Dođi, dođi! Sarajevo dušu dade, Kad je čulo poziv sveti, Na Benbašu bijelih golubova, Cijelo jato uz zvuk naja sleti. Gel, gel! Saraybosna sana ruhunu vermiş Aziz çağrını duyduğunda Beyaz güvercinler Bentbaşı’na indi Ney sesini duyduklarında. Sjaj dersova srce pamti, I čežnjivo traži pića Što u šeher točilo ga Čisto srce Merhemića. Derslerin parıltısını kalp sezer Ve özlemle şarap ister. Ki şehri (nurla) doldurdu, Merhemiçin8 temiz kalbi. Dođi, dođi! Gel, ge!l Kud odeše dobri ljudi, Gdje li sa sakriše? Ko ih traži, zna kakav je, Plač rastanka , naja – duše. Nereye gitmişler iyi insanlar? Nerede saklanmışlar? Onları bulmaya çalışan biliyor, Ayrılığın, neyin ve ruhunun inlemesinin nasıl olduğunu Od njih nama ostala je Mudra riječ k'o utjeha. Ne tražite nas po grebljima, Već kod ljudi u srcima. Onlardan bize kalmıştır Hikmetli sözler, teselli olarak Bizleri mezarlıklarda değil de İnsanların kalplerinde bulmaya çalışın. Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel Mesneviju ko da shvati, Koje srce tu moć ima? Svaki bejt je jecaj naja, Svi džiltovi jedan sema'. Mesneviyi kim anlayabilir ki! Hangi kalbin böyle bir gücü var. Her beyit neyin inlemesidir. Tüm ciltleri semadır. Gdje je srce što će čuti, Ispod bejta što se zbori? Gdje je srce što na pragu, Mevlaninu aškom gori. Sezecek olan kalp nerede Beyitlerdeki hikmetleri Aşkla yanan kalp nerde Mevlananın kapısında Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel Hej, ašici, sretni li ste, Gaflet perdu kad skinuste. Dunjaluče, čekr ti si, Što okreće želje puste. Ey aşıklar ne mutlu size Gaflet perdesini üstünüzden attınız Ey günyaya gönül bağlayan! (Nefsin)arzulari çeviren değirmenin dişlileri gibisin Hajde srce, baci brige, Za dunjaluk kojeg nije, Stavi uho na bejt naja, Da čujemo tajnu koju krije. Haydi kalbim sıkıntıları at Bu sahte dünyanın Ney beyitine kulak ver, Hangi sırrı sakladığını duymak için. Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel! (İyiyol, 2009,1–15). 8 İlahide bahsedilen Hacı Mugaya Merhemiç Bosna’daki Mevlevi ekolünün önde gelen temsilcilerindendir. O, BosnaHersek’te mesnevi dersleri vermiş, onun ölümü üzerine ise Şeyh Fejzulah Efendi Hadžibayrić, Mesnevi derslerini devam ettirmiştir. 384 �Dođi, ilahisinde görüldüğü gibi Bosna-Hersek'teki Tasavvuf geleneği içerik, motif ve kahramanlar açısından Türk tasavvuf geleneğinin Balkan coğrafyasındaki devamı niteliğini taşımaktadır. Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Boşnak halk kültüründe bir kahraman ve vel olarak görülür. Bosna- Hersek'te “Sultan Fatih'' hakkında birçok halk anlıtısı ve inanış söylenegelir. Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in bir derviş olduğu ve Halveti ekolüne bağlı olduğu ifade edilir. Boşnak halk kültüründe Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in Halveti ekolüne bağlı olduğu kanaati Osmanlı'nın Bosna-Hersek'i fethinin sonraki asırlarda sözkonusu tasavvuf akımının güçlü olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Türk topluluklarının hemen hepsinde görülen Nasreddin Hoca fıkraları Boşnaklar arasında da yaygındır.“Nasrudin Hođža'' olarak bilinen Nasreddin Hoca, Boşnak halk kültürün önemli sembollerindendir(Frndić, 1972: 6-22). Türk ve Boşnak Halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetleri onlar etrafında gelişen şiir ve anlatılar her iki kültürün kadim ilişkisini gösterme açısından önem arz etmektedir. Osmanlı mirasına sahip bu iki toplumun aynı kültür unsurlarına sahip olması doğaldır. Boşnak ve Türk halk kültürünün bu önemli şahsiyetlerini, onların fikirlerini ve eserlerini yapılacak büyük ve ortak organizasyonlarla geniş kitlelere duyurmak iki ülkenin ilişkilerinin gelişmesine katkı sağlayacaktır. Sözkonusu şahsiyetlerle ilgili teknolojik araçlarda kullanılarak film, çizgi film, belgesel hazırlamada ortak hareket edillmeli ve hazırlanacak ürünlerin Türkçe ve Boşnakça olması sağlanmalıdır. 3.Sonuç ve Öneriler Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel çalışmalardan- özellikle halk kültürü- yararlanmak . Her iki ülkenin ilişkilerinin gelişmesi adına tekliflerimiz şunlardır: 1. Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki turizminin gelişmesinde halk kültüründen yararlanılmalıdır. 2. Her iki ülkenin Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlıkları her iki toplum açısından öneme sahip tarihi ve kültürel mekanların ziyaret edilmesini teşvik etmelidir. 3. Ayvaz Dede, Şeb-i Arus etkinlikleri gibi kültürel etkinliklere her iki ülkeden katılımın artırılması sağlanmalıdır. 4. Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek’in birlikte düzenleyecekleri ve diğer Balkan ülkelerini de kapsayacak şekilde geleneksel hale getirilecek Balkan Halk Oyunları Festivali düzenlenmelidir. 5. Türk ve Boşnak halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetleri olan Mevlana, Yunus Emre, Nasrettin Hoca, Fatih Sultan Mehmet ile ilgili ortak çalışmalar yapılmalı bu tarihi- kültürel şahsiyetlerin geniş kitlelerce daha iyi tanınması sağlanmalıdır. 6. Türk ve Boşnak halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetlerini tanıtmak amacıyla ortak film, çizgi film ve belgeseller yapılmalı ve bu çalışmalar Türkçe ve Boşnakça olarak iki dilde izlenip anlaşılacak şekilde tasarlanmalıdır. 7. Bosna’daki Türkiye ve Türk kültürüyle ilgili halk anlatıları Türkçe’ye çevrilmeli bu meteryaller kültür ve sanat açısından işlenmelidir. 8. Türkiye Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel çalışmaların katkıların ele alındığı akademik çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. Kaynakça Artun, Erman( 2003). Osmanlının İlk Dönemlerinde Türk ve Balkan Kültürlerinde Etkileşim, II. Uluslararası Balkan Türkoloji Sempozyumu, İstanbul, Folklor-Edebiyat Dergisi, s.33. Sayfa, 99-105. Artun, Erman (2000). Balkan Türk Edebiyatlarına Genel Bir Bakış, IV. Uluslararası Kıbrıs-Balkanlar-AvrasyaTürk Edebiyatları Sempozyumu ,Mostar, www.turkoloji.cu.edu.tr. Barkan, Ömer Lütfi(1942). İstila Devirlerinin Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri Ve Zaviyeler, Vakıflar Dergisi, Ankara, s.II, s. 279- 309. Ćehajić, Džemal(1986). Derviški Redovi u Jugoslovenskim Zemljama, Sarajevo, Grafo-art Atelje. Değerli, Fikret (2000). Halk Oyunlarının Uluslararası uygulamalarında Turizme Katkısı, Türk Folklorunun Turizm açısından Değerlendirilmesi sempozyumu, www.kultur.gov.tr. Frndić, Nasko (1972). Narodni Humor i Mudrost Muslimana, Zagreb, Stvarnost. Halilagić, Sead (2008). Obiljevanje Arusa u BIH, Sarajevo,The Place And Dervish Orders İn Bosnia Herzegovina On The Year Of Jalaladdin Rumu 800 Years Since His Birth Symposium, Orıjentalni Institut u Sarajevu Unpublished Symposium Proceedings, s. 1-2 385 �Inalcik, Halil(2005). Balkanlar ve Türkler, Bal-Tam Türklük Bilgisi Dergisi, Prizren, s.III, s-20-45. Iyiyol, Fatih (2009). Boşnak Halk Kültüründe Mevlana ve Mevlevilik, 1. Uluslararası Balkanlarda Tarih ve Kültür Kongresi, Basılmamış Sempozyum bildirileri, s-1-15 Malcolm, Noel (2002). Bosnia A Short History, London, Pan Boooks Öztuna, Yılmaz (1990). Rumelini Kaybımız, İstanbul, Ötüken Yayınları Imamović, Mustafa (1998). Historija Bošnjaka, Sarajevo, Nacionalna i Univerzitetska Biblioteka Bosne i Herzegovina. Izeti, Metin (2004), Balkanlarda Tasavvuf, İstanbul, Gelenek Yayınları Sözlü Kaynaklar(Kaynak Kişiler) (K1) Mensur Hacımeyliç, 50, Visoko, esnaf, lise mezunu (K2) Mükrem Kamber, 40, Olovo, evli, imam, medrese mezunu (K3)Nejat Biço, 49, Saraybosna, Sinanova tekkesi kütüphane görevlisi, lise mezunu (K4) Şeyh Birzina, 60 yaşında, Saraybosna, evli, Mejtaš Nakşi tekkesinin şeyhi (K5) Şeyh Niyaz, 41, Olovo, evli, Olovo Nakşi tekkesi şeyhi, Lise mezunu Ekler Türkiye- Bosna Hersek Arasındaki Kültürel İlişkileri Değerlendirme Anketi Tarih: 1-15 Mayıs 2009 Anketi cevaplayan kitle: Bosna-Hersek’i sözkonusu tarihlerde ziyaret eden Türkiye Vatandaşları. Anket Soruları: S.1 Bosna-Hersek gezinizde en çok hangi mekandan etkilendiniz? a)Mostar Köprüsü b) Latin Köprüsü c) Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi d) Blagay Tekkesi e) Bosna’nın doğal güzellikleri S.2 Bosna- Hersek’i ziyaret etmenizi sağlayan en etkili neden aşağıdakilerden hangisidir? a) Bosna- Hersek Türk kültürün birçok unsurunu barındıran bir ülke olması b) Bosna- Hersek doğal güzelliklere sahip bir ülke olması c) Bosna-Hersek teknolojik imkanlara sahip bir ülke olması d) Bosna- Hersek’te geniş eğlence imkaları olması e) Bosna- Hersek’te arkadaşlarım ve akrabalarım olması. S.3 Türkiye- Bosna Hersek arasında ilişkilerin gelişmesini en çok hangi etken sağlar? a) Ekonomik ilişkiler b) Kültürel ve Sosyal ilişkiler c) Siyasi ilişkiler d) Tarihi ilişkiler e) Turizm S.4 Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek’in kültürel yapısının benzerlikleri için en doğru seçenek hangisidir? a) Türkiye ile Boşnak kültürü arasında pek benzerlik yok b) Türk Kültürü Boşnak etkilemiş olmakla birlikte ortak unsurlar çok zayıf c) Türk kültürü ile Boşnak kültürü birçok ortak unsura sahipler ve bunlar canlılığı koruyor d) Türk kültürü ile Boşnak kültüründen hemen her şey aynı. Anket Sonuçaları: 1. 2. 3. 4. Soru: 213 kişi Blagay Tekkesi, 195 kişi Mostar Köprüsü, 57 kişi Doğal Güzellikler, 35 kişi Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi, Soru: 396 kişi A, 81 kişi B, 23 kişi E Soru: 184B, 167 kişi D, 103 kişi A, 14 kişi C, 10E Soru: 317 C, 114 kişi B, 48 kişi E, 21 kişi A 386 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 422 Title A name given to the resource Türkiye - Bosna Hersek İlişkilerinin Gelişmesinde Halk Kültürünün Rolü Author Author İYİYOL, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki ilişkilerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün yapabileceği katkılar ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmada, saha araştırması(derleme) ve anket tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Bildiride, Bosna-Hersek’teki etnik unsurlara genel olarak değinilmekle birlikte; nüfus yoğunluğu açısından Bosna-Hersek’te ana kitleye sahip Boşnaklar ve Boşnak kültürü ile Türk kültürü açısından kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesi değerlerdirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel unsurlardan daha kapsamlı bir şekilde yararlanılması gerektiği kanaatine varılmış ve bununla ilgili çeşitli tekliflerde bulunulmuştur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d12c463f0b8c9d7fcb2492a883cdcdde.pdf cef55fafd04e948eb3a292620cb8ab65 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Fatma Nur ĐPLĐK Cukurova University Karatas School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Turkey, nuriplik@cu.edu.tr Kemal Can KILIÇ Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Turkey, kcan@cu.edu.tr Abstract: Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Keywords: Globalization, Cooperation, Internationalization Strategy, International Arena, SMEs, Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies, Turkey. Introduction As the rate of economic globalization becomes faster and faster, small businesses can no longer afford to ignore the challenge of international commerce. Thus small businesses that are playing an increasingly vital role in today's business environment must develop a global culture, gain crucial international experience and overcome their size barrier (Rowden 2001; Steensma et al. 2000) by cooperating with other firms. This requires choosing the appropriate entry strategy and the right partner if they hope to have any chance of success in the international arena. In this context, this study focuses on the cooperation of SMEs that have been built for the purpose of international expansion. Most of the early studies related to internationalization strategies have dealt with large firms, whereas SMEs are only rarely investigated (Fink et al. 2008). So there is still insufficient knowledge about the internationalization of these types of firms (Westhead et al. 2001). However, the development of communication and transportation technologies has made international expansion possible for SMEs as well (Saarenketo et al. 2008). In this direction many approaches have been developed for the understanding of the internationalization process of SMEs. One of them is the cooperative international expansion is the main theme of this article. The facilitating role of globalization and outsourcing has expanded firms’ use of external resources to reduce innovation time spans, costs and risks, and acquire greater flexibility in their operations. Indeed, the very success of the SMEs vis-a`-vis their larger competitors may be due to their ability to utilize external relationships more efficiently. So the growing use of networks by a broader cross-section of firms reflects a catchup by larger firms: it has long been recognized that one of the major competitive advantages SMEs have over 105 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo large firms has been their flexibility (Narula 2004) that enables them to match quick changes in market demands (Colley 2006). To date, an entrepreneur’s human capital as well as business demographics promoting independent owner-managed firms to sell their goods or services into foreign markets is not well understood. Nevertheless, there is a growing awareness of a need for a greater understanding of this group of entrepreneurial ventures (Westhead et al. 2001). In this direction, this paper seeks to enhance understanding of the international expansion of SMEs. Notwithstanding, from a theoretical perspective, the primary focus of this paper is to provide suggestions for how SMEs will use cooperative business strategy to carry out successful entry into international markets. SMEs Business Characteristics SMEs are not simply smaller versions of traditional firms and have many differences in ownership, resources, organizational structures and management systems (Pangarkar 2008). Compared with larger firms, small (less than 50 employees) and medium (between 50 and 250 employees) sized firms (Gilmore et al. 2006) have limited financial and managerial resources, personnel and capabilities. Further, SMEs are usually owned and managed by founders, whereas large firms are managed by professionals. As a result of this, the decisionmaking in SMEs is highly centralized (Lu and Beamish 2006). Previous literature recognizes that SMEs are heavily reliant on the attitudes, skills and expertise of their personnel. Thus multiple roles being filled by staff and a lack of organizational slack make dealing with anyone outside of the company much harder (Major & Cordey-Hayes 2000). Due to staffing limitations, small firms often suffer from managerial inexperience with international markets and have limited global informationgathering capabilities (Rowden 2001) compared to large firms. Small entrepreneurial firms are responsible for much of the growth and innovation in global economy (Steensma et al. 2000). They promote private ownership and diversification of economic activities, stimulate innovations, generate the majority of jobs, support sustainable development, make a significant contribution to exports and trade and develop entrepreneurial skills (Colley 2006). Compared to MNCs, smaller firms are unfettered by bureaucracy, hierarchical thinking, and expensive existing information systems. But they are often more customer- oriented, and have quicker response times when it comes to implementing new technologies and meeting specialized needs and tastes. So they are usually more able to adapt their systems, routines, and the collective employee mindset to the imperatives of international competition (Liesch & Knight 1999). SMEs that are operating in demands a high level of customer-orientation as well as an emphasis on new (technological) knowledge development (Gills 2005) are generally regarded as more easily influenced by external forces than are larger firms (Cheng & Yu 2008). Further, SMEs are subject to the liability of smallness which is reflected in this type of firms’ difficulties in obtaining and securing critical resources and their vulnerability to environmental changes. Such disadvantages impose constraints on the expansion of SMEs either in the domestic or international markets. So that SMEs usually have less international experience and are subject to more severe local knowledge deficiencies when they expand their facilities across borders (Lu and Beamish 2006). In this context, SMEs can carry out expansion of their operations into foreign markets successfully by developing cooperative relationships with other firms. The Concept of Internationalization Internationalization is the process by which firms increase their awareness of the direct and indirect influence of international transactions on their future, and begin to engage in transactions with firms in other countries (Lu and Beamish 2001). In other words, it is the discovery, enactment, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities across national borders to create future goods and services (McDougall & Oviatt 2005). A number of explanations have been proposed to account for firms’ internationalization processes. For example, the resource-based view of the firm has been shown to be important since the managers leverage resource advantages and minimize transaction costs to obtain a competitive advantage overseas (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, several theories from the international business literature have been presented below to explain why firms engage in international operations (Westhead et al. 2001): • Transaction cost theory suggests that firms choose the least-cost international location for each activity they perform and grow by internationalizing markets, bringing interdependent activities under common ownership and control up to the point where the benefits of further internationalization are outweighed by the costs. • A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms. 106 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Monopolistic advantage theory suggests that firms will internationalize when they can use their established advantages in foreign countries at little or no additional cost. • Internationalization theory suggests that firms internationalize to reduce costs by internationalizing the transfer of goods and services across national borders where it is cheaper. • Product cycle theory suggests that firms internationalize in an attempt to protect their existing markets of mature products. • The stage theory of internationalization suggests that a firm’s international operations will gradually increase as it gains knowledge and experience in the international arena and as it develops relationships that cross international boundaries. • Oligopolistic reaction theory suggests that firms will try to reduce their risk by imitating competing firms’ entrance into foreign operations. • Strategic choice theory suggests that firms facing strategic complexities respond opportunistically to changing market opportunities through a careful evaluation of risks with managers actively determining many features of a firm’s internationalization. Although there have been a number of attempts to synthesize the internationalization literature, a single, commonly accepted interpretation of ‘‘internationalization’’ is yet to be found. According to this, the internationalization patterns of individual firms seem to be rather unique and situation specific (Saarenketo et al. 2004). International Expansion of SMEs Internationalization is an issue that –until recently– was in most cases only relevant for large companies. But increased pressure on the home market coming from international competitors is now, however, being felt by SMEs as well, moving them to seek opportunities in international markets (Fink et al. 2008) actively. Many SMEs, especially high technology firms, are forced to internationalize early in their development due to a focus on niche markets and the small size of their domestic markets relative to the potential that exists abroad (Bradley et al. 2006). But although SMEs have been increasingly active in international markets, existing theories of internationalization have tended to focus on large MNCs and argued that firms must have strength either in resources or knowledge if they are to fully overcome the transaction costs in integrating across borders (Cheng & Yu 2008). There is an array of modes for entering international markets, such as exporting, licensing, non-equity strategic alliances, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages (Lu & Beamish 2006). But exporting is still the primary foreign market entry mode used by small firms in their internationalization efforts presumably because it offers an effective means of international expansion without over-extending the capabilities or resources of the firm (Bradley et al. 2006). For SMEs, internationalization is an entrepreneurial activity, and entering new geographic markets can be regarded as, on a large scale, the act of adopting new practices (Cheng & Yu 2008). But SMEs attempting to internationalize face a basic marketing dilemma—do they attempt to internationalize unaided or do they form a partnership with stronger firms in their business system that can help them. One such way is to internationalize as part of a supplier-customer network in partnership with established MNCs to respond to customer product and service preferences in myriad international markets (Bradley et al. 2006). Motivations for International Expansion of SMEs SMEs are increasingly internationalizing their business activities. The drivers for increasing involvement of them in the world markets, to name a few, have been the increasing competition in both domestic and foreign markets and the fast development of information and communication technologies. As a result of this rapid internationalization, managers of SMEs are facing challenges regarding how to enter countries which are, in many ways, different from the home country (Ojala 2008). But they can overcome the challenges and uncertainty of the complex internationalization process by cooperation. Although SMEs are generally considered to be more risk-averse than their larger counterparts to adopt the new practice, which makes them less willing to go abroad, they also tend to react to the quests from external parties easily, which induces in them the need to go abroad. The environmental context that is a critical factor for SMEs most likely pushes them to initiate internationalization. It may be said, then, that the way in which a SMEs internationalizes is the result of the combination of its actual internal abilities and its leader’s cognition of its external environment (Cheng & Yu 2008). A major reason why the managers of SMEs internationalize is to pursue growth opportunities and they often collaborate for that purpose. These collaborative ventures are creating a shift in business relationships 107 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from a conflict mode based on competition to a collaborative mode. Presently, the trend is for management teams to concentrate on core competencies (Westhead et al. 2001) and potentially outsource those that do not provide a competitive advantage in order to increase agility and flexibility (Spence et al., 2008) and cover the uncertainty of the internationalization process (Fernández and Nieto 2005). The International Expansion Process of SMEs International expansion is an important growth strategy for SMEs when the scope of their business is geographically restricted. Some researchers have asserted that when SMEs initiate internationalization, they will tend, due to lack of resources and advantages, to export goods as their mode of foreign market entry. In addition, researchers have asserted that such firms will typically increase their international involvement through a series of carefully planned stages (Cheng & Yu 2008). The operations in a foreign country are supposed to start by indirect entry modes, which do not require extensive knowledge about the environment of the target country and more commitment to the market. According to this, indirect entry modes increase a firm’s knowledge about the target country and allow it to learn about how to deal with the customers in that country. Once the country has become more familiar for a firm, direct operations can start there (Ojala 2008). In this context, the typical stages of internationalization process for a small business include (Dollinger 1995): 1. Passive Exporting: The firm fills international orders but does not seek export business. At this stage, many small business owners do not realize that they have an international market. 2. Export Management: The owner or a specific manager specifically seeks export sales. Because of resource limitations, most small businesses at this stage rely on the indirect channel of exporting. 3. Export Department: The firm uses significant resources to seek increased sales from exporting. The key for most small firms is finding a good local partner for distribution. 4. Sales Branches: When demand for the product is high in a country, it justifies setting up local sales offices. Small firms must have the resources to transfer home managers to expatriate assignments or to hire and train local managers and workers to run these operations. 5. Production Abroad: Production moves a firm beyond downstream value-chain activities and allows them to gain local advantages. This is often a very difficult stage for small firms because the cost of a failed direct investment can put the whole firm at risk for survival. 6. The Transnational: Small size does not preclude a small business from developing a globally integrated network that characterizes the transnational corporation. The movement through the stages of the entry process is intimately connected to the development of institutional knowledge, making it easier to develop customer relationships. As a consequence, the more relationships in a foreign country that have reached later stages, the more established and internationally experienced the firm becomes and the higher the degree of internationalization of the SME. And also the more countries in which the SME has established relationships, the more internationally experienced is the firm (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). Advantages and Disadvantages of SMEs’ International Expansion Prior literature is in broad agreement that internationalization has a positive impact on firm performance. Drawing from the literature on international and global strategies, firms can have greater cost efficiencies primarily due to a greater volume of business and the ability to exploit economies of scale. An international firm also benefits from the diversity of environments it operates in. Thus it enjoys tremendous learning opportunities while satisfying the diverse customer needs and responding to different competitors in international markets (Pangarkar 2008). The literature on the international entrepreneurship emphasizes the use of formal and informal relationships to penetrate and expand into foreign markets. According to this, the need to collaborate and to achieve an international presence has become a necessity, especially for SMEs, but the challenges encountered with such strategies are high as it is not uncommon to see high failure rates (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, when SMEs make their initial entry into international markets, they are especially prone to problems associated with the liabilities of foreignness and smallness, which may lead to poor financial performance and a variety of other concerns for managers (Bell 1995; Lu & Beamish 2001). Although internationalization can be regarded as an opportunity-seeking choice on the part of firms, it may also represent a critical decision due to the costs and risks involved (Cheng & Yu 2008). Prior literature has identified the numerous constraints faced by SMEs in international expansion. Typically SMEs do not perform global scanning and hence might lack the information and managerial expertise necessary for exploiting the international opportunities. Buckley (1999) argues that, due to constraints of management time, smaller firms frequently take short-cuts in decision-making and information gathering, which can be disastrous. 108 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Further, internationalization increases the requirements for coordination and communication among different units within the SME as well as other parties located in different geographic areas (Pangarkar 2008). Many SMEs suffer scale and resource disadvantages compared to their global rivals, adversely impacting the likelihood of success of their internationalization initiatives (Pangarkar 2008). Compared to large firms, SMEs are less competitive; for instance, they may not be able to capture business opportunities due to inferior products, shortages of finance and limited administrative capacity (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In addition, any foreign market initiative will take a larger proportion of resources of a SME than a large firm. In the event of failure of the particular initiative, the impact on a SME may be greater, which increases the risk levels of them (Lu & Beamish 2001). Despite the constraints and challenges faced, SMEs are likely to enhance their performance through greater internationalization. And by becoming international, SMEs may be able to provide better service to their MNC clients and, in the case of foreign direct investment, avoid import tariffs (Pangarkar 2008). In this context, many approaches have been developed for examining the internationalization of SMEs (Saarenketo et al. 2004). One of them is the cooperative internationalization of small firms depends on an organization’s set of relationships with partner firms rather than a firm specific advantage. Cooperative International Expansion of SMEs Organizations that seek to reduce costs, to respond rapidly to market demands and to build competitive advantages around their core competencies can not execute strategies without drawing on the skills and resources of other organizations (Lin & Zhang 2005). Thus in an environment characterized by globalization, new expectations from customers and changing competitivity criteria, many dynamic SMEs have opted to (Raymond & Blili 1997) cooperate with other firms to overcome these challenges, to avoid significant barriers to long-term success, to enhance their competitivity in the market and to reduce their environmental uncertainty. The traditional internationalization theories suggest that the firm’s international involvement increases in stages as a result of incremental learning. However, due to the key characteristics of SMEs, cooperative internationalization is becoming an increasingly important option for them. Thus for the small firms showing very rapid and intensive international growth that they would otherwise not be able to take on by themselves enabled (Saarenketo et al. 2004; Fink et al. 2008) by cooperation with other firms. Because partner firms provide useful information about business opportunities, characteristics, obstacles or problems that they face in the foreign market, the perceived risk for SMEs is lowered as a result. In terms of research in this area, scholars have found that relationships are at the core of the internationalization process (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In light of the relatively lower transaction volume of SMEs when compared to large companies, effective and efficient coordination mechanisms in the cooperative internationalization of SMEs are accordingly of particular importance. Indeed, the characteristics of SMEs create particular challenges in the internationalization process. But recently, cooperative arrangements have received increased attention as a means to meet these challenges (Fink et al. 2008). Collaborative ventures can be formed for the purpose of gaining a significant presence in a new market, acquiring technology, enabling faster entry into the market and facilitating international expansion (Spence et al. 2008). Further, in the early phase of internationalization, SMEs gather more information about foreign markets through international strategic partners (Lee 2007). Thus in the environment that is characterized by speed, flexibility and innovation, cooperative internationalization plays an important role in the success of SMEs’ business strategy. Researches have shown that a significantly greater percentage of small firms are using cooperative strategies than are their larger counterparts (Steensma et al. 2000). Thus SMEs’ international expansion is often dependent upon a myriad of agreements with firms from the same or unrelated industry sectors, suppliers, customers, competitors and public organizations (Spence et al. 2008). SMEs can compensate for their liabilities of smallness through the establishment of inter-firm cooperations (Fink et al. 2008) that offer an effective means of internationalization for them in general (Fernández & Nieto 2005). Thus a promising way for SMEs that have a smaller pool of internal resources and knowledge to increase their global competitiveness is to form cooperative relationships with larger MNCs. Such arrangements allow them to reach global markets and to achieve economies of scale, by integrating into the value chains of the larger firms (Etemad et al. 2001). In addition to this, cooperative internationalization is a useful way for SMEs to access new opportunities, to reduce costs and allows them to compete more effectively with more powerful competitors in the foreign markets. By joining competencies, cooperative international expansion requires a lower amount of internationalization know-how on the part of the partners than would be needed (Fink et al. 2008). Moreover, partnerships formed in order to ease entry into foreign markets are likely to increase the degree of internationalization of the firm (Reuber & Fisher 1997). Thus due to the attractiveness and importance of 109 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo cooperative international expansion for SMEs, this special form of internationalization will be focused upon in this paper. In this part of study, we focus on why and how the firms -which are located in different countriesengage in international operations? A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms (Westhead et al. 2001). So we will explain network organization theory shortly from the perspective of SMEs and then give an example from Turkey. Strategic Cooperation of SMEs and Organizing Model for Entering Foreign Market: Network Organizations SMEs give importance developing strategic cooperation and organizing model such as networking as a result of the new competition thought. Most of small firms have not enough competence, knowledge and sources to be alive. So they transfer the competence from the other firms and make strategic cooperative agreements. After transferring some sources from other the firms specializing on their core area (Christensen 1994; Esener 1997; Hamel & Prahalad 1995; Sanchez & Heene 1997; Quinn 1994; Ozgen et al 2003). Large organizations use size advantages although the small size ones use flexibility, lean and innovativeness. By developing strategic cooperation SMEs use large size advantages as well as small size. Network structure emerged as a result of strategic cooperation among different sized firms. There are some benefits of network form for SMEs such as creating value, competitive advantage, improving exporting, finding and serving new markets (Miles & Snow 1992). The Structural Result of Being in Network Organization for SMEs: Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies Case for Turkey In Turkey, SMEs motivated to exporting by the model of Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC). SMEs take advantages of being in network type such as SFTC in Turkey after 1980s liberation period (Ozgen et al. 2003). In SFTC structure, there are many SMEs at the same production field being together and part of the same organizing model. The main aim of this model is to enter different world market. The most important advantages of this model are economies of scale and professional marketing activities in exporting for SMEs (Celik & Akgemici 1998). The role of SFTC is not only maintaining exporting activities but also developing new competences, socializing new business ideas to partners, creating trust, transferring knowledge between partners (Ozgen et al. 2003). Conclusion In today’s globalization era, complex business environment generates enormous challenges for all firms especially for SMEs that seek opportunities in foreign countries. But SMEs that face several constraints and risks in international expansion process can also benefit from internationalization in several different ways. Since international expansion is based on the capability of the firm to exploit its local advantages in foreign markets, the lack of strategic resources, the uncertainty and complexity of the process and smallness make international expansion a difficult goal to achieve for SMEs. In this direction many small firms choose to concentrate on their domestic market, neglecting opportunities of international markets. But in order to achieve successful international expansion, they may choose to cooperate with other firms to overcome certain traditional barriers, to facilitate demands of business environment of global markets and to gain and sustain the global competitive advantage. Small businesses often do not have the inhouse resources to identify or go directly to foreign markets. Thus collaborative ventures may be attractive to the managers of SMEs who are interested in lowering costs, expanding what they offer to the market, getting access to additional resources, managing uncertain international environment, overcoming operational weaknesses, learning from partners and improving effectiveness in the market. An organization’s growth largely depends upon its relationships with other organizations. In this context, to address competitive threats and concentrate on their core competences and strengths cooperative internationalization increases the success chance of SMEs. Thus cooperative internationalization that is the alternative choice for SMEs’ expansion in the new markets provides benefits for them to broad a product line or to develop new products, to acquire new capabilities and to reduce the threat of competition. 110 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo SME owner/managers cooperate with other firms for international expansion if they understand how to use this strategy in a practical way by avoiding potential obstacles to success. In this study, an extensive review of literature is made to identify the cooperative internationalization of SMEs. In this context, owner/managers of SMEs should give much more attention to the following issues for cooperating with other firms to internationalize their facilities and to compete successfully in the global arena: • As they must be aware of the challenges of entering the international marketplace, SME owner/managers should analyze some important issues such as cultural characteristics, business environment and practices, politics and laws in the foreign country. And they should focus on a country where they believe the benefits of international expansion to be the strongest. • SMEs that expanding their facilities abroad should gather and interpret information from its external environments and have strong ownership advantages if they are to successfully overcome the disadvantages of operating in host countries. In this context, managers should pay more attention to how and with whom cooperative relationships should be established and what management skills are required over time. • Without appropriate capabilities and knowledge international expansion may not lead to better performance. Thus an important role of SME owner/managers is to build up their capabilities useful for internationalization process. • SME owner/managers should pay more attention to the integration of systems, cultures, and individuals of the partner firms in the early phases of cooperative internationalization. In addition, they should have multicultural competence, use specific coordination tools to link together activities processed by different firms and to federate independent goals. • SME owner/managers should be aware of mutual benefit is critical to maintaining the relationship at an appropriate level, focus on creating synergy and achieve win-win situation for both sides and an ongoing long-term relationship with partner firm. • In order to cope with the complexity of internationalization process, partner firms should arrange detailed negotiations for determining the level of strategic and operational fit, managerial rules, the responsibilities of the partners and the management and term of the relationship. • SME owner/managers should participate in goal setting and planning activities altogether for achieving the aims of better performance outcomes for international expansion and review the performance of relationship periodically. • International expansion of SMEs by cooperating experienced partner reduces risk and uncertainty in the market. But SMEs should be more careful about choosing the right and non-opportunistic partner that has relevant resources and capabilities, because they have limited opportunities to fail. • Cooperative international expansion requires building interpersonal relationships between the partner firms. Because good relations between partners build trust, facilitate harmonious relationships and lead to achieve strategic goals. • SME owner/managers should be sensitive about the communication strategies employed in their relationships and give attention to the accuracy, timeliness, adequacy and credibility of information exchanged between firms. This behavior helps them to realize mutual benefits by reducing misunderstandings. • The business environment in which SMEs have to operate has become increasingly complex, unpredictable and unstable. Thus they should be flexible enough to satisfy environmental needs and fit the dynamic requirements of the economic, social, cultural and industrial conditions of the international market. • SFTC structure is an important advantage for SMEs for entering foreign markets (Ozgen et al. 2003). Because strategic cooperations provide SMEs to develop projects that are not done alone and solve the scale problems of small firms, owner/managers of these firms should choose the right expansion strategy with the right partner in the right time. Cooperative internationalization that is the way of rapid internationalization for SMEs improves the competitiveness of firms by speeding up organizational learning, by providing access to external resources, by reducing risk and production cost, and by fostering rapid learning and change. In this context, SMEs that are characterized by limited resources may overcome their resource shortages, reduce strategic and environmental uncertainty and increase their viability in the foreign markets by cooperating with other firms. So this study suggests that despite the several constraints faced by them, for SMEs in a fiercely competitive environment, the best way to enter international market is to build cooperative relationship with the right partner at the strategic level. The new developments in the world create an excellent opportunity to study the internationalization of SMEs, which is an underdeveloped area in international business research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In this 111 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo context, this study provides a greater contribution to the understanding of the phenomenon of SMEs’ international expansion by cooperating with other firms. References Bell, J. (1995). 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Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 333–358. 113 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 133 Title A name given to the resource Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Author Author İPLİK, Fatma Nur KILIÇ, Kemal Can Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ed7937ca4bf9928300625d28d4c4222b.pdf 09752e15fd2013e76855353a828c2f27 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Symbolic Construction of Turkish National Identity as a Factor of International Management Hüsamettin ĐNAÇ Associate Professor, Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Public Administration Department Kutahya, Turkey husamettininac@yahoo.com Abstract: This presentation aims to explore the symbolic construction of Turkish nationalism during the early Republican period in order to trace the origins of the anti-global nationalism in today’s Turkey. It discusses the symbolic bases of Turkish nationalism by going back to early years of modern Republic. We identified three main components of Turkish nationalism in this period: history, geography, and language. They are symbolically constructed within a nationalist perspective. The founders of the Republic and the ideologists of Turkish nationalism hoped this to serve two purposes. One was to establish the bases of realizing the unity of Turkish nations. The other, perhaps the most important, purpose was to prove that the Turks were an advanced and civil nation during the course of history, and to respond the western pressures of disruption, defeat, invasion and exclusion (e.g. the western labels of barbarian Turks, backward Muslims). The main argument in this study is that the Turkish national identity tried to co-exist with, and to join, the modern western civilization by placing geography, history and language in a symbolic context and in accordance with the idea that it determines national interests as a part of a Business of Corporations and key factor of Managers within the international competitive environment. In this context, Turkish history was interpreted as the source of human civilization and the geographies of the Central Asia and Anatolia were the home of human civilization while the Turkish language was viewed as the origin of human languages. By doing so, they aimed to repel the claims of backwardness and barbarity and tried to introduce the national identity as an integral part of national culture having great impact on a process of negotiations. Keyword: Symbolic Construction, Turkish National Identity Introduction In this historical era of globalized world nation-states experience a great transformation. Some social scientists interpreted this change as the end of nation-states. On the other hand, there are profound controversies and conflicts due to micronationalisms in regional context. Therefore, it is necessary to revisit the early construction of nationalism in Turkey. As a result of the social and political effects of globalization on nationstate and national identity, there emerge new ‘national front’ movements and new types of reactions to globalization. These developments can also be observed in Turkish society. Especially Turkey’s membership talks with the European Union caused a heated debates as to national identity and the transformation of nationstate leading to the emergence of “nationalist front” movements (Bozkurt 2004: 7; Perinçek 2005: 1-2). To understand this new political situation and nationalism in Turkey it is necessary to analyze how Turkish national identity was constructed during the early Republican period and what kind of symbolization is used in this construction process. The early construction of the Turkish national identity can shed a significant light on today’s rejuvenated debates as its role in relation to globalization in particular and Turkey’s accession talks with the European Union. While the globalization exposes the county’s culture, economy and social structure to global factors such as economy and culture, the EU accession talks cause heightened debates as to the nature and future of the Turkish national identity. In one extreme, there is a clear rejectionist trend toward both globalization and European Union from both secular and religious camps that emphasize the uniqueness of national culture. On the other end, there is a strong accommodationism. This accomodationism appears in the form of incorporation of western and universal values with little attention to traditional Turkish culture, or in a more cooperationist attitude with a strong confidence on traditional identity and culture. While the former represents the traditional secular elites in Turkey, the latter is represented by the Justice and Development Party in power. The fact that both globalization and EU talks began to highlight the need for recognizing the presence of more local elements of national identity that were ignored in the original construction of national identity. 131 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Therefore, Kemalism as an ideology of national ideology began to gradually go away from the strict imagination of national identity (Kramer 2000). It is surprising that the arguments of today’s new nationalist outlook that emerging due to globalization, micronationalism and EU integration is parallel to the nationalist arguments of the early years of the Turkish Republic (Perinçek 2004). This paper elaborates on how nationalist identity was constructed during these early years by arguing that this construction is made through us of geography, history and language. Our main assumption is that nationalist symbolic construction in Turkey aimed to develop alternatives to the western arguments that the Turks were backward and barbarians. This symbolization implies that the Turks are equal to their counterpart in the West and that the Turks lead many great events in history and founded the first civilization and, therefore, deserve to take its place in modern civilization. In this respect this article first elaborates on the symbolization and nationalism. Secondly, it analyzes how and why nationalism was symbolically constructed through the symbolization of homeland or geography, history and language. Nationalist Identity and Symbolism Nation-states that emerged as a result of modern political theorization focused on constructing national identity as a social collectivity. Individuals attempted to find meaning around this new identity. In this context national identity is constructed around a common land, myths, a historical memory, duties, rights and economy (Smith 1994: 31-32). The two main criteria in defining national identity: continuity over time and differentiation from others (Guibernau 1996: 73). The nation that is a basis formational identity refers to a group of people organized as a community. This community is based on the assumptions of a common culture, land, history, future and self-government. Nation gradually tends to define itself as a sentiment by differentiating from nationstate with its various forms of nationalisms. The members of the community define themselves as a whole of sentiment with various symbols (Guibernau 1996: 47). These symbols try to construct a common meaning to national identity. Symbols are the stocks of meaning for a society and provide “a capacity to create meaning”. Therefore, community members assign similar meanings to the world they live in by using the same symbols (Cohen 1999: 14). These meanings are a “social map” shared by society (Mardin 1982: 91). With this map individuals obtain a common consciousness, values, views, behaviors and beliefs. At the same time, there emerge a culture with consistent meanings around a system of symbols. This culture gain unity by means of meanings provided by these symbols. For example, in Turkey there is a culture unified as around such as a land, flag and bravery (Mardin 1982: 101). Symbolization can transform a community into a symbol by emerging in the minds of community members. Whey a community is transformed into a symbol, community members can easily perceive themselves a part of the same collectivity (Cohen 1999: 83). Therefore, symbols function as an important concept that constructs a sense of with in community. In this context the nation transforms itself to the status of the similarities from the differences of realities. Therefore, people invest in the ideological integration of the community. This explains the ability of nationalism to connect people from different cultural and social positions. Symbols point to a difference and similarity to create a group feeling. People construct the community and use it as an expression of their own identity (Guibernau 1996: 82). Yet through symbols people speak the same language, act similarly, participate in the same rituals, pray the same God and wear similar dresses (Cohen 1999: 20; Smith 1994: 123). The differences in society can also help to eliminate and reinforce unity (Cohen 1999: 82). Symbols have the capacity to transform opposing messages into a single slogan or image and to transform them into an action. Combined with conflict, symbols’ capacity to condense, unite and narrow messages can mobilize meanings and political symbols (Brown-Roger,2003). Also, symbols function to draw boundaries that are important in the construction of national identity. The exclusionary and unifying role of symbols in drawing the boundaries are also critical to maintain group identity and its solidarity. As Armstrong put it, like traffic lights, symbols can constitute the markers of boundaries for entrance and exit. Each group, community or state can develop colors, flags or historical references mobilized for certain goals as symbolic inventories (Brown-Roger, 2003: 83-108). As Cohen (1999: 19) mentioned, sharing the same symbols leads to distinguishing themselves from other communities by perceiving themselves as separate. Symbols define national boundaries. The nation attains a sense of unity through symbols by differentiating themselves from others. A symbol can be an object, a sign or a word, to make it easy to recognize each other. Therefore, members of the nation will have a sense of difference and the nation becomes instrumental in differentiating the nation from others (Guibernau 1996: 81). National flags, names of the states, geographies, and histories and languages contribute to the construction of national unity while they contribute to the sense of their being different from other nations. Symbols may change their content in time. They express a transfer to the future with continuity with the past. Symbols are not static; they passed from generation to generation or can emerge with a new generation. Nationalism use this dynamic feature of symbols to maintain the national unity and improve them the interpreting them in new ways (Guibernau 1996: 82). The rich 132 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo associations provided by symbols and potential to create new meanings facilitate the construction of national identity. Symbols' capacity to create meanings (Cohen 1999: 17), are instrumental in creating new meanings to legitimize national identity. For example, religious symbols are strategically employed to reinterpret the concept of modern national identity. When the symbols are located within a national context they greatly contribute to the perception of a nation by improving the meanings. In this context symbols try to create "single meanings" by constructing the same language, geography, and history. Through symbols national identity is constructed and reality is transferred to old ultra-reality. Nation states' land, languages, history, names, cities, etc. are carried to extrareality and gain new meanings through symbols. Turkish national identity and symbolic construction Turkish national identity is also constructed through various symbols and gained new meanings in the keep nation-state and its relations to the West. Above all, Turkish national identity emphasizes the “integrity” of the nation in contrast to local, regional, ethnic and religious differences in the Ottoman society (Mardin 1982: 135, 137). Singular meanings are constructed through symbols. Since Turkish nationalism perceived the pluralist nature of the Ottoman society as fragmented, the nation was envisioned as national unity that tried to avoid such fragmentation. The available symbols served as a stock of meanings in this envisioning as symbols of history, geography, and language were reformulated in order to attribute new meanings to the nation. While Turkish national identity seeks symbolization the meaning it involved against the West becomes important. This meaning of westernizing against the West played a primary role in the symbolization of national identity. As well-known, the fragmentation old empire and the invasion of Anatolia by the West always frightened the intellectuals. Even before the war, the intellectuals said in ‘we either westernize or collapse … if we don't westernize, the West will expel us not just from the West not from the whole world’ (Safa 1988: 20). Against the Western accusations of retardation and the shocks experience by the intellectuals, the nation state that was declared to be Republic simultaneously tried to response to West. The message here was simple: Turks are not backward and have the right to join the West as a developed modern nation. Symbolization of Geography/Space In the graveyard tablets that reflects the 17th century Istanbul’ classical culture, the homeland is defined as a place where someone was born and grew up (Yildirim 2005). Therefore, homeland carries a local emphasis. Along with modernity, the notion of homeland keep is totally transformed within a new cultural and political paradigm. In this paradigm homeland is placed in a national context and is identified with a national geography and it is perceived as a soil where the sovereignty of nation-state is realized. Homeland is certainly not solely territorial space where the national sovereignty is practiced. It rather carries a symbolic dimension in relation to a set of more pervasive and deeper meanings. As Smith (1994) pointed out, ‘homeland is a sacred place with historical memories, a sacred place with lakes, rivers, mountains, cities... With these features, homeland is a main source of identity’ (p.25). In Turkish nationalism related to modernity, homeland carries a significance as a symbolic geography that involves various emotions, values and beliefs as a part of national identity. The notion of homeland (vatan) was first used by Namik Kemal that deserved to the title of homeland’s poet due to his ability to artfully use literature and poetry. In his play called “Homeland or Silistre” that was screened in 1873, Namik Kemal, perhaps for the first time, draws a striking picture of homeland: Homeland! Homeland! I said homeland is in danger. Don’t you hear? Allah created me and homeland raised me. Allah is feeding me … Homeland filled my stomach. I was naked and was dressed by homeland … My body is from homeland soil … My breath is from homeland’s air. If I am not to die for the sake of homeland, why was I born? (Kemal 1996: 8). Believing that homeland’s under siege, Namik Kemal tried to establish a belief in saving the homeland by identifying it with human breath, a feeder and a value to die for. After Namik Kemal, homeland continued to be constructed by Turkish nationalists as under siege in order to promote a belief in saving and defending it. For example, Turk Yurdu, a journal first published in 1911 as a forerunner of Turkish nationalism, keep similar depictions. Many parallel stories, poems, and articles were published in this journal. A poem that describes homeland as a cluster of feelings: In the poem, homeland is described by referring to various feelings and actions such as seeing, sleeping, hearing and thinking. Individual is thought to be unified with its land both symbolically and materially. Somewhere else in the journal, land is conceptualized as a “symbolic land”, as a mother giving birth to humans and is perceived as an entity that teach the individual humanity. Homeland is thought to be a source of love, to involve belongingness to the birth place with an aspiration to maintain religion and race, to help to enter 133 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo human community with a Turkish Muslim identity, and to provide sovereignty and future. Homeland is where someone and his ancestors are buried. Homeland must be loved as a place where one obtains identity and where nations obtain happiness. Homeland is beautiful and symbolizes loyalty to ancestors and the past and, therefore, there is a sense of appreciation for the homeland (Tevfik 1912: 18-21). Ziya Golalp, a sociologist of nationalism, provides one of the most interesting symbolizations of homeland in the journal Turk Yurdu. For him homeland is a sacred country for which lives are sacrificed. While other countries are not considered sacred, homeland is thought so. Those who consider homeland sacred can sacrifice their families, lives and their most beloved ones. The value of homeland comes from its sacred qualities rather than its material features (Gökalp 1914). Homeland is the place in whose mosque ezan is called and in whose school the Qur’an is recited with one language and one religion, capital, science and knowledge, shipyards, factories and trains belong to the Turkish nation (Gökalp 1976:1). Mehmet Emin, one of the pioneers of Turkish nationalist activist-thinkers, was an important figure in the symbolization of the homeland (vatan) concept. For him, homeland was the future place where one would be free with his temple, school and everything, where no one would be persecuted, where there was no oppressor or oppressed, the poor and the rich would be equal before justice, where everyone would have a land and a farm living there happily and peacefully and where remote villages would come alive (Emin 1914). In this respect, Mehmet Emin attempted to create a hopeful utopia about future in the face of despair due to disruptions and fragmentations in the Ottoman society. Homeland is named after the ‘pure soil where the Turks shed with their own blood and live’ (Sabir 1913). Therefore, the conception of the ‘pure and sacred’ soil is emphasized by many nationalist elite. For example, Nihal Atsız found the prevalence of this approach in the journal Orhun, one of the most important representatives of civil nationalism. In its most extreme form, Atsız (1934) said in the homeland ‘everything is at war. Everyday is a holy war (gaza) against the nature, against the enemy, and even against God… This land is a place of martyrs throughout’ . He named the enemies as “subversive communists”, “disgraceful Jews”, “sneaky and hybrid traitors”. He even says that these enemies cannot dismantle the homeland, “let alone God that established the world’s system” (p.1). In the journal Ülkü, one of the most important source of official nationalist ideologies during the Republican period, one can find many articles that emphasized the homeland’s sacred, metaphysical, emotional features (Ülkü Mecmuası 1935). However, in real politics homeland is constructed in relation to Anatolia. In the 1930s the official textbooks of history and in the Turkish thesis of history, we notice a symbolic construction of geography in a new way. In this construction the Central Asia is constructed as the motherland, Anatolia represents the last phase of its continuum. In the case of Turkish humanity, the motherland first emerges in the Central Asia and matures in Anatolia seen as a place the Turks adopted a homeland in their most civilized and developed phase. Hittites and Sumerians were Turks as the most advanced structures of Anatolian geography. With Hittites and Sumerians, Anatolia reached the highest level of civilization as a Turkish homeland (Tarih I 1931). The conceptualization of Anatolia as a geography of a superior civilization aimed to disprove the Western claims that the Turks are backward and, therefore, must be expelled from Anatolia. In this perspective Anatolia becomes the Turkish homeland and represents an advanced civilization (Copeaux 1998: 15). Accordingly, we can interpret Ataturk’s thesis transcribed by Afet Đnan that the earlier races that lived in Anatolia were Turks in this line. In 1918 Ziya Gökalp, a sociologist that advanced Turan symbol, tried to answers the question ‘where is the homeland for the Turkish nation?’ as follows: ‘Homeland is neither Turkey nor Turkistan; Homeland is a great and eternal land: Turan… ‘ (Gökalp 1950: 48). For Gökalp, ‘Turan is an ideational land that includes its parts and excludes others. Turan is the sum of ‘the countries where the Turks inhabit’ (Gökalp 1950: 48). The Great Turan represents a single land in the Turkish spirit, a single ruler and a single language and reflects a general and comprehensive unity, excluding individuality, lineage and tribal components (Gökalp 1989: 101). Turan is where the Turks are buried and Turkish martyrs fell (Aktuğ 1913: 50-52). Turan is depicted as a broad and great world where the knowledge of the era prevails and happiness and life are created (Ziya 1913: 197). In the years of decline when the Ottoman empire was under siege by the West it was said ‘Turan is crying in the land of Islam’ (Gündüz 1913: 465). According to Turkish nationalists the Turanis are the most ancient communities of Asia and they come from the same race as the Turks. The picture of a double-headed eagle is a result of the experience of Turani civilization. Just as today’s Europe, Byzantium, Rome and Russia attempted to destroy the Turanism in history. Turks, Yakuts, Mongolians, Japanese and Korean people constitute the Turan that belong to the Ural-Altaic race. Japan was founded by the Turanis that established the most powerful state. Mongolians, Seljukis, Ottomans and the like are interpreted as the forces of Turanis that founded states. Asia, Far Asia, Central 134 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anatolia and India are the geographies where several civilizations are founded by the Turanis (Marki Efendi 1912: 231-234). The homeland symbolized as Turan covers the eastern geography of the world. This perception of geography is a symbol of a ‘great east’ against the Western destruction and cultural pressure. Through this symbol they try to substitute the real homeland that faced the danger of falling apart, invasion, shrinking and extinction with a idea of imagined homeland. They try to provide the members of the nation with an idealist, great, respected, valuable geographical meanings. The Turan concept remained alive in the republican era’s nationalism and was advocated as a cultural geography and a political construction. For example, in the Turkistan night organized in April 20, 1940 the slogan was ‘The road from Anatolia to Caucasus goes to the Turan’. The representatives of Azerbaijan, Turkistan, Anatolia, Caucasia, Idyl-Ural regions participated in the night (Bozkurt 1940: 78-79). The new Turkish thesis of history and the Sun Language Theory also involved Turan in a cultural sense. We will focus more on it in terms of the symbolization of history. Symbolization of History: National Construction of Time The symbolization of history reflects the spirit of the day since it is constructed selectively. The past is symbolically remembered, creating simple historical labels to describe complex and ideological messages. These views can be found especially in political rhetorics (Cohen 1999: 112,115). The expression of temporal continuity through symbols means ‘the reconstruction of a cultural unity in the face of its disruption by the forces of change’ (Cohen 1999: 118). Therefore, following the Ottoman decline, Turkish society experienced a deep cultural and political crisis. In order to overcome the danger of “becoming meaningless”, Turkish nation used historical symbolization to define its place in history or world. In Turkey, the founders efficiently institutionalized a national history and their support for nationalist narratives were well popularized and canonized by the new state apparatus (Canefe 2002). The nationalist intellectuals advanced an image of a common nation with historical heroism and victories in community. For them the Turks won all the victories for a great and honorable nation (Gökalp 1941: 13) and become a nation through Mete, Bilge Han, Jangyz and Timurlenk’s raids that played a unifying role (Gökalp 1950: 44). As Turks, Timurlenk made other people obey, to himself Bayazed distracted the enemy, the Sultan Selim rushed in to Europe, Asia, Africa and found the world too small while making Istanbul a capital and bringing Caliphate to Istanbul and defeating the United Europe in Mohach. The word ‘Turk’ became as dreadful and fascinating as God. The Turk becomes the God’s elect in the world’ (Türkkan 1940: 1). The Turks are claimed to be the first people that established a civilization. Cities like Samarkand, Tashkent, Bukhara, Konya and Istanbul were the centers of this civilization. They thought that, as a result of excavation the Central Asia as the motherland of the Turks was a home for the most ancient civilization and that the first civilization started there as animals were domesticated and metals were shaped for the first time (Tarih I 1931: 35). Similarly, many mines in the Altai Mountains are claimed to prove that the Turks were the first to discover metals to extract copper, iron and gold from those mines (Tarih I 1931: 38). In the early historical era when, in various regions of the world, people used to live in the holes of tree and rocks, Poetry is a good example of the symbolization of Turkish history. The nationalist perspective of the Republican era portrays the Turks’ historical role as the initiators related to discovering, and creating, civilization and by using the symbolization potential of poetry. As can be seen in the poetry above, they, for example, make distinctions between the Turks and other human societies with the words ‘us’ and ‘others’ as well as between a ‘shepherd’ and a ‘herd’. The theme that, with migrations, the Turks spread around the world and pioneered in developing civilizations in other regions was an important example of historical symbolizations. This theme was first advanced in the journal Turk Yurdu a main intellectual representative of Turkish nationalism. Here, the ‘Turani race’ is said to have left their barren lands and steps, Atilla, Jangyz, Hulagu and Timurlank to spread from Spain to China and from Yemen to India. It was claimed that they mixed with people when they went to Arabia and Persia, they united with Germans and Russians when they arrived in Europe they became a shah in Iran, a sultan in Yemen, a khan in China a king in Hungary. Therefore, the Turks revitalized the hearts and minds by spreading around the world and this was due to a mission assigned by God (Hikmet 1912: 189-192). The same perspective can be found in the journal Ülkü Mecmuası that was the most important documents of official nationalism during the Republican era. In the journal the Turks are said to have gone to China, Japan, and the Okan islands and then to Mexico, Peru and America, from above the Black Sea to Ural, Volga regions, then to Thrace and Macedonia, to the Mansh Sea from there they went to France and named the Alps. Again, they claim that the Turks founded a culture and civilization called Etrusks in Italy and that they influenced the native peoples of America and Europe in growing animals (Muzaffer 1934: 249-254). The Turkish Thesis of History claims that a major climate change in the Central Asia forced the Turks to migrate from their homeland toward China, India, Africa, Levant and Europe. And, the Turks are said to ‘carry civil knowledge, high and noble morals, pure and simple faiths to these regions’ (Tarih I 1931: 28). 135 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to this thesis, the Turks established a civilization wherever they went, for example keep in Mesopotamia by drying out swamps and opening up water channels. When they reached Egypt, they settled in the Nile delta and established the Egyptian civilization. The westward migrations found the Aegean basin as suitable for settlement. Again, history shows that the brackicephal tribes founded Mediterranean civilizations in the regions known with the names of Troy, Crete, Lidia and Ionia. The origin of the brackicephal tribes is the Central Asia, the motherland of the Turks. This explains the similarities between the antique pieces in Crete and Troy (Tarih I 1931: 30-31). Again, the Turks are said to have brought civilization to Europe in the shores of the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, reaching the Atlantic Ocean from Europe and invaded Britain and Ireland, carrying the arts of the iron, age polished rocks, copper, rice. The Turks freed the natives peoples of Europe from cave lifestyle by teaching them agriculture, farming, domesticating animals, pottery (Tarih I 1931: 33). Conclusion National identity plays an important role in the continuity of a state or a nation as it provides meaning for the current state of affairs. In Turkey history is interpreted within a cultural perspective consistent with the modern nationalist identity and it is ‘reinvented’ within a new set of meanings. These meanings aimed to refute the charges of backwardness and they served to associate Turkish society with universal, developed and modern Western civilization. The main theme in the attempts of symbolization of history, geography, culture and language were that the Turkish society as a whole were a part of modern western civilization and that, as a great nation, the Turks played an important role in history. It was claimed that the Turks founded the first civilization and that they served as the forerunner of the Anatolian civilizations and they inspired the Greek civilization. The main function of Turkish History Thesis was to create a meaning for that cause rather than being purely scientific. This thesis claimed that the Turks were leading figures in the history of civilizations and contributed to major civilizations of the world. Probably due to their desire to distance themselves from the Islamic past represented by the Ottoman Empire, the founders of the new-nation state focused on the pre-Islamic origins of Turkish culture and its relations with the western civilization. For that purpose, the language was used as an important symbolic mechanism in constructing the national identity. The Sun Language Theory claimed that all world languages stemmed from Turkish language. Early nationalists criticized the Ottoman language for being under a heavy influence of Arabic and Persian and emphasized the need for nationalize and purify the Turkish language, thinking that a unified and purified language will help realize the national unity and integration. References IV. Türk Dil Konferansı. (The 4th Conference of Turkish Language) 1942-3. Ankara: Alaaddin Kural Basımevi. Agayef, Ahmet. 1911. ‘Türk Alemi I (Turkish World I)’, Türk Yurdu 1:(1): 15-17. Istanbul: Tanin Matbaası. (Reprinted in 1989), Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları. Atsız, Nihal. 1934. ‘Gaza Topraklarının Gazi ve Şehit Çocukları’, Orhun,No.7, 25 Mayıs 1934, Đstanbul, No.1. Aydıngün, Ayşegül, and Đsmail Aydıngün. 2004. ‘The Role of Language in the Formation of Turkish National Identity and Turkishness.’ Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 10: 415-432. Bozkurt Dergisi. 1940. ‘Aylık Olgular (Mothly Phenomena)’, Istanbul.Vol.1, No.3, Pp.78-79. Bozkurt, Ceyhun. 2004.’Ulusal Uyanış ve Birlikteliğe Çağrı Için Ordu, Millet, Gençlik Elele (Military and Youth United for a National Awakening and Unity)’,Gençlik Cephesi , 7 March 2004, No. 10, p.7. Brown, Kris-MacGinty, Roger. 2003.’Public Attitudes Toward Partisan and Neutral Symbols, in Past-Agreement Northern Ireland’ in Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power,10: 83-108 Canefe, Nergis. 2002. ‘Turkish Nationalism and Ethno-Symbolic Analysis: The Rules of Exception.’ Nations and Nationalism 8(2): 133-155. Cohen, Athony P. 1999.Topluluğun Simgesel Kuruluşu (Symbolic Construction of Community), Trans. Mehmet Küçük. Ankara: Dost kitabevi. Copeaux, Eıtenne. 1998. Türk Tarihi Tezinden Türk-Đslam Tezine (From Turkish History Thesis to Turco-Islamic Thesis), Trans. Ali Berktay. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları. Emin, Mehmet. 1914. ‘10 Temmuz (The 10th of July)’, Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 3, No. 71, Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. Reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları. Hikmet, Ahmet. 1912.’Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Hakkında Mütaalalar (Reflections on Turkish Language and Literature)’, Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 1, No. 12, reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları, Pp. 189-192. 136 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Gökalp, Ziya. 1914. ‘Millet ve Vatan (The Nation and Homeland)’ Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 3, No. 67, Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. Reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları, Pp.301-302. Gökalp, Ziya.1950. Türkleşmek, Đslamlaşmak, Muasırlaşmak, Đstanbul: Đnkılap Kitabevi Gökalp, Ziya. 1941. ‘Turan’, in Kızıl Elma, Đstanbul: Đkbal Kitabevi, p.13. Gökalp, Ziya. 1976.’Vatan’, in Yeni Hayat, Ed: M. Cumbur, Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, p.1. Gökalp, Ziya. 1989.’Millet’, in Ziya Gökalp Külliyatı I Ed: F. A. Tansel, 3rd Ed. Ankara: TTKY, p.101 Gökalp, Ziya. 1976. ‘Lisan’ in Yeni Hayat Ed: M.Cunbur, Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, p.18 Guibernau, Montserrat. 1996. Nationalism, Cambridge: Polity Press. Gündüz, Aka. 1913. ‘Bozgun (Defeat)’, in Altın Armağan 2 Đstanbul: Hayriye ve Şüreka Matbabası. Đnan, Afet.1988. Medeni Bilgiler (Civil Information), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayını Kadro Dergisi. 1934-35. ‘Ulusal Ökonomya Kurumlu Ökonomyadır (National Economy is an Institutional One)’, Vol. 3, No. 35-36, Ankara, ss.3-4 Jackson, Terence. 1993. Organizational Behaviour in International Management. London. Oxford Press. Kemal, Namık. 1996.Vatan Yahud Silistre (Homeland or Silistre)), Ed: S. Çağın, Đzmir: Akademi Kitabevi Yayınları. Kramer, Heinz. 2000. A Changing Turkey: The Challenge to Europe and the United States. Brookings Institution Press. Lewis, Bernard (1968). The Emergence of Modern Turkey, London: Oxford University Press. Mardin, Şerif. 1982.Đdeoloji (Ideology), Đstanbul: Turan Kitabevi. Muzaffer. 1934. ‘Türk Soyu ve Türk Tarihi (Turkish Lineage and Turkish History)’, Ülkü Mecmuası, Vol. 4, No. 22, Ankara: Ankara: Halkevi Yayını, Pp.249-254. Marki Efendi, Đskender. 1912. ‘Asya Tarihinde Turaniler (The Turanis in Asian History)’, Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 1, No. 14, Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları, Pp.231-234. Orkun, Hüseyin. N. 1935. ‘Anadolu’da Oğuz Boyları (Oghuz Tribes in Anatolia)’, Ülkü Mecmuası, Vol. 5, No. 26, Ankara, Pp.189-199. Perinçek, Doğu. 2005. Orta Asya Uygarlığı (Central Asian Civilization), Đstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları. Rokkan, Stein. 1999. State Formation, Nation-Building and Mass Politics in Europe, Ed: Peter Flora, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sabir, Celal. 1913. ‘Vatan Duygusu (Feeling for Homeland)’, Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 2, No. 45,Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. Reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları, ss.371 Sacit, F. 1912. ‘Yurdumuzun Toprağı’ Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 1, Vol.2, No. 13 Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. Reprinted in 1989, Ankara:Tutinay Yayınları, ss.214 Saffet, Mehmet. 1934. ‘Anadolu’da En Eski Türk Medeniyeti ve Cihan Medeniyetlerine Hakimiyeti (The Most Ancient Turkish Civilization and Its Dominance over World Civilizations)’, Ülkü Mecmuası, Vol. 3, No. 16, Ankara, Pp.263-267. Saffet, Mehmet. 1935. ‘Anadolu’da En Eski Türk Medeniyeti’: Eti anıtları ve Sanat Eserleri (The Most Ancient Turkish Civilization: Hittitian Statues and Artworks)’, Ülkü Mecmuası, Vol. 5, No. 29, Ankara, ss.355-364 Seyfettin, Ömer. 1911. ‘Yeni Lisan (New Language)”, Genç Kalemler, Cilt 2, Sayı1, Nisan, Reprinted in in Dil Konusunda Yazılar 1989, Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, ss.20-32 Seyfettin, Ömer. 1912. ‘Yeni Lisana Dair (About New Language)’, Yirminci Asırda Zeka içinde, No. 9, June 25 - July 8, Dil Konusunda Yazılar Reprinted in1989 Ankara: Bilgi yayınevi, Pp.33-37. Smith, Adam. 1994. Milli Kimlik (National Identity), Đstanbul: Đletişim Yayınları. Tarih I. 1931. Ed: M. Tevfik, S. Rıfat, Akçuraoğlu Yusuf, R. Galip, H. Cemil, Afet Hanımefendi, Baki Bey, Đ. Hakkı, R. Saffet, S. Maksudi, Şemseddin Bey, Semsi Bey, Yusuf Ziya, Đstanbul: Maarif Vekaleti Yayınları. Tevfik, Mehmet Ali. 1912. ‘Yine Manevi Yurt (Symbolic Moderland, One More Time)’, Türk Yurdu, Yıl: 2, No. 25, Đstanbul: Tanin Matbaası. Reprinted in 1989, Ankara: Tutinay Yayınları, ss.18-21. Türkkan, O. Reha. 1940. ‘Türk Tarihi (Turkish History)’, Bozkurt, Yıl: 2, No. 8,Đstanbul, Pp.1. Ülkü Mecmuası. 1935. ‘Türk Tarihi Araştırma Programı (Research Program for Turkish History)’, Vol. 6, No. 31, Ankara,Pp.8-12. Ülkü Mecmuası. 1936. ‘Güneş Dil Teorisi (Sun Language Theory)’, Vol. 6, No. 36, Ankara, Pp.331-334. Uzer, Umut. 2002. ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Huseyin Nihal Atsiz.’ Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 22(1): 11930. 137 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Yildirim, Ergün. 2005. Bayram Paşa Külliyesi (Bayram Pasa Madrasa)), Đstanbul: Đstanbul Büyük Şehir Belediyesi Yayınları. Yund, Kerim. 1939. ‘Biz Kimiz? (Who are We?)’, Bozkurt, No. 1, Đstanbul, P.35. 138 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 145 Title A name given to the resource Symbolic Construction of Turkish National Identity as a Factor of International Management Author Author İNAÇ, Hüsamettin Abstract A summary of the resource. This presentation aims to explore the symbolic construction of Turkish nationalism during the early Republican period in order to trace the origins of the anti-global nationalism in today’s Turkey. It discusses the symbolic bases of Turkish nationalism by going back to early years of modern Republic. We identified three main components of Turkish nationalism in this period: history, geography, and language. They are symbolically constructed within a nationalist perspective. The founders of the Republic and the ideologists of Turkish nationalism hoped this to serve two purposes. One was to establish the bases of realizing the unity of Turkish nations. The other, perhaps the most important, purpose was to prove that the Turks were an advanced and civil nation during the course of history, and to respond the western pressures of disruption, defeat, invasion and exclusion (e.g. the western labels of barbarian Turks, backward Muslims). The main argument in this study is that the Turkish national identity tried to co-exist with, and to join, the modern western civilization by placing geography, history and language in a symbolic context and in accordance with the idea that it determines national interests as a part of a Business of Corporations and key factor of Managers within the international competitive environment. In this context, Turkish history was interpreted as the source of human civilization and the geographies of the Central Asia and Anatolia were the home of human civilization while the Turkish language was viewed as the origin of human languages. By doing so, they aimed to repel the claims of backwardness and barbarity and tried to introduce the national identity as an integral part of national culture having great impact on a process of negotiations Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/766faf60834127df957d56605f1be0c5.pdf 4a76826541879df5ee4985fdabe184bc PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Relationship Of Environment-Industry In Sustainable Development Çiğdem Ünal Atatürk Üniversity KKEF Erzurum, Turkey Buket Karatop Atatürk Üniversity Faculty of Engineering Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: Thought of analysis necessity of environmental problems arising from production have become prevalent as a principal concern with onset of utilization concept of sustainable development in industry. Sustainable development has comprehensive dimensions as economical, environmental and cultural aspects. However, only dimension of environmentindustry of sustainable development has been handled in this study. Problems put forward within this relationship framework are industrial solid wastes, waste water, energy consumption and hazards which release sources give to environment. Amount of industrial solid waste of Turkey in 2004 is 17.4 million ton and out of this, only 7.7 % proportion part has been recycled, 46.9 % has been disposed of. These disposed solid wastes have been removed by pouring 47.2 % rate to seas, lakes and rivers. Rate of solid water released without treated in the same dates is 64.1 %. Industry has 30.7 % share in CO2 emission. In addition to this, amount of greenhouse gas emission shows increase in each year. Turkey requires more clean and renewable energy sources in terms of sustainable development. Keywords: Sustainability, sustainable development, industry, environment, solid waste, waste water, energy Introduction Respectto nature. Management of allspecies and natural resources should be taken care ofinline with sustainable development principles. However, endless abundance which nature has presented us can be preserved and can be transferred to future generations through these means. Current unsustainable production and consumption moulds are to be changed for the sake of our and our children’s welfare. (6th Article of UN Millennium Sum mit Decisions) One of the most fundamental values discusses in UN Millennium Sum mit held in New York on September 6-8, 2000 has been the issue of respect to nature. Supplying environmental sustainability, development principles and programmes of countriesfrom Millennium Development objectives handled in eight separate areas have been discussed and it has borne necessity of formation of new strategies. Sustainable Development has been defined as development meeting current requirements without making concessions from requirements offuture generationsin Rio Sum mit which World Com mission on Environment and Development. Ultimate decisions documents of Rio Sum mit have affected agenda of UN meetings to be held soon after. Sustainable development and environmental relationships constantly have formed agenda topics in World Population Development Conference (1994), World Social Development Sum mit (1995), Habitat II(Đstanbul1996) and Millennium Sum mit(2000). Significant steps have been taken in recognition and acceptance of this concept by business world and industry and enabling it measurable within ten years following this Rio Conference. Business Council for Sustainable Development Turkey (TBCSD) has been running mutual studies and program mes made with World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), State Planning Organization (DTP) and the Ministry of Environment. WBCSD which has its head office in Switzerland has 55 regional representatives and world company member more than one thousand. Sustainable developmentis not discussed through sole environmental dimensions withinthe framework of macro economical policies targeted for 21st century. Itis constantly emphasized that equilibrium between these aspects should be observed for obtaining sustainable results in long-term period without disregarding the fact that social, economical and environmentalfactors are unceasingly interacted with one another. It is essential not to disregard relationships of all these dimensions in all studies to be conducted in regard with sustainable development which possess social, economical, environmental and cultural aspects. 316 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Industrialisation which constitutes first and fundamental approach of sustainable development in this study conducted has only handled environmental dimension in relationships of sustainable development.Issues such as environmental pollution arising from industrial wastes and wastesin Turkey, preservation of natural sources and recycling methods related with its management, energy sources used in industry and conformity with release standards have been discussed in detail. While conducting these researches, relationships of industryenvironment of sustainable development in Turkey have been elucidated with the help of tables and graphics by providing the most recent data which Turkish StatisticalInstitution (TUĐK) has published hereof. Relationships of Industry-Environment in Sustainable Development W hen environmental dimension of sustainable developmentin Turkey has been evaluated in terms of industry,itis seen that emergent problems are generally related with infrastructure. Wastes emerged along with industrialization lead to air, water and soil pollution. It is encountered with bureaucracy and infrastructure problems in implementation of respective legislations and other legal regulations concerning control of these wastes. Yet,suitable elimination plants ortechnological choices which shall provide meeting limit values which these regulations stipulate should be in improved level. If industrialized countries lack suitable systems and plants for specifically industrial wastes and their disposal,itmight be impossibleto sustain development. Nowadays, energy and energy costs continue to be significant problem in industrial sector. Energy sources used either comply withrelease standards or constrain competition conditions due to high cost. This case herewith increases uncontrolled and unconscious applications. 1. Industrial Wastes and Environmental Pollution Environmentallegislation in Turkey constituted atthe beginnings of 2000 in a great extent. Seven main legislation carrying importance in regard with industrial world are in question within this scope. These are legislations of environmental effect evaluation, control of solid wastes, control of hazardous wastes, control of air quality, water pollution and control of pharmaceutical wastes. Scientific and periodic data assertedin allthese areas are vitalin regard with adaptation of concept of sustainability accurately and measurability. A general evaluation can be handled underthe headlines given below interms of sustainabilityin regard with effects ofindustry on environment. 1.1. Solid Wastes Waste method in industry is one ofthe mostimportant componentsinimplementation ofsustainability principle. Wastes arising from industrial production and services involve proper managementin compliance with environmental and human health by diminishing loss of raw material. Reducing waste amount,recycling, disposal of wastesin compliance with environmental and human health are among principal objectives of sustainable development. W hen we examine industrialsolid waste amountsin 2000-2004 in Turkey (Table 1), we can see that there is an increase in totalsolid waste amounts along with increased industrialization. The amount being 17.059 thousand ton/yearin 2000 has increased to 17.498 thousand ton/yearin 2004. No significant development has been made in solid waste recycle issue with the increase in these amounts. While 8.5 % of waste amounts were recycled or re-used,thisrate decreased to 7.7 % with even falling drastically in 2004. Total amount of waste Thousand tonnes/year 2000 17 059 2004 17 498 Source; Tüik, 2006; 23 Recycled and reused Thousand % tonnes/year 1 460 8.5 1 346 7.7 Sold or donated Thousand tonnes/year 5 916 7 943 Disposed of Thousand tonnes/year 34.6 9 683 45.4 8 209 % % 56.8 46.9 Table 1. Total amount ofindustrial waste W hen sources of wastes are examined, four main sectors come to the fore as construction, mining, industry and domestic garbage. Such wastes are recycled in 90 % rate in some countries such as Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. While rate ofindustrial wastes is 17 % in these countries(Ayvaz, 2004),thisrate is 30 % in Turkey (DĐE,200;164);rate of recycled industrial solid wasteis only 8 %. (Figure 1). 317 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 8% 47% Recyled and reused Sold or donated 45% Disposed of Figure 1. Distribution range of amount ofindustrial solid waste Recycled and reused Sold or donated Disposed of Total Thousand % Thousand % Thousand % Thousand tonnes/year tonnes/year tonnes/year tonnes/year 2000 142 10.8 343 26.2 823 62.9 1308 2004 71 5.9 248 20.7 877 73.3 1196 Source; Tüik, 2006;23 Table 2. Amount of hazardousindustrial waste There occurred 1.2 million tonnes hazardous industrial solid waste in 2004 in Turkey. (Table 2). When we compare this amount with the year of 2000, we can see a decrease accordingly. Additionally, there is a decrease in the rate of recycled hazardous solid waste. While 10.8 of hazardous waste were recycled, 5.9 ofthis were recovered in 2004. However, rate of disposed hazardous waste increased from 62.9 % to 7.3 %. Whereas disposal and recycling plant capacities of existing industrial waste are not adequate for waste amount arising from sources from country industry, adequate wasteis not dispatched to even existing plants. Primary reason for this can be specified such that control inadequacy and industrial institutions’ not being ready for high waste disposal costs.(The Ministry of Environment, 2002;116). Industry group Recycled and reused Disposed of Sold or donated % % % Manufacture of food and beverages 2.4 31.3 66.3 Manufacture oftobacco products 27.3 37.5 35.2 Manufacture oftextiles 1.4 22.3 76.3 Manufacture of paper and paper products 8.5 49.8 41.7 Manufacture of basic metals 9.9 63.5 26.6 Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 3. Table 3. Methods ofelimination of solid wastes in industrialsectors, 2004 W hen we examine industrialsolid waste elimination methods ofimportantindustry branches located in our country (Table 3),itis seen that Food sector disposed of 31.3 % of waste by selling or donating 66.3 % and re-evaluated 2.4 % by recycling. 37.5 % of wastes come out in tobacco industry was disposed and 35.2 % was sold. Whilethe highestrate within disposed tobacco industry belongsto base metalindustry,the highestfigure in rate of sold or donated waste is seen in textile industry. Recycled highest waste rate is in tobacco industry. Recycled waste rates ofindustrialsectors have not reached desired level yet. 318 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Industry group Municip al dumping site Controlle Incineratio Ope d landfill n n area Stored within the establishme nt Dumpin g into sea,lake or river Using as filling materi al 11.6 Buria Other l s Manufactur 49.0 2.5 0.1 0.02 29.8 0.4 0.2 e of food and beverages Manufactur 7.4 73.2 0.2 2.6 e of tobacco products Manufactur 72.2 24.3 1.0 1.8 0.02 0.2 0.04 e of textiles Manufactur 94.5 1.7 0.2 3.5 e of paper and paper products Manufactur 1.5 8.5 0.2 7.1 78.5 4.1 e of basic metals Manufactur 5.6 8.9 80.6 0.00 4.6 0.005 0.3 e of motor 1 vehicles and trailers Turkey 20.0 10.9 2.4 0.1 9.3 47.2 7.7 1.0 Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 4. Amount ofindustrial waste by disposal methods and industry group, 2004 (%) 6.3 16.5 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.001 1.2 In Table 4, amounts and disposal methods of Turkey’s disposed solid waste industry amount have been shown according to importantindustry groups. W hen we primarily examine disposal methods of total of Turkey, we can see that wastes in the highest rate are dumped into seas,lakes and rivers with 47.2 % rate. Yet, pollution of water sources with industrial wastesisthe most crucial point which we should attach importance in these days of mentioning effects of global warming. It has been determined thatrate ofindustrial waste dumped into municipality dumping site is 20 %. Disposal of with control landfill is 10.9 %, storing within the establishment is 9.3 % rate of using as filling material is 7.7 %. Only 2.4 % of industrial solid wastes are disposed of by incineration and 1 % of it by burying. Dum ping into sea, lake or river 16% Municipal 12% Controlled landfill 58% 14% 0% Stored w ithinthe establism ent Others Source; Table 4. Figure 2. Disposal methods ofindustrial solid wastes W hen we examine distribution of disposal rates by means of municipal dumping site among sectors,it can be stated thatthe highestrate belongs toindustry of paper and paper products with 94.5 % rate.(Table 4).In 319 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo second sequence,textile products with 72.2 % and food products and beverage industry with 49 % can be seen. The sector which uses disposal methods maximally by storing solid wastes regularly is the industry of tobacco products. (%73.2). Base metal industry which has the highest rate of disposal by dumping into seas,lakes and riversisthe industry sector which pollutes environment maximally.(78.5). However, when we examine average annual disposal amounts of manufacturing industry and rates of annual waste disposal,it can be seen that the highestfigure and rate belong to base metalindustry. Amount ofindustrialsolid wastein 2004 was 17.4 million tonnes and 8.2 million tonnes of this was disposed of. (Table 1). Amount of disposed industrial solid waste in 2004 is over 4.9 million tonnes and itsratein Turkey totalis approximately 63 %. 1.2. Waste Water Importance of water is increasing each passing day as a result of increase of rapid industrialisation, population growth and domestic water usage. Though only 11 % of water obtained from naturein our country is used in industry, problem of waste water arising from industry is becoming more important. (Ç.B. 2002;112). Waste water standards are applied withinthis scope with Water Pollution Control Legislation published in 1988. Waste water discharge in industry has been tied up to discharge permit certificate renewed once in a three years. Environmental Effect Evaluation (ÇED) Legislation published in 1992 is notimplemented in a desired level.In addition to this, it is being compulsory somehow in the issue of taking required precautions in regard with preservation of water sources. A mount of water consumed Thousand m3 / year 2000 1 454 061 2004 1 215 090 Source; Tüik, 2006; 23 A mount of water recycled Thousand m3 / year 516 589 410 300 % A mount of waste water discharged Thousand m3 / year 35.5 746 877 33.7 637 756 % 51.3 52.4 Treated Thousand m3 / year 235 530 228 440 Untreated % Thousand m3 / year 31.5 511 527 35.8 409 316 % 68.5 64.1 Table 5.Water usage and waste waterin manufacturing industry W hile water amount consumed in manufacturing industry in 2000 in Turkey was 1.4 billion m3, it was approximately 1.2 m3 in 2004. Therefore, whereas there is decrease in re-used water rates in same periods,itis recorded that there is increase in discharged and treated water rates. While 51.3 % of water used in industry in 2004 was discharged, this rate increased to 52.4 % in 2004. Water rated treated in the same manner increased from 31 % to 35 %. (Table 5). Agreements signed between some industrial sectors (Paper,fermentation, sugar, leather etc.) and the Ministry of Environment for encouraging construction of waste watertreatment plants and industrial investments made with this purpose led an increase in the number of mutual treatment plants in specifically organized industrial zones. Increase in number of industrial institutions having certificate of environmental management system such as ISO 140002 made positive contributions to preservation of water sources. Number ofindustrialworkplaces with ISO 14000 certificatein 2008 is 1174. Number of workplace with ISO 14001 certificateis 259. (TÜĐK, 2006;23). Crises lived from time to time in economy of Turkey and high energy costs affect proper operation of watertreatment plants and investments of waste watertreatment plants negatively. Desire ofimplementing Aqua cultural Legislation which has brought too low discharge limits in the regions where specifically industry is denseis notregarded as realistic by industrialinstitutions. Since itis almostimpossibleto stepping down to these discharge limits,there occur problems in implementation and controls.(ÇB, 2002;113). 2 ISO 14001Environmental Management Standard covers environmental dimensions which institutions can hold in control and/or can affect herein. 320 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo City Sea Lake River Land Septic Others sewerage. tank Industrial wastewater discharged without 6.8 82.0 0.8 8.7 0.4 0.1 1.1 treatment Industrial wastewater discharged after 10.9 23.1 0.2 54.2 6.9 0.07 4.6 treatment Domestic wastewater discharged without 65.3 0.7 0.9 19.8 0.5 11.7 1.1 treatment Domestic wastewater discharged after 11.8 44.6 0.4 36.3 1.7 0.5 4.6 treatment Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 6. Amount of wastewater discharged to the receiving bodies by the status oftreatment and industry group 2004, (%) Waste water rates discharged according to industry group and treatment status can be gathered under four headlines.(Table 6). Out of these, first group consist ofindustrial waste water discharged treatment. Vast majority of waste water discharged from industry without treatment, namely 82 % of this, is generally discharged to seas. 8.7 % of remaining untreated waste wateris discharged rivers and 6.8 % ofitto city sewage. W hen we examine rates of industrial waste water discharged after treatment, itis seen thatthe highest rate is waste water discharged to rivers with 54.2 % rate. Rates oftreated waste water discharged respectivelyto sea (23 %) and city sewage (10.9 %) are in second and third sequence. In third and fourth group, we see Domestic wastewater discharged withouttreatment and Domestic wastewater discharged aftertreatment. Out ofthese,the highest rate in waste water discharged without treatment is discharged to city sewage with 65.8 % and to rivers with 19.8 %. The highestrate in domestic waste water dumped aftertreatmentis discharged to seas with 44.6 % and to rivers 36.8 %. Justlike inindustrialsolid wastes, maximal degree is dumped into surface water sources in waste water. Şehir kanalizasyonu Deniz Akarsu Diğer Figure 3.Industrial wastewater discharged withouttreatment Environmental pollution hasirrecoverable costs. Out ofthe factors causing this pollution,share of waste water discharged from industry withouttreatment undoubtedly substantial. As itis seen from Figure 3, dumping the said waste water mostly to seas is an indication of not reaching desired effective level of environmental management systems. Used in agricult ure 234 322 Used in productio n 245 131 Municipal dumping site 431 482 Open area Controlled Incinerati landfill on Dumpin g into rivers 4603 Other s (ton/ 347 705 087 101287 23738 year) 236 7 % 10.2 10.6 18.7 15.0 30.1 4.4 0.2 10.2 Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 7. Amount oftreatment sludge by disposal methods and industry group , 2004 Total 230653 5 Treatment sludge emerged as a result of waste water treatment apart from solid waste and waste water in industrial sectors can lead environmental pollution. As a matter of fact, amount of treatment sludge arising from treatment of industrial waste water in Turkey in 2004 is 2.3 million tonnes. Out of treatment sludge emerged inthe same dates, 30.1 % is disposed of by controllandfill,18.7 % by municipaldumping site, 15 % by open area, 10.2 % by agricultural usage (Table 7). 321 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1.3.Energy Consumption and Release Sources 14.2 % of electric energy consumed in Turkey is used in com mercial establishments, 23.7 % in residential houses, 3.6 % in government offices, 3.2 % in illumination of streets, more than 55 % in industrialsector (Table 8). Government Com mercial Residential Streetillumination Ind. Cons. Total offices And others. 4 662 719 18 543 784 30 934 976 4 142 988 71 978 292 130 262 759 % 3.6 % 14.2 % 23.7 % 3.2 % 55.3 Source; Tüik, 2006; 227 Table 8. Consumption of electricity-M Wh (2005) The highest value within energy rates which manufacturing industry consumes according to usage areas in 2005 has been reserved to production of goods and service with 69.1 %. (Table 9). When we examine other rates, 14.5 % of energy consumed isin coke oven, 11 % isin electricity generation. Production of goods and services Space heating Transportation Electricity generation Heat Coke oven/ production Blastfurnace Nonenergy use (TOE) 69.1 2.9 1.5 11.0 0.6 0.4 14.5 Source; Tüik, 2006; 227 Table 9. Total energy consumption by sectors and usage areas, 2005 (%) Turkey is a country which is under world average interms ofenergy consumption and meets substantial part of energy requirement via import. While per person consumed 1 808 k Wh in our country in 2004 (TÜĐK,2006;231), this amount was 2 292 k Wh in Belgium in 1998 and 3 520 k Wh in Finland (DĐE,2000;94). W hen we evaluate total energy sources, it is apparent that our primary energy sources are abundant and it is necessary to evaluate widespread lignite. However, evaluation of the said energy sources should be handled meticulously in terms of sustainable environment. Coal Lignite Fuel-oil Natural Gas Hydraulic Other (Motor Oil) 8.1 18.5 3.2 45.3 24.4 0.5 Source: TÜĐK,2006;227 Table 10.Thermal electricity generation by energy resources (106 k Wh), 2005, % W hen energy sources are taken into consideration, natural gas is in first row (45.3 %), hydraulic is in second row (24.4 %), and ligniteisinthird row (18.5 %).(Table 10). Rates of coal and fuel-oilare fairlylow. 90 % of demand of crude oil nowadays and 98 % demand of natural gas are met with import.Itis estimated that demand of crude oil of Turkey by 2020 shall be doubled and demand of natural gas shall be five folded. (Ç.B. 2002;107). When energy subjectis evaluated within approach ofindustry and sustainable development, domestic sources are notin alevel responding total energy demand of the country. Turkey needs a reliable energy regime. In parallel with increase of rate of natural gas in energy generation as to years, its share in energy generation increased and reached 9.2 % in 2000. However,when itis considered that Turkey supplies substantial part ofits energy from consumable sources,itis noticed that Turkey should orientto clean or renewable sources. It should not be disregarded that we should evaluate our existing energy sources in the best way in terms of sustainability and we should increase usage of renewable energy sources in an economical way. 322 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electricity Industry Transport Other production 2000 37.0 28.9 16.9 17.2 2004 34.3 30.7 18.2 16.8 Source; Tüik, 2006; 20 Table 11. CO2 emissions by sectors In industry, energy and energy costs affect the environment negatively by not obeying emission standards of energy sources besides being a very important problem. In Turkey, it is observed that CO2 emission, which used to be 223 806 thousand/ton in 2000, has risen up to 241 884 in 2004. In the same years, emission rates per person has increased from 3.32 to 3.40 (TUIK, 2006; 20). When the emission distribution rates of CO2 isrevised interms of sectors(Table 11),the emission which is distributed in 2004 has resulted from electricity production in 34.3%, industryin 30.7% and transportation in 16.8. The emission ratefrom other group including housing and agriculture, etc.is 18.2%. After beginning natural gas for heating purposes in large cities and in electricity production,there has been a decreasein emission ratesin both areas when compared with years 2000 and 2004. However,the emission ratesinindustry have risen up from 28.9% to 30.7%. After the publication of Air Pollution Regulation in 1986, positive developments have been attained in application. The emission rates resulting from industry are prevented to a large extent by natural gas transformation in industrial zones, widespread conscious of energy savings and heat conservation and heat recycle inindustrial chambers. 1991 1995 2000 2006 Energy 137.96 160.79 212.55 258.21 Industrial Processes 15.22 21.64 22.23 27.12 Agriculture 19.04 17.97 16.13 16.36 Waste 9.74 20.31 29.04 30.06 Total 181.96 220.72 279.96 331.7 Increase rates in 1990 7.0 29.8 64.6 95 Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 12. GHG emissions by sectors (million tonnes CO2 eq.) In spite of all measures taken, rapid urbanization and industrialization have led the waste amounts and other environmental problems to increase. As seen in Table 12, greenhouse gas ratesin Turkey have risen up so fast. In a research published by TUIK, year 1990 has been taken as a basis and increase percentages of greenhouse gas are calculated through this year. Thus,the increase rates have risen up to 7% in 1991, 29.8% in 1995, 64,6% in 2000 and 95% in 2006. 181 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions in 1991 have increased to 331 million tons in 2006. When the related table is revised, itis seen that the largest increase rate is made in wastes. For wastes, 9.7 million tons of greenhouse gas emission in 1991 has reached 30 million with a three times larger multiplication in 2006. In spite of measurementstaken in industry, greenhouse gas emission in this sector has risen up from 15 million tons to 27 million tons. W hen 1990-2005 Annual European Com munity Greenhouse Gas Inventory and 2007 Inventory Report are examined, AB-15: SG emissions have decreased to 1.5% between 1990 and 2005. Especially in 2004-2005, emission rates have decreased in such countries as Germany, Finland, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, France and England. Turkey is the 13th country by having the largest greenhouse gas emission in the world. Total greenhouse gas emission rateis approximately 1.3% in 2004. Kyoto Protocol has been valid in 174 countries since 2000 and approximately 60% of greenhouse gas emissions of these countries are involved. Therefore,the countries signing Kyoto Protocol will decrease 5% of greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 by putting several limitations for industrial organizations between 2008 and 2012. When this protocol is applied, 13 million tons of total greenhouse gas amounts in 1990 will be 12.7 million tons in 2012. 2. Industrial Wastes and Environmental Management W hen the purposes of 9th Development Plan (DPT, 2006) which will be applied in Turkey between 2007-2013, the focus is mainly on such decisions as taking responsibility of environmental protection and 323 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo environmental management by industrial organizations, using sources more efficiently and environmental management (article 518-519). Besides, when public policies of ninth development plan are examined,itis seen that maintaining sustainability in growth by revising industry-environment connections, making productions in accordance with human health and coherence and following social responsibility standards have been highly important. Since 1980,significant achievements are obtained interms ofair pollution and environmentalsources in our country. Although various problems are experienced in constructing sectoral policies and environmental management planning, 648 million TRY have been spent in total for environmental expenditures of production industry in 2007. When the distribution of expenditure is examined (Table 13),the largest rate is seen in waste water management (48%). 23.1% of thisrateis used in waste management and 12.7% for climate protection. Protectio n of ambient air and climate 12.7 Wastewater managemen t 48.0 Solid waste managemen t 23.1 Protection of soil and groundwate r 0.4 Noise and vibration abatemen t 0.3 Protection of biodiversit y and landscape 0.5 Research and developmen t 2.1 Other s 12.9 % Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 13. Environmental expenditure of manufacturing industry sector,(2007) The waste types and rates resulting from industrialization in Turkey are not quite different from other developing countries. Within certain intervals, TUIK publishes some data in order to determine amounts and distributions ofindustrial wastes and to take measurements accordingly. Moreover,the Ministry of Environment prepares industrial inventories for certain regions in determined periods. For instance, the detailed industrial inventory including Marmara,Mediterranean and Western Anatoliais one ofthose issued in 2002. Dangerous waste burn plant and regular storing plant of dangerous solid waste built within Đzmit Integrated Environmental Project operated by ĐZAYD AŞ as the most important infrastructure plant in order to diminish wastes resulting from industry. Apart from ĐZAY D AŞ having a 35 thousand tons dangerous solid burning capacity annually and operating aslicensed in our country does not have a licensed industrial waste burn and regular storing plant (Ç.B. 2002; 114-116). In recent years, temporary license certifications are given to some small-scaled plantations. However,legalinspection mechanisms are not effectively valid in these plantsin terms of quality of recycle materials and disposal of wastes. 3. Results and Suggestions Turkey’s involvement within customs union and EU membership process has been an impulsive force in terms of putting sustainability principles into action. Nonetheless, all measurements taken have not been enough. The amount of industrial solid waste in Turkey is 17.4 million tons, but only 46.9% of this rate is disposed of. The amount of dangerous solid wasteis yearly 70 thousand tons on average.Besides,the amount of waste water has reached 1.2 billion m3 in 2004 and only 33.7% ofit has been re-used and 64% has been leftinto nature without purification. The largestrates of waste water and solid wastes are determined to be disposed into seas or rivers. Turkey meets most of his energy need from importation. We are unable to use our present energy sources in full capacityin terms of sustainability. Most of CO2 emissions released results from industry in 30%. We are the 13th country in greenhouse gas emission in the world. In recent twenty years, there has been an increase of more than 90% in greenhouse gas emission. Turkey should primarily secure its sustainable use of naturalsources such as air,soil and water. It should also take measurements to decrease the effects of wastes and emissions on natural environment and re-arrange its regulations accordingly. States should be sensitive and supportive enough in terms of waste disposal costs of industrial organizations. In industrial organizations of Turkey, SMEs (small and medium sized entrepreneurs) play an important role. Especially in most of these,there are many infrastructure insufficiencies.In order to meet this need, states should construct stable policies and make substantialinvestments. Itis conditionalto have a proper system for disposal ofindustrial wastes and to increase the number of these plants. 324 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Itis important to make investments and to take necessary precautions in order to use the cleanest and sustainable energy together with energy and energy costs used in industry. The uncertainty in economy should be dissolved in order to enable a sustainable development in terms of industry in our country. The determined policies will reach its aim thanks to absence of economical doubts and calculations in industrial environments. Unfair competition of business and industry environments working together peacefully with environment protection and sustainable development efforts and required enforcement should be applied. In this research, sustainable development is only tried to be described in terms of environment and Turkey’s present structure is explained. Yet, it should not be forgotten to take economical, social and environmental dimensions into consideration for sustainable developments of countries. Not only businessmen are responsible forthis, but also are productive sectors and citizens. Reference Ayvaz, R., 2004. Bozulan Doğal Denge Sonucunda Avrupa’daki Katı Atık Sorunlarına Çözüm Projeleri. Ekoloji (doğa-çevre ve kültür dergisi), Çevre Koruma ve Araştırma Vakfı, Sayı 4, Đzmir. Çevre Bakanlığı, 2002. Türkiye Ulusal Raporu (taslak). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Dünya Zirvesi Johannesburg 2002. DĐE, 2000. Sayılarla Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği 1994-2000. Yayın No: 2516, Ankara. DPT, 2006 Dokuzuncu Beş yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007-2013), Ankara. TÜĐK, 2006. Türkiye Đstatistik Yıllığı. Yayın No: 3063, Ankara. http://www.belgenet.com/arsiv/binyilzirve_02.html http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/technical_report_2007_ http://www.ekolojimagazin.com/?s=magazin&id=126 325 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 494 Title A name given to the resource Relationship Of Environment-Industry In Sustainable Development Author Author Ünal, Çiğdem Karatop, Buket Abstract A summary of the resource. Thought of analysis necessity of environmental problems arising from production have become prevalent as a principal concern with onset of utilization concept of sustainable development in industry. Sustainable development has comprehensive dimensions as economical, environmental and cultural aspects. However, only dimension of environmentindustry of sustainable development has been handled in this study. Problems put forward within this relationship framework are industrial solid wastes, waste water, energy consumption and hazards which release sources give to environment. Amount of industrial solid waste of Turkey in 2004 is 17.4 million ton and out of this, only 7.7 % proportion part has been recycled, 46.9 % has been disposed of. These disposed solid wastes have been removed by pouring 47.2 % rate to seas, lakes and rivers. Rate of solid water released without treated in the same dates is 64.1 %. Industry has 30.7 % share in CO2 emission. In addition to this, amount of greenhouse gas emission shows increase in each year. Turkey requires more clean and renewable energy sources in terms of sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dfab893bf48dd5ccaf8b8a2b56571fdd.pdf f99e51ded30f232896b6d68ef36e5041 PDF Text Text EFFECT OF SALICYLIC ACID ON SALINITY STRESS IN COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) Hüsnü ÜNLÜ Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Isparta,TURKEY Nüket ALTINDAL Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, Isparta, TURKEY Halime ÖZDAMAR ÜNLÜ Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Isparta,TURKEY hozdamar79@yahoo.com Demet ALTINDAL Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, Isparta, TURKEY Hüseyin PADEM International Burch University, Sarajevo, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA hpadem@ibu.edu.ba Abstract:This study was conducted to determine the effects of seed soaking in salicylic acid (0.25 mM, 0.50 mM, 0.75 mM, 1.0 mM and control) on the growth and some seedling properties in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) under different NaCl doses (2.5 ds m-1, 5.0 ds m-1, 7.5 ds m-1, 10.0 ds m-1 and control). In this work; seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh-dry weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were investigated. In result, according to NaCl x SA interaction, seedling length, dry weight, total chlorophyll values changed between 5.05-13.58 cm, 0.055-0.138 g, 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Keywords: Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), salinity, salicylic acid, seedling properties Introduction Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata belongs to the group of crops known as legumes. It is a important source of human food. Its vegetative part can be buried into the soil to improve its fertility, and also, cowpea is a well known leguminous cover crop (Onyesom et al. 2005). Cowpea has a good tolerance to salinity, heat, drought, and it has a high yield potential under irrigation (Murillo-Amador & Troyo-Diéguez 2000). Soil salinity has become an environmental problem and it adversely affects the growth and productivity of many crops. Salinity affects the crop physiology, and causes changes within cellular processes and plant levels (Yusuf et al. 2008). High salt concentrations have toxic effects on plant growth. Soil salinity level decreases availability of nutrients to plants and create high osmotic pressure which leads to physiological drought (Endris & Mohammed 2007). Soil salinity also affects seed germination and limit the agricultural production (Dantas et al. 2005). Salinity creates abiotic stress conditions for plants such as ionic and osmotic stress and these stress conditions cause production of reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage, metabolic toxicity and membrane deterioration. As a result plants developed complex responses to overcome harmful effects of salinity (Szalai & Janda 2009). Salicylic acid (SA) is a plant phenolic compound and now considered as a hormone-like endogenous regulator. It play important roles to defend plants against both biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Earlier reports show that SA plays important regulatory roles in plants against to a wide range of oxidative stresses (Choudhury & Panda 2004; Deef 2007). 61 �The aim of present work was to reveal whether cowpea plants pre-treated with different concentrations of SA could tolerant salt stress. Materials and Methods Cowpea seeds (Vigna unguiculata L. Karnıkara cv.) were used in this study. The experimental design consisted of 25 treatments replicated 3 times in a split plot design. Seeds of cowpea were surface-sterilized for 5 minute in sodium hypochlorite solution. They were then washed 3 times with sterilized distilled water. After sterilization, seeds were soaked in 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 mM SA for 12 h in dark. The seeds were sown in plastic pots containing vermiculite and torf (1:2), maintained the same environmental condition and watered with different NaCl doses (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 ds/mol) in total 50 ml during 10 days. After 10 days, the following were recorded: seedling length (cm), cotyledon width and length (cm), fresh and dry weight (g), chlorophyll a (mg/g fresh weight), chlorophyll b (mg/g fresh weight) and total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight). Chlorophyll concentration was determined from cotyledons. A leaf sample of 0.2 g was ground and extracted with 15 ml of 80% (v/v) acetone in the dark (Haklı 2008). The mixture was filtered and absorbancies (T80 UV/VIS, Spectrophotometer) were determined at 645 and 663 nm. Concentration of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were estimated by the equations of (Witham et al. 1971). All of the data were analyzed statistically using CoStat computer program. Duncan’s test was used to compare averages at the 0.05 significance level. Results NaCl (P<0.01) and SA (P<0.05) applications were found statistically important on seedling length. According to the salt concentration, seedling length was changed between 6.21-10.75 cm. The highest seedling length was obtained from 0 ds/mol (untreated control) of salt concentration and the lowest was obtained from 10.0 ds/mol NaCl dose. Under SA applications, seedling length was changed between 6.88-9.43 cm and the highest seedling length was determined in 0.50 mM SA application. NaCl and SA interaction showed that seedling length changed between 5.05-13.58 cm (Table 1). When Table 2 was investigated, NaCl and SA applications on cotyledon width were statistically important at the level 1%. According to NaCl and SA applications, cotyledon width varied between 2.34-3.82 cm and 2.513.49 cm, respectively. While cotyledon length values which were found statistically significant (P<0.01) changed between 3.205.77 cm in NaCl treatments, these values changed between 3.79-5.18 cm in SA treatments (Table 3). When the values of fresh and dry weight of seedlings were investigated, NaCl, SA applications and their interactions were found statistically significant. The 10 ds/mol dose of NaCl gave the lowest value of dry and fresh weight of seedlings. The highest values of fresh and dry weight were determined in 0.50 mM SA treatment (Table 4, 5). The effects of SA, NaCl x SA applications interactions on chlorophyll a were statistically significant at level 1%. Chlorophyll b values were statistically significant at level 5% under NaCl x SA applications interactions. According to NaCl, SA applications and their interactions, chlorophyll a values were changed between 2.075-2.297 mg/g fresh weight, 1.930-2.271 mg/g fresh weight and 1.006-2.500 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Chlorophyll b values changed; between 0.836-0.995 mg/g fresh weight under NaCl treatment, between 0.817-0.981 mg/g fresh weight in SA treatments and between 0.641-1.903 mg/g fresh weight in NaCl x SA treatments interactions (Table 6,7). SA applications (P<0.05) and NaCl x SA applications interactions (P<0.01) were found statistically significant on total chlorophyll. It was determined that total chlorophyll values changed between 2.990-3.213 mg/g fresh weight in NaCl treatments and between 2.747-3.240 in SA treatments. According to NaCl x SA interactions total chlorophyll values varied between 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight (Table 8). 62 �Discussion As NaCl concentrations were increased, a decrease in cowpea seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight (except for 2.5 ds/mol) was obtained. This situation can be explained by that salt stress unfavorably affected plant growth and productivity during all developmental stages (Tavili & Biniaz 2009). For example Hussein et al. (2007) reported that in general salinity decreases plant development. The same results were obtained by Okçu et al. (2005) who used pea, Kaya & Day (2008) who used sunflower. The highest seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight were obtained from 0.5 mM SA concentration. A correlation was observed between increases in the concentration of these SA (0.75 and 1.0 mM) and inhibition of these parameters. Salicylic acid may influence a range of different processes in plants, including seed germination, ion uptake and transport, and membrane permeability (Dolatabadian et al. 2009). These results are consistent with those of Çanakçı & Munzuroğlu (2007) who showed that SA application induced fresh weight and chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents increased in SA treatments according to untreated control. The greatest chlorophyll (a, b, a+b) values were found from 7.5 ds/mol dose of NaCl x 1 mM dose of SA interaction. This case shows that SA treatments decreases the negative effects of salt. Chlorophyll content of cotyledons increased slightly in general under higher NaCl concentration (7.5-10.0 ds/mol) although their increases were not statistically significant. According to Tohma (2007), Çanakçı & Munzuroğlu (2007), Kuşvuran et al. (2008) the effect of NaCl concentrations on chlorophyll content was found statistically significant. This situation can be explained by differences in species, varieties, medium and concentration of NaCl. NaCl treatments have a negative effect on seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight and data were found statistically significant (P<0.01). In terms of all parameters were examined, 0.5 mM SA treatment reduce saline medium negative effects. This case show the necessity of studies about the application of SA in saline soil. Table 1. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea seedling length (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 13.58 9.02 8.82 9.02 5.97 9.28 a* Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 9.97 11.03 10.93 9.95 10.32 9.93 8.49 10.68 8.80 9.05 8.82 7.37 6.75 6.32 6.83 8.84 a 9.43 a 8.77 a 1.0 8.25 9.70 6.25 5.05 5.17 6.88 b NaCl Means 10.75 a** 9.78 ab 8.61 bc 7.86 c 6.21 d Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 Table 2. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea cotyledon width (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0 3.73 4.00 3.22 3.18 2.25 3.28 a** 0.25 3.70 4.02 2.65 3.37 2.62 3.27 a 0.50 3.83 4.00 3.93 3.20 2.47 3.49 a 0.75 4.00 3.62 3.47 2.75 2.20 3.21 a 1.0 3.33 3.48 1.90 1.63 2.18 2.51 b NaCl Means 3.72 a** 3.82 a 3.03 b 2.83 b 2.34 c Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 3. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea cotyledon length (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Significance Levels : **P<0.01 63 0 5.37 5.85 4.83 4.95 3.08 4.82 a** Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 5.63 5.73 6.25 6.12 5.98 5.57 4.47 5.98 5.23 4.93 4.82 4.23 3.47 3.37 3.08 4.92 a 5.18 a 4.87 a 1.0 5.05 5.32 3.05 2.55 3.00 3.79 b NaCl Means 5.61 a** 5.77 a 4.71 b 4.30 b 3.20 c �Table 4. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea fresh weight (g) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 1.614 abc 1.563 abc 1.390 bcd 1.437 bcd 0.800 fg 1.361 a** Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.555 abc 1.789 ab 1.972 a 1.747 abc 1.781 ab 1.626 abc 1.384 bcd 1.841 ab 1.471 bcd 1.472 bcd 1.306 cde 1.102 def 0.906 efg 0.804 fg 0.770 fg 1.413 a 1.504 a 1.388 a 1.0 1.614 abc 1.821 ab 0.849 fg 0.613 g 0.619 g 1.103 b NaCl Means 1.709 a** 1.708 a 1.387 b 1.186 c 0.780 d Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 5. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea dry weight (g) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 0.109 a-d* 0.117 abc 0.107 a-e 0.112 abc 0.074 d-g 0.104 a** 0.25 0.109 a-d 0.122 abc 0.105 a-e 0.121 abc 0.088 c-g 0.109 a Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 0.122 abc 0.137 a 0.129 ab 0.123 abc 0.138 a 0.113 abc 0.109 a-d 0.092 b-f 0.072 efg 0.067 fg 0.114 a 0.106 a 1.0 0.115 abc 0.133 a 0.065 fg 0.055 g 0.059 fg 0.085 b NaCl Means 0.118 ab** 0.125 a 0.106 bc 0.098 c 0.072 d Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 Table 6. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea chlorophyll a (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 0.25 Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 1.0 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 2.063 a-d** 2.122 a-d 2.229 abc 1.006 e 2.232 abc 1.930 b** 2.289 abc 1.996 a-d 2.102 a-d 2.100 a-d 2.382 ab 2.174 a 2.449 a 2.395 ab 1.634 d 2.479 a 2.334 abc 2.258 a 2.345 abc 2.122 a-d 2.244 abc 2.291 abc 2.353 abc 2.271 a 1.854 cd 1.881 bcd 2.440 a 2.500 a 2.193 abc 2.173 a NaCl Means 2.200 2.103 2.130 2.075 2.297 Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 7. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea chlorophyll b (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 0.789 b-f* 0.893 b-f 0.922 b-f 0.699 def 0.783 b-f 0.817 0.25 0.898 b-f 0.729 def 0.769 c-f 0.907 b-f 0.997 b-f 0.860 Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 1.035 b-e 0.963 b-f 1.101 bc 0.732 c-f 0.670 ef 0.895 b-f 1.152 b 1.028 b-e 0.948 b-f 0.991 b-f 0.981 0.922 1.0 0.641 f 0.724 def 1.045 bcd 1.903 a 0.851 b-f 0.890 NaCl Means 0.865 0.836 0.860 0.995 0.914 Significance Levels : *P<0.05 Table 8. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0 2.852 a-e** 3.014 a-e 3.150 a-d 1.705 f 3.016 a-e 2.747 b* 0.25 3.187 a-d 2.725 b-e 2.872 a-e 3.007 a-e 3.378 abc 3.034 ab 0.50 3.485 ab 3.495 ab 2.304 ef 3.632 a 3.283 a-d 3.240 a 0.75 3.308 a-d 2.854 a-e 3.138 a-d 3.319 a-d 3.343 abc 3.193 a 1.0 2.495 de 2.605 cde 3.485 ab 3.690 a 3.043 a-e 3.064 ab NaCl Means 3.065 2.939 2.990 3.070 3.213 Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 64 �References Choudhury, S., & Panda, S. K. (2004). Role of salicylic acid in regulating cadmium induced oxidative stress in Oryza sativa L. roots. Bulg. J. Plant Physiol., 30 (3-4), 95-110. Çanakçı, S., & Munzuroğlu, Ö. (2007). Asetilsalisilik asit ’in mısır (Zea mays L.) fidelerinin taze ağırlık değişimi, pigment ve protein miktarları üzerine etkileri. Fırat Üniv. Fen ve Müh. Bil. Dergisi, 19 (3), 259-264. Dantas, B. F., Sá Ribeiro, L., & Aragão, C. A. (2005). Physiological Response of Cowpea Seeds To Salinity Stress. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 27 (1): 144-148. Deef, H. E. (2007). Influence of salicylic acid on stress tolerance during seed germination of Triticum aestivum and Hordeum vulgare. Advances in Biological Research, 1 (1-2): 40-48. Dolatabadian, A., Modarres Sanavy S. A. M., & Sharifi, M. (2009). Effect of salicylic acid and salt on wheat seed germination. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B- Soil and Plant Science, 1-9. Endris, S., & Mohammed, M. J. (2007). Nutrient acquisition and yield response of Barley exposed to salt stress under different levels of potassium nutrition. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech., 4 (3): 323-330. Haklı, E. (2008). Alternatif sıcaklığın su stresi altındaki mercimek (Lens Culinaris Medik.) çeşitlerinin çimlenme ve bazı fizyolojik parametreleri üzerine etkisi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 1-75, Adana. Hussein, M.M., Balbaa, L. K., & Gaballah, M. S. (2007). Developing a salt tolerant cowpea using alpha tocopherol. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 3(10): 1234-1239. Kaya, M. D., & Day, S. (2008). Relationship between seed size and NaCl on germination, seed vigor and early seedling growth of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). African Journal of Agricultural Research, 3 (11), 787-791. Kuşvuran, Ş., Yaşar, F., Abak, K., & Ellialtıoğlu, Ş. (2008). Tuz stresi altında yetiştirilen tuza tolerant ve duyarlı Cucumis sp.’nin bazı genotiplerinde lipid peroksidasyonu, klorofil ve iyon miktarlarında meydana gelen değişimler. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi (J. Agric. Sci.), 18(1): 13-20. Murillo-Amador, A, B., & Troyo-Diéguez, E. (2000). Effects of salinity on the germination and seedling characteristics of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 40, 433–438. Okçu, G., Kaya, M. D., & Atak, M. (2005). Effects of salt and drought stresses on germination and seedling growth of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Turk J Agric For., 29, 237-242. Onyesom, I., Enaholo, A. T., & Mordi, J. (2005). Effect of processing techniques on the contents of flatulence factors and emulsion properties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Mgt., 9 (2) 65– 72. Szalai, G., & Janda, T. (2009). Effect of salt stress on the salicylic acid synthesis in young maize (Zea mays L.) plants. J. Agronomy & Crop Science ISSN 0931-2250. Tavili, A., & Biniaz, M. (2009). Different Salts effects on the germination of Hordeum vulgare and Hordeum bulbosum. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8 (1): 63-68. Tohma, Ö. (2007). Çilekte salisilik asit uygulamasının tuz stresine dayanıklılık üzerine etkisi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bahçe Bitkileri Anabilim Dalı, Y. Lisans Tezi, 1-73, Erzurum. Witham, F. H., Blaydes, D. F., & Deulin, R. M. (1971). Experiments in Plant Physiology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Newyork, 245. Yusuf, M., Hasan, S. A., Ali, B., Hayat, S., Fariduddin, Q., & Ahmad, A. (2008). Effect of salicylic acid on salinity-induced changes in Brassica juncea. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 50 (9): 1096– 1102. 65 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 651 Title A name given to the resource EFFECT OF SALICYLIC ACID ON SALINITY STRESS IN COWPEA Author Author ÜNLÜ, Hüsnü ALTINDAL, Nüket ÖZDAMAR ÜNLÜ, Halime ALTINDAL, Demet PADEM, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted to determine the effects of seed soaking in salicylic acid (0.25 mM, 0.50 mM, 0.75 mM, 1.0 mM and control) on the growth and some seedling properties in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) under different NaCl doses (2.5 ds m-1, 5.0 ds m-1, 7.5 ds m-1, 10.0 ds m-1 and control). In this work; seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh-dry weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were investigated. In result, according to NaCl x SA interaction, seedling length, dry weight, total chlorophyll values changed between 5.05-13.58 cm, 0.055-0.138 g, 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/20640e7de9e9e61b5820b899ae6decee.pdf 0f5d8a04e9b5922db1cfcd1b8f3cb349 PDF Text Text Effects Of Boron Toxicity On The Yield Of Spring Canola Cultıvars Ö.Öztürk Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey ozdenoz@selcuk.edu.tr S. Soylu Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey R.Ada Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey S. Gezgin Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey M.Babaoglu Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey Abstract: Eight spring canola cultivars (Brassica napus L. cvs. Marinka, Briol, Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) were studied in field experiments for their responses to toxic B application at Central Anatolia, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. The canola cultivars were grown under B moderate deficiency (extractable B 0.56 mg kg-1) and toxic B applied (15 kg B ha-1) conditions. In this study, oil yield and protein yield were investigated. According to the results, oil yield and protein yield varied significantly among the cultivars and B application decreased the oil yield and protein yield by 37.5 % and 38.6 % on average, respectively. Among canola cultivars, Briol, Marinka, and Spok were the most sensitive to B toxicity applications that had the highest oil yield and protein yield decrease when treated with B. On the other hand, Star and Pactol cultivars showed tolerance to B toxicity applications. Keywords: Boron toxicity, spring canola, oil yield, protein yield Introduction The element boron is unique among the essential elements in that a narrow range in concentration can mean the difference between plant deficiency and plant toxicity. Boron toxicity has long been recognised as a common mineral nutritional problem particularlyin arid and semiarid regions where B levels are frequently high inthe soil orirrigation waters around the world,causing significant decreasesin growth and yield as reported for many countries (Nable et al.,1997). Boron toxicity is a factor in reducing crop yield in Turkey (particularly in Central Anatolia), Syria, India, South Australia, and Iran. Widespread B toxicity is also suspected in 450 �Afghanistan (Yau & Erskine, 2000). Nearly 10 % of the soils sampled in Central Anatolia contained more than 5 mg extractable B per kg soil which is a widely accepted critical concentration for occurrence of B toxicity in crop plants (Nable et al., 1997). Boron toxicity symptoms in leaves are not distinctive (Cartwright & Hirsch, 1986) and easily confused with symptoms from other nutritional and pathogenic disorders in field-grown areas. Toxic effects are more marked in dry seasons when roots penetrate deeper into the soil. Excess B cannot be removed from soil or treated in any way under dry-land conditions. Therefore, use of tolerant crop varieties is the best option to overcome this problem (Rehman et al., 2006). Canola is one of the main oil crops world-wide and it usually requires B concentrations greater than 0.5 mg kg-1 of hot water-extracted B (H W B) in the soil to complete its growth and development (Liu, 1995). Existence of larger variations in tolerance of canola to B toxicity than barley and wheat has been reported by several researchers (Hughes-Games, 1991; Hocking et al., 2003). Tolerance was reported to be releated to the origin of a cultivar (Du et al.,2002). The present study was carried out to investigate the differential response of different spring canola cultivars (8 cultivars of each) to B toxicity in field under irrigated conditions in a typical Central Anatolian soil low in extractable B and with relatively high lime content. Materials And Methods The field experiments were carried out the Research Institute of Rural Affairs, Konya, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. Soil containing 0.56 mg of B kg-1 extracted using 0.01 M Mannitol + 0.01 M CaCl2 solution before reading in ICP-AES (Varian-Vista Model), other soil characteristicsare given in Table 1. Normally receiving about 112 mm of total precipitation annually based on a 30 –yr average from 1974 to 2003,the area received 33 mm higher and 28 mm lower precipitation than the long- term average for 2002 and 2003, respectively. Temperatures during the study period were similar to the 30-yr average for the area. The mean growing season temperatures from April to August were 18.2 0 C and 19.0 0C for 2002 and 2003, respectively. The experiments were performed in a split plot design in randomized complete blocks with 3 replications. Eight spring canola (Brassica napus L.cvs. Marinka, Briol,Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) cultivars were studied. Plants were grown with (+ B= 15 kg B ha -1) and without (-B) B applications. B treatments were administered to main plots where the sub-plots contained plant cultivars. Before sowing in both years, B at a rate of 15 kg ha-1 was broadcasted onto the soilsurface using borax (Na2 B4 O7 .10 H2 O), followed by incorporation to a 0-20 cm depth of soil priorto sowing. Plots were basically fertilised with 120 kg ha-1 N, 60 kg ha-1 P2 O5. Entire quantitiesof phosphorous fertilizers and 60 kg ha-1 ofthe nitrogenous fertilizers were applied on bands in the form of ammonium phosphate (18% N, 46% P2 O5), by a driller during the sowing. Fifty percent of the remaining quantities of nitrogen were dispersed onto the soil surface before flowering in the form of ammonium sulphate (21% N). Plots were sown in 5 rows (30 cm apart and 1-2 cm deep) with 2.5 m long (1.5 x 2.5 =3.75 m2 ) on April each year. Seeds were sown by hand. Plants within rows were spaced 15 cm apart by thinning at 2to 4 leafstage. Routine management practices were followed. Plots were irrigated after sowing, during flowering, and pod filling with sprinklers. Crops were harvested at maturity for seed yield by hand yield and seed yield was adjusted to 9 % moisture level (Yusuf & Bullock, 1993). Harvested area (HA) of a plot was 1.35 m2 of the internal part afterremoving the 2 outerrows. Oil yield and protein yield were obtained each year. Oilyield was calculated on the basis of oil percentage and seed yield. Protein yield was calculated on the basis of protein percentage and seed yield. All data were analyzed as a split plot design using a computerized statistical software package (MSTATC). Differences among treatments were tested by analysis of variance and were compared using LSD Tests atthe 0.01 or 0.05 levelof significance. Results And Discussion Oil yield Effect of year, cultivar, B x cultivar interaction has been significant for oil yield. Cultivars showed significantly varying responses to toxic B treatment. All cultivars showed significant oil yield decreases when treated with +B (Table 2). Highest oil yield decrease was recorded at Briol and Spok (56.6 % and 56.3 %, respectively) while lowest yield decreases were determined at Star and Pactol (8.3 % and 12.1 %) over the control when applied with +B (Table 2). Thus, sensitivity to B toxicity in respect of oil yield depended on the 451 �genotypes. The oil yield of canola is the combined expression of seed oil content and seed yield. Canola cultivars showed significantly varying responsestotoxic B treatment for seed yield. All cultivars showed significant yield decreases when treated with high B whereas control plant yielded the highest. Cultivar means revealed that B treatment resulted in -31.23 % seed yield decrease, whereas highest and lowest seed yield decreases were recorded at Spok and Star cultivars as -52.66 % and -3.75 % respectively overthe control(data was not shown). Pactol cultivar was the most yielding genotype at +B (2095.8 kg ha-1) whereas Pactol(2183.5 kg ha-1) and Prota (2469.2 kg ha-1) cultivars yielded best at -B. According to mean of treatment, Briol (682.5 kg ha-1) and Spok (738.8 kg ha-1) cultivars were the lowest yielding among the genotypes (data was not shown). Very few studies have been conducted on canola regarding borax toxicity. Wang et al.(1999) reportedthat application of borax, at 3.3 kg B ha -1 , significantly reduced canola yield in only one out of 11 experiments. In the single experiment where B toxicity depressed growth, the effect was relatively small, equivalent to only 5 % of maximum seed yield. Moreover, application rates of up to 6.6 kg B ha -1 did not cause any depression in oilseed rape yield in a single experiment. In addition, there was no indication that a total of 9.9 kg B ha-1 depressed seed yield of canola.The risk of B toxicity from the soil application of borax at 4-8 times the minimu m rates required to correct deficiency was not as high as previously assumed. Therefore, while soil application of B fertilizer at 1.11.65 kg ha-1 can be recommended to correct B deficiency of oilseed rape, even at rates substantially higher, oilseed crops are unlikely to exhibit B toxicity symptoms or decrease yield (Wang et al.,1999). Application of a dose of 15 kg ha-1 B in our study was far above this amount and caused significant decreases in yield. In the present experiment, oilcontents varied widely among cultivars, and relatively slightly with high B treatments. High boron fertilizer decreased the oil content of all canola cultivars. The lowest decrease in oil content was observed in Prota by 5.11 % while the highest decrease was in Briol variety by 21.24 % as a result of a high boron treatment. The highest oilrate was found in the Star variety (44.23 %) with a decrease of 5.35 % (data was not shown). Mandal & Sinha (2004) reported that essential elements like sulphur, boron and zinc probably promote the synthesis of oils.In our study, the extraction of boron from soil at toxic level probably caused a decrease in oil synthesis and a decrease in oil contents of canola varieties. As oil yield is calculated from seed yield and oilrate values,the factthat oil yield (Table 2) at-B were higher from that of + B led to the difference was an expected result. The results here clearly show that Pactol and Star canola cultivars can be successfully grown under high natural orfertilizer B conditions because oftheirtolerance to B oversupply. From this point of view, both cultivars can be considered B-inefficient. Properties Mean Properties Mean pH 7.6 Mg (me 100 g-1) 5.3 CaCO3 (%) 20.7 K (me 100 g-1) 0.6 E.C (µS cm-1) 94 Na (me 100 g-1) 0.13 Organic matter (%) 1.4 P (mg kg-1) 8.5 Sand (%) 26.7 B (mg kg-1) 0.56 Silt(%) 68.1 Mn (mg kg-1) 2.3 Clay (%) 5.2 Zn (mg kg-1) 0.3 Ca (me 100 g-1) 20.2 Fe (mg kg-1) 0.4 Table 1. Selected physical and chemical properties oftopsoilsamples (0-30 cm depth) collected from the experimental area (mean of soilsamples collected before sowing each year) Protein Yield Canola is not only an oilseed crop, but also contains a relatively high protein concentration in the seed (>400 g kg-1 of the oil-free meal) and its meal is used as a protein supplement for animals and possibly will be food for humans in the near future. Cultivars Marinka Briol Pactol Helios Star Prota Spok Semu 452 +B Oil yield (kg ha-1) -B 280.8 198.7 628.6 423.7 663.1 486.1 268.3 323.9 608.1 458.2 714.9 564.4 723.1 958.8 614.4 594.0 Significance of differences between +B & -B ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** Protein yield (kg ha-1) Significance of differences +B -B between +B & -B 181.2 366.5 * 155.3 314.6 * 401.3 473.6 * 301.8 429.8 * 302.4 374.9 * 299.5 584.9 * 160.2 350.9 * 197.3 361.6 * �Mean 409.1 654.5 249.9 407.1 -B = Control (0.19 mg kg-1 B content soil), +B= Boron application (0.19 mg kg-1B content soil + 15 kg ha-1 B application) LSD = Least significant difference for comparisons between individual means; C; B x C; indicates cultivar (C) main effect, interaction of B application (B) with cultivars, ** significant at P < 0.01, * significant at P < 0.05. Table 2. Oil yield (kg ha-1 ) and Protein yield (kg ha-1) of8 canola cultivars when grown intwo consecutive years with two levels of B supply (kg B ha-1). Values are means of two years The protein yield of canola cultivars was influenced significantly by B treatment. Boron application significantly (P < 0.01) decreased protein yield in cultivars (Table 2). The highest decrease in protein yield as a result of B treatment was found inthe Spok variety of 54.3 % whilethelowest decrease was inthe Pactol variety by 15.3 %. In this research, the protein contents of the varieties used in the study varied between 20.48 % (Pactol) and 24.73 % (Helios). The highest decrease in protein content as a result of B treatment was found in the Star variety of 15.12 % while the lowest decrease was in the Spok variety by 5.71 %. The highest value in the study in terms of protein content was determined in the Helios variety by 24.73 % and the reaction of this variety to high B treatment emerged in the form of a 12.44 % decrease in protein content (data was not shown). Ilisulu (1970) stated thatthe commonest substance in canola seeds after oil was protein and that it generally constituted one-fifth ofthe seed. Weiss (1983) reported that protein contentin canola seeds was 25 % on average. As some researches (Schuster, 1970; Atakişi, 1977) stated, although protein content may be affected by environmental conditions,they vary to a greatextent depending on the genetic properties of variety. The protein yield of canola is the combined expression of seed protein content and seed yield. Protein yield of canola cultivars was decreased with boron application because of decreased seed yield and protein content of canola cultivars with boron. As a result of this research, Pactol and Star canola cultivars can be successfully grown under high B conditions without important oil and protein yield losses. Both cultivars can be considered B-inefficient. In addition, both cultivars may serve as suitable parental materials for the development of B-inefficient genotypes for B toxicity. Other cultivars showing sensitivity to B toxicity (e.g. Marinka, Briol, Spok and Semu) can be grown under normal B conditions for adequate crop yield. Acknowledgment The financial support from the Turkish State Planning Organization (DPT) (Project No: 1999 K120560) is gratefully acknowledged. References Atakişi, Đ.K. (1977). Çukurova’da yetiştirilebilecek kolza çeşitlerinin önemli tarımsal ve kalite özellikleri araştırmalar. Çukurova Üniv.Zir. Fak. Yıllığı 1, 27-55. üzerine Cartwright, B., & Hirsch, M. (1986). Boron toxicity in barley and wheat - a disorder resembling foliar disease. Dept.Agric., South Aust. Fact Sheet No. FS 8/86. Du, C.W., Wang,Y.H., Xu, F.S., Yang,Y.H., & Wang, H.Y. (2002). Study on the physiological mechanism of boron utilization efficiency in rape cultivars. Journal of Plant Nutrition 25, 231-244. Hocking, P., Norton, R., & Good, A. (2003). Canola nutrition. Canola Australia.www.canolaaustralia.com. Hughes-Games, G. (1991). Boron for field crops. Soil Factsheet. Order No. 631.012-1, Agdex 540. Đlisulu, K. (1970). Fransa ve Almanya’dan getirilen kolza çeşitlerinin Ankara iklim ve toprak şartları altında adaptasyon durumları,tohum verimleri ve diğer bazı özelliklerinin tespiti. Ankara Üniv.Ziraat Fak.Yıllığı 20, 132-157. Liu, W.D. (1995). Microelement nutrition and fertilization in China. China Agric. Press, Beijing, China, pp. 8-36. Mandal, K.G., & Sinha, A.C. (2004). Nutrient management effects on light interception, photosynthesis, growth, dry-matter production and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). J. Agronomy and Crop Science 190, 119-129. Nable, R.O., Banuelos,G.S. & Paul, J.G. (1997). Boron Toxicity. Plant and Soil 198, 181-189. Rehman, S., Park, T., Kim,Y.J,. Seo, Y.W., & Um, S.J. ( 2006). Inverse relationship between boron toxicity tolerance and boron contents of barley seed and root. Journal of Plant Nutrition 29, 1779-1789. 453 �Schuster, W.(1970). Deviation in fat content of different oil plants. I.Winter rape and sunflower. Field Crops Abst 23, 85. Yau, S.K., & Erskine,W.(2000). Diversity of boron-toxicity tolerance in lentil growth and yield. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 47, 55-62. Wang, K., Yang, Y., Bell, R.W., Xue, J.M., Ye, Z.Q., & Wei, Y.Z. (1999). Low risks of toxicity from boron fertilizer in oilseed rape-rice rotations in southeast China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 54, 189-197. Weiss, E.A. (1983). Rapeseed. In Oilseed Crops. Tropical Agricultural Series. Longman Group Limited.UK, pp. 161-216. Yusuf, R.I., & Bullock, D.G. (1993). Effect of several production factors on two varieties of rapeseed in the Central United States. Journal of Plant Nutrition 16 , 1279-1288. 454 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 528 Title A name given to the resource Effects Of Boron Toxicity On The Yield Of Spring Canola Cultıvars Author Author Öztürk, Ö. Soylu, S. Ada, R. Gezgin, S. Babaoglu, M. Abstract A summary of the resource. Eight spring canola cultivars (Brassica napus L. cvs. Marinka, Briol, Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) were studied in field experiments for their responses to toxic B application at Central Anatolia, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. The canola cultivars were grown under B moderate deficiency (extractable B 0.56 mg kg-1) and toxic B applied (15 kg B ha-1) conditions. In this study, oil yield and protein yield were investigated. According to the results, oil yield and protein yield varied significantly among the cultivars and B application decreased the oil yield and protein yield by 37.5 % and 38.6 % on average, respectively. Among canola cultivars, Briol, Marinka, and Spok were the most sensitive to B toxicity applications that had the highest oil yield and protein yield decrease when treated with B. On the other hand, Star and Pactol cultivars showed tolerance to B toxicity applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/21b66c61ddc6a1697b3b08090748fbb7.pdf d101f791dc97b748ced9ea704ead820c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Ö mer Özkan Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Muharrem Aktaş Department of Civil Enginnering Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey muharrema @sakarya.edu.tr Meh met Sarıbıyık Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Introduction Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems in the world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs. Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of iron and steelfactories can be used as raw materialin cement and concrete sectors. European Com munity (EU) has declared targetsto protectthe environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of naturalresources. Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development. Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blastfurnace slag, silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concreteindustry. The BOF slag is a by-productthat produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay et. all, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine, merwinite, calcium silicates (C2 S, C3 S), C4 AF, C2 F, CaO–FeO– MnO– MgO in solid solution and free CaO are common minerals in steel slag (Shih et. all, 2004). The attendance of C3 S, C2 S, C4 AF and C2 F confirms BOF slag cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the reactivity ofthe BOF slag (Shiand Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO contentin BOF slag has been shown to produce volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It willneed further intensive research work to decrease this rate as far as possible. 164 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The BFS, a kind of industrialby-product,is also currently used in cement and concreteindustry. The BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an additiveinthe manufacture of Portland slag cementsin countries wherelarge amounts of BFS is available as byproduct. When BFS is added to cement,itcombines withthe Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages (Sakai et. all, 1993). Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete,resulting in major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxylions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007). This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as partialreplacement of Portland cement clinkerin differentratios ofreplacement. Specificweight,initialand final setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated. Materials and Procedure M aterials Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli, Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical composition and particle size distribution ofthe sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009). M A TERIALS CaO SiO2 Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 Mg O SO3 BFS 37.80 35.10 0.70 17.54 5.50 0.70 BOF slag 58.53 10.72 15.30 1.71 4.27 0.04 Clinker 66.11 21.57 3.17 5.09 1.74 1.35 Gypsum 32.57 0.67 0.24 0.21 2.20 46.56 Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %) (a) (b) Figure 1: SE M photograps ofBOF slags 165 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chemical Griddle pore compositions size % (mm) SiO2 93.05 0.08 Al2 O3 3.11 0.16 Fe2 O3 0.37 0.5 CaO 0.17 1 Mg O 0.03 1.6 SO3 0.07 2 K2 O 1.5 Humidity Na2 O 1.1 LOI 0.57 Table 2: Sand gradient Remaining % 99.12 86.21 65.74 33.02 5.23 0.11 Procedure BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main groups of cement are established on the base ofthese substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as arethe outputs offactory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ballmillto a specific surface area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each otherinthe amounts specified previously, and then grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr,thus yielding the cements used in the tests. The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixtureissubstituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixtureisreplaced with BFS in the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag composition thatis arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a materialthat is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS and 30% BOF slag. Code C Materials 100% Clinker-Gypsum Slag Slag Slag Slag Clinker % 95 Gyps. % 5 BFS % 0 BOF Slag % 0 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80 C1a C1b C1c C1d 80% 60% 40% 20% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 20% + 40% + 60% + 80% BOF BOF BOF BOF C2a C2b C2c C2d 80% 60% 40% 20% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 20% + 40% + 60% + 80% BFS BFS BFS BFS 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 20 40 60 80 0 0 0 0 C3a C3b C3c C3d 80% 60% 40% 60% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag 76 + 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag 57 + 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag 38 + 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag 57 Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures 4 3 2 3 12 24 36 24 8 16 24 16 The physical properties ofthe produced cements are first examined afterthe tests conducted and then the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the 166 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). The AST M C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar mix such as admixtures but solelyto determine the reactivity of a given aggregatetype (AST M C-1260). Mortar bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively. Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours,remove the specimens from the molds, make an initialcomparatorreading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After remove from in water,takethe zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with atemperature of 80 ° C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with atleastthree readings. Result and Discussion Physical Properties of Cements The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and specific gravity are listed. Cements Fineness (wt.%) Specific surface Specific gravity >32 µm >90 µm cm2/g g/cm3 C 21.00 0.90 3330 3.12 C1a 21.15 1.18 3214 3.06 C1b 22.10 1.00 3213 3.02 C1c 22.15 1.25 3152 2.97 C1d 22.10 1.20 3150 2.96 C2a 21.20 1.10 3115 3.05 C2b 21.90 1.15 3108 3.01 C2c 21.80 1.15 3090 2.95 C2d 21.90 1.10 3070 2.94 C3a 19.20 0.90 3450 3.12 C3b 18.60 0.90 3550 3.15 C3c 19.10 1.00 3650 3.12 C3c 18.20 0.80 3700 3.11 Table 4: Physical properties of cements Itis found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500 cm2/g reachesthe required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hoursforthis degree of fineness. The reference cement(C) produced as Portland cement has a softerstructurethan the rest of specimens. Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size on the condition thatthey are grinded finely. When cement’sspecific gravity results are examined,itisfound that waste materials(BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values. Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is higher than that of other cements.In BOF slag, when the volume is stable,the rate of free CaO and MgO is of greatimportance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). 167 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Alkali Silica Reaction Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 ° C during 14 days. The expansions ofthe mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5]. ASR Expansion (%) 2 6 10 14 C0 0,096 0,146 0,176 0,184 C1a 0,094 0,137 0,169 0,186 C1b 0,096 0,149 0,187 0,208 C1c 0,110 0,163 0,182 0,222 C1d 0,114 0,169 0,192 0,212 C2a 0,040 0,066 0,086 0,107 C2b 0,034 0,056 0,080 0,104 C2c 0,032 0,052 0,080 0,097 C2d 0,032 0,061 0,075 0,100 C3a 0,083 0,123 0,154 0,170 C3b 0,089 0,112 0,143 0,160 C3c 0,098 0,125 0,136 0,160 C3d 0,109 0,134 0,156 0,170 Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements The outcomes showed thtthe ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit value on AST M C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However,the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 2]. 0,250 0,192 0,200 0,187 0,182 0,176 Epansion 0,169 0,163 0,149 0,146 0,150 0,114 0,222 0,212 0,208 0,186 0,184 0,169 0,137 0,110 0,100 0,096 0,096 0,094 0,050 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C1a C1b C1c C1d Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag 168 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo W hen C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over than reference series. The reason forthe high ASR expansion value isthoughtto be the ratio of CaO an MgO in BOF. BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important criterion is the volume stability,in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The expansions ofthe BFS mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3]. 0,200 0,180 0,176 0,184 0,160 0,146 Epansion 0,140 0,107 0,120 0,104 0,100 0,080 0,040 0,020 0,100 0,097 0,066 0,056 0,086 0,061 0,060 0,080 0,080 0,096 0,075 0,040 0,052 0,034 0,032 0,032 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C2a C2b C2c C2d Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by AST M-C 1260. Itis known that the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans arelessreactive and the reaction results include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus,the amount of alkali become more less, moreover puzzolans, decreasesthe amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4]. 0,200 0,180 0,160 0,146 0,136 Epansion 0,156 0,170 0,160 0,143 0,160 0,123 0,125 0,100 0,170 0,134 0,140 0,120 0,184 0,176 0,154 0,109 0,096 0,089 0,112 0,098 0,080 0,083 0,060 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C3a C3b C3c C3d Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS 169 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo C3 Seriesresultedthat existence of BFS eliminatesthe resultof harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of AST M C-1260.Inthe literaturethere are studies which points outthe harmfulleffects offree CaO and MgO on expansion. Thisresultalso observed inthis study. On the contrary,the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important roleinthe damage of the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2 content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and expansion ofthe material. Expansion isrelated tothe water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel, 2008). Conclusion BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous materialand has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in otherindustriesfor sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. Butit has also has positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability properties of cement are atthe required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together. Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement materialis very importantin sustainability of waste management. References Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249. ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method. Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1291–1297. Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement concrete, ACI Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383. Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21 (3), pp. 285-293. Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials Science, 41 (21), 7130-7140. Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8. Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, Đ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July, Dundee, Scotland. Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2), 38-40. Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207. Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste Management. 24, 1043-1047. Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370. 170 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. 171 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 501 Title A name given to the resource Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Author Author Özkan, Ömer Aktas, Muharrem Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c61b92ac1b06ed99124ae34008878d4.pdf 35ac215cd0f38442a04d448ec2e15604 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Comparing Functional Programming and Object Oriented Programming Languages on the Server Side Programming Özgür Örnek International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina oornek@ibu.edu.ba Abstract : The use of web applications has been rapidly expanded into all sectors of society such as government, business, education, and industry. Web applications have to be thorough tested to ensure their correctness and meet the software requirements. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but all these methods have some advantages and some disadvantages. It is very difficult to decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. In this paper, we adapt to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages . To achieve this aim, we picked up JSP and servlet as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional programming language. We implemented different stock programs in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Keywords: JSP, Servlet, PHP, Server Side Programming 1. Introduction In the early years of the Internet, the web application was static. The web content that sent to the browser was entirely same. It was not possible to implement web-based business applications that require database connection, user authentication, session management, and dynamic Html generation. To eliminate web-based business applications demand, server side programming languages were developed as a dynamic web application. Over the years, numerous alternatives and enhancements, such as FastCGI, mod_perl from Apache, NSAPI from Netscape, ISAPI, ASP, ASP.NET from Microsoft, PHP, Coldfusion, and Java servlets,JSP from Sun Microsystems,have been created. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but allthese methods have some advantages and disadvantages.Itis very difficultto decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. However, as much attention has been paid to the development of Web applications, there exist very few reports on Web application testing. In this paper, we endeavor to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages. Forthis purpose, we picked up JSP as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional program ming language. We implemented same stock implementation in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Similar studies have been handled by particularresearchers. Hendeson-Sellers(Henderson-Seller. 2000) concluded that in object oriented programming languages are more successful in complex application development. Roberts (Roberts, Gary. 2005) analyzed server side programming languages such as PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, and ColdFusion with advantages and disadvantages. Based on his study, preferring suitable server sidetechnology depends on operating system, economy, ease of using, and sustainability.Yang et al.(Yang et al. 2002) expanded traditional software testing architecture to support Web Application setting. A set of tool was developed to help analyze documents, develop test cases, execute tests, monitor failures, and support test measurement. Ricca and Tonella (Ricca and Tonella. 2002) described an analysis model that captures web pages, forms, frames, and theirrelationship of Web applications. Masaud et al.(Masaud et al.2006) compared JSP and ASP.NET framework in MVC implementation. Their findings showed thatimplementing the ASP.Netframework was easierthan JSP framework to achieve the 353 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo M V C major concept. Suzumura et al.(Suzumura et al. 2008) conducted performance comparison of web service engines in PHP, Java, and C. 2. Web Application Architecture A typical web application consists of a web server, an application server and a database server. Figure 2.1 illustrates web application architecture. Figure 2.1: Web application architecture The typical flow of handling a request starts with the browser issuing are quest for a specific resource. The web server picks up this request off of port 80 and determines thatthe application server should handle the request. The application server receives the request and executes some code to handle the request. Within the code, the database may be called by making a connection to whatever port to which the database server is listening. Once a response has been assembled, it's sent back to the browser from where it originated. (Patzer. 2002) 3. Developig Java Web Applications Server-side Java programming model is based on two recent Java server-side technologies: Servlets, Java Server Pages (JSPs). Servlets (and JSP) offers the following benefits that are not necessarily available in othertechnologies: Performance: The performance of servletsissuperiorto CGI becausethereis no process creation for each client request.Instead, each request is handled by the servlet container process. After a servletis finished processing a request,itstays residentin memory, waiting for another request. Portability: Similar to other Java technologies, servlet applications are portable. You can move them to other operating systems without serious hassles. Rapid development cycle: As a Java technology, servlets have accesstothe rich Java library, which helps speed up the development process. Robustness: Servlets are managed by the Java Virtual Machine. As such, you don’t need to worry about memory leak or garbage collection, which helps you write robust applications. Widespread acceptance: Java is a widely accepted technology. This means that numerous vendors work on 354 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Java-based technologies. One of the advantages of this widespread acceptance is that you can easily find and purchase componentsthat suit your needs, which saves precious development time. 3.1. Java Servlets Servlets are nothing more than Java classesthat provide specialserver side service. This service defines a set oflifecycle methods thatcan be overridden to provide dynamic responses to HTTP requests. The web container can load and manage multiple servlets withinthe same Java Virtual Machine (JV M). Once a servletisloaded,it handles each incoming request by spawning a new lightweight thread to perform its task. This enables the application serverto service a great number of requests without significant degradation of performance.Itisillustrated at Figure 3.1.(Chunlin. ?) Figure 3.1: Servlet working architecture 3.2. Java Server Pages (JSP) Java Server Pages (JSP) technology enables to mix regular, static HT ML with dynamically generated content from servlets. With JSP, web designers and developers can quickly incorporate dynamic elements into web pages using embedded Java and a few simple markup tags. These tags provide the HT ML designer with a way to access data and business logic stored inside Java objects without having to master the complexities of Java application development. JSP files contain traditional HT ML along with embedded code that allows the page designer to access datafrom Java code running on the server. When the page isrequested by a user and processed by the HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) server,the HT ML portion of the page is passed straightthrough. The code portions of the page, however, are executed atthe time the requestis received, and the dynamic content generated by this code isspliced intothe page beforeitissenttothe user. This provides for a separation ofthe HT ML presentation aspects of the page from the programming logic contained in the code. It is illustrated at Figure 3.2 (Visualbuilder.com Team 2001) 355 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3.2: JSP Architecture 4. Developing PHP Web Applications The PHP language is widely used Open Source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for Web development and can be embedded into HT ML. A great number of open source software and company’s web sites use PHP sinceitcan enable high software productivity. PHP usage statisticsisillustrated in Figure 4.1 (http://www.php.net/usage.php) Figure 4.1: PHP usage for Jul 2007 356 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo PHP can be used on all major operating systems, including Linux, many Unix variants, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, RISC OS, and probably others. PHP has also support for most ofthe web servers today. This includes Apache, Microsoft Internet Information Server, Personal Web Server, Netscape and iPlanet servers,and many others. Forthe majority ofthe servers PHP has a module,forthe others supporting the CGI standard, PHP can work as a CGI processor. PHP has many strengths,including the following: Stability, and compatibility : It works well with other software and can be quite fast. PHP uses the machine resources very efficiently. Currently, PHP runs stable on a range of operating systems including most flavors of UNIX, Windows and Macs and integrates wellwith most popular serversincluding IIS and apache. One of the strongest and most significant features in PHP is its support for a wide range of databases. Writing a database-enabled web page is incredibly simple. Cost : PHP is free. PHP is a popular choice for companies hoping to avoid licensing costs. It’s also the most popular choice for small business web hosting providers who almost always provide PHP and MySQL support. MySQL isfrequently used by those small businesses,for example,to maintain a database containing a catalog of their merchandise. PHP allowsthose vendorsto calculate prices based on complex selection criteria(like product color,size,and style). PHP (free)isfrequently used in conjunction with Linux (a free operating system), MySQL (a free database), and Apache (a free web server) - allfree and collectively referred to as “LA MP”. Availability of Support : PHP is Open Source. Because PHP's source code is freely available, a community of developers is always working to improve, add to, and find bugs in the language. Open Source means you never need to rely on the manufacturer to release the next version if something doesn't work or pay for expensive upgrades. Simplicity with Built in Libraries : The syntax of PHP based on other programming languages, primarily C and Perl.It has many built-in functions for performing many useful web tasks. PHP can generate GIF images on the fly, connect to web services and other network services, parse X ML, send email, and generate PDF documents, all with just a few lines of code.(Welling, L. & Thomson L. 2005) 5. Experimental Results The goal ofthis benchmark isto demonstrate performance analyze of JSP and PHP technologies. Thus, we developed onlinetwo stock programs withtwo technologies separately. We used MySQL as database server, and Apache as web server. In orderto analyze web applications, virtualtesttools are used. To measure Web page performance and toteststability, we used Webserver Stress Tool. Withthistesttool, we can test with specifying number of virtual users and each user’s page requestinlimited duration. Testtool was configured to use 100 and 500 concurrent connectionsin particular duration.Forthe tests, we used PHP system, with a single 1.4 MHz Pentium M CPU and 256MB of RA M. 357 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Request Time (ms) JSP-PHP Comparison(100 User) 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 php jsp 0 20 40 60 80 Number of Users 100 Figure 5.1: 100 users comparison in specified time First, we tested 100 users with increasing load for a specified time. From Figure 5.1, reasonably high performing compared to PHP. In the beginning, since the page loading such as compiling and interpreting takes much time, requesttime values are higher. After 50 user, PHP graph change big variation than JSP. As number of usersincrease, PHP requesttime increases, whereas JSP has less requesttime than PHP. We can say that JSP is more stable and fasterthan PHP. Request Time (ms) JSP-PHP Comparison (500 User) 300 250 200 php jsp 150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 Number of Users Figure 5.2: 500 users comparison in specified time Second, we attempted to measure 500 usersloading for a specified time. From the results,itisseen that JSP request time smaller than PHP overall users. But, the request time results have little differences bettween JSP and PHP. JSP is more stable and fasterthan PHP. 6. Conclusion According to results of test; 358 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo a. In terms of performance, JSP technology isfaster and more stablethan PHP. b. In terms of simplicity, since PHP syntax is based on C and has builtin functions to generate complex issues,itcan be saidthat PHP is more easierthan JSP. However,JSP uses Java classes and X M L tags to generate codes. c. From the results, we conclude thatthe security approach gives better performance in JSP. d. Considering development time of a project, PHP technology is better solution for small and mid projects.In the complex projects JSP technology will perform betterthan PHP. 7. References Chunlin, L. (1999). A Java-based Method For Developing Web Application System. IEEE International Conferenece Henderson-Seller, B. & Unhelka. (2000). Open modeling UML. Boston: Addison Wesley. Masoud, F. A., Halabi, D. H. and Halabi D. H. (2006). ASP.NET and JSP Frameworks in Model View Controller Implementation, IEEE, Patzer, A. (2002). JSP Examples and Best Practices. NY:Apress. Roberts, G. (2005). Learning Server-Side Scripting, ProQuest Computing, pp. 37 Suzumura, T., Trent, S., Tatsubori, M., Tozawa, A. and Onodera, T. (2008). Performance Comparison of Web Service Engines in PHP, Java, and C, IEEE International Conference on Web Services, Tonella, P. and Ricca, F. (2002). Dynamic Model Extraction and Statiscal Analysis of Web Applications, in Proc of the 4th International Workshop on Web Site Evolution, pp. 43-52. Visualbuilder.com Team (2001), JSP Tutorial, http://www.visualbuilder.com Welling, L., Thomson, L. (2005), PHP and MySQL Development (pp.4-6). Indiana:Sams Yang, J.-T, Huang, J.-L, Wang, F.-J, and Chu, W.C. (2002). Constructing an Object- Oriented Architecture for Web Application Testing, Journal of Science and Engineering 18(1):59-84 359 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 504 Title A name given to the resource Comparing Functional Programming and Object Oriented Programming Languages on the Server Side Programming Author Author Örnek, Özgür Abstract A summary of the resource. The use of web applications has been rapidly expanded into all sectors of society such as government, business, education, and industry. Web applications have to be thorough tested to ensure their correctness and meet the software requirements. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but all these methods have some advantages and some disadvantages. It is very difficult to decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. In this paper, we adapt to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages . To achieve this aim, we picked up JSP and servlet as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional programming language. We implemented different stock programs in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/527212c1cf261602672c6be89d312dcd.pdf a2018946cbeb00a6c9a46b8b3054587c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Investigating the Real but the Least Talked Reasons for the Global Financial Crisis Đsmail ÖZSOY Prof. Dr., Fatih University, Department of Economics E-mail: iozsoy@fatih.edu.tr Birol GÖRMEZ Research Asst., Fatih University, Department of Economics E-mail: bgormez@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The Global Financial Crisis of September 2008 is triggered by a dramatic rise in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures in the United States. With its destructive consequences for financial markets and institutions around the globe, it has exposed pervasive weaknesses in the current global financial system. The US housing collapse is often cited as having caused the crisis and the loose U.S. monetary policy is criticized for making the cost of credit negligible, thus encouraging high levels of leverage and causing a hypertrophy and bubbles in the financial sector. What is clear from the crisis is that the current global financial system is vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations mainly based on derivatives and interest rates. Rating the reasons for the crisis and dealing with the financialization process of the economy, this paper argues that the main reason for the crisis is interest based transactions of derivatives; mostly being a zero-sum game, thus not producing any economic value, rather than being a result of win-win action. It then suggests that financial operations be based on real assets, producing real values, not on illusory ones. Key Words: Global Financial Crisis, US Mortgage Crisis, Mortgage Backed Securities (MBS), interest rate, real assets, derivatives, financial bubble, financialization. 1. Introduction The term financial crisis broadly refers to a variety of situations in which some financial institutions or assets suddenly lose a large part of their value. Many financial crises were associated with banking panics, recessions, stock market crashes, the bursting of other financial bubbles, currency crises, and sovereign defaults. The current global financial crisis that began in July 2007 when a loss of confidence by investors in the value of securitized mortgages in the United States resulted in a liquidity crisis that prompted a substantial injection of capital into financial markets by the US Fed, Bank of England and the European Central Bank. In September 2008, the crisis deepened, as stock markets worldwide crashed and entered a period of high volatility, and a considerable number of banks, mortgage lenders and insurance companies failed in the following weeks. The crisis of real estate, banking and credit in the United States had a global reach and affected a wide range of financial and economic activities and institutions including the stock exchanges and derivative markets that experienced steep declines. Liquidity problems, harder credit facilities, devaluated assets, increased public debt due to the provision of public funds to the financial services industry and other affected industries, and the devaluated currencies have been the outstanding symptoms of the crisis.1 Almost everybody agree on that the current crisis is the biggest in scale that the world has experienced since then. Unlike at the time of the Great Depression, when governments were slow to take countermeasures, the financial authorities of Japan, the United States, and Europe have been coordinating their response to provide financial institutions with infusions of public funds. This seems to have worked for now, causing the situation to become somewhat calmer. It is generally admitted that capitalism as a whole is speculative and inherently unstable. John Maynard Keynes believed that the market economy was unstable and that it was necessary to use monetary and fiscal policy to tame its instability (Katsuhito 2008). The current financial system seems to be inherently plagued by persistent crises. According to one estimate, there have been more than 100 crises over the last four decades (Stiglitz 2003). Not a single geographical area or major country has been spared the effect of these crises. Even some of the countries that have generally followed sound fiscal and monetary policies have become engulfed in these crises (Chapra 2008). 1 Wikipedia contributors, "Financial crisis of 2007–2009," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932009&oldid=289330105 (accessed May 12, 2009). 42 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Although US mortgage crisis is often cited as having caused the crisis, the financial system was vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations, a U.S. monetary policy making the cost of credit negligible therefore encouraging such high levels of leverage, and generally a hypertrophy of the financial sector. This paper first deals with the most touched reasons for the current crisis, taking the financialism, a new phase of the capitalism, then discussing the role of interest rate policies in the inherently crisisful nature of capitalism. Finally, it lists some suggestions with concluding remarks. 2. The Most Talked Causes of the Current Global Financial Crisis As a matter of fact the present global financial did not take anybody by surprise. Few now doubt that the housing bubble in US was bound to burst or that a general financial crisis and a global economic slowdown were to be the unavoidable results. Warning signs were evident for years to all of those not taken in by the new financial alchemy of high-risk debt management, and not blinded, as was much of the corporate world, by huge speculative profits (Foster). Years ago, in August 2002, the analyst Dean Baker identified a housing bubble and wrote that from 1953 to 1995 house prices had simply tracked inflation, but that when house prices from 1995 onwards were adjusted for inflation they showed a marked increase over and above inflation-based increases. Baker drew the conclusion that a bubble in the US housing market existed and predicted an ensuing crisis (Baker). Baker's argument was confirmed with the construction of a data series from 1895 to 1995 by the influential the economist Robert Shiller, which showed that real house prices had been essentially unchanged over that 100 years (Shiller 2006). It later proved impossible to convince responsible parties such as the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve of the need for action. A common claim during the first weeks of the financial crisis was that the problem was simply caused by reckless, sub-prime lending. However, the sub-prime mortgages were only part of a far more extensive problem affecting the entire $20 trillion US housing market: the sub-prime sector was simply the first place that the collapse of the bubble affecting the housing market showed up. The ultimate point of origin of the great financial crisis of 2007-2009 can be traced back to an extremely indebted US economy. The collapse of the real estate market in 2006 was the close point of origin of the crisis. The failure rates of subprime mortgages were the first symptom of a credit boom tuned to bust and of a real estate shock. But large default rates on subprime mortgages cannot account for the severity of the crisis. Rather, low-quality mortgages acted as an accelerant to the fire that spread through the entire financial system. The latter had become fragile as a result of several factors that are unique to this crisis: the transfer of assets from the balance sheets of banks to the markets, the creation of complex and opaque (unclear) assets, the failure of ratings agencies to properly assess the risk of such assets, and the application of fair value accounting. To these novel factors, one must add the now standard failure of regulators and supervisors in spotting and correcting the emerging weaknesses (Fratianni and Marchionne 2009). Subprime lending is listed among the outstanding reasons. Subprime lending refers to financial institutions lending in ways which do not meet prime standards to an extent which puts the loans into the riskiest category of consumer loans typically sold in the secondary market. Proponents of subprime lending maintain that the practice extends credit to people who would otherwise not have access to the credit market. Some, like American Enterprise Institute fellow Peter J. Wallison, believe the roots of the crisis can be traced directly to sub-prime lending by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, which are government sponsored entities. On 30 September 1999, The New York Times reported that the Clinton Administration expanded mortgage loans among low and moderate income people. Deregulation is cited as another reason for the crisis. In 1992, the US Congress weakened regulation of government sponsored enterprises Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac with the goal of making available more money for the issuance of home loans. More importantly, in 1999, the Congress passed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, paving way to the increase in the complex and opaque financial instruments which are at the heart of the crisis. The housing bubble grew up alongside the stock bubble of the mid-1990s (Foster). People who had increased their wealth substantially with the extraordinary run-up of stock prices were spending based on this increased wealth. This led to the consumption boom of the late 1990s, with the savings rate out of disposable income falling from five percent in the mid-90s to two percent by 2000. The stock-wealth induced consumption boom led people to buy bigger and/or better homes, since they sought to spend some of their new stock wealth on housing. The next phase of the housing bubble was the supply-side effect of the dramatic increase in house prices, as housing starts rose substantially from the mid-1990s onwards. The collapse of the stock bubble helped to feed the US housing bubble. After collectively losing faith in the stock market, millions of people turned to investments in housing as a safe alternative. In addition, the 2001 recession led the Federal Reserve to continue to cut interest rates. Fixed-rate mortgages and other interest rates hit 50-year lows. To further fuel the housing market, Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greenspan suggested that homebuyers were wasting money by buying fixed rate mortgages instead of adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs). This was peculiar advice at a time when fixed rate mortgages were near 50-year lows, but even at the low rates of 2003 homebuyers could still afford larger mortgages with the adjustable rates available at the time. 43 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The bubble began to burst in 2007, as the building boom led to so much over-supply that prices could no longer be supported. Prices nationwide began to head downward, with this process accelerating through the fall of 2007 and into 2008. As prices decline, more homeowners face foreclosure. In cases where a home is valued far lower than the amount of the outstanding mortgage, homeowners may be able to simply walk away from their mortgage. Another cause of the crisis was miscalculation of the level of risk inherent in the unregulated collateralized debt obligation and Credit Default Swap markets. Under this theory, banks and investors systematized the risk by taking advantage of low interest rates to borrow tremendous sums of money that they could only pay back if the housing market continued to increase in value. The risk was further systematized by the use of false pricing model, Gaussian copula model, which will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees. Different from the mainstream explanation, another analysis is that the financial crisis is merely a symptom of another, deeper crisis, which is a systemic crisis of capitalism itself. According to Samir Amin, an Egyptian economist, the constant decrease in GDP growth rates in Western countries since the early 1970s created a growing surplus of capital which did not have sufficient profitable investment outlets in the real economy. The alternative was to place this surplus into the financial market, which became more profitable than productive capital investment, especially with subsequent deregulation (Samir 1996). According to Samir Amin, this phenomenon has lead to recurrent financial bubbles. 3. A Less Talked Cause: Financialization of the Economy Foster argues that this crisis is not just another massive credit crunch but signals a new phase in the development of the capitalistic system, which is labeled ‘monopoly-finance capital’. The bursting of two major financial bubbles in seven years points to a crisis of financialization, a progressive shift from production to finance that has characterized the economy over the last four decades (Foster). Paul Sweezy called it “the financialization of the capital accumulation process” just over a decade ago. It has been the main force lifting economic growth since the 1970s (Sweezy 1997). The financial system is supposed to serve a range of functions in the broader economy. Banks and other financial institutions mop up savings, and then allocate that capital, according to mainstream theory, to where it can most productively be used. For households and corporations, the credit markets facilitate greatly increased borrowing, which should foster investment in capital goods like buildings and machinery, in turn leading to expanded production. Finance, in other words, is supposed to facilitate the growth of the “real” economy—the part that produces useful goods (like bicycles) and services (like medical care). In recent decades, finance has undergone massive changes in both size and shape (Vasudevan 2008). Financialization is a process whereby financial markets, financial institutions and financial elites gain greater influence over economic policy and economic outcomes. Financialization transforms the functioning of economic system at both the macro and micro levels. Its principal impacts are to (1) elevate the significance of the financial sector relative to the real sector; (2) transfer income from the real sector to the financial sector; and (3) increase income inequality and contribute to wage stagnation. Additionally, there are reasons to believe that financialization may render the economy prone to risk of debt-deflation and prolonged recession (Palley 2007). The transformation in the system is reflected in the rapid growth since the 1970s of financial profits as a percent of total profits (see chart 1). The fact that such financialization of capital appears to be taking the form of bigger and bigger bubbles that burst more frequently and with more devastating effect, threatening each time a deepening of stagnation -i.e., the condition, endemic to mature capitalism, of slow growth, and rising excess capacity and unemployment/underemployment, is thus a development of major significance. 44 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chart 1. Financial profits as a percent of total profits (five-year moving average) Source: Table B-91. Corporate Profits by Industry, 1959–2007, Economic Report of the President, 2008. The term financialization is sometimes used in discussions of financial capitalism1 which developed over several decades leading up to the 2007-2009 financial crisis, and in which financial leverage tended to override capital (equity) and financial markets tended to dominate over the traditional industrial economy. Greta Krippner defines financialization as a “pattern of accumulation in which profit making occurs increasingly through financial channels rather than through trade and commodity production.” Another definition by Dore is: “the increasing dominance of the finance industry in the sum total of economic activity, of financial controllers in the management of corporations, of financial assets among total assets, of marketised securities and particularly equities among financial assets, of the stock market as a market for corporate control in determining corporate strategies, and of fluctuations in the stock market as a determinant of business cycles” (Dore 2000)). The basic mechanism of financialization is the transformation of future streams of income (from profits, dividends, or interest payments) into a tradable asset like a stock or a bond. For example, the future earnings of corporations are transmuted into equity stocks that are bought and sold in the capital market. Likewise, a loan, which involves certain fixed interest payments over its duration, gets a new life when it is converted into marketable bonds. And multiple loans, bundled together then “sliced and diced” into novel kinds of bonds (“collateralized debt obligations”), take on a new existence as investment vehicles that bear an extremely complex and opaque relationship to the original loans (Vasudevan 2008). In his 2006 book, American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century, An American writer Kevin Phillips presents financialization as a process whereby financial services take over the dominant economic, cultural, and political role in a national economy.” (p. 268). Philips considers that the financialization of the U.S. economy follows the same pattern that marked the beginning of the decline of the American economy as Habsburg Spain in the 16th century, the Dutch trading empire in the 18th century, and the British Empire in the 19th century. Graph 1: Share in GDP of US financial sector since 1860. Source: "Financialization." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2 May 2009, 00:32 UTC. 21 May 2009 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financialization&oldid=287358015>. The roots of financialization is traced to the rise of Neoliberalism and the free-market doctrines of Milton Friedman and the Chicago School of Economics, of which the politico-economic philosophy has been summarized as one in which “markets, private property and minimal government will achieve maximum welfare.” One of the most important impetuses to the rise of financialization was the end of the post-World War Two Bretton Woods system of fixed international exchange rates and the dollar peg to gold in August 1971. The demise of fixed exchange rates initiated a rapid rise in the level of foreign exchange trading (forex), leaping in the United States from $110.8 billion in 1970, 10.7 percent of U.S. GDP, to $5.449 trillion in 1980, 195.3 percent of U.S. GDP, meaning a 5 times increase. An April 1977 study found there was $4.8 billion in daily forex trading, or around $1.2 trillion a year. However, this study did not include all the trading in futures trading for various currencies. Currency futures were first created at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1972, the year after fixed exchange rates were abandoned. 1 Financial capital refers to the funds provided by lenders (and investors) to businesses to purchase real capital equipment for producing goods/services. Real capital comprises physical goods that assist in the production of other goods and services, eg. shovels for gravediggers, sewing machines for tailors, or machinery and tooling for factories. (Financial capital. (2009, May 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:28, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_capital&oldid=290884469) 45 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Other financial markets exhibited similarly explosive growth. While the volume of trade in US equity (stock) markets was 13.1 percent of US GDP in 1970, it rose to 28.8 percent of U.S. GDP in 1990, and 144.9 percent of GDP. Thus, derivatives trading -mostly futures contracts on interest rates, foreign currencies, Treasury bonds, etc had reached a level of $1,200 trillion, $1.2 quadrillion, a year. By comparison, U.S. GDP in 2006 was $12.456 trillion. Table 1 provides data for the annual amount of financial trading in U.S. financial markets, compared to GDP. Table 1: Dollar value of trading in U.S. financial markets compared to GDP (Annual, in billions of dollars. Italics indicate estimates) 1956 1960 1963 1966 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 Equity Markets Trading 36 47 61 128 135 522 1,671 14,22 U.S. government securities trading 276 473 722 1,091 1,391 4,840 26,688 67,05 Futures Trading 150 165 203 250 330 5,584 152,717 343,13 Foreign Exchange Trading 41 47 55 74 111 5,449 36,000 60,960 Corporate Debt Trading 19 35 56 90 na 821 3,972 3,96 State and Municipal Bonds 12 23 37 60 112 542 2,622 2,11 Options trading, on exchange na na na na na 46 81 330 Mortgage Derivatives na na na na na na 3,697 16,68 OTC swaps, forwards, options na na na na na TOTAL FINANCIAL TURNOVER 534 795 1,134 1,692 2,749 17,804 227,448 508,45 U.S. Gross Domestic Product 425 526 603 770 1,039 2,790 5,803 9,817 Turnover divided by GDP 1.256 1.511 1.331 2.198 2.647 6.383 39.194 51.79 GDP as % of financial turnover 79.6 66.2 53.2 45.5 37.8 15.7 2.6 1.9 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financialization, May 19 2009 A dramatic shift is observed in types of futures contracts traded from 1970 to 2004. For a century after organized futures exchanges were founded in the mid-1800s, all futures trading was solely based on agricultural commodities. But after the end of dollar gold-backed fixed-exchange rate system in 1971, contracts based on foreign currencies began to be traded. After the deregulation of interest rates by the Bank of England, then the U.S. Federal Reserve, in the late 1970s, futures contracts based on various bonds / interest rates began to be traded. The result was that financial futures contracts - based on such things as interest rates, currencies, or equity indices - came to dominate the futures markets. The average value for interest rate contracts is around ten times that of agricultural and other commodities, while the average value of currency contracts is twice that of agricultural and other commodities. As a result of the process of financialization, Financial services have become a key industry in developed economies in which it represents a sizeable share of the GDP and an important source of employment. Those activities also played a key facilitator role to foster economic globalization. ... “The Reagan-Thatcher model, which favored finance over domestic manufacturing, has collapsed” (Meyerson 2009). Emerging countries try also to develop their financial sector, as an engine of economic development. A typical aspect is the growth of microfinance / microcredit. Microfinance refers to the provision of financial services to lowincome clients, including consumers and the self-employed (Joanna 2000). Microcredit is a part of microfinance, which is the provision of a wider range of financial services to the very poor. Microcredit is a financial innovation that is generally considered to have originated with the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh (Cons and Paprocki 2008). In that country, it has successfully enabled extremely impoverished people to engage in self-employment projects that allow them to generate an income and, in many cases, begin to build wealth and exit poverty. Due to the success of microcredit, it is increasingly gaining credibility in the mainstream finance industry, and many traditional large finance organizations are contemplating microcredit projects as a source of future growth, even though almost everyone in larger development organizations discounted the likelihood of success of microcredit when it was begun. The United Nations declared 2005 the International Year of Microcredit.1 This recognized success brought also some negative reactions. In the Introduction to the 2006 book Financialization and the World Economy, editor Gerald A. Epstein writes: “… in the mid- to late 1970s or early 1980s, structural shifts of dramatic proportions took place in a number of countries that led to significant increases in financial transactions, real interest rates, the profitability of financial firms, and the shares of national income accruing to the holders of financial assets. This set of phenomena reflects the 1 Microcredit. (2009, May 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:14, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microcredit&oldid=288530976 46 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo processes of financialization in the world economy… Finance benefits handsomely from the same processes that create economic crises and injure so many others. Hence the costs of financial crises are paid by the bulk of the population, while large benefits accrue to finance. …Using the case of the US economy, Crotty argues that financialization has had a profound and largely negative impact on the operations of US nonfinancial corporations. This is partly reflected in the increasing incomes extracted by financial markets from these corporations; trends identified also by Duménil and Lévy and Epstein and Jayadev. For example, Crotty shows that the payments US NFCs paid out to financial markets more than doubled as a share of their cash flow between the 1960s and the 1970s, on one hand, and the 1980s and 1990s on the other... Financial markets’ demands for more income and more rapidly growing stock prices occurred at the same time as stagnant economic growth and increased product market competition made it increasingly difficult to earn profits. Crotty calls this the ‘neoliberal’ paradox. Non-financial corporations responded to this pressure in three ways, none of them healthy for the average citizen: 1) they cut wages and benefits to workers; 2) they engaged in fraud and deception to increase apparent profits and 3) they moved into financial operations to increase profits. Hence, Crotty argues that financialization in conjunction with neoliberalism and globalization has had a significantly negative impact on the prospects for economic prosperity (Epstein). One of the most notable features of financialization has been the development of over-leverage (more borrowed capital and less own capital) and, as a related tool, financial derivatives. Financial derivatives are the financial instruments, the price or value of which is derived from the price or value of another, underlying financial instrument. Those instruments, which initial purpose was hedging and risk management, have become widely traded financial assets in their own. The most common types of derivatives are futures contracts, swaps, and options. In the past few years, the number and types of financial derivatives have grown enormously.1 A major unknown regarding derivatives is the actual amount of cash behind a transaction. A derivatives contract with a notional value of millions of dollars may actually only cost a few thousand dollars. For example, an interest rate swap might be based on exchanging the interest payments on $100 million in U.S. Treasury bonds at a fixed interest of 4.5 percent, for the floating interest rate of $100 million in credit card receivables. This contract would involve at least $4.5 million in interest payments, though the notional value may be reported as $100 million. However, the actual “cost” of the swap contract would be some small fraction of the minimal $4.5 million in interest payments. The difficulty of determining exactly how much this swap contract is worth when accounted for on a financial institution’s books, is typical of the worries many experts and regulators have over the explosive growth of these types of instruments. The root causes of the US financial crisis are now well known, but excessive leverage and derivative trade featured prominently as one of the explanations. As the Figure 1 shows, global per capita derivative in 2008 outstripped global per capita GDP by a factor of 10, as opposed to a factor of less than 2 a decade ago. This trend highlights not only the rapidity with which derivative trade grew over the years but also the dangers of undertaking such colossal transactions without adequate underlying assets to back them.2 1998 2000 2001 2004 2007 2008 ■ Global Per Capita GDP ■ Global Per Capita 'Derivative' Figure 1: World Per Capita Derivative and Per Capita GDP 1000 Source: BIS, IMF, World Bank 1 In November 2007, commenting on the financial crisis sparked by the sub-prime mortgage collapse in the United States, writes that according to the Bank of International Settlements, the OTC market for Credit default swaps (CDS) jumped from $4.7 trillion (TN) at the end of 2004 to $22.6 TN to end 2006. From the International Swaps and Derivatives Association we know that the total notional volume of credit derivatives jumped about 30% during the first half to $45.5 TN. And from the Comptroller of the Currency, total U.S. commercial bank Credit derivative positions ballooned from $492bn to begin 2003 to $11.8 TN as of this past June. (Doug Noland “Credit Bubble Bulletin: Road to Ruin”, Asia Times Online, Nov. 6, 2007, available at http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/IK06Dj01.html) 2 Gulf One Investment Bank Research Bulletin, Vol.. 2, No.1, January 2009. 47 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. The Least Talked Cause: Interest Rate Policies Economists of the Austrian School have proposed that the crisis is an excellent example of the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, in which credit created through the policies of central banking gives rise to an artificial boom, which is inevitably followed by a bust. Proponents of this theory have predicted the current financial crises, and argue that central banks should not be involved in debt markets. The history of the yield curve from 2000 through 2007 illustrates the role that credit creation through interest rate policies by the Federal Reserve may have played in the on-set of the financial crisis in 2007 and 2008. Treasury yield is one tool of monetary policy. The yield curve (also known as the term structure of interest rates) is the shape formed by a graph showing US Treasury Bill or Bond interest rates on the vertical axis and time to maturity on the horizontal axis (Figure 2). When short-term interest rates are lower than long-term interest rates the yield curve is said to be “positively sloped”. This in turn encourages an expansion in money supply and in turn favours debt induced bubbles. When long-term interest rates are lower than short-term interest rates the yield curve is said to be “inverted”. This favours a contraction in money supply. When long term and short term interest rates are equal the yield curve is said to be “flat”. The yield curve is believed by some to be a strong predictor of recession (when inverted) and inflation (when positively sloped). Figure 2: Yield Curve Source: Wikipedia contributors, "Yield curve," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yield_curve&oldid=289286091 (accessed May 14, 2009). A positively sloped yield curve allows primary dealers (such as large investment banks) in the Federal Reserve System to fund themselves with cheap short term money while lending out at higher long-term interest rates. This strategy is profitable so long as the yield curve remains positively sloped. However, it creates a liquidity risk if the yield curve were to become inverted and banks would have to refund themselves at expensive short term interest rates while losing money on longer term loans. Following the bursting of the Dot-com bubble in 2000 and the Stock market downturn of 2002 the US Federal Reserve reacted by sharply lowering short-term interest rates. The Fed lowered the Fed Funds target rate beginning in January 2001 at 6.5% to a nadir of 1% in June 2003. The Fed also held rates at this low level for an unusually long period of time (1yr) until June 2004. This prolonged period of stimulative Fed monetary policy created a very positively sloped yield curve. The yield on the 3-month T-bill reached its lowest point (0.88%) for the cycle in the late fall of 2003 while at the same time 30-year T-bond rates were in excess of 5%. In June 2004 the Fed began to slowly increase Fed Funds rates and the yield curve slowly narrowed. Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan notably described this narrowing of spreads between short term and long term rates as a “conundrum” during testimony in February 2005. The chairman expected long term rates to rise in line with short term rates. However, the tightening of monetary policy caused by rising short term rates was slowing the economy and reducing demand for long-term borrowing. 48 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Fed raised Fed Funds target rates to a peak of 5.25% in June 2006. By October 2006 the yield curve on 90-day T-bills vs 30-year T-bonds was essentially flat indicating neutral monetary policy (neither stimulative nor contractionary). While the Fed maintained Fed Funds rates at this high level, long term rates began to fall causing the yield curve to become more and more inverted. The yield curve was most strongly inverted in March 2007 when concern about current inflation was reaching its peak. The narrowing of the yield curve from 2004 and the inversion of the yield curve during 2007 indicated a bursting of the housing bubble and a wild gyration of commodities prices as moneys flowed out of assets like housing or stocks. A commodity bubble was created following the collapse in the housing bubble. The price of oil rose to over $140 dollars per barrel in 2008 before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. A similar bubble in oil prices has preceded other historical economic contractions. 5. Vatican Offering Islamic Finance System to Western Banks It should not take anybody by surprise that the Vatican offered Islamic finance principles to Western banks as alternative to capitalism to solve the worldwide economic crisis, with Daily Vatican newspaper, 'L'Osservatore Romano, reporting that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. Having resisted the interest for 1500 years in its 2000 years’ history, the Vatican suggested that the banks look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. The newspaper drew attention of the banks to the ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based in order to bring them closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service. Author Loretta Napoleoni and Abaxbank Spa fixed income strategist, Claudia Segre, said in the article that Western banks could use tools such as the Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral. To them, sukuk may be used to fund the car industry or the next Olympic Games in London. They also said that profit share, gained from sukuk, may be an alternative to the interest. They underlined that sukuk system could help automotive sector and support investments in infrastructure area. Islamic sukuk system is similar to bonds of capitalist system. But in sukuk, money is invested in concrete projects and profit share is distributed to clients instead of interest earned. Pope Benedict XVI in an Oct 7 speech reflected on crashing financial markets saying that “Money vanishes, it is nothing” and concluded that “the only solid reality is the word of God.” The Vatican has been paying attention to the global financial meltdown and ran articles in its official newspaper that criticize the free-market model for having “grown too much and badly in the past two decades.” The Osservatore's editor, Giovanni Maria Vian, said that “the great religions have always had a common attention to the human dimension of the economy,” Corriere della Sera reported today.1 Although the term ‘interest’ is the most condemned notion throughout history, it has been the factor that most affected the individual and social life of the humankind. Yet, it has been the foundation stone of capitalist liberal economy. The current financial crisis is the result of the bursting of financial bubbles that grew in the recent decades, and the most effective factor that has generated the bubbles is the interest, which is the backbone of modern finance. Interest bearing negotiable instruments and securities change hands without any limit. Trillion dollars’ bonds’ markets fluctuate upon any interest rate change and some earn billions of dollars in a few hours while others lose. One point hike in the interest rates pulls upward the debt stocks of a state, while an opposite move causes losses to the creditor. Interest has become the indispensable element of the modern economies, penetrating into their cells. Even the financial transactions seemingly irrelevant to interest are somehow hand in hand with it. For example, in futures contracts, what determines the spread, the difference, between spot and future prices is nothing other the interest. In short, interest makes the financial world for some a door to happiness and for some a door to misfortune. Why to be astonished by such a system producing crises? (Uslu 2008). 6. Conclusion Though it is inherently the primary reason for business cycles, interest rates have not been criticized by the mainstream economics since it is taken for granted in spite of the fact that it is a problematic policy tool. But the truth is clear that the global financial system is quite volatile due to its being dependent on the mostly questionable interest rates. Since it is impossible for mankind to foresee the future, any interest rate which is determined according to the current supply and demand conditions should not be expected to be valid on the coming days ahead since these days will have their own supply and demand conditions that determine another interest rate, which may be highly different than the already fixed one, thus arising a deviation between the two. This deviation is one of the reasons for financial 1 “Vatican offers Islamic finance system to Western Banks”, March 6, 2009, available at http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=37814, May 20, 2009; “Vatican Paper Supports Islamic Finance. France Wants Its Share of Sharia Banking”, available at http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/3819, May 20, 2009; “Vatican backs Islamic finance”, available at http://www.newhorizonislamicbanking.com/index.cfm?section=news&action=view&id=10751, May 20, 2009. 49 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo bubbles and imbalances. We should remember that the equivalent of the term interest in Islamic literature is ‘riba’ which means ‘growth’ and ‘bubble’. Since all the financial transactions as well as futures trading and currency futures are carried out on the basis of interest rates, all these transactions cause some deviation thus a bubble growing by the time. Giving an ear to the voice of the Vatican calling to the Islamic finance and ethics, we had better have a look at this option in order to have a solid and sound financial system. By the way, Islamic finance helps raise substantially the share of equity in businesses and of profit-and-loss sharing in projects and ventures through the mudarabah and musharakah modes of financing. Greater reliance on equity does not necessarily mean that debt financing is ruled out. Yet Islamic finance rather requires the creation of debt through the sale or lease of real assets through its sales- and lease-based modes of financing (murabahah, ijarah, salam, istisna and sukuk). The purpose is to enable an individual or firm to buy now the urgently needed real goods and services in conformity with his ability to make the payment later. Islam has, however, laid down certain conditions that would help prevent excessive expansion of debt. Some of these are: 1) The asset which is being sold or leased must be real, and not imaginary or notional; 2) The seller must own and possess the goods being sold or leased; 3) The transaction must be a genuine trade transaction with full intention of giving and taking delivery; and 4) The debt cannot be sold and thus the risk associate with it cannot be transferred to someone else. It must be borne by the creditor himself (Chapra 2008). These basic principles no doubt need detailed explanation, not possible for the time being due to lack of space, since it has already exceeded its limits. References Amin, Samir. (1996). “Economic, Social and Political http://www.ismea.org/INESDEV/AMIN.eng.html, May 20, 2009. Distortions in Baker, Dean. “The Run-up in Home Prices: Is It Real or http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/housing_2002_08.pdf, 12 May 2009 Is the It Modern Another World”, available at Bubble?”, available at Chapra, M. Umer.(2008). The Global Financial Crisis: Can Islamic Finance Help Minimize the Severity and Frequency Of Such A Crisis in the Future? A paper prepared for presentation at the Forum on the Global Financial Crisis to be held at the Islamic Development Bank on 25 October 2008, avalable at http://www.isdbforum.org/presentationPapers/5-M_Umer_Chapra.pdf, 20 May, 2009. Cons, Jason and Paprocki, Kasia. (2008). "The Limits of Microcredit—A Bangladeshi Case", Food First Backgrounder (Institute for Food and Development Policy), Winter 2008, volume 14, number 4. Dore, R. (2000). Stock Market Capitalism: Welfare Capitalism: Japan and Germany vs. the Anglo-Saxons. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924061-2. Epstein, Gerald A. “1. Introduction: Financialization and the World Economy”, available at http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/ pdf/programs/globalization/financialization/chapter1.pdf, May 19, 2009. Financial capital. (2009, May 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:28, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_capital&oldid=290884469) Foster, John Bellamy.(April 2008). “The Financialization of http://www.monthlyreview.org/080401foster.php, accessed on 16 May 2009. Capital and the Crisis”, available at Fratianni, M. and Marchionne, F. 2009. The Role of Banks in the Subprime Financial Crisis available on SSRN: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1383473 Gulf One Investment Bank Research Bulletin, Vol.2, No.1, January 2009. Iwai, Katsuhito. (December 08, 2008). “Global Financial Crisis Shows Inherent Instability of Capitalism”, available at http://www.tokyofoundation.org/en/articles/2008/global-financial-crisis-shows-inherent-instability-of-capitalism, May 20, 2009. Ledgerwood, Joanna. (2000). Microfinance Handbook: an Institutional and Financial Perspective. Washington DC: The World Bank, 2000. Meyerson,Harold. (2009). "Building a Better Capitalism", The Washington Post, March 12, 2009, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/11/AR2009031103218.html?wpisrc=newsletter, May 19, 2009. Microcredit. (2009, May 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microcredit&oldid=288530976 Retrieved 12:14, May 19, 2009, from Noland, Doug Noland. (2007). “Credit Bubble Bulletin: Road to Ruin”, Asia Times Online, Nov. 6, 2007, available at http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/IK06Dj01.html) Palley, Thomas I. (2007). “Financialization: What it is and Why it Matters”, TUAC Labour/Management Seminar on “Financialisation of the Economy: Regulating Private Equity”, OECD, 12 November 2007. Shiller, R. 2006. Irrational Exhuberance Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Stiglitz, Joseph. (2003). “Dealing with Debt: How to Reform the Global Financial System”, Harvard International Review, Spring, pp. 5459. 50 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sweezy, Paul M. (1997). “More (or Less) on Globalization,” Monthly Review 49, no. 4 (September 1997): 3. Uslu, Sami. (2008). “Küresel Krizin Derin Sebepleri”, available at http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=762286, May 10, 2009. Vasudevan,Ramaa. Financialization: A Primer, available at http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2008/1108vasudevan.html 16 May 2009. “Vatican backs Islamic finance”, =view&id=10751, May 20, 2009. available at http://www.newhorizon-islamicbanking.com/index.cfm?section=news&action “Vatican offers Islamic finance system to Western Banks”, March 6, 2009, available at http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php ?id=37814, May 20, 2009. “Vatican Paper Supports Islamic Finance. France Wants Its Share of Sharia Banking”, available at http://www.brusselsjournal.com /node/3819, May 20, 2009. Wikipedia contributors, "Financial crisis of 2007–2009," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932009&oldid=289330105 (accessed May 12, 2009). 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 137 Title A name given to the resource Investigating the Real but the Least Talked Reasons for the Global Financial Crisis Author Author ÖZSOY, İsmail GÖRMEZ, Birol Abstract A summary of the resource. The Global Financial Crisis of September 2008 is triggered by a dramatic rise in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures in the United States. With its destructive consequences for financial markets and institutions around the globe, it has exposed pervasive weaknesses in the current global financial system. The US housing collapse is often cited as having caused the crisis and the loose U.S. monetary policy is criticized for making the cost of credit negligible, thus encouraging high levels of leverage and causing a hypertrophy and bubbles in the financial sector. What is clear from the crisis is that the current global financial system is vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations mainly based on derivatives and interest rates. Rating the reasons for the crisis and dealing with the financialization process of the economy, this paper argues that the main reason for the crisis is interest based transactions of derivatives; mostly being a zero-sum game, thus not producing any economic value, rather than being a result of win-win action. It then suggests that financial operations be based on real assets, producing real values, not on illusory ones. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory