176 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/737cdf331ada2d5d7c51455339efc823.pdf 49c8ac31814bddf90aafdb0124db3022 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Literature and Colonialism: Tracing the Haitian Theme in the Literary Works of Kleist, Seghers and Mueller Mercy Vungthianmuang Centre of German Studies School of Language, Literature and Cultural Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India mercymuang@gmail.com Abstract: The entire history of the "Entdeckungsreisen' in the 15th and the 16th Century is a history of the conquered and the conquerer. With historical evidences of the various European nations ruling over the 'other' nations, comes a corpus of texts which legitimates and hence establishes an outline of colonization in literary texts. This discourse on colonialism in the various disciplines of the social sciences especially in the literary texts helps us to analyze the links between power and authority and apparently which also manifests itself in the language of the text. The Haitian Revolution i.e. the Slave Revolt against the French Rule is a theme which has been discussed in various historical time -periods over the centuries. In German literature, this historical event has also been established in a series of works of Heinrich von Kleist: Die Verlobung in St. Domingo, Anna Seghers: Die karibische Geschichten and Heiner Mueller‘s Play: Der Auftrag. It is interesting to know how the three texts establishes an intertextuality not only in its form and structure, but also how in different dimensions of literary representations it attributes the various trends of colonial discourse. Orientalising the other, representing the ‗other‘ and the emergence of ‗stabilization through Power‘ can be observed in these literary works. Introduction: Colonialism and Literature have had a close relationship since the discovery of the Americas by Vasco Da Gama. Colonialism has its origins in the whole history of expeditions starting from the 15th Century till the recent decades and literature, on the other hand, being a mediator between the ‗real‘ and the ‗imaginary‘ becomes a written and representational tool in which a cluster of complex language and symbols are considered to be exemplifying this ‗Difference‘282 between the ‗discoverer‘ and the ‗discovered‘ or the ‗conqueror‘ and the ‗conquered‘, the ‗oppressor‘ and the ‗oppressed‘. The literature of colonialism constitutes a corpus of texts, in which, the dominance of different European nations over the various ‗other‘ parts of the world is legitimised and perceived as ‗acceptable‘ and hence, creates a problematic debate on the quintessential issue of representation by the colonising power. This outlining of various colonial representations in literature then forms a prerequisite not only for the ‗colonial discourse‘ but also for the postcolonial discourse since it involves imperialising or ‗subordinating‘ of the colonised. 283 European representation of colonial contentions and themes forms the basis of the postcolonial argument. It becomes crucial for a globalised world, to reflect and to observe how various literary texts on colonialism are representational texts and how they metamorphose into an export of European ideas and Europe‘s search for its own identity. Scope and Objective of the research: The research aimed to study German literary texts representing the Haitian- Theme and attempt to trace various colonial connotations by challenging them and problematising them with a postcolonial perspective. The Slave revolt in Haiti in the year 1803 against the French regime has been, to a large extent, discussed and written extensively by many writers. Parallel to this, the aim of the research was to study the literary works of three German authors who have written broadly about the Haitian-theme in different time periods. The tradition of the Haitiantheme in German literature saw its onset with the work of Heinrich von Kleist‘s novella ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘ published in the year 1811, followed by Theodor Koerner‘s novel titled ―Toni‖ published in the year 1812 and several decades later , in the year 1840, Theodor Muegge‘s novel ‗Toussaint‘. A century later the Haitian – theme is taken up again by Anna Seghers in the ‗Karibische Geschichten‘ published in the year 1962. The third story in her ‗Karibische Geschichten‘ ‗ Das Licht auf dem Galgen‘ finds its affiliation in Heiner Mueller‘s play ‗Der 282 Osterhammel, Juergen: Geschichtswissenschaft jenseits des Nationalstaates. Studien zu Beziehungsgeschichte und Zivilizationsvergleich. Gottingen 2003. 283 Loomba, Ania: Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge 1988. p. 12 902 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Auftrag‘ which was published a decade later in the year 1979 contemplating not only the colonial contentions of the Haitian-theme but also discussing the idea of revolution. Heiner Mueller wrote: ―I wanted to do ‗Auftrag‘ after I had read Anna Seghers work ‗Das Licht auf dem Galgen‘. Das Licht auf dem Galgen is her contention with Stalinism: Napoleon / Stalin, the liquidators of revolution.‖284 The three German literary texts by Heinrich von Kleist, Anna Seghers and Heiner Mueller will form the basis for this research by displaying various dimensions of literary representations in the colonial and postcolonial context. In this research, the main aim was in studying and analysing the historical backgrounds during the time when the three authors Heinrich von Kleist, Anna Seghers and Heiner Mueller wrote their respective texts and also comparing and contrasting the various factors which influenced each individual author‘s usage of different motifs in their texts. The different genres of the three authors, was also one of the main focus of this research. Heinrich von Kleist and Anna Seghers novels share a similar genre but differ in their focus thematically. Heinrich von Kleist discusses extensively the relationship between the ‗coloniser‘ and the ‗colonised‘ and the contingencies of ―Blackness‘ and ―Whiteness‖ outlining his text into an issue of ‗race‘ and ‗class‘ and Seghers ‗stories‘ establish a different perspective of the Haitian-theme into a theme on revolution while acknowledging the factors of ‗race‘ and ‗class‘. Heiner Mueller‘s play being a ‗didactic play‘ with its subtitle ―Memories of a revolution‖ 285attempts to take the focus of his predecessor‘s texts onto a higher analysis of the various political, social and cultural issues, which were prevalent during the time the play was written and also now, in the postcolonial age, and hence, it becomes important for one to understand the intertextuality within the three literary texts sharing the Haitian-theme and analyse all the interwoven factors of literary and cultural importance. Another major objective of the research was to analyse how such literary texts on the Haitian-Theme, become representational texts of colonialism and to what extent does it mirror Germany‘s stand on colonialism. It becomes substantial for one, as a student of German Studies in India, to be able to examine and deal with the intercultural aspects in the three German literary texts. The different approaches of the individual authors in discussing the concept of ‗Blackness‘ or ‗Otherness‘ becomes crucial for this research and it becomes important also to understand how this discussion leads one to problematise the issue of ‗representation of the colonised‘. ―The social gulf built into the depersonalised official relationship between White ruler and non-White ruled is one which peculiarly facilitates thinking of the Other as incentive ‗sub men‘ by the rulers, and as heartless gods by the ruled. Fanon has remarked that the colon is right in his familiar claim to ‗know‘ the colonised people better than others, precisely because he has created his personality.‖286 In studying such literary texts and the categories of colonialism, it becomes all the more necessary to determine how this question of ‗Blackness‘ gets incorporated in the recent discourse of Postcolonialism and makes it essential to research and know how one deals with this idea of ‗Eurocentrism‘ in the post-colonial world. Fanon argues that Europe deployed an imperialist semiotics that made whiteness the signifier of reason, virtue, and beauty and blackness the signifier of irrational intuition and raw sensuality in order to legitimate its domination of the ‗third world‘. According to Fanon, racial value coding imposes a sense of inferiority on colonial subjects, alienating them from themselves and sometimes making them want to become white. But since the codes of blackness and whiteness are arbitrary fictions imposed by imperialism, it remains possible to claim a subject position outside them. 287 For example: the concept of ‗Morality‘ ‗Good‘ and ‗Civilised‘ as oppose to ‗Immorality‘ ‗Evil‘ and ‗Uncivilised‘. The representation of ‗Verlobung‘ or ‗Betrothal‘ of the main characters Gustav –a Swiss soldier and Toni- a black woman in Kleist‘s novel corresponds into a representation of an interlocking of two different cultures. The ‗love‘ between Gustav and Toni is depicted as an antithesis to a political engagement between the two cultures and love as a symbol which defines allegiances as in the case of revolutions‘.288 In many aspects, we can also observe that the texts by Heinrich von Kleist ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘ and Anna Seghers‘ ‗Die Hochzeit von Haiti‘, are a reflection on the coming together of two different cultures, as in the case of the ‗first world‘ and the so called ‗third world‘ civilizations. This engagement and marriage of two opposing civilizations, consequently, becomes an important theme for the research, since it involves the objectifications of the ‗colonized‘ ―...objectification is not best understood as denying the freedom of the objectified, but as denying and concealing the joint projects that underlie human relationships. [...] The 284 Cf. Heiner Mueller: Krieg ohne Schlacht-Leben in zwei Diktaturen. Koeln 1992. p. 297 Heiner, Mueller: Der Auftrag: Errinerung an eine Revolution. Frankfurt a. M. 1988 286 Worsley, Peter: Colonialism and Categories In Race and Social Difference (Ed.) Paul Baxter & Basel Sansom 1972. p. 98. 287 Cf. Fanon, Frantz: Black Skin, White Masks. Pluto Press. UK 1986. 285 903 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo objectification of racism, by contrast are more severe-such as a large pseudo-scientific literature claiming to prove the genetic inferiority of blacks to whites.‖289 The unsuccessful outcome of the relationship, projected as one‘s ‗moral‘ decision or that of total commitment to a ‗revolutionary‘ cause and the depiction of Toni‘s betrayal as a betrayal of the ‗Black‘ cause in Kleist‘s text and Heiner Mueller‘s emphasis on the revolution of the ‗whites‘ coming to an end, is thereby, another level of representation of the colonised section of the world. The research on such literary texts in a postcolonial context helps us to ponder upon several issues of representations which are more often or not, consciously and unconsciously, projected by the European writers as trivial. In the three primary literary works, the portrayal of the main characters, the need of ‗European‘ revolutionaries to oversee the revolution in the ‗non-western‘ part of the world and attributing the failure of the main characters and also the unsuccessful human relationships to cultural aberrations is, in many ways, a contention of ‗representation‘ which culminates into a ‗representation/substitution‘ for the oppressed. ―Two senses of representation are being run together: representation as ‗speaking for‘ as in politics and representation as‗re-presentation‘ as in art or philosophy.‖290 The research also looks into various other factors such as; the issue of ‗power‘ and ‗knowledge‘ of the colonial discourse and attempt to problematise it through the literary texts. The stereotyping of the characters and events in the literary texts illustrates an uneasy representation of the non-western world and the research finds such illustrations as an association between ‗power‘ and ‗knowledge‘ as opposed to ‗weakness‘ and ‗ignorance‘. ―Stereotyping involves reduction of images and ideas to simple and manageable forms; rather than simple ignorance or lack of ‗real‘ knowledge, it is a method of processing information. The function of stereotypes is to perpetuate an artificial sense of difference between ‗self‘ and ‗other‘‖.291 The research also makes an attempt to look into the depiction of women in the literary texts and also finds a concrete argument for such portrayals which in turn lead us again to the discussion of the ‗representation‘ of the oppressed society. The representation of ‗Toni‘ as the victim in Kleist‘s ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘ whose misunderstood allegiances leads to the death of Gustav and herself, ‗Die erste Liebe‘ in Mueller‘s play ‗Der Auftrag‘, who succeeds in seducing Debuisson to give into the moment of betrayal represented as love for his ‗Heimat‘ which is Jamaika –a ‗third world‘ country, are traces of representations of women which construct cultural differences. This objectivising of ‗black‘ or ‗non-European women‘ as ‗evil‘, desirable‘ and ‗passive‘ needs to be carefully analyzed and problematised. Another very important factor to take into account in this research is whether or not, these literary texts are a ‗cultural memory‘ for the three authors and to try to determine the various aspects of cultural differences produced by the ‗cultural memory‘ in their writings, since memory involves recollecting of an event and the process of recollection involves reconstruction of the past and association with the past. With this reconstruction of the past, it then becomes crucial for one to examine the various cultural differences taken as an accepted fact, as in the case of ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘ in Kleist‘s text when the he produces a European cultural memory at the very beginning of his novella ―[...] when the blacks killed the whites...‖292 which then reduces the characters of literary texts into objects i.e. the ‗non-european‘ subject as an object, an object which is ‗evil‘ for the ‗west‘ which consecutively leads to the conception of ‗Difference‘. This ‗Difference‘ is created, not on the basis of geographical boundaries, but on metaphorical differences into the ‗slave‘ and the ‗non-slave‘ worlds and forms a very essential and crucial point of discussion. Jan Assman in his book- Das kulturelle Gedaechtnis mentions that ‗The cultural memory is aimed at fixed points in the past. [...] Past refers here to many symbolic figures, which the memory is attached to.‘293 The research also looks at the literary texts as productions of ‗enlightened‘ texts according to Kantian theories of ‗Enlightenment‘, which establishes reason being the pre-requisite of differences between two cultures. Hence, it enables one to evaluate the basic ‗European‘ theories of culture which more often than not, postulate the cultural differences between ‗us‘ and ‗them‘, also observed in the three literary texts, and it shall further enable us to examine whether such literary texts on the ‗colonized‘ and the ‗oppressed‘, becomes examples of the European author‘s or Europe‗s own search for identity in the postcolonial world. ―Attempts to interpret the role of race in Kleist‘s novella often founder on the attempt to establish the author‘s views concerning colonialism and Enlightenment thought. This is obvious reaction to the concerns of the text and the important, real-world context of race with our contemporary global culture.‖ 294 289 Schmitt, Richard: Racism and Objectification –Reflections on Themes from Fanon. In Lewis R. Gordon, T. Denean SharpleyWhiting and Renee T. White (Ed.), Fanon: A critical Reader, Oxford 1996. p. 46. 290 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty: Can the subaltern speak? 1988 p. 70 291 Loomba, Ania: Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge 1988. p. 60 292 Cf.Kleist, Heinrich von : Die Verlobung in St. Domingo. Hamburger Lesehefte 1977 293 Cf. Assman, Jan: Das kulturelle Gedaechtnis. Schrift, Errinerung und politische Identitate in fruehen Hochkulturen, Muenchen 2007. p. 52 294 Martin, James P: Reading Race in Kleist‘s ―Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‖. Monatshefte , Volume 100, number 1, Spring 2008 p. 63. 904 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Methodology: 1. Orientalism: I would like to propose the critical discourse on ‗Orientalism‘ which was articulated by Edward Said in his 1971 published book titled ‗Orientalism‘and which originated as a point of reference for all postcolonial writers in the 20th century, in order to examine the colonial and the postcolonial criticisms in European literatures. In his introduction, Said proposes to analyse Orientalism with the Foucauldian notion of ‗discourse‘. In writing on Orientalism, Said emphasises that the construction of the East was always possible for the west since the relationship shared between the ‗Occident‘ and the ‗orient‘ corresponded to a relationship of power and knowledge and ―...of varying degrees of a complex hegemony‖. 295 ―My contention is that without examining Orientalism as a discourse one cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was able to manage –and even produce-the orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically and imaginatively during the Post-Enlightenment period.‖296 From the above statement one can come to several conclusions that: a) The Orient would have to be created as an opposite of the west and which in turn means that the entire conception of the ‗Orient‘ or the ‗East‘ becomes a repository or projection of those aspects of themselves which Westerners do not choose to acknowledge and b) That the relationship between the ‗west‘ and the ‗Orient‘ has always been that of power structures wherein the superiority of the European identity has consistently been a dominating factor. Hence, it becomes important for this research, in analysing the concept of representation which has been postulated by the discourse on ‗Orientalism‘ in which the main focus remains, problematising the European representations of ‗other‘ cultures. In doing so, the central objective is not only to analyse or ascertain the passive participation of German authors in the ‗representation‘ of other cultures in their literary texts but also to study how these representations in literary texts have been a validation for representing the ‗orient‘ as an object throughout centuries. Representations wherein the east or the ‗orient has been taken as an ‗object‘ and features in the ‗western‘ mind ―...as sort of surrogate and even underground self.‖297 ―Thus all of Orientalism stands forth and away from the Orient: that Orientalism makes sense at all depends on the west than on the Orient, and this sense directly indebted to various Western techniques of representation that make the Orient visible, clear, ‗there‘ in discourse about it‖298 Said‘s theories of colonialism have been strongly contested and it would therefore also be important to look at the critical discourse on these positions. Especially in the German context it has been posited that since Germany was not a colonial power till the end of the 19 th Century, Said‘s theories are untenable in this framework 299. The work examines this aspect of the theoretical framework. 2. Colonialism/Postcolonialism As mentioned earlier, after European expeditions of the early 15 th/16th century, history saw the commencement of the various European colonisations; hence, it becomes inevitable for this research to understand the colonial and postcolonial discourse in literature. In the German context, although colonisation was never felt in the ‗real‘ sense of colonising a territory other than that of Europe, it however, was a silent partner in the colonial representations of the ‗colonised‘ through literary texts. If we take for example, the various travelogues of the German authors, or the reports and the letters written by German missionaries, it becomes evident that literary representations of a culture other than that of one‘s own becomes a crucial concept in the colonial discourse. If we take for instance, Alexander von Humboldt‘s expeditions, where he travels to ‗observe‘ and ‗study‘ the Native Americans, he gives a detailed scientific analysis of slavery and colonialism and writes his observations on the flora and fauna of the other parts of the continent, is nothing but a representation of a culture unknown to the European world. Hence, it becomes interesting for this research to analyse how these representations of people and cultures translate into ‗objectification‘ of the people who were observed and studied and how these reports or travelogues or literary works form Europe‘s way of understanding the ‗other‘ by reading it and constructing it. Such establishments of ‗other‘ parts of the continent as ‗delayed‘ and ‗inferior‘, is what interests us to question and to analyse literary texts in colonial discourse. As also in the case of the three works by Heinrich von Kleist, Anna Seghers and Heiner Mueller, namely, Die Verlobung von St. Domingo, Karibische Geschichten and ‗Der Auftrag‘ respectively, traces of colonial prejudices can be read and observed and therefore, it forms an essential factor for this research to examine the 295 Said, Edward: Orientalism. p.5 Ebid p. 23 297 Said, Edward. 1971. 298 Ebid p. 22 299 Cf. Polaschegg, Andrea: Der andere Orientalismus. Regeln deutsch-morgenlaendischer Imagination im 19. Jahrhundert. Berlin/New York 2005 296 905 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗representational ‗forms in such literary texts because literary and cultural practices also embody cultural interactions and involve cultural prejudices against the colonised. ― The colonial contact is not just ‗reflected‘ in the language or imagery of literary texts, it is not just a backdrop or ‗context‘ against which human dramas are enacted, but a central aspect of what these texts have to say about identity, relationships and culture.‖300 Another major theoretical aspect of the research is the postcolonial discourse. Analysing literary texts on the basis of colonial discourse , undoubtedly, gives us a fair understanding of the concept of ‗representational texts‘. Although the ‗representation‘ of the French colonies in Haiti in the literary texts may make us aware of ‗what had happened‘ and how the ‗colonised‘ were projected and depicted in the texts, consecutively, opening up a certain kind of awareness of how the representations of the non-European characters such as Toni, Margot, Sasportas and Congo Hoango in the three texts as ‗exotic‘ desirable‘ ‗evil‘ or ‗immoral‘, it also becomes critical for the postcolonial literary theory, to construct a future, wherein the differences are understood, apprehended and criticised. The postcolonial discourse helps us to understand and comprehend much more effectively, how such literary texts on historical events are considered to be an accepted form of historicising the past in the eyes of the European writer and it shall try to discuss the how such illustrations or depictions of the past in literature, if written by a ‗third world‘ author would have to undergo various degrees of experimentations and testing. ―That Europe works as a silent referent in historical knowledge becomes obvious in a very ordinary way. There are at least two everyday symptoms of the subalterity of non-western, third –world histories. Third world historians feel a need to refer to works in European history; historians of Europe do not feel any need to reciprocate‖301 4. The Category of the ‗Other‘ Reflecting on the theoretical aspects of Orientalism by Edward Said, it introduces us to another very important theoretical aspect which is the category of the ‗Other‘. Since several decades, theoreticians, culture historians and literary writers have tried to critically analyse and problematise this theoretical construct and epistemological category of the ‗Other‘ in the ongoing racial discourse. Thus, it was important for this research to study, how and when did the term ‗culture‘ begin to connote the differences between two societies or two cultures or better described as the difference between ‗Us‘ and ‗Them‘ and how such categorisations became an accepted norm in the literary works of the European writer. Another very important input on the categorisation of the non-European world as the ‗other‘ is in the book written by Todorov, titled ‗Entkolonisierung‘, in which he writes about the conquest of the Americas. Todorov does not embark on the historical conquests of the Americas in order to establish the European identity but he is rather concerned about the legitimising of the ‗moral‘ intentions by the Europeans, as also in the case of Edward Said, and appropriating this ‗need‘ to colonise. The category of the ‗other‘ exists within a society and also within several societies, hence, the theoretical construction of the ‗Other‘ creates on one hand, boundaries between two poles as eminently different, and on the other hand becomes an establishment of identities. 302 When critically analysed, it is observed that this category of the ‗Other‘ is always parallel to the degradation of the power structure, often evolving at the height of a political Imperialism and thus, becomes only evident in the various expressions of stereotypes or as forms of cultural hegemony. The presupposition of one culture being superior to the other leads to a prejudiced representation as in the case of the literary texts and also in the case of historical writings about the ‗third world‘. This process of articulating and organising the ‗Other‘ by the Europeans in the literary texts forms an essential part of the research. In what way is this research different? The research attempts to take the Haitian –theme in the German literary texts as a unit or a thematic composition between three texts, which has not been established before. Although many articles have been written on the texts dealing with various concepts, the thematic composition of the Haitian Theme has not been attempted. The research establishes an interdisciplinary approach of analysing the literary texts. Through the analysis of the texts, it becomes imperative to critically study the various established discussions about the ‗Representation‘ of the oppressed Class, People, and Group in tandem with the discourse of Postcolonialism. The research also traces the different developments of revolution from the historical aspects of the texts and makes an attempt to establish how the European model of a revolution then becomes a projection of delimiting the ‗black‘ revolution or the ‗third world‘ revolution into a category of the ‗other‘. The research is a distinctive and relevant in analysing the developing tendencies of German Studies in India and institutionalising this theme becomes interesting for a globalised world. 300 Loomba, Ania: Colonialism/Postcolonialism. 1998. p. 72-73. Althusser, Louis: Postcoloniality and the artiface of History In, Dipesh Chakrabarty: Provincialising Europe 2000. p.28. 302 Osterhammel, Juergen: Kulturelle Grenzen in der Expansion Europas, in: Geschichtswissenschaft jenseits des Nationalstaats. Goettingen 2003. p. 36. 301 906 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The object of my inquiry is the representation of the ‗oppressed‘ in the three primary German literary works. The research is a comparative study of the three German literary texts by Heinrich von Kleist, Anna Seghers and Heiner Mueller and proposes to find traces of colonial and postcolonial discourse in the literary texts which are used as primary texts segregating them under different categories of ‗race‘ , ‗class‘, and ‗gender‘. Another very important aspect of this research was in finding a theoretical approach to the various theories of culture and try to find relevance in the texts taken into account and how it would then lead into the establishing a concrete argument on the European identity in literature in the postcolonial perspective. Conclusion and Recommendations: The research determines and brings in new observations on the relationships between Europe and the nonEuropean worlds through these literary texts. The research accentuates the theoretical aspects by finding relevance of the theories in the textual analysis of the literary texts and makes an attempt to find its application in the concerned texts. Another major attempt of the research was to find and analyse the theories of ‗representation of the ‗other‘‘ in each of the texts ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘, Karibische Geschichten‘ and ‗Der Auftrag‘ which then lead us to establish a concrete argument in the postcolonial perspective. The Haitian-Theme has been for centuries, extensively discussed in the German literature from the 18th Century till date and forms the primary source for this research. The first German author to bring forth this particular theme was Heinrich von Kleist in his Novella ‗Die Verlobung in St. Domingo‘ published in the year 1811, which is the first primary source for the research. It was the time when Europe was establishing imperial and colonial power within and outside the European boundaries. The Napoleonic wars, the French revolution, colonisation, slavery and ‗Fremdheit‘ were the historical themes prevalent during this period. It was also the period of enlightenment when not only Germany, but the various other European countries were trying to provide a distinctive identity of its own. The Haitian theme was revived again, centuries after Kleist‘s novelle, by another German author Anna Seghers in her ‗Karibische Geschichten‘ in the year 1962 , wherein the previous documentations of slavery and revolution were taken into a more complicated level of discussion. It was the period after the Second World War and a tumultuous time for German socialist authors in trying to come to terms with their reality of ‗geteilte Welt‘. It was also a period of the civil war and the student‘s movement in Germany and hence, the Haitian theme was considered to be a basis for further contemplation of the ongoing autrocities in the karibische Geschichten, constituting the second primary source to be used in the research. A decade after Anna Seghers wrote her last story in her ‗Karibische Geschichten‘- ‗Das Licht auf dem Galgen‘, Heiner Mueller‘s play ‗Der Auftrag‘ was published in the year1979. 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Mùnster 2003 Lazarus, Neil (Ed.): Postcolonial Literary Studies. Cambridge 2004 Lehmann, Hans-Thies: Dramatische Form und Revolution in Georg Bùchners ‗Dantons Tod‘ und Heiner Mllers ‗Der Auftrag‘. In: Georg Bùchner: Dantons Tod: Die Trauerarbeit im Schnen. Hrsg. v. peter von Becker. Frankfurt 1980 Loomba, Ania: Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. Routledge 1998 Maurer, Emil H.: Der schwarze Revolutionӓr: Touissant Louverture. Meisenheim/ Glan 1950 Mùller-Seidel, Walter (Hg.): Versehen und Erkennen. Eine Studie ùber Heinrich von Kleist. 3. Auflage. Kӧln 1961 Onana, Marie Biloa: Der Sklavenaufstand von Haiti: Ethnische Differenz und Humanitätsideale in der Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts. Kӧln/ Weimar 2010 Osterhammel, Juergen: Kulturelle Grenzen in der Expansion Europas, In: Geschichtswissenschaft jenseits des Nationalstaats. Goettingen 2003 Sareika, Rdriger: Die dritte Welt in der westdeutschen Literatur der 60er Jahre. Frankfurt 1980 Said, Edward W.: Orientalism. 1978 Sauer, Klaus: Anna Seghers. Mùnchen 1978 Schmitt, Richard: Racism and Objectification –Reflections on Themes from Fanon. In Lewis R. Gordon, T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting and Renee T. White (Ed.), Fanon : A critical Reader, Oxford 1996 Schuppenhauer, Nadja: Die veränderte Rezeption der Haitianischen Revolution im Zuge des postcolonial turn: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. GRIN Verlag 2003. Stoddard, T.L.: The French Revolution in San Domingo. New York 1914 Todorov, Tzvetan; Die Eroberung Amerikas. Das Problem des Anderen. Frankfurt/ Main 1985 Wichmann, Thomas: Heinrich von Kleist. Stuttgart 1988 Williams, Patrick: Colonial Discourse and Postcolonial Theory. New York 1994 Witsch & Kiepenheuer: Heiner Mueller: Krieg ohne Schlacht-Leben in zwei Diktaturen. Koeln 1992 Angress, Ruth. K: Kleist‘s Treatment of Imperialism: ‗Die Hermannschlacht‘ and ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘. In: Monatshefte. Vol 69, No. 1, 1977. S. 17-33 Barnett, David: Literature versus Theatre. Textual Problems and Theatrical Realization in the Later Plays of Heiner Mùller. German Studies Review. Vol. 24, No. 3 (Oct., 2001), pp. 666-668 908 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Berding, H.: Die Ӓchtung des Sklavenhandels auf dem Wiener Kongreβ 1814/15. In: Historische Zeitschrift (1974) Bernd, Fischer: Zur politischen Dimension der Ethik in Kleists ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘. In: Dirk Grathoff(Hrsg): Heinrich von Kleist. Studien zu Werk u. Wirkung. Opladen 1988. S.248-262 Bertram, Christian: Im Auftrag ohne Auftrag. In: Theatre heute 3/1980 S. 43 Carl-Hermann, Middelanis: Blending with Motifs and Colors: Haitian History Interpreted by Edouard Duval Carrie. Journal of Germanic Studies. Small Axe - Number 18 (Volume 9, Number 2), September 2005, pp. 109-123 Cultural Critique, No. 6 Spring 1987.‖ The Nature and Context of minority Discourse‖.Ed. by Abdel Jan Mohammed& David Lloyd Enzensberger, Hans Magnus: Europӓische Peripherie. In: Kursbuch 2 August 1965. S. 154-173 Enzensberger, Hans Magnus: Peter Weiss und andere. In: Kursbuch 6 Juli 1966. S.175 Fehervary, Helen (1998): Landscapes of an "Auftrag". In: New German Critique. Winter (1998) S.115-132. Gilman, Sander: The Aesthetics of Blackness in Heinrich v. Kleist‘s ‗Die Verlobung in St. Domingo‘. In: MLN 90, 1975 S. 661-672 Gugelberger, George. M.: ―Cric?‖-―Crac‖! Vier literarische Versuche, mit dem Kolonialismus umzugehen. Monatshefte. Vol. 85. No.2 ( Summer 1993) S. 234-236 Gùnther, K,: Die Konzeption von Kleists‘ Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘. In: Euphorion 17, 1910. S.313-323 Hahne, O.: Die Entstehung von Kleist‘s ‗Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‘. In: Euphorion 33, 1921. S. 233-254 Irele, Abiola: Negritude-Literature and Ideology. Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol 3. No. 4. 1965. S. 499-526 Martin, James P: Reading Race in Kleist‘s ―Die Verlobung von St. Domingo‖. Monatshefte , Volume 100, number 1, Spring 2008 S. 63. Martini, Fritz:Heinrich von Kleist und die geschichtliche Welt. In: Germanische Studien. Heft 225. 1940 McCloy, S.T.: The Race Question in Late 18th Century France. In: Atlantic Quarterly (1961) Mùller-Salget, Klaus: Das Doppeldeutigkeit in Kleists Erzӓhlungen. In: Mùller-Seidel, Walter(Hrsg.): Kleists Aktualitӓt. Neue Aufsӓtze u. Essays. 1966-1978. Darmstadt 1981. S. 167-199 Musgrave, Marian E.: Anna Seghers‘ ‗Karibische Geschichten‘ and the tradition of Slavery Literature. In: American Association of Teachers of German: Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Meeting. Edited By Reinhold Grimm et.al. Philadelphia1975 Quartey, Seth : Africa in German Literature 1880 and After; Representation of Africa and Politics of German Colonialism in Africa 1810 and After, In: Developement and Colonialism. February 28, 2005 Reinhardt, Thomas: 200 Years of Forgettin g: Hushing up the Haitian Revolution. Journal of Black Studies. 2005. S. 246-261 Said, Edward W.: Orientalism Reconsidered. In: Race and Class. Autmn 1985 No. 2 P. 1-17 Teraoka, Arlene A.: Der Auftrag und Die Massnahme-Models of Revolution in Heiner Mùller and Bertolt Brecht. The German Quarterly, Vol. 59. No. 1 (Winter 1986) S. 65-84 29. Wende, Waltraud (1998): "Überfahrt" von Anna Seghers. Liebesgeschichte, Zeitporträt und Erzählung ùber das Erzählen. In: Euphorion 1 (1998), S.25-46. 30. Witkowski, Wolfgang: Justice and Loyalty-Kleist‘s Die Verlobung von St. Domingo. Journal of Black Studies. Vol 23, No. 2, Special Issue: The image of Africa in German Society 31. Worsley, Peter: Colonialism and Categories. Excerpts from P. Worsley, The third World, Wedenfeld and Nicolson, 1964 S.25-28 909 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 555 Title A name given to the resource Literature and Colonialism: Tracing the Haitian Theme in the Literary Works of Kleist, Seghers and Mueller Author Author Vungthianmuang, Mercy Abstract A summary of the resource. The entire history of the "Entdeckungsreisen' in the 15th and the 16th Century is a history of the conquered and the conquerer. With historical evidences of the various European nations ruling over the 'other' nations, comes a corpus of texts which legitimates and hence establishes an outline of colonization in literary texts. This discourse on colonialism in the various disciplines of the social sciences especially in the literary texts helps us to analyze the links between power and authority and apparently which also manifests itself in the language of the text. The Haitian Revolution i.e. the Slave Revolt against the French Rule is a theme which has been discussed in various historical time -periods over the centuries. In German literature, this historical event has also been established in a series of works of Heinrich von Kleist: Die Verlobung in St. Domingo, Anna Seghers: Die karibische Geschichten and Heiner Mueller‘s Play: Der Auftrag. It is interesting to know how the three texts establishes an intertextuality not only in its form and structure, but also how in different dimensions of literary representations it attributes the various trends of colonial discourse. Orientalising the other, represent ing the ‗other‘ and the emergence of ‗stabilization through Power‘ can be observed in these literary works. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1020 Title A name given to the resource Literature Circles as a Form of Autonomus Learning in EFL Environment Author Author Polatcan , Tuğba Yaşam Cindi, Eylem Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper reports on a large-scale study on learner autonomy in literature circles carried out with students and English instructors at Meliksah University in Turkey. The purpose of the study is to research how students attending Meliksah University Foreign Languages Education Center perceive the approach of literature circles as a form of autonomous language learning. This study also discusses how the proficiency level of students influences the students’ perception of literature circles. Literature circles are “… small temporary discussion groups who have chosen to read the same story, poem, or book” (Daniels 1994, p. 13). “Main feature of literature circles is group meetings on a regular, predictable schedule to discuss their reading. These group meetings aim to be open, natural conversations about books, so personal connections, digressions and open-ended questions are welcome.” (Bulut, 2010). The other key features include the teacher serving as a facilitator, not a group member or instructor, which is the main autonomous perspective of literature circles and lastly, the student performance is evaluated by teacher observation through some basic predetermined criteria (Bulut, 2010). The data are collected through a questionnaire which is administered to approximately 300 students attending English Preparatory School of Meliksah University and analyzed quantitatively to find out how students at different levels perceive the contribution of literature circles to their language learning as a form of autonomous learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd227a14081cc89ee6cce456d54adb8f.pdf 7c8e2d3d8d05722e57400052fb19b91a PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working Raymond U. Ogums Associate Director, Investment Operations 13 Christopher Drive Enfield, CT 06082, U.S.A. Email: rogums@babsoncapital.com Abstract This paper investigates the problem that an increasing number of people in the United States are financially unprepared for retirement, leading to a rise in post-retirement employment. The purpose of the study was to explore attitudes and beliefs toward continued or actual employment behaviors among a set of retirees who have chosen to continue working after reaching retirement age. The grounded theory study design was applied in the efforts to explain, at a broad conceptual level, the reasons older workers have chosen to continue working after reaching retirement age. Data gathered from 25 workers age 65 and older were analyzed. The analysis revealed five work motivators, five inhibitors of saving, six methods of saving, four lifestyle accommodations, and four work attitudes. Implications of the research were presented. The results suggest the new retirement funding structures have not been favorable to saving. Suggestions for a more positive retirement outlook are offered. KEYWORDS Retirement, Retirement Living, Post-Retirement Employment, Retirement Funding, Defined Benefit Pension Plans, Defined Contribution Pension Plans, Social Security Benefits ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 17 February 2012 Resubmitted: 27 March 2012 Resubmitted: 5 April 2012 Accepted: 10 April 2012 JEL Codes: D14, D19, Z00 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 21 �Raymond U. Ogums Introduction The post-1960s era was the era of increasing prosperity and conservative retirement programs in American society, which allowed older workers to retire on time. Recently, the major sources supporting these programs, Social Security, defined-benefit plans, and savings, have changed significantly. Specifically, Social Security faces a financial shortage by the middle of 2032 (Cahill, Giandrea and Quinn 2006). This financial shortage condition will result in reduced benefits, lower rates of replacement, later traditional or early retirement age, including eligibility for benefits and increases in social security taxes and other government revenues. Defined-contribution (DC) plans like the 401ks that carry substantial investment risks are fast replacing the traditional pension plans; and the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts recently reported savings have decreased to the lowest levels since the Great Depression of the 1930s (Cahill et al.). As these income sources continue to face reductions and create under funding of retirement, many older workers in America will be faced with two choices: working for more years or enduring a lower standard of living during retirement (Cahill et al.). While a portion of retirees have always chosen to remain in the labor market for a variety of reasons, the changing economics of retirement funding threaten to change both the proportion of working retirees, and the mix of factors that motivate them to work. The existence of retirement underfunding, resulting primarily from the changing structures of the retirement funding vehicles and extravagant lifestyle during the accumulation years by many, and the extent to which the underfunding affects retirees is fast becoming a problem (Cahill et al. 2006; Robertson 2006). In general, the U.S. retirement accounts savings are expected to experience a shortage of about $400 billion between the years 2020 and 2030 (Marquez 2006). Robertson (2006) reported American spending habits and lack of financial planning the primary reasons for this shortage; suggesting baby boomers who are yet to retire will have to make a dramatic change in their savings, spending, and investing habits if they wish to enjoy their retirement. According to U.S. Department of Labor, over 70% of all workers must now rely on their 401(k) rather than a pension plan (Wasik 2004). “As 401(k)s have grown from covering 7.5 million workers in 1984 to more than 42 million today, its counterpart—the guaranteed defined benefit pension—has gone from covering more than half the workforce to only 35 percent” (Wasik 2004, p 6). The continued shift away from guaranteed defined benefit pension toward 401(k) plans has precluded some Americans who could afford to retire from doing so (Baker 2007). Persistent erosion of employer-sponsored health benefits is also likely to 22 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working continue (Mermin, Johnson and Murphy 2006); adding to this problem; and creating a condition for lifestyle adjustment by retirees. Continuing to work has been one method used by people to address this condition (Utkus 2006); but the erosion of Social Security and health benefits have resulted in a complexity of factors that cause retirees to work. These factors undermine how retirees feel about working; further complicating the problem this study researched: that an increasing number of people in the United States are financially unprepared for retirement; resulting primarily from the changing structures of the retirement funding vehicles and extravagant lifestyle during the accumulation or working years. As a result, this study’s purpose was to explore attitudes and beliefs toward continued and actual employment behavior among a set of retirees in Hartford County, Connecticut, who have chosen to continue working after reaching retirement age. For purpose of the study, age 65 was designated the retirement age. Literature Review Retirement has been redefined, particularly as the first phase of the baby boom generation (those born in 1946) has reached traditional retirement age (Cahill et al. 2006). Fundamental changes in retirement funding sources, improved health among older people, and increased longevity have rendered many Americans unable to finance over 25 years of leisure in later years without reducing their living standards by more than 40%. Permanent or one-time retirement in America may have come to an end, as indicated by the trend toward early retirement among older men (Cahill et al. 2006). Historical overview Working to earn money is widely recognized as an important aspect of living in many societies (Herzberg, 1966). As people approach retirement, they may be motivated by other factors to remain employed. Maslow (1954) noted these factors to include belongingness, fulfillment and meaning, happiness, and leisure. According to Maslow, the reason is that satisfying any one need is consequential to that need Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 23 �Raymond U. Ogums becoming submerged and a new need emerging as the higher need. Recently, the changing structure of the retirement funding vehicles has resulted in seniors continuing to work, and a different trend toward retirement (Utkus 2006). During the 20th century, the average retirement age declined dramatically among men: from 74 years in 1910 to 70 years in 1950, 65 years in 1970, and 62 years in 1985 (Cahill et al. 2006). In 1880, over 75% of 64-year-old men worked; 65% worked in 1900; 47% had jobs in 1950; and in 1998, less than 20% of 64-year-old were working (Gustman and Steinmeier 2009). According to Smith (2001), the shift in average retirement age was immediately preceded by the Great Depression and the advent of Social Security; in 1930, 58% of 64-year-old men were employed. The decline predominantly resulted from increased prosperity during the preceding century along with growth in public and private retirement programs. Increased productivity and real wages resulted in workers spending a portion of their wealth on leisure and early retirement. Since the mid-1980s, the average retirement age for American men has stabilized because of changes in the retirement landscape. These changes included the end of mandatory retirement, the displacement of traditional defined-benefit (DB) pension plans by defined-contribution (DC) plans, increased longevity, improvements in general health, and the reduction of rigorous physical requirements in many jobs (Cahill et al. 2006). All these changes have increased incentives for older Americans to remain in the labor force. Prior to President Franklin Roosevelt’s establishment of Social Security in 1935, many Americans participated in the workforce until they could no longer work (Gallagher 2004). The reason was that private employer-funded pension plans were rare before the 1930s. Although employer-sponsored retirement plans date back to the late 19th century (Libecap 2004), during the preindustrial era, few people relied on employers or the government in saving for their retirement. The elderly continued to work as long as they could. As people’s strength or acuity declined, they took on less taxing jobs; and they stopped working only when they were physically unable to continue to work (Munnell and Drucker 2006). Before the 19th century, three of four elderly Americans still worked and often owned property that provided an income (Munnell and Drucker 2006). Some workers accumulated wealth through two natural resources, farms and handicraft businesses, which could be sold or leased to fund retirement needs. Fortunate elderly relied on their children or the local community for economic support (Munnell and Drucker 2006). Most government employees did not need to worry about funding their retirement, 24 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working because as with military pensions, public-sector pension plans date back much further in history (Libecap 2004). Between the era of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the early modern states, rulers and legislatures often provided pensions for public administrators. Prior to the 19th century, and with the exception of the military, plan offerings were specific to individual cases, because few retirement systems existed with well-defined rules for qualification and contribution (Libecap 2004). In particular, military pensions were useful for attracting, retaining, and motivating military personnel. Pensions for retired and disabled military personnel existed before the signing of the U.S. Constitution (Libecap 2004). By 1930, public-sector pension coverage became relatively widespread in the United States; and all federal workers were covered by pension plans. State and local government employees also received pension coverage. In contrast, pension coverage for private employees remained relatively low in the first three decades of the 20th century: Only 10% to 12% of the labor force had pension coverage (Libecap 2004). By the late 1930s, the American labor movement adopted the use of President Roosevelt’s Social Security program as a strategy for winning contracts, including private, employer-funded pensions for unionized workers. Those pension contracts, like Social Security, specified retirees’ benefits at the onset and became generalized for Americans after World War II (Gallagher 2004). Impact of the New Retirement Landscape Up until the 1890s, the labor force participation rate (LFPR) in the United States, which is calculated as the percentage of the male population age 65 and older who are employed or unemployed and looking for work, remained relatively high (Lee 1998). The LFPR aligned with the incentives that had been recently created to motivate workers to remain in the labor force. In 1948, the LFPR for older American males was 70%. By 1993, the LFPR had dropped to 38%, indicating rising wealth allowed older males to retire earlier. Consequently, the average retirement age in America fell to 64 in 1993, from 71 in 1960 (“Older Americans” 2005). Since the postwar period, the U.S. LFPR for people 65 and older has risen modestly but steadily, indicating people continued to work after they have reached retirement age particularly as the baby boom generation began to enter prime working age (“Labor Force” 2007). In contrast, the Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 25 �Raymond U. Ogums youngest group’s LFPR dropped about 5%; in particular, the LFPR for ages 24 to 54 has fallen since the recession in 2000 (“Older Americans” 2005). The rise in the older group’s LFPR resulted primarily due to few Americans having the advantage that the necessity of saving for retirement has been burned into their subconscious by society and circumstance; so that even in unfavorable economic times, or with negative returns in the financial markets, majority of the few continue to make established contributions into their retirement accounts. Such attitude toward saving results when retirement contributions are made with forgotten money, which is money that is not relied upon for daily needs. American seniors who failed to follow the same planning have experienced financial shortages in retirement as they have been forced to rely on Social Security benefits to pay for living expenses (Katz 2003). In December 2001, the Social Security Administration reported the average Social Security retirement benefits payment was $874 per month; and 45.9 million people were paid benefits. Alternate sources, like working, are necessary for the elderly to pay for life’s necessities, particularly as costs of living and inflation rise faster than their Social Security benefits (Katz 2003). Methodology Qualitative, grounded theory research methods were used to explore the attitudes and beliefs toward continued and actual employment behavior among a set of retirees in Hartford County, Connecticut. The process involved development of comprehensive theoretical understanding from the perspectives of the social actors engaged in the phenomenon. Such development and understanding require application of qualitative, grounded theory research methods because they aim to develop a theory, as opposed to test one already in existence (Neuman 2005). Secondly, applying an emergent-grounded theory research design aided the discovery of themes shared by the study participants, as addressed in the research questions. The rationale for choosing qualitative grounded theory method for this study stems from the need to identify and explain the events or occurrences in a social setting, and focus on the true reality of the situation or interaction under investigation (Corbin and Strauss 1998). Grounded theory method served to generate a theory in this study because existing theories did not appropriately address the study’s research problem (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Furthermore, grounding a theory in the 26 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working research data provided better explanation than a borrowed theory because it was fitted for the situation, practical and sensitive to participants in the setting, and accounted for complexities that existed in the process (Creswell 2004). These qualities of the grounded theory method contrast other research methodologies where the purpose is either to test a hypothesis or answer a question at the beginning of the research process. Research Questions The research questions presented in this section are qualitative in nature, and were typically used to narrow the purpose statement into specific questions sought to be answered in the study. Unlike purpose statements, which are characterized by a single statement, researchers often apply multiple research questions to fully explore a topic (Creswell 2004). One justification in case studies is the use of exploratorytype questions. Exploratory questions of how, what, and why are usually concerned with examining a contemporary phenomenon the researcher cannot influence (Yin 2008). The following qualitative research questions were used to complete this study: 1. What factors lead retirees to choose to work or not work after retirement? 2. What factors prevented retirees from accumulating what they believe to be sufficient resources for retirement, and what are the relative frequencies and perceived importance of those factors? 3. What accommodations in lifestyle have retirees had to make as a result of perceived inadequacies in their retirement funding sources? 4. How do retirees feel about the nature and amount of post-retirement employment in which they engage? In the context of this study, “sufficient resources” are those that enable maintenance of pre-retirement or pre-planned lifestyle during retirement. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 27 �Raymond U. Ogums Population and Sampling Frame The general population of interest for the study comprised all individuals who continue to remain in the labor market after reaching retirement age. The study focused specifically on an accessible set of such individuals who happen to reside in Hartford County, Connecticut. A purposive sample of individuals who have reached retirement age but continue to work was drawn from four Senior Centers in Hartford County, Connecticut. Purposive sampling is a qualitative procedure that involves intentional selection of individuals and sites for the purpose of learning and understanding the central phenomenon (Creswell 2004). The sampling procedure for the study continued until saturation was reached, but was expected to range between 20 and 30. Based on Creswell (2007), Wicks (2004), and other researchers, sample size for qualitative grounded theory studies is typically less than 35. In order to determine if saturation had been reached, the interview data were analyzed as they were collected rather than at the end of the collection process; saturation was reached with a sample of 25.1 The sampling strategy for the study conducted was theoretical. In grounded theory approach, theoretical sampling means that the researcher draws sample from a list of members of the population of study—the sampling frame (Creswell 2004). The sampling frame for the study conducted was generated from a list of workers age 65 and older at four Senior Centers in Bloomfield Connecticut, Enfield Connecticut, and Hartford Connecticut. Data and Analysis The study participants consisted of a pilot group of five, and 25 workers age 65 and older. The two groups are described below. The pilot study participants provided feedback about the interview questions for effectiveness; no comparisons were made between the pilot group and the research participants. The pilot participants comprised 3 females and two males. Of the five pilot participants, four (80%) returned to work after entering retirement, and one (20%) had never retired. Table 1 provides the demographics of the pilot study participants. 28 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working Table 1. Pilot Study Participant Demographics 2010 1 Gender Female Female Female Male Male 2 Age 66 66 70 65 67 3 Retired Retired prior to current employment Retired prior to current employment Did not retire prior to current employment Retired prior to current employment Retired prior to current employment 4 Status Currently employed Currently employed Currently employed Currently employed Currently employed Source: Author’s analysis of the pilot study population. Summary of Pilot Study Feedback All five pilot study participants affirmed their understanding of the interview questions, and agreed that the information contained in the survey questionnaire provided opportunities to explore attitudes and beliefs about post-retirement employment. Participants also expressed they were comfortable with organization and flow of the interview questions. Summary of Study Demographics The final study demographics collected and tracked included participant gender, age, whether the participant officially retired or not, job title before retirement, year returned to work, current job title, and length of time between retirement and current employment. The only requirement for participation was that participants be 65 or older, and employed. Table 2 presents the demographic information of the study participants. Of the 25 participants interviewed, five (20%) had never retired, three (12%) immediately went back to work after they retired, eight (32%) returned to work in less than one year after their retirement, six (24%) went back to work in under three years, and three (12%) returned to work between five and 13 years following their retirement. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 29 �Raymond U. Ogums Table 2. Study Participant Demographics 2010 1 2 Gender Age Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male 69 74 69 81 70 73 77 75 70 65 74 74 68 70 66 73 69 80 70 66 77 71 70 71 67 3 Officially Retired/Job Title 4 Year Returned To Work No NA Administrative Assistant 2005 Cook for State Prison 2004 Nutrition Manager 1980 Handicapped Kids Caring 1992 Payroll Supervisor 1991 High School Teacher 2001 Administrative Assistant 1996 Check Clearing Supervisor 2002 Grade School Teacher 2001 Truck Mechanist 1990 Vice President Imaging/Graphics 1998 Construction Equipment Operator NA Loan Officer NA Jewelry Store Owner NA Toys Manager NA President, Auto Repair Shop NA Machine Operator 1992 Retail Manager 2002 Day Care Provider NA Elevator Operator 1998 Investment Consultant 1989 MBTA Instructor 1996 Train Supervisor 2002 Psychology Professor 2009 5 6 Job Title Years Between Jobs Cashier Clerk 0.5 Senior Center Volunteer 5.0 After School Program Teacher .05 Senior Center Volunteer 0.5 Senior Center Volunteer 0.5 Senior Center Volunteer 0.5 Senior Center Volunteer 2.0 Administrative Clerk 13.0 Senior Center Volunteer 3.0 Senior Citizens Supervisor 8.0 Bowling Alley Manager 0.0 Co-owner Graphics Business 0.0 Construction Equipment Operator 0.0 Loan Officer 0.0 Real Estate Agent 0.0 Grocery Clerk 0.0 Administrator Auto Repair Shop 0.0 Grocery Cashier 0.0 Retail Cashier 0.5 Day Care Provider 0.0 Telephone Operator 1.0 Investment Software Developer 0.5 School Bus Driver 1.0 Supervisor Trolley Museum 1.0 Psychology Professor 0.5 Source: Author’s analysis of the study population Themes As suggested by Neuman (2005), and other research methodology authors, the analysis was done to identify emerging themes that aligned with the experiences lived by the study participants, and focused in five areas: (a) work motivators; (b) inhibitors of saving; (c) method of saving; (d) lifestyle accommodation; and (e) work attitude. The first pass through of the coding process (open coding) produced 625 distinct 30 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working codes for the 25 interviews. Selective coding was used to sort the codes into five categories: work motivators, inhibitors of saving, method of saving, lifestyle accommodation, and work attitudes in development of the theory. Figure 1 presents the procedural analysis for generating the theory. Figure 1. Procedural Analysis for Generating the Theory Theory Generation Open Coding Researcher Participants Literature Validity & Reliability Axial Coding Conditional / Dimensional Matrix Selective Coding Source: Author’s analysis of the theory generation. Figure 2 depicts the 24 themes that emerged in each of the five categories. The themes under each category emerged through analysis of interviews conducted in small groups. The data were transcribed and coded after interviewing each group to discover what new themes were emerging. No new theme emerged after 22 interviews, but the process was extended to 25 interviews to ensure non-emergent of new themes. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 31 �Raymond U. Ogums Figure 2. Predominant Codes Arranged by Major Areas of Focus Work Motivators Income and savings Healthcare benefits Decreasing benefits Mortgage and household obligations Psychological benefits Spousal issues Loss of job Inhibitors of Saving Children’s education and family Lavish spending Home repairs Method of Saving DB plan and Social Security DC (401k) plan and Social Security Social Security alone Savings, CDs, bonds, or IRA Individual pension plan Other investments Lifestyle Accommodation Maintain planned lifestyle Maintain lifestyle prior to retirement Lifestyle matches funding levels Need to work Work Attitude Enjoy working Work aligns with planning Planned to Work Need or desire to work different from expectations Source: Author’s presentation of the study themes. The category work motivators produced five themes: income and savings with 19 responses, healthcare benefits with 13 responses, decreasing benefits with 14 responses, mortgage and household obligations with three responses, and psychological benefits, such as happiness, healthy lifestyles, leisure and fulfillment, and meaning with 18 responses. Five themes emerged within the inhibitors of saving category: lavish spending generated five responses, children’s education/family produced 16 32 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working responses, home repairs had 14 responses, spousal issues—divorced/separated generated two responses, while loss of job had no response. The method of saving category produced six themes: DB plan and social security with eight responses, DC (401k) plan and social security with 10 responses, social security alone with seven responses, savings/CDs/bonds/IRAs with nine responses, individual pension plan with six responses, and other investments with six responses. The lifestyle accommodation category generated four themes: maintain planned lifestyle had nine responses, maintain lifestyle prior to retirement had 11 responses, lifestyle matches funding level produced 16 responses, and need to work had 18 responses. Lastly, four themes emerged within the work attitude category, namely, enjoy working with 16 responses, work aligns with needs with 14 responses, planned to work with 14 responses, and desire or need to work not to expectations with eight responses. Table 3 provides participants’ responses by themes under each category. Table 3. Participants’ Responses by Themes under Each Category 1 2 Category 1 Themes referenced Work Motivators under each category / by number of number of responses responses Income and saving Healthcare benefits Decreasing benefits 19 13 14 Mortgage and household obligations 3 Psychological benefits Lavish spending 3 4 5 6 Category 2 Inhibitors of Saving / number of responses Category 3 Method of Saving / number of responses Category 4 Lifestyle Accommodation/ number of responses Category 5 Work Attitude / number of responses 18 5 Children’s education and family 16 Home repairs Spousal issues Loss of job 14 2 0 DB Plan and Social Security 8 DC (401k) plan and Social Security 10 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 33 �Raymond U. Ogums 1 2 Category 1 Themes referenced Work Motivators under each category / by number of number of responses responses 3 4 5 6 Category 2 Inhibitors of Saving / number of responses Category 3 Method of Saving / number of responses Category 4 Lifestyle Accommodation/ number of responses Category 5 Work Attitude / number of responses Social Security alone 7 Savings, CDs, bonds, or IRA 9 Individual pension plan 6 Other investments 6 Maintain planned lifestyle 9 Maintain lifestyle prior to retirement 11 Lifestyle matches funding levels 16 Need to work Enjoy working 18 16 Work aligns with planning 14 Planned to work 14 Need or desire to work different from expectations 8 Source: Author’s analysis of participants’ responses. 34 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working Findings and Interpretations The content analysis involved identification of important structures of the properties of textual and audio-recorded information communicated, that were later organized according to the themes identified in the categories, in alignment with the research questions. The following sub-sections have been organized based on the research questions (RQs), and the sequence of the areas of focus (categories). RQ1—What Factors Lead Retirees to Choose to Work or Not Work After Retirement? In the category work motivators, the major themes of income and saving, healthcare benefits, decreasing benefits, mortgage and household obligations, and psychological benefits were reviewed with the view of evolving a theory of post-retirement employment. The data clearly revealed that income and savings, theme one, rank highly among the reasons seniors commit to various employment engagements after the age of 65. A major emphasis was the changing economics of the retirement funding structures, such as from the defined benefits (DB) to the defined contribution (DC) model. Some participants blamed the underfunding of their retirement accounts and their financial shortfalls to the introduction of, or switch to, the DC structure by their employers. Participants commented on how the devaluing of their retirement accounts, resulting from of the relationship of the DC model to the stock markets, has contributed to their decisions to work. The economic crisis that began in 2008 and spending habits during the accumulation years were also emphasized by participants. The data for themes two and three, health care benefits and decreasing benefits, are consistent with study finding that health insurance is among the major reasons Americans continue to work after reaching retirement age (Block 2008). Between 52% (13) and 56% (14) of the participants interviewed reported they are working for health care benefits or to supplement health care costs, in addition to other reasons. Other studies also reported that many older Americans extend their working years in order to continue receiving employer-offered benefits, such as dental, health, disability, and life insurance (Leyes 2008; Mermin et al. 2006). A new theme emerged in the data: in addition to receiving healthcare and life insurance benefits, rising Medicare costs and deductibles, and decreasing benefits are forcing even more retirees back to work. Theme four, mortgage and household obligations, was also affirmed as a work motivator. Participants commented on real- Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 35 �Raymond U. Ogums izing later in their lives they could have saved more for retirement if they had less mortgage obligations and household expenses. Stein (2007) found that exorbitant mortgage payments and other household obligations distort the wealth accumulation process during the working years. The data coding process also produced a new theme: obtaining a mortgage to purchase a home later in life is causing some Americans to retire with substantial amounts of debt, constraining their cash flow and lifestyle options during retirement. Participants referred to the inability to obtain a mortgage to purchase a house until late in life, rendering certain obligations, like mortgage payments, which would be part of life during the accumulations years, a necessity in retirement. This new theme is centered on the American dream of owning one’s home. Consistent with Hass (2007), a majority of the participants (18) referred to psychological needs, such as happiness, healthy lifestyle, leisure and fulfillment, or meaning as work motivators, in addition to referencing other work motivators. RQ2—What Factors Prevented Retirees from Accumulating What They Believe to Be Sufficient Resources for Retirement and What Are The Relative Frequencies and Perceived Importance of Those Factors? Five themes constituted the category inhibitors of saving: lavish spending, children’s education and family, home repairs, spousal issues, and loss of job. Discussions about the method of saving category with five themes are also presented. Participants were clear about the impact of extravagant lifestyle as unfavorable to savings, while emphasizing indiscriminate spending, theme one, a hindrance to wealth accumulation during the working years. Paying for children’s education and caring for one’s family members, theme two, and theme three—spending to renovate and upgrade homes during working years were also noted by participants to negatively impact savings. Additionally, spousal issues, such as loss of spouse, through death, divorce, or separation, theme four, were reported to inhibit savings, but no reference was made about theme five—job loss in this study under the category inhibitors of saving. Six predominant methods of saving for retirement (themes) exist for people during their working years: DB plan and Social Security; DC plan and Social Security; Social Security alone; Savings, CDs, bonds, or IRA; Pension fund; and other investments. Of the six methods, DC plan, DB plan, and Social Security were mostly relied upon by participants to fund their retirement. The other methods of saving were used as supplements. On the surface, the DB plan appears to be preferred to the DC plan. Participants criticized the voluntary nature of the DC plan and its 36 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working relationship with the stock markets, while commending the DB plan for its guaranteed payments. Nevertheless, more of the participants relied on the DC model to fund their retirement; reflecting statement by Wasik (2008) that the guaranteed defined benefit plan has gone from covering more than half the workforce to only 35 percent. Participants, who saved with the DB plan and social security, theme one, were very appreciative of its guaranteed payment nature. A larger proportion of the participants, 40%, as opposed to 32% with the DB plan model, relied upon the DC or 401k plans and social security, theme two, to fund their retirement. The finding is consistent with report by the U.S. Department of Labor that the DC plans have grown from covering 7.5 million workers in 1984 to more than 42 million in 2004, while the guaranteed defined benefit, or the DB, plan has gone from covering more than half the workforce to less than 35% (Wasik 2004). Participants who had to depend on Social Security, theme three, as the primary source of saving for their retirement, blamed the condition on their employers for not offering retirement plans of any sort. Mermin, Johnson, and Murphy (2006) found that some employers did not have DC plans, such as 401ks and 403bs, because they are not required by law to offer them. Participants commented that reliance on social security alone has led to the employment of alternate sources, such as working, to pay for life’s necessities because social security benefits are not enough, especially when considering out-of-pocket health care expenses. In addition to employer-sponsored retirement savings plans and social security described above, participants noted they used saving accounts, certificate of deposits (CDs), bonds, and contributions to individual retirement accounts (IRAs)—theme four to save for retirement. In many cases, participants used these retirement funding vehicles to supplement their DB plans, DC plans, and Social Security. Some remarked they often fell short keeping up with monetary contribution into these retirement funding vehicles, particularly during difficult financial times. Others commented that trying to save with CDs or savings account required high levels of discipline which they often lacked when their families needed additional funds to pay for non-daily needs, such as a new refrigerator, stove, car, and so on. Individual pension plans—IPPs, theme five, were also used to save for retirement, but mainly as an alternative to employersponsored plans, and to supplement social security. Even after transferring to new jobs that offered 401k plans, few participants left funds to grow in pension accounts established at their prior employments, but the financial crisis that began in 2008 raised concerns about deficits in those accounts. There were complaints about Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 37 �Raymond U. Ogums reduced savings in the pension plan structures as a result of limits placed on the amount of earnings contribution so that participants can earn tax breaks at the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Participants also used other investment vehicles, such as purchasing stocks, real estate, life insurance, gold, and private business ventures— theme six to save for their retirement. These investment vehicles were reported to have lost values rapidly following the economic and financial events which began in 2008. Working was emphasized as the alternative for alleviating perceived reduction and cuts in the pension accounts. RQ3— What Accommodations in Lifestyle Have Retirees Had to Make as a Result of Perceived Inadequacies in Their Retirement Funding Sources? Four themes were presented for the category lifestyle accommodation: maintain planned lifestyle, maintain lifestyles prior to retirement, lifestyle matches funding levels, and need to work. These themes were extracted from responses to questions about lifestyle adjustments, in relation to funding levels, in retirement. Nine of the participants reported they were able to maintain the lifestyle they planned in retirement—theme one, but five of the nine participants noted they could only partially maintain the lifestyle they planned in retirement. The five participants remarked that unexpected decreases in their income levels created a condition in which they have to work to sustain their income; preventing them to fully achieve the lifestyle they planned in retirement. A majority of the participants could not maintain the lifestyle they planned in retirement due to lack of proper guidance in structuring their retirement planning. Eleven of the 25 participants made references to being able to maintain the same lifestyles as they enjoyed prior to retirement— theme two. Among the 11 are seven who depended on social security, supplemented by working, to fund their retirement. The seven participants reported they had not planned any lifestyle adjustments, but noted that working allowed them to do the type of things they enjoy doing. Grewal, Nazroo, Bajekal, Blane, and Lewis (2004) found that an increasing number of retirees need paid work to improve their pension packages, and, or maintain their pre-retirement living standards. A majority of the participants, including those who have achieved their planned lifestyles, reported living lifestyles that matched their funding levels, theme three. In general, there were remarks about adjusting living standards to suit funding levels, or lifestyle in retirement being a function of funding level. Participants highly praised paid work for enabling them improve their retirement incomes, achieve planned lifestyles, or maintain pre-retirement lifestyles. Achievement and maintenance of lifestyle as mo- 38 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working tivating factors for post-retirement employment were also emphasized. There were many references to working as a necessity. On the surface, participants noted working as a way to mitigate shortages resulting from hard economic and financial times, extend retirement savings, and improve quality of life in retirement. Researchers identified having wealth and income as one of the influences of quality of life in retirement (Grewal, Nazroo, Bajekal, Blane and Lewis 2004).2 RQ4—How Do Retirees Feel About the Nature and Amount of Post-Retirement Employment in which They Engage? Four themes constituted the category of work attitude. The themes were the outcome of responses to the questions used to explore how retirees feel about the nature and amount of post-retirement employment in which they engage. A summary of the outcomes provide further clarity. A majority of the participants expressed liking working in retirement, theme one; some emphasizing the various work motivators described above. Several comments indicated working for income and savings, leisure or meaning and fulfillment, or some other combination creates a source for enjoyment and mental engagement, and adds to retirement asset base. Participants depending on social security, supplemented by working, to fund their retirement reported they did not like working in retirement. Fourteen participants reported their work aligned with their retirement plan—theme two. A majority noted that working for additional funding, leisure, meaning, and fulfillment were part of their retirement planning; some remarked engaging in their type of work was pre-planned as well. Participants reported being aware prior to retiring that they needed to supplement their incomes doing things they like to do, such as, having an engagement that produced happiness, or making meaningful contributions to the society. Haas (2007) reported that even those in our society who are considered to be better positioned financially perceive continuing to work in retirement as paying substantial dividend. In general, participants noted that their plan to work, theme three, was inspired by the possibility of shortages in their retirement benefits due to general economic conditions, the extent of social security benefits, the availability of health insurance, and the quality and design of employer-sponsored retirement plans. Working for fulfillment and meaning was also reported as part of planning. Working in retirement was perceived as a way to broadened one’s horizon and enrich life through mingling and interacting with people. Eight of those interviewed referenced their need or desire to work has been different from their expectations—theme four, based on work schedules, work structures, need for additional funding, and nature of work. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 39 �Raymond U. Ogums Analysis of Early Recollections Six participants were able to recall specific memories about the stage in their lives they began to realize their desire and need to work when they retire. Table 4 presents the themes of early recollections—individual beliefs of each participant. Participant 1’s individual beliefs seem to be centered on loss of spouse, the relationship between money and the importance of working. The themes seem to reflect beliefs that losing one’s spouse during the accumulation years lead to distortion in the resource accumulation process, the need for employment in later years, and working as part of retirement planning. Participant 10’s individual beliefs seem that being in a field of work that a person likes can encourage extension of one’s working years, and that can be realized earlier, than later, in that person’s career. Participant 12’s individual beliefs seem about planning retirement engagement, the level of funding, and the relationships of funding level to retirement engagement. Participant 14’s individual beliefs seem that family obligations determine the desire or need to work in retirement. Table 4. Themes of Early Memory Reflection 1 Participant 1 2 Themes of Early Memory Reflection Right after I lost my husband 10 years ago I went into the surviving mode. I knew I will be working through my retirement. Money became the first priority. 10 I realized my desire, not necessarily need, to work early. I liked to maintain contact with the children and their parents. Halfway through my career I knew I will teach much later in life. Working for money came late—when I realized the loss in my investment and retirement accounts. 12 I always planned to do something I enjoy doing in retirement. I love doing this very much; it provides us with extra money. It aligns with my planning. 14 I have always known that I would need to supplement my retirement income, as a result of family obligations. I also knew I can continue to do my type of work as long as I wanted. 15 I knew I would work until my later years because I love what I do; and because I spent lavishly. As long as I have good health, I will always be employed in real estate. 23 I started saving later in my career; so I knew I had to work later. Source: Author’s presentation of early recollections. 40 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working While overlap of themes, such as being in a field of work that a person likes can encourage extension of one’s working years, seem apparent among participants, no predominant theme emerged. Based on the literature on early recollection, at least five early memories are required for effective evaluation of patterns and themes within an individual (Mosak and Di Pietro 2006; Clark 2002). Even though participants’ memories in the study conducted suggested tentative themes, enough data were not collected to fully highlight the cognitive beliefs of each participant individually or to evaluate all of the memories so that associated patterns and themes could be determined. The design of the study allowed participants free expression of their specific examples and any distinct moments. However, asking participants for subsequent explanation about the most vivid part of the examples would have distracted the natural flow of the discussion and inhibited assessment of their cognitive beliefs, hence proved invaluable. Rather, coding the specific examples provided a richer understanding of the need and desire to work in retirement. Questions about the most vivid moments, associated feelings and reasons for the feelings were not answered, but analysis of early recollections proved valuable. Discussion of Results Although questioning participants about content-specific examples and early memories inhibited assessment of their cognitive beliefs, there was value in the information obtained. Fifty-six percent of the participants presented recollections that had substantial impact on their decision to, or not to, work in retirement. Included in the 56% are the 40% whose retirement accounts were based on the DC model and 16% that had their accounts switched from the DB to the DC structure. The recollections included recent past awareness of needs or desire to work, or not work, in retirement based on perceptions about the extent of support from individual retirement accounts; and alignment of those needs, or desire, to participants’ expectations in terms of levels of finances in retirement. The fact that 56% of the participants noted late recollections that had substantial impact on their decisions to remain in the workforce, based on payout expectations of their retirement accounts, suggests there may be implications about the relationship of the DC plan with the financial markets and the changing economics of the retirement funding structures. Purcell (2007) found that participation in the labor force among people age 55 and older has been affected by both the trends toward Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 41 �Raymond U. Ogums the DC plan and away from the DB plan structures. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that the DC plan have grown to cover more workers between 1984 and 2004, while coverage by the DB plan continues to decline (Wasik 2004). Data about the lifestyle accommodation category suggest that a majority of those interviewed could not maintain the lifestyle they planned in retirement, but participants remarked the security offered by the DB model could have facilitated ability to estimate their funding levels at retirement. In general, nine participants noted they were able to maintain their planned lifestyle in retirement. Five of the nine participants reported they could partially maintain the lifestyle they planned in retirement, due to unexpected decreases in their income levels, which led to a condition in which they have to work to sustain their incomes. The finding suggests existence of difficulty in estimating income levels at retirement. Cahill et al. (2006) noted that income levels at retirement could often be estimated prior to replacement of the DB pension plan with the DC structure in 1986. Comments about working to mitigate shortages resulting from hard economic times were mostly associated with participants whose retirement plan structures were based on the DC model, such as the 401k plan. Some participants remarked that the continued shift away from guaranteed defined benefit pension toward 401k plans precluded them from retiring. There were also comments about how the devaluing of participants’ retirement accounts, as a result of the relationship between the DC model and the financial markets, has contributed to their decisions to continue working. The results suggest that the changing economics of the retirement funding structures may have forced retirees back to work to mitigate resulting financial shortages in their retirement accounts; contributing to the increase in the number of employed retirees. The results also suggest that the three attitudinal responses to bridge employment: occupational self-efficacy, retirement attitudes, and job satisfaction may affect (a) how retirees feel about working (Dendinger et al. 2005), and (b) the work-related attitudes of non-retired workers and bridge employees. The changing economics of the retirement funding structures may also be a contributory factor in extending working years by older employees. Daugherty (2007) noted that non-retired older workers who sense the possibility of shortage in their retirement income choose to work longer as a way to boost the average income for calculating their retirement benefits, and ensure entitlement of larger Social Security benefits. Implications of the research findings, significance of the study, and suggestions that may assist interested parties in establishing a more positive outlook of the retirement landscape follow. 42 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working Implications of the Research Findings The current study presented and documented how a set of retirees deal with their mix of saving, spending, income, and working since replacement of the traditional DB pension plan with the DC model in 1986 (Cahill et al. 2006).3 The results showed that retirees are addressing the problem of underfunding, created by the continued reductions in their retirement accounts, by working longer. Based on the structure of the study, retirees cited five motives for engaging in post-retirement employment, in their efforts to cope with the financial shortfall created by the shift to the DC model from the DB plan structure: income and savings, healthcare benefits, decreasing benefits, mortgage and household obligations, and psychological benefits. The new theme of obtaining a mortgage in retirement, which emerged in the data coding process, creates an awareness that can help finance professionals in tailoring retirement income strategy based on a two-step process: (1) understanding the client’s needs and objectives, and (2) obtaining an appropriate strategic fit through matching of those needs and objectives with the most appropriate retirement income streams combinations. Understanding a client’s needs can lead to effective determination of spending needs at retirement, what the size of that client’s portfolio must be at the beginning of his or her retirement in order to fulfill those needs, and how much the client must save and invest between current period and the age he or she plans to retire, in order to achieve those financial goals (Lee 2007). The results indicate that (a) participants who saved under the DB plan structure could support their retirement living better than those whose retirement plan structure was based on the DC model; (b) the voluntary nature of the DC plan model has resulted in severe shortages in retirement savings for many older Americans, as a result of its relationship with the financial markets; (c) the relationship of the DC plans with the financial markets could warrant that prospective retirees seek the services of finance professionals to gain the benefits of money management strategies designed to provide needed cash for retirement living; (d) working was more necessary to retirees who had the DC plans than those with the DB plans; and (e) working in retirement would be more enjoyable if it extends beyond provision of economic means to gaining psychological benefits. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 43 �Raymond U. Ogums Significance The results are significant for providing employers, financial services providers, educators, and the government with information needed to determine if relationships exist between the changing economics of the retirement funding structures and the mix of factors that motivate retirees to work. Information about the relationships between post-retirement employment and the changing economics of the retirement funding structures be can useful to finance professionals, and others seeking to educate or advise individuals about retirement planning. Such information can also help employers, financial planners, financial services providers, and the government to address the problem of financial shortfall experienced by many retirees in America. Knowledge about the characteristics of factors that cause retirees to work, and their relationships to the changing economics of the retirement funding structures, will also affect future individual retirement planning endeavors and can provide a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the current retirement funding structures. Additionally, prospective retirees can benefit through realizing that services of finance and investment professionals may be necessary to effectively manage their retirement accounts, based on the relationship with the new (DC) structure and the financial or stock markets. Suggestions for a More Positive Retirement Outlook Suggestions are offered in the areas of minimizing income shortage during retirement, handling healthcare costs, managing mortgage expenses, and to encourage post-retirement employment for psychological and other benefits.4 To minimize income shortages during retirement, financial planning for retirement should start as early as possible. One initiative may be educative programs that teach about retirement investment management in the schools system. Thus, the necessity of saving for retirement can be taught to the younger generation’s subconscious through early education and society. Based on the study’s confirmation that retirement planning is complex and difficult for many, individuals should be encouraged to seek professional advice at the beginning phase of the planning process. Shad (2006) suggested that planning for retirement early with the help of a professional can lead to increased savings, revenue, and disposable income, and help people maintain desired lifestyle in retirement. Employers may offer an option of such services, at subsidized fees, in their retirement packages to employees. 44 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working In an effort to curb rising medical costs and decreasing Medicare benefits for seniors, employers should consider extending medical benefits for retirees and offer that option in the retirement packages they offer to their employees. Additionally, finance professionals should offer advice to their clients about incorporating supplemental medical insurance in their retirement planning. If Medicare could not provide 100% coverage or offer the same services for every retired person, as indicated by the study participants, then a well structured supplemental medical insurance may serve to fill in any resulting gaps in Medicare coverage. The government may also consider regulating physicians’ care and prescription drugs costs for Medicare recipients. The trend of entering retirement with a mortgage, which is expected to continue (Groat, 2005), requires educative initiatives that can help retirees make careful selection of mortgages based on income levels and inclination. Prospective retirees aspiring to own a mortgage should be advised to consider spending ability based on disposable income in retirement. For example, a good budget that incorporates housing costs likely to be forgotten, such as property taxes and homeowner’s insurance, may be helpful. Further, because a retiree’s income is often fixed, use of a fixed-interest mortgage to secure fixed payments for easier cash flow estimates should be sought by retirement advisers for their clients. Individuals can also benefit from directives about reviewing their financial situation to ensure availability of savings needed to pay for any emergencies, such as needed home repairs, accidents, or death in the family. The finding that working in retirement provides for healthier and happier lifestyles, including mental fitness (Hass, 2007; Updegrave and Light 2007) leads to recommendation that post-retirement employment is to be encouraged. Working in retirement should also be encouraged due to certain embedded advantages: First, the economy can be enriched through production of additional goods and services; especially as the labor force participation rate (LFPR) for people aged 24 to 54 has fallen since the recession in 2000 (“Older Americans” 2005). Second, working in retirement can lead to growth in a person’s asset base, and increase in his or her annual social security benefit through withdrawal of funds over a shorter period of time. Increases in individual retirement asset base can help alleviate longevity risk—the possibility of people outliving their retirement savings. Third, working in retirement can help lower social security deficits through delay of benefits payouts. Fourth, working in retirement can create additional employment tax payments which could be used to support other government programs. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 45 �Raymond U. Ogums Conclusions With respect to minimizing income shortage during retirement, financial planning for retirement should start as early as possible. The necessity of saving should also be taught in schools through educative programs so that the younger generation can subconsciously become accustomed to saving with little regard to financial conditions. Based on the complex and difficult nature of retirement planning, individuals should seek professional advice at the beginning phase of the planning process. With respect to rising medical costs and decreasing Medicare benefits, employers could offer an option for extending medical coverage for retired employees under the retirement packages they offer their employees. Additionally, finance professionals should advice their clients to incorporate supplemental medical insurance in their retirement planning, and government may consider regulating physicians’ care and prescription drugs costs for Medicare recipients. To ease financial burden, retirees who aspire to purchase a home could be advised to do so with due consideration of their spending ability based on disposable income. Post-retirement employment could be encouraged as a strategy for allowing seniors to inherit embedded psychological benefits. Post-retirement employment could also be encouraged for other advantages: production of additional goods and services by retirees while upholding the labor force participation rate (LFPR), growing personal asset base to ease longevity risk, prevention of social security deficit through delay of benefits payouts, and creation of additional government revenue through employment taxes. The Ensuing Grounded Theory Charmaz (2006) noted: “Grounded theory involves taking comparisons from data and reaching up to construct abstractions and simultaneously reaching down to tie these abstractions to data” (p. 181). In the study conducted, the central themes emerged through data coding focused on the category of work motivators. The consistency of the responses to these themes provided a way to examine the processes that made the themes central to the study. The creation of abstract interpretation through the evident themes provided responses to the research questions. Transformation of the data collected into interpretations evidenced as the central themes formed the foundation of the grounded theory (Charmaz 2006). Constructing a grounded theory required the integration of process, action, and abstractions into comprehensive analysis of the data. 46 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working The grounded theory that would have developed from this research study would suggest the importance of influence of the changing economics of the retirement funding structures on post-retirement employment. The post-retirement employment theory would clearly present evidence of the effects of the relationship of the new retirement funding structures, like the DC (401k) plans, with the stock markets on retirement savings, the proportion of working retirees, and the mix of factors that motivate retirees to work. However, the sample of 25 concentrated in the Hartford County Connecticut area may be too small and not a true representative of retirees. Nevertheless, the results of the study proved very useful for further research in order to develop a more generalized theory that can assist leaders, finance professionals, and others seeking to educate or advise individuals about retirement planning in consideration and evaluation of the new retirement landscape. References Baker, J. P. (2007). How much is too much? A primer on the 401k “Feegate” litigation. Benefits Law Journal, 20(2), 93-102. Block, S. (2008, January 15). Early retirees fill gap in health coverage [Electronic version]. USA Today. Cahill, K. E., Giandrea, M. D., & Quinn, J. F. (2006). Are traditional retirements a thing of the past? New evidence on retirement patterns and bridge jobs. Business Perspectives, 18(2), 26-37. Clark, A. J. (2002). Early Recollections: Theory and practice in counseling and psychotherapy. 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(2005). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Older Americans (2005). Older Americans in the workforce Economic Trends, 13. Purcell, P. (2007, September 7). Older workers: Employment and retirement trends. Congressional Research Service, 1-16. Robertson, K. (2006). Baby boomers in retirement: Don’t worry, be happy. 401K Advisor, 13(8), 3-9. Shad, A. (2006). Is a penny saved a penny earned? Employee Benefits New Canada, 3(5), 18. Smith, D. S. (2001). An American economic history: 1880-1990. The Journal of American History, 87(4), 1557-1558. Stein, K. M. (2007). Retirement readiness: Financial strategies for your retirement. Business Journal (Central New York), 21(42), 21. Updegrave, W., & Light, J. (2007). Working in retirement. Money, 36(11), 113123. Utkus, S. P. (2006). Retirement plans: Dynamic changes ahead. Institutional Investor, 40(1), 4-7. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 49 �Utkus, S. P. (2006). Retirement plans: Dynamic changes ahead. Institutional Investor, 40(1), 4-7. Wasik, J. F. (2004, October 18). Why aren’t 401k-type plans one of the top issues in the U.S. presidential election? [Electronic version]. Los Angeles Business Journal. Retrieved November 11, 2007, from http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/ gi_0199-3399352/Retirement-funding-should-be-a.html Wicks, D. (2004). The institution of tenure: freedom or discipline? Management Decision, 42(5/6), 619. Yin, R. K. (2008). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. NOTES 1. In qualitative research data analysis, saturation is reached when the researcher subjectively determines that new data no longer provides new insights (Creswell 2004). 2. Leyes (2008) fond that even those thought to be able to afford engaging in traditional retirement (retirement without working) in the American society, are often seen using paid work to alleviate post-retirement risks, such as longevity risk—outliving one’s assets or investments, inflation, and rising health care costs. 3. Previous literature comprised documentation about the effect of the underfunding created by the continued reductions in the retirement income sources, but the current study was the first to explore the characteristics of factors that cause retirees to work. The current study was also the first to explore what retirees are doing to cope with the financial shortages experienced in their retirement accounts. 4. The suggestions are offered as recommendations for leadership and individual practices in the areas of minimizing income shortage during retirement, handling healthcare costs, managing mortgage expenses, and encouraging postretirement employment for embedded benefits. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1064 Title A name given to the resource Living and working in retirement, a new paradigm in the US exploring retirees attitudes and beliefs toward working Author Author Ogums, Raymond U. Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper investigates the problem that an increasing number of people in the United States are financially unprepared for retirement, leading to a rise in post-retirement employment. The purpose of the study was to explore attitudes and beliefs toward continued or actual employment behaviors among a set of retirees who have chosen to continue working after reaching retirement age. The grounded theory study design was applied in the efforts to explain, at a broad conceptual level, the reasons older workers have chosen to continue working after reaching retirement age. Data gathered from 25 workers age 65 and older were analyzed. The analysis revealed five work motivators, five inhibitors of saving, six methods of saving, four lifestyle accommodations, and four work attitudes. Implications of the research were presented. The results suggest the new retirement funding structures have not been favorable to saving. Suggestions for a more positive retirement outlook are offered. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b528483762058464e83c06dfb25aedd6.docx ef4b3eff5cc55cc2f6fa1428bbc0b3d6 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e908f0929d1861e7cc68979cc295eec3.pdf 8bfe9f40dced57349782c42ebcaa24a3 PDF Text Text �����   ����� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3136 Title A name given to the resource Ljudska prava i slobode, sigurnost i razvoj Bosne i Hercegovine Author Author LAPANDIĆ, Nermin Abstract A summary of the resource. Jednu od bosanskohercegovačkih ustavnih antinomija karakteriše prihvatanje i direktna primjena ljudskih prava i sloboda, koje su zagarantovane Evropskom konvencijom o ljudskim pravima i slobodama, sa postavljenim donjim limitom da se ne može „okrnjiti ili ukinuti“ ni jedno od prava i sloboda navedenih u članu II Ustava Bosne i Hercegovine, dok se u kreiranju ustavnih institucija i izbornog sistema ovi standardi krše. Ovako definisana ljudska prava predstavljaju dobar generator sistemskog kršenja ljudskih prava u svim sferama društva, pri čemu je nemoguće u punom kapacitetu razvijati demokratske odnose i afirmirati ljudsko dostojanstvo. Kršenje ljudskih prava koči društveni razvoj i implicira prijetnje ljudskoj sigurnosti. U kakvim su korelacijskim odnosima ljudska prava i slobode, sigurnost i razvoj društva u cjelini, te kakve bi eventualne intervencije mogle rehabilitirati bosanskohercegovačko društvo, pitanja su koja će biti problematizirana u ovome radu. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8c7a862fa3df57d8a1bba7aba24438e6.docx 7e96c9617f402003c31fc9bc7c02d2c6 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/efe47b4bd2d4c83ff5b8ec98042d6751.pdf fcee474aad2ffabf9f832d2b8bef94a5 PDF Text Text Prof. dr Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević Pravni fakultet Univerziteta „Džemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru LJUDSKA PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE Sažetak Rad se bavi pitanjem organizacionog principa države Bosne i Hercegovine koji sada počiva na konceptu tri konstitutivna naroda. Problematizirajući pitanje o odnosu ovog koncepta sa principima ravnopravnosti i nediskriminacije, koji su proklamovani kako državnim tako i entitetskim ustavima, analiza koja iz toga proističe, potvrđuje da je podijeljeno društvo u kome su etnokulturne podjele politički najvažnije, na kojima počiva politička fragmentacija društva, ambijent u kome se vrijednosti tih garantovanih principa ne mogu realizovati. Analizom sadržaja, uporednopravnim i teleološkim metodom istraživanje se posebno fokusira na aspekt ljudskih prava gdje se, kroz primjenu kriterija etniciteta, jasno pokazuju njegove diskriminatorne posljedice. Rad traži odgovor na pitanje koja je najpouzdanija osnova na kojoj bi se trebale razvijati država i društvo Bosne i Hercegovine. Autorica nalazi da je u tu svrhu najpodesnija afirmacija principa „diferenciranog građanstva“, koji omogućuje samoodređenje svakog pojedinca dajući mu tako mogućnost slobode koju će koristiti na način koji mu samom najviše odgovara. Time bi sadašnja diferencijacija u ljudskim pravima, prema kriteriju etniciteta izgubila svoje objektivno i razumno opravdanje. Ključne riječi: ljudska prava, konstitutivni narodi, diskriminacija, podijeljeno društvo, diferencirano građanstvo, samoodređenje, jednakost. 73 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – HUMAN RIGHTS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA – PREREQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION Abstract The article deals with a basic organisational principle of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina whose foundations are three constituent peoples. The argument about the relationship between this concept on one side and on the other the principles of equality and non-discrimination, included in both the state and the entities' constitutions, results in an analysis which confirms that a divided society ridden by dominant ethnic and cultural divisions leading to political fragmentation is not a conducive environment for the application of these guaranteed principles. The analysis of the content, through comparative legal and teleological method, the research focuses in particular on the aspect of human rights where, through the application of the ethnic criterion, it clearly shows its discriminatory features. The article looks for the answer to the question on which would be the most solid foundation on which the state and society of Bosnia and Herzegovina should develop. The author finds that the most appropriate for this purpose would be the acknowledgement of „differentiated citizens“, which allows for self-determination of each individual, giving him the possibility to freely determine his identity in the way he feels most appropriate. Thus the current inequality in human rights, based on the ethnic criterion, would lose its objective and rational justification. Key words: human rights, constituent peoples, discrimination, divided society, differenciated citizens, self-determination, equality. 74 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ UVOD Dejtonski mirovni sporazum označio je završetak rata u Bosni i Hercegovini, a kao garancija uspostavljenom miru, uz ostalo, trebao je da posluži sistem ljudskih prava definisan Ustavom BiH, Aneksom IV Sporazuma. Vrlo brzo nakon sto je sistem ljudskih prava koncipiran po ovom obrascu postalo je jasno da je bosanskohercegovački realni ambijent nezahvalan za realizaciju postavljenog cilja kada su ljudska prava u pitanju. Koncept zaštite ljudskih prava koji je ovako kreiran sasvim zanemaruje okolnost da je društveni, politički i pravni ambijent Bosne i Hercegovine ambijent jednog postkonfliktnog i sukobom duboko podijeljenog društva, koje je uz to bitno određeno činjenicom svog multikulturalizma što će, u zajedničkom djelovanju, njegovu realizaciju stvarno onemogućiti. Njegova realizacija, kako je predviđeno dejtonskim normativnim okvirom, iziskivala je, ili odstupanje od planiranog koncepta njegovim relativiziranjem i prilagođavanjem političkom ambijentu, ili vrlo odlučno raskidanje sa vladajućim konceptom etnokratije i afirmacijom građanina pojedica u političkom sistemu. Politička vlast i komplikovana državna organizacija Bosne i Hercegovine, međutim, obje dosljedne u poštovanju principa etničke dominacije, nisu imale nikakvog interesa da se angažuju s tim ciljem. Međunarodna zajednica, koja je Sporazum nametnula i u Bosni i Hercegovini ostala prisutna sa namjerom da osigura njegovo efektivno provođenje je, uprkos mandatu koji je imala u Bosni i Hercegovini i mehanizmima koje predviđaju međunarodni pravni akti koji su sastavni dio Ustava Bosne i Hercegovine, propustila priliku da ih iskoristi. Mirovni sporazum bio je rezultat iznuđenih kompromisa kojima su gospodari rata, koji su u međuvremenu postali mirovni pregovarači i legitimni predstavnici zaraćenih strana, željeli da i u miru sačuvaju i osiguraju pozicije koje su oružjem izborili. Legitimiranje vlasti u tri najveća nacionalna korpusa u Bosni i Hercegovini počivalo je na pretpostavci homogeniziranja identiteta koji se formirao kao kolektivni mono-identitet porijekla, religije, jezika, simbola i kao takav postao prepreka ostvarivanju i zaštiti ljudskih prava građana Bosne i Hercegovine. 75 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – Kolektivni identiteti tako potiskuju individualne identitete, a kolektivna prava individualna prava građana, pogodujući razvoju nacionalizma koji teži aparthejdu i olakšava razgraničenje prema drugim i drugačijima – samodovoljnost isključuje svaki vid multikulturalizma. Ovakva društvena i politička stvarnost u Ustav Bosne i Hercegovine inicijalno je interpolirana odredbom iz Preambule kojom ustavotvorac utvrđuje da ustavnost BiH počiva na „Bošnjacima, Hrvatima i Srbima kao konstitutivnim narodima (zajedno sa ostalima) i građanima Bosne i Hercegovine“. Bosnu i Hercegovinu tako ne čine njeni građani već tri etno-nacije (konstitutivni narodi) što su tvorci Dejtonskog ustava prihvatili kao politički aksiom koji je postao temeljni osnov ustavnoj strukturi Bosne i Hercegovine. Tripartitna struktura konstitutivnih naroda na kojoj se zasnivaju aktuelna ustavna rješenja u BiH dovela je do diferencijacije u pravima prema kriteriju etniciteta, što za posljedicu ima diskriminatorni efekat prema onima koji toj kategoriji ne pripadaju, ili se na taj način, kroz svoju etničku pripadnost, ne mogu ili ne žele odrediti. 1. Stvarni dometi realizacije ljudskih prava u Bosni i Hercegovini Obaveze koje je nametao uspostavljeni sistem zaštite ljudskih prava bile su u dramatičnoj oprečnosti sa društvenom stvarnošću u Bosni i Hercegovini. Formula „konstitutivnih naroda“ bila je rezultat pokušaja da se pomire dva različita koncepta koja su oštro suprotstavljena u bosanskohercegovačkoj stvarnosti i čiji antagonizam vremenom ne jenjava – sa jedne strane to je univerzalno prihvaćeni koncept ljudskih prava kao individualnih prava čovjeka, jednako dostupnih svima bez diskriminacije, a sa druge to je kriterij etničke ekskluzivnosti. Iznuđeni politički ustupak, a formula „konstitutivnih naroda“ koja se kroz Ustav proteže kao crvena nit to bez sumnje jeste, osigurala je prioritet ovom drugom, te će ista tako legitimnom učiniti diskriminaciju i dvostruke standarde u zaštiti ljudskih prava u Bosni i Hercegovini. Definišući u Preambuli Ustava Bosne i Hercegovine Bošnjake, Hrvate i Srbe kao konstitutivne narode, ustavotvorac je „ostale“ i „građane“ lišio 76 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ državotvornog atributa. U duhu politike, ovo rješenje je tumačeno na način otvorenog etničkog favoriziranja, te su u Federaciji Bosni i Hercegovini status konstitutivnih naroda imali Bošnjaci i Hrvati, a isti nije pripadao Srbima koji tu žive, kao što su u Republici Srpskoj konstitutivni narod bili jedino Srbi. Zvuči cinično, ali je potpuno tačno - sva tri konstitutivna naroda u prvoj fazi nakon donošenja Dejtonskog ustava bila su jednaka jedino na nivou države Bosne i Hercegovine čija stvarna kompetencija je bila vrlo skromna i zapravo upitna. Formalno, što se tiče konstitutivnosti konstitutivnih naroda, do promjene je došlo nakon donošenja odluke Ustavnog Suda Bosne i Hercegovine u predmetu U 5/98, „Odluka o konstitutivnosti naroda“ od 1.VII 2000. godine,1 kojom je Sud zaključio da pod pojam „konstitutivnost naroda“ potpada i princip kolektivne jednakosti ove tri etničke grupe.2 Princip kolektivne jednakosti obavezuje entitete da poštuju princip zabrane diskriminacije pripadnika bilo kog od ova tri konstitutivna naroda, posebno ako se oni u entitetu nalaze u položaju, de facto, nacionalne manjine,3 zabranjujući istovremeno i privilegovanje bilo kog od njih na način da se pripadnicima jednog ili dva naroda priznaju posebna dodatna prava.4 Etnički sistem podjele vlasti ovom Odlukom ostaje neizmijenjen, a njegova diskriminatorna priroda najočiglednija je u kontekstu privilegija koje potvrđuju da se kategorija konstitutivnih naroda ne svodi tek na nominalno razlikovanje, već za posljedicu ima i njihov konsekventan različit tretman u pravima. Ovaj status za Srbe, Hrvate i Bošnjake nosi niz privilegija - za njih su rezervisana mjesta u Predsjedništvu BiH, u Domu naroda Parlamentarne skupštine BiH, u Domu naroda Parlamenta FBiH i Vijeću naroda Republike Srpske. U pomenutim parlamentarnim domovima delegati iz reda konstitutivnih naroda organizovani su u klubove, a privilegovani status potvrđuje i pravo veta koje im je na raspolaganju u cilju zaštite vitalnog nacionalnog interesa. Privilegije konstitutivnih naroda protežu se i na čitav niz drugih državnih institucija, u kojima su, ako i nemaju ekskluzivno nacionalni sastav, za njih predviđene ključne pozicije. (Ustavni sud BiH, ustavni sudovi entiteta, Ombudsmen BiH). 1 Treća djelomična odluka Ustavni sud BiH, Odluka U 5/98, tačka 60., 1.VII 2000. 3 Ibid, tačka 59. 4 Ibid, tačka 60. 2 77 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – Princip striktnog etničkog sistema podjele vlasti tako lišava određene građane, one koji se ne izjašnjavaju kao pripadnici jednog od tri konstitutivna naroda, pasivnog prava glasa, prava učestvovanja u javnim poslovima i jednake dostupnosti javnih funkcija. Nejednak tretman „konstitutivnih naroda“, „ostalih“ i „građana“ u BiH je u potpunoj suprotnosti sa ustavnom odredbom o zabrani diskriminacije. Ljudska prava u Bosni i Hercegovini transformišu se u kolektivna prava koja pojedinca štite tek na osnovu pripadanja grupi, na osnovi grupnog, nacionalnog identiteta. Ovo pitanje „neustavnosti ustava“, njegove neusklađenosti sa Evropskom konvencijom kao sastavnim dijelom Ustava5, razmatrao je i Ustavni sud BiH koji je po pitanju odnosa individualnih i kolektivnih prava utvrdio da potpuno isključenje iz sistema predstavljanja vrijeđa individualno političko pravo, te da kategorija „ostalih“ mora biti uvedena u sisteme predstavljanja kako bi se spriječilo potpuno isključenje individualnih prava.6 Stav Ustavnog suda BiH nije doveo ni do kakvih promjena. Praksa različitog i diskriminatornog tretmana prema kategoriji „ostalih“ bila je predmet razmatranja i pred Evropskim sudom za ljudska prava u predmetu Sejdić i Finci protiv BiH. Aplikanti su tvrdili da im je uskraćeno pravo na izbor u Dom naroda Parlamentarne skupštine BiH i Predsjedništvo BiH po osnovu njihovog rasnog/etničkog porijekla (diskriminaciju po etničkom osnovu Sud je smatrao jednim oblikom rasne diskriminacije)7. Aplikanti su tvrdili da se razlika u tretmanu koja se isključivo temelji na rasi ili etničkom porijeklu ne može opravdati i da predstavlja direktnu diskriminaciju. Sud je 22.12. 2009. donio presudu kojom je utvrdio kršenje stava 14. u vezi sa članom 3. protokola br. 1. koji se odnosi na nemogućnost aplikanata da se kandiduju na izborima za Dom naroda BiH, te povredu člana 1. Protokola br. 12 zbog nemogućnosti aplikanata da se kandiduju na izborima za Predsjedništvo BiH. U obrazloženju presude Sud je smisao spornih ustavnih odredaba tumačio kao namjeru da se zaustavi brutalni konflikt i obezbijedi stvarna ravnopravnost između strana u sukobu, odnosno konstitutivnih naroda, ali je i 5 Bosna i Hercegovina je 2002. godine postala članica Vijeća Evrope i bezrezervno je ratifikovala Konvenciju i njene protokole, čime je po vlastitoj želji pristala da poštuje relevantne standarde. 6 U 5/98, tačka 116., 1.VII 2000. 7 Vidjeti: Timishev protiv Rusije, br. 55762/00 i 55974/00, točka 56, ECHR 2005-XII 78 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ konstatovao da je rezultat primjene ovih odredaba različit tretman pojedinaca, baziran na etničkoj osnovi. Presuda Evropskog suda za ljudska prava ni do danas, skoro četiri godine od svog donošenja, nije provedena. Državna vlast ostaje dosljedna stavu koji je zastupala i pred Evropskim sudom u ovom predmetu „ ... da još uvijek nije vrijeme za politički sistem koji bi bio odraz vladavine većine, imajući posebno u vidu istaknuti značaj mono-etničkih političkih partija i trajnu međunarodnu upravu u Bosni i Hercegovini“. 2. Individualno, kolektivno i opšte u kontekstu podijeljenog društva – ljudska prava u multikulturnom kontekstu Fenomen podijeljenog društva primarno je bio predmet izučavanja političkih nauka, no pokazalo se da njegov sadržaj ima vrlo značajne pravne refleksije, posebno u domenu ustavnog prava, gdje se pojmom podijeljenog društva danas određuju društva u kojima su etno-kulturne podjele „politički najvažnije – odnosno predstavljaju kontinuirane oznake političkog identiteta i osnovu za političku mobilizaciju“, odnosno gdje se „etnokulturna raznolikost prevodi u političku fragmentaciju“.8 U ovom kontekstu pravni i politički subjektivitet pojedinca i brojnih društvenih grupa povezuje se sa pitanjem njegovog priznavanja, što otvara pitanje zadovoljavanja različitih interesa koji određuju njihove identitete. Ovdje nikako ne treba zanemariti činjenicu da je i država nosilac prava na identitet i da je opšti interes, koji nije tek zbir ili rezultanta pojedinačnih, očuvanje i unapređenje države kao zajednice. Nužna pretpostavka za realizaciju individualnih i kolektivnih prava je uređena, stabilna i samoodrživa država. Postojanje različitih interesa koji determinišu različite identitete pretpostavlja potrebu njihovog definisanja i njihovog prihvatanja ili neprihvatanja kroz priznavanje ili osporavanje istih. Sa aspekta pojedinca to priznavanje treba da dovede do izjednačavanja u pravima svih članova te društveno-političke zajednice, što u javnoj (društvenoj) sferi za njega znači negiranje razlikovanja na građane „prvog“ i „drugog“ reda, a s druge strane 8 S. Choudhry, „Bridging Comparative Politics and Comparative Constitutional Law: Constitutional Design in Divided Societies“ u : Choudhry, S. (ur), Constitutional Design for Divided Societies, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008, 5. 79 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – ono mora osigurati i priznavanje „jedinstvenog identiteta individue ili grupe“.9 Multikulturalizam omogućava da svako bude prihvaćen takav kakav jeste, sa svojom individualnošću ili partikularnim potrebama i vrijednostima.10 Ovim konceptom stvara se realna pretpostavka da pojedici bez obzira na svoje porijeklo, bez obzira čime ono bilo dominantno određeno, moraju imati jednaka politička i građanska prava. Multikulturno društvo za uspješno funkcionisanje podrazumijeva usvajanje univerzalnih vrijednosti kojima trebaju težiti i pojedinci i kolektiviteti koji mu pripadaju. Te univerzalne vrijednosti su pretpostavka multikulturnog dijaloga kroz koji se ostvaruju – njime se međusobno upoznaju uzajamno se priznajući i poštujući, čime se izmiče opasnosti od lažnog i neutemeljenog preuveličavanja i univerzaliziranja sopstvenog identiteta i svoje vrijednosti. Individue u ovom kontekstu osnovu za formulisanje svog identiteta i realizaciju svog statusa nalaze u međukulturnom dijalogu koji im dozvoljava da dosljedno poštuju dominantnu matricu kulture kojoj pripadaju, da uz uvažavanje njenih osnovnih principa i vrijednosti prihvate i načela pojedinih drugih kultura ili da sami kompiliraju načela različitih kultura izlazeći tako iz zadatog okvira svoje kulture, ne vežući se pri tome niti za jednu kulturnu zajednicu.11 Dijaloški koncept multikulturalizma traži i svoju primjerenu političku strukturu koja bi i pojedincima i kolektivitetima garantovala jednakost u razlikama - jednak status i osnovna prava, čime bi se osigurao princip jednakosti, koji se doživljava kao pripadanje i prihvatanje, a čime se, istovremeno, osigurava stabilnost samog državno-pravnog poretka. Cilj je da se izbjegne bilo kakav vid kulturne dominacije, te da se realizuje društvena zajednica (i politička) koja je po svom habitusu „zajednica zajednica“ i „zajednica pojedinaca“ koja počiva na uzajamnom priznavanju i uvažavanju. Tako uspostavljen okvir jednakosti artikuliše osjećaj zajedničke pripadnosti toj društvenoj zajednici koji partikularnu pripadnost čini društveno irelevantnom. 9 Ch. Taylor, The politics of Recognition, Gutmann, A., eds, Multikulturalism, Examining the Politics of Recognition, Princeton University Press, 1994, 38. 10 Vidjeti šire: A. Semprini, Multikulturalizam, Clio, Beograd 1999, 51-65. 11 Vidjeti šire: B. Perekh, Rethinking Multiculturalism, Cultural Diversity and Political Theory, Palgrave, New York 2000, 160-180. 80 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Ambijent multikulturnog društva nije posvećen samo pitanjima vezanim za različite kolektivitete koji u njemu egzistiraju već je snažno angažovan i oko potrebe da se determiniše položaj individue i prava koja joj, kao primarnom političkom subjektu, priradaju. Ovdje jasno dolazi do izražaja distinkcija između prava koja čovjeku pripadaju kao pojedincu od onih koja mu pripadaju kao članu određenog kolektiviteta. Multikulturna društva zato se neminovno suočavaju sa pitanjem kako urediti i regulisati odnose između različitih subjekata (individua i kolektiviteta) koji u njegovom okviru traže realizaciju svojih prava, vodeći pri tome računa o razlikama koje ih određuju, a istovremeno osiguravajući i efikasno djelovanje državnih struktura vlasti. Od odgovora koji se nude optimalan je onaj koji se svodi na obavezu jednakog tretmana svih aktera u društveno-političkoj sferi, što praktično znači da će za one društvene grupe koje su marginalizirane ili deprivilegovane biti priznata posebna, specijalna, prava. Institucionalizacijom posebnog predstavljanja deprivilegovanih kolektiviteta, kojim se osigurava njihovo učešće u procesu odlučivanja, želi se postići optimalno i praktično funkcionalno rješenje. Pravo na posebno predstavljanje koje se osigurava za marginalne i deprivilegovane kolektivitete pokušaj je multikulturalizma da se artikuliše ambijent u kome će svi pojedinci i kolektiviteti pod jednakim uslovima realizovati svoja opšta i posebna prava. U ovom kontekstu opravdano je razlikovanje opštih prava, koja imaju karakter univerzalnosti i koja pripadaju svima, i posebnih prava, specijalnog karaktera, kojima se ističe specifičnost određene, marginalizirane grupe. Priznavanjem posebnih prava ovoj vrsti grupa osigurava se njihova zaštita čime se istovremeno učvršćuju društvo i država u pitanju.12 Postojanje društvenih grupa opravdava uvođenje kategorije kolektivnih prava koja osiguravaju integritet skupina (zajednica, kolektiviteta), a time posredno i integritet svojih članova. Ako takva kolektivna prava posredno osiguravaju i integritet i najvažnija dobra pojedinca tada se može govoriti o kolektivnim ljudskim pravima. Mada kolektivna prava ističu poseban identitet neke grupe, 12 Šire vidjeti: I. M. Young, Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Chitisenship, Ethics, vol.99, No.2 250-274.1989, 259-266. 81 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – kolektivna prava u krajnjem slučaju služe pravima pojedinih pripadnika grupe. Tumačenje kolektivnih prava sa namjerom utvrđivanja njihovog prioriteta i dominacije u odnosu na prava individue, kao pripadnika kolektiviteta, uvijek vodi do konfliktnih i društveno degradirajućih političkopravnih rješenja, posebno u širim multietničkim i generalno multikulturnim zajednicama. Takva rješenja imaju za cilj da izvrše prenos ljudskih prava sa pojedinca na kolektiv, namećući svoje interese i ciljeve pojedincu, instrumentalizirajući ga, onemogućavajući mu tako da određuje svoj sopstveni identitet i svoje životne ciljeve. Kolektivna prava, kada svoju legitimaciju traže u kontekstu građanskih-državljanskih prava, u tome imaju uspjeha ukoliko mogu potvrditi svoju nužnost za ostvarivanje načela jednakosti. Individualna i kolektivna prava tako egzistiraju jedna pored drugih i međusobno su tijesno vezana; mnogi oblici grupnih prava, u oba aspekta njihove primjene individualnoj i kolektivnoj - široko su prihvaćeni. Grupno diferencirana prava ne proturječe liberalnoj ideji jednakosti jer jedino kroz njih može se artikulisati heterogena javnost, čime se društvena raznolikost priznaje i potvrđuje. Uz pretpostavku da grupe nisu same sebi cilj, već nastaju u svrhu artikulacije i ostvarivanja volje svojih članova jasno je da one imaju instrumentalni karakter, odnosno da su kolektivna prava deducirana iz prava pojedinaca kao pripadnika kolektiva. Razlikovanje prava na opšta i posebna za sobom povlači razlikovanje sfera njihove realizacije. Klasičnim liberalnim političkim modelom javna sfera namijenjena je realizaciji građanskih i političkih prava. Prihvatanjem uslova koji ovaj model postavlja pojedinac stiče status građanina koji mu osigurava jednakost u pravima. Javna sfera je neutralan domen u kome se ta jednakost potvrđuje. Odsustvo razlikovanja po bilo kom osnovu osigurava joj karakter homogenosti. Privatna sfera determinisana je heterogenošću koja je rezultat razlika među pojedincima koje određuju njihove različite identitete, dajući im mogućnost da se po različitim principima udružuju u različite kolektivitete. Multikulturni liberalni model zadržava razliku između privatne i javne sfere, uz razliku što kolektiviteti postaju posrednici između pojedinaca i 82 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ građana. Njegova osnova je u „multikulturnom građanstvu“. Društveni prostor je ovdje podijeljen na dva dijela – središnji u kome se ostvaruju prava svih individua, i posebni koji pripada određenim kolektivitetima i njihovim interesima u kome oni uživaju punu autonomiju. Ovakav model uspješnim balansom između jedinstva i različitosti osigurava društvenu stabilnost istovremeno priznajući autonomiju kolektiviteta.13 Razlike koje definišu privatnu i javnu sferu traže primjeren model političke integracije kojim bi se u ambijentu multikulturnog prostora osiguralo jedinstvo različitosti. Potrebno je ustanoviti pravni okvir koji će osigurati društvenu stabilnost i političko jedinstvo, ali i priznati i integrisati društvene različitosti. Angažman države može se realizovati na različite načine čime odgovara na potrebu za različitim konceptualnim rješenjem kolektivnih manjinskih zahtjeva za javnim i institucionalnim priznavanjem njihovih identiteta. Taj angažman se može kretati u rasponu od etno-kulturne nepristrasnosti izražene kroz neutralnost države, što je svojstveno modelu liberalne demokratije, do modela koji podrazumijeva snažan državni angažman koji traži normiranje statusa kolektiviteta, institucionalizacije njihove autonomije i pružanja potrebne zaštite. Što se položaja pojedinca i mjere njegove autonomije u društvenopolitičkim procesima tiče, ista se percipira u rasponu od negiranja bilo kog vida njegove individualne autonomije do njenog izrazitog favorizovanja koje zagovara filozofski pristup koji stoji na stanovištu da se pojedinac može razvijati tek emancipovan od bilo kog kolektiviteta. Ovo se reflektuje i kroz pitanje individualnog identiteta koji nije samo rezultat djelovanja pojedinca već i snažnih interakcija - artikulisan je i isprepleten kolektivnim identitetima, i zato ne može biti garantovan ako nije zaštićena javna sfera u kojoj se individua socijalizira i u kojoj se njen identitet formira. Zato svaka individua, bez obzira da li pripada ili ne pripada određenim društvenim grupama zaslužuje pravo na jednak tretman u kontekstu društvenog ambijenta u kome je svoj identitet formirala. 14 13 A. Semprini, 114-116. J. Habermas, Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, Gutmann, A., eds., Multiculturalism, Examining the Politics of Recognition, Princeton University Press, 1994, 128-129. 14 83 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – Način na koji multikulturno društvo odgovara ovom zahtjevu, koliko njegova institucionalna struktura vlasti omogućava individui da nezavisno o njenim specifičnim svojstvima određenim njenim identitetom uživa osnovna prava i ljudske slobode najbolje određuje takvo društvo. Za savremena društva nesporno je da su više ili manje determinisana činjenicom heterogenosti – razlikama među pojedincima i razlikama među kolektivitetima kojima oni pripadaju. Problem se pojavljuje kod definisanja kriterija tih razlikovanja kojim ne samo da će razlike biti utvrđene i priznate već će njime biti određena i prava koja se po tom osnovu stiču i uživaju. Kriterij razlikovanja zato nije samo kriterij da se razlika utvrdi, već ukoliko je dobro odeđen on je osnova da se omogući ostvarivanje svih prava koja tako utvrđen status nosi. ZAKLJUČAK Međunarodna zajednica u cilju postizanja mira u BiH bila je spremna da prihvati rješenja kojima će ishoditi prihvatanje Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma, te je organizacija države i glavnih političkih institucija iz tog razloga bila predviđena tako da uspostavi ravnotežu i spriječi prevlast bilo koga od tri konstitutivna naroda. Druge etničke grupe, kao ni građani koji zadržavaju pravo da ne pripadaju bilo kom etničkom kolektivitetu bili su izostavljeni iz rješenja koja su njim predložena. Ova rješenja nisu bila donesena sa namjerom uspostavljanja etničke dominacije, već sa namjerom prekidanja krvavog sukoba i osiguravanja ravnopravnosti između strana u sukobu, odnosno konstitutivnih naroda. U takvom kontekstu bilo bi teško uskratiti legitimitet normama koje bi, s gledišta nediskriminacije, mogle biti problematične, mada su, sa aspekta političkog cilja kome su težile bile neophodne. Koncept „konstitutivnih naroda“ utvrđen Ustavom vremenom je evoluirao. Od sredstva on se transformisao u cilj. Postao je sama suština države i društva u Bosni i Hercegovini. Njegov neupitni značaj je takav da se i njegova očigledna kontradiktornost sa principom zabrane diskriminacije u ostvarivanju ljudskih prava od strane politike tumači kao prihvatljiva kolateralna šteta. Ukazivanje na njegov diskriminatorni karakter uvijek kao odgovor dobija zloslutnu prognozu da bi njegova eventualna promjena 84 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ podrazumijevala promjenu postojeće ravnoteže u vršenju vlasti, što bi moglo dovesti do raspirivanja tenzija koje su u Bosni i Hercegovini jednako prisutne svih ovih godina. Zloupotreba koncepta konstitutivnih naroda posebno je izražena u insistiranju na etničkoj pripadnosti koja je postala temelj političkog artikulisanja. Etnički identitet, kao nepromjenjivi, promovisan je u politički identitet. U takvom kontekstu građani, kao slobodne osobe sa promjenjivim identitetima, i kolektivna ljudska prava drugih etničkih zajednica, koje ne uživaju poseban i povlašten status “konstitutivnih naroda” marginalizirani su ili isključeni. „Odsustvo“ građanina u pravnopolitičkom i državnopravnom kontekstu u BiH aktueliziraće podjelu ljudskih prava na individualna i kolektivna prava zahtijevajući da se definiše njihov međusobni odnos u hijerarhijskoj relaciji. Kategorija konstitutivnih naroda, koja je uvedena u pravni sistem Bosne i Hercegovine kao dominantna i sveodređujuća, sugerisala je, prema konceptu kojim je postulirana, nesporan primat kolektivnog. Država Bosna i Hercegovina, polazeći od toga, nije smatrala svojom obavezom da političkim balansiranjem zadovolji opšte, kolektivne i pojedinačne interese, koji svojim značajem oblikuju pojedinačne identitete njihovih nosilaca. Koncept konstitutivnih naroda i podjela vlasti koja je među njima načinjena, mada se može opravdati kao nužna pretpostavka okončanju ratnog sukoba, vrlo je problematičan u kontekstu poslijeratne tranzicije, što je konstatovao i Evropski sud za ljudska prava u presudi u predmetu Sejdić i Finci15 navodeći da je takvo razlikovanje konstitutivnih naroda i „ostalih“ izgubilo objektivno i razumno opravdanje.16 Njegovo instaliranje je uvođenje konsocijacijskog koncepta tripartitne strukture koji se u praksi manifestuje kao paritet dominantnih grupa u javnoj i političkoj sferi gdje snažno artikuliše pitanje poštovanja principa ravnopravnosti i nediskriminacije. Koncept „konstitutivnih naroda“ u kontekstu bosanskohercegovačkog multikulturnog društva odnosi se na kolektivno nacionalno pravo u Ustavu 15 16 Ap. br. 27996/06 i 34836/06, od 22.XII 2009. godine Presuda u predmetu Sejdić i Finci, par. 45-50. 85 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – izričito pobrojanih naroda17. To pravu je uže od suverenosti, ali šire od individualnih prava na nacionalni identitet i ravnopravnost. U svojoj realizaciji ono je uslovljeno pravom drugih konstitutivnih naroda, ne može rezultirati „teritorijalizacijom“, već se ostvaruje kroz sistem institucionalnih i proceduralnih garancija koje za cilj imaju ostvarivanje i zaštitu ravnopravnosti svih konstitutivnih naroda. Ovako određeno pravo konstitutivnih naroda mnogo je šire od prava kolektiviteta koji taj status nemaju (nacionalne manjine i ostali), mada preambula Ustava BiH naglašava ravnopravnost konstitutivnih naroda sa pripadnicim ostalih naroda, ali od tog rješenja odstupa u normativnom dijelu Ustava.18 Koncept konstitutivnih naroda inicijalno je bio zamišljen kao prelazno rješenje do normalizacije pravnih, političkih, ekonomskih i sociljalnih prilika čije bi djelovanje osiguralo ostvarivanje međunarodnih standarda ljudskih prava i sloboda. Međutim, koncept konstitutivnih naroda se u ambijentiu poslijeratne Bosne i Hercegovine petrificirao, te kao takav zaoštravao i činio sve očitijim problem stvarne nejednakosti koju promoviše. Pokazalo se da supstitut koncepta konstitutivnih naroda, onakvog kakav je utvrđen Ustavom BiH, nakon donošenja presude u predmetu Sejdić i Finci, nije jednostavno dati na način da se ne naruši balans političke moći između konstitutivnih naroda, a istovremeno da se na principu nediskriminacije osigura participacija ostalih. Kao jednostavne formule nude se „…potpuno napuštanje etnokratije i afirmacija građanina pojedinca u političkom sistemu ili … se otvara prostor za svojevrsno pluraliziranje etnokratije jednostavnim uvođenjem kategorije „ostalih“ u tripartitnu strukturu države konstitutivnih naroda“19. Rješenja koja se nude previđala su da bi se država BiH vladavinom prava, kao legitimacijskom formulom, što je u Ustavu BiH izričito i navedeno, trebala opredijeliti za model koji će u najvećoj mjeri osigurati društveni balans rukovodeći se širinom polja slobode javnog i privatnog 17 K. Trnka, „Konstitutivnost naroda i uključivanje Bosne I Hercegovine u evropske integracije”, Pravna misao 7-8, Sarajevo 2004, 19. 18 Vidjeti čl. IV i V Ustava BiH 19 E. Hodžić i N. Stojanović, Novi stari ustavni inženjering, Analitika, Sarajevo 2013., 11. 86 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ izražavanja individualnih i kolektivnih osobenosti –„ja“ i „mi“ identiteta koje ona garantuje. Formula konstitutivnih naroda, od koje se u tom pravcu krenulo, nije mogla dovesti do željenog rješenja – ona je potrebu navedenog balansa potpuno ignorisala. Vladavina prava je opšte dobro prema kome treba definisati teorijski okvir kako država treba da bude organizovana i na koji način treba da se odnosi prema etnokulturnoj heterogenosti da bi posebni entiteti ravnopravno participirali u vladavini prava. Heterogenom bosanskohercegovačkom ambijentu potreban je jedan integrativni sadržaj, kultura ljudskih prava, sa jednakom ulogom kakvu je Kimlika namijenio socijetalnoj kulturi, koja bi prožimala sve oblasti ljudskog djelovanja. Ona bi odražavala svakovrsnu društvenu raznolikost, ali i osiguravala razumijevanje, prihvatanje i oživotvorenje ljudskih prava i sloboda. Ovim bi se integrisale građanske slobode i etnička heterogenost što bi osiguralo jednak pristup javnim institucijama, doprinijelo razvoju osjećaja pripadnosti državi kao zajednici i izgradnji zajedničkog identiteta. Ljudska prava jednako dostupna svima u javnoj i političkoj sferi ponovo bi afirmisala građanina kao njenog najznačajnijeg aktera. Pristajanje uz ove vrijednosti i principe pretpostavka su harmoničnog zajedničkog života. „Osjećaju jednakosti pogoduju samo one prilike u kojima je pojedincu dostupno da izražava i svoje građansko i svoje nacionalno biće, naravno u onoj mjeri u kojoj je takvo ispoljavanje usklađeno (ili se bar ne remeti) sa ostvarivanjem državne funkcije. Moderni pojam demos-a , u žarišnom značenju, zasniva se na dobrovoljnoj pripadnosti političkoj zajednici iz dobrih političkih razloga da se živi zajedno.“20 Multikulturalizam traži da se pravo kao oličenje jednakosti, pravednosti i slobode dopuni novom vrijednošću – vrijednošću sticanja i očuvanja identiteta, jednako individualnog i kolektivnog što će stvoriti uslove za njihovu nesmetanu participaciju, kao demos-a, u zajedničkim institucionalnim strukturama, kada je u pitanju opšti interes, i u posebnim, kao ethnos-a, kada je u pitanju njihov specifičan interes. Na ovaj način 20 R. Vasić: Princip vladavine prava u: Ustavnost i vladavina prava, priredio Kosta Čavoški, Beograd 2000, 34 87 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – uređuju se odnosi između državnog, grupnog i individualnog subjektiviteta njihovim priznavanjem, ograničavanjem i balansiranjem.21 Politički i kulturni identitet povezuju se vladavinom prava i demokratskim institucijama. U tom smislu u Bosni i Hercegovini treba jasno formulisati sferu u kojoj će se moći artikulisati opšti interes, koja će biti definisana odsustvom bilo kakvih podjela u kojoj će ljudska prava biti jednako dostupna svima. Partikularizam i brojnost posebnih interesa treba ostati u privatnoj sferi dajući mogućnost da se kroz multikulturno, diferencirano građanstvo te dvije sfere dovedu u harmoničnu relaciju. Ovim bi se postigao balans između političke realnosti i imperativa primjene principa nediskriminacije, nastojeći posebno da ne naruše balans političke moći, te da se osigura uvažavanje i individualnih i kolektivnih ljudskih prava na osnovama ravnopravnosti. Ustavna kategorija ostalih iz sadašnjeg Ustava treba biti redefinisana. Ona u sebi nosi pretpostavku nejednakosti i neprihvatljive generalizacije koja vodi diskriminaciji, te bi u vezi sa kolektivnim predstavljanjem trebalo uzeti u obzir, a time i odrediti kao ustavnu kategoriju, pripadnike nacionalnih manjina i one koji nisu etnički opredijeljeni, koji ne mogu i/ili ne žele biti viđeni kao pripadnici neke etničke skupine, već samo kao građani BiH, te im, shodno tome, u rješenjima koja osiguravaju ostvarivanje tih prava učešće u organima vlasti i jednaku dostupnost javnih funkcija - osigurati konsekventnu jednakopravnost. Argument koji ovome ide u prilog je i činjenica da se kategorija nacionalnih manjina percipirala i pozicionirala, u kontekstu kategorije „ostalih“, znatno drugačije u odnosu na druge identitete koji se tu ubrajaju. O njihovim pravima se ozbiljno raspravlja u vezi sa kolektivnim političkim predstavljanjem i kolektivnom zaštitom njihovih interesa u političkoj sferi, što kada su ostali nekonstitutivni kolektiviteti u pitanju nije bio slučaj. Pitanje institucionalnih rješenja za izvršenje presude u predmetu Sejdić i Finci upravo je u ovom kontekstu - najneposrednije je u vezi sa 21 88 Ibid. 35. �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ konceptualnim pitanjem da li su titulari ljudskih prava jednaki u pravima obzirom na princip „diferenciranog građanstva“, svojstvenog podijeljenim društvima, sa najdirektnijim implikacijama na principe i modele političke participacije. Ovako definisanom preporukom princip građanstva određen je kao primarni uz mogućnost i pravo da isti, može ali ne mora, bude dopunjen određenjem svakog pojedinca u smislu pripadanja ili nepripadanja kategoriji konstitutivnih naroda ili nekog nekonstitutivnog kolektiviteta, čime je nesporno utvrđena jednakost građana. Samoodređenje u ovom smislu treba normirati kao neotuđivo pravo svakog pojedinca koji će se shodno tome moći slobodno odrediti s pravom i da promijeni svoje određenje, te da njegov izbor u tom smislu ne smije imati za njega bilo kakve negativne posljedice. Napuštanje nominalnog određenja „ostali“ i njegova zamjena eksplicitnim imenovanjem drugih kategorija nije puko pluraliziranje etnokratije. To je racionalan izbor koji treba da pokaže apsurdnost insistiranja na nominaciji kolektiviteta koji učestvuju u političkoj participaciji jer podjele te vrste se nikada ne mogu smatrati završenima obzirom na vitalnu prirodu društvenog ambijenta, brojnost i nestalnost kriterija po kojima se sami kolektiviteti određuju. Ovo je tek posredan put kojim se ukazuje se na nezamjenjivi značaj individue kao takve, na univerzalna prava koja joj pripadaju u javnoj sferi ne zanemarujući time njeno pravo da svoj identitet realizuje pripadanjem ili nepripadanjem različitim kolektivitetima. Kako bosanskohercegovački realni politički ambijent ne pokazuje nikavu spremnost za potpuno napuštanje etnokratije i afirmaciju građana pojedinaca, to je predloženo rješenje u realnim okvirima jedini način da se ta afirmacija ostvari. U svakom slučaju, mada se optimalno rješenje za ostvarivanje ljudskih prava u Bosni i Hercegovini tek treba naći model demokratske države vladavine prava koji zastupa etnokulturnu pravdu čini se dobrim izborom. Pravo je jedini instrument kojim se ovaj izbor institucionalizuje i kao takav štiti osnovnim zakonom pod kojim se ostvaruje čitav pravni sistem. Ustav svakako jeste neophodna, ali ni u kom slučaju on nije dovoljna garancija. Priznavanje i podrška „participativnom uređenju“ može se osigurati tek uz pretpostavku „političke kulture oslonjene na građansku vrlinu. Građanska vrlina živi kada je podupiru univerzalističke vrijednosti: 89 �Mirjana Nadaždin Defterdarević: LJUDSKA PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – ljubav prema zajedničkoj slobodi i spremnost da se pravda priziva i za onog ko pripada Drugom i Drugačijem.“22 LITERATURA Choudhry, Sujit, Bridging Comparative Politics and Comparative Constitutional Law: Constitutional Design in Divided Societies u: Choudhry, S. (ur), Constitutional Design for Divided Societies, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008. Habermas, Jurgen, Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, Gutmann, A., eds., Multiculturalism, Examining the Politics of Recognition, Princeton University Press, 1994. Hodžić, Edin i Stojanović, Nenad, Novi-stari ustavni inženjering?: Izazovi i implikacije presude Evropskog suda za ljudska prava u predmetu Sejdić i Finci protiv BiH, Sarajevo 2011. Kymlicka, Will, Multikulturno građanstvo, Liberalna teorija manjinskih prava, Zagreb 2003. Perekh, Bhikhu, Rethinking Multiculturalism, Cultural Diversity and Political Theory, Palgrave, New York 2000. Semprini, Andrea, Multikulturalizam, Clio, Beograd 1999. Taylor, Charles. The politics of Recognition, Gutmann, A., eds, Multikulturalism, Examining the Politics of Recognition, Princeton University Press, 1994. Trnka, Kasim, Konstitutivnost naroda i uključivanje Bosne i Hercegovine u evropske integracije, Pravna misao 7-8, Sarajevo 2004. Vasić, Radmila, Princip vladavine prava u: Ustavnost i vladavina prava, priredio Kosta Čavoški, Beograd 2000. 22 M. Viroli, „Patriotizam bez nacionalizma“, „Republika“, br. 153-154/96, 28, 30- 33., u: Za ljubav otadžbine. Patriotizam i nacionalizam u istoriji, Laterza, 1995. 90 �ZBORNIK RADOVA - Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Javni i privatni aspekti nužnih pravnih reformi u BiH: Koliko daleko možemo ići?“ Young, Iris Marion, Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Chitisenship, Ethics, vol.99, No.2 250-274., 1989. Ustav Bosne i Hercegovine, http://www.ccbh.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_bos. pdf (30.X 2013.) Sudske odluke: Evropski sud za ljudska prava, Timishev protiv Rusije, ap. br. 55762/00 i 55974/00, XII 2005. Evropski sud za ljudska prava, Sejdić i Finci protiv Bosne i Hercegovine, ap. br. 27996/06 i 34836/06, XII 2009. godine Ustavni Sud Bosne i Hercegovine, Odluka U 5/98-III, od 1.VII 2000. 91 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3056 Title A name given to the resource LJUDSKA PRAVA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI – PRETPOSTAVKE USPJEŠNE REALIZACIJE Author Author DEFTERDAREVIĆ, Mirjana Nadaždin Abstract A summary of the resource. Rad se bavi pitanjem organizacionog principa države Bosne i Hercegovine koji sada počiva na konceptu tri konstitutivna naroda. Problematizirajući pitanje o odnosu ovog koncepta sa principima ravnopravnosti i nediskriminacije, koji su proklamovani kako državnim tako i entitetskim ustavima, analiza koja iz toga proističe, potvrđuje da je podijeljeno društvo u kome su etnokulturne podjele politički najvažnije, na kojima počiva politička fragmentacija društva, ambijent u kome se vrijednosti tih garantovanih principa ne mogu realizovati. Analizom sadržaja, uporednopravnim i teleološkim metodom istraživanje se posebno fokusira na aspekt ljudskih prava gdje se, kroz primjenu kriterija etniciteta, jasno pokazuju njegove diskriminatorne posljedice. Rad traži odgovor na pitanje koja je najpouzdanija osnova na kojoj bi se trebale razvijati država i društvo Bosne i Hercegovine. Autorica nalazi da je u tu svrhu najpodesnija afirmacija principa „diferenciranog građanstva“, koji omogućuje samoodređenje svakog pojedinca dajući mu tako mogućnost slobode koju će koristiti na način koji mu samom najviše odgovara. Time bi sadašnja diferencijacija u ljudskim pravima, prema kriteriju etniciteta izgubila svoje objektivno i razumno opravdanje. Ključne riječi: ljudska prava, konstitutivni narodi, diskriminacija, podijeljeno društvo, diferencirano građanstvo, samoodređenje, jednakost. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1e9854e001e356f3bbb6b6066b4a75de.doc 386d60a9d64081bc8e70d4d7123abe55 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d473b732feac12ea76fcd833e71bf282.pdf 776fde02e85f1f03394320a9b2c06ca5 PDF Text Text BOOK OF ABSTRACTS the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. They are both Germanic, even though each has borrowed many words from Latin, French and Greek, that means that many common words are similar in both languages, for example: house/Haus, man/Mann, here/Hier and good/gut, and even some words are identical for example: Hand, Arm, Sand and Finger. Modern English has evolved into one of the dominant world languages, and it also had a growing influence on other languages. Loaned words cover different fields such as popular culture, politics, business and the environment, because of profound changes in the life and language, the influence of English language worldwide and that many expressions from English appear as loan words. According to Garrod and Sanford definition of a specific communicative task such as a description or instruction, the information to be expressed is not mapped directly from memory into linguistic form. Hence, speakers generate a temporary conceptual structure which focuses on a specific set of pragmatics, semantic, and syntactic options and sets guidelines for the process of mapping information into linguistic form. Translation is often thought to be primarily about words and their meanings, what the words in the source text mean, and how words in the target language will convey meaning. Recent linguistics research has not yet been able to come up with the actual percentage of Anglicism in German language. Loanword and its usage Adela Hasanic International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT In this paper my aim is to explain the use of loanwords as well as their prevalence in most languages. For foreign language learners understanding the foreign or second language is much easier if it contains similarities with native language. | 29 �1st International Annual Student Symposium Various language users find many ways to expand vocabulary. There are loanwords which are words borrowed from one language to be used in another one. People use them unconsciously in their daily life. There are direct and indirect borrowings depending on their origin and translation. The use of different meaning, idiom or lexical item may be considered as borrowing. Loanwords are usually words from dominant fields of different activities, so grammatical words are borrowed in very rare situations and they are unchangeable within each language. They have little lexical meaning but function to express grammatical relationships with other words on the part of speech. Such exposure of a loanword may confuse people's minds because it is important to emphasize the difference between 'foreign word' and 'loan word'. As we said before a loan word is an integrated word from a foreign language with an orthography adapted for the language that receives the new word. Contrary to that there is a foreign word as a non-integrated word from a foreign language where spelling is not changed. Several changes happen during borrowing process such as the change in meaning, the change in spelling and in the pronunciation depending on different factors which have an influence on language. In obvious need for expanding the vocabulary words come-in with a different meaning than that in the language from which it is taken. The same case is when phrases are literary translated (word-for-word) that is known as a calque. 30 | � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1424 Title A name given to the resource Loanword and its usage Author Author HASANIC, Adela Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper my aim is to explain the use of loanwords as well as their prevalence in most languages. For foreign language learners understanding the foreign or second language is much easier if it contains similarities with native language. Various language users find many ways to expand vocabulary. There are loanwords which are words borrowed from one language to be used in another one. People use them unconsciously in their daily life. There are direct and indirect borrowings depending on their origin and translation. The use of different meaning, idiom or lexical item may be considered as borrowing. Loanwords are usually words from dominant fields of different activities, so grammatical words are borrowed in very rare situations and they are unchangeable within each language. They have little lexical meaning but function to express grammatical relationships with other words on the part of speech. Such exposure of a loanword may confuse people's minds because it is important to emphasize the difference between 'foreign word' and 'loan word'. As we said before a loan word is an integrated word from a foreign language with an orthography adapted for the language that receives the new word. Contrary to that there is a foreign word as a non-integrated word from a foreign language where spelling is not changed. Several changes happen during borrowing process such as the change in meaning, the change in spelling and in the pronunciation depending on different factors which have an influence on language. In obvious need for expanding the vocabulary words come-in with a different meaning than that in the language from which it is taken. The same case is when phrases are literary translated (word-for-word) that is known as a calque. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e91735dd3da9356c4d20cca47d5cd361.docx b006f2b175311b81759ba493ba8f94ed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4b02883c11308fc63daa5f4ea10a4536.pdf 02f903a2de9135625424e9b107691371 PDF Text Text Loanwords and Soap Operas: the Return of Turkish to the Language Scene of Bosnia and Herzegovina Edin Dupanović Kulen Vakuf-Orašac Primary School/ Bihać, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: Bosnian, Turkish, loanwords, soap operas, language change ABSTRACT Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian borrowed a considerable number of words from the Turkish language during the reign of the Ottoman Empire. In the ensuing period some of these loanwords were so thoroughly adapted that the speakers of any of the four aforementioned languages no longer recognised them as such. Some of them continued to be clearly recognised as oriental borrowings, which, for the most part, meant the shift towards the present-day colloquial usage, and some were reduced to obsolescence due to their fall from grace with the speakers. At the moment, Turkish language is making a comeback to the language scene of Bosnia and Herzegovina in two ways: through Turkish private schools operating in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and through an increasing number of Turkish soap operas being broadcast on the TV programmes in the region. This preliminary research concerns the latter, and its aim is to: give an overview of this new phenomenon, start examining how it influences the speakers of Bosnian and consequently the Bosnian language itself, try to predict further developments, and suggest further research. Methodologically, the research consists of conducting interviews with the speakers of Bosnian who watch Turkish soap operas. The interviewer uses a questionnaire which was previously given to the subjects to think about the questions and examples. The aim is to find out: how and to what degree subjects perceive shared language material, how their awareness of it changes, whether they notice the differences of usage in Bosnian and present-day Turkish, whether elderly subjects perceive loanwords words no longer used in Bosnian etc. The first part of the research was conducted in the first quarter of 2011 when 46 interviews were conducted, and the second part in 2013 with 20 additional interviews. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1759 Title A name given to the resource Loanwords and Soap Operas: the Return of Turkish to the Language Scene of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author DUPANOVIC, Edin Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Bosnian, Turkish, loanwords, soap operas, language change ABSTRACT Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian borrowed a considerable number of words from the Turkish language during the reign of the Ottoman Empire. In the ensuing period some of these loanwords were so thoroughly adapted that the speakers of any of the four aforementioned languages no longer recognised them as such. Some of them continued to be clearly recognised as oriental borrowings, which, for the most part, meant the shift towards the present-day colloquial usage, and some were reduced to obsolescence due to their fall from grace with the speakers. At the moment, Turkish language is making a comeback to the language scene of Bosnia and Herzegovina in two ways: through Turkish private schools operating in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and through an increasing number of Turkish soap operas being broadcast on the TV programmes in the region. This preliminary research concerns the latter, and its aim is to: give an overview of this new phenomenon, start examining how it influences the speakers of Bosnian and consequently the Bosnian language itself, try to predict further developments, and suggest further research. Methodologically, the research consists of conducting interviews with the speakers of Bosnian who watch Turkish soap operas. The interviewer uses a questionnaire which was previously given to the subjects to think about the questions and examples. The aim is to find out: how and to what degree subjects perceive shared language material, how their awareness of it changes, whether they notice the differences of usage in Bosnian and present-day Turkish, whether elderly subjects perceive loanwords words no longer used in Bosnian etc. The first part of the research was conducted in the first quarter of 2011 when 46 interviews were conducted, and the second part in 2013 with 20 additional interviews. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/575d95c0a468c6276f676fa7b3f1acb5.doc 7ac5b1dc6abb6ca7dc9f0fd8e84aaf6c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6601b9b9d4ae63507593a389659842cd.pdf 31773671b44ed795f537807d98ad6d3b PDF Text Text BOOK OF ABSTRACTS Kingdom by Analoui, B., Doloriert, C. and Sambrook S., (2011) presented in the article Engaging students in group work to maximize knowledge sharing, in order to provide a students’ point of view from a relevant source. Loanwords in Nura Bazdulj- Hubijar's Novel Once in July and Their Adaptation in Bosnian Language Mersina Šehić University of Banja Luka / Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT Considering the nature and function of a language, we can firmly claim that loanwords are its non-omissive part. In a certain way, loanwords are reflections of historical and cultural past of one nation. In that respect, it can be said that Bosnian language reflects cultural, historical and religious diversity and richness of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as its specific location between East and West. In the focus of this paper are loanwords excerpted from Nura Bazdulj- Hubijar's novel Once in July, which were verified afterwards in monolingual dictionaries of Bosnian language, as well as in the dictionary of loanwords. The compiled corpus includes German, English, Turkish, Arabic, French, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Russian, Persian, Greek and Latin loanwords. The main part of the paper deals with the adaptations of loanwords in the language- recipient, which preserves its characteristics despite new lexis reception. These adaptations are found at phonetic, morphological, and syntactic levels. Due to the importance of stylistic markers in giving full meanings to lexemes, as well as information on their proper use, special attention during corpus analysis has been given to stylistic markers in used dictionaries. Also, we listed the different thematic aspects to which the loanwords refer in everyday life, their reference being mostly to domestic life, | 35 �1st International Annual Student Symposium religion, architecture, trade, administration, means of transportation, etc. The novel is written in the authentic language, a mixture of East-Bosnian idiom and narrator's personal expression. In this way, the writer indirectly highlights the use of loanwords, which are deeply rooted in the idiolect of every native speaker. An invitation into the depths of Jane Austen’s novel Mihra Srebrenica International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Keywords: Theme, Sense, Sensibility, Irony, Sarcasm ABSTRACT Do we ever think about a book before we start to read it? Do we develop opinions before reading a book? Are the opinions the same after we have finished reading it? Likely most people have read one, two or all the books written by Jane Austen. Likely most enjoyed the books very much. One question poses now; Have they all understood what they have been reading? At the first sight what appears is: romance, wanting money, match making and jelaousy. Very light and easy text to read some would say. What is really behind these light and easy reading stories? Pretty much of what is at first sight, we can freely say. Going and searching deeply into this extraordinary novelist we are amazed by the facts and themes which appear behind the stage. The novel “Sense and Sensibility“ will be used as an example of these hidden themes of the story. The time period during which Austen wrote this novel was during the conversion between classicism and romanticism and so the theme of reason versus passion has historical resonance. The two girls represent these two 36 | � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1425 Title A name given to the resource Loanwords in Nura Bazdulj- Hubijar's Novel Once in July and Their Adaptation in Bosnian Language Author Author SEHIC, Mersina Abstract A summary of the resource. Considering the nature and function of a language, we can firmly claim that loanwords are its non-omissive part. In a certain way, loanwords are reflections of historical and cultural past of one nation. In that respect, it can be said that Bosnian language reflects cultural, historical and religious diversity and richness of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as its specific location between East and West. In the focus of this paper are loanwords excerpted from Nura Bazdulj- Hubijar's novel Once in July, which were verified afterwards in monolingual dictionaries of Bosnian language, as well as in the dictionary of loanwords. The compiled corpus includes German, English, Turkish, Arabic, French, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Russian, Persian, Greek and Latin loanwords. The main part of the paper deals with the adaptations of loanwords in the language- recipient, which preserves its characteristics despite new lexis reception. These adaptations are found at phonetic, morphological, and syntactic levels. Due to the importance of stylistic markers in giving full meanings to lexemes, as well as information on their proper use, special attention during corpus analysis has been given to stylistic markers in used dictionaries. Also, we listed the different thematic aspects to which the loanwords refer in everyday life, their reference being mostly to domestic life, religion, architecture, trade, administration, means of transportation, etc. The novel is written in the authentic language, a mixture of East-Bosnian idiom and narrator's personal expression. In this way, the writer indirectly highlights the use of loanwords, which are deeply rooted in the idiolect of every native speaker. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54e04fead1f4d78a41b8a4fa85424a42.pdf d11e89f174d94ac8d50d897811667ed3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Local Evaluation and Efficiancy: an Evaluation for VAN Municipality BarıĢ KANDEĞER Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Publica Administration Ġstanbul University, Ġstanbul, Turkey kandeger@istanbul.edu.tr M. Akif ARVAS Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Economics, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey aarvas@hacettepe.edu.tr Burak UYAR Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Statistics, Ege University, Ġzmir, Turkey burak.uyar@ege.edu.tr Mehmet TEKĠNTAġ Assistant Professor , Departmant of Business Administration Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey tekinkus@gantep.edu.tr Abstract: This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined. Keywords: Local Government, Local Autonomy, Efficiency, Municipality Introduction The local governments have been important in maintaining the progress and change in the historical process. As a result of the projection of the central government‘s administrative graded ranks, they are able to define their areas of existence. They have different functions and structures in Unitary and/or Federal State systems. From this point of view, the local governments are shaped according to the state systems and form their administrative structures according to the systems. In federal systems, there is a possibility of political and administrative autonomy of for the local governments, whereas in unitary states the autonomy is in an administrative rather than a political form. In this respect, the local governments are faced with the problem of autonomy in a unitary and centralist state mentality. The answer for how and how much autonomy comes into prominence. In this respect, the efficiency and the close supervision of the central government against the local governments‘ decisions and policies for local services presents the level of autonomy. Today, the local governments become significant actors for democracy, the public involvement in administration and the local improvement. It is a space for the fulfillment of various functions such as the realization of local services, the shaping of local politics, the organization for civil social movements and the formation of socio-cultural politics. In this respect, maintaining the share of duty and responsibilities among the local and the central governments and the use of local initiative would overcome the problem of autonomy. 386 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, the concept of autonomy will be discussed with different viewpoints. The close relation between the conceptual definitions of autonomy and the local government will be considered. According to these explanations, the answers for the questions why the local autonomy is significant and why it is defended by international organizations will be sought. Presenting the ideas against the dangers of the local governments, the study will seek to identify the kind of a perception of autonomy that enables the local governments to have a more functional, efficient and healthy form. Finally, in order to analyze the state of autonomy in municipalities which are units of the local governments, the state of autonomy in Van Municipality and its functional practice will be evaluated. The Concept of Local Autonomy Almost in every country, in the administrative ranks there is a separation as the central government and the local government. Its purpose is to define the administrative realms of duty and responsibility and to provide services in an efficient and productive way. Instead of the idea that favors the withholding of all duties and responsibilities in the central government and the necessary active role of the state in each service, the idea advocating that the central government is powerful with the local governments has gained importance. According to Nadaroğlu, ―The central government fulfills the common needs of the community that lives within the national boundaries; watch for, secure and represent their general interests. The local governments, on the other side, are defined as the organizations that fulfills the local needs of the local public, whose overall decision-making bodies are elected by the public and who are public corporate entities‖(1998:p.15-17). Here the significant points are the necessity of the state to execute its principal duties through the central government and to define its national and international policies which are compatible with these duties efficiently and productively while it is vital for the local governments to act in accordance with the duties and responsibilities that are given to them by law and to fill the public‘s local needs. According to Tekeli, local governments are defined as ―the institutions that fill the common needs of the individuals in a local community, provides public goods and services, are administered by the bodies elected by the local public‖ (1983:s.6). In this context, the local governments also define the spheres of the local politics. For these institutions to fulfill the local services, they should be given the authorization in parallel with their duties and responsibilities and should be provided with the usable initiative. Its ability to elect its own bodies through local elections, to take local decisions on its own, to provide financial resources to fulfill its local services and to make its own budget are among the requirements of its administrative and financial authorities. Along with these concepts that are handled with the local governments, the concept of autonomy also comes forward. The concept of autonomy that defines the authority realms of the local governments plays significant roles in the execution of services and efficient maintenance of the decisions. What is this autonomy? Is this the power and authority of the local government to self-administer itself and do whatever it yearns to do or the authorities and responsibilities that are given to it in order to provide local services within the constitutional boundaries. The question whether it is an overthrow of the sovereignty of the central government or the share of the sovereignty comes to mind at once. Local autonomy signifies neither the political independence and local sovereignty nor a unit of the center that is tied to a close supervision and observation. It is a conception of administration that provides the efficiency and productivity in the local services fulfilled by the local governments. Goldsmith comments on the local autonomy as ― the situation defined by the local government as having the authority to collect taxes in order to determine and fulfill the services is also a situation that self-defines the elected autonomies in the administrative system (1995:p.228-229). The autonomy that can be perceived as the share of service among the central and the local is the key for the local to produce and present the services. According to KeleĢ, ―Autonomy is the ability of a local community to handle the local works on its own with its own units and to have the resources that would enable it. At this point, there are two conceptions of local autonomy. The first one is corporate autonomy of the local government. As a result of that kind of autonomy, the centre and the local have separate functions and the centre‘s supervision on the local units is reduced to limited levels. The second group of autonomy is civic autonomy. Among its principal traits are the determination of the activity realms of the local units by the local organs and the supervision of the local governments not by the central government but by the people that forms this local community, that is to say by the public‖(2000: p.49-50). The corporate autonomy can be perceived as the execution of the local services by the administrative and financial decisions taken by this local government in accordance with a decentralized administrative conception and within the constitutional boundaries. The authority for decision making and exercising the decisions taken does not mean being sole independence for the local governments. The significant point here is the execution of the activities and operations subject to the local services by means of duty, authority and responsibilities defined within the constitutional boundaries. The activities and operations peculiar to the local are subject to the supervision of the 387 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo central government within certain bounds and this supervision is only the constitutional supervision and the supervision of sunbsidiarity. The civic autonomy can be perceived rather as the local elections, the supervision of the elected and the contribution to the administrative decisions. According to Weber, the idea that ―the necessity of the local community‘s or the public‘s right to be administered by authorities whose self-administration or elections are realized with the city dwellers‘ participations‖ supports this condition (2003: p.105). To maintain the participation of the public in administration and to advance local democracy can be regarded as significant in terms of national democratic achievements. When we have a look at the progress process of the nations, it is obvious that the existence of the urban dynamics and the urban identities causes these processes to be healthy. The participation of the public in the administration and the realization of its own autonomous organization in the medieval cities illustrate the significance of the concept and identity of the city. For instance, Henry Piren in his study Medieval Cities emphasizes this role of the city (2006: p.49). Why Autonomy is Defended? Civic autonomy emerges as the projection of the activity of providing services with the local governments that are advanced and maturated in the historical process. In this historical process, providing the local governments with constitutional status defines its frame of duty and responsibilities and its central-local boundary. In Europe which is the birthplace of the concept, the local autonomy progresses and interacts along with the democratic state. The concept of local government which blossoms with the French Revolution, makes progresses with the revolution movements in 1830, 1848 and 1860 and demonstrates that the local autonomy can find an area of existence in the axis of the democratic state (Koyuncu,2000:p.98). In this respect, in the countries where democracy blossoms and is established, the subject of the local governments and autonomy turns into a legal quality and a vital sphere. The autonomy which qualifies a significant argument in the vital practice of urban area and the attempts for a practice of efficient subsidiarity can emerge as a dynamic process and can produce politics in this way. The factors such as the blossoming and establishment of democracy, the local community‘s election of its own organs on its own, the maintenance of their participation in the decision-making, the subsidiarity of the services and the regulation of the financial affairs render the autonomy significant. The autonomy is important since it brings up a form that determines the vital spheres of the local governments. Today the understanding of providing subsidiarity, the redefinition of the authorities, duties and responsibilities among the central and the local and the idea that the administrative autonomy of the local governments should be increased have become important. The central government‘s conception of itself as the authority in the local subjects leads to difficulties in the fulfillment of services. Over-centralization both leads to resource dissipation and impedes the efficient and productive execution of services. As a result of the delay in the bureaucratic procedures, the decision-making in long-terms and the invalid determination of the field of application, the cost of services increases. The most significant arguments of the proponents of the local governments and consequently of the autonomy are the release of the local jobs to the locals on the efficient and productive use of resources and the maintenance of subsidiarity. Another argument of the proponents of the local autonomy is that the most significant reasons for the overgrowth of bureaucracy are the existence of an over-centralized structure, the bureaucracy‘s role in the formation of a significant structure for the state‘s execution of power and its effect on the quality of the services. Actually, in the over-centralized countries, bureaucracy can have a negative function on the execution of services and their qualities. As a result of the release of certain authorities and duties to the local governments, not only the efficiency and productivity of the services can be increased and but also over bureaucratic structure can be avoided and limited. The local governments that are defined as the schools democracy are the realms where the public participation in the administration is intense. The local government organs since they are elected by the participation of the public and are the administrative units closest to the local communities turn into the institutions in which the democratic values blossom and are established. The public participation, the pluralism principle, the leaders‘ focus on the solidarity and their responsibilities towards the electorates are the values that emerge with the autonomy. (Çukurçayır, 2000: p.110). In this respect, participation and democracy while can be an agent in increasing the quality of the services done by the local governments, also provide the efficiency and productivity of national and local politics and services. The maintenance of the public participation in the decisions and policies of the local governments is a situation that can be realized through the maintenance of the autonomy. The local community that elects its organs on their own also has the opportunity to supervise these organs more efficiently. The maintenance of the public participation in the administration brings forth certain advantages. Primarily, the decisions and projects in terms of the local governments have the qualities to provide the needs of the local. Moreover, not only the constitutional 388 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo supervision but also public supervision on the local governments is obtained. The local autonomy is an administrative model that emerges by a more efficient and productive execution of the local services. The monopolization of the authorities and the decision-making by high-level central organs lead to delays in the execution and hold back the services. At least, the services slowdown and the reflection of the real experts‘ ideas into the administration and taking right decisions become hard. However, the involvement of the autonomous institutions‘ representatives in the administration enables the chance for finding useful solutions in terms of national interests. The local governments that find areas of existence with the purpose of increasing the welfare level and the quality of services are important actors of local development and progress. As a result of projects and investments that are formed in accordance with the local potential, the local development is obtained and they can be transformed into socio-economic power centers. Since the local development can also help national development, it is significant in displaying the importance of the common projects and politics among the central and the local, as well. Thus, the local governments while realizing the local development help the central government for national development and for the avoidance of the regional instabilities. The national organizations are endeavoring to bring forth universal principals related with autonomy in order to enable the local governments to produce more efficient services. With these principals, the Congress of the Council of Europe, under the title of European Charter of Local Self-Government sets standards for the conception of local government. The European Charter of Local Self-Government which was approved in Turkey in 1991 with Law 3723 (21 May 1991, Nr.21877) outlines the standards of autonomy of the local governments. This document primarily gives legal autonomy to the local governments. The third article of the charter on autonomy defines the right and opportunity of the local authorities to regulate and administer a substantial share of the public affairs within the frames determined by the laws, under their own responsibilities and in accordance with the benefits of the local population. According to The European Charter of Local Self-Government ―the principle of the closeness to the public in services is significant in efficient and productive rendition of the services and making the administrations more close to the citizens. The rights and authorizations set out on the local governments are principles for becoming localized and for the maintenance of the active public participation. The rights and authorizations can be directly used by the councils or the committee meetings that rests on equal and general ballot, that is formed with the members elected independently by the system of secret ballot and that can have administrative organs that are responsible to them. This clause, within the limits of the law, does not impede to consult to citizen councils, referendum and direct participation in the administration. It is possible to analyze the local autonomy in two dimensions such as the administrative and financial autonomy. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decision-making of the autonomous institutions with their own organs. On the other side, the financial autonomy envisages the autonomous institutions to have and to spend separate assets and income resources (Ulusoy,2007:p.32). The financial autonomy refers to the local governments holding sufficient income resources for an efficient and healthy execution of services. The insufficiency of financial resources can play an obstructive role in the maintenance of autonomy since it can bring forth the problem of nonproducing services along with the reality of financing itself through financial aids given the center. Because the aids given by the center makes the local dependent on the center at the same time and consequently limit its own scope. In this respect, it is significant for the local governments to have financial autonomy besides its administrative autonomy. This principle is necessary for having its own incomes, regulating its own budget and providing services peculiar to its own locality. In this context, when we have a look at the situation in Turkey, in the centre-local relations, the supervision of trusteeship and financial dependency are prominent situations. While the supervision in Europe is done within the frames of the compliance with laws, in Turkey the supervision is handled both according to compliance with the laws and subsidiarity. This situation makes it difficult for the local to take and carry out efficient decisions. The definition of the supervision boundaries can expand the scope of the local governments. The supervision of the centre on the local in administrative and financial affairs should be within the constitutional boundaries and the supervision should be carried out afterwards. Furthermore, the maintenance of the items that provides local supervision (public, non-governmental organizations and local council) can also localize the supervision (Tortop,1996: p.13). As a result of the local governments‘ generation of their own financial resources their financial dependence on the central administration will be lessened and they maintain a more autonomous structure. According to Kelly and Freeland, ―the fact that the local governments do not have enough initiative in the field of local financial autonomy, in having resource, income, lobby, political power and responsibility and the insufficient income resources explain the reasons for financial centralization‖(2004:p.5-6). The financial autonomy can also be a result of a conception of efficient and sustainable administration and institutionalized local organization. In the absence of such a structure, a part of the authorities and resources of the local can pass into the hands of central government. When the local governments offer services directed to the local within the boundaries set forth for itself, they have to act according to certain criteria. According to Nadaroğlu ―[T]here are three factors 389 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo significant in considerable and efficient production of public goods and services. These factors are defined as the quality of the services, the realm of services and the size of population. These factors demonstrate the fact that the production of of public goods in local levels can be efficiently presented by the local production units (local administrations). This is because if the population and the technology are regarded as data, it is natural that the local administration produces a more qualified service in comparison with the central administration with the assumption of the use of equal factors‖ (1998:p.39-40). In the maintenance of local efficiency, area restriction, the briefness of decision-making process and the smallness of population scale are the items that increase efficiency. Moreover, the local governments‘ production and presentation of services in parallel with local needs and appropriate to the locale scale is significant in the maintenance of efficiency. According to Ulusoy ―public services should be left to the administration that fulfills the needs of the individuals in the most efficient way. In the presentation of public services, the economic efficiency is obtained when there is no decline in the costs in the situations of the increase or decrease of the populations or the regional areas. According to economic efficiency criterion, if the cost per unit decreases when the goods or services are presented by the administrations that serves to larger populations or regional areas, the services should be presented by higher levels of administration; and if the administration and coordination costs increases disproportional to the population and regional area, the services should be presented by a smaller unit of administration‖ (2007:p.70-71). In this respect, the explicit definition of the central government‘s service area and the local government‘s service area in the production of goods and services and the share of services lead to a formation of the concept of efficiency in a positive way. The share of the services among the central and the local also brings forth a function that decreases the cost of services and increases the quality and efficiency of the service. For instance while the national security or justice services or general health and education services fall within service areas peculiar to central government inclusive of national space; the city road construction, the formation of joint-use in urban areas or the areas of water and sanitary services fall within service areas concerning the local governments. When the historical process is analyzed, it is possible to argue that the concept of democracy emerges from the dynamics of the city. The local democracy that provides subsidiarity can be an agent of the formation of urban participation culture. The local governments can be regarded as the basic item of democracy. In this respect, the local governments have the most significant function in the political participation of the people in the cities and the formation of democracy culture. The people‘s election of their own local administrators through elections and their ability to supervise the elected administrators are closely related with the idea of democracy. The local democracy is a necessary fact for the development of the public participation in administrative decisions and of the relations with the civil society. According to Tortop, ―Local governments are the institutions whose contributions in the development of the nation, in the establishment of a democratic understanding and in the realization of the ideal of a clean society are et most. In order to provide this contribution, the central administration should leave the authorities and duties related with the local services to the local governments‖(1996:p.13). The local institutions which can be autonomous in their own affairs can take and carry out decisions in a better way. The maintenance of the public participation in these decisions is seen as a reflection of the democratic culture and urban participation. The relation between the local governments and democracy reveal not only the fact that the urban problems and solution agents are ascribed to the people living in the local area but also the development of the habit of self-administration (Kalabalık,2005:p.112-113). Since the people living in the local area have a voice in the urban politics, the democratic culture should be developed. The democratic culture can only be possible if the individuals can efficiently participate in the urban political processes, along with the administrators elected independently by them. The close ties between the political regimes of the states and democracy also reveal the existence of the local democracy. Furthermore the transparency of the administrations and the maintenance of the subsidiarity are closely related with the democratic structure. It is necessary to take into consideration not only the thesis that the society members who do not have an idea about the organizational structures and functions of the local governments cannot be expected to have an efficient participation and supervision of the administration but also the reality that the public awareness of the local governments and that the local governments are the vital spheres of the urban politics and the democratic culture. (Gilbert,1975:p.108). The access of the individuals living in the local area to information and the attainability of the communication tools may increase the participation in decision-making processes. The individuals‘ interest in and close track of the local politics can make them the actors for the solutions of problems and are significant factors in the existence of the power for influence and the formation of local participation and the democratic culture (Çukurçayır,2000:108-109). Consequently, it is possible to state that the local administrative areas are the spaces where the urban dynamics are realized, the democratic culture and urban participation emerge and the nongovernmental organizations become shareholders in the policies and projects. 390 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Ideas against the Dangers of Autonomy Today, as a result of the political and economic developments in the world, the polities of the states and their efficiency areas are changed and transformed. The globalization which penetrates the world and the consequent increase of the capital‘s efficiency areas are also evident in the local structure. The positions of various international institutions and current ideas against this situation lead to the examination of the state‘s giving more initiatives to the local, the localizations and consequently the local improvement. In several reports of the World Bank, the significance of localization is emphasized. The neo liberalism and the new right wing movements that emerge after 1980, stress the significance of localization by referring to local autonomy. They point out that with localization comes along regional development, democratic participation and liberation. Here at this point, the problematic of the unitary structure of the state and of its sphere of sovereignty become the projection of the criticism of autonomy concept. The criticisms of the autonomy concept are generally related with the scope of boundaries. They are based on the idea that the empowerment of the local governments and the increase of localization bring forth the change of some of the concepts that belong to the center. This structure has the potential to define itself as decentralization. The basic argument of the opponents of the autonomy is that the globalization starts a process that threatens the central administration and gives sovereignty to the local and that the international organizations support this circumstance. They argue that as a result of these organizations‘ transfer of the authorities of the center to the local with the expressions of the regional development, the democratization and the local political participation, the national resources may become an agent of exploitation by the international capital and the organizations that are tied to them. The 1999-2000 World Bank report displays that both the globalization and the localization are inevitable and the future of the states are shaped by to what extent they can manage these two powers (Güler,2000,p.25-26). As can be perceived in the report, it is necessary for the nation state to transfer some of its authorities to the local and global capital. The criticism directed towards the principle of subsidiarity that is introduced by the Council of Europe is based on the localization of the authorities and the narrowing of the power area of the central administration. The reason why this principle is criticized is that it would lead to decentralization and provide a wide space of autonomy. The opponents of autonomy outline that the international capital and organizations, with the purpose of eliminating the administrative trusteeship of the central on the local and maintaining the power space and liberty of the local, have produced certain concepts (subsidiarity, decentralization) and consequently in this way strive to gain the control and sovereignty of the local resources and market. The idea that favors the restriction on the autonomy aims to limit the local governments‘ liberty to do whatever they want on their own. In this respect, the center has the power to use some of its agents of supervision efficiently. It is supported that the center‘s supervision of the local government according to the administrative trusteeship principle is necessary for a unitary state. Thereby, absolute liberty is prevented and the integrity of the administration is ensured. Here the crucial point is the necessity of the central administration‘s use of the administrative trusteeship authority according to a constitutional framework. The use of administrative trusteeship on the local government and its policies produced in its own boundaries and proper local services and its administrative decisions can result in an unauthorized assumption of the central on the local. This situation has an impact that harms the existence of the autonomy. For this reason, the criticisms on the concept of autonomy should be debated from various viewpoints. How Autonomy Should Be Used? The share of authorities and responsibilities among the central administration and the local administrations in the execution of the public services is an important condition for the contemporary administrations. Within the constitutional boundaries, the efficient production and presentation of the national public services and the local services are significant. Over-centralization may lead to disabilities in the presentation of services in the local area and reduce the efficiency. The liberty of the local to do whatever it wants with an independency on the central can result in troubles in the integrity of the administration and in the performance of supervision mechanism. From this point of view, it would be wise to put the authorities and responsibilities among the central and the local into action in a constitutional background and to give the local government a series of authorities and responsibilities that are restricted to its own area. The local governments are required to be provided with some resources and authorities in their production of services in order to fulfill the local needs. The efficient presentation of the services also reveals itself in parallel with the formation of the resources and the policies on the local. The insufficiency of the share that is reserved by the central government from the general budget for the execution of the local services necessitates the local governments 391 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to form their own resources. The local administrators should have the liberty and the structure to take and execute their own decisions related with the local. However, this liberty should be limited both by the judicial supervision in light of the constitutional principles and by the social supervision. The local autonomy becomes important in the circumstance when the local dynamics find vital support. The autonomy can be a significant agent as a result of the use of some local values such as the achievement of the public participation in administration, the formation of a democratic culture, the people‘s election of its own organs, and the local government‘s possession of a budget of its own. This situation signifies a contribution to the unity and integrity of the vital spaces among the central and the local. The autonomy given to the local governments should not have a function or structure that limits the state‘s sovereignty space. The autonomy should be within the constitutional boundaries, proper to the space of local service and functional. The activities and conditions that would result in the liberty of the local government to do whatever it wants with an utter independence from the central government should be restricted by the judicial supervision according to the constitution. The central government‘s regulations which restrict the space of local governments such as the supervision of trusteeship and subsidiarity should be eliminated and only the judicial supervision and local public supervision should be provided. The financial initiative should be given to the local governments to strengthen their financial opportunities and form their own income resources. Under this circumstance, both the dependency of the local governments to the central administration in terms of financial resources may be reduced and the trouble to find resources for the production of the local services may be avoided. Therefore, the local governments should be autonomous enough to provide the local public with efficient services which are related with their own service areas and there should be a compatible and unified structure among the center and the local. The Analzsıs of Van Munıcıpalıtz as a Sample The municipalities are autonomous administrative units that are required to fulfill the duties given to them within the judicial boundaries and to execute the local services. This autonomy of the municipalities should be within administrative and financial autonomy frameworks. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decisionmaking of the municipality in fulfilling the local needs. In this context, it would be wise to analyze Van Municipality as a sample within a concrete analysis framework of the autonomous structure of the municipality which is the most authoritative and significant unit of the local governments. This part aims to illuminate the administrative and financial autonomy of the municipality in the presentation of local goods and services. Taking into consideration the reality that the production of services are realized in proportion to the municipality‘s financial resources, it is necessary to question whether the municipality‘s financial resources are sufficient for the production of services or not. Therefore, an emphasis on the question whether Van Municipality has trouble in finding financial resource for fulfilling the public local needs would be a good approach in this study. It is significant to elaborate the question whether Van Municipality‘s own resources or the shares given from the central administration are sufficient for the presentation of the services and the realization of the local investments is vital. The roles of incorporation and privatization in the execution of urban services will be investigated. Moreover, the analysis of to what extent the public participates in the administration would provide us with the information on urban participation. Van Municipality serves within its 10.500 hectare borders. Within the municipality‘s areas of service, there are 27 districts. Van Municipality has 7000 hectares of the adjacent area and 10.500 hectares of plan for zoning. According to the results of 2008 population census, the population of Van is 332.000, and there are 65.000 buildings and 20.200 dwellings. Van Municipality, proper to Permanent Staff principles and essentials, with the Municipal Council‘s decision numbered 347, dated 09.08.2006, with reorganization in the structure , fulfills its services with 28 administrative staff consisting of 4 Vice-Chairman and 24 Unit Manager. The Municipality staff consists of 326 officers, 657 workers and 32 contracted staff with a sum of 1015 personnel. Van Municipality executes the local services under the sovereignty of the central government, with its own incomes and shares given by the central government. It can use a part of the services and authorities proposed by the municipality law and cannot use much initiative in overcoming the financial resource problems. Other than the share given by the Bank of Provinces‘ General Budget Income, the most significant income resources for Van Municipality are, the payments for public utilities, rents, estate tax, the tax on the environmental cleanup (ÇTV), transportation, zoning fees and other different incomes (pecuniary penalties, tax penalties, several installment sales, the taxes on the entertainment and advertisement, occupancy charge and several other taxes. The municipality should fulfill necessary activities in order to find financial resources. For instance, utilities such as water, sanitation, road construction are fulfilled by the municipality‘s own resources (Van Municipality 5 Year Strategic Planning 20062011). Today, in our country, the local governments (municipalities) in their execution of municipal services can pay for the costs of services through several agents. They can fulfill these services especially by establishing its own 392 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo firms, privatizing the services, and borrowing money from several national or international organizations. The services should be provided by the municipality‘s own resources, the share from the central budget, the privatization of limited services, grant from German Development Bank which is an international organization and a firm of its own. An analysis of Van Municipality illustrates that the perception of the execution of services rest on the traditional municipal income which are the share from the central budget and the income items given according to municipal laws. Van Municipality‘s income items of the year 2007 are illustrated below. When we have a look at the table, it is possible to state that the municipality‘s income items are comprised of the traditional municipal incomes. The Municipality could not perform activities which would strengthen its own financial structure, form its own resource in the execution of services. In recent years, the formations such as municipal economic enterprise (sale of foodstuffs directly by a municipality or indirectly through a firm awarded a contract by a municipality, bread factories) has turned into methods that are frequently used by municipalities for the presentation of cheap and qualified services to the public. Van Municipality has not introduced such a structure up to now. BETWEEN THE DATES 01/01/2007- 31/12/2007 TABLE OF BUDGET INCOMES Account Code Economic Code 800 1 800 2 800 3 800 4 800 5 800 6 The Percentage of Realization (%) Explanation Given from The Budget Collection /Payments Received TAX INCOME THE INCOMES OTHER THAN TAXES 9.350.000,00 7.578.284,59 81% 0 0 0% CAPITAL REVENUE ENDOWMENTS DONATIONS OTHER INCOMES COLLECTIONS CREDITORS TOTAL 25.546.000,00 18.018.349,48 73% 7.058.000,00 1.900.000,00 27% 53.044.000,00 40.268.018,44 76% 2.000,00 0 95.000.000,00 67.764.652,51 AND FROM 71% Table 1: 2007 Table of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). The Municipality unable to find a way for the formation of income falls to 71 % in the realization percentage of the 2007 income budget. The reasons for the desired income realization are the socio-economic situation of the region and the low level of public wealth. For this reason, the attempt raising incomes would be essential. Therefore, the efficient and productive execution of the services is closely related with the sufficiency of the financial resources. The low percentage of collections in the municipal tax income, and the limited income items are among the negative influences. In this context, the formation of new income items would provide betterment in both for the quality and proportion of the services and for the financial resources. 393 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Graphic 1: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 2: 2007 Distribution of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 3: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). 394 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo BETWEEN THE DATES 01/01/2007-31/12/2007 TABLE OF BUDGET COST The Percentage of Realization (%) Eco. Co. Explanation Given from The Budget Collection /Payments Received 1 2 PERSONNEL EXPENSES STATE PREMIUM COSTS TO SOCIAL SECURITY INSTITUTIONS GOODS AND SERVICES SALE COSTS INTEREST EXPENSES CURRENT TRANSFERS FINANCIAL EXPENSES CAPITAL TRANSFERS BACKUP ALLOCATION TOTAL 28.010.000,00 5.317.000,00 27.245.604,0 4.639.610,68 97,27% 87,26% 25.728.321,46 23.669.663,0 92,00% 5.779.599,66 4.287.500,00 14.273.434,00 8.841.250,00 5.831.403,00 98.068.508,1 5.601.000,00 1.761.022,03 1.965.569,37 8.010.000,00 5.831.403,00 78.723.872,1 96,91% 41,07% 13,77% 90,60% 100,00% 80,27% 3 4 5 6 7 8 Table 2 : 2007 Table of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 4: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). 395 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Graphic 5: 2007 Distribution of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report) Graphic 6: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Expenditure (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). When we look at the budget expenditures the estimation fort he expenditures for 2007 has been eventualized in a ratio of 80,27. When we look at the costs, the personnell expenditures and the purchase costs are the major ones. Although the equality between the expenditures and the income is important the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the services are important as well. As a wide perspective, in order to reduce the cleaning expenditures and provide an efficient public service the municipality has privatised the cleaning services. Another privatised service is the urban transportation. By tender bidding the urban transportation to the private enterprise the municipality has set up a foundation for rising the public service standards and decreasing the expenditures. In a competitive market the urban transportation has been privatised, and an effective and cheap service is planned to be provided via the private enterprise (Activity report of Van Municipality, 2007).The municipality is supplying the environment monitoring with the help of Mavi Kent C.O. which was built under the authority of the municipality itself. This company is working out to provide some of the services with the help of the concrete-works staff and fullfilling the needs of the municipality such as materials.For example, by producing and procuring the stone materials, the company is corresponding the needs of the municipality.Especially in the districts where the basic facilities were set up, and the sewage and potable water services are completed; with the help of this company, approximately 56 km of road planning, stabilization and grading service was fullfilled and opened to public service. Moreover; constructing the pavement, median-strip bridges and blacktopping the roads are fullfilled with a co-operation of the municipality and the Mavi Kent C.O., as well. Nowadays, the municipalities can carry out and supply the services with the help of the companies which are set up under the authority of the municipalities. Mavi Kent C.O. is such a company which was formed under the constitution of Van Municipality with the regulations mentioned above. With the influence of the new right-wing and neo-liberal movements the municipalities can hold collaborations with international institutionsand vast investments can be made by using the financial and technical aids which are given by these international institutions. The agreement made between the German development bank 396 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (KFW) and the municipality covers the financing of some of the massive main facilities of the city. This donated money is used in the investments to the basic facilities.(Türkçesi çok bozuk tümce) Since there is a serious financial resource challenge arising from the increasing local service areas and service components; in order to present a better, effective and efficient service it is best for municipalities to use the loaning, privatization, creating new income instruments and applying to concerns - and this will reduce the financial dependence to the central authority. Thereby, the municipality will serve effectively as an autonomous constitution. Conclusion Within the developing and changing principles of administration and under the principle of "localization in services and subsidiarity" the local authorities should independently and freely take their decisions on the subjects under their jurisdiction and can produce local policies. The local authorities should be in an autonomous construction in order to fulfil these functions. The autonomy has a function as forming a safe habitat and private province, and increasing the movibility in the radius of action for the local authorities. The local authorities which form the democratic cultural areas that the municipal dynamics and the attendance of the public to the administration arise, must have the needed resources and materials. Under the strict monitoring of the central authorities, the local authorities can confront the problem of under-servicing or not using the local initiative. In the cases where this monitoring is hold under the constitutional law and public itself, the movibility and effectiveness of the local authority will increase and the presentation of the services will be more efficient. It would be better to evaluate the affirmative and negative opinions on local autonomy in the reasonable limits, and constructing a local autonomy form with the help of constitutional laws. On the other hand, under the view of localization in services, local services should be taken in the frame of spatial proximity. This administration form which lets the public to attend to the administration, which leads the diversification of democratic culture and civil movements will surely serve as a significant function in the usage and application of policies in a more efficivent and effective way. As it is seen in the Van Municipality, the municipalities which are totally dependent to the central authority in the areas of creating finance and resources, the problems arise. In order to cope with the problems, some techniques such as creating new income components, constructing new economic enterprises or privatization of some services are used. References Avrupa Konseyi Yerel Yönetimler Özerklik ġartı, R.G., 21.05.1991, S:20877 Güler, A. Birgül, ―Yerel Yönetimleri Güçlendirmek mi? Adem-i Merkeziyetçilik mi?‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt:9, Sayı:2, TODAĠE Yayınları, 2000,Ankara. Çukurçayır, M.Akif, Siyasal Katılma ve Yerel Demokrasi, Yargı Yayınevi, 2000, Ankara. Doğan, M.Emin, ―Belediyelerin Denetimi‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayınları, 1996, Ankara. Gilbert, William H., Public Relations in Local Government, Ġnstitute for Training in Municipal Administration by the Ġnternational City Management Ad., Washington.1975 Goldsmith M., London,1995. ―Autonomy and City Limits‖, Theories of Urban Politics, (edit)D. Judge-G.stoker-H. Wolman, sage, Kalabalık, Halil, Yerel Yönetim Hukuku, Seçkin Yayınları,2005, Ankara. KeleĢ, RuĢen, Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset, Cem Yayınevi, 2000, Ġstanbul. Kelly, Janet M., PatriciaFreeland K., ―LocalGovernment Fiscal Autonomy: The Threat of Fiscal Centralization‖, www.fsu.edu.//statepol/conference/2004/papers/kelly-singer.doc Nadaroğlu, Halil, Mahalli Ġdareler, Beta yayınları, 1998, Ġstanbul Pirenne, Henry, Orta Çağ Kentleri (Çev.: ġadan Karadeniz), ĠletiĢim yayınları, 2006, Ġstanbul. Reyhan, Cenk, ―Türkiye‘de Yüzyıllık Gündem: Federalizm‖, Memleket Siyaset Yönetim Dergisi, Cilt:2, Sayı:5, Memleket yayınları,2007,Ankara. 397 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Tekeli, Ġlhan, ―Yerel Yönetimlerde Demokrasi ve Türkiye‘de Belediyelerin GeliĢimi‖, Amme Ġdaresi Dergisi, Cilt:6, Sayı:2, TODAĠE Yayınları, 1983, Ankara. Tortop, Nuri, ―Yerel Yönetimler ve Mali özerklik‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayını, Cilt:5, Sayı:5, Ankara, Ulusoy, Ahmet, Mahalli Ġdareler, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2007,Ankara. Weber, Max, ġehir, (Çev.: Musa Ceylan), BakıĢ Yayınları, 2003, Ġstanbul Van Municipality; 2007 Annual Activity Report. Van Municipality; 5 Year Strategic Planning 2006-2011 398 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 211 Title A name given to the resource Local Evaluation and Efficiancy: an Evaluation for VAN Municipality Author Author KANDEĞER, Barış ARVAS, M. Akif UYAR, Burak TEKİNTAŞ, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/febe1083c1b6cea2a9e518fda4ec4a0f.pdf 4c8d33a8a06e5cb0e7bc0c646e32c8cf PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Local Forage Ecotypes and Their Importance in Turkey M ustafa Tan Atatürk University Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Field Crops, Erzurum-TURKEY mustan@atauni.edu.tr Zeynep Dumlu Atatürk University Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Field Crops, Erzurum-TURKEY Abstract: Although not convenient for the modern agriculture, local ecotypes are of importance for being breeding materials since their genetic variations are diverse. Turkey is a rich country in the number of forage ecotypes. Cultivation history of especially alfalfa, common vetch, sainfoin, forage pea, chickling vetch and bitter vetch dates back to very ancient times. However, these genotypes are facing to extinct today and their importance has begun to be realized in the respect of sustainable and organic crop yielding as well as due to the increased global warming and water shortage threats. This paper was prepared to summarize some information about local forage ecotypes in Turkey and to mention about their importance. Introduction Forms which have been grown forlong periodsin a certain area and gained characteristics unique to them are termed to be local ecotypes. These forms can also be called local populations or ecotypes and have adapted to the ecology of the area where they are grown. Their yielding may be low because of undeveloped genetic capacity; however,their resistance to disease and harmful insects and adaptation ability are considerably high. Local ecotypes are plant forms which are prevalentin the areas where they are grown; their culture can go back to very ancienttimes and they can be formed by the mixtures of differenttypes (Açıkgöz 2001). Local ecotypes representthe genetic diversity of a country together with wild species. However, with the development of high yielding bred cultivars local species have losttheir significance and have faced extinction threat in many regions all over the world. This threat is so big that today local ecotypes of several vitally important plants,such as wheat,are beginning to disappear. With the green revolution,they were largely eroded being replaced with the newly developed cultural species in the countries e.g. India, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq. Local species are not convenient for modern agriculture. They can not pass maturity stage timely and their yielding capacity islow. (Tosun et al. 1978) found in their study, where they carried out experiments over local alfalfa ecotypestaken from Erzurum, Ağrı and Kayseriand the cultivars with foreign origin thatforeign cultivars had 30 % more yielding rate than the ecotypes. Today, developed plant breeding techniques have shown their effects on local species adversely and caused these genotypes to extinct. However, these forms whose significance will certainly be realized in the future should absolutely be conserved. Perhaps,there may be a time inthe future when plant breeder will back to native species and local populations will be needed to regain genes carrying some plant characteristics which have been lost. There are already a number of bred cultural species forms from local ones.In bred species, genetic variation istoo uniform to develop new varieties. Conservation of local plantsis beginning to gain importance today. However,there is a great controversy on how this effort can be achieved. Regional genetic materials in many countries have been taken under conservation through gene banks. Although this method is costly and time consuming,itguarantees the success. Under the control of gene banks, local species can be conserved and they are sometimes planted in order to maintain their vitality. In addition to conservational aims, these registered genotypes can easily be sent to differentregions in orderto perform various aims (Şengül 2009). Another way to conserve local genotypes is to take these species under protection where they are grown and to encourage their cultivation. Such efforts are carried out for both plant and animal materials in the countries where they are cultured. 1 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Livestock breeding is an important occupancy in many parts of Turkey. Cultivation of forage species has gained importance in the areas where livestock breeding is extensive. However, the number of forage species under cultivation is not much. The most cultivated forage species in Turkey is alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), which is followed by common vetch (Vicia sativa L.), sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa L.) and silage maize (Zea mays L.). In addition to these species, cultivation of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia L. Willd.), chickling vetch (Lathyrus sp.), fodder beet (Beta vulgaris var. rapa), Hungarian vetch (Vicia pannonica Crantz.), sorghum (Sorghum sp.) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) species are performed to a lesser degree. Majority of these forage species are bred species and in especially the western part of the country, where developed agricultural and livestock techniques are applied, almost all ofthese species are bred forms. Local species are more prevalent in mountainous areas of Black Sea, Middle Anatolia and Southeast Anatolia regions, where mechanised cultivation techniques areless developed.In the following parts ofthe paper summarized information tried to be given aboutthese local ecotypes. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Local alfalfa ecotypes in Turkey are divided into four categories; Eastern Anatolia (including Erzurum, Ağrı and Van), Kayseri, Karaağaç and Bayındır. Local alfalfa speciesin Turkey arethe forms whose rosettes are horizontal in autumn (Gençkan 1983). Eastern Anatolia ecotype can develop semi-horizontally and is considerably resistant to both cold and arid conditions. Stems are thin and branched abundantly. Its leaves are narrow and like a long spear. Its flower colour is dark purplish (Elçi 2005). Eastern Anatolia alfalfa begins growing in spring late and endsits growth earlyin entering winter.Itcan be cuttwice orthricein one season and it gives the highest yielding rate atthe first cutting.It has a very large longevity and can yield crop for 20 to 30 years. A new alfalfa variety, Savaş, which is more suitable to be grown in the region, has been derived from these local ecotypes through selection.(Şengül 2003) reported in his study on the genotypes of Eastern Anatolia alfalfathatits plant characteristics have greatly changed. Local alfalfa ecotypes of Kayseri and Karaağaç are the forms which can develop vertically and conveniently to the conditions of Middle Anatolia. Flower colour of Kayseri population is brighter than that of Eastern Anatolia alfalfa.Its development stages can require long vegetation period. Kayseri ecotype is sensitive to leave disease and its regeneration is slower and they are not uniform. This ecotype is more prevalent in Middle Anatolia and its passage regions. Kayseri and Karaağaç alfalfa ecotypes have long life-span,though not longer than that of Eastern Anatolia ecotypes (Soya et al. 1997). Local alfalfa ecotype of Turkey, which is convenient to country’s coastal regions, is Bayındır. It is prevalent in the west of Anatolia and Aegean Region. It has a long development period and can be cut many times.Itslongevity is shorterthan that of other ecotypes. Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa L.) Sainfoin is an important forage species which can widely grow in the arid regions of Turkey. It is cultivated in the Middle and especially the Eastern parts of Anatolia and their local populations are given the names ofthe cities, wherethey are grown. The cities of Erzincan, Kars, Ağrı, Van, Erzurum and Ardahan are the places where sainfoin is grown much. Com mon name for allofthese speciesis Erzincan ecotype. The reason for local sainfoin ecotypes to grow more widely in Eastern regions of Turkey is that Eastern Anatolia region is included in the genetic source areas of Onobrychis species. This species is considerably resistant to aridity and cold conditions. It can be cut once or twice depending on the seasonal rainfall. Life-span of this vertically growing ecotype is 4 to 6 years. Its growth is slower in the sowing year and in this period it develops only rosettes and can sometimes form flowers. Flower corollas are pink. Common Vetch (Vicia sativa L.) Com mon vetch is among the species grown for both its hay and seeds in Turkey since ancient times. Therefore, Anatolia has local common vetch forms almostin allregions. However,these local plants have been eroded from their cultivated areas, in especially the western parts, where modern cultivation techniques are employed. Local common vetch populations are more prevalentin the Eastern part ofthe country. As is known, origin of common vetch is Southwest Asia and Mediterranean Region, which is why itslocal ecotypes have been very wide in the country since very early times. 2 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Plant and seed characteristics of local common vetch species can show great diversity. Plant forms are generally climbing;it has smallleaves with tendril. Flower colour is pink, violent or yellowish-green or brown. Its seeds are round-like and flat like a lentil; colours of seeds can be grey, yellowish, brown or black. Many of the cultured species have been bred form these local species through selection. According to (Gençkan 1983), common vetches cultivated in Turkey have been derived from the subspecies of Vicia sativa subsp. obovata. It was also reported that forms of these subspecies are grown in both Anatolia and Thrace (Uluocak 1984). (Açıkgöz 2001) stated that com mon vetches have been grown in Anatolian soils since very ancient times and seeds ofthis species were encountered in the excavations belonging to 5000 to 7000 B.C. (Avcı 1994) found in his study, where he used four bred com mon vetch species,two lines and six local ecotypes taken from eastern parts of Turkey, that weight of 1000 seed was lower in local ecotypes than that of bred genotypes and length of maturity stages was largerinthe formerthan latter while some local ecotypes could give equal hay and seed yielding with bred forms. Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia Willd.) Cultivation of this plantin Turkey goes back to 5000 to 6000 B.C. Itis a short(20 to 40 cm length) and vertically developing species and very resistant to arid conditions. Its flowers are whitish yellow and seeds are brown. They are grown to produce grain feed. Bitter vetch is cultivated in Aegean, Mediterranean, Middle and Southeast Anatolia Regions of Turkey. Itis very difficultto harvest this species mechanically since it is short and it has lower pod very close to the ground. Therefore, seeds have to be picked up manually. This difficulty causes the cultivation this speciesto reduce consistently. Forinstance, during 1970s this species was sown in an area of 70.000 ha, however,thisrate was reduced to 2.000 ha in 2000s. In orderto prevent bitter vetch cultivation form disappearance, Ankara University Agriculture Faculty has begun to conduct studies. Local bitter vetch samples collected from allregions of Turkey were characterised and taken under protection. Form these collected populations, lines and varieties that are more yielding and convenientto machinery cultivation were developed (Ekiz & Özkaynak 1984). Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus L.) It is a species which began to be grown in Turkey in early ages. Stems are clearly flanked (angled). Leaves have 1 or 2 leaflets and long tendrils; and are spear-like in shape. Flowers are whitish-blue. This species is grown locallyinthe mountainous areasin Southeast Anatoliaregion of Turkey to produce grains or hay. Seeds of local species are greyish. It is known with the local name cılban where it is cultivated in Turkey. It is L. sativus species that is cultivated the most,though hairy vetch (L. hirsitus L.) is grown relatively low (Uluocak 1984). Local species of this plant have been collected and studies began to be carried out to develop culture species from these collected forms (Karadağ 1999). Total sowing area of this species is 600 ha in statistics in Turkey (Anonymous 2005). Forage Pea (Pisum arvense L.) This speciesis a forage plant grown mostly forits seeds.Itis an annual; 40 to 80 cm height and climbing stems; broad leaved; and with dark flowers and seeds. Local ecotypes of forage pea are known with the local name of külür in the Northeast of Turkey. These populations are extensively grown in the eastern Anatolian cities of Bayburt, Kars and especially Ardahan. Since it prefers humid and cool climatic conditions, it is cultivated more in the mentioned region. Cultivation oflocalforage pea ecotypes decreases consistently.It has a sowing area of nearly 3.800 ha (Anonymous 2005). The largest difference oflocal ecotypes from cultured forms isthatlocal ones have dark flowers and seeds.Itsflowers and seeds are violetin colour.In orderto protectlocal ecotypes ofthis plantin Turkey,(Tan et al. 2009) began to conduct studies.In the scope of these studies,totally 61 genotypes collected from north-eastern Anatolia were taken under conservation and theircharacteristics were defined and registered. In addition it was found as the consequence of these studies that hay and seed yielding rates of local forage pea ecotypes were 270 to 854 kg/da and 51 to 254 kg/da respectively. Since its genetic variation is very high, lengths of plant and its development period and lodge degree of the materials are very different. 3 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Açıkgöz, E. (2001). Forage Plants. Uludağ Univ. Güçlendirme Vakfı Publication No: 182. Bursa, Turkey. Anonymous (2005). Statistics of Agriculture-2005. T.C. Prime Ministry Statistic Institution, Ankara, Turkey. Avcı, M. (1994). A study on the yield and adaptation of species, lines, and populations of some common vetch. Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Natural and Applied Sciences Institution, Department of Field Crops, Ms. Thesis, Erzurum, Turkey. Ekiz, H. & Özkaynak, I. (1984). A study on the important morphologic, biologic and cultural characteristics of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.) grown in Turkey. Ankara Univ. Natural and Applied Sciences Institution Publication No: TB. 5, Ankara, Turkey. Elçi, Ş. (2005). Legume and Grass Forages. T.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ankara, Turkey, 486 p. Gençkan, S. (1983). Cultivation of Forages. Aegean Univ. Publication. Bornova, Đzmir, Turkey. Karadağ, Y. (1999). A study on the sitologic, morphologic, biologic and cultural characteristics of some chickling vetch (Lathyrus sp) lines. GOPU, Natural and Applied Sciences Institution. Ph.D. Thesis, Tokat, Turkey. Şengül,S., Tahtacıoğlu, L. & Mermer, A. (2003). Determination of the species and lines of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L) convenient to the conditions in Eastern Anatolia Region. Journal of Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., 34 (4), 321-325, Erzurum, Turkey. Şengül, S. (2009). A study on the determination of some morphologic characteristics of alfalfa ecotypes collected from different parts of Turkey. Journal of Alınteri, Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac. Erzurum, Turkey (in press). Soya, H., Avcıoğlu, R. & Geren H. (1997). Forages. Hasad Publication, Istanbul, 223 p. Tan, M., Koç, A., Çomaklı, B. & Elkoca, E. (2009). Development of hay and seed type lines from field pea populations grown in some cities of East Anatolia. Third Development Report of TUBITAK Research Project No: TOVAG-107O134. Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Erzurum, Turkey. Tosun, F., Manga I., Altın M. & Serin Y. (1978). Adaptation and micro yielding experiments of legumes and forages (unpublished), Atatürk Univ. Agriculture Fac., Erzurum, Turkey. Uluocak, N. (1984). Important Natural Rangeland Plants in Turkey for Soil Protection and Forage Quality. II. Legumes. I.U. Forest Fac., Istanbul, Turkey, 159 p. 4 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 460 Title A name given to the resource Local Forage Ecotypes and Their Importance in Turkey Author Author Tan, Mustafa Dumlu, Zeynep Abstract A summary of the resource. Although not convenient for the modern agriculture, local ecotypes are of importance for being breeding materials since their genetic variations are diverse. Turkey is a rich country in the number of forage ecotypes. Cultivation history of especially alfalfa, common vetch, sainfoin, forage pea, chickling vetch and bitter vetch dates back to very ancient times. However, these genotypes are facing to extinct today and their importance has begun to be realized in the respect of sustainable and organic crop yielding as well as due to the increased global warming and water shortage threats. This paper was prepared to summarize some information about local forage ecotypes in Turkey and to mention about their importance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)