175 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cb2439392d814d44577aababf5a21a1.pdf 101caff0b2f324fbbfc74b6c8992ea42 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Teodora Popescu ―1 Decembrie 1918‖ University of Alba Iulia Romania teo_popescu@hotmail.com Abstract:The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Key words: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, pragmatic competence, intercultural competence, translation competence. I. Introduction The relationship between linguistic competence and translation competence has been sparsely addressed by various researchers, however, with differing standpoints. The use of translation in foreign language classes was discarded as a teaching technique, especially after the grammar-translation method had fallen into disuse, and the proponents of the communicative approach started to frown upon teachers‘ resorting to L1 in their courses. Translation was entirely left to some specialist courses in translation theory and practice, particularly in curricula destined for the formal training of translators and interpreters. Nevertheless, as Rodgers (1986: 4) pointed out, ―Grammar Translation dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.‖ Our main tenet here is that by interspersing the foreign language class with translation tasks, students will enhance both their linguistic and linguistic competences. We also start from the assumption that in order for a translator from L1 into L2 to be successful, they need to master a relatively independent-user stage in their language learning. This paper attempts at identifying the constituent elements of both competences, and their interrelations. Further on, different teaching methodologies used for the development of both linguistic and translation competences. In the end, a possible model is presented and discussed. II. Linguistic competence For taxonomical reasons, I will employ the term ―linguistic competence‖ in order to refer to a learner‘s ―knowledge of and ability to use, the formal resources from which well-formed, meaningful messages may be assembled and formulated‖ (CEFR, 2001:109), as opposed to the knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use and/or the meaning and language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other contextual features. It was Chomsky who first made a distinction between competence (the system of linguistic knowledge) and performance (the way the language system is used in communication): Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community‘s) language 1183 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance (Chomsky, 1965:3). The debate that ensued is well known to all scholars and students of linguistics. It was argued that it is not possible to study language is such a ‗purified‘ environment‘, as pictured by Chomsky, resting on the premise that a language without being used is no longer a language. The controversy was likened by Cook (1996) to a war ―waged as much in language teaching, in children‘s languages, or in computational linguistics, as it is in linguistics itself‖. Theoretical linguists, in particular, would welcome such a separate approach, while applied linguists are strongly opposed to the idea of learning a language as an abstract and isolated system. Other specialists scrutinised the issue from the perspective of teaching materials elaboration. According to Allen (1975:40), most language textbooks actually contain a limited number of completely abstract sentences or completely ‗authentic‘ utterances. The majority of classroom materials are based on sentences that are at the meeting point of the two extremes. It comes as no surprise that applied linguists would adopt a stance that favours second language instruction which aims at achieving native speakers‘ competence in a language. Undoubtedly, Chomsky‘s definition of language cannot be adopted as a language learning goal per se. It is not possible to teach students the abstract forms and rules of language and expect them to be able to use the language in real contexts in an appropriate manner. In Spolsky‘s (1972) words, linguistic competence ―is not enough for practical or educational purposes; we are interested not just in the fact that someone knows a language but that he knows how to use it‖. Language instruction should assist the student in competently using language forms, which can only come with practice and exposure to real-life contexts. In this terrain of discontent, Hymes‘ concept of ‗communicative competence‘ seemed to finally satisfy applied linguists. Stern (1992:73) points out Hymes‘ argument that besides linguistic competence, the native speaker possesses another rule system, according to which, he intuitively knows what is socially acceptable or unacceptable, and can adapt his language use according to the topic, situation and human relations at stake. By the same token, Widdowson (1989) comments that ―Hymes proposed his concept of communicative competence in reaction to Chomsky, and it is customary to present it as an improvement in that it covers aspects of language other than the narrowly grammatical‖. The concept of communicative competence, was nevertheless conceived from a sociolinguist‘s perspective, and only starting with Canale & Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) did this approach enter the area of second/foreign language teaching and learning. According to them, communicative competence is made of the following categories: - - grammatical competence: o phonology; o vocabulary; o syntax; o semantics. discourse competence - sociocultural rules having to do with language use; sociolinguistic competence - rules of discourse such as cohesion and coherence, strategic competence - the ability ―to compensate for breakdowns in communication‖ and ―to enhance the rhetorical effect of utterances‖ (Canale 1983:339). How to integrate these elements into language learning goals is yet another issue. Widdowson (1989:134) argues that ―[a]s soon as you talk about competence as ability, or what people can actually do with their language, you get into all kinds of difficulty‖, since ―there is so much you have to allow for in the way of individual differences, varying circumstances, attitude, and so on that specification becomes impossible‖. According to him, ―grammar needs to be in its place‖, while at the same time allowing for ―rightful claims of lexis‖, as the actual use of language may be more dependent on stocks of lexical items rather than the analysis of structures. In this, he seems to accept the idea that linguistic competence needs to be separated from language usage. Furthermore, Lyons (1996), departing from the premise that there exists a psychological difference between propositional (or declarative) knowledge (―knowing that something is or is not so‖) and performative (or procedural) knowledge (―knowing how to do something‖), tries to investigate the type of knowledge that linguistic competence falls under. He tends to consider it as a sort of procedural knowledge, i.e. being able to do something without being able to pin down the underlying rules. According to him, it is not necessary for a language learner to consciously ‗know‘ the language he internalises and to subsequently apply the rules, i.e. he does not need to possess meta-knowledge when actually using the language in real-life situations. 1184 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another second language education standpoint is provided by Brown (1996:202), who constructs a developmental paradigm (a ―virtuous spiral‖, as she calls it), according to which a child first manifests competence consisting of fundamental constraints on the nature of human languages. Subsequently, the child‘s perception of the language which he/she is exposed to (performance) starts to mould competence, and the process continues in the same manner, with more and more performance changing performance. She maintains that ―just as performance modifies and restructures competence in the first language, so it modifies and restructures competence in the second language‖. According to this statement, mother tongue acquisition and second language acquisition rest on the same principles, as competence is transferable language ability inherent in the human brain, working alike for first and second language. An even more complex model for language education is advanced by Bachman (1990), through his hierarchical model of language competence, which is now divided into organisational competence and pragmatic competence. The former represents grammatical competence and textual competence; while pragmatic competence contains illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. These consist of the following categories: - organisational competence: o grammatical competence - ―the knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and phonology/graphology‖ (p. 87). o textual competence - ―the knowledge of the conventions for joining utterances together to form a text‖ (p. 88). o illocutionary competence – the way we use words to do things, in terms of the speech acts theory (Austin 1962) and/or language functions (Halliday 1973, 1976) - sociolinguistic competence – the ability ―to perform language functions in ways that are appropriate to that context‖ (p. 94). More or less concurrently with the model developed by Bachman, the EU ‗Book‘ on language learning and teaching – The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages was produced in order to provide ―a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe‖ (CEFR, 2001:1). According to this manual, the communicative situations in which users and learners have to function entail the successful completion of certain tasks and activities. To this end, they ―draw upon a number of competences developed in the course of their previous experience‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). At the same time, ―participation in communicative events (including, of course, those events specifically designed to promote language learning) results in the further development of the learner‘s competences, for both immediate and longterm use‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). As a matter of fact, all human competences play a part in the language user‘s ability to communicate, and can in turn be considered as components of the communicative competence. Nevertheless, they may be categorized into competences more or less closely related to the linguistic competence. Here is the classification offered by the CEFR: A. General competences Declarative knowledge (savoir) Knowledge of the world Sociocultural knowledge Intercultural awareness Skills and know-how (savoir-faire) Practical skills and know-how Intercultural skills and know-how ‗Existential‘ competence (savoir-être) Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre) Language and communication awareness General phonetic awareness and skills Study skills Heuristic skills B. Communicative language competences Linguistic competences Lexical competence; Grammatical competence; Semantic competence; Phonological competence; Orthographic competence; 1185 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orthoepic competence. Sociolinguistic competence Politeness conventions Expressions of folk wisdom Register differences Pragmatic competences Discourse competence Functional competence III. Translation competence Among the very few studies on translation competence development, mention should be made of Campbell‘s (1998) research based on applied linguistics methodologies. He explored translation competence of non-native speakers‘ translation from their mother tongue into English. His informants were native speakers of Arabic, studying translation and interpretation at an Australian university. Data analysis and interpretation led Campbell to design a three-layered model of translation competence: - textual competence – the ability to produce TL texts with ―structural features of formal, written English‖ (p. 73). Evaluation benchmarks are nominalizations, type/token ratios, word length, passives, prepositional phrases, etc. - disposition – translators‘ behaviours in choosing different words when contracting TL texts. The parameters he advances are: o persistent vs capitulating; o prudent vs risk-taking. Combinations of the above categories will create four types of disposition: o persistent and risk-taking; o capitulating and risk-taking; o persistent and prudent; o capitulating and prudent. - monitoring competence, consisting of two sub-categories: o self-awareness; o editing. o However, this model overlooks the crucial issue of translation equivalence (grammatical, semantic, pragmatic, cultural, etc.). A second model is provided by Sofer (1998), who puts forward ten commandments for professional translators: 1. A thorough knowledge of both SL and TL; 2. A thorough ―at-homeness‖ in both cultures. 3. Keeping up with changes in the language and being up-to-date in all of its nuances and neologisms. 4. Always translating from another language into one‘s native language. 5. Being able to translate in more than one area of knowledge. 6. Possessing ease of writing or speaking and the ability to articulate quickly and accurately, either orally or in writing. 7. Developing a good speed of translation. 8. Developing research skills, being able to retrieve reference sources needed in producing high quality translation. 9. Being familiar with the latest technological advances; 10. Being able to understand the type of potential one‘s language specialty has in a certain geographic area. (pp. 33-37) If we analyse the two models, we would see most of the characteristics are pragmaticallyoriented, and refer to personal skills that translators need to possess/develop. However, we should not overlook from among a translator‘s competence, the explicit ability to achieve equivalence at lexical, semantic, textual (discursive), pragmatic (see Mona Baker, 1992), cultural level (see David Katan, 1999). I reiterate the idea that translation competence cannot be achieved unless a translator already possesses good knowledge of both SL and TL [by this meaning linguistic knowledge, on the one hand, as well as socio-linguistic, pragmatic and (inter-)cultural knowledge]. I would like to state that at the intersection of the two competences, we would find the above elements: 1186 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 1 Second language learning vs learning to translate The other components of translation competence would be, in synthesis, content-knowledge competence (economics, finance, medicine, law, etc.), ICT competence (hardware, operating system environment, packages used: Windows, Trados, etc., the Internet); monitoring competence (awareness of the quality of translations made) and research competence (the ability to resort to bibliographic and lexicographic resources). IV. Pedagogic implications I suggest therefore that the translation theory and practice syllabus for language learners should include as course aims the development of translation competence which includes all the elements pertaining to language learning (linguistic competence – phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, discourse; sociolinguistic competence; pragmatic competence and intercultural competence), as well as sub-competence pertaining to the translation profession proper (contentknowledge competence; ICT competence, Research competence and monitoring competence), as graphically represented in the figure below: 1187 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 2 Learning objectives for a translation course Although there is relatively little research carried out in the field of teaching translation proper, as opposed to teaching a foreign/second language, there are references to the use of translation in different learning methodologies advocated by different stages in the history of foreign/second language learning. As previously mentioned, the Grammar Translation method was the one which made most use of translation in language instruction. It has numerous times come under attack, as it only concentrates on grammar and vocabulary structure and is very far from the real task of translation, being rather artificial. The typical exercise in this approach is ―to translate sentences from the target language into the mother tongue‖ (Celce-Murcia, 1991), and its aim is to enforce ―the vocabulary and grammar encountered in the current and earlier units‖ (Cook, 1998). Nevertheless, in recent years we have witnessed a revival of interest in using translation as a classroom technique. Translation was not encouraged by subsequent methodologies, such as the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method (where, according to Brookes, quoted in Richards & Rodgers, 1986: 58, there existed ―practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level‖), or Communicative Language Teaching. In the Humanistic paradigm (Community Language Learning (CLL) and Suggestopedia, teachers resort again to translation. In both methods, translation represents a sort of transition from the learner‘s mother tongue to the target language, and through it, learners‘ anxieties can be diminished. Translation tasks may interspersed in the language class, and it is particularly important to choose authentic and relevant texts to be translated from and into the mother tongue, so as for the students to understand the real usefulness and efficiency of good translation skills Conclusions I have tried to demonstrate through this paper that the role and importance of translation need to be reassessed in the foreign/second language classroom. Alongside the language teaching/learning, we need to try and develop students‘ translation competence as well. I have tried to decompose both linguistic competence and the associated sociolinguistic, pragmatic and intercultural competences, as well as give an inventory of elements that constitute the translation competence. It is argued that translation competence encompasses the linguistic one, therefore, all instructors who want to teach translation, need to pay heed first to students‘ foundation competences. 1188 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Allen, J.P.B. (1975). Some basic concepts in linguistics. In J.P.B. Allen, & S. Pit. Corder (Eds), The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics: Volume 2 (pp. 16-44). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Austin, J. L. (1962/2005). How to do things with Words (2nd ed.). Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baker, M. (1998). Translation studies. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Brown, J. D. (1996). Testing in language programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Campbell, S. (1998). Translation into the Second Language. Harlow, Essex: Addison Wesley Longman. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J.C.Richards, & R.W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. pp. 2-27. London & New York: Longman. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to Second Language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics. 1(1), 1-47. Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language teaching approaches: an overview. In Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.) (pp. 3-11). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Cook, G. (1998). Use of translation in language teaching. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Arnold. (Explorations in Language Study Series). Katan, D. (1999). Translating cultures. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Lyons, J. (1996). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rodgers, T. S. (1989). Syllabus design, curriculum development and polity determination. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum (pp. 24-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sofer, M. (1998). The Translator‘s Handbook (2nd ed). Rockville, Maryland: Schreiber Publishing, Inc. Spolsky, B. (1972). What does it mean to know a language? In K. Croft (Ed.) Readings on English as a Second Language (pp. 26-42). Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop Publishers. Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. (Series Eds. Patrick Allen & Birgit Harley). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics. 10(2), 128137. 1189 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 560 Title A name given to the resource Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Author Author Popescu, Teodora Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 999 Title A name given to the resource Linguistic Proficiency within Language Teacher Education Author Author Fennell, Michael Abstract A summary of the resource. The dilemma of language teacher education at university level lies in how best to balance the educational philosophies and theories with the practicalities of the methods and techniques. The question of the students’/trainees’ linguistic ability to undertake language teacher education should not arise. After all, they have taken and passed the entry requirements which include recognition of their linguistic ability either in the form of externally set and marked exams or of audited and certified internal exams. The participants on a language teacher education course are expected to know how to speak the language and to be able to follow educators with MA and PhD initials after their names, while needing only to fine tune their reading and writing skills to incorporate the academic. Yet, sometimes the level of the pre-service teachers’ English is such that the “How to teach” lectures and course books are, at least initially, beyond the students understanding, and there needs to be an emphasis on students developing their language proficiency. This workshop addresses how teacher training is possible in the absence of a course book with students who have learnt English as a Foreign Language, and whose levels favour a lecture based format with heavy emphasis on memorization and translation. Attendees to the workshop will participate in two shortened demonstration lessons (Intro to TEFL and Theories and Methods) given respectively to third year and fourth year students at the Arab American University Jenin, Palestine. The activities will allow the participants to better judge the experience of being a pre-service language teacher and so be more informed when deciding on the feasibility of student-centred learning in the university setting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/126c2b17d85acdc60acf95ce129a7828.pdf 84a806b2bafdcc8b485eee00927735c0 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Linking Green supply chain management with environmental Technologies and an application of technology selection Ömür Tosun1, Fahriye Uysal2 1Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey 2Department of International Trade and Logistics, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey E-mails: omurtosun@akdeniz.edu.tr,fahriyeuysal@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract In this paper, relations between green supply chain management and environmental technologies are presented. Environment technologies are taken as preventing the pollution in forward supply chain, controlling pollution in reverse supply chain and technologies that improves the environmental performance in integrated supply chain. In the study, key criterion of technology selection is evaluated with Fuzzy AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process); their priorities are defined and by using these priorities technology selection is made. Having a significance part in company’s total cost, proper and suitable selection of technology investment is emphases. Keywords: Green supply chain management, Environmental technology, Fuzzy AHP 1. INTRODUCTION Today, by becoming more complex, the importance of environment-related activities has been extended in parallel to the improvements in environmental technology. The reason for this shift can be connected with the fast growth of industrialization in the world; the environmental and ecological impacts of products have become a major issue. Vachon (2008) emphasizes the relationship between environmental technologies and green supply chain practices. Playing a significant role in environmental technologies, if used efficiently and effectively, environmental technology is capable of being useful for the management of environmentrelated activities. Efficient and effective usage can only be gained if the technology is appropriate for the company. Wrongly selected technology can bring ineffective solutions and failure in environment-related activities. According to Hsu et al. (2010) technology selection is a multiple criteria decision-making problem. Among these, the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) is one of the most popular methods. People often use knowledge 376 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo that is imprecise rather than precise. The fuzzy set theory approaches could resemble human reasoning in use of approximate information and uncertainty to generate decisions. Because of the continuous increase in environmental costs, the effects of environmental issues on decision making process are getting more important (Schaltegger, 2000). In this paper, a study concerning environmental technology selection criteria for the mining industry is reported. The analysis has been executed adopting the FAHP technique, a fuzzy multi-attribute decision-making methodology that has been developed due to the imprecision in assessing the relative importance of attributes and the performance ratings of alternatives with respect to attributes. The work is structured in the following manner. In Section 2, a literature review of the green supply chain management is given. In Section 3, environmental technologies are grouped. In Section 4, the fuzzy AHP methodology is defined. An evaluation of technology alternatives, the proposed methodology and results are fully shown in Section 5. Finally, conclusions and considerations are reported in Section 6. 2. Green Supply Chain Management Green supply chain management (GrSCM) has its roots in both environment management and supply chain management literature. Adding the “green” component to supply chain management involves addressing the influence and relationships between supply chain management and the natural environment. Similar to the concept of supply chain management, the boundary of GrSCM is dependent on the goal of the investigator. The definition and scope of GrSCM in the literature has ranged from green purchasing to integrated green supply chains flowing from supplier to manufacturer to customer, and even reverse logistics (Zhu and Sarkis, 2004). GrSCM is gaining an increasing interest among researchers and practitioners of operations and supply chain management. The growing importance of GrSCM is driven mainly by the escalating deterioration of the environment, e.g. diminishing raw materials resources, overflowing waste sites and increasing levels of pollution. GrSCM is integrating environmental thinking into supply chain management, including product design, material sourcing and selection, manufacturing processes, delivery of the final product to the consumers as well as end-of-life management of the product after its useful life (Srivastava, 2007). Environmental management can be defined as the management of human’s interactions with environment and their impacts on environment. Environment management has developed significantly from its early stages in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Early environmental 377 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo efforts were based on controlling pollution emerging from individual sources. However, environmental management evolved into a systematic attempt to prevent pollution at the source and manage entire ecosystems in the 1990s (Nikbakhsh, 2009). Today, in order to reap the greatest benefits from environmental management, firms must integrate all members in the green supply chain. GrSCM has emerged as a way for firms to achieve profit and market share objectives by lowering environmental impacts and increasing ecological efficiency (van Hoek, 2000). 3. Environmental Technologies Environmental technologies can be defined as not only by the changes in the environment area but also with the new techniques and information containing environmental management systems, design and engineering for environment (Klassen and Whybark, 1999). Environmental technologies in manufacturing include implementing environmental audits of manufacturing facilities, reformulating products to lower their environmental impacts, covering open process tanks to reduce evaporation, training employees to prevent process leaks, and cleaning up underground storage tanks that leak. An environmental technology characterizes three categories based on the operations strategy literature: pollution prevention, pollution control, and management systems. Pollution prevention technologies: The term “pollution” refers to all nonproduction outputs, irrespective of any recycling or treatment that may prevent or mitigate releases to the environment. Pollution is the undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, and water that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of other desirable species, living conditions; or that may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. The term “pollution prevention” refers to the combination of industrial source reduction and toxic chemical use substitution (Noyes, 1993). Pollution prevention technologies are defined as structural, not infrastructural, investments that reduce or eliminate pollution at the source (Vachon, 2007). Pollution control technologies: Pollution control has traditionally been carried out through two alternatives. 1. End-of-pipe treatment refers to the application of chemical, biological, and physical processes to reduce toxicity or magnitude of undesirable compounds to the environment. 2. Disposal involves the use of post process activities that can handle waste or hazardous materials at waste-management facilities (El-Halwagi, 1998). Pollution control technologies are also structural investments that ensure a proper disposal of waste, reduce the release of pollutants, or correct past environmental damages (Vachon, 2007). Management Systems: These environmental technologies are infrastructural investments that affect the way manufacturing is managed. They include efforts to formalize procedures for 378 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo evaluating environmental impacts during capital decision budgeting, to increase outside stakeholder involvement in managing operations, to increase employee training for spill prevention and waste reduction, to establish an environmental department, and to develop new procedures for cross-functional coordination (Klassen and Whybark, 1999). As being a close-loop supply chain, green supply chain is evaluated under two parts; forward and reverse supply chain, which is seen in the Figure 1. From the definitions of the environmental technologies, we propose three assumptions. 1. In forward supply chain, pollution prevention technologies have an important part in the physical flow of material, production and distribution. 2. In reverse supply chain, which consists of consecutive flows of collecting, transformation, assembly and re-manufacturing, pollution controlling technologies come forward. As a result of the pollution occurrences, controlling mechanisms will be used. 3. All the innovations, changes and technologies in the environmental issues are the part of the management system of the green supply chain. 4. Evaluation of Environmental Technologies with FAHP Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of the well-known multi-criteria decision making techniques that was first proposed by Saaty (1980). Although the classical AHP includes the opinions of experts and makes a multiple criteria evaluation, it is not capable of reflecting human’s vague thoughts. The classical AHP takes into consideration the definite judgments of decision makers (Secme et al., 2009). By integrating fuzziness in AHP, prejudice or bias of the decision makers can be eliminated. 379 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Raw Material Suppliers Raw Materials Manufacturers Secondary Material Market Reusable Raw Materials Products Retailers RMF Reusable Materials Products Pollution Prevention Pollution Control Final Disposal Wastes Products Products Wholesalers Disassembly Plants Used Products Recycling Plants Used Products End-Customers Used Products Collecting Points Used Products Physical Flow Management System Figure 1. Interactions between GrSCM and environmental technologies (Sheu et. al. 2005) Chang’s extent analysis (Chang, 1996) for FAHP will be used in this study. Triangular fuzzy fuzzy numbers are used in the evaluation model of this paper. In this study, total of 9 criteria organized under 3 main criteria. The model ends with the alternatives that represent three different technologies. They have been chosen in order to represent different families of technology, which can be roughly assumed to be a first step to identify the right technology. The goal is the optimal selection of the environmental technology that fits the actual needs of the mining facility. By using the decision criteria selected from the literature and interviewed with one decision maker, environmental technology is evaluated for mining industry. In Figure 2, the hierarchy that has been defined and built to help in the technology selection process is shown. From Table 1, weight vector W = (0.331, 0.300, 0.369)T is calculated. The pressure criterion is the dominant factor, following by physical and financial factors in the technology selection procedure. Weight vectors for the sub-criteria are evaluated in the same way, but due to the page limitations they aren’t given here. 380 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Technology Selection Physical Financial Pressure - Technical - Capacity - Flexibility -Inst. costs - Maint. costs - ROI - Environmental - Regularities - Standarts Alt1 Alt2 Alt3 Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the decision model Table 1. Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix Physical Financial Pressure Physical (1, 1, 1) (1/2, 1 , 3/2) (2/3, 1, 2) Financial (2/3, 1, 2) (1, 1, 1) (1/2, 2/3, 1) Pressure (1/2, 1 , 3/2) (1, 3/2, 2) (1, 1, 1) Although having similar weights, from the three alternative technologies, first alternative should be selected by the company which has the weight of 0.384, according to the Table 2. By integrating FAHP in technology selection process, the decision-maker is able to give more precise, sensitive and unbiased decision for these three alternatives. Table 2. Main criteria and alternative weights Physical Financial Pressure 0.331 0.300 0.369 Alt1 0,378 0,413 0,365 0.384 Alt2 0,247 0,287 0,271 0.268 Alt3 0,373 0,298 0,363 0.346 Weights Weighted values of main criteria Alternatives 381 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 5. CONCLUSION Used in a fuzzy environment for decision-making, the fuzzy AHP is one of the multi- criteria decision-making methods. In this study AHP is used for selecting the best environmental technology from three different alternatives. For determining the criteria, interviews were conducted with the environmental experts of the company, and questionnaires were used for the evaluation process. The fuzzy AHP method can deal with the ratings of both quantitative as well as qualitative criteria and select the suitable software effectively. It’s seen that the fuzzy AHP method may be a useful additional tool for the problem of technology selection in environment management systems. In this study, the selection of the environmental technologies is evaluated under physical, financial and pressures criteria and their sub-criteria. The results show that the pressures criterion has the most significant weight in the selection process. According to the subcriteria results, technical properties in physical criterion, installation costs in financial criterion and environmental issues in pressures criterion are the most important sub-criteria. REFERENCES Chang, D.Y. (1996) Applications of the extent analysis method on fuzzy AHP, European Journal of Operational Research, 95(3), 649-655. El-Halwagi, M.M. (1998) Pollution prevention through process integration Clean Products and Processes, Springer-Verlag. Hsu, Y.L., Lee, C.H. and Kreng, V.B. (2010) The application of Fuzzy Delphi Method and Fuzzy AHP in lubricant regenerative technology selection, Expert Systems with Applications, 37, 419–425. Klassen, R.D., Whybark, D.C. (1999) The impact of environmental technologies on manufacturing performance, Academy of Management Journal, 42(6), 599-615. Lee, A.H.I., Chen, W.C. and Chang, C.J. (2008) A fuzzy AHP and BSC approach for evaluating performance of IT department in the manufacturing industry in Taiwan, Expert System with Applications, 34, 96–107. Nikbakhsh, E. (2009) “R. supply chain and logistics in national, international and governmental environment” in Zanjirani Farahani et al. (eds.) Contributions to Management Science, Springer-Verlag Berlin. Noyes, R. (1993) Pollution Prevention Technology Handbook, Noyes Publications. Saaty, T.L. (1980) The analytic hierarchy process. New York: McGraw-Hill. Schaltegger, S. and Burritt, R. (2000) Contemporary Environmental Accounting: Issues, 382 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Concepts and Practice. Greenleaf Publishing Limited, Sheffield. Seçme, N.Y., Bayrakdaroğlu, A. and Kahraman, C. (2009) Fuzzy performance evaluation in Turkish Banking Sector using Analytic Hierarchy Process and TOPSIS, Expert Systems with Applications, 36(9), 11699-11709. Sheu, J.B., Chou, Y.H., Hu, C.C. (2005) An integrated logistics operational model for greensupply chain management, Transportation Research Part E, 41(4), 287-313. Srivastava, S.K. (2007) Green supply-chain management: A state-of-the-art literature review, International Journal of Management Reviews, 9 (1), 53-80. Vachon, S. and Klassen, R.D. (2008) Environmental management and manufacturing performance: the role of collaboration in the supply chain, International Journal of Production Economics, 111 (2), 299-315. Van Hoek, R.I. (2000) From reversed logistics to green supply chains, Logistics Solutions, 2, 28–33. Zhu, Q. and Sarkis, J. (2004) Relationships between operational practices and performance among early adopters of green supply chain management practices in Chinese manufacturing enterprises, Journal of Operations Management, 22, 265–289. Selection of Sustainable Warehouse Location in Supply Chain Using the Grey Approach Fahriye Uysal1,Ömür Tosun2 1Department of International Trade and Logistics, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey 2Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey E-mails: fahriyeuysal@akdeniz.edu.tr,omurtosun@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract Supply chain sustainability has recently gained an increasing attention in the supply chain context both from the practitioners’ perspective and as a research area. There have been many incentives for more sustainable warehousing in supply chains. Sustainable Warehousing includes activities such as, for example, terminal and warehouse location, proper storing and 383 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1133 Title A name given to the resource Linking Green supply chain management with environmental Technologies and an application of technology selection Author Author Ömür, Tosun Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper, relations between green supply chain management and environmental technologies are presented. Environment technologies are taken as preventing the pollution in forward supply chain, controlling pollution in reverse supply chain and technologies that improves the environmental performance in integrated supply chain. In the study, key criterion of technology selection is evaluated with Fuzzy AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process); their priorities are defined and by using these priorities technology selection is made. Having a significance part in company’s total cost, proper and suitable selection of technology investment is emphases. Keywords: Green supply chain management, Environmental technology, Fuzzy AHP Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3550 Title A name given to the resource LISTENING - A NEGLECTED SKILL IN ESP COURSES AT IT DEPARTMENTS IN SERBIA Author Author Belov, Vadim Abstract A summary of the resource. This research has two main purposes: 1. to distinguish structural types of synonymic groups; 2. to verify the headwords of synonymic groups as a linguistic or psycholinguistic concept. Typically headword has: 1) common semantic elements, 2) the highest frequency, 3) no stylistic and emotional connotations. The main source of data is results of two experiments and data Russian National Corpus. Subjects' task was to choose the main words of the submitted groups. We use 32 synonymic groups, taken from the Russian synonymic dictionaries: the first experiment contained 12 synonymic groups, the second - 20 synonymic groups. 45 subjects participated in the first experiment, 67 – in the second experiment. We distinguished two types of synonymic groups with a different structure. The first type (centric synonymic groups) consists of synonymic groups, headword of which can be uniquely identified by experimental and corpus data. In such cases, the subjects unanimously determined the headword, and the headword is the most frequent word of the synonymic group. There are 8 (67%) such groups in the first experiment and 14 such groups (70%) in the second experiment. The second type (non-centric synonymic groups) includes synonymic groups, in which the subjects were not able to choose the main word of the synonymic groups. There are 4 (33%) such groups in the first experiment and 6 such groups (30%) in the second experiment. It is impossible to distinguish the headword in non-centric synonymic groups. Such synonymic groups are integrated by a semantic gestalt based on a nonverbal semantic code. Formal and component analysis of non-central synonymic groups is not effective. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3549 Title A name given to the resource LISTENING - A NEGLECTED SKILL IN ESP COURSES AT IT DEPARTMENTS IN SERBIA Author Author Dabić, Tijana Abstract A summary of the resource. Listening in another language is a hard job so English teachers have to use various strategies to make it easier and to be very careful in choosing the material for listening in order to motivate their students and keep their attention. Most of the listening activities have for their main purpose the comprehension, but one should have one more perspective in mind, and that is acquisition. The main reason is that the youth is immersed into the world of multimedia which has become a part of their everyday life which implies that they listen to and/or watch various materials in English. It is especially true for the students studying Information Technologies (IT). The generation attending ESP courses are fully oriented towards a wide range of audio-visual sources in English whether for the purpose of entertainment or informing about stateof-the-art technologies or both. The author of the paper conducted a research that investigated the needs of IT students at eight IT departments in five towns in Serbia during the academic year 2011/2012.. The author used mixed-method research which included quantitative and qualitative research methods. The researcher used two questionnaires were used, one for professors and assistants teaching IT subjects (N=77) and one for IT students of II and III year of IT studies (N=735), a structured interview (10 professors, 10 assistants and 16 students) and simultaneously analysed 25 English courses specifications at IT departments were the research was conducted. This paper will present merely the results that address the needs of IT students regarding the properties of listening material that the informants have found appropriate and significant. The obtained results can help ESP teachers to reconsider the amount of listening activities in their classes and to think about the potentials of offered listening materials and the way of incorporating them into their classes. Keywords: listening, ESP, Information Technologies, listening material; Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ae760bcc64fc733745ec7b5baef73d66.docx ab615d25daf13070d55cafb0a4e7290a https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/33489811e5b31e0465dae2ac1cdc1013.pdf ec01677412eb62f95349e7994c7d4fc7 PDF Text Text Listening activities: teachers and students think the same in Sarajevo? Mehmet Akdoğan Harun Baştuğ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3239 Title A name given to the resource Listening activities: teachers and students think the same in Sarajevo? Author Author AKDOGAN, Mehmet BASTUG, Harun Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b23208513d538aa53b396f8c5dfef457.docx 89279cda2fda1e84b5796f2752d4bdbe https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/74ceae37762d98cfdcde2a72ebaf7712.pdf f8b417ec2ada28b53a0caf4617dee073 PDF Text Text Listening Barriers According to Turkish as a Foreign Language Learner Hikmet DEGEC & Abdullah KALDIRIM Dumlupinar University/ Kutahya, Turkey Key words: Listening, Listening Comprehension, Listening Education, Foreign Language, Turkish ABSTRACT Bireyin çevresiyle etkileşimini sağlaması, öğrenmelerini gerçekleştirmesi, dilini etkili bir biçimde kullanması, düşüncelerini ifade edebilmesi, hem eğitim hem iş hem de fikir dünyasında başarıyı yakalayabilmesi için dil becerilerini tam olarak öğrenmesi gerekmektedir. Dil becerileri dinleme, konuşma, okuma, yazma, görsel okuma ve görsel sunu öğrenme alanlarından oluşmaktadır. İnsanoğlu ailede, çevresinde, okul ve iş hayatında kısaca bireysel ve toplumsal ilişkilerinin tümünde konuşan ve dinleyen durumunda bulunmaktadır (Taşer, 1992). Doğumuyla yaşama merhaba diyen bir birey ana diline ilişkin ilk bilgileri dinleme yoluyla edinmeye başlamaktadır (Temur, 2010). Karadüz’e göre (2010) “İnsan algılamaya, tanımaya, tanışmaya, düşünmeye ve anlam vermeye dinleyerek başlamakta, hayatından başlangıcından sonuna kadar her döneminde de dinlemeyi en önemli öğrenme aracı olarak kullanmaktadır.” Bu özelliği ile diğer dil becerilerinin kazanılmasında temel oluşturan dinleme becerisinin üzerinde durulması gerekmektedir. İnsanoğlunun yaşamı boyunca yaptığı faaliyetlerin ortalama olarak yarısına yakını dinlemekle geçmektedir. Minnesota Üniversitesi’nde Dr. Lyman K. Steal tarafından yapılan araştırmada bireylerin iletişime ayırdığı sürenin %45’inin dinlemeyle geçtiği ortaya konmuştur (Yıldız, Okur, Arı, & Yılmaz, 2008) Başkalarının ilettiği sözlü mesajları anlayabilmek için, kişinin belli düzeyde dinleme beceri ve alışkanlığı edinmiş olması gerekir (Kavcar, Sever, & Oğuzkan, 1995). Fakar bazı durumlarda birey iletilen sözlü mesajı anlamlandırırken önüne bazı engeller çıkmaktadır. Bu engeller nedeniyle dinleme ya eksik olmakta ya da hiç gerçkeleşmeyerek işitme aşamasında kalmaktadır. Özellikle dili yeni öğrenmekte olan bireylerin bu gibi durumlarla karşılaşması muhtemeldir. Bu araştırmada Türkçeyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen öğrencilerin karşılaştıkları dinleme engellerine ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemek ve bu öğrencilerin dinleme becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik öneriler ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılacaktır. Araştırmanın çalışma evreni 2012-2013 eğitim öğretim yılında Gazi Üniversitesi Türkçe Öğrenim Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezinde öğrenimine devam eden üniversite öğrencileridir. Bu evrenden 10 kişi basit tesadüfi örnekleme yöntemi ile seçilecektir. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1787 Title A name given to the resource Listening Barriers According to Turkish as a Foreign Language Learner Author Author DEGEC , Hikmet KALDIRIM, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Listening, Listening Comprehension, Listening Education, Foreign Language, Turkish ABSTRACT Bireyin çevresiyle etkileşimini sağlaması, öğrenmelerini gerçekleştirmesi, dilini etkili bir biçimde kullanması, düşüncelerini ifade edebilmesi, hem eğitim hem iş hem de fikir dünyasında başarıyı yakalayabilmesi için dil becerilerini tam olarak öğrenmesi gerekmektedir. Dil becerileri dinleme, konuşma, okuma, yazma, görsel okuma ve görsel sunu öğrenme alanlarından oluşmaktadır. İnsanoğlu ailede, çevresinde, okul ve iş hayatında kısaca bireysel ve toplumsal ilişkilerinin tümünde konuşan ve dinleyen durumunda bulunmaktadır (Taşer, 1992). Doğumuyla yaşama merhaba diyen bir birey ana diline ilişkin ilk bilgileri dinleme yoluyla edinmeye başlamaktadır (Temur, 2010). Karadüz’e göre (2010) “İnsan algılamaya, tanımaya, tanışmaya, düşünmeye ve anlam vermeye dinleyerek başlamakta, hayatından başlangıcından sonuna kadar her döneminde de dinlemeyi en önemli öğrenme aracı olarak kullanmaktadır.” Bu özelliği ile diğer dil becerilerinin kazanılmasında temel oluşturan dinleme becerisinin üzerinde durulması gerekmektedir. İnsanoğlunun yaşamı boyunca yaptığı faaliyetlerin ortalama olarak yarısına yakını dinlemekle geçmektedir. Minnesota Üniversitesi’nde Dr. Lyman K. Steal tarafından yapılan araştırmada bireylerin iletişime ayırdığı sürenin %45’inin dinlemeyle geçtiği ortaya konmuştur (Yıldız, Okur, Arı, & Yılmaz, 2008) Başkalarının ilettiği sözlü mesajları anlayabilmek için, kişinin belli düzeyde dinleme beceri ve alışkanlığı edinmiş olması gerekir (Kavcar, Sever, & Oğuzkan, 1995). Fakar bazı durumlarda birey iletilen sözlü mesajı anlamlandırırken önüne bazı engeller çıkmaktadır. Bu engeller nedeniyle dinleme ya eksik olmakta ya da hiç gerçkeleşmeyerek işitme aşamasında kalmaktadır. Özellikle dili yeni öğrenmekte olan bireylerin bu gibi durumlarla karşılaşması muhtemeldir. Bu araştırmada Türkçeyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen öğrencilerin karşılaştıkları dinleme engellerine ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemek ve bu öğrencilerin dinleme becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik öneriler ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılacaktır. Araştırmanın çalışma evreni 2012-2013 eğitim öğretim yılında Gazi Üniversitesi Türkçe Öğrenim Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezinde öğrenimine devam eden üniversite öğrencileridir. Bu evrenden 10 kişi basit tesadüfi örnekleme yöntemi ile seçilecektir. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d380f0c482d70d82167a67d1617e7bce.pdf cac035bdbed0599832d9fc052c5bc3d2 PDF Text Text LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Lindita Tahiri University of Prishtina, Kosova1 Article History: Submitted:10.06.2015 Accepted:10.08.2015 Abstract: The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Keywords: pedagogical stylistics, Kadare, critical thinking, literariness “Kosova" is the Albanian name and "Kosovo" is the Serbian name for the country, which institutionally calls itself the Republic of Kosova. The Serbian government does not recognize the state calling it Kosovo. Many international speakers use "Kosovo" without implying that they believe that Kosovo is Serbian. The deliberate choice in this paper is the Albanian form of the lexeme. 1 �1. INTRODUCTION Whereas early stylistics of the 60s stressed the autonomy of literature with attention on stylistically marked texts, regarding study of literature as a branch of aesthetics (Widdowson: 1996), modern stylistics views language of literature in relation to other discourses in terms of continuum rather than polarity. This perspective integrates the linguistic and literary study and develops the awareness of literature as language, which is beneficial both to teaching of language and teaching of literature. The focus of stylistics in the text of literature, rather than in vague and impressionistic judgments, makes it a useful pedagogical tool in language and literature studies (Weber: 1996). Stylistics has pedagogical usefulness because it of its basic principles such as being rigorous, retrievable, and replicable (Simpson: 2004). The teacher does not only interpret messages of the literary work, but analyzes textual features, such as lexicon and syntax, depicting their function towards producing the literariness of a text. This strategy of interpretation based on linguistic analysis avoids for the morally prescriptive language and allows for the plurality of interpretation and readings for the contemporary reader/student, who lives within the uncertainty of the modern age, where everything is opened to redefinition. According to the literary critic Jesse Matz (2004) one of the important developments of the modern novel is the replacement of a belief in absolute, knowable truth with a sense of relative, provisional truths, with the awareness of ‘reality’ as a constructed fiction. Modern writers do not aim to give a full or neutral version of a story, but they emphasize the limited perspective of the personal point of view. As Matz puts it: “…we have to do the work an omniscient narrator would otherwise have done for us, and the participation gives objective knowledge the feel of subjective involvement” (52). Therefore, the perspectival narration appears as an aesthetic strategy of individuality which helps readers grasp the idea of the content of subjectivity in the midst of the information chaos. The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main skills belonging to generic competencies – transferable, multifunctional knowledge, skills and attitudes that people could learn and develop in different ways and learning environments, and apply across a variety of job and life contexts (European Commission, DG Education and Culture, 2006,2012). Generic skills have been capturing growing attention all over the world by education policy makers, and therefore particular attention should be paid to the way literature is taught, as a tool to sharpen the most important competences of the modern citizens. 1.1.Literature as public space for dialogue: Albanian case The Albanian case might not be different from other former communist countries, where a great moral and ideological power was attributed to literature, even to poetry, which although usually �is the elite genre, in these countries enjoyed immense popularity. This trend may be illustrated with one of the Albanian internationally recognized authors of literary fiction, Ismail Kadare, who is a bestseller amongst Albanian readers of all ages. His work kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric. It was his work that refilled with life the drained language of mechanical thought, and it was his language that broke through the walls where the dictatorship could not make the way into. By keeping language creativity alive, Kadare succeeded to give self-dignity to the intimate language of individuals, as readers could find more life in his works than in everyday reality. With the words of the American scholar Peter Morgan (2006:9), “As the voice of an alternative, better Albania, Kadare offered to his countrymen one of the few sources of hope for change”. According to statistics, literary fiction in Albania still sells well and one may argue that literature amongst Albanian culture is not perceived as privilege of academia. Historically Albanian writers have been identified with the national aspirations and the ‘book’ has been considered as the best means to resist occupation and totalitarianism. The ‘death of the author’ is practically impossible within Albanian culture, in spite the effort of Barthes to liberate the reader from the tyranny of the limited interpretation. The Albanian author is very much alive: he has often been a public figure, and even a hero defending the national cause. Is there still need for a mission similar to Kadare’s work, a need to make readers critical towards ideological manipulations of public discourse, in the world of today, in the age of globalization and uncertainty, in the age of democracy as well as of massacres and anxiety? Many works of popular fiction, as ‘Da Vinci Code’ does with religion for example, explore important issues for society and tend to provoke public discussion about problems that preoccupy humankind, and this seems to be the feature that the modern consumer of books wants to find into the reading process- the public space for dialogue, evocative to the possibility for interaction that internet provides for its users. We propose that this need may be efficiently explored by the teacher of literature, who in this fashion encourages and inspires the critical and creative thinking as one of the most essential competences for the modern individual. This skill of critical thinking is crucial within the debates about history textbooks which are taking place in Balkans, and the literature teacher can help students became aware of the editorial, selective, interpretative roles of the historian, as well as of the author of fiction. For instance, in 2011 the Minister of External Affairs in Turkey asked the Kosovar authorities to change history textbooks, because they are “Albanian- centered and portray a negative image of Turkey” (Jazexhi: 2013). What kind of skills do students need in order to maintain the neutral attitude towards ideological maneuvering of any kind? 2. METHOD Contemporary Albanian literature is analyzed from the aspect of linguistic presentation of character’s ‘mind style ’(Roger Fowler: 1977) pointing out the pedagogical advantage of �linguistic criticism. History textbooks are also analyzed from the point of view of linguistic criticism. Linguistic structures present in the respective texts will be approached as expression of social values, based on the functional model developed by M.A.K. Halliday (1973, 1978, 1994 ) and adopted by Roger Fowler (1979, 1991,2003), Hodge, Kress and Trew (1979), referred to as Systemic Functional Linguistics. Fundamental to these models is the belief that the uses of language shape the linguistic system. The language function which will be of primary focus is the interpersonal function , as both interactional and personal, as means whereby social groups are integrated and the individual is identified and reinforced. The indicators for this function, according to Halliday are: lexical register, types of speech and modality, use of person, of modifiers and intensifiers, and in particular comments and evaluative expressions. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be used and the concept of van Dijk (1998) about the rhetoric of polarization will be applied. One of the typical analyses that van Dijk does of the media discourse is the polarized representation of the self and the other, which serves the definition of the social identity of the social group, whose interests are represented in respective discourse. As van Dijk claims, regardless of whether they are aware and knowledgeable about an ideology, this ideology underlies language and exists, the way grammar exists. Finally, the vigorous discussion set off by the literary theorist Eagelton (1985) about language conventionally perceived as literature, will be taken into account. Nowadays the study of literature, similarly to the study of modern linguistics, is not positioning itself as normative science prescribing one single correct language variant. Rather than aiming to define a transhistorical essence of literature and originality which is hard to clarify, literature scholars are more and more talking about literariness as a potential of all language which may be present in different kinds of discourse .Furthermore, this potential for creativity in language is considered as closely linked to the basic cognitive processes in language usage and language origin (Lakoff and Turner:1989) 3. RESULTS 3.1. Kadare: the split identity One of Kadare’s rare novels translated in English from the original is the Broken April, whose main character is Gjorg, the young mountaineer, who kills a man to avenge the death of his brother according to the provisions of the ancient Code. The novel starts with the thematic positioning of the possessive third person pronoun (His feet were cold), and throughout the text this kind of usage of the pronoun serves the narrative voice to keeps a distance and to give the impression of showing rather than telling, in particular when internal thoughts and perceptions of the character are transmitted. The thematic positioning of intensifiers, either as adjectives, adverbs, subordinate connectors or deictics, serves as an orientation towards the interior world of the character. Even the syntactic order of clauses follows the chronological experience of the �character and orients the reading process creating an impression of straightforwardness and symbolism. The author uses free direct speech and partially free indirect speech in the psychonarration (Cohn: 1978) of the character, suggesting not only his thoughts but also emotional extra-linguistics processes directly transmitted by the narrator. The literature teachers can draw out these points, focusing on all levels of language, e.g. on the lexical choice which is typical for the character and suggests interior perception with character’s focalization. They can point out the foregrounded transitivity, as typically Gjorg takes verbs denoting factual actions, but without effect on the objects. His verbs denoting physical actions refer to body movements and are self-referential. Verbs depicting his main activity (wait, shoot) are accompanied by modals (had to, must) adding connotations of obligation and involuntary actions. So his verbs show mainly lack of ability to act rather than real actions, which make him a victim more than an actor. The English translation points out the lack of action and will, as is the case in this example, by switching the agency to the object compared to the original Albanian where the agency falls on the character: “Slowly the gun barrel swept over some patches” (7). The translation succeeds to transmit the split identity, the dilemma to proceed with the action of avenge which is imposed due to social norms , and for instance students can be lead to interpret this as an ever existing dilemma of the modern individual. What is significant, students learn to be sensitive to grammatical indicators used to reinforce specific meanings in all kinds of discourses. 3.2. History through lenses of fiction Regarding accuses for nationalism in Kosova history books2, the teacher can provide a textual analysis and explain for instance that when non-factive verbs (Hudelston: 2002)are used such as: “It is thought by the scholars that Albanian language descends directly Illyrian” (History 6:24 ), this creates an impression of doubt about our predecessors rather than nationalism. Or, sentences like “Special feature of the influence and legacy of the Ottoman culture here are the various facilities built during that time” (History 7:130) show multiculturalism rather than hatred towards the ottoman culture, avoiding rhetoric of opposition of evil and righteous. Another case of telling history through fiction, Ben Blushi’s Living in an island has provoked profuse debates within the public opinion, accused by the Muslim community for endangering the religious harmony and tolerance of Albanians. The novel portrays the life of an Albanian family embracing simultaneously two religions, as historical allegory pointing to the challenging subject of the religious background of Albanians. The teacher can approach literature as historical construction, where historical characters have been explored in a different light by the author, amongst them Skanderbeg, the most prominent figure in the history of Albanians, famous for his resistance against the Ottoman Empire: “Skanderbeg fought for power and not for faith “, says Komneni, renown historical figure and one of the main characters in the novel. “The book 2 Translations from history texts and Blushi’s novel are done by the author of the paper . �belongs to the knowledgeable, who are usually the most powerful” declares Isaac to Sara in the closing chapter. “When Turks leave, we will write again the book we have lost.” The teacher may empower the readers by asking them whose word is it, and should the character’s words be taken as presentation of character’s ‘mind style’ or as author’s own judgment and distinct message ?(Wimsatt and Breadsly: 1947). The teacher can point out to the intrusive presence of the author, as in the case when the former Christian entered the mosque and “ he understood that he demonstrated logical superiority even at the very first Islam lesson”. By applying pedagogical stylistics students learn to make difference between impersonal and neutral narrative voices and the intrusive and judgmental ever-knowing story-tellers. CONCLUSION The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students in this age when reading is globally declining, but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main generic skills the modern individual needs in developing life- long learning. Furthermore, the focus on interior monologue technique with the neutral presentation of the internal life of people is of social and political importance, because it is a concrete tool of arousing tolerance and understanding between people (Aurebach, 1968:552). As a result, students learn to enjoy a non-visible, nonintrusive source of narration, rather than a judgmental and evaluative privileged source of information, and this way they are more resistant to authoritarian discourse �References Aurebach, Eric.(1968) Mimesis: The representation of Reality in Western Literature. NY: Princeton University Press. Bicaj, Isa and Salihu, Arbër (2012) Historia 7, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Blushi, Ben. (2008) Të jetosh në ishull. Tiranë: Toena Cohn, Dorrit. (1978) Transparent Minds Princeton University Press Demaj, Frashër and Rexhepi, Fehmi (2010) Historia 6, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Eagelton, Terry. (1985) Literary Theory, Basic Blackwell Fowler, Roger (1981) Literature as Social Discourse.UK: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Fowler, R., Hodge, B. , Kress, G. and Trew, T. (1979) Language and Control Routledge &Kegan Paul. Gelder, Ken. (2004) Popular Fiction, The logics and practices of a literary field. NY: Routldedge. Halliday, M. A. K.( 1973) Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold. Huddleston, Rodney and K.Pullum, Geoffrey (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press Jazexhi, Olsi (2013)Rrëfimet e një kombi. Tiranë: Free Media Institute Kadare, Ismail (1980) Prilli i Thyer, Tiranë Kadare, Ismail.(1990) Broken April. Translated by J.Hodgson. NY:New Amsterdam books. Lakoff , George and Turner, Mark.( 1989) More than Cool Reason. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Matz, Jesse (2004) the modern novel. UK: Blackwell. Morgan, Peter (2006) Modern Homer or Albanian Dissident, World Literature Today: A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma, 2006 Sept-Oct; 80 (5): 7-11 Simpson, Paul (2004) Stylistics NY: Routledge Weber, Jean Jacque. 1996 ., in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. J.J. Weber, University Centre Luxemburg Widdowson, H.G. 1996 .“Stylistics: an approach to stylistic analysis”, in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. Jean Jacques Weber, University Centre Luxemburg, Wimsatt, William K. and Monroe C. Beardsley. "The Intentional Fallacy." Sewanee Review, vol. 54 (1946): 468-488. Education and Training 2020 Work programme Thematic Working Group 'Assessment of Key Competences' Literature review, Glossary and examples November (2012) in: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/school/doc/keyreview_en.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2956 Title A name given to the resource LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Author Author Tahiri, Lindita Abstract A summary of the resource. The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6fc63bca8b37d915c0aba8023415f04f.pdf 0582826fd8aa72ad26a355546ee250c7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Dr Fatemeh Azizmohammadi , Faculty Member of Islamic Azad, University ,Arak Branch ,Iran meena_mina_mina@yahoo.com Dr Jillah Mashhadi Faculty Member of Islamic Azad , University , Arak Branch , Iran Abstract As is well-known the concept of the Absurd is an off-shoot of Existentialism which was born in the 19th century and reached almost global acceptability in the early 20 th century thanks to the works of Kafka, Camus, Sartre and the Absurd playwrights like Beckett and Pinter. This paper tries to show that the Absurd had literary manifestations in earlier literatures also. This does not aim to be an exhaustive survey of ―the tradition of the Absurd‖ as in Martin Esslin‘s The Theatre of the Absurd. A unique feature of this paper is the linkage which it establishes between the Absurd and the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Though Existentialism as a philosophical school emerged in the 19 th century, the ideas it propagated were not totally unknown. They had manifested themselves in the literature of earlier periods. For instance in Sophocles‘ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus, once the mystery surrounding his birth stands fully revealed, blinds himself, crying out that he cursed the day when he was born. More relevantly, Hamlet in his celebrated soliloquy raises the overwhelming question: To be or not to be, and discusses the problem of suicide. He asks why man, when he suffers the ―slings and arrows of an outrageous fortune‖ does not end his troubles by ending his life. For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor‘s wrong, the proud man‘s contumely, The pangs of dispriz‘d love, the law‘s delay, The insolence of office and the spurns That patient merit of the unworthy takes, When he himself might his quietus make With a bare bodkin? 1 Whereas Camus finds his answer in joie de vivre, Hamlet finds it within the Christian framework. The line of suicide is based on the assumption that there is an after-life and that it will be better than earthly existence. But unfortunately, there is no warrant for such an assumption. Hamlet continues his meditation on suicide Who would fardels bear, To grunt and sweat under a weary life But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all. 2 In short, Hamlet‘s answer is that though life is full of trials and tribulations, it is at least a known devil; but there is no knowing about life after death. Who knows it may be worse than this life! It is an unknown devil. And if the choice is between two devils, the known devil is always better than the unknown one. Similarly in the earlier speech-what a noble piece of work is man — Hamlet reduces this angelic creature, this paragon of all animals to ―quintessence of dust‖. Later on, almost at the end in the famous Grave-digger‘s scene, Hamlet meditates further on the nothingness of man. Holding the court-jester Yorick‘s skull in his hand, he 460 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo wonders on the fate of such movers and shakers of the world as Alexander, the Great and Julius Caesar. He suggests very frighteningly that after the decomposition of their bodies, their dust must have got mixed up with other dust, which may have been picked up by some farmer or someone else. As a result, for all we know, Alexander is now guarding the cottage-wall of a farmer and Julius Caesar may be a stopper of some beer-barrel! Beneath the almost clinical dispassionateness with which the Existentialists describe La conditione humaine one can discern an implicit note of discontent with things as they are. Certainly there is no joy, no exultation in the description. And this under-lying discontent may be linked up with, to borrow the famous phrase of Mario Praz, the Romantic Agony. In other words, the existentialist angst can be seen as a prolongation, a continuation in our times of the Romantic Agony. This agony is the result of the perception of two basic facts of our existence: 1) the fact of change (mutability) and 2) the fact of death (mortality). These twin spectresѢ mutability and mortality — have always haunted the human imagination, but with especial virulence since the Romantic Age. In the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, as it is known, the dominant world-view was a mechanistic one which looked at the universe as a pre-fabricated, perfect machine. Newton described the world as a great watch and God as the Great Watchmaker. The world was the perfect creation of a perfect God. Any imperfections or inconsistencies were interpreted as man‘s inability to understand ways of God or were covered up by taking recourse to the Original Sin in the case of a deist or to the corruptions of civilization in the case of a sentimentalist. It was inevitable that such a metaphysic should collapse by its own internal contradictions and so it did in the late18th century. Now questions which were earlier silenced ruthlessly began to be raised. Human existence had far too may discordant facts. It was asked, for instance, if God made the world, and that God is perfect, how does one account for the myriad unpleasant aspects like poverty, disease, pain, death transience of beauty and joy, ugliness and so on? Perhaps it is better to look at the problem this way: if God made the world, he must have been either in a hurry — for he made it in six days, as the Bible tells you — or he must be a bad engineer. Look at the world he has made. as Keats says memorably in ―Ode to a Nightingale‖ Here, where men sit and hear each other groan; Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs, Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies; Where but to think is to be full of sorrow And laden-eyed despairs, Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes Or new love pine at them beyond tomorrow, 3 This is Romantic Agony in a nut-shell, for you. According to Keats, it is better to be a stone, that has ―happy insensitivity‖ about there things. That is why he would like to fly away ―into the forests dim‖ with the Nightingale and forget the ―weariness, the fever and the fret‖ of life which the bird is blissfully unaware of. In a world, where ―but to think is to be full of sorrow‖, sensitivity is a curse. Wordsworth also says at one place that ―consciousness is a disease of the matter‖. Similarly Shelley in ―A Hymn to Intellectual Beauty‖ complains as to why we do not have a rainbow every day If these Romantic poets raise questions of an aesthetic nature, later poets like Hopkins and Hardy ask ethical questions. For instance, in his celebrated sonnet, ―Thou Art, indeed, Just My Lord‖, Hopkins asks his God, ―Why do sinners‘ ways prosper?‖ Paraphrased into our world, Hopkins‘s question makes God answer as to why in his world, a Jesus is crucified, but malefactors like drunkards, criminals rule the roost? In The Wreck of the Deutschland, beneath the acceptance, there is a seething anger against the ―justness‖ of the Lord in the death by water of five Franciscan nuns who had set sail on that ship in the service of the same Lord. At the end of his novel, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy reiterating the melancholy of Romantics, says that the lesson Elizabeth-Jane learnt was that ―happiness is but an occasional episode in the general drama of pain.‘ Similarly in Tess, he comes out for more indignantly against the traditional notion of divine omnipresence, omniscience and omnipotence. When Tess is raped in the primeval forest called the Chase by Alex d‘urberville, Hardy asks uncomfortable questions. But, might some say, where was Tess‘s guardian angel? Where was the providence of her simple faith? Perhaps like that other god of whom the ironical Tishbite spoke, he was talking, or he was pursuing, or he was in a journey, or he was sleeping and not to be awaked.4 Hardy‘s poem ―To an unborn Pauper child‖ comes closer to Paul Tillich‘s existential insight into the mystery of the unconsulted human birth. In this poem after cataloguing the ―terrestrial chart‖ of woes and travails, he asks the unborn child, ―wilt thou take life thus‖? Though the answer is bound to be in the negative, the child has no choice. Hardy knows his words of warning will not reach the child and even if they could, 461 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hardy most despairingly says ―thou wilt thy ignorant entry make‖. And so foolishly optimistic, so hypocritical are we that though not to be born is the best way-out, we congratulate the child on its birth, wish him all the best though, we know even nothing good is likely to come by. Perhaps the closest parallel to the existentialist vision comes from an altogether different corner — the 11th century Persian poet Omar Khayyam, whose Rubaiyat was translated by Edward Fitzgerald in the 19th century. It would be both unfair and incorrect to regard Khayyam as the exponent of unbridled alcoholism as he is made out to be by the mass media. He was a deeply serious poet concerned with the nature of our existence and offered his strategy of dealing with it through his symbolic verse. The transience of both the power and the glory in the face eternal Time is one of the themes that he strikes earliest in the Rubaiyat, as the following verse shows — Think, in this batter‘d Caravansarai Whose Doorways are alternate Night and Day How Sultan after Sultan with his Pomp Abode his Hour or two, and went his way.5 In the very next stanza, while bringing out the nothingness of man he reaches Shakespearean heights. Hamlet-like, he cruelly brings out human impotence against the fact of death. They say the Lion and the Lizard keep The Courts where Jamshy‘d gloried and drank deep And Behram, that great Hunter— the Wild Ass Stamps o‘er his Head, and he lies fast asleep.6 In verses 29 and 30, Khayyam raises basic overwhelming questions answers to which are badly required and are sadly not available. Into this universe and Why not knowing Nor Whence, like water willy-nilly flowing And out of it, as wind along the Waste, I know not Whither, willy-nilly blowing What, without asking, hither hurried Whence? And, without asking, Whither hurried hence! Oh, many a cup of this forbidden Wine Must down the memory of that insolence! 7 From where have I come? Why am I here? Where do I go after death? Who made skies, the stars? What is beyond them? These might look like questions asked by a child as it lies with its parent on the terrace on a summer night, looking at the star-lit sky. But not only the hapless parent but even the Nobel-Prize laureate physicists like Sir Penrose or Stephen Hawking can answer these questions. And it goes without knowing whence, why we have come here and wither we go from here, no meaningful way of living our life can be found. This, in short, is Khayyam‘s, existentialists‘ and Kafka‘s position in life. No body knows the answers and there is no point in seeking guidance anywhere or making appeals to Heavens. As Khayyam says, And that inverted Bowl they call the sky Where under crawling coop‘d we live and die Lift not your hands to It for help — for It Rolls impotently on as Thou or I.8 Under the circumstances, all that one can do is to regard the world as a caravanserai where one is to stay for a while and go away God knows where. Wisdom, therefore, lies in not breaking one‘s head about the whats and whys of existence through religion or philosophy, but in making merry while one‘s stay here lasts. Yesterday This Day‘s Madness did prepare; Tomorrow‘s Silence, Triumph or Despair Drink! For you know not whence you came, nor why Drink! For you know not why you go nor where.9 ―Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die‖. This is Khayyam‘s strategy of living in a condition of total agnosis which need not be understood literally. Do what pleases you, for that is all you can do. Thus just 462 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo as Camus‘ Absurd Man rejoices in joie de vivre, Khayyam goes in for merriment under the cloud of unknowing. Whether in Camus or Khayyam, this kind of hedonism has a touch of desperation about it, where human laughter and tears at the absurdity of life get inextricably mixed up. Notes and References William Shakespeare, Hamlet III,i 70-6 ed. by Sir E. K. Chambers ( London: Blackie and Sons, 1948 ) 7980. Ibid. John Keats, Poetical Works ed. by H.W.Garrod (London: Oxford University Press 1959 ) 207 . Thomas Hardy, Tess of The D‘Urbervilles ( London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd. 1954 ) 93 Omar Khayyam, Rubaiyat trans. By Edward Fitzgerald (Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House, 1948) 32 . Ibid. 34. Ibid. 160. Ibid. 171. Ibid. 463 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 69 Title A name given to the resource Literary Antecedents of the Absurd Author Author Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Mashhadi, Jillah Abstract A summary of the resource. As is well-known the concept of the Absurd is an off-shoot of Existentialism which was born in the 19th century and reached almost global acceptability in the early 20th century thanks to the works of Kafka, Camus, Sartre and the Absurd playwrights like Beckett and Pinter. This paper tries to show that the Absurd had literary manifestations in earlier literatures also. This does not aim to be an exhaustive survey of ―the tradition of the Absurd‖ as in Martin Esslin‘s The Theatre of the Absurd. A unique feature of this paper is the linkage which it establishes between the Absurd and the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 777 Title A name given to the resource Literary Texts in Foreign Language Teaching Didactization of German Ballads Author Author Kasapoğlu, Berrin Uzuntaş, Aysel Abstract A summary of the resource. In foreign language teaching can be used appropriate texts. What are “appropriate texts” .in parallel to the velocity and multifunctionality, they are given importance especially in modern technology. Since they are short and multifunctional, in this paper will be treated ballads in the context of foreign language teaching. Ballads, which have lyrical characteristics, and also epic and dramatic features, provide a good material exercises in order to develop reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. Ballads are also texts that can be used from the content perspective for the acquisition of a historical and cultural, intercultural knowledge and competence. In this paper the example of attempts by various ballads show that literary texts in foreign language teaching can be used diversely and that text-selection is relevant. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics