174 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3dede4e3f591dcda0c386b9fd6211831.pdf ebf52ecb1acc5779ff8d97269e96c1f0 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Leverage Effect of Marketing in Uncertainty Condition: Examination of ISE-100 Tülay Top Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Türkiye tlytop@mehmetakif.edu.tr Economic sense of uncertainty / risk concept was started to use at the time of transition from traditional society to modern society. Uncertainty means, “the probability of events that adversely affect the economic decision makers' return on their decisions, in other words the situation that known the possibility of occurrence of events. Giddens distinguished the uncertainty into two parts. They’re “external risks” that originated from external, custom of tradition, or unchanging of nature; “produced risks” produced by absolute effect of developed information about the world. Realization possibility of external risks varies from year to year and cannot be predicted. However when the ignored risks are analyzed, it’s seen that the modern capitalism reckons the future profits and losses so it organizes future by uncertainties produced by itself, marginalizes and dominates the future. Multiplicity of produced risks almost keeps a barrage of metaphor the businesses. Even businesses provide against any uncertainty, in case of emergence of an unpredicted and coming from another side they can’t provide against it. With the economic crisis experienced businesses in Turkey started to attach importance to “how they provide against to crisis period” topic. For this a lot of precaution can be said like borrowing/un borrowing with currency or gold, project and confirmation before investing, rating criterion of banks etc. Namely management after crisis, management at the time of crisis and management after crisis is an issue that needs to be known and hold up as an example. In this study, it is aimed to investigate the difference between the company performance and marketing effectiveness by using ISE-100 data. To achieve this aim, first of all, kind of economic crisis and the crisis in turkey will be examined. At the last part, companies marketing and companies performances will be analyzed with the help of financial tables and by using ISE-100 data. On the earth surface, manufactured risks, not only affects the manufactured region but also effects the transnational. In this context, by considering the Turkey’s geopolitical and economic cooperation, the crisis in the Europe and in any other community, affects the ISE-100 firms. Contribution to the literature will be provided with the determination of the leverage effect of the companies which are traded in ISE-100 in uncertainty condition which are placed in Turkey. Keywords: Risk, Crisis, Turkey, ISE-100, Marketing, Company Performances. 266 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1624 Title A name given to the resource Leverage Effect of Marketing in Uncertainty Condition: Examination of ISE-100 Author Author TOP, Tulay Abstract A summary of the resource. Economic sense of uncertainty / risk concept was started to use at the time of transition from traditional society to modern society. Uncertainty means, “the probability of events that adversely affect the economic decision makers' return on their decisions, in other words the situation that known the possibility of occurrence of events. Giddens distinguished the uncertainty into two parts. They’re “external risks” that originated from external, custom of tradition, or unchanging of nature; “produced risks” produced by absolute effect of developed information about the world. Realization possibility of external risks varies from year to year and cannot be predicted. However when the ignored risks are analyzed, it’s seen that the modern capitalism reckons the future profits and losses so it organizes future by uncertainties produced by itself, marginalizes and dominates the future. Multiplicity of produced risks almost keeps a barrage of metaphor the businesses. Even businesses provide against any uncertainty, in case of emergence of an unpredicted and coming from another side they can’t provide against it. With the economic crisis experienced businesses in Turkey started to attach importance to “how they provide against to crisis period” topic. For this a lot of precaution can be said like borrowing/un borrowing with currency or gold, project and confirmation before investing, rating criterion of banks etc. Namely management after crisis, management at the time of crisis and management after crisis is an issue that needs to be known and hold up as an example. In this study, it is aimed to investigate the difference between the company performance and marketing effectiveness by using ISE-100 data. To achieve this aim, first of all, kind of economic crisis and the crisis in turkey will be examined. At the last part, companies marketing and companies performances will be analyzed with the help of financial tables and by using ISE-100 data. On the earth surface, manufactured risks, not only affects the manufactured region but also effects the transnational. In this context, by considering the Turkey’s geopolitical and economic cooperation, the crisis in the Europe and in any other community, affects the ISE-100 firms. Contribution to the literature will be provided with the determination of the leverage effect of the companies which are traded in ISE-100 in uncertainty condition which are placed in Turkey. Keywords: Risk, Crisis, Turkey, ISE-100, Marketing, Company Performances. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0019c00e368c84a90212a2e8d5aa8bf0.pdf 1bf003b378422d6682af5bbb401cae6b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Master's Theses Description An account of the resource IT Master's Thesis collection features master's theses authored by graduate students in the Department of Information Technology. Each thesis reflects a significant research effort, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application to address complex challenges in the IT domain. These works demonstrate students’ advanced understanding of information systems, software engineering, data science, cybersecurity, and emerging technologies. The theses serve as a testament to the students' capability to conduct independent research, propose innovative solutions, and contribute to the advancement of the IT field. Subject The topic of the resource IT Master's Thesis Language A language of the resource English Language Author Author IT Department Master’s Students Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Leveraging of Machine Learning for Early Cancer Risk Identification and Predictive Flagging Author Author Belmin Šestić Abstract A summary of the resource. Early detection of cancer remains a vital component in reducing mortality and enhancing treatment outcomes. Traditional diagnostic approaches, such as biopsies, imaging scans, and clinical assessments, often identify cancer at a stage where the disease has already advanced. This delay in detection arises because early-stage cancers typically exhibit minimal or no symptoms, increasing the risk of late diagnoses and reduced chances of recovery. This proposed study investigates the potential of machine learning methodologies in facilitating early cancer risk assessment by analyzing complex medical datasets. The primary objective is to assess whether machine learning models can reliably identify patients at heightened risk before the disease becomes clinically evident. Through this approach, the study aims to contribute to the development of predictive systems that can trigger early interventions and encourage proactive health monitoring. The research seeks to answer the core question: “Can machine learning models effectively assess the risk of early-stage cancer using molecular-level data, such as gene expression profiles, prior to the onset of clinical symptoms?” Sub-questions to be explored include the accuracy of early-stage cancer detection using machine learning, the types of data that most influence prediction performance, and the feasibility of using such models to prompt timely medical evaluations in the absence of traditional diagnostic markers. The findings are expected to support advancements in personalized medicine by laying the groundwork for tools that assist in identifying high-risk individuals, potentially transforming the current approach to cancer screening and prevention. Keywords Keywords. Machine Learning, Cancer Risk Assessment, Early Detection, Medical Data, Predictive Modeling Cancer Risk Assessment Early Detection machine learning master’s thesis Medical Data Predictive Modeling https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27eac86735340248e4eda9d6b63e242a.pdf dfc7fdc2237adebaad2030ec2e8f4107 PDF Text Text Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura2 1 2 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina dalibor.dumic@stu.ibu.edu.ba slobodan.lubura@ets.ues.rs.ba Abstract – Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords – Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG 1. Introduction In each home network there are always heterogeneous devices that are expected to be connected. All of these devices are different if compared because they can be based on different hardware platforms, the controller services can be of a different nature, and also the software components for enabling the network access can vary [1]. For example, when we compare wearable technology based on the IoT like a smartwatch or wristband with smart home devices such as a washing machine or air conditioner, we will notice different capabilities in terms of memory usage, processing speed, and power consumption [2]. Because of that, the IoT devices can be generally classified based on their key characteristics: ● communication flows in the system, ● memory management, ● data manipulation and processing, ● power control and consumption. For example, a smart coffee machine is not always powered on because it performs certain tasks when required, but only when a user turns on it via a user interface such as a mobile application whenever the user wants to drink a coffee or when the user is on the way to home and wants to have already prepared coffee. These kinds of devices consume less power for communication. There are many actuators in home automation systems that must be managed by systems connected to the Internet via network protocols [3]. �The focus of this paper is on the practical implementation of the methodology proposed in [4] and this methodology was carried out by the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol that will be used as a network protocol for enabling the connection of the gateway with the Internet. The gateway will perform effective management of sensors and devices in a home network and it will be based on the RESTful technologies. The paper is organized into five sections. Section 1 introduces us to the IoT systems and the purpose of this paper. In Section 2, the NETCONF protocol and its features are introduced. The proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol in the IoT is detailed in Section 3. The results of the proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol are noted in Section 4. The benefits of the proposed integration and the main conclusions are discussed in Section 5. 2. The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) and its features A. NETCONF The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol with great features such as installing, manipulating, and deleting the configuration of the devices in the network. Its purpose is managing network devices, retrieving its configuration data, and uploading or manipulating new configuration data of the network devices [5]. That means devices on the network can take different states according to their configuration. To switch between the device’s states, the configuration datastores are used. By definition, a configuration datastore contains a set of information that is needed for the configuration, and thereby that configuration is required to change the state of a device to chosen operational state from its initial default state. NETCONF currently supports event notification features and the following multiple configuration datastores [6]: ● "running" – this configuration is always present and it is used as the currently active configuration ● "startup" – this configuration is used in the next startup ● "candidate” - this configuration that can be used instead of currently running configuration through an explicit commit. By using NETCONF operations, it is possible to manipulate device configuration. The NETCONF operations are invoked as Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) from the client to the server. Some minor operations are [6]: ● “commit” - commits the "candidate" configuration to "running", ● “copy-config” - copy one configuration datastore to another, ● “edit-config” - changes the contents of a configuration database, ● “get-config” - retrieves configuration datastore, ● “lock” - prevent changes to a datastore from another party, and ● “unlock” - releases lock on a datastore. �Configuration data stored on devices and the protocol messages between devices are encoded in Extensible Markup Language (XML) on both client and server side. Any script or application can be the client in order to be runned as part of a network manager. The server is typically a network device. There is a rule that a device on the network must support at least one NETCONF session. The main NETCONF message exchange between client and server in a single NETCONF session [7] is illustrated in Figure 1. At the start, the device and controller create a NETCONF session and share their list of their own capabilities by sending <hello> messages. A capability describes a supported data model. After the session has started,, the NETCONF executes exchanges <rpc> and <rpc-reply> messages. The <rpc> message consists of an enclosed NETCONF command which is sent from the controller to the device. The <get> command in the <rpc> message is used to get the running configuration and state information of the device (3). The <editconfig> request is used to write a specific configuration on the device (5). The <rpc-reply> message is sent from the device to the controller in response to a <rpc> message. The response data for the given method invoked is encoded as one or more child elements enclosed in the <rpc-reply> message. Figure 1. NETCONF messages The information that a client retrieves from the server consists of two parts: configuration data and state data [6]. The purpose of the configuration data is to give a description of actions that will change a system from its previous state into the state described in the configuration data, while the purpose of the state data is to provide information such as read-only status data and collected statistics. For specifying NETCONF data models and operations, the YANG data modeling language is used. A. YANG To perform the NETCONF operations, a YANG module has to be defined as a hierarchy of data such as configuration data, state data, RPCs, and notifications. By defining the YANG module, a description of all data sent between both NETCONF client-side and server-side becomes completed. Each YANG module is consisting of statements and some of the statements are previewed in Table 1 [8]. Table 1. YANG statements Statements augment choice Description Extends existing data hierarchies Defines mutually �container extension feature grouping key exclusive alternatives Defines mutually exclusive alternatives Allows new statements to be added to YANG Indicates parts of the model are optional Groups data definitions into reusable sets Defines the key leafs for lists Defines a leaf node in the data hierarchy A leaf node that can appear multiple times leaf leaf-list list notification rpc typedef uses A hierarchy that can appear multiple times Defines notification Defines input and output parameters for an RPC Defines a new type Incorporates the contents of a "grouping" With the help of XML parsers and XSLT scripts, a translation of the YANG module into an equivalent XML syntact becomes possible. Every YANG module consists of a set of built-in types and has a type mechanism through which additional types may be defined. The modeler of the YANG module can add constraints to the model to prevent impossible or illogical data. The purpose of these constraints is to provide information about the data being sent from the server and help a client to understand the data that the server will accept in order to avoid sending incorrect data from the client to the server. Table 2 briefly describes some other common YANG constraints [9] Table 2. YANG constraints Statements length Description Limits the length of string �mandatory max-elements min-elements Requires the node appear Limits the number of instances in list Limits the number of instances in list must XPath expression must be true pattern range reference unique when Regular expression must be satisfied Value must appear in range Value must appear elsewhere in the data Value must be unique within the data Node is only present when XPath expression is true Generally said, the YANG module is a single data model that contains three types of statements: ● module-header statements – they describe the module and provide the information about the module ● revision statements – they provide information about the history of the module ● definition statements – they are the body of the module where the YANG module is defined. In order to use the YANG module, it firstly has to be defined or modeled to the specific problem domain. After that, the YANG module can be loaded, compiled, or coded into the server. In the end, the NETCONF server may implement any number of the YANG modules [10]. 3. Proposed Methodology After the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol and retrieving its features, an implementation of the proposed integration was divided into two parts: server-side and client-side, as it is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Both client and server sides are communicating over the Internet [4] A. Server-side To implement the proposed integration, the following requirements are defined: �● small physical dimensions, because it has to be hidden in home installation and not visible; ● able to boot Linux Operating System, since the Linux OS is open-source; ● has General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins for interfacing with the sensors and devices, ● has Ethernet port and/or WiFi module, and ● CPU based on ARM for fast computing. A great match for the single board with the following characteristics is Raspberry Pi 3 B+, which is based on a 1.4GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor. The good thing about Raspberry Pi is that it has the GPIO module which can be used through several programming languages such as C, C#, Python, Java, etc. The fact is that the integration will be implemented by using Python programming language and it makes Raspberry Pi a perfect match [11]. A server would be connected via appropriate connection lines to these rooms as it is shown in the Figure 3. Figure 3. Raspberry Pi as server connected to sensors and devices in each room via GPIO line [4] In order to build a server, the Netopeer2, a set of tools implementing network configuration based on the NETCONF protocol, is installed [12][13]. Each room in a home has sensors and relays for controlling devices. For each room, a custom YANG module is created, and each custom YANG module manipulates with data such as temperature, humidity, open or closed status, turned off or turned on status, etc. Thanks to custom YANG modules, the server can easily manage the information related to the sensors and relays in the home. The structure of the simplest custom YANG module for a room is shown in the section “Appendix”. �B. Client-side On the client-side, any device which supports the NETCONF protocol can communicate with the server. However, the challenge is to develop an application by means of RESTful services. It should send the RPC commands such as “edit-config” or “get-config” directly to the NETCONF server in order to retrieve information about rooms in the user’s home. Finally, its interface must be user-friendly and rich with data charts, data graphs, toggle buttons, etc. The very first step is to develop a script that shall “talk” with the NETCONF server. Thanks to the enormous possibilities of the Python programming language, it is possible to communicate with the server via the NETCONF protocol by using ncclient library. The ncclient library enables an easy way of the client-side scripting around the NETCONF protocol, and as well as the possibility of the application development [14]. The next step was to develop a web application and merge it with the script based on ncclient library. There are many high-level Python web frameworks and one of them is Django. Django is specific because it encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design [15]. By combining Django and ncclient, a powerful user-friendly web application is created, and it will fulfill its main purpose – to collect all information about the conditions such as temperature and humidity in the rooms of the user’s home and to control devices in the rooms of the user’s home, all of it over the NETCONF protocol. 4. Results On the client-side we have an application based on both front-end and back-end development in the Django framework and merging its back-end with the ncclient module for interfacing with the server as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Developed client application �On the server-side we have Raspberry Pi computer booting Linux OS which runs Netopeer2 and sysrepo modules for enabling the NETCONF protocol and interfacing the data through YANG modules. The Raspberry Pi is connected to several sensors and actuators, as shown in the Figure 5: Figure 5. Raspberry Pi running as the NETCONF server The URL of the recorded video of the methodology proposed in this paper can be found below in the reference section [16]. A clip from the recorded video is shown in Figure 6 and it can be seen that two processes are running parallely: sysrepo and netopeer2. Figure 6. Testing the proposed methodology An overview of both client and server sides is shown in Figure 7. �Figure 7. Used technologies on both client and server sides The complete overview of the proposed integration is shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Overview of the complete integrated system 4. Conclusion Through the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol, great capabilities of the NETCONF protocol are discovered. The NETCONF protocol allows us to have an unlimited number of YANG modules with different structures of the data. This characteristic of the NETCONF protocol is of crucial importance for using it in the home automation system and similar systems. The proposed integration is not a challenge anymore. Thanks to the powerful Python Web framework and ncclient Python library, it is possible to develop a rich web application that can be outperformed on many devices such as single board computers, desktop computers, notebooks, and even tablets. APPENDIX Implemented module for a room in the YANG language: module room1 { namespace "urn:sysrepo:room1"; prefix r1; description "The room yang module."; revision 2019-09-14 { description "Initial revision."; } container room-data { description "Room 1 info."; leaf temperature { �description "Actual temperature inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..125"; } } leaf humidity { description "Actual humidity inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..100"; } } leaf ac-status { description "Informs whether the AC is switched on or off."; type boolean; } } } ACKNOWLEDGMENT Many thanks to the experts from the RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems in Banja Luka who contributed and influenced so much to the development of this research from the early stages of the project. REFERENCES [1] M. Tooba, A. Muhammad and A. M. Martinez-Enriquez, "Smart Solution for Heterogeneous Device Interoperability in IoT," 2018 Seventeenth Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (MICAI), Guadalajara, Mexico, 2018, pp. 70-75, [2] Van den Abeele, F., Hoebeke, J., Moerman, I., & Demeester, P. (2015). Integration of Heterogeneous Devices and Communication Models via the Cloud in the Constrained Internet of Things. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. [3] Vijay S., Banga M.K. (2018) Management of IoT Devices in Home Network via Intelligent Home Gateway Using NETCONF. In: Kumar N., Thakre A. (eds) Ubiquitous Communications and Network Computing. UBICNET 2017. Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, vol 218. Springer, Cham [4] D. Đumić, S. Došlić, M. Antić, B. Milić, “Integration of the NETCONF Protocol in the Internet of Things by means of RESTful Web Services”, 6th International Conference on Electrical, Electronic and Computing Engineering IcETRAN, pp. 983 - 987, ETRAN Society, June 2019 [5] R. Enns, M. Brojklund, J. Schoenwaelder and A. Bierman, “Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6241 [6] H. Ji, B. Zhang, G. Li, X. Gao and Y. Li, "Challenges to the New Network Management Protocol: NETCONF," 2009 First International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science, Wuhan, Hubei, 2009, pp. 832-836, doi: 10.1109/ETCS.2009.189. �[7] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini and P. Castoldi, "Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG," 2016 International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling (ONDM), Cartagena, 2016, pp. 1-6 [8] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini, P. Castoldi, “Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG”, International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling, pp. 1 – 6, IEEE, May 2016 [9] P. Shafer, “An Architecture for Network Management using NETCONF and YANG”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011, [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-ietf-netmod-arch-07.html [10] M. Brojklund, “YANG – A Data Modeling Language for the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, October 2010. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6020 [11] The Raspberry Pi Foundation. “Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+”, [Online], Available: https://www.raspberrypi.org/products/raspberry-pi-3-model-b-plus/ [12] Czech Educational and Research Network (CESNET), “Netopeer2 – The NETCONF Toolset”, [Online], Available: https://github.com/CESNET/Netopeer2 [13] sysrepo - YANG-based datastore for Unix/Linux application, [Online], Available: http://www.sysrepo.org/static/doc/html/start_page.html [14] S. Bhushan, L. Poulopouls, Python library for NETCONF clients, [Online], Available: http://ncclient.readthedocs.org/ [15] Django Software Foundation, [Online], Available: https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/3.0/ [16] NETCONF Protocol + Raspberry Pi + Django = Home Automation || Yugoscientiz © 2019, [Online], Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoiYGt2NbCA � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Author Author Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura Abstract A summary of the resource. Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords Keywords. Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021314 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fbe9960cd12fb83d9f348e2631053575.pdf efed443b35b136da7a41af99699ff97c PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition Marjana Šifrar Kalan University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 10.11.2014. Abstract Vocabulary research has followed a different path in English and in Spanish applied linguistics. Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency. The measure of lexical availability combines the frequency at which a word is produced as a member of a semantic category (e.g. dog in category Animals) and the position in the list of associations provided by a group of individuals. It focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response prompts (word stimulus) related to daily situations. This paper intends to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition. It attempts to show the potential of lexical-availability research as an alternate approach for vocabulary planning (the use of L1 lexical-availability measures to select the teaching vocabulary for L2) as well as the study of some psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary acquisition, such as the organization of learners' mental lexicons, the similarities and the differences between response patterns, the kinds of semantic associations that learners activate in response to prompts (semantic categories), the consideration of the most available words obtained by lexical-availability research as semantic prototypes. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical availability can uncover sociolinguistic and cultural issues. Furthermore, this paper wishes to inspire researchers of languages other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages. All these aspects are hereby presented on the basis of the Slovene learners' available lexicons in Spanish as L2 (N=200) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) and English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). Keywords: foreign languages, vocabulary acquisition, lexical availability, word associations Lexical availability 189 �Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition Vocabulary research has followed different paths in English and Spanish applied linguistics. In English applied linguistics, developing word frequency lists from corpora, elaborating dictionaries containing frequency data, designing vocabulary tests and above all, compiling corpora and using it for vocabulary research have been the predominant research concerns. By contrast, Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to the available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency, although we could not say that the former has been totally neglected in the recent decades, because the new technologies have enabled the creation of numerous dictionaries and corpora of Spanish language (for more information see Almela et al, 2005; Lavid, 2005). The creation of a PanHispanic dictionary on the basis of available lexicons of speakers from different Spanish-speaking countries and regions has been one of the major projects in Spanish applied linguistics in the last two decades. This paper attempts to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition and to inspire researchers of languages other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages. Studies on lexical availability have a tradition in the Hispanic world since the 1970's when López Morales conducted the first investigation in Spanish as L1 in Puerto Rico. But the studies began in France in 1950s with the aim of selecting vocabulary for teaching French (in former French colonies) as a complementary approach to basic vocabulary, which at that time meant the most frequent words. When it was observed that some words, well known and used by French speakers, the words with specific semantic content did not appear in the frequency list, the concepts such as frequent, basic and usual vocabulary started to be defined as different notions. It had become clear that some words regarded as common or everyday words were not actually frequent and that their use was conditioned by the discourse theme; they were therefore called thematic words. On the other hand, certain words would almost always appear, regardless of the theme, the so-called nonthematic words. (López Morales, 2014, p. 2) The idea of artificial gathering of associations through word cues known as centres of interest (Parts of the body, Clothes, etc.)¹ was borrowed from the empirical psychology of the time. "Lexical availability came to be understood as the vocabulary flow usable in a given communicative situation. Behind this concept lies the belief that the mental lexicon includes words that are not realised in practice unless they are needed to communicate specific information. Such words make up the available lexicon." (López Morales, 2014, p. 3) French took the lead in lexical-availability research for several years, both in France and in Canada, but in 1969 the Yugoslav Naum Dimitrijević published the results of his lexical-availability study carried out in English as L1 among Scottish school students. He used open lists for 11 semantic fields, as opposed to former closed list of 20 associations. The same technique was followed closely by American linguist 190 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Bailey (1971), who compared available lexicons of monolinguals and bilinguals of English and Spanish. During the last two decades, lexical-availability studies have focused almost exclusively on Spanish, mainly as studies of Spanish as L1 within the PanHispanic project, but also with the students of Spanish as L2 in Finland (Carcedo González, 2000), Poland (López González, 2010), China (Jing, 2012), Island (Magnúsdóttir, 2012), Turkey (González Fernández, 2013) and Slovenia (Šifrar Kalan, 2009, 2012, 2014b). Similar studies have been carried out with foreign students in Spain (Samper Hernández, 2002; Sánchez Gómez, 2005; López Rivero, 2008; Pérez Serrano, 2009; Fernández-Merino Gutiérrez, 2011; Sánchez-Saus Laserna, 2011; Jiménez Berrio, 2013 as cited in Šifrar Kalan, 2014b: 64). Some studies have been conducted on English as L1 or English as L2 (Jiménez Catalán, 2014). The lexical-availability studies are being renewed constantly and will probably trigger new interdisciplinary studies in addition to the main disciplines sociolinguistics, dialectology, psycholinguistics and ethnolinguistics. Word frequency versus lexical availability Both word frequency and lexical availability deal with the assessment of vocabulary knowledge. In the former, the reference is always the written and/or oral text and in the latter, it is the speaker's mental lexicon. In the first case, the words are actually used; in the latter, the words would be hypothetically used in connection with a certain topic. Obviously, the frequency counts as well as the available lexicons have its limitations. A frequency count is only as good as the corpus it is based upon, and every corpus has limitations. No corpus can truly mirror the experience of an individual person and there are some language types that are very difficult to collect. On the other hand, the available lexicons are always based on individual associations that are calculated according to the frequency and the order of appearance of responses to make collective lists. Reliability is questionable because the availability tests would show different results on each occasion for it is not only a linguistic but also a cognitive activity. Corpus presents the most frequent words, which are usually those with grammatical functions; meanwhile, the most available words are usually those that carry content or meaning. A similar distinction between function and content vocabulary has been pointed out by Schmitt (2010, p. 54): "Corpus word counts consistently show that function words are among the most frequent in language, which is not surprising because they are necessary for communicating about any topic, from daily life to astrophysics. This holds true regardless of whether the discourse is general in nature, technical, or academic." All this speaks in favour of the idea that these two methodologies are complementary. 191 �Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition There are many limitations in both measurements of vocabulary, but this should not invalidate the arguments in favour of vocabulary research from these two different methodologies. The concept of word frequency is based on some very basic and important assumptions. First, the most important group of words is the high frequency words of the language. Most lists of high frequency words consist of around 2,000 word families. This number has been generally accepted as highfrequency vocabulary (Nation, 2008, p. 7; Schmitt, 2010, p. 69): "In most texts around 80% or more of the running words are from the most frequent 2000 words of English. In friendly conversation, over 90% of the running words tend to be from the high frequency words of English." (Nation, 2008, p. 8). But Schmitt (2010, p. 69) states that these traditional frequency levels have been called into question by Nation’s recent research and that they will need to be reappraised. Second, the most frequent words are acquired before the least frequent words. A greater knowledge of infrequent words is related to lexical richness and therefore higher lexical competence, more comprehension and more language production. (Nation & Waring, 1997). In contrast, "lexical availability research focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response to prompts related to daily situations; particularly it focuses on an analysis of the positions of words in the ranking of elicited responses." (Jiménez Catalán & Fitzpatrick, 2014, p. 85). The lexical-availability research in L1 and L2 has shown that the first word associations or responses are the most available in the speaker's mental lexicon, but all responses reflect the organization of the speaker's or learner's mental lexicon. Can these two methodologies be studied in tandem? This novel complementary approach has been proposed by Jiménez Catalan and Fitzpatrick (2014) by applying a word-frequency framework to data produced in English L2 lexical-availability studies. By means of Lexical Frequency Profile designed by Laufer and Nation (as cited in Jiménez Catalán and Fitzpatrick, 2014) they measure lexical richness in the words retrieved by 50 Spanish sixth- and eighth-grade learners of English as L2 in response to nine prompts (semantic categories). One of their research hypotheses was that a lexical-availability frequency profile reveals qualitative differences in the output of English L2 learners in the sixth and eighth grades. An increase of lowfrequency words would be expected as learners advance in language level, but the results of their study showed that "this increase in learners' word types does not result automatically in a more advanced frequency profile" (2014, p. 96) although the study has also shown that the "EFL learners' lexical availability increases as the course grade increases." (2014, p. 98) According to the authors. a possible interpretation of these results is that vocabulary still has room to grow in the most frequent bands. (2014, p. 97). This study indicates a great potential for further comparative research of lexical availability and word frequency. 192 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Vocabulary selection and lexical availability Another important area in which word frequency should be complemented with available lexicons is vocabulary selection. There is no doubt that "frequency has long informed the principled selection of vocabulary in L2 teaching pedagogy" (Schmitt & Schmitt, 2012, p. 1). For a long period, 2,000 word families have seemed to be the most cited initial goal for foreign language learners, but Norbert and Diane Schmitt (2012) have now proposed an increase of high-frequency English vocabulary to 3,000 word families: "We suggest that, as a minimum, English language programs emphasize teaching of high-frequency vocabulary up to the 3,000 frequency level." (2012, p. 15) However, frequency is not the only criterion for choosing words to teach explicitly. Another criterion is the words that are particularly useful in a specific topic area, the so-called technical vocabulary recommended to be learned after having mastered the foundation of 5,000 word families. The third category is the words that students want to learn for various reasons. The fourth category, especially important at the beginning of the course or language study, is the classroom management vocabulary. (Schmitt, 2000, p. 144) To these four categories Schmitt and Schmitt (2012) later add the importance of teaching the mid-frequency vocabulary for proficient language use. In the field of lexical-availability research a slightly different approach was established on the assumption that "the fundamental vocabulary of a given community consists of basic lexicon and the available lexicon. The identification of this available lexicon is an essential underpinning for any planning related to the lexicon" (López Morales, 2014, p. 7). From this perspective, the frequency words, among which the most frequent are the grammatical words, are completed with specific thematic words needed to address certain themes in daily life. The studies of available lexicons among native speakers provide us with vocabulary that they would potentially use in connection with a certain topic. Consequently these are the words that foreign speakers should also know. For example, if in the category "Food and drink", one of the most frequent words and first associations of Spanish native speakers is garbanzo (chickpea) and lenteja (lentil), we should include these words in explicit teaching regardless of their position in frequency list.² These two words are not included among the 10,000 most frequent words in the Corpus of Royal Spanish Academy. Another example to illustrate the necessity of taking into account the criterion of available lexicon is taken from the category of "Professions and jobs": ganadero (rancher) and barrendero (sweeper). The latter is not listed in the first 10,000 Spanish word frequency list (CREA); and ganadero occupies the 8,566th position on the same list, while they are both among the most available words in available Spanish lexicons. These two occupations are also very rarely presented in Spanish L2 textbooks. How can a learner get to know these words if they are neither included in the category of frequent words nor in the specific topic category, and are 193 �Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition not the words that a learner specifically wishes to learn? In this case, the category of available lexicons should be applied. Very often the most available words among native speakers reflect customs and habits. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical availability can uncover many interesting sociolinguistic and cultural issues. Psycholinguistic aspects of lexical availability The studies of lexical availability present an important tool for psycholinguistics because they clearly capture the relationships the speakers establish between lexical units. The present paper addresses some issues of the L2 mental lexicon based on the results of the lexical-availability research carried out among Slovene secondary (N=100) and university students (N=100) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) as well as English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). The results of these studies prove that more advanced learners of Spanish and English produce a higher number of association responses to specific domains, but still fall behind the native speakers' production of associations. Similar conclusions were made in other L2 studies (Schmitt, 2000, p. 42). The studies of Slovene students also show that the most available words, both in Spanish and English, and with different levels of proficiency, correspond to the more typical examples of the category. "This tendency seems to confirm the universality of semantic prototypes based on human experience regardless of the language as advocated by Aitchison (1994) and Kleiber (1995)." (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a, p. 134) These studies also confirm the syntagmaticparadigmatic shift as a person's language matures (Schmitt, 2010, p. 40): Slovene B1 (CEFR level) Spanish students produced more syntagmatic associations than B2 students, and while B2 students produced more paradigmatic associations. The study of individual-association chains of B1 and B2 students shows that words are mainly related by meaning. Nevertheless, there were some form-based responses noted as well. According to these results we agree with Singleton's claim (1999, p. 189) that in L1 and L2 lexical units are increasingly processed by meaning rather than by form as their integration into the mental lexicon progresses. Aitchison (1994) lists three basic findings regarding associations that can offer important insight into the mental lexicon. These findings strongly correspond to Slovene studies. First, the responses are almost always items from the same semantic field, which speaks in favour of creating dictionaries of available lexicons on the basis of semantic domains. Second, adults usually give a response that is the same word class as the prompt word, which is the reason for noun superiority in available lexicons. The introduction of new, experimental semantic category entitled "Actions Carried Out Every Day" (Šifrar Kalan, 2014b), on the other hand, resulted in 72% of verbs. Third, if a stimulus word is part of an obvious pair, the partner word is usually given as the response. The prevalent association pair in our results is in a coordinate relation within the same word class, followed by synonyms, hyperonyms and antonyms, respectively. 194 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Undoubtedly, these findings help us understand the organization of mental lexicons, yet there are still many things to be discovered. "It is important that future studies investigate the similarities as well as the differences between L1 and L2 response patterns, and the differences and similarities within each subject group." (Fitzpatrick as cited in Schmitt, 2010, p. 62) Conclusion Originally, lexical-availability research was regarded as an alternative approach for vocabulary selection for teaching French as L2. Some years later it was adopted by Hispanic linguists in order to create a great PanHispanic dictionary of available lexicon. During the years of collecting data for the available lexicons in Spain and Latin America, the linguists started to use the data in L1 for research in sociolingustics and dialectology. During the last two decades the research has refocused on foreign language teaching, namely to vocabulary teaching and research. The available lexicons provide an important tool for vocabulary planning and material designing and should be used together with other tools, such as frequency lists. Likewise, the association responses offer a great potential for research in psycholinguistics. Exploring lexical availability in L1 and L2 in combination with other study areas, such as, vocabulary tests, word frequency, CEFR levels and others, can provide us with valuable data concerning vocabulary acquisition in the future. 1 Traditionally 16 categories or centres of interest are used in lexical-availability studies: Parts of the human body, Clothing, Parts of the house, House furniture, Food and drink, Objects on the table for the meal, The kitchen and its utensils, School furniture and materials, Heating and lighting, The city, The countryside, Means of transport, Farm and garden work, Animals, Games and entertainment, Jobs and professions. These categories were already chosen by Gougenheim, a French pioneer of lexical-availability study. 2 The Spanish words garbanzo and lenteja are among the most available words in the available lexicons of different regions of Spain. For example, garbanzo is in Position 6 in Asturias's lexicon, Position 10 in Cádiz and 45 in Valencia. Lenteja is in Position 4 in Asturias, 6 in Cádiz and 26 in Valencia. Meanwhile, not even one out of 200 Slovene students of Spanish who participated in the study of lexical-availability failed to write the word lenteja as a response. Garbanzo is among the available words for Slovene students, but with a very low index of availability. (Šifrar Kalan, 2012) 195 �Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition References Aitchison, J. (1994). Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon. Oxford New York: Basil Blackwell. Almela, R., Cantos, P., Sánchez, A., Sarmiento, R., Almela, M. (2005). Frecuencias del español: Diccionario y estudios léxicos y morfológicos. Madrid: Editorial Universitas. Bailey Victery, J. (1971). A study of lexical availability among monolingualbilingual speakers of Spanish and English (master thesis). Houston: Rice University. Carcedo González, A. (2000). Disponibilidad léxica en español como lengua extranjera: el caso finlandés (estudio del nivel preuniversitario y cotejo con tres fases de adquisición). Turku: Universidad de Turku. González Fernández, J. (2013, August 28). La disponibilidad léxica de los estudiantes turcos de español como lengua extranjera. MarcoELE, 16. Retrieved from http://marcoele.com/disponibilidad-lexica-de-estudiantesturcos/. Jiménez Catalán, R. M. (Ed.) (2014). Lexical Availability in English and Spanish as a Second Language. Dordrecht: Springer. Jiménez Catalán, R.M. & Fitzpatrick, T. (2014). Frequency Profiles of EFL Learners' Lexical Availability. In Jiménez Catalán, R. M. (Ed.), Lexical Availability in English and Spanish as a Second Language (pp. 83-100). Dordrecht: Springer. Jing, L. (2012, August 28). El estudio de disponibilidad léxica de los estudiantes chinos de español como lengua extranjera. MarcoELE, 14. Retrieved from http://marcoele.com/disponibilidad-lexica-de-estudiantes-chinos/. Lavid, J. (2005). Lenguaje y nuevas tecnologías: Nuevas perspectivas, métodos y herramientas para el lingüista del siglo XXI. Madrid: Cátedra. López González, A. M. (2010, August 28). La evaluación del desarrollo de la competencia léxica en L2 por medio de la disponibilidad léxica. Redele, 18. Retrieved from http://www.mecd.gob.es/redele/revistaRedEle/2010/primera.html. 196 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics López Morales, H. (2014). Lexical Availability Studies. In Jiménez Catalán, R. M. (Ed.), Lexical Availability in English and Spanish as a Second Language (pp. 1-11). Dordrecht: Springer. Magnúsdóttir, S. (2012). Disponibilidad léxica en alumnos de español como lengua extranjera. Estudio sobre el léxico disponible en alumnos de ELE en la secundaria en Islandia. Háskóli íslands: Sigillum Universitatis Islandiae. Unpublished master thesis. Nation, I.S.P. (2008). Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques. Boston: Heinle. Nation, I.S.P. & Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary seize, text coverage, and word lists. In Schmitt, N. & McCarthy, M. (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, and Pedagogy (pp. 6-19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Real Academia Española. Banco de datos (CREA). Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual. Retrieved from http://corpus.rae.es/lfrecuencias.html Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary. A Vocabulary Research Manual. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. (2012). A reassessment of frequency and vocabulary size in L2 vocabulary teaching. Language Teaching, available on CJO2012. doi:10.1017/S0261444812000018. Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the Second Language Mental Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Šifrar Kalan, M. (2009). Disponibilidad léxica en español como lengua extranjera: el cotejo de las investigaciones en Eslovenia, Salamanca y Finlandia. Verba Hispánica, 17, 165–182. Šifrar Kalan, M. (2012, September 13). Análisis comparativo de la disponibilidad léxica en español como lengua extranjera (ELE) y lengua materna (ELM). Marco ELE, 15. Retrieved from http://marcoele.com/descargas/15/sifrardisponibilidad_lexica.pdf. 197 �Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition Šifrar Kalan, M. (2014a). Slovene Student's Lexical Availability in English and Spanish. In Jiménez Catalán, R. M. (Ed.), Lexical Availability in English and Spanish as a Second Language (pp. 125-138). Dordrecht: Springer. Šifrar Kalan, M. (2014b). Disponibilidad léxica en diferentes niveles de español/lengua extranjera. Studia Romanica Posnaniensia, 41, 63-85. 198 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2819 Title A name given to the resource Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition Author Author Šifrar Kalan, Marjana Abstract A summary of the resource. Vocabulary research has followed a different path in English and in Spanish applied linguistics. Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency. The measure of lexical availability combines the frequency at which a word is produced as a member of a semantic category (e.g. dog in category Animals) and the position in the list of associations provided by a group of individuals. It focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response prompts (word stimulus) related to daily situations. This paper intends to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition. It attempts to show the potential of lexical-availability research as an alternate approach for vocabulary planning (the use of L1 lexical-availability measures to select the teaching vocabulary for L2) as well as the study of some psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary acquisition, such as the organization of learners' mental lexicons, the similarities and the differences between response patterns, the kinds of semantic associations that learners activate in response to prompts (semantic categories), the consideration of the most available words obtained by lexical-availability research as semantic prototypes. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical availability can uncover sociolinguistic and cultural issues. Furthermore, this paper wishes to inspire researchers of languages other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages. All these aspects are hereby presented on the basis of the Slovene learners' available lexicons in Spanish as L2 (N=200) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) and English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). Keywords: foreign languages, vocabulary acquisition, lexical availability, word associations Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3486 Title A name given to the resource LEXICAL AVAILABILITY AND L2 VOCABULARY ACQUISITION Author Author Šifrar Kalan, Marjana Abstract A summary of the resource. Vocabulary research has followed a different path in English and in Spanish applied linguistics. Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency. The measure of lexical availability combines the frequency at which a word is produced as a member of a semantic category (e.g. dog in category Animals) and the position in the list of associations provided by a group of individuals. It focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response prompts (word stimulus) related to daily situations. This paper intends to present some of the aspects of lexical availability research which are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition. It attempts to show the potential of lexical availability research as an alternate approach for vocabulary planning (the use of L1 lexical availability measures to select the teaching vocabulary for L2) as well as the study of some psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary acquisition, such as the organization of learners' mental lexicons, the similarities and the differences between response patterns, the kind of semantic associations that learners activate in response to prompts (semantic categories), the consideration of the most available words obtained by lexical availability research as semantic prototypes. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical availability can uncover sociolinguistic and cultural issues. Furthermore this paper wishes to inspire language researchers other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages. All these aspects are hereby presented on the basis of the Slovene learners' available lexicons in Spanish as L2 (N=200) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) and English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). Keywords: foreign languages, vocabulary acquisition, lexical availability, word associations Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/30fd4457e83f8fe30f9c2747fbb6edb9.pdf fb87ab49955b428d63ba8ce164f1663a PDF Text Text IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose Liberalism vs Multiculturalism - Insight into the Fundamental Concepts and Relationships Dželaludin Hodžić, MA. BH Telecom d.d. Sarajevo - Izvršna direkcija za pravne poslove, stručni saradnik dzelaludin@gmail.com Sažetak: Rad se bavi liberalizmom i multikulturalizmom kao normativnim teorijama. Preko temeljnih pojmova kojima se koriste i problemskog područja zajedničkog, objema teorijama u radu se nastoji ponuditi uvid u njihove složene odnose i utjecaje. Ti odnosi za rezultat imaju mnoštvo različitih koncepcija uređenja društvenih odnosa koji se tiču individue, zajednice, slobode, prava, dobrog života, jednakosti kao dio rasprava koje nisu u fokusu pažnje isključivo akademske zajednice već i onih u čijim su rukama mehanizmi moći i odlučivanja. Čini se kako će takve rasprave još dugo važiti za otvorene i izvršiti presudan utjecaj na buduću arhitekturu društvenih odnosa i status temelnjnih pitanja koja (pitanja) rasprava u sebi sadrži. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 Ključne riječi: država, individua/individualiza m, kultura, liberalizam, multikulturalizam, sloboda, tolerancija, zajednica Historija članka Dostavljen: 29.08.2013. Revidiran: 15.11.2013. Prihvaćen: 09.12.2013. 83 �Dželaludin Hodžič Abstract: Paper refers to Liberalism and Multiculturalism as normative theories. Over the basic ideas of those theories goal is to make an introduce/overview of main interactions and influences. As result of interactions between Liberalism and Multiculturalism there are a lot of different concepts on social relations and on Individuality, Community, Freedom, Rights, Equality and Good Life as part of discussion that is not only in focus of Academic community but in focus of those who we know as policy makers or decision makers. It seems that the discussion on those topics as we mentioned will stay open and maintaine crucial influence on the future architecture of social relations and status of basic questions that are in core of the discussion. 84 Key words: State, Individuality/Individuali sm, Culture, Liberalism, Multikulturalism, Freedom/Liberty, Tolerance, Community JEL Classification: K10, K19 Article History Submitted: 29.08.2013. Resubmitted: 15.11.2013. Accepted: 09.12.2013. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose UVOD Liberalizam Pojam liberalizma opće je mjesto u povijesti političke filozofije. Radi se svakako o teoriji bogatog pojmovnog instrumentarija. Promišljanje liberalizma, odnosno, kategorija u kojima se razvija, neophodno je za razumijevanje razvoja institucija države i društva koje, prema liberalnom učenju, svoj ontološki temelj nalaze u čovjeku kao takvom. Utoliko od liberalizma treba poći kod svakog razmatranja političkih teorija kao od temeljne političke ideologije, metaideologije, modernog, industrijaliziranog Zapada. 1 Već prvi i površni uvidi u osnovne pojmove i kategorije jasno ukazuju na teškoće s kojima se neminovno suočava svaki pokušaj bližeg i preciznijeg određenja sadržaja pojma i koncepta liberalizma. Bilo kakve teškoće, međutim, nisu razlog za odustajanje od pokušaja da se pojam liberalizma razumije u njegovoj suštini ne gubeći istovremeno iz vidokruga širinu i raznolikosti njegovih percepcija. Poteškoće o kojima je riječ mogu dijelom biti prevaziđene predstavljanjem liberalne teorije kroz njene izvore i temeljne pojmovne kategorije, što će u nastavku biti i pokušano. Tolerancija Liberalizam, kao obuhvatan sistem misli i stavova o temeljima društva, jedan od svojih izvora ima u zahtjevima za tolerancijom. Ti zahtjevi su se, u prvom redu, odnosili na vladara od kojeg se tražilo da na području kojim vlada tolerira, odnosno, osigura postojanje i život različitih vjerskih praksi i vjerskih organizacija, prvenstveno, crkava. Tolerancija ili trepeljivost svoje očitovanje ima u garantiranju slobode onoga čije se mišljenje i djelovanje trpi i kao takva ona predstavlja univerazlnu vrijednost u svim životnim sferama. Kako tolerantan može biti samo onaj ko ima moć, tako tolerancija imanentno svoje mjesto i punu realizaciju nalazi u polju političkog. 2 Tako zahtjevi za vjerskim pluralizmom i njihovim toleriranjem predstavljaju jedno od izvorišta liberalne tradicije. Otuda vjerovatno tolerancija i jeste prva asocijacija na spomen liberalizma. 3 Tolerancija kao ideal i vrijednost može biti A. Haywood, Politika, Clio, Beograd, str. 86. Ž. Puhovski et al. Leksikon temeljnih pojmova politike – abeceda demokracije, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, str. 26.-27. 3 P. Szabolcs, Liberalism and the Limits of Multiculturalism, Tischner Debates Online, dostupno na www.erazm.uw.edu.pl 1 2 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 85 �Dželaludin Hodžič shvaćena dvojako. S jedne strane tolerancija se može razumjeti kao osnov za prihvatanje drugog i drugačijeg u njihovoj različitosti i pravu da odlučuje o vlastitim izborima. Suprotno razumijevanje toleranciju vidi upravo kao osnov za utemeljen kritički pristup svačijem izboru i konceptu dobrog života. 4 Liberali toleranciju utemeljuju na pravima na slobodu i jednakost kao prirodnim i neotuđivim pravima koja posjeduje svaki čovjek/pojedinac samom činjenicom da je ljudsko biće, to su prava koja prethode državi i od nje ne ovise. 5 Tolerancija je osnov prema kojem John Gray razlikuje dva liberalizma. Prvi je predstavljen u perfekcionističkom pogledu Lockea, Kanta, Rawlsa i Hayeka koji toleranciju vide kao model za postizanje idealnih uvjeta života. Kao takva, tolerancija je najpodesnija za izgradnju moralnih normi i političkih institucija koje će biti u saglasnosti s autonomijom i slobodom individue. Drugi pogled na toleranciju nude D. Hume, I. Berlin i M. Oakeshott za koje je tolerancija osnov i okvir miroljubivog suživota različitih životnih svjetonazora ali tek kao pragmnatični osnov za uređenje društvenih odnosa. 6 Sloboda Etimologija sugerira vezu liberalizma i slobode. Sloboda, vječna tema i ideal čovječanstva, jedna je od ključnih referentnih tačaka liberalnog učenja. Štaviše, sloboda je srce političke filozofije liberalizma. 7 No, već na pitanju slobode se događaju prvi nesporazumi u poimanju i definiranju liberalizma. Postoji teza kako i nije uvijek jasna pozicija slobode u liberalnom učenju: je li ona (sloboda) vrijednost po sebi ili tek sredstvo za ostvarenje društvene stabilnosti. Na pitanju liberalnog stava o slobodi problematizira se još jedan od temeljnih zahtjeva liberalne filozofije, zahtjev za neutralnošću države. Ako je sloboda vrijednost po sebi takvo razumijevanje onemogućava neutralnu državu jer slobodu shvaća kao vrijednost koja ne treba nikakvo više opravdanje, odnosno, legitimaciju. 8 S druge strane, ako to nije slučaj i sloboda nije vrijednost po sebi već sredstvo ostaje pitanje načina i granica korištenja sredstva. Pojam slobode mjesto je mimoilaženja i kada je riječ o nastanku i začecima liberalne filozofije. Dok ideja liberalizma, prema nekim autorima, živi još od antičkog doba i ondašnjeg poimanja i afirmiranja slobode, dotle klasični liberali, W. Kymlicka, Liberalizam, zajednica, kultura, Deltakont, Zagreb, 2004., str. 18. Ž. Puhovski et al., ibid. 6 P. Szabolcs, ibid. 7 J. Waldron, Theoretical Foundations of Liberalism, The Philosophical Quarterly, 1987., Vol. 37, No. 147:127-150 8 Kolakowski, Leszek: Gdje su djeca liberalne filozofije, preveo Darko Polšek, dostupno na internetu kao: mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~dpolsek/ 4 5 86 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose slobodu shvaćenu u liberalnom ključu smatraju dijametralno suprotnom antičkom konceptu i razumijevanju slobode. 9 Nekada je ona podrazumijevala mogućnost učešća u javnom životu, slobodu javnog angažmana i sudjelovanja u kolektivnim odlukama. Moderno poimanje slobode, prije i poslije svega, znači sferu oslobođenu od javnog utjecaja, prvenstveno, razumije se, od institucija javne vlasti. Tako je sloboda u antičko vrijeme shvaćena prije kao dužnost, odnosno pravo i obaveza baviti se općim pitanjima. Nasuprot takvom shvaćanju jeste sloboda koju moderni (liberalni) čovjek razumijeva kao vlastito i neotuđivo pravo bavljenja privatnim stvarima i vlastitim životnim izborima. Sloboda, onako kako je koncipiraju liberali, jeste oslobođen i zagarantiran prostor kretanja, ograničen tek slobodom drugoga i zaštićen državom u čemu se uloga države i iscrpljuje. Radi se, dakle, o poznatoj podjeli slobode na pozitivnu slobodu ili slobodu za i negativnu slobodu, odnosno, slobodu od, kojom je I. Berlin obilježio savremeno promišljanje pojma i ideje slobode. Valja svakako istaći i percepciju koja slobodu u tom dvodimenzionalnom ključu prepoznaje i ranije. Prema toj percepciji, pogrešno je Johna Lockea, odnosno njegovo razumijevanje slobode, ograničavati na negativnu dimenziju slobode, vanjsku slobodu ili slobodu od. Vanjska sloboda je ta koja čovjeku omogućava djelovanje na realizaciji njegovih želja ali je pozitivna sloboda ta koja mu (pojedincu) omogućava da podvrgne preispitivanju samo djelovanje. Drugim riječima, unutarnja sloboda omogućava mu uvid u to da li ga djelovanje koje poduzima u nedostatku vanjskih ograničenja vodi ostvarenju sreće. 10 U Dvije rasprave o vladi određuje vanjsku slobodu koja ograničenja ima u zakonima (državi), a ne u samom pojedincu. Zakonski okviri jedino su dozvoljeno ograničenje slobode. Kako je osnovna potreba za slobodom određena postizanjem sretnog života tako je i pozitivna sloboda neizostavna u Lockeovom ukupnom razumijevanju i zalaganju za ideal slobode. Ideja slobde do te mjere prožima liberalizam da se naziva i ideologijom slobode, te i danas čini temelj liberalne filozofije u kojoj predstavlja uslov i pretpostavku za ostvarenje ljudskih potreba, koji su jedini zakon njihovih života. 11 Već taj uvid, u različite dimenzije i različito shvaćanje slobode, odnosno, njene uloge upućuje i na teškoće neminovne u nastojanjima da se razumije i definira pojam liberalizma. Jedno od prvih pitanja s kojim se uopće suočava svaki pokušaj bližeg određenje liberalizma jeste da li o liberalizmu govorimo u jednini ili pak množini? Radi li se o liberalizmu J. Gray, Liberalizam, Politička kultura, Zagreb, 1999., str. 13. V. Stanković-Pejnović, Individualna i grupna prava liberalnog multikulturalizma, Migracijske i etničke teme (26), 2: 169-189, 2010. god. 11 M. Brčić, Izvori liberalnog mišljenja u filozofiji Immanuela Kanta, Filozofska istraživanja, (26), 4:783-797, 2006. god. 9 10 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 87 �Dželaludin Hodžič ili liberalizmima? Postoji više teza o tome da je preciznije reći kako govorimo o liberalizmima, dakle u množini, prije nego o liberalizmu. 12 Mnoštvo deskriptivnih definicija liberalizma svjedoči o složenosti, značaju i općoj prisutnosti pojma u razmatranju pitanja koja se tiču političkih institucija, društva u cjelini i svakako mjesta i uloge čovjeka kao takvog. Za razliku od Ryana, Gray smatra kako se liberalizam poptuno vjerodostojno može smatrati koherentnom, odnosno, jedinstvenom intelektualnom tradicijom. 13 Individualizam/Autonomija Individualizam ovdje razmatramo zajedno s pripadajućom mu autonomijom kao savremenim pojmovima koje je nemoguće razmatrati izvan postmodernog diskursa. Time se naravno ne želi upuštati u dalje preispitivanje složenosti odnosa moderne i postmoderne. Tek, valja istaći kako se i na primjeru individualizma i autonomije događa novo razumijevanje pojmova modernizma, koji sada, u postmodernom diskursu, dobivaju nove slojeve značenja i često bivaju prenaglašeni, uprkos stavu da postmodernizam teži raskidu sa naslijeđem moderne. 14 U općem društveno-političkom kontekstu individualizam nije moguće razumjevati bez liberalizma. Tako liberalizam kao „(...) filozofijsko – politička kategorija svoju konkretizaciju nužno vidi u individui i njezinim slobodama, dok moderni individualizam, kao svojevrsna ideologija, svoju teorijku-povijesnu pretpostavku ima upravo u liberalizmu.“ 15. Kada je riječ o autonomiji valja istaći kako se u filozofskom promišljanju pravi razlika između moralne autonomije i osobne autonomije. U kantijanskom smislu, autonomija je vrhovni princip moralnosti, a moralnost je direktno suprostavljena principu pojedinačne potrage za srećom koja nije dio univerazlnog okvira. Sloboda u Kantovoj koncepciji jeste sastavni ali tek dio moralne autonomije. Prema takvom stanovištu niko ne bi trebao vlastito pravo na sreću suprotstaviti moralnom zakonu. Sreća, dakle, nije isključivo pitanje ostvarenja vlastitih preferencija koje individua iskazuje pa se u potragu za srećom individua može uputiti tek nakon ispunjenja dužnosti. Čovjek se prema tome treba ravnati i A. Ryan, Liberalism, u: A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy (ed. Robert E. Goodin, Philip Pettit and Thomas Pogge), Blackwell Publishing, Malden-Oxford-Carlton, 2007. god. 13 J. Gray, Liberalizam, Politička kultura, Zagreb, 1999. god., str. 13. 14 S. Radić, Individualizam kao čovjekovo egzistencijalno uporište: filozofijsko-teorijsko razmatranje individualizma s pripadajućim mu posljedicama, Bogoslovska smotra, (81) 3:537-558, 2011. god. 15 Ibid. 12 88 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose subjektivnim principima obavezujućim samo za njegovu volju ali i objektivnim moralnim zakonom koji je kao takav obavezan za sva umna bića. 16 Čovjek svoju slobodu i time individualnost zahvaljuje osobini umnosti. U razlikovanju unutarnje slobode (čovjekove dužnosti prema sebi) i vanjske slobode (dužnosti prema drugima) moguće je prepoznati u liberalnoj teoriji koja se nalazi u kategorijama negativne i pozitivne slobode. U tom smislu, ono što je za Kanta unutarnja sloboda za liberale je negativna sloboda, odnosno, minimum slobode kao granica i garancija da čovjek ne izgubi od sebi svojstvene prirode, odnosno od onoga po čemu jest ono što jeste. Vanjska sloboda, koja svoja ograničenja ima isključivo u zakonu, svoje izraz u liberalnoj filozofiji ima u pozitivnoj slobodi. Te se slobode, u skladu s Kantovim kategoričkim imperativom, ne isključuju jer imaju isti izvor. 17 Takva koncepcija autonomije ne implicira, međutim, autonomiju u izborima koje individua vrši između mnogih, moralno prihvatljivih, opcija za vlastitu sreću. Na tragu te kritike javlja se zahtjev državi da podrži one ciljeve koji su u skladu s autonomijom, što dovodi do odumiranja koncepcija koje autonomiji ne pridaju znatnu pažnju i rađanja perfekcionističkog liberalizma. 18 Osim perfekcionistički shvaćene autonomije, političku koncepciju autonomije u liberalnu političku teoriju uvodi John Rawls. U izgradnji svog koncepta društevnog uređenja u kojem pravo (ispravno) ima prednost pred dobrom, Rawls također polazi od kontraktualnih pozicija, odnosno stanja u kojem su ljudi svjesni svojih različitosti te, zahvaljujući osobini razumnosti, pristupaju izvođenju načela koja će im omogućiti zajednički život. Kako bi uspjeli u prevazilaženju aksioloških i metafizičkih inkompatibilnosti, oni (razumni ljudi) se vraćaju u izvorno stanje (original position) iz kojeg onda pod velom neznanja (veil of ignorance), dakle iz stanja u kojem niko ne zna za različitost drugih, poduzimaju izvođenje načela pravednosti za stabilno uređenje društva. 19 Iako je kod Rawlsa moguće prepoznati određene tragove tradicije mišljenja izraženih u djelima Hobbesa, Lockea, preko Rousseaua, do Kanta i J.S. Milla, i dalje se radi o impresivnoj filozofskoj arhitektonici, 20 u kojoj se jasno raspoznaje neograničena vjera u um. Jedna od osnovnih zamjerki Rawlsovom konceptu deontološkog liberalizma izgrađena je i usmjerena prema konceptu izvornog stanja i vela neznanja koji prema Grayu predstavljaju istrgnuće čovjeka iz njegova kulturno-povijesnog konteksta i M. Brčić, ibid. Ibid. 18 N. Beljinac, Moralna i politička autonomija u teoriji liberalnog multikulturalizma, Godišnjak Fakulteta političkih nauka u Beogradu, 5:151-170, 2011. god. 19 H. Cvijanović, Rawlsova liberalna utopija, Politička misao, Vol XL, 1:62-71, 2003. god. 20 Ibid. 16 17 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 89 �Dželaludin Hodžič pretvara ga, iako kao nositelja prava, u puki broj. 21 Individualizam svoje korijene ima u Francuskoj revoluciji i Prosvjetiteljstvu i označava antagonistički stav prema kolektivitetu i uopće naslijeđenim obrascima prema kojima su se uređivali i na kojima su bili utemeljeni odnosi u društvu 22 (Oyserman, Coon, Kemmelmeier, 2002:3-72). Ključni sadržaj individualizma odnosi se na neograničenu vjeru u razum i uvjerenje da su individue neovisne jedne od drugih. Sve definicije, kojih je mnogo, individualizam određuju osobnim: osobnim ciljevima, osobnim specifičnostima, osobnom kontrolom nad vlastitim izborima i samoispunjenjem. Individualizam svoje korijene ima u Francuskoj revoluciji i prosvjetiteljstvu i označava antagonistički stav prema kolektivitetu i uopće naslijeđenim društvenim obrascima. 23 Ključni sadržaj individualizma sadržan je u pretpostavci da su individue neovisne jedne od drugih. Sve definicije, kojih je mnogo, individualizam određuju osobnim: osobnim ciljevima, osobnim specifičnostima, osobnom kontrolom nad vlastitim izborima i samoispunjenjem. 24 Jednakost i privatno vlasništvo Uz toleranciju, slobodu i individualizam jednakost se javlja kao još jedan od načela liberalnog koncepta uređenja odnosa u društvu. Kako se u svom nastanku i razvoju liberalni koncept naslanjao na učenje o prirodnom pravu to je, razumljivo, kao njegov neizostavni dio proizašao zahtjev za jednakošću ljudi. Tako i von Mises, jedan od teoretičara liberalizma, potvrđujući jedno od temeljnih liberalnih opredjeljenja, tvrdi: „Sve razlike između ljudi su vještačke, proizvod društvenih, ljudskih – takoreći prolaznih – institucija.“ 25 Razlike koje se smatraju vještačkim ne odnose se, međutim, na razlike s kojima se ljudi rađaju i koje spadaju u njihovu prirodu. Liberali tako, svjesni prirodnih i nepremostivih razlika, pod kojima se Ibid; za dalji uvid u kritiku Rawlsovog Političkog liberalizma vidi: Gray, John (1995): Enlightenment΄s Wake, Routledge, London; Mouffe, Chantal (1993): The Return of the Political, Verso, New York; Sandel, Michael (1998): Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 22 D. Oyserman et al., Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptins and Meta-Analyses, Psyhological Bulletin, Vol. 128, 1:3-72, 2002. god. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 „All distinctions between men are only arteficial, the product of social, human – that is to say, transitory – institutions.“ L. Von Mises, Liberalism – In The Classic tradition, Institute for Human Studies, Virginia, Cobden Press, San Francisco and The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc., Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, 1985. god. 21 90 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose primarno misli na one biološke, jednakost postuliraju kao jednakost u pravu, odnosno, jednakost pred zakonom. Ideal jednakosti ipak ne uživa jedinstveno razumijevanje pa time ni jednak status u društveni znanostima. Upravo je ideal jednakosti, onakav kako ga razumije i konstruira liberalizam, izvor i najčešći predmet snažnih prigovora kritičara filozofije liberalizma. Razlika dolazi do izražaja u granicama jednakosti. Područje u kojem liberali odriču mogućnost ostvarenja jednakost jeste područje materijalnog bogatstva, odnosno, mogućnost da svi imaju jednako. Svi smo, dakle, jednaki u osnovnim pravima i pred zakonom ali svi ne prihodujemo jednako niti možemo imati jednako. Utoliko pitanje jednakosti stoji u uzročno – posljedičnoj vezi s još jednim pitanjem privatnog vlasništva, koje se ne može istrgnuti iz ukupne liberalne filozofije niti bez njega ista može biti razumljiva. Odnos liberalizma prema ekonomskoj, odnosno, privrednoj dimenziji društvenih odnosa od početka se ogleda u nespornom statusu koji privatno vlasništvo uživa u liberalnom učenju. Pitanje vlasništva i privrednih interakcija na kojima određeno društvo ima funkcionirati i razvijati se, nalazi svoje mjesto u radovima mislilaca koji su prepoznati kao začetnici i utemeljivači liberalnog učenja. Tako kod L. de Montesquieua trgovina zauzima mjesto ključnog faktora mira i rušenja predrasuda jer onaj ko uspješno trguje, logično, rijetko ratuje. Jednaku pažnju pitanjima vlasništva posvećuju i drugi autori te će tek „(...) uviranjem političke idelogije u gospodarstvenu zbiljnost do kraja biti razotkriven ustroj cijelog liberalističkog sustava, ali i njegove krajnje posljedice.“ 26 Još izraženije taj odnos oslikava von Mises prema kojem se ukupno učenje liberalizma, kada bi to trebalo učiniti jednom rječju, može opisati pojmom vlasništva, pri čemu, naravno, misli na privatno vlasništvo. 27 Multikulturalizam Pojam multikulturalizma javlja se u terminologiji društvenih i humanističkih nauka šezdesetih godina 20. stoljeća. U određenju sadržaja multikulturalizma značajan izazov predstavlja zbrka koju proizvode različiti pristupi i viđenja pojma i koncepta koji predstavlja ili treba da predstavlja. Različit pristup zauzimaju, naime, i zagovornici i oponenti kroz cijelu lepezu definicija u kojima se multikulturalizam određuje i pozicionira od ideje, koncepta, programa, političke teorije sve do općeg poziva na dijalog ili multikulturalizma kao perspektive. Treba svakako napomenuti kako mnoštvo definicija multikulturalizma nije odraz tek neslaganja o imenovanju jednog programa. Naprotiv, jedan od razloga za zbrku oko 26 27 J. Jukić, Kršćanstvo i liberalizam, Društvena istraživanja, god. 4, 6:885-910, 1995. god. L. Von Mises, ibid. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 91 �Dželaludin Hodžič termina leži upravo u činjenici da različiti autori (ovdje mislimo, naravno, o zagovornicima ideje) u pojmu multikulturalizma nude i podrazumijevaju katkada i znatno različite ideje, teze i programe konkretizacije, na osnovu čega se i govori o tipologiji multikulturalizma. 28 Tako Christine Inglis multikulturalizam razumije kao demokratsku reakciju politike na raznolikosti koja se u društvu javlja na socijalnim i kulturnim osnovama. 29 Slično određenje multikulturalizma nudi i Joseph Raz, značajni suvremeni filozof prava i politike, koji u multikulturalizmu vidi politiku koja činjenici različitosti odgovara potvrdnim odgovorom, odnosno, raličitostima odgovara sa – da. 30 Bikhu Parekh 31 (2000.) multikulturalizam vidi primarno kao platformu za kulturni dijalog. Na tragu spomenutog autora, teoretičara multikulturalizma, valjalo bi razlikovati pojmove multikulturalnog i multikulturalističkog. Dok se prvi odnosi na ništa više do empirijski provjerljivu činjenicu postojanja kulturne raznolikosti u određenoj zemlji, drugi pojam nadaje se u značenju aktivnog odnosa kreatora političkih odluka na političkoj, normativnoj i ideološkoj ravni. Pojam multikulturalizma misli se i kao politika u okviru filozofije liberalizma koja nastoji postići najbolji mogući položaj za različitosti vjerskog, kulturnog ili etničkog utemeljenja uz stabilan i moralno odbranjiv način, kako u privatnoj tako i u javnoj sferi. 32 Osim određenja koja se vrijednosno mogu svrstati kao neutralna ili pozitivna postoji i niz promišljanja koja multikulturalizam, u vrijednosnom smislu, barem u negovim normativnim dimenzijama, određuju negativno. Tako Christian Joppke „drži da je multikulturalizam inherentno kontradiktoran, kako u konceptualnom, tako i u političkom smislu.“ 33 Za A.J. Schmidta, koji prihvaća značaj i potrebu multikulturalnog obrazovanja, multikulturalizam nije prihvatljiv jer se radi o drugačijem, dominantno ideološkom konceptu i orijentaciji 34. Najznačajniji liberalni kritičar multikulturalizma Brian Barry multikulturalizam određuje kao antiprosvjetiteljski i antiuniverzalistički, videću u njemu posebnu zamku koja dolazi do izražaja u prijenosu javnih funkcija na Više o tipologiji ili klasifikaciji multikulturalizma u: Mesić, Milan, Multikulturalizam – društveni i teorijski izazovi, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 2006. godine. 29 C. Inglis, Multiculturalism: New Policy Responses to Diversity, Management of Social Transformations (MOST) – UNESCO, Policy Paper, No. 4:1 – 41., 2003. god. 30 P. Loobuyck, Liberal multiculturalism: A defence of liberal multicultural measures without minority rights, Ethnicities (5) 1: 108-123, 2011. god. 31 B. Parekh, Rethinking Multiculturalism, Cultural Diversity and Political Theory, Palgrave, Nwe York, 2000. god. 32 Ibid. 33 M. Mesić, Multikulturalizam, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 2006. god., str. 64. 34 Ibid, str. 159. 28 92 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose manjinske grupe. 35 Valja naglasiti kako ovdje svakako nisu ni izbliza iscrpljena teorijska određenja multikulturalizma. Takav cilj, ako je uopće ostvariv, zahtijevao bi mnogo više prostora ali i drugačiju koncepciju, od onoga što se ovim radom želi ponuditi. Pored različitih konceptualnih određenja, pri razmatranju pojma multikulturalizma, valja imati na umu kako isti različite konotacije dobiva i stavljanjem u teritorijalni ali i vremenski kontekst. U većoj ili manjoj mjeri, različito se pod multikulturalizmom misli u SAD-u i na evropskom kontinentu, prvenstveno zemljama zapadne Evrope. Will Kymlicka, jedan od najistaknutijih zastupnika i teoretičara ideje multikulturalizma, posebno naglašava kako se pojam ne može svesti na prostu definiciju i da pojednostavljivanje može značiti samo krivi trag u razumijevanju ukupne ideje i njenih intencija. Tako se, primjera radi, pod ovim pojmom u Južnoj Africi, mislilo na institucije, odnosno, njihovu odvojenost u sramnom režimu, koji povijest pamti kao aparthejd. 36 S druge strane, tim pojmom (multikulturalizmom) označava se službena politika Kanade na području uređenja međuetničkih odnosa 37 Svakako je dakle riječ o fenomenu čiji „(...) raspon mogućih određenja je teško odrediti.“ 38 Mogli bismo dodati kako ta činjenica, širina i nesvodljivost multikulturalizma na školske definicije, odražava njegovu važnost i širinu u promišljanju savremenih pitanja društvenih odnosa. Dok se pojmovni aparat liberalizma izlaže kroz pojmove slobode, individue, jednakosti, dotle se multikulturalizam naglašeno bavi pitanjima identiteta, kulture, zajednice, pravde. Može se ustvrditi i kako multikulturalizam osnovne teme liberalizma ne mijenja ali im svakako prilazi iz novih perspektiva i proširuje ih. Stoga se nameće značajnim razmotriti makar u naznakama pojmove identiteta, kulture i zajednice, odnosno, pripadanosti u njihovoj značenjskoj i hermeneutičkoj raznolikosti. Identitet Pojam identiteta u sebi prelama ključna ontološka, logička, epistemološka i etička pitanja i kao takav jedna je od centralnih tema zapadne filozofije. Pojam identiteta, koji se nalazi u širokoj upotrebi u teorijskim analizama i empirijskim istraživanjima, i obuhvata dilemu sebstva, u kojoj se (dilemi) nastoje objasniti B. Barry, Kultura i jednakost, Naklada Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, 2006. god., str. 105. M. Mesić, ibid, str. 62. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 35 36 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 93 �Dželaludin Hodžič proturječnosti koje nameće život u društvu koje se nalazi u stalnim promjenama. U širokom značenjskom polju identitet podrazumijeva „prostorno-vremenski kontinuitet, koji se sastoji od dosljednosti bitnih značajki u jedinici vremena i prostora (...) i od fizičke granice koja pokazuje da se radi o jednom entitetu unatoč mogućim promjenama.“ 39 Drugim riječima, u deskriptivnom smislu, identitet se može odrediti kao osjećaj vlastite (pojedinačne) osobnosti i kao osjećaj pripadnosti nekoj od društvenih grupa. „Ono što mislimo o sebi tvori naš samoidentitet (...) dok očekivanja i mišljenja drugih tvore naš socijalni identitet.“ 40 U savremenim razmatranjima identiteta moguće je definirati dvije koncepcije ovog pojma. Jedna podrazumijeva postojanu strukturu koja se prepoznaje u osobnosti pojedinca ili grupnom pamćenju. U prvoj koncepciji riječ je o statičnoj ili trajnijoj koncepciji identiteta i samorazumijevanja. Druga koncepcija označava se kao proces koji se realizira u nizu interakcija čiji je pojedinac dio, odnosno, u koje je uključen. Susret dviju koncepcija vodi konceptualizaciji kulturnog identiteta koji je najprije shvaćen kao dimenzija koja utječe na individualno ponašanje da bi kasnije svoj izraz našao u pojmu društvenog identiteta. Kultura Pojam kulture nije samorazumljiv pojam i uključuje različite interpretacije. S jedne strane pod kulturom se podrazumijeva viša sfera ljudske egzistencije koja uključuje nauku, filozofiju, umjetnost, jezik, religiju, moral i običaje te se naziva i duhovnom kulturom. S druge strane tako shvaćene kulture stoji pojam civilizacije koji u sebi sadrži tehnologiju, građevine i sredstva za proizvodnju, odnosno, dimenzija materijalne kulture. Prema drugom mišljenju, opet, pojmovi kulture i civilizacije predstavljaju sinonime. Pojam civilizacije javlja se na Zapadu, u vrijeme prosvjetiteljstva, kao termin kojim se željelo ukazati na jasnu razliku između evropskih i neevropskih, „primitivnih“ naroda, odnosno, njihovih kultura. U tom smislu, pojmom civilizacije željelo se kvalitativno evropsku kulturu i svjetonazor uopće, označiti kao superiorne u odnosu na druge koje je tek trebalo civilizirati. 41 To je jedno poimanje i određenje civilizacije. Ona se može odrediti i kao „(...) onu R. Raunić, Politika identiteta i demokratska pravednost, Filozofska istraživanja, god. 31, 4:719-734, 2011. god. 40 R. Kalanj, Zov identiteta kao prijeporno znanstveno pitanje, Socijalna ekologija Zagreb, Vol. 12, 1-2:47-68, 2003. god. 41 M. Savić, Hermeneutika i interkulturalno sporazumijevanje u epohi globalizacije, Filozofija i društvo, 2:3-29, 2011. god. 39 94 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose kulturu koja ima kontinuitet u prostoru i vremenu, a čiji proizvodi imaju opću vrijednost, pa je povezana s tehničkim proizvodima potrebnim za ljudski opstanak, a i s društvenim procesima. Kultura je sve što nije proizvela priroda nego čovjek, a civilizacija sve ono što je različitim kulturama zajedničko.“ 42 Kultura se, dalje, može odrediti kao „ukupnost tvorevina i načina života koje je neki narod iznašao da služe samom životu protumačenom na samosvojan način“. 43 Ovdje nas upravo zanima kultura u svom najširem značenju, u smislu ukupnih duhovnih i materijalnih činilaca koji u vremenu i prostoru formiraju specifičnosti neke grupe/zajednice i pojedinca u njoj. Drugim riječima, zanima nas kultura kao struktura materijalnih, socijalnih i duhovnih dimenzija. Takvo razumijevanje kulture nesumnjivo je na tragu Marcuseovog (Herbert Marcuse) shvaćanja koji kulturu određuje kao „(...) proces humanizacije, okarakteriziran kolektivnim naporom da se očuva ljudski život, zaustavi borba za egzistenciju ili da se ona održava u granicama koje je moguće kontrolirati, da se učvrsti proizvodna organizacija društva, razviju duhovne sposobnosti ljudi i smanje i sublimiraju agresije, nasilje i bijeda.“ 44¸Kultura i identitet zajedno tvore sintagmu kulturni identitet. Nije teško odgonetnuti kako je riječ o identitetu na čije formiranje znatno, čak presudno, utječu kultura, kulturno članstvo i pripadanje. Utoliko je kod kulturnog identiteta riječ o kolektivističkoj dimenziji kulture, nasuprot individualističkoj dimenziji. Navedene dimenzije kulture odražavaju razine do kojih „ljudi u društvu radije djeluju kao individue, nego li kao članovi grupa, odnosno, razinu povezanosti, na način da individualizam predstavlja slabu povezanost između pojedinaca pri čemu se svako brine za sebe i neposrednu okolinu, a kolektivizam predstavlja integriranost u grupu i prednost grupnih ciljeva pred individualnim.“ 45 Na tom tragu je i podjela na „zapadne kulture“ kao individualističke i „istočne kulture“ kao kolektivističke. Razlike između individualistički i kolektivistički orijentiranih kultura značajne su i kao odraz institucionalnih i ideoloških razlika, koje se temelje na pravnoj kulturi zapadnih društava „koja stavljaju jak naglasak na prava, slobodu i jednakost pojedinca“, s jedne strane, i kolektivističkim kulturama „koje su sklonije tradicionalnim i religijskim normama pri rješavanju obiteljskih sporova, a manje sklone državnoj regulaciji.“ 46 I. Cifrić, Imperij ili zajednica? Homogenizacija i raznolikost kultura u kontekstu globalizacije i identiteta, Društvena istraživanja, Zagreb, god. 17, 4-5:773-797, 2008. god. 43 M. Savić, ibid. 44 H. Marcuse, Kultura i društvo, BIGZ, Beograd, 1977. god. 45 R. Jeknić, Sistemske i kulturne razlike, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, god. 44, 1:119-135, 2007. god. 46 Ibid. 42 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 95 �Dželaludin Hodžič Pojmovi identiteta i kulture doživljavaju svoju ekspanziju u globalizacijskim procesima, koji bude interes za probleme koji nastaju iz različitih razumijevanja i tumačenja koji se u vezi ovih pojmova (identiteta, kulture) i njihovih izvedenica (kulturni identitet, politike identiteta, kulturna dominacija, kulturni imperijalizam) javljaju. Kultura zauzima značajno mjesto u Fukuyaminoj tezi o kraju povijesti. Fukuyama, naime, kulturu definira kao „naslijeđe etničkih običaja“, u kojoj se (kulturi) razvija povjerenje kao njeno temeljno obilježje, pri čemu stepen povjerenja određuje kao osnovni uzrok ekonomske efikasnosti, na način da su ekonomski najefikasnije one države u kojima je među pojedincima razvijen najveći stepen povjerenja 47 Takvo argumentiranje koje društvene odnose ocjenjuje isključivo ili najprije kroz kriterij efikasnosti, odnosno, uspješnosti u potpunosti je u skladu s Fukuyaminim stavom da je liberalizam daleko najbolji model uređenja društvenih institucija te da je kao takav predodređen za globalni uspjeh kojem će svi težiti. Iz navedenih razmatranja identiteta i kulture moguće je razaznati obrise mjesta koje u mišljenju zastupnika multikulturalizma zauzima kulturno članstvo, odnosno pripadanje različitim kolektivitetima (vjerskim, etničkim, spolnim). Iz toga proizlaze i stavovi o potrebi prepoznavanja njihovog statusa i, posljedično, prava koja pripadnici tih grupa uživaju ili treba da uživaju. U tom kontekstu, u govoru o izjednačavanju početnih pozicija u mogućnostima, jasno se razaznaje i govor o pravdi kojoj multikulturalisti pristupaju s posebnom pažnjom, ne suprotstavljajući je konceptu dobra. Nasuprot Rawlsovom favoriziranju ispravnog nad dobrim, ovdje je riječ o pokušaju definiranja zajedničkih ciljeva ispravnog i dobrog. Liberalna država i kulturni pluralizam Država nije jedini ali nakon renesanse radi se svakako o dominirajućem obliku političkog organiziranja 48 i isključivom konstituentu mašinerije prinude. 49 Centralizacija vlasti i monopol nad mašinerijom prinude, međutim, tek su jedna dimenzija moderne države. U modernizacijskom procesu država i u njoj otjelovljena politička moć, legitimirana je narodnim suverenitetom i sekularizacijom pozicije autoriteta, nasuprot apsolutnoj moći vladara i povlasticama koje su uživali staleži. F. Fukuyama, Kraj povijesti i posljednji čovjek, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, zagreb, 1994. god. 48 S. Petkovska, Demokratija i politika razlike – kroz prizmu aktuelnog stanja, Filozofija i društvo 3: 95-119, 2011. god. 49 F. Neumann, Vladavina prava: politička teorija i pravni sistem u modernom društvu, „Filip Višnjić“ Beograd, 2002. god. 47 96 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose Tako su zastupanje demokratskih i liberalnih načela u konstituiranju moderne države i društva dio istog procesa. 50 Moderna država, u duhu liberalne teorije u kojoj je utemeljena i iz koje se razvija, svoje mehanizme koristila je dugo s ciljem kulturne homogenizacije, prema kojoj je jedinstvo homogenost, a jednakost uniformnost. Ozbiljenje je to liberalnih načela prema kojima je sloboda individue osnovni kriterij za vrednovanje svih društvenih institucija, samo društvo nije ništa drugo do prosti zbir jedinki, liberalna država je „noćni čuvar“ ili država „slijepa za razlike“. Liberalna država treba da djeluje ignorirajući sve razlike među građanima bez obzira radilo se o vjerskim, etničkim, tradicijskim pripadnostima, pa i razlikama u ekonomskom položaju. Promjene državnih oblika i uređenja odvijaju se paralelno s nastankom i razvojem liberalizma. Riječ je o uzajamnim odnosima u kojima, s jedne strane, moderna država svoje idejne izvore nalazi u filozofiji liberalizma dok se, s druge strane, konkretizacija načela i zahtjeva liberalizma događa u okviru nove, liberalne, države. U tome leži paradoksalno svojstvo liberalizma koji, s jedne strane, predstavlja političku teoriju, ideologiju i utopiju, a s druge strane, ujedno i politički pokret u smislu da nastoji praktično aplicirati i realizirati liberalna načela. 51 Liberalna država je politička organizacija s kojom počinje modifikacija klasičnih koncepcija neograničenog državnog suvereniteta, njenim zamjenjivanjem idejama narodne ili, preciznije, građanske suverenosti, koji implicira ne neko najviše i apsolutno, hijerarhijski utemeljeno središte svima nadređene vlasti, već ideju horizontalne, ograničene i kontrolirane suverenosti u smislu sposobne i efikasne vlade koja uvijek radi u granicama prava, odnosno ustava. U tom smislu je liberalna država onaj tip države koji teži minimalnom uplitanju u privredu i društvo, država koja djeluje na načelu laisses faire, dakle na očekivanjima maksimalne društvene i tržišne samoregulacije. Liberali su stoga tradicionalno sumnjičavi prema svakoj državi. Oni ne vjeruju državi, vladi ili bilo kom kolektivnom subjektu koji želi da vlada, stavljajući u drugi plan individuu, uvjereni da država može jednostavno da prekorači polje zagarantirane slobode, kojoj treba da služi. Neki filozofi slobode, poput Murraya Rothbarda (radikalni libertarijanac ili anarhokapitalista, kako sam sebe naziva) smatraju da ona čak i ne treba da postoji, da smo mi zapravo samo dobro „naviknuti“ na ovu instituciju, jer se već svojim rođenjem zatičemo u državi i da je ona samo povijesna konstrukcija, proizvod povijesnih događaja a ne nešto što je po sebi nužno ili prirodno i što je a priori potrebno radi zaštite i očuvanja pojedinaca M. Podunavac, Izgradnja moderne države i nacije: Balkanska perspektiva, Godišnjak Fakulteta političkih nauka u Beogradu 2007.:82-98, 2007. god. 51 D. Rodin, Liberalizam i republikanizam: dvije nedemokratske i nepolitičke ideološke opcije, Politička misao, God. XLIV, 4:3-16, 2007. god. 50 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 97 �Dželaludin Hodžič i njihove slobode. 52 Savremena slika svijeta, slika multikulturalnih društava, svjedoči o potrebi redefiniranja klasičnih liberalnih polazišta o individui, društvu, identitetu i državi. Kulturna pluralnost, na koju se referira i iz koje proizlazi ideja multikulturalizma, povlači za sobom, neminovno, mnoga pitanja: Ko sam ja? Ko su Drugi? Kome pripadama ja, a kome Drugi? Može li se potisnuti etnocentričnost i prihvatiti i uvažiti drugog i drugačijeg? (Čačić-Kumpes, 2004.). 53 Ovo su, naravno, tek neka pitanja koja se promišljaju u diskursu multikulturalizma, koji razmatra ukupnost manjinskih pitanja, koja uveliko prelaze etničke kriterije diferenciranja. Problemi suživota različitih identiteta, utemeljenih na vjerskom, kulturnom, tradicionalnom, jezičkom kriteriju, kao i problemi koji proističu iz migracijskih procesa, osvajanja, razvoja države i ljudskih prava, stoljećima su prisutni u društvenim odnosima. Multikulturalna ideja javlja se, nakon asimilacijskog i diferencijalističkog, kao treći model ili treća opcija u pristupu tim pitanjima, kroz stav da potpuna inkorporacija u društvo ne znači ili ne treba da znači odricanje od vlastite posebnosti, odnosno, bilo koje dimenzije identiteta. Drugim riječima, vlastita posebnost i puna participacija u širem društvu ne isključuju jedna drugu. Multikulturalizam se razvija na tezi da je čovjek ne samo prirodno već i kulturno biće. Iz perspektive individue to znači da ja ne odlučujem niti mogu odlučivati neopterećen svojim kulturnim članstvima. Moje odluke obojene su, dakle, i mojim etničkim, vjerskim, jezičkim, polnim i svim drugim pripadnostima koja su dio mog ukupnog identiteta. Multikulturalna društva, koja su preživjela nastojanja kulturne homogenizacije, kojoj je moderna država-nacija nedvojbeno stremila, prilog su tezi o kulturnoj ukorijenjenosti čovjeka. Multikulturalnost na deskriptivnoj razini naprosto je činjenica suvremenog svijeta. 54 No, multikulturalizam putem zahtjeva za priznavanje posebnih grupnih/kolektivnih/kulturnih prava prerasta u problem, odnosno, dilemu u normativnom diskursu. Ti zahtjevi posebno su dramatični u državama zapadne liberalne tradicije. Može se, svakako, govoriti kako je kulturni pluralizam svojstven upravo zapadnim državama liberalnog tipa. Prerastanje, međutim, multikulturalnosti (deskriptivne) u multikulturalizam kao normativni izraz težnji, dovodi zapadnu liberalnu državu i politički liberalizam u delikatnu poziciju. S jedne strane nalaze se individualizam, autonomija i sloboda pojedinca izraženi u idejama klasičnih ljudskih prava i univerzalnog građanstva koje stoje u M. Rothbard, Ethics of Liberty, New York University Press, New York, 2003. god. J. Čačić-Kumpes, Politika reguliranja kulturne i etničke raznolikosti: o pojmovima i njihovoj upotrebi, Migracijske i etničke teme, (20) 2-3: 143-159, 2004. god. 54 E. Kulenović, Neutralnost države: sukob neutralnosti načela i neutralnosti javnih politika, Politička misao, XXXIX 3: 42-59, 2002. god. 52 53 98 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose temeljima liberalne države. S druge, pak, strane, usljed niza značajnih povijesnih događaja i procesa (postkolonijalizam, slom komunizma, migracije izazvane ekonomskim ali i sigurnosnim motivima, globalizacija) ista ta država suočena je sa stalnim porastom zahtjeva za priznanje posebnih kolektivnih ili kulturnih prava. Ideja univerzalnog građanstva nije ništa drugo do pokušaj da se obezbijedi zajednički identitet slobodnih pojedinaca liberalne države, kao garant stabilnosti političke zajednice. Ideja dominantne kulture znači da je individui unaprijed određena dimenzija identiteta, najpogodnija za potpuno učešće u društvenim procesima, odnosno, onaj dio identiteta koji ne kvari sliku univerzalnog građanstva. Drugi identiteti te individue namijenjeni su za privatnu „konzumaciju“. 55 Šta je onda sa slobodom izbora i konceptom u kojem je izbor moguće mijenjati zarad vlastitog dobra? U kakvoj je poziciji pojedinac koji ne prihvaća ponuđeni okvir dominantne kulture? Tako shvaćena kultura, kao statičan, homogen sistem vrijednosti postala je, blago rečeno, prevaziđena ali i zloupotrijebljena u kolonijalne svrhe. Ne živimo više (ako smo ikada i živjeli) u svijetu rascjepkanih nacionalnih kultura/država. On se (svijet) danas nadaje kao multikulturalan, u kojem nije moguće povlačiti linije razdvajanja kulturnih entiteta. Na tragu tih promišljanja, ideja multikulturalizma na prvo mjesto stavlja zahtjev za redefiniranjem kulture i uvažavanjem značaja kulturnog članstva za upotpunjeni identitet svake individue. To ne znači nejednak odnos ili preferiranje određene kulture. To znači, prema multikulturalistima, da je svačiji izbor jednako važan i da ga je kao takvog potrebno uvažavati. Kultura od predmeta analize prerasta u glavno kognitivno sredstvo razumijevanja ukupnh društvenih interakcija savremenog svijeta, a to znači i sredstvo spoznaje i razumijevanja sebe i drugoga. 56 Liberalni multikulturalizam kao pokušaj nadgradnje U tipologiji multikulturalizma značajno mjesto zauzimaju formulacije W. Kymlicke. Njegov model nastoji multikulturalizam u svojoj normativnoj dimenziji utemeljiti u duhu političke filozofije liberalizma, a značajan je kao pokušaj sinteze u dijalektičkom odnosu liberalnog učenja i zahtjeva za kulturnim pravima. Takav pokušaj Kymlicka postulira osebujnom idejom liberalnog multikulturalizma. M. Brčić, Kulturni pluralizam i pravednost u recepciji Willa Kymlicke, Filozofska istraživanja, (28) 1: 49-61, 2008. god. 56 I. Gačanović, Kultura i identitet kao politički neizbežni koncepti: Preludijum za prilagođavanje antropološke debate o multikulturalizmu političkoj realnosti, Čemu (9) 1819: 230-251, 2010. god. 55 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 99 �Dželaludin Hodžič U njegovom formiranju i artikulaciji posebno kontroverzno stajalište zauzima teza o multikulturalizmu kao nastavku ili nadgradnji na klasično liberalno naslijeđe. Nije sporno, prema njemu, zadržati izvorni liberalni stav prema fundamentalnim slobodama i ljudskim pravima. Ono što se iz te perspektive, međutim, nadaje kao problem jesu očiti i sveprisutni problemi uvjetovani manjinskom pozicijom. Na tom tragu nastoji se senzibilizirati i redefinirati stav ortodoksnog liberalizma o mogućem utemeljenju grupno manjinskih prava. Drugim riječima, Kymlicka nudi teoriju prema kojoj manjinska prava nisu suprotnost liberalnom viđenju ljudskih prava, odnosno, kako njihovo priznanje ne podrazumijeva podrivanje izvornog liberalnog koncepta. Svoju teoriju izvodi iz slobode izbora u oblikovanju vlastitog života, a kulturno članstvo pruža nam smislene opcije za ostvarenje izvršenog izbora i organizaciju života. Takav koncept manjinskih prava nije u suprotnosti, štaviše, dosljedno je slobodi i autonomiji pojedinaca. 57 Na tome temelji uvjerenje da bi liberalne teorije trebale imati na umu kulturnu pripadnost. U suprotnom, ako manjinske kulture nisu priznate, u smislu političke podrške, te kulture, odnosno, njihovi pripadnici nemaju jednaku mogućnost integracija u društvene odnose i procese. U tom smislu, multikulturalizam je poziv na novi pristup i priznavanje manjinskih kultura kako bi se izjednačile početne pozicije i postigla suštinska jednakost šansi, a to znači i da smo korak bliže ostvarenju pravde i pravednijih odnosa, kojih nema bez dobra drugoga. Država je, dalje tvrdi Kymlicka, dužna upravo poštujući načelo jednakosti, pomoći manjinske zajednice jer se nalaze u nejedankom položaju u odnosu na većinsku kulturu. Uvažavanje razlika bit je jednakosti, a grupno-diferencirana prava naprosto su potreba kako bi se te razlike i normativno uvažile, odnosno, zaštitile. Multikulturalizam je napor za dalji razvoj liberalne teorije pravednosti i postaje opasno nastaviti ga, kao takvog, predviđati (Šarčević, 2003:582). 58 Prema Habermasu ne postoji logički antagonizam na relaciji ispravno shvaćenih individualnih prava i osjetljivosti na kulturne razlike. 59 Uz globalizaciju, multikulturalizam danas predstavlja neizbježan diskurs razumijevanja savremenog društva, noseći u sebi i naznake nove sinkretističke svjetske kulture. 60 V. Stanković-Pejnović, Individualna i grupna prava liberalnog multikulturalizma, Migracijske i etničke teme (26), 2: 169-189, 2010. god. 58 A. Šarčević, Politička filozofija i multikulturalni svijet..., Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 2003. god. 59 V. Stanković-Pejnović, ibid. 60 M. Mesić, ibid. 57 100 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose ZAKLJUČAK Liberalizam i multikulturalizam nalaze se u nadasve složenom odnosu u kojem isprepliću stavove i argumentacijske linije o temeljnim pitanjima vrijednosnog, odnosno, svjetonazorskog pluralizma kao činjenice suvremenog svijeta. Ovdje, ukratko, valja još jednom napomenuti kako se radi o složenoj, multidisciplinarnoj, globalnoj i svakako aktuelnoj raspravi. Njena aktuelnost podrazumijeva nove dileme, pitanja i zahtjeve koji se, praktično, javljaju na svakodnevnoj bazi. Čak i stavovi izrečeni ranije doživljavaju nove interpretacije. Zato će i spominjani Bikhu Parekh navesti, kao jedan od motiva za vlastito istraživanje i angažman u polju multikulturalizma, da iako je sve rečeno, nije još uvijek rečeno od strane svih. Kao jedan od zaključaka nameće se i stav kako je kod multikulturalizma teško ustanoviti jedinstvenu intelektualnu liniju, kakvu je moguće, prema Johnu Grayu, raspoznati kod liberalizma. Stoga se čini uputnim misliti njegove teorijske napore upravo iz nemogućnosti da ga se odredi jednostrano bilo kakvim poimanjem kulture. Tim zahtjevom još jednom se naglašava neophodnost širokog mišljenja kulturnih i različitosti uopće, čemu bi trebao udovoljiti i sam multikulturalizam kako bi stabilizirao sadržaj vlastitog pojma. LITERATURA Knjige: Barry, Brian, 2006: Kultura i jednakost – egalitarna kritika multikulturalizma, Naklada Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb Berlin, Isaiah, 2000: Četiri eseja o slobodi, Feral Tribune, Split F. Fukuyama, Kraj povijesti i posljednji čovjek, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, zagreb, 1994. god. Gaus F., Gerald, 2005: The Place of Autonomy Within Liberalism, u: Autonomy and the Challenges to Liberalism (ed. Christman John and Rogers Joel), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Gray, John, 1999: Liberalizam, Politička kultura, Zagreb Heywood, Andrew, 2004: Politika, Clio, Beograd Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 101 �Dželaludin Hodžič Kolakowski, Leszek: Gdje su djeca liberalne filozofije, preveo Darko Polšek, dostupno na: http://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~dpolsek/prijevodi.htm Kymlicka, Will, 2004: Liberalizam, zajednica, kultura, Deltakont, Zagreb Kymlicka ,Will, 2003: Multikulturalno građanstvo – Liberalna teorija manjinskih prava, Naklada Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb Marcuse, Herbert (1977.): Kultura i društvo, BIGZ, Beograd Mesić, Milan, 2006: Multikulturalizam – društveni i teorijski izazovi, Školska knjiga, Zagreb Neumann, Franz, 2002: Vladavina prava: politička teorija i pravni sistem u modernom društvu, „Filip Višnjić“ Beograd Parekh, Bikhu, 2000: Rethinking Multiculturalism, Cultural Diversity and Political Theory, Palgrave, Nwe York Puhovski Ž., Prpić I., Uzelac M. (ur.) 1990: Leksikon temeljnih pojmova politike – abeceda demokracije, Školska knjiga, Zagreb Rothbard, Murray, 2003: Ethics of Liberty, New York University Press, New York Ryan, Alan, 2007: Liberalism, u: A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy (ed. Robert E. Goodin, Philip Pettit and Thomas Pogge), Blackwell Publishing, Malden-Oxford-Carlton Szabolcs, Pogonyi: Liberalism and the Limits of Multiculturalism, Tischner Debates Online, dostupno na www.erazm.uw.edu.pl Šarčević, Abdulah, 2003: Politička filozofija i multikulturalni svijet..., Svjetlost, Sarajevo von Mises, Ludwig (1985): Liberalism – In The Classical Tradition, Institute for Human Studies, Virginia, Cobden Press, San Francisco and Foundation for Economic Education, New York 102 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose Članci: Brčić, Marita, 2006: Izvori liberalnog mišljenja u filozofiji Immanuela Kanta, Filozofska istraživanja, godina (26), 4:783-797 Brčić, Marita, 2008: Kulturni pluralizam i pravednost u recepciji Willa Kymlicke, Filozofska istraživanja, (28) 1: 49-61 Cifrić, Ivan (2008): Imperij ili zajednica? Homogenizacija i raznolikost kultura u kontekstu globalizacije i identiteta, Društvena istraživanja, Zagreb, god. 17, 4-5:773797 Cvijanović, Hrvoje, 2003: Rawlsova liberalna utopija, Politička misao, Vol XL, 1:6271 Čačić-Kumpes Jadranka, 2004: Politika reguliranja kulturne i etničke raznolikosti: o pojmovima i njihovoj upotrebi, Migracijske i etničke teme, (20) 2-3: 143-159 Gačanović, Iva, 2010: Kultura i identitet kao politički neizbežni koncepti: Preludijum za prilagođavanje antropološke debate o multikulturalizmu političkoj realnosti, Čemu (9) 18-19: 230-251 Inglis, Christine 2003: Multiculturalism: New Policy Responses to Diversity, Management of Social Transformations (MOST) – UNESCO, Policy Paper, No. 4:1 – 41. Jeknić, Ranka (2007): Sistemske i kulturne razlike, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, god. 44, 1/2007:119-135 Jukić, Jakov, 1995: Kršćanstvo i liberalizam, Društvena istraživanja, (4) 6:885-910 Kalanj, Rade, 2003: Zov identiteta kao prijeporno znanstveno pitanje, Socijalna ekologija Zagreb, Vol. 12, 1-2:47-68 Kulenović, Enes, 2002: Neutralnost države: sukob neutralnosti načela i neutralnosti javnih politika, Politička misao, XXXIX 3:42-59 Lohmann, Georg, 1999: „Kolektivna“ ljudska prava radi zaštite manjina, Politička misao, XXXVI 4:38-48 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 103 �Dželaludin Hodžič Loobuyck, Patrick, 2011: Liberal multiculturalism: A defence of liberal multicultural measures without minority rights, Ethnicities (5) 1:108-123 Oyserman, Daphna, Coon M. Heather, Kemmelmeier Markus, 2002: Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptins and MetaAnalyses, Psyhological Bulletin, Vol. 128, 1:3-72 Petkovska, Sanja, 2011: Demokratija i politika razlike – kroz prizmu aktuelnog stanja, Filozofija i društvo 3/2011: 95-119 Podunavac, Milan, 2007: Izgradnja moderne države i nacije: Balkanska perspektiva, Godišnjak Fakulteta političkih nauka u Beogradu 2007.:82-98 Puzić, Saša, 2004: Multikulturalizam i izazovi posttradicionalne pluralizacije, Politička misao, XLI 4:59-71 Radić, Stjepan, 2011: Individualizam kao čovjekovo egzistencijalno uporište: filozofijsko-teorijsko razmatranje individualizma s pripadajućim mu posljedicama, Bogoslovska smotra, (81) 3:537-558 Raunić, Raul, 2011: Politika identiteta i demokratska pravednost, Filozofska istraživanja, god. 31, 4:719-734 Rodin, Davor 2007: Liberalizam i republikanizam: dvije nedemokratske i nepolitičke ideološke opcije, Politička misao, God. XLIV, 4:3-16 Stanković-Pejnović, Vesna, 2010: Individualna i grupna prava liberalnog multikulturalizma, Migracijske i etničke teme (26), 2: 169-189 Stanković-Pejnović, Vesna (2011): Sloboda, liberalizam i multikulturalizam, Filozofija i društvo, 2:191 - 214 Waldron, Jeremy (1987): Theoretical Foundations of Liberalism, The Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 147:127-150, dostupno na www.jstor.org 104 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2366 Title A name given to the resource Liberalism vs Multiculturalism - Insight into the Fundamental Concepts and Relationships Liberalizam vs. multikulturalizam - uvid u temeljne pojmove i odnose Author Author HODŽIĆ, Dželaludin Abstract A summary of the resource. Paper refers to Liberalism and Multiculturalism as normative theories. Over the basic ideas of those theories goal is to make an introduce/overview of main interactions and influences. As result of interactions between Liberalism and Multiculturalism there are a lot of different concepts on social relations and on Individuality, Community, Freedom, Rights, Equality and Good Life as part of discussion that is not only in focus of Academic community but in focus of those who we know as policy makers or decision makers. It seems that the discussion on those topics as we mentioned will stay open and maintaine crucial influence on the future architecture of social relations and status of basic questions that are in core of the discussion. Sažetak: Rad se bavi liberalizmom i multikulturalizmom kao normativnim teorijama. Preko temeljnih pojmova kojima se koriste i problemskog područja zajedničkog, objema teorijama u radu se nastoji ponuditi uvid u njihove složene odnose i utjecaje. Ti odnosi za rezultat imaju mnoštvo različitih koncepcija uređenja društvenih odnosa koji se tiču individue, zajednice, slobode, prava, dobrog života, jednakosti kao dio rasprava koje nisu u fokusu pažnje isključivo akademske zajednice već i onih u čijim su rukama mehanizmi moći i odlučivanja. Čini se kako će takve rasprave još dugo važiti za otvorene i izvršiti presudan utjecaj na buduću arhitekturu društvenih odnosa i status temelnjnih pitanja koja (pitanja) rasprava u sebi sadrži. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Social Sciences Research Center of International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-5706 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9b3778a6cda2d085b787d5b08c3e0733.pdf 94837aea35dfa09215c9c7b5ba784c02 PDF Text Text Life Table Analysis and Sustainable Fisheries Hülya SAYGI Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Aquaculture, 35100 Bornova, Izmir-TURKEY hulya.saygi@ege.edu.tr Bahar BAYHAN Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, 35100 Bornova, Izmir-TURKEY bahar.bayhan@ege.edu.tr Abstract : In this study, the Life Table Method also known as the Cutler-Ederer life table technique, was introduced and practicability of this technique for determining life period of fish species of which natural mortalities were found by estimation using parameter of length weight relationships has also been searched. The aim of this study is to show that life table method used for human beings, can be also used to predict fish species. The data employed in the present study is that of scaldfish Arnoglossus laterna (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Bothidae) obtained from the Aegean Sea. Life span of five years and its ages were directly taken into account in the table prepared by the data concerned. Consequently, according to the data estimated, the life expectancy of the species in the Aegean Sea is approximately 11 years. Furthermore, the number of individuals estimated to live more than 5 years from the scaldfish population including 1000 individuals was calculated to be some 970. a. Introduction Preservation of the living or the non-living natural resources and transferring them to future generations consists in sustainability. Fisheries in almost all seas have rarely been sustainable. Rather, overfishing has led to gradual depletions, long masked by improved technology, geographic expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web (Pauly et al. 2002). Estimations should be performed on the number of the animals especially for endangered species even for strains in the same species to determine their population in the future, according to which new programmes should be developed and precautions taken. Methods of calculation depend on in the related techniques and number of the equations used, and whether or not they consist of seasonal influences, are classified as quantitive (time serious analysis, causal models and survival analysis) and qualitive (market analysis, desicion hypothesis, growth cures, simulation) ones. According to the data and the hypothesis to be tested, survival analyses performed by the three methods: Life Table Method (Cutler-Ederer Method), Kaplan-Meier Method, and Cox Regression Method (Özdamar, 1999). The life table method is one of the oldest to measure mortality and describe the survival experience of a population. It has been used by actuaries demographers, governmental agencies and medical researchers in the studies of survival, population growth, fertility, migration, and so on. There are two kinds of population life tables namely: the cohort life and current life tables. The cohort life table describes the survival or mortality experience from birth to death of a specific cohort of individuals which were born at about the same time. The current life table is made by applying the age-specific mortality rates of a population in a given period of time to a hypothetical cohort of 100.000 or 1000.000 individuals. One of the most often reported statistics from current life tables is the life expectancy. The life expectancy of a population is a general indication of the capability of prolonging life. It is used to identify trends and compare longevity. The term ‘population life table’ is often used to refer to the current life table (Lee & Wang 2003). The aim of the study is to show that the life table technique used extensively for human beings (Lee 1992; Lee & Wang 2003; Keiley & Martin 2005) can also be employed in prospective estimations of the numeral magnitude of the fish species whose natural mortality is found by the above mentioned calculations. 689 �b. Material and Methods The data used in the present study belongs to scald fish samples obtained from the Aegean Sea coast of Turkey from January 2002 to March 2003. The total length (TL) of each fish obtained was measured to the nearest cm. The total body weight (W) was determined to the closest 0.01 g. The sagittal otoliths were removed from the specimens, and cleaned with distilled water. The otoliths were placed in a black dish with glycerin (30%) and alcohol (70%) to improve readings. The translucent bands observed under a stereoscope with reflected light (30 magnifications) were counted. Based on the otolith readings, the age distribution of the samples ranged from I to V years. The length-weight relationships for weight was calculated using the equation, W=aLb (Ricker 1979) where a is a coefficient related to body form and b is an exponent indicating isometric growth when equal to 3. It has been suggested that there is a correlation such as M=W-1/b between spontaneous mortality and mean weight of the specimen using mean weight value in which von Bertalanffy’s growth constants were found in rate of spontaneous mortality (M) (Sparre et al.1989; Avşar, 1998). M=W-1/b ,where W is the mean weight and value (b) is the slope of regression constants calculated by length-weight relationships for the same material. Current life tables usually have the following columns (Lee & Wang 2003): 6. Age interval [x to x + t]. This is the time interval between two exact ages x and x + t; t is the length of the interval. 7. Proportion of individuals alive at beginning of age interval but dying during the interval (tqx). The information is obtained from census data. This column is usually calculated from the data of the decennial census of population and deaths occurring in the given time interval. 8. Number living at beginning of age interval (lx). The initial value of lx, the size of the hypothetical population, is usually 100,000 or 1,000,000. The successive values are computed using the Formula lx = lx-1 (1 - tqx – t) where 1 - tqx – t is the proportion of individuals who survived the previous age interval. 10. Number dying during the age interval (tdx) td x • = lx(tqx) = lx - lx+1 Stationary population (tLx and Tx ). Here tLx is the total number of years lived in the ith age interval or the number of individual-years that Lx individuals, aged x exactly, live through the interval. For those who survive the interval, their contribution to tLx is the length of the interval. For those who die during the interval, we may not know exactly the time of death and the survival time must be estimated. The conventional assumption is that they live one-half of the interval and contribute t/2 to the calculation of tLx. Thus, t L x = t (l x +1 + t / 2 d x ) The symbol Tx is the total number of individual-years lived beyond age t by individuals alive at that age, that is, Tx = ∑ t Lj j≥ x and Tx = t L x +Tx + t • Average remaining life time or average number of years of life remaining at the beginning of age 0 interval ( ei ). This is also known as the life expectancy at a given age, which is defined as the number of years remaining to be lived by individuals at age x. 690 �0 ex = Tx Ix 0 0 The expected age at death of a person aged x is x+ e x . The e x at x = 0 is the life expectancy at birth. The life expectancy of a population is a general indication of the capability of prolonging life. It is used to identify trends and compare longevity (Lee, 1992; Lee & Wang, 2003). c. Results and Discussion Sample of 1081 speciemens was used to determine age. The age distribution of individuals of A. laterna population was found to be between I and V. The natural mortality rates calculated for each age (I-V) group of A. laterna inhabiting the Aegean Sea and the life table obtained are presented in the Tab. 1 Consequently, the data estimated indicates that life expectancy of the species in the Aegean Sea is approximately 11 years. Furthermore, the number of individuals likely to survive for over V years from the scald fish population of 1000 individuals was calculated to be some 970. Age (x) Nx I 43 II 337 0.737 0.002 0.004 0.995 981.042 4.282 1957.802 9618.547 9.804 III 321 0.701 0.002 0.007 0.993 976.760 6.378 2920.713 7660.745 7.843 IV 312 0.658 0.002 0.008 0.992 976.760 8.205 3890.631 3890.631 3.983 V 68 970.382 44.751 4740.031 4740.031 4.885 Dx mx qx px Ix dx 0.823 0.019 0.019 0.981 1000.000 0.642 0.009 0.046 0.954 18.958 Lx Tx ex 990.521 10609.070 10.609 Table 1: The life table for calculated natural mortalities of scaldfish. Reliability of the estimations obtained by life table analysis requires validity of the assumptions admitted by it. The number of the individuals in the last age group considered in the table in particular of whose future we are not convinced tends to effect estimations of the other age groups. Morever, rates of mortality by ages considered regarded in structuring the table is another factor to affect accuracy of the estimations concerned. Both factors above can be said to be drawbacks of the analysis itself. Meanwhile number of many species decreases with their genetic diversity gradually becoming extinct. Estimations of howlong the species could further survive in the studies related to biologies of the species of economic value and to their protection of fauna to be likely to extinction and in those involving aquaculture and fisheries have been of great importance. References Avsar, D. (1998). Fisheries Biology and Population Dynamics. Baki Book Press, Adana. Keiley, M..K. & Martin, N.C. (2005). Survival Analysis in Family Research. Journal of Family Psychology 19 (1), 142-156. Lee, E.T. (1992). Statistical Methods for Survival Data Analysis. Second Edition, New York: John Wiley&Sons. Lee E.T. & Wang J.W. (2003). Statistical Methods for Survival Data Analysis. Third Edition, New Jersey, John Wiley&Sons. Özdamar, K. (1999). Bioistatistik with SPSS. Kaan Press, Eskisehir. 691 �Pauly, D. Christensen, V. Guénette, S. Pitcher, T.J. Sumaila, U.R. Walters, C.J. Watson, R. & Zeller, D. (2002). Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature 418, 689-695. Ricker, W.E. (1979). Growth rates and Models, in Fish Physiology (Hoar, W.S., Randall, D.J. & Brett, J.R. (eds.). Vol. VIII, Bioenergetics and Growth, Academic Press, 677-743. Sparre, P. Ursin, E. Venema, S.C. (1989). Introduction to tropical fish stock Assessment—Part 1: Manual, FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 692 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 618 Title A name given to the resource Life Table Analysis and Sustainable Fisheries Author Author SAYGI, Hülya BAYHAN, Bahar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, the Life Table Method also known as the Cutler-Ederer life table technique, was introduced and practicability of this technique for determining life period of fish species of which natural mortalities were found by estimation using parameter of length weight relationships has also been searched. The aim of this study is to show that life table method used for human beings, can be also used to predict fish species. The data employed in the present study is that of scaldfish Arnoglossus laterna (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Bothidae) obtained from the Aegean Sea. Life span of five years and its ages were directly taken into account in the table prepared by the data concerned. Consequently, according to the data estimated, the life expectancy of the species in the Aegean Sea is approximately 11 years. Furthermore, the number of individuals estimated to live more than 5 years from the scaldfish population including 1000 individuals was calculated to be some 970. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36812b8fed8dec5b05b2dde853225aa6.docx 404ec1ccca8d007904252ce86dc8003c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58247ff092c71175bbb6a6cbf657be0e.pdf 6156eddc9ead514fdae0960a1daf3db6 PDF Text Text LİGHT SENSİTİVE COMPOSİTE MİCROSPHERES AND CLEAN ENERGY APPLİCATİONS Ali İmran Vaizogullar Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey Ahmet Balcı Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University Muğla, Turkey abalci99@yahoo.com ABSTRACT The core shell materials containg titania can improve the properties of the core including chemical, magnetic and optical properties. More over, composite microspheres may exhibit novel properties that are not found in a single oxide. Recently, it was reported that SiO2/TiO2 composite particles exhibited better photocatalytic properties than the classical oxides such as titania and silica. Synthesis of mesoporous materials with a regular geometry and using as a durable heterogeneous photocatalyst has become popular in recent years due to catalyse these materials, adsorption, seperating the medical field and availability, from nanotechnolog. Such microparticles without need a lot of energy plays a major role in the removal of environmental pollutants.Ultrafiltration removal of such contaminants, electrochemical treatment, adsorption although there are some techniques, such as pollution comprises a second due to the materials used in these methods are now lost its importance. In this study, sol-emulsion-gel methods, microparticles of the desired size were synthesized. Monodispersed SiO2 microporous microspheres were synthesized by a modifying stöber method. The results showed that composite particles were about 0.5 μm in diameter, and had a spherical morphology and a narrow size distribution. The core shell particles were characterised by various techniques as FTIR, XRD, FESEM, and their photocatalytic activity for the decomposition of methylene blue (MB) in water. The optimum conditions for the synthesis of particles, mixing speed and duration of calcination temperature, organic solvents, surface active agents, biomaterials, starting materials was taken into consideration diffrences in concentration by changing the particle size of these parameters , the effect was followed photoactivity. Experiments carried outwith micro-size particles can be controlled to be synthesized. The degradation effect of model pollutant (MO) was determined using UV/Vis spectrophotometry. The amount of surfactant used in the particle size resulted in a decrase after a certain point. However the areas of use of materials obtained from the tests carried out in the laboratory for expanding the applicability of data to reveal the endustrial field were studied. The result of this study shows the potential of applying new generations of catalyst for wastewater purification. Simplicity, low cost, low energy consumption, and solvent-free are the advantages of this proposed method which can be used to photodecompose environmental organic pollutants effectively without heat treatment. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2097 Title A name given to the resource LİGHT SENSİTİVE COMPOSİTE MİCROSPHERES AND CLEAN ENERGY APPLİCATİONS Author Author VAIZOGULLAR, Ali Imran BALCI, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The core shell materials containg titania can improve the properties of the core including chemical, magnetic and optical properties. More over, composite microspheres may exhibit novel properties that are not found in a single oxide. Recently, it was reported that SiO2/TiO2 composite particles exhibited better photocatalytic properties than the classical oxides such as titania and silica. Synthesis of mesoporous materials with a regular geometry and using as a durable heterogeneous photocatalyst has become popular in recent years due to catalyse these materials, adsorption, seperating the medical field and availability, from nanotechnolog. Such microparticles without need a lot of energy plays a major role in the removal of environmental pollutants.Ultrafiltration removal of such contaminants, electrochemical treatment, adsorption although there are some techniques, such as pollution comprises a second due to the materials used in these methods are now lost its importance. In this study, sol-emulsion-gel methods, microparticles of the desired size were synthesized. Monodispersed SiO2 microporous microspheres were synthesized by a modifying stöber method. The results showed that composite particles were about 0.5 μm in diameter, and had a spherical morphology and a narrow size distribution. The core shell particles were characterised by various techniques as FTIR, XRD, FESEM, and their photocatalytic activity for the decomposition of methylene blue (MB) in water. The optimum conditions for the synthesis of particles, mixing speed and duration of calcination temperature, organic solvents, surface active agents, biomaterials, starting materials was taken into consideration diffrences in concentration by changing the particle size of these parameters , the effect was followed photoactivity. Experiments carried outwith micro-size particles can be controlled to be synthesized. The degradation effect of model pollutant (MO) was determined using UV/Vis spectrophotometry. The amount of surfactant used in the particle size resulted in a decrase after a certain point. However the areas of use of materials obtained from the tests carried out in the laboratory for expanding the applicability of data to reveal the endustrial field were studied. The result of this study shows the potential of applying new generations of catalyst for wastewater purification. Simplicity, low cost, low energy consumption, and solvent-free are the advantages of this proposed method which can be used to photodecompose environmental organic pollutants effectively without heat treatment. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6b633ca8d1ff2416b3a1b2a2b1b1b085.pdf 0021952bc952d2f79e1479fd60858c06 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource LIGHTFIN: LIGHTWEIGHT LINUX-BASED MICROSERVICES SYSTEM FOR FISCALIZATION, LOAN AND SUBSIDY MANAGEMENT Author Author Anur Peljto Abstract A summary of the resource. From small businesses to large corporations, fiscalization has been a cornerstone of financial management for decades and will continue to be for many more to come. However, many businesses still struggle with outdated systems for fiscalization, loan and subsidy management that rely on legacy monolithic architectures. These systems can be very difficult to maintain and scale. The aim of this project was to introduce a new solution to these issues: Lightfin, a fiscalization, loan and subsidy management system built with a microservice architecture, designed to offer enhanced performance, low delays, easy scalability and high stability. Keywords Keywords. Linux, fiscalization, lightfin, microservice driven architecture, loan, subsidy, performance Linux sdp https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/50ac86cd4b46b7c67eabaf9c6cbef2ce.pdf 14519a8a1056d243b154e19dfc9f9ded PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Linear Support Vector Machines for HIV-1 Protease Site Detection M urat Gök Science Institute, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey muratgok @gmail.com Ah met Turan Özcerit Computer Systems Education, Sakarya University, Sakarya,Turkey aozcerit@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Several studies have been done for the HIV-1 protease specificity problem by applying machine learning computation techniques recently. In this work, a Linear Support Vector Machine (LSVM) technique has been applied to predict the cleavability of proteins by HIV-1 protease. We used Orthonormal Encoding (OE) extraction technique to map octopeptide sequence inputs. According to simulation outcomes, we have achieved better result, which has a rate of %91.8, compared to earlier studies to predict the cleavability of HIV-1 protease. 1. Introduction HIV-1 protease (Beck et al. 2000) is a small enzyme in the AIDS virus that ensures its replication. The mature and infectious viral particles can only be generated when the polyproteins are cleaved by the HIV protease; otherwise, the viral particles are inactive (Graves et al. 1992). The cleavage sites in the viral polyproteins do not share sequence property. HIV-1 protease inhibitors target the active site in HIV-1 protease for preventing its maturation functioning. Owing to the factthat HIV-1 protease cleavage sites in proteins are templates for inhibitor drugs, deciphering and understanding HIV-1 protease is vital. In this paper, we apply Linear Support Vector Machines (LSV M) for detecting HIV-1 protease cleavage sites in proteins with the view of Orthonormal Encoding technique. During the last decade or so, for the HIV-1 protease, there have been several works to develop various prediction methods based on machine learning.In (Cai et al.1998) multilayer perceptron (MLP) which is a nonlinear machine learning method was used to solve this problem. Recently, Support Vector Machine (SV M) has been adopted for the prediction of the cleavage sites.In (Cai et al. 2002),the authors applied Vapnik’s SV M to the HIV-1 cleavage problem. In (Röngnvaldsson et al. 2003),the authors showed that HIV-1 protease cleavage prediction is alinear problem and LSV M isthe best classifierforthis problem. In (Nanni etal.2006),the authors studied an encoding technique that combines the amino acid substitution matrix Blosum50 together with the sequence order of the amino acid composition. In this work, a linear discriminate classifier (LDC) and a radial basis function SV M were combined. 2. Background and Techniques 2.1. Peptide Sequences A protein sequence is composed of variable combinations of 20 natural amino acids ∑(A, C, D, …, W,Y). A peptide is represented by P = P4 P3 P2 P1 ↓P1’ P2’ P3’ P4’ where ↓denotes a scissile bond, Pi is an amino acid belonging to ∑ (Röngnvaldsson et al. 2003). 2.2. Orthonormal Encoding (OE) Feature Extraction Technique Feature extraction is a process that extracts a set of features from the original pattern representation. Orthonormal Encoding is a robust feature extraction technique to map the octopeptide to a sparse orthonormal representation. Each amino acidinthe peptide sequence (Pi)isrepresented by a 20 bits vector with 19 bits setto zero and one bit set to one. We implemented OE in OSU toolbox (http://sourceforge.net/projects/svm/) in MatLab program. 381 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.3. Data Set A large data set comprised 1625 substrates has been used. This data set had been experimentallytested for cleavage by the wild type HIV-1 protease (Kontijevski et al.2007). On this dataset, we conducted 10 tests. Each training and testsets has been randomly re-sampled but maintained the distribution ofthe patterns intwo classes. 2.4. Hyperplane Classifiers: 1-Norm Support Vector Machines (Fung et al. 2005) Support Vector Machines are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. We considerthe problem of classifying m pointsin the n-dimensionalinput space Rn,represented by the m x n matrix A, according to membership of each pointAi in the class A+ or A− as specified by a given m x m diagonal matrix D with plus ones or minus ones along its diagonal. Forthis problem, depicted in Figure 1,the linear programming support vector machine with a linear kernel (thisis a variant ofthe standard SV M) is given by the following linear program with parameter ν > 0: min ( ω ,γ , y )∈R n +1+ m ve′y + || ω || 1 s.t. D ( Aω − eγ ) + y ≥ e (1) y ≥ 0, W here ||.||1 denotes the 1-norm as defined in the Introduction. That problem is indeed a linear program, and it can be easily seen from the equivalentformulation below: min (ω ,γ , y )∈R n +1+ m ve′y + e′t s.t. D ( Aω − eγ ) + y ≥ e (2) t ≥ ω ≥ −t , y ≥ 0. For economy of notation we shall use the firstformulation (1) with the understanding that computational implementation is via (2). Ifthe classes are linearly inseparable, which is often the case in real-world datasets, then two planes bound the two classes with a “soft margin” (i.e. bound approximately with some error) determined by the nonnegative error variable y,thatis: (3) Aiω + yi ≥ γ + 1, for Dii = 1, Aiω + yi ≥ γ − 1, for Dii = -1. The 1-norm of the error variable y is minimized parametrically with weight ν in (1), resulting in an approximate separating plane.This plane classifies data as follows: = 1, then x ∈ A+ , sign( x′ω − γ )  = −1, then x ∈ A− , (4) W here sign (·) is the sign function defined in the Introduction. Empirical evidence indicates that the 1norm formulation has the advantage of generating very sparse solutions. This results in the normal ω to the separating plane x′ω = γ having many zero components, which implies that many input space features do not play a rolein determining the linear classifier. Figure 1. The LP-SV M classifierinthe w-space ofRn. The plane of equation (3) approximately separating pointsin A+ from pointsin A−. 382 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This makes this approach suitable for feature selection in classification problems. Since our rule extraction algorithm depends directly on the features used by the hyperplane classifier,sparser normal vectors ω willlead to rules depending on a fewer number of features. 3. Results and Discussion O wing to the factthat OE makes the domain space sparser (i.e.from 208 to 2160),the ratio of number of features and the sample size increases.In Figure 2, a graphical description of the system experimented is given. On step 1, training data encodes as Orthonormal encoding. Referred training data is labeled with respect to (Kontijevski 2007). On step 2, By Using orthonormal encoded inputs, LSV M Classifieris constructed. On step 3, testing data is encoded as orthonormal encoding. Finally, a confusion matrix which is a table with two rows two columns that reports the number of True Negatives, False Positives, False Negatives, and True Positives produced from LSV M classifier. We conducted 10 tests and get 0.9277 class rate values as stand-of-the art. We have used totally 540 samples as seen Table 1. Data Training Test Cleaved data 184 190 Uncleaved data 356 350 Total 540 540 Table 1. Sample data experimented Figure 2. Graphical description ofthe system experimented 4. Conclusion In this paper,the problem is to predict whether a given peptide, HIV-1 protease cleavage site,is cleaved or not. We showed by an empirical approach, LSV M with OE inputs can partition the space successfully. Experimentalresultsshow thatour result outperforms the results as pointed in (Nanni et al.2006) has a value of 91.8% and in (Kim et al. 2008) has a value of 89.92%. 383 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Beck, Z.Q., Hervio, L., Dawson, P.E., Elder, J.E., Madison, E.L. (2000). Identification of efficiently cleaved substrates for HIV-1 protease using a phage display library and use in inhibitor development. Virology. Graves, B.J., Hatada, M.H., Miller, J. K., Graves, M.C., Roy, S., Cook, C.M., Krohn, A., Martin, J.A., Roberts, N.A. (1992). In Structure and Function of the Aspartic Protease: Genetics, Structure and Mechanisms, Dunn, B., Ed. Plenum: New York; p. 455. Cai Y.D., Chou K.C. (1998). Artificial neural network model for predicting HIV protease cleavage sites in protein. Adv Eng Software 29:119-128 Cai Y.D., Liu X.J., Xu X.B., Chou K.C. (2002). Support vector machines for predicting HIV protease cleavage sites in protein. JComputer Chemistry 23: 267–274. Röngnvaldsson, T., You, L. (2003). Why neural networks should not be used for HIV-1 protease cleavage site prediction. Bioinformatics, 1702–1709. Nanni L., Lumini A. (2006). A reliable method for HIV-1 protease cleavage site prediction methods. Neuro Computing 69: 838 - 841. Kontijevski A., Wikberg J.E.S., Komorowski J. (2007). Computational proteomics analysis of HIV-1 protease interactome. Proteins:Structure, Function and Bioinformatics 68: 305–312. Fung G., Sandilya S.,Rao R.B. (2005). Rule Extraction from Linear Support Vector Machines. KDD’05, August 21–24, Chicago, Illinois, USA. Kim H., Zhang Y., Heo Y., Oh H., Chen S. (2008). Specificity rule discovery in HIV-1 protease cleavage site analysis. Compuatational Biology and Chemistry 32: 72–79. 384 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 514 Title A name given to the resource Linear Support Vector Machines for HIV-1 Protease Site Detection Author Author Gök, Murat Özcerit, Ahmet Turan Abstract A summary of the resource. Several studies have been done for the HIV-1 protease specificity problem by applying machine learning computation techniques recently. In this work, a Linear Support Vector Machine (LSVM) technique has been applied to predict the cleavability of proteins by HIV-1 protease. We used Orthonormal Encoding (OE) extraction technique to map octopeptide sequence inputs. According to simulation outcomes, we have achieved better result, which has a rate of %91.8, compared to earlier studies to predict the cleavability of HIV-1 protease. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)