173 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cbe0af5c45e747f563225ee6c1cc8f5.pdf a901e0bd51190d5d1c78fb1426c8a9b7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Legal Discussions in Data Privacy and the Environment in BosniaHerzegovina Husic SAMĠR PhD candidate International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina samirhusic@gmail.com Ozguven KUTLUK Assoc. Prof. Dr. International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina kutluko@yahoo.co.uk Abstract: Dramatic increase in importance of data privacy came with advance of information technology. Global domination of information exchange is forcing governments to establish international standards and regulatory mechanisms in order to protect data privacy. These efforts resulted in general principles of data privacy, which have been widely accepted, but also difficulty for diverse legislations. While Europe has highly developed and human rights oriented data privacy regulations, USA has less regulated and business enhancing oriented approach. Such discrepancy resulted in continious international discussions and agreements towards regulation‘s harmonization. Data privacy regulations in BiH has radical boost recently. The main push was protection of data privacy as condition for visa liberalization with EU countries, making BiH data privacy in full compliance with EU standards. However, when it comes to practical application, there‘s significant amount of data privacy interference and lack of awareness, while most serious breaches are conducted by public administration. Introduction The main challenge in personal data privacy is to share data, particularly in respect of freedom of information principles, while protecting personally identifiable information. Personally Identifiable Information („PII―) is a unique piece of data or indicator that can be used to identify, locate, or contact a specific individual (Staples, 2007, pp.383-386). What distinguish PII from other types of personal information is permission of identification by this information, as it may be sensitive, embarrassing or offensive in a way that individual may wish to keep it private. Data privacy issues can arise in response to a wide range of PII, including an individual‘s name; geographic, physical, or postal address; phone number; electronic mail address; bank or credit account numbers; and Social Security number. Some information can be collected anonymously, like state of residence, age, gender, race, purchases, or salary. However, personal information from various sources can be pieced together to create PII. For example, an Internet Protocol address does not, by itself, identify a specific person. But when combined with an Internet service provider‘s customer records, the combined information becomes PII (Staples, 2007). Remarkable increase in personal data privacy importance came with the advance of information technology. The information is collected, stored, and shared by individuals, organizations, but also government institutions. Exchange of personal data became necessary to enable or develop many activities, to communicate, obtain benefits or transact business. With such striking increase in importance, the issue became equally complex from legal point of view, because of different definitions of ―personal information‖ in different legal context. It is impossible today to collaborate with stakeholders in a foreign country without appreciation of complex regulations regarding data rights. Global technology, communications and outsourcing made it crucially needed to arrange regulatory mechanisms internationally. 674 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The legal protection of the right to privacy in general, and of data privacy in particular, varies greatly around the world. There is a significant challenge for organizations that hold sensitive data to achieve and maintain compliance with so many regulations that have relevance to information privacy. A lot of attempts are made to regulate privacy issues internationally that would be obligatory and acceptable for different countries. Those attempts to create universal principles of data privacy can be traced even before contemporary global data exchange challenges. The root for international standards in data privacy may be found in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 in Paris, and it reflects the consequences of Second World War. It consists of 30 articles which have been foundation for further international and national regulations. In the Article 12, Declaration define right to privacy, and unlike later privacy regulations, it prescribe no exception: “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” (General Assembly of the UN, 1948) But only in early 1970ties, government agencies in the United States and Europe have studied the manner in which entities collect and use personal information, their information practices and safeguards required to ensure adequate privacy protection. The result has been series of reports and regulations, while common to all are five core principles of privacy protection (Federal Trade Commission, 2007). These principles were first articulated in the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare's report entitled Records, Computers and the Rights of Citizens (Secretary's Advisory Committee, 1973). The five principles are: 1. Notice/Awareness - persons should be given notice of an entity's information practices before any personal information is collected from them. 2. Choice/Consent – persons should have options as to how any personal information collected from them may be used. 3. Access/Participation – person should have ability both to access data about him or herself, and to contest that data's accuracy and completeness. 4. Integrity/Security – data has to be accurate and secure. 5. Enforcement/Redress – there must be a mechanism in place to enforce the core principles of privacy protection. These principles are widely accepted at that time, and influenced data privacy legislation in following 30 years. Yet, these principles later have been criticized for being short and incomplete, allowing too many exemptions, and not keeping pace with information technology. There are numerous comprehensive data privacy principles developed later on, and most influential are contained in OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy (OECD, 1980), and EU Directive. Data Privacy in Europe Data privacy regulation has relatively long tradition, and it is generally considered to be strict and highly developed in EU. Its roots could be found in the European Convention on Human Rights from 1950. ECHR Convention is signed by 47 member states of the Council of Europe (―CoE‖), and one of them is BiH which signed and ratified it in 2002 (CoE, 1950). It sets forth a number of fundamental rights and freedoms, including right to respect private life, prescribed in Article 8. Member states undertake the responsibility to ensure these rights and freedoms to everyone within their jurisdiction, and the ECHR Convention establishes an international enforcement mechanism. European Court for Human Rights uses a very broad interpretation of this Article 8 in practice. It provides a right to respect for one's "private and family life, his home and his correspondence", subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". It may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which also adopted broad interpretation of the right to privacy in protecting private and family life. For example, very appealing modern-day issue of employee‘s privacy is judged in 2007 under Article 8 in case of Copland v. The United Kingdom (ECHR, 2007). In this case, ECHR found that UK had violated rights of privacy and correspondence of complainant, by the way of monitoring and keeping data of her telephone calls, e-mail correspondence and internet use. Employer, a state-administered body, under deputy principal request, monitored complainant‘s telephone, internet and e-mail use in order to discover whether she was making excessive personal use of them. In 1976, the Committee of Ministers recognizes the need for international binding agreement regarding data protection (CoE, 1981). This Committee recommended preparation of a convention for the protection of privacy in relation to data processing abroad and trans-frontier data processing, which finally resulted in CoE conclusion of 675 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data in 1981 (―Convention‖). Accordingly, this Convention is created due to need for international agreement in law application when automatic processing of personal data involves parties in different countries, for example usage of bank terminals in other countries. International mechanism have been necessary, having regard to rapid evolution of personal information handling at that time, so the states can inform and consult each other on matters of data protection. This Convention is the first binding international instrument which protects the individual against abuses caused by the collection and processing of personal data, and also regulates trans-frontier flow of personal data. It prohibits the processing of sensitive data, such as person‘s race, politics, health, religion, sexual life, criminal record. Restrictions on the rights prescribed in Convention are only possible when prevailing general interest is at stake, such as state security (CoE, 1981). This Convention obliges the signatories to enact legislation concerning the automatic processing of personal data, and it is signed and ratified by 41 member states of CoE. In 1995, European Commission, being still concerned with diverging data protection legislation, decided to harmonize it by proposing Directive 95/46/EC. To move toward harmonization, the European Parliament and CoE issued the Directive on the Protection of Personal Data (―Directive‖) (CoE, 1995). This Directive became the backbone of the current EU data privacy legislation. Directive is not legally binding for citizens, but rather member states have to transpose it into domestic law. As a result, EU member states incorporated it into domestic laws by the end of 1998, and established supervisory authorities to monitor level of privacy protection. For example, UK enacted Data Protection Act 1998 to bring UK law into line with the Directive, and this is the main act that governs data privacy protection in the UK (Information Commissioner‘s Office, 1998). The Directive aims to protect the rights and freedoms of persons with respect to the processing of personal data by prescribing guidelines for domestic legislation. These guidelines define when private data processing is lawful (CoE, 1995). Beside guidelines, it provided important list the eight enforceable principles of good practice for processing personal data (Information Commissioner‘s Office, 1998). Briefly, these principles, that every member state must comply with, specify that personal data must be: 1. Processed fairly and lawfully. 2. Obtained for specified and lawful purposes. 3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive. 4. Accurate and up to date. 5. Not kept any longer than necessary. 6. Processed in accordance with the ―data subject‘s‖ (the individual‘s) rights. 7. Securely kept. 8. Not transferred to any other country without adequate protection. Although the Directive offered most developed and world widely accepted data privacy standards today, recent study shows that it became outdated. The UK Information Commissioner‘s Office announced report in May 2009, stating growing fear that the current Directive is outdated and too bureaucratic. It says that Directive is often seen as burdensome and too prescriptive, and may not sufficiently address the risk to individuals‘ personal information (Robinson et al., 2009). Similar evaluation is given on the 4th annual Data Protection day in January 2010, calling for reform of the Directive (Reding, 2010). Concerns are raised by new challenges, such as behavioral advertising by using internet history, social networking sites, and smart chips used for tracing. It warns that data protection rules must be updated to keep abreast of technological change to ensure the right to privacy, legal certainty for industry, and the take-up of new technologies. Data Privacy in USA Data privacy regulations in United States are not highly regulated. USA use a so called ―sectoral‖ approach that relies on a combination of legislation, regulations, and self-regulation, but there is no all-encompassing law regulating processing and storage of personal data, comparable to EU Directive. These regulations, industry best practices and other binding structures have been enacted at the federal, state and even local level. They pertain to a variety of matters, like financial information, video rentals, electronic communications, or healthcare information. As a result, it is certain that one or more privacy law or regulation, local, state, or federal, does affect and govern some portion of many companies‘ activities (Gilbert, 2003). US data privacy legislation tends to favor information flow efficiency, rather than individual rights to control over their own personal data. The reasons for such approach have to do with American ―laissez-faire‖ economics, which allows industry to be free from state interventions and restrictions. Another reason is constitutional 676 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo right of free speech guaranteed in the First Amendment, providing broad interpretation in regard of information open flow. Historically, the legal requirements of privacy legislation in USA had slow development. Some of the first legal discussions started in 1890, when Louis Brandeis and Samuel Warren published the article ―The Right to Privacy‖ in the Harvard Law Review (Staples, 2007). However, regulations started increasing in frequency only since beginning of 1970ties. Additional impulse they got in late 1990ties, the time of EU Directive incorporation in European countries' legislation. There is a list of more than 40 privacy-related laws in USA, only on federal level, while each state has its own privacy-related laws and regulations (Herold, 2002, p.529). Some of the most important are: Fair Credit Reporting Act (1970), Privacy Act (1974), Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (1974), Right to Financial Privacy Act (1978), Electronic Communications Privacy Act (1986), Telecommunications Act (1996), Children‘s Online Privacy Protection Act (1999), Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (1996), etc. This complexity in US data privacy regulation, and having no comprehensive act on data privacy protection, became a barrier to US business with EU countries upon adoption of EU directive. As mentioned above, The EU Directive prohibits the transfer of personal data to non-EU countries if it doesn‘t meet the ―adequacy‖ standard of privacy protection, except in the cases of the derogations listed (CoE, 1995). Accordingly, it created a legal risk to organizations which transfer personal data from Europe to the US. Although US share the same goal of enhancing privacy protection for its citizens, the US took different approach to privacy from that taken by EU. In order to bridge these different approaches, and to simplify means for US organizations to comply with Directive, the US Department of Commerce in consultation with the European Commission developed a ―Safe Harbor‖ framework (Safe Harbor, 2000). “Safe Harbor” Framework EU Directive barred the transfer of personal data from EU citizens to businesses and other entities in countries without levels of privacy protection estimated as ―adequate‖ by the EU. Thus, the Directive sets de facto standards for data protection internationally. Accordingly, countries such as Canada, Australia, and Japan have implemented data protection laws that provide similar levels of protection for personal data. But the United States find it difficult, and rather have worked out special agreements with the EU so that US businesses can claim compliance with these principles (Staples, 2007, p.209). Such principles are supposed to simplify relations between US and EU businesses. At the time of EU Directive adoption, the prevailing American response reflected in denial. Dominant American belief was that European data privacy protection may disturb American interests in privacy protection policy that is consistent with its constitutional framework, free speech philosophy and deregulated market economy. At that time, some US critics proposed resistance to Directive, while others tried to prove that combination of sectoral legislation amounts to ―adequate‖ level of data protection. Still, general opinion was that the implementation of the Directive will produce confrontation over the ―adequate‖ context of data protection. While concerned with interest of US business with EU countries, they believe that EU have to decide whether purpose of Directive is to protect European citizens from processing their data abroad, or to promote adoption of equivalent data protection law around the world (Bennett & Raab, 1997). Because the US has no privacy legislation of general applicability, to help US companies comply with the EU privacy laws, the US Department of Commerce has implemented an International Safe Harbor certification program. It is approved as adequate providing protection of personal data by the European Commission in July 2000. The Safe Harbor addresses data privacy issue in unique way as voluntary program, rather than law imposed to all organizations. A US company that adheres to the Safe Harbor Principles and complete certification program, receive presumption from EU member states that it provide required level of personal data privacy protection (Gilbert, 2003). If dispute arise in relation to data transfer according to Safe Harbor program, it is ultimately resolved at European Data Protection Authorities Panel. Although it is reached as best possible solution, Safe Harbor program agreed between US and EU raised numerous issues. First of all, it is failing to balance fair interest in data privacy. This program allows that US companies abided by its provision afforded more privacy protection to Europeans than Americans under US laws. It seems that this agreement might prompt the US to shift its privacy policy in accordance with European standards, which views personal privacy as ―human‖ right. The US failure to enact privacy legislation of general applicability can be considered as continuing characterization of personal data privacy as ―consumer‖ rights issue, rather than ―human‖ rights (Brown & Blevins, 2002, p.565). Beside this issue of not balanced privacy rights, Safe Harbor has other complex issues like when personal data is transferred from EU to US, and then to third countries. Also, 677 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo participation in the Safe Harbor program has no effect on compliance with the requirements of privacy laws outside the EU area. Consequently, being not complete solution, Safe Harbor became a model for other controversial programs, like the ―U.S. – Swiss Safe Harbor‖ (Safe Harbor, 2000), and other bilateral agreements regarding personal data privacy between US and European countries. Bosnia and Herzegovina Regulations Regarding Data Privacy Development and implementation of rules and regulations in field of data privacy is considered as a very important step for BiH in terms of compliance with EU standards. With this orientation, the Law on Protection of Personal Data (―Law‖) became the foundation and marked new age of data privacy legislation in BiH. It prescribes establishment of supervisory agency and number of regulations, all in accordance to EU Directive. The Law prescribes, first of all, that no one has the right to handle personal data of citizens without their consent or a valid legal basis. The other principles of Directive are respected in Law, like the purpose of taking personal data, and timely and accurate processing of personal data. Also, every citizen must be informed that his personal data is being processed. According to Law, BiH‘s Data Protection Agency (―Agency‖) is established as supervisory authority and has become operational and begun its work in June 2008. Its key tasks are to supervise the implementation of the Law on Personal Data Protection; to investigate complaints by the public about possible breaches of data protection regulations; to order blocking, erasing or destroying of data, issue temporary or permanent bans of processing, issue warnings or reprimands to the controllers; to organize training and raise the awareness of government institutions as well as the wider public about data protection obligations; to provide advice and guidance on data protection matters; carry out inspections of government institutions to check whether they comply with the rules of data protection; and to ensure that no legislation infringes with the protection of personal data (Law on Protection of Personal Data, 2006). Beside Law, there are four book of rules enacted in 2009 (Official Gazette, 2009) supporting this Law. They are: Rules on the manner of keeping the records of personal data filing systems and the pertinent records form; Rules on the manner of keeping and special measures of personal data technical protection; Regulation on supervision inspection regarding protection of personal data; and, Regulation on procedure upon complaint by the data subject filed to the agency for personal data protection. Director of Agency also issued the Instruction on how to verify the processing of personal data before the establishment of collection of personal data. Regarding international regulations, worth to mention is a short list, defined by the Agency, of five most important international regulations applied on data privacy legislation and practice in BiH. These regulations are explained briefly in above part regarding European data privacy legislation. The key international sources for BiH data privacy legislation are: European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, adopted by BiH in 1999; Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, together with additional protocols entered into force in BiH in 2006; and Directive 95/46/EC, transposed in BiH Law on personal data protection in 2006. Beside these, BiH adopted Directive 2002/58/EC in 2002, at the same time when new legislative framework designed to regulate the electronic communication sector. It is known as Directive on Privacy and electronic communications, and contains provisions on a number of sensitive topics, such as the keeping connection data for the purposes of police surveillance, the sending of unsolicited e-mail, the use of cookies and the inclusion of personal data in public directories (Directive on privacy, 2002). It also known as E-privacy Directive, as it mainly regulates important privacy issues in digital age, such as confidentiality of information, treatment of traffic data, spam and cookies (E-Privacy Directive, 2003). BiH also adopted Recommendation No. 15 and addition on Committee recommendation regulating the use of personal data in the police sector. The CoE Committee of Ministers recommends with it that the governments of Member States respect a series of principles concerning control and data collection, notification of automated files, storage, use and communication of data for police purposes, and rights of access, rectification and appeal to police files (CoE, 1987). Data Privacy Protection as Condition for BiH Visa Liberalization Most important factor that influenced data privacy environment in last 5 years obviously was condition to join EU. One of publicly most talked benefits of joining EU is freedom of travel, which more specifically means visa liberalization. Very hard and expensive ways of obtaining visa for most countries in the world have been frustration for BiH citizens almost 20 years. Getting advantage of traveling in EU without visa would certainly mean victory equal to becoming an actual EU member state. 678 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo BiH signed Stabilization and Association Agreement in June 2008 with European Communities and their member states, where Article 79 is dedicated to protection of personal data. This Article prescribe that ―Bosnia and Herzegovina shall harmonize its legislation concerning personal data protection with Community law and other European and international legislation on privacy upon the entry into force of this Agreement. Bosnia and Herzegovina shall establish independent supervisory bodies with sufficient financial and human resources in order to efficiently monitor and guarantee the enforcement of national personal data protection legislation.‖ (Stabilization and Association Agreement, 2008). One of the key conditions for BiH visa liberation is securing full respect for fundamental principles of data protection. This has been emphasized since Law on Personal Data Protection has been enacted in June 2006, and it has been driving force for drafting data privacy legislation until today. Seminars and trainings have been conducted since then, supported by European Commission and including European trainers, as it was not be realistic to expect visa liberalization regime without paying due attention to this issue. Project supporting Commission for BiH Data Protection, existed at that time, prepared seminars for specific sectors, like police, bank, health and telecommunications, but also public campaign. Enactment of the Law by the BiH Parliamentary Assembly has provided full compliance and implementation of European standards in the area of respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms, particularly the right to privacy. The Law also prescribed the establishment of the Agency, which should be engaged in supervision over the enforcement of Law and respect for privacy rights regarding breaches of personal data. However, although planned to be established immediately, the Agency started to function only in June 2008 (Kazagic, 2009). It had only three employees, director with two associates, until beginning of 2009. By the beginning of 2010, agency works still with insufficient capacities, and has only 16 employees, although Book of Rules on Internal Organization prescribed 45 employees (About the Agency, 2010). As additional indication of importance of data privacy protection for European integration process, there is a fact that Director of Agency, Petar Kovacevic, have been appointed as member of workgroup for liberalization of visa regime. The task of this group is working on requirements fulfillment of the recently presented the Roadmap, which including preparation of action plans of the Roadmap sections (Sjednica VijeĤa Ministara, 2009). According to September 2009 report of this workgroup for liberalization of visa regime, Personal Data Protection Agency is fully functional, while regulations on personal data protection are fully implemented (Interresorna radna grupa, 2009). The European Union show significant interest in increasing the level of data protection, especially in the sector of the police forces in BiH. In this regard, it has provided 250,000 Euros for the project "Support to the Personal Data Protection Agency of BiH". The project lasted from October 2009 to march 2010, and it is implemented by Personal Data Protection Agency Saxony in cooperation with BiH Agency. The project consisted of three activities: legislation analysis and harmonization of personal data protection legislation in accordance with the EU Standards; strengthening of institutional and human resources capacities of the Agency in order to enable it to fulfill its competencies; strengthening of awareness and capacities of public institutions processing personal data (European Union, 2009). This project, implemented by experts from Germany and Slovenia, has been evaluated as highly successful by EU Delegation in BiH. The result of the project is that legislation in the field of protection of personal data has been brought into full compliance with relevant EU standards (EU će budno pratiti, 2010). However, there are recently expressed diverse opinions about functionality of private data protection system in BiH. European Commission presented BiH with an updated assessment of the Roadmap implementation for visa liberalization in June 2009. It states, in part regarding personal data protection, that two tasks are still needed: - Measures to make the Data Protection Agency fully operational - Measures taken to ensure the implementation of the rules for personal data protection (European Commission, 2009). Even in the latest assessment (European Commission, 2010, p.35) of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Commission concludes again that no fully operational independent Data Protection Agency has been put in place yet, even though Director of the Agency was appointed in June 2008. Main critics have been directed to adoption of additional required by-laws, and ensuring implementation of the Law in all relevant areas. Having in mind these opposing views, the head of the EU Delegation in BiH, Dimitris Kurkulas, said recently that the EU will very closely monitor compliance with data protection in BiH, especially when it comes to liberalizing the visa regime (EU Ĥe budno pratiti, 2010). He emphasized importance of future cooperation in the international field in the area of data protection and information sharing, which requires the need to respect the rules and regulations concerning the protection of personal data. 679 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Lack of Citizen’s Awareness of Data Misuse Misuse of personal data in BiH is notable for years. Each registration is risky, as usually there is no guarantee of privacy, or it is written in small letters that they have claim to your information. Data can be used only for the purpose for which they were collected, but those who collect data are not sufficiently aware of their legal obligations and keep them longer than they should. Every citizen in BiH has the right to submit a complaint to the Agency when one learns or suspects that one‘s personal data is unlawfully processed. There are complaints, but unfortunately, the awareness of citizens regarding personal data protection, and rights that derive from it, are on the same low level as before Law was enacted. There have been only ten complaints of citizens against data privacy violation until December 2009 (Kazagic, 2009). Agency is working on a campaign to improve this situation, and most evident was their campaign in late 2009 and beginning of 2010, when project of EU supporting development of Agency was implemented. Citizens of BiH are very often required to provide private data, from shopping centers to public institutions, and they get not used to resist it. Although citizens don‘t have sufficient awareness, still, those who demand their personal data are responsible for seeking and processing such data. Data collectors may use data only for the purpose for which it is collected, but arbitrary use of personal data exist. For example, citizens are forced to give a Unique Identification Number (UIN) for almost every little thing, and almost every paper form require this information. UIN is also called Unique Master Citizen Number, and it has similar purpose like Social Security Number in USA. Law on UIN precisely prescribe who can use this number, for what purpose, and if consent of citizen is required. It is interesting that Law on UIN listed BiH institutions of local government and entities having the right to use a UIN, but does not mention public companies, banks or shops, who usually request this number from citizens when payment is arranged in rates. ID card may be given for identification purpose, but prescribing or copying UIN number from ID card is against the law. This is why Agency requested modifying Law on Identity Card, and to prohibit from using copies. BiH Public Administration The recent information shows that public institutions are those who mostly undermine the right of BiH citizens on data privacy (Agencija zatražila, 2010). BiH legislation emphasize that personal data must be private property, and no public institution should use it without explicit permission in law. But in BiH practice it happens to be different. There are numerous cases of using personal data without required permission of citizen. Although Law exists for years, they behave against Law when it comes to dealing with citizens‘ UIN. Even further, more than three years from the enactment of Law in 2006, most of public institutions still didn‘t adopted sublegal regulations required by this Law. Public institutions are required, according to Article 11 of the Law, to adopt Book of Rules for Processing Personal Data, and Plan for Protection of Personal Data. Although there are penalty provisions, most public authorities failed to comply with the Law in this regard. It is assumed that legacy of the past political system made public authorities believe that they own and control data, including personal. Agency intends to protect citizens from these practices. They already initiated process to amend the Law on ID card, to include prohibition from using the copy of card, where possibilities of identity theft are noticeable (Krsman, 2009a). As further step, Agency recently announced implementation of misdemeanor warrants in order collecting fines that may go up to 100.000 KM. Most serious violations prescribed by Law are related to the processing and transfer of personal data into foreign countries, and such practice exist in BiH. Penalties are provided for violating the Law, and the Agency is still working on integrating into ―Sanctions Registry‖, which is precondition for imposing sanctions. No sanctions are imposed yet, although Law is enacted about 4 years ago, and violators are not penalized so far. First activities of the Agency have been focused on establishing functional inspection, and some urgent inspection control has been conducted in June 2009 over 20 public institutions, including police agencies and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The condition of data privacy protection has been evaluated as ―unacceptable‖ (Kazagic, 2009) and certain public companies have been ordered to destroy databases of citizens‘ UIN‘s because they have no right to collect and keep such data. The next steps in 2010 in ensuring of data privacy are again focused on public administration and public companies. Agency has planned to establish main register with information about all databases containing private data in BiH public administration (Krsman, 2009a). 680 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo BiH Data Privacy Cases Agency found out that most common deficiencies in the processing of personal data are inherited practices, a lack of knowledge about regulations, lack of rules and procedures, and lack of plans for the protection of personal data (Institucije BiH, 2009). Following four cases reflect the data privacy protection deficiencies in BiH environment. All cases involve public administration or public enterprises. 1. When seeking the license for possession of the weapon in Sarajevo, a citizen come to Ministry of Interior (MoI) and apply, and then he is directed to next office where he is requested to bring Police Clearance Certificate. He is supposed to pay for obtaining this Certificate. However, Certificate is issued by MoI, same ministry that requested him to obtain the Certificate. Obviously, they could obtain requested data in ex-officio procedure, rather than requesting it from a citizen. And not just that citizen is obliged to seek from MoI and provide to MoI certificate about personal information, but also he has to pay 35KM tax for this data processing. Agency is of opinion that this practice must discontinue, and that determination of tax is not according to law (Krsman, 2009a). 2. Agency received a number of citizens‘ complaints that their unique identification numbers (UIN) and other confidential information are exposed to public eyes by Public Enterprise ―Elektroprivreda‖. The problem is raised more than year after Law is enacted, when citizens recognized illegally presented private data on their electricity bills. These bills are left in (or nearby) mailboxes in hallway of building, and they are not in envelopes, so every neighbor can read private data contained on bill. Irregular payers of utilities are sometimes listed on special notice in building hallway. This case ended by Decision of the Agency, dated 8th May 2009, that orders Elektroprivreda blocking and deletion of personal data (UIN) of electricity consumers. Elektroprivreda denied possibility of personal data abuse, even though they possess personally identifiable information (Krsman, 2009b). Rather than use of UIN, Agency advised public enterprises to use consumer codes. Public companies meanwhile changed the system of printing bills, and discontinued printing UIN. 3. Sarajevogas Company, main natural gas distributor, has similar disputable system of personal data processing like Elektroprivreda. Although they deny possibility of abuse, it is easy to obtain personal data of costumer by simply typing customer code on their website. This code is contained on customer‘s bill, often unprotected in residents‘ building hallway mailboxes, where postman leave it. The data reachable on Sarajevogas website with this code include UIN, name, address and monthly debts of the customer (Krsman, 2009b). 4. In April 2010, the nongovernmental organization Kroacija Libertas filed with State Investigation and Protection Agency criminal charges against editor of the political magazine ―60 Minutes‖, Bakir Hadziomerovic, and against other persons employed at Agency for ID documents (IDDEEA), due to violating the Law. The charges alleged that in the past year, journalists and editors in this political magazine of Federal television continuously published photos of people, information about time and place of birth, current residence, UIN and other information downloaded from the software of the IDDEEA, which is under the jurisdiction of the BiH Ministry of Civil Affairs. IDDEEA dismissed allegations that representatives of this institution provided Federal television journalists access to protected personal data of citizens. This Agency claim that all control mechanisms of data protection have been implemented and integrated into the system, according to European Commission‘s recommendation, so such leak of information is impossible. (Krivična prijava, 2010). This controversial case is still pending, with very serious charges of criminal and irresponsible behavior of journalists who provided strictly copyrighted and personal data to general public, while some of these data should have been preserved by the state of BiH and its institutions. Conclusion The importance of data privacy and the worldwide efforts in regulation of this area reflected in BiH as well, with considerable delay comparing with EU countries. Some of the factors for dramatic improvement of recent data privacy legislation are the same in BiH like in most other countries. First of all it is rapid expansion of the information technology and its usage in data management. Among key factors are also democratization processes which urge respect of human rights. Another factor is more regional, and it regards EU integration processes requiring legislation compliance. Finally, specific factor is environment based on ex political system legacy in BiH, which made these efforts challenging. BiH has aspiration to go towards EU integration with fast pace, and on this road it is trying to enact all regulations with full compliance with EU standards. Thus, it completely integrated general principles of European data privacy into the Law on Personal Data Protection of BiH, with special respect to EU Directive requirements which became world standard on promoting data privacy protection. Personal Data Protection Agency of BiH is working hard to implement these regulations, but the practice of personal data misuse transferred from old system is hard to eliminate. Recent cases illustrate inability of easy 681 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo implementation of data privacy protection, and its application is far from being satisfactory. Relevant independent international reports prove that additional efforts are needed for data privacy regulation functioning in practice. To make a progress in data privacy protection, BiH need to raise awareness of data subjects, first of all citizens, who still don‘t hesitate to give in their personal data when inquiring certain benefits. Then it needs to raise awareness of public administration and public enterprises which are still among most serious violators. Public administration demonstrated its commitment to the unacceptable practice of being comfortable in collecting and having control over citizen‘s personal data. And lastly, BiH needs judicial system that will ensure efficient trial of data privacy violations, to eliminate practice of recent cases, where violators passed unpunished. References About the Agency. (2010). Personal Data Protection Agency of BiH. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.azlp.gov.ba/index.php?type=1&a=pages&id=1 Agencija zatražila izmjene Zakona o ličnoj karti [The agency has requested amendments to the Identity Card Law]. (2010, February 8). Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.24sata.info/vijesti/dogadjaji/25860-Agencija-zatrazila-izmjene-Zakonalicnoj-karti-drzava-gradjanima-krade-licne-podatke.html Bennett, C.J., & Raab, C.D. (1997). The adequacy of privacy: The European Union Data Protection Directive and the North American Response. Information Society, Jul-Sep97, Vol. 13, Issue 3. Brown, D.H., & Blevins, J.L. (2002). The Safe-Harbor Agreement Between the United States and Europe: A Missed Opportunity to Balance the Interests of E-Commerce and Privacy Online. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Dec2002, Vol. 46 Issue 4. Council of Europe. (1950). Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Retrieved from http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=005&CL=ENG Council of Europe. (1981). Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data. Retrieved from http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/HTML/108.htm Council of Europe. (1987). Summary of the Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R(87) 15 to the Member States on regulating the use of personal data in the police sector. Retrieved from http://polis.osce.org/library/details?doc_id=2670&_ru=%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%3Fdoc_id%3D2658 Council of Europe. (1995). Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data. Official Journal L 281 of 23.11.1995. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/privacy/docs/95-46-ce/dir1995-46_part1_en.pdf and http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/information_society/l14012_en.htm Directive on privacy and electronic communications. (2002, July 12). Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector. Official Journal L 201 of 31.07.2002. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/information_society/l24120_en.htm E-Privacy Directive, The. (2003). Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, November 2003. Retrieved from http://www.freshfields.com/publications/pdfs/practices/7078.pdf EU Ĥe budno pratiti poštivanje zaštite ličnih podataka [EU will closely monitor compliance with data protection]. (2010, March 23). Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.nezavisne.com/dogadjaji/vijesti/55789/EU-ce-budno-pratiti-postivanje-zastitelicnih-podataka.html 23.03.2010 European Commission. (2009). Annex of the updated assessment of the implementation by Bosnia and Herzegovina of the roadmap for visa liberalisation. Retrieved from http://www.esiweb.org/rumeliobserver/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/detailedconditions-for-bh.pdf European Commission. (2010, April 19). Updated Assessment of the implementation by Bosnia and Herzegovina of the roadmap for visa liberalization. Retrieved from http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/White%20List%20Project%20Paper%20%20Bosnia%20assessment%2019%20April%202010.pdf 682 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo European Court of Human Rights. (2007). Case of Copland v. United Kingdom. (2007) 45 EHRR 37, [2007] ECHR 253. Retrieved from http://www.bailii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/2007/253.html European Union provided 250.000 euro for the project ―Support to the Personal Data Protection Agency in BiH‖. (2009, October 14). Retrieved from http://www.delbih.ec.europa.eu/?akcija=vijesti&akcija2=pregled&jezik=2&ID=539 Federal Trade Commission. (2007). Fair Information Practice Principles. Retrieved from http://www.ftc.gov/reports/privacy3/fairinfo.shtm General Assembly of the United Nations. (1948, December 10). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ Gilbert, F. (2003). Privacy Laws - An Overview. IT Law Group. Retrieved from http://www.itlawgroup.com/Resources/Publications/PrivacyOverview.html Herold, R. (2002). Overviews of Privacy-Related U.S. Laws and Regulations. The Privacy Papers: Managing Technology, Consumer, Employee, and Legislative Actions. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press LLC. Information Commissioner‘s Office. (1998). Data Protection Act. United Kingdom legislation. Retrieved from http://www.ico.gov.uk/what_we_cover/data_protection.aspx Institucije BiH nezakonito traže uvjerenje o nekažnjavanju [Institutions of BiH illegally seeking a certificate of no criminal record]. (2009, December 19). Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.radiosarajevo.ba/content/view/17128/63/ Interresorna radna grupa za pregovore o liberalizaciji viznog režima za građane Bosne i Hercegovine. (2009). Izvještaj o izvršavanju Plana aktivnosti za ispunjavanje preostalih obaveza iz Mape puta za liberalizaciju viznog režima za period 15.07.2009. – 07.09.2009. [Report on implementation of Action Plan for fulfilling the remaining commitments under the Roadmap for the liberalization of visa regime for the period 15.07.2009. – 07.09.2009]. VijeĤe Ministara BiH, Sarajevo, 07.09.2009. p.31-32. Kazagic, E. (2009, December 18). Zaštita ličnih podataka [Protection of Personal Data]. Retrieved from http://www.hayat.ba/vijesti/hayat-vijesti/14182-zatita-linih-podataka Krivična prijava protiv Bakira HadžiomeroviĤa [Criminal charges against Bakir Hadziomerovic]. (2010, April 20). Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.nezavisne.com/dogadjaji/vijesti/58256/Krivicna-prijava-protiv-Bakira-Hadziomerovica.html Krsman, N. (2009a, December 22). Petar KovačeviĤ: Lični podaci su svojina građanina, a ne države [Petar Kovacevic: Personal data is the property of the citizen, not a state]. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.nezavisne.com/dogadjaji/intervju/50803/Petar-Kovacevic-Licni-podaci-su-svojina-gradjanina-a-ne-drzave.html Krsman, N. (2009b, February 06). Lični podaci dostupni u haustoru [Personal data available in the hallway]. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.nezavisne.com/dogadjaji/vijesti/36589/Licni-podaci-dostupni-u-haustoru.html Law on Protection of Personal Data. (2006). Official Gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina 49/06. Comments retrieved from http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/schengen_white_list_bosnian_visa_breakthrough.pdf p.52 Official Gazette of Bosnia and Herzegovina. (1999, 2004, 2009). No. 6/99, 7/04, 51/09, 52/09, 67/09 and 76/09. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1980, September 23). Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.oecd.org/document/18/0,3343,en_2649_34255_1815186_1_1_1_1,00.html Reding, V. (2010, January 28). Europeans' Privacy will be big challenge in next decade. European Commission‘s press release IP/10/63. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/63 Robinson, N., Graux, H., Botterman, M., & Valeri, L. (2009). Review of the European Data Protection Directive. Information Commissioners Office (ICO), UK. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.ico.gov.uk/upload/documents/library/data_protection/detailed_specialist_guides/review_of_eu_dp_directive.pdf Safe Harbor. (2000). US-EU Safe Harbor Framework. US Department of Commerce. Retrieved from http://www.export.gov/safeharbor/ 683 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Secretary's Advisory Committee on Automated Personal Data Systems. (1973, July). Records, Computers and the Rights of Citizens. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://aspe.hhs.gov/DATACNCL/1973privacy/tocprefacemembers.htm Sjednica VijeĤa Ministara. (2009, July 21). Održana 10. tematska sjednica VijeĤa ministara BiH [10th thematic session of the Council of Ministers held]. Council of Ministers press release. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.vijeceministara.gov.ba/saopstenja/sjednice/saopstenja_sa_sjednica/?id=8782 Stabilization and Association Agreement between Bosnia and Herzegovina and the European Communities and their member states. (2008). Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.dei.gov.ba/bih_i_eu/ssp/doc/Default.aspx?id=2952&pageIndex=1 Staples, W.G. (2007). Encyclopedia of privacy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 684 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 308 Title A name given to the resource Legal Discussions in Data Privacy and the Environment in Bosnia- Herzegovina Author Author SAMİR, Husic KUTLUK, Ozguven Abstract A summary of the resource. Dramatic increase in importance of data privacy came with advance of information technology. Global domination of information exchange is forcing governments to establish international standards and regulatory mechanisms in order to protect data privacy. These efforts resulted in general principles of data privacy, which have been widely accepted, but also difficulty for diverse legislations. While Europe has highly developed and human rights oriented data privacy regulations, USA has less regulated and business enhancing oriented approach. Such discrepancy resulted in continious international discussions and agreements towards regulation‘s harmonization. Data privacy regulations in BiH has radical boost recently. The main push was protection of data privacy as condition for visa liberalization with EU countries, making BiH data privacy in full compliance with EU standards. However, when it comes to practical application, there‘s significant amount of data privacy interference and lack of awareness, while most serious breaches are conducted by public administration. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3397 Title A name given to the resource LEGAL ENGLISH DISCOURSE: GENRE AND CULTURE-SPECIFICITY Author Author Yankova, Diana Abstract A summary of the resource. Legal discourse is very much tainted by political, ideological, historical, cultural characteristics, much more so than the language of mathematics or technology. Independently of any culturally, historically and linguistically determined variation, legislation has, however, one and the same function across cultures - it regulates behaviour. The different legal systems have one and the same goal, which is the administration of justice. The aim of this presentation is to discuss the common features of the statutory text in different legislative contexts in terms of its communicative purpose, the participants in the communication, production strategies and then highlight how the diversity in legal ratiocination affects the form and content of legislative expression. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fc3aafcd6280f83c4396c5bf9a3cb314.docx 7abad62cf0dd1fe8bb4953f0e43ceb3e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e26029ad1474f739fef75956cf835097.pdf fee15d215505f3d847e01e139bd62cc4 PDF Text Text Legal Perspectives on EU Integration Process of BIH: Analyses ofthe European Commission Progress Report 2013 for BIH ElvirČolak Social Science Research Center Bosnia and Herzegovina elvir.colak@ibu.edu.ba Kemal Balihodžić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina kemal.balihodzic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina has gained a status of “potential candidate country” for the accession to the European Union by the decision of the European Council in Thessaloniki in 2003, and has thus faced many obstacles in its integration process to the European Union. According to the EU integration criterion that takes a form in the economic, political, social and legal context, the authors of this paper raise the question on the legal context and issues that BH has to overcome in order to come closer to the EU idea. In this regard, the paper analyses the European commission 2013 progress report for BH as the main source as well as other relevant secondary reports in order to outline the issues in hand. The paper aims to elaborate the EU-BH integration process within the framework of legal obligations highlighting the legal instruments, institutions, systems and structures that define the legal context in this regards. Unfortunately, there are many legal challenges and the need to reform core institutional structures within the state as well as developing a practical and theoretical strategy for the BH-EU accession process that harmonizes the regulations within BH of that within the EU. Without analyzing the political criteria and the role within foreign policy, BH still has structural and institutional issues from the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) and lacks sufficient legal requirements, and the insufficient acknowledgement for the rule of law. Keywords: EU integration process, Rule of Law, legal criteria, EU accession, legal obligation, integration strategy, EU progress report 2013 for BH, European commission 25 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2455 Title A name given to the resource Legal Perspectives on EU Integration Process of BIH: Analyses ofthe European Commission Progress Report 2013 for BIH Author Author ČOLAK, Elvir BALIHODŽIĆ, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina has gained a status of “potential candidate country” for the accession to the European Union by the decision of the European Council in Thessaloniki in 2003, and has thus faced many obstacles in its integration process to the European Union. According to the EU integration criterion that takes a form in the economic, political, social and legal context, the authors of this paper raise the question on the legal context and issues that BH has to overcome in order to come closer to the EU idea. In this regard, the paper analyses the European commission 2013 progress report for BH as the main source as well as other relevant secondary reports in order to outline the issues in hand. The paper aims to elaborate the EU-BH integration process within the framework of legal obligations highlighting the legal instruments, institutions, systems and structures that define the legal context in this regards. Unfortunately, there are many legal challenges and the need to reform core institutional structures within the state as well as developing a practical and theoretical strategy for the BH-EU accession process that harmonizes the regulations within BH of that within the EU. Without analyzing the political criteria and the role within foreign policy, BH still has structural and institutional issues from the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) and lacks sufficient legal requirements, and the insufficient acknowledgement for the rule of law. Keywords: EU integration process, Rule of Law, legal criteria, EU accession, legal obligation, integration strategy, EU progress report 2013 for BH, European commission Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 816 Title A name given to the resource Legalese in Maritime English Curriculum Author Author Culic, Adelija Kalebota, Sara Abstract A summary of the resource. Maritime English is an example of ESP crucial to its users on board ships as much as a lifejacket. Nevertheless, some of its aspects have so far been neglected, and legalese is definitely one of them. The opinion has been confirmed lately upon the implementation of 2006 Maritime Labour Convention and Manila Amendments to the STCW (Standards on Teaching, Certification and Watch-keeping) Convention for seafarers which came into force on January 1, 2012. Seafarers on foreign-going ships with international crews commonly get a copy of the legal document on board their ships, but the drawback is its being written in an English language different from the ESP they were trained to use once afloat. Since the document of the kind is vitally important for seafarers to get acquainted with their rights on board during their contracts, they should be taught basics of legal English in the course of their education. Students should be taught the most common characteristics of the legal language and trained in the understanding of the specific lexis and syntax. For this purpose appropriate language exercises should be devised and implemented by maritime English lecturers in higher education institutions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d0e8b168c49cc12aa4d1305781245b7.pdf 15e6a8034e20e126680ac7fbe3ef62bc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Deja PiletiĤ Faculty of Philosophy, NikńiĤ University of Montenegro, Montenegro dejacet@t-com.me Abstract: This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Key words: pedagogical translation, translation, lexical errors, error analysis Ovaj rad nastoji da razvrsta, opińe i objasni najĦeńĤe leksiĦke greńke koje se srijeĤu u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika i predstavlja dio jednog sveobuhvatnijeg istraņivanja, koje ima za cilj analizu i klasifikaciju najuĦestalijih prevodnih greńaka karakteristiĦnih za razliĦite jeziĦke nivoe. Korpus na kome se navedeno istraņivanje sprovodi obuhvata prevode studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. U nastojanju da pribliņimo kontekst spomenutog istraņivanja, u uvodnom dijelu rada reĤi Ĥemo neńto o ńkolskom prevoħenju i o ciljevima koji se njegovom primjenom u nastavi ņele postiĤi. 1. Školsko prevoħenje i školski prevod Iako je u okvirima razliĦitih lingvistiĦkih teorija i glotodidaktiĦkih metoda Ħesto dovoħen u pitanje, dugotrajan i kompleksan odnos izmeħu prevoħenja i nastave stranih jezika nikad nije u potpunosti prekinut, a gledano iz perspektive savremenih nauĦnih saznanja Ħini se da je ovaj odnos prirodan, te da do njegovog prekida ne moņe i ne treba ni da doħe. ĥak i kada je, u jeku popularnosti audiovizuelnog metoda i prilikom raħanja komunikativnog pristupa, prevoħenje u svakom svom obliku bilo odbacivano iz nastave stranih jezika, ono nikad nije u potpunosti napustilo nastavni proces, posebno kada je u pitanju izuĦavanje jezika na univerzitetskom nivou. Danas je sve veĤi broj autora, koji nastoje da uklone talog nevjerice i nepovjerenja u odnosu na prevoħenje u didaktici stranih jezika za Ħije je nastajanje odgovorna upravo njegova neumjerena i neadekvatna upotreba u okvirima i u maniru gramatiĦko-prevodnog metoda. ZasnivajuĤi svoje stavove i argumente na rezultatima modernih istraņivanja na polju nauke o prevoħenju, kognitivne lingvistike i metodike nastave, ovi autori58 pozivaju na preispitivanje i ponovno vrednovanje znaĦaja, uloge i mjesta prevoħenja u savremenoj glotodidaktici. Oni na razliĦite naĦine nastoje da dokaņu da, ukoliko se primjenjuje na pravi naĦin, s pravim ciljem i u pravoj mjeri, prevoħenje moņe da bude od velike koristi i da pruņi odliĦne rezultate u uĦenju i nastavi stranih jezika. PojaĦano interesovanje za prevoħenje, naroĦito u posljednje tri decenije, povezano je, meħutim, ne samo sa njegovom didaktiĦkom ulogom veĤ i sa njegovom didaktikom. Naime, s poveĤanjem svijesti o znaĦaju prevoħenja, ubrzano se razvija nauka o prevoħenju, a sama djelatnost uzdignuta je na akademski nivo. Profesionalnim prevodiocem postaje se, dakle, sticanjem univerzitetske diplome mahom specijalistiĦkih i postdiplomskih studija, a prevoħenje se doņivljava kao vjeńtina za koju nije dovoljan samo prirodni talenat, veĤ koja se stiĦe kombinovanjem teorijskih znanja i prakse. Dakle, u kontekstu prevoħenja i nastave moņemo govoriti o prevoħenju kao „sredstvu― i prevoħenju kao „cilju―, o ńkolskom (gloto-didaktičkom) odnosno profesionalnom (stručno-didaktičkom) prevoħenju, tj. o 58 Calvi (2003), Gonzales Davies (2004), Sewell (2004), Carreres (2006), Di Sabato (2007), Landone (2008), House (2009), itd. 350 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prevoħenju u funkciji jeziĦke vjeņbe, provjere znanja i objańnjenja pojedinih jeziĦkih sadrņaja59 na jednoj i prevodilaĦkoj kompetenciji kao svrsi i glavnom cilju upotrebe prevoħenja u nastavnom procesu na drugoj strani. U istom kontekstu pravi se razlika izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog prevoda. Naime, preneseno na univerzitetski nivo sticanja znanja iz jezika odnosno iz prevoħenja, studentski prevod koji nastaje kao proizvod prevoħenja na osnovnim univerzitetskim studijama bliņi je ńkolskom, dok je studenstki prevod na specijalistiĦkim ili master studijama prevoħenja bliņi profesionalnom, iako se sa njim joń uvijek ne moņe poistovjetiti. Pojedini autori insinsistiraju na jasnoj distinkciji izmeħu gloto-didaktiĦkog i struĦno-didaktiĦkog prevoħenja. Ne ņeleĤi da negiramo razliku, koja nesumnjivo postoji, mi dijelimo mińljenje onih koji dovode u pitanje potrebu i uopńte moguĤnost povlaĦenja ońtre granice izmeħu njih 60. Naime, upotrebom ńkolskog prevoħenja, koje svakako prethodi profesionalnom, kroz praktiĦan rad61, zajedno sa jeziĦkim, studenti se po prirodi stvari istovremeno upuĤuju u prevodilaĦki proces i neizbjeņno upoznaju neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih vjeńtina. To, po nańem mińljenju, svakako treba posmatrati kao dodatnu korist. Na ovakvom stavu zasnovani su i ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja u okviru osnovnih studija na Katedri za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. 2. Ciljevi školskog prevoħenja sa stranog na maternji jezik Dva su osnovna cilja koja se ņele postiĤi ovom vrstom prevoħenja: - Usvajanje, upotreba, utvrħivanje i prońirivanje znanja koja se tiĦu italijanskog jezika i kulture; - Usmjeravanje studenata ka sticanju sposobnosti reprodukovanja ciljnog teksta funkcionalno ekvivalentnog sa izvornim. Iako je drugi od navedena dva cilja vezan prije svega za pofesionalno prevoħenje i podrazumijeva vladanje vińim stupnjevima jeziĦke kompetencije, smatramo da ga nije nemoguĤe dostiĤi ni na nivou o kojem mi ovdje govorimo. Treba imati u vidu, naime, da je ovdje rijeĦ o prevoħenju autorskih tekstova 62 (kraĤi odlomci iz savrmenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka) Ħiji je izbor uslovljen predviħenim nivoom jeziĦke kompetencije studenata druge, odnosno treĤe godine osnovnih studija Italijanistike. Tome ide u prilog i Ħinjenica da se prevodi na maternji jezik, pa se pretpostavlja sposobnost studenta-prevodioca i da intuitivno bira elemente iz jeziĦkog repertoara sopstvenog jezika. Gore navedeni ciljevi, dakle, podrazumijevaju:  razvoj jeziĦkog znanja na svim nivoima;  razvoj kompetencije razumijevanja pisanog teksta;  usavrńavanje kompetencija vezanih za maternji jezik;  upuĤivanje studenata ka nekim od osnovnih nivoa prevodilaĦke kompetencije: -upoznavanje sa prvim koracima u pocesu povezivanja izvornog i ciljnog teksta; -razvijanje kreativnosti, upornosti, samokritike, samouvjerenosti; razvijanje autonomije; -razvijanje sposobnosti da se prepoznaju pojedini prevodilaĦki problemi i sposobnosti njihovog prevazilaņenja; -upoznavanje studenata sa razliĦitim savremenim prevodilaĦkim pomagalima i sa njihovom upotrebom. Treba svakako napomenuti da su ciljevi ovdje predstavljeni uopńteno, te da se u zavisnosti od nivoa studija (II ili III godina) prednost daje jednima u odnosu na druge. 59 Eksplikativno prevoħenje. U tom smislu slaņemo se sa Carreresovom:―Modern language departments cannot and should not try to double up as translator training institutions. However, I believe that bringing classroom work closer to the professional world can only be of benefit to our students. In my view, the divide between the teaching of translation as a language learning tool and as a professional activity has been overemphasized to the point of preventing useful dialogue and exchange‖. (Carreres 2006:12) 61 Nagalńavamo kroz praktičan rad iz razloga ńto na osnovnim studijama nijesu predviħeni predmeti koji se tiĦu opńte teorije prevoħenja, prevodilaĦkih tehnika, analize teksta i sl, a koji se podrazumijevaju na kursevima za obuĦavanje profesionalnih prevodilaca. 62 Suprotno od gramatiĦko-prevodnog matoda koji podrazumijeva prevoħenje vjeńtaĦkih, dekontekstualizovanih reĦenica, ili tekstova nastalih u namjeri da se izvjeņba odreħeno gramatiĦko pravilo. 60 351 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Evaluacija školskog prevoda Evaluacija tj. provjera kvaliteta prevoda kljuĦni je pojam koji se tiĦe kako ńkolskog tako i profesionalnog prevoħenja. BuduĤi da ove dvije vrste prevoħenja u osnovi imaju razliĦite ciljeve, razliĦitu publiku i razliĦite „ocjenjivaĦe‖, ocjena kvaliteta prevoda kao njihovih ishoda zasniva se na razliĦitim kriterijumima i nema istu svrhu. Ranije u tekstu smo spomenuli da je jedna od funkcija pedagońkog prevoħenja provjera znanja i napretka kod studenata u dostizanju ciljeva odreħenih nastavnim planom. Ova provjera ne podrazumijeva uvijek dodjelu ocjena i kredita, ona se sprovodi tokom cijele ńkolske godine kako bi usmjerila dalji rad kako studenata, tako i profesora. U namjeri da, izmeħu ostalog, utvrdimo i koje su to najvece prepreke na putu ka postizanju navedenih ciljeva, pokrenuli smo nańe istraņivanje na korpusu studentskih prevoda. Ovom prilikom, baviĤemo se, kao ńto smo na samom poĦetku rekli, najĦeńĤim leksiĦkim greńkama i njihovim uzrocima. 4. Korpus studentskih prevoda Korpus istraņivanja Ħine studentski prevodi raħeni na kolokvijumima, pismenim vjeņbama, zavrńnim ispitima i pismenim domaĤim i ńkolskim zadacima, u toku ńkolske 2008/2009. i 2010/2011. godine. RijeĦ je o prevodima odlomaka savremenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka, prilagoħenih planiranom i pretpostavljenom nivou jeziĦke i, uslovno reĦeno, prevodilaĦke kompetencije, studenata druge i treĤe godine. Od prevodilaĦkih pomagala na ispitima i kolokvijuma studenti se koriste jednojeziĦkim rjeĦnicima, prilikom rada na Ħasu raspolaņu i pristupom internetu. 5. Binarne i ne-binarne greške U teņnji da napravi razliku izmeħu prevodilaĦkih i jeziĦkih greńaka u studentskim prevodima, Antony Pym (1992:280) nudi jednu opńtu podjelu na „binarne― (binary) i „ne-binarne― greńke (non-binary errors). Ova podjela zasnovana je na autorovoj opńtoj definiciji prevodilaĦke kompetencije, koja po njemu predstavlja jednistvo sljedeĤe dvije vjeńtine: -vjeńtine stvaranja niza ciljnih tekstova - target texts (TT1, TT2...TTn) kao ekvivalenata za jedan izvorni tekst – source text (ST) i -vjeńtine izdvajanja samo jednog iz spomenutog niza ciljnih telstova, u odnosu na posebnu namjenu i ciljnu publiku izvornog teksta. Osnovna razlika izmeħu ove dvije vrste greńaka je sljedeĤa: „binarne― greńke uzrokovane su izborom pogreńnog odgovora, a „ne-binarne― ne predstavljaju pogreńan odgovor, veĤ samo jedan od moguĤih, ali ne i najprihvatljiviji. A binary error opposes a wrong answer to the right answer; non-binarism requires that the TT actually selected be opposed to at least one further TT1 which could also have been selected, and then to possible wrong answers. For binarism, there is only right and wrong, for non-binarism, there are at least two right answers and then the wrong ones. (Pym 1992: 282) 5.1. Binarne greške LeksiĦke greńke koje Ĥemo analizirati na korpusu studentskih prevoda, prema ovoj podjeli, spadaju najveĤim dijelom u „binarne― greńke, tj. greńke uzrokovane pogreńnim prevodom odreħene rijeĦi ili izraza u datom kontekstu. Pod pogreńnim prevodom u ovom sluĦaju podrazumijevamo potpunu promjenu znaĦenja rijeĦi. NajrazliĦitije uzroke ove vrste greńaka mogli bismo svesti na pet opńtih: -nedovoljno vladanje kompetencijom Ħitanja tj. razumijevanja teksta63; -praznine u jeziĦkom znanju na razliĦitim nivoima (sintaktiĦkom, leksiĦkom, morfolońkom); -stvaranje laņnih parova/laņnih prijatelja/kalkova -nedovoljno razvijene neke od osnovih prevodilaĦkih potkompetencija (prije svega vjeńtine pravilne upotrebe prevodilaĦkih pomagala) i osobina poput istrajnosti i preciznosti; -praznine u enciklopedijskom znanju (znanje iz opńte kulture), neobavijeńtenost. 5.2. Ne-binarne greške 63 Evropski jeziĦki portfolio (Little, Perclova 2003: 116, 120) za nivoe jeziĦke kompetencije B2 i C1, Ħije je dostizanje predviħeno u toku II i III godine osnovnih studija, kada je u pitanju vjeńtina Ħitanja, podrazumijeva, izmeħu ostalih i sljedeĤe sposobnosti: „Mogu da razumijem Ħlanke i izvjeńtaje o aktuelnim temama u kojima se izraņavaju posebni stavovi i brane odreħene pozicije. Mogu da razumijem specijalizovane Ħlanke izvan mog domena, pod uslovom da mogu s vremena na vrijeme da se posluņim rjeĦnikom― odnosno: „Sa lakoĤom mogu da Ħitam savremene knjiņevne tekstove. Mogu da prepoznam druńtveni, politiĦki ili istorijski kontekst nekog knjiņevnog djela. Mogu da se udaljim od fabule u nekom literarnom teksu i prepoznam poruke, ideje i implicitne odnose. Mogu da razumijem kompleksne tekstove izvjesne duņine―. 352 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Na istom korpusu uoĦili smo i „ne-binarne― greńke tj. one koje su, uslovno reĦeno, vińe prevodilaĦke nego jeziĦke prirode. Za nańu analizu one su takoħe bitne, buduĤi da prevoħenje na univerzitetskim studijama jezika, kao ńto smo ranije napomenuli, podrazumijeva i upuĤivanje studenata u proces prevoħenja i u neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih tehnika. U ovu vrstu greńaka moņemo svrstati prevode koji naruńavaju stil ciljnog teksta, ili njegovu pragmatiĦku funkciju, ali ne i njegov smisao. ĥesta pojava u studentskim prevodima jeste i izostavljanje pojedinih rijeĦi i suprotno, dodavanje vińe varijanti prevoda jedne iste rijeĦi. Uzroke nastanka ovih greńaka pronalazimo u nedostatku upornosti, istrajnosti, kreativnosti i samouvjerenosti, osobina koje podrazumijeva prevodilaĦka kompetencija. 6. Omaške Nepreciznost, brzopletost, dekoncentrisanost stoje u osnovi omańki. Ove izazivaju pogreńan prevod, koji polazeĤi sa nivoa rijeĦi nerijetko uzrokuje niz greńaka na razliĦitim jeziĦkim nivoima. Na ovaj naĦin kao proizvod prevodilaĦkog procesa dobijamo tekst sa promijenjenim smislom, ili joń ĦeńĤe, tekst lińen smisla. 7. Klasifikacija leksiĦkih grešaka prema uzroku nastanka U prethodnom poglavlju nastojali smo da pobrojimo opńte uzroke nastanka jeziĦkih i prevodilaĦkih greńaka i omańki na nivou leksike. Sada Ĥemo nastojati da ih klasifikujemo nezavisno od njihove prirode i teņine. U ovu klasifikaciju Ĥemo uvrstiti i omańke, s obzirom da imaju ozbiljne posljedice po smisao ciljnog teksta. Sve Ĥemo potkrijepiti primjerima pronaħenim u okviru istraņivaĦkog korpusa. LeksiĦke greńke o kojima je rijeĦ karakterińu oba prethodno spomenuta nivoa uĦenja jezika. NeĤemo, meħutim, praviti poreħenja u cilju utvrħivanja koje su od njih prisutnije na niņem, odnosno na vińem nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. Neophodno je takoħe napomenuti da je u priliĦno velikom broju sluĦajeva leksiĦka greńka uzrokovana spregom vińe razliĦitih uzroka, kao i to da jedna greńka Ħesto za sobom vuĦe niz drugih. To Ĥe se uostalom vidjeti i u samim primjerima. 7.1. Stvaranje laţnih parova Kod Ivira (1984: 106) nailazimo na sljedeĤu definiciju: „Laņni parovi su parovi jeziĦnih (ne samo leksiĦkih) jedinica u dva razna jezika koje imaju neńto zajedniĦkog, ali nisu u svemu jednake―. Isti autor dalje navodi: „DjelimiĦna sliĦnost jeziĦkih jedinica na kojoj prevodilac gradi svoje shvaĤanje o njihovoj jednakosti moņe biti u sliĦnosti oblika [...], zatim u zajedniĦkom metajeziĦkom nazivu koji obuhvaĤa obje jedinice [...], te napokon u nekim, ali ne svim aspektima semantiĦkog sadrņaja [...]―. Laņni parovi su najizrazitiji upravo na nivou leksike. Ivir (1984: 108-122) navodi sljedeĤe vrste laņnih parova koje odlikuje isti ili sliĦan oblik: 1. Laņni parovi s jednakim znaĦenjima 2. Laņni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima 3. Laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju 4. Izmińljeni parovi 7.1.1. Laţni parovi sa istim znaĦenjem To su parovi rijeĦi dva razliĦita jezika koje imaju sliĦan oblik i isto znaĦenje, ńto, meħutim, ne znaĦi da ih odlikuje ista upotrebna vrijednost i kolokacijski potencijal tj. moguĤnost kombinovanja sa drugim rijeĦima i stvaranje manje ili vińe Ħvrstih leksiĦkih sklopova. (Ivir:108). laņni par izraz karakteristiĦan za netaĦan prevod predloņeno rjeńenje lansirati alarm diĤi uzbunu italijanski novinski jezik lanciare – lansirati allarme - alarm lanciare l'allarme (II i III god.) LeksiĦki parovi sa istim/sliĦnim oblikom i istim znaĦenjem Ħesto pripadaju tzv. internacionalizmima – rijeĦima koje su Ħesto oba jezika preuzela iz nekog treĤeg. Ukoliko se ne radi o struĦnim tekstovima, stilskom nivou ciljnog teksta najĦeńĤe odgovara domaĤi termin (pod pretpostavkom da postoji). Evo nekoliko primjera takvih parova koje nalazimo na obraħenom korpusu: 353 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo internacionalizmi primjer moguĤa prevodna rjeńenja internazionale: ...l'agenzia internazionale per l'energia atomica... ...internacionalna (bolje: meĎunarodna) agencija za atomsku energiju...(III god) contaminare: ...il tratto immediatamente antistante ...pojas neposredno preko kontaminirati la centrale di Fukushima [...] zagaditi è fortemente contaminato. puta centrale u Fukuńimi [...] jako je internacionalni meħunarodni kontaminiran (bolje: zagaĎen). (III god.) SliĦno je i sa primjerom: adolescenza - adolescencija (pubertet), immaginazione-imaginacija (mašta) i sl. 7.1.2. Laţni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima To su parovi koji imaju sliĦan oblik, ali im se znaĦenja ne preklapaju. (Ivir: 109) laņni par reĦenica netaĦan prevod Se accetti oltre Stipendio- stipendija ad avere un aumento notevole stipendio... di Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu stipendiju... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu platu... SliĦno je i sa pogreńnim prevodnim sparivanjima poput: frase-fraza, evidenziare-evidentirati i sl. na koje smo naińli prilikom analize nańeg korpusa. Ova vrsta greńaka ne nastaje, meħutim samo usljed homonimije/homofonije meħu rijeĦima maternjeg i stranog jezika koji se uĦi, veĤ moņe nastati i usljed negativne interferencije iz nekog drugog stranog jezika kojim studenti (djelimiĦno ili u potpunosti) vladaju: caldo-cold (engl.), parente- parent (engl.), matto- mattar (španski) itd. laņni par reĦenica Matto - lud Il re che andava matto per quella figliuola... Mattar - ubiti 7.1.3. netaĦan prevod Kralj, koji bi ubio zbog te djevojĦice... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Kralj, koji je bio lud za tom djevojĦicom... Laţni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju Kako Ivir (111) navodi, laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem znaĦenja rijetko se spominju kao laņni parovi, ali su ipak oni potencijalno daleko opasniji kao izvor prevodnih greńaka nego pravi laņni parovi. Ovu Ħinjenicu autor objańnjava psiholońkim razlozima koji su, kada je u pitanju pogreńno poistovjeĤivanje leksiĦkih 354 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo jedinica iz dva jezika znatno jaĦi nego u sluĦaju laņnih parova sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjem, buduĤi da, kako on kaņe, ovdje djeluje i pritisak sliĦnog oblika i zajedniĦkog dijela znaĦenja. predloņeno rjeńenje laņni par primjer iz prevoda netaĦan prevod studio-studio A lanciare l'allarme è Na uzbunu poziva Na uzbunu poziva jedan studio uno studio di Nielsen Media. jedno istraţivanje/jedna studija Nielsen Media. (II god.) Insegno da anni Godinama predajem Godinama predajem u in un istituto tecnico u jednom jednoj tehničkoj školi istituto-institut kompanije „Nielsen Media― tehničkom institutu (III god.) [...] alla fine dell'anno ...ako neki student ...ako neki učenik nije dobro prońao nije dobro prońao... se uno studente iz nekog predmeta – iz nekog predmeta – non va bene in una primjera radi iz primjera radi iz materia - per esempio in matematica- supera matematike – prelazi u matematike – prelazi u studente- student l'anno con un «debito». naredni razred sa jednim naredni razred sa jednim „dugovanjem― „dugovanjem― .(II god.) Ovaj sluĦaj ilustruju i parovi poput: tecnico-tehničar, impianto-implant i sl. 7.1.4. Izmišljeni laţni parovi O ovoj vrsti laņnih parova Ivir (115) kaņe sljedeĤe: Prevodioci su ponekad spremni, pogotovu kada prevode na strani jezik kojim ne vladaju dosta dobro stvoriti leksiĦki par u stranom jeziku po uzoru na rijeĦ svojega maternjeg jezika, u punom uvjerenju (bez provjeravanja!) da ta rijeĦ doista postoji u tom stranom jeziku. U nekim sluĦajevima to znaĦi stvaranje cijele rijeĦi, a u drugima samo pogreńno spajanje pojedinih djelova rijeĦi – obiĦno sufiksa i prefiksa s osnovom. Ova pojava se, meħutim, moņe sresti i u prevodima na maternji jezik. data rijeĦ nepostojeĤi oblik prevod collaboratore kolaborator (II god.) saradnik irriverente iriverentan (III god.) drzak; neuĦtiv carbone karbon (III god.) ugalj 355 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Za graħenje nepostojeĤih rijeĦi u prva dva od navedenih primjera najvjerovatnije je odgovorna analogija nańeg imeniĦkog sufiksa -ator i pridjevskog sufiksa –entan sa italijasnkim sufiksima –tore i -ente koji imaju zajedniĦko porijeklo u latinskom jeziku. Naime, sufiks–ator, kao i njegov italijanski „roħak― – tore, koriste se za izvoħenje imenica sa znaĦenjem vrńioca radnje. Tako je, vjerovatno pod uticajem pravih parova poput: comunicatore-komunikator, coordinatore-koordinator i sl. Nastao izmińljeni par: collaboratore-kolaborator. SliĦno je i sa pridjevom irriverentan. Student ni ne dovodi u pitanje postojanje ovog pridjeva u svom maternjem jeziku. On mu naprosto „dobro zvuĦi― buduĤi da sliĦni parovi veĤ postoje (irrilevante - irelevantan, latente latentan, trasparente-transparentan i sl.) 7.2. Greške usljed pogrešnog izbora znaĦenja rijeĦi u kontekstu reĦenica ...i tecnici giapponesi hanno ora cambiato strategia e smesso di irrorare i noccioli con acqua di mare, per il timore che il sale corroda gli impianti. pogreńan prevod ...japanski tehničari su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase lješnike morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so nagristi biljke64 (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...japanski stručnjaci su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase jezgra [nuklearnih postrojenja] morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so izazvati koroziju postrojenja. Osim ńto ukazuju na neadekvatnu upotrebu rjeĦnika, ove greńke su pokazatelj nemara i povrńnosti kod studenata, koji prevode izvorni tekst preskaĦuĤi i prvu i posljednju fazu prevodilaĦkog procesa tj. Ħitanje sa razumijevanjem, odnosno provjeru gotovog prevoda. To potvrħuje Ħinjenica da ovakve prevode vrlo Ħesto karakterińe odsustvo ikakvog smisla. Postavlja se pitanje kako prevaziĤi ovu vrstu greńaka. BuduĤi da se rad studenata kod kuĤe ne moņe nadgledati, preostaje vrijeme provedeno na Ħasu tokom kojeg se oni moraju „natjerati― da se u velikoj mjeri posvete analizi samog teksta i utvrħivanju problema, prije nego ńto poĦnu da prevode. 7.3. Greške uzrokovane zamjenom hiperonima i hiponima KarakteristiĦan primjer za ilustraciju ove vrste greńaka jeste italijanska imenica uomo, koja oznaĦava ljudsku vrstu (čovjek), ali i njenog pripadnika muńkog pola (muškarac). SliĦno je i sa italijanskom imenicom: bestia koja oznaĦava ņivotinjsku vrstu uopńte, a moņe da ima i uņe znaĦenje: stoka, dok se u sintagmi, Ħiji drugi element biva Ħesto izostavljen: bestia (feroce), prevodi nańom imenicom: zvijer. Navedena znaĦenja u studentskim prevodima Ħesto bivaju zamijenjena. reĦenica ...E non soltanto gli uomini si disinteressano di questo spettacolo ma anche le bestie. pogreńan prevod ...Ne samo da se za ovaj dogaħaj ne interesuju muškarci veĤ ni zvijeri. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...ne samo da se ljudi ne iteresuju za ovaj dogaħaj, veĤ ni ţivotinje. ...Tu abbracciatelo bene, baciagli l'orecchio che gli uomini perdono la testa quando gli baci l'orecchio... ...Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer ljudi gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. (III god.) Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer muškarci gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. 7.4. Greške uzrokovane nepoznavanjem sintaktiĦkih i tvorbenih svojstava rijeĦi reĦenica In quel tempo ero innamorato di mia di moglie: rotonda, 64 pogreńan prevod Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu: okruglastu, blijedu, predloņeno rjeńenje Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu onako privlačnu bijele puti, rumenu i s oblinama O ovoj vrsti greńaka vidi u poglavlju 7.6. 356 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bianca e rosa, appetitosa. ...per assistere alla levata del sole rumenu, halapljivu/dobrog apetita (II god.) ...da bismo pomogli izlasku sunca (II god.) ...da bismo prisustvovali izlasku sunca U prvom primjeru voljena supruga umjesto epiteta: privlačna, poţeljna dobija epitet halapljiva, zato ńto u osnovi izvedenog pridjeva student prepoznaje imenicu appetito (apetit), ne obraĤajuĤi paņnju na sufiks -oso koji joj donosi novo, pridjevsko, znaĦenje. Ova greńka povlaĦi za sobom i greńku u odabiru prevoda za pridjev rotonda. Naime, ako je veĤ „dobrog apetita―, onda je dama o kojoj se govori prirodno i okruglasta, buckasta, debeljuškasta ili elegantno popunjena (II godina). Drugi primjer ilustruje nerazlikovanje prelaznih i neprelaznih oblika pojedinih glagola, pa samim tim i njihovih znaĦenja. 7.5. Greške uzrokovane prevoħenjem metodom rijeĦ za rijeĦ Doslovni prevodi najĦeńĤi su uzrok greńaka na frazeolońkom nivou i na nivou stila, a vrlo Ħesto naruńavaju i smisao prevoda. reĦenica Ho messo l'occhio allo spioncino... ...aveva alzato un po' troppo il gomito. Per questo aveva dormito sodo netaĦan prevod Stavila sam oko na ńpijunku...(III god.) ...malo je previńe podigao lakat, pa je zato tvrdo spavao. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Pogledala sam kroz ńpijunku... ...malo je više popio, pa je zbog toga čvrsto spavao. 7.6. LeksiĦke greške uzrokovane „unutarjeziĦkim― formalnim sliĦnostima izmeħu pojedinih rijeĦi Ovakve greńke najvjerovatnije nastaju usljed sliĦnosti po zvuku izmeħu rijeĦi Ħije je znaĦenje student ranije usvojio i neke druge rijeĦi iz nje izvedene ili jednostavno samo po obliku sa njom sliĦne, ali potpuno drugaĦijeg znaĦenja. reĦenica ...uno scrittore che ritiene gli uomini discendenti dagli spiriti netaĦan prevod ... pisac koji zadrţava/drţi ljude... (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...pisac koji smatra da su ljudi potekli od duhova... uzrok greńke - sliĦnost: ritenere – rattenere/detenere U analiziranom korpusu naińli smo na veliki broj sliĦnih primjera: campus-campo, zotico-esotico, sentiero-sentimento, complesso-complicazione, impianto-pianta itd. 7.7. Greške do kojih dolazi uslijed nepaţljivog Ħitanja teksta Iako spadaju u omańke, ovakve nepaņnje Ħesto potpuno obesmisle prevod utiĦuĤi dalje na krajnji ishod prevoħenja. reĦenica netaĦan prevod taĦan prevod uzrok greńke: La regina era morta di parto Kraljica djelimično god.) Kraljica je umrla na poroĎaju parto-parte je bila mrtva (II Po istom principu pramenovi kose Tine Tarner u jednom prevodu postaju „...sjajni i crni kao ugljenik― (lucidi e neri come carbone/ carbonio) (III god.). 7.8. Greške uzrokovane pogrešnim odabirom registra u ciljnom tekstu Ova vrsta greńke moņe da se javi na raznim nivoima u tekstu. Mijeńanje registara nije nińta manja greńka od pogreńnog odabira registra na nivou teksta kao cjeline. U ovom sluĦaju govorimo o leksiĦkim greńkama Ħiji uzrok leņi u pogreńnoj registarskoj obojenosti koja nije u skladu sa pragmatiĦkom funkcijom izvornog niti ciljnog teksta. 357 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reĦenica C'era una volta un Re che aveva una bimba. La regina era morta di parto, e il Re aveva preso una balia che gli allattasse la piccina… A Vittorio Emanuele le donne belle, alte [...] erano sempre piaciute. Se a volte ―s‘infervorava‖ di piccole e brutte... netaĦan prevod Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kraljica bjeńe umrla na poroħaju, pa je kralj morao da unajmi bebisiterku kako bi mu čuvala dijete― (II god.) Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „primao― na male i ruņne... predloņeno rjeńenje Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kako je kraljica umrla na poroħaju, kralj je morao da uzme dojilju kako bi dojila djevojĦicu. Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „zagrijao― za neku sitnu i ruņnu... U prvom primjeru imenica bebisiterka, iako se u rjeĦniku nalazi pobrojana meħu sinonimima italijanske imenice balia, suvińe je moderna da bi za nju mogla predstavljati dobro prevodno rjeńenje u bajci koja veĤ prvom reĦenicom smijeńta radnju u davna vremena. Osim imenicom bebisiterka, balia je prevoħena i kao: ţena, sluškinja, sluţavka, hraniteljka, dadilja, pa Ħak i babica, a ni u jednom od studentskih radova nije se nańla rijeĦ dojilja, ńto je joń jedan od dokaza da studenti veoma Ħesto ne vode raĦuna o ńirem kontekstu i da ne sagledavaju tekst u cjelini. Na konkretnom primjeru je oĦigledno kako jedna greńka za sobom povlaĦi i niz drugih. Izbor da se balia prevede kao dadilja, ţena, sluţavka, bebisiterka uticao je i na pogreńan prevod glagola allattasse (dojiti), koji je u ovim sluĦajevima preveden kao čuvati/brinuti se o/podizati/odgajati. Student koji se odluĦio da balia prevede kao babica ostatak teksta prilagodio je „na svoju ruku― tom odabiru: „...a kralj je doveo babicu koja je porodila djevojčicu―. 7.9. Greške uzrokovane prazninama u enciklopedijskom znanju Znanje iz opńte kulture i obavijeńtenost igraju vaņnu ulogu u razumijevanju izvornog teksta, pa samim tim i u prevodilaĦkom procesu. Praznine u tom tzv. enciklopedijskom znanju mogu da uzrokuju greńke na razliĦitim nivoima teksta. BuduĤi da je jezik jednog naroda nerazluĦiv od njegove kulture u najńirem smislu te rijeĦi, uĦeĤi jedan jezik, uĦimo i o naĦinu ņivota i pogledu na svijet naroda koji se tim jezikom sluņi. U tom pogledu prevoħenje nam pomaņe i u podizanju svijesti ne samo o jeziĦkim veĤ i o kulturnim sliĦnostima i razlikama izmeħu dva razliĦita naroda. Kao primjer za ovu vrstu greńke, posluņiĤe nam prevod jednog segmenta teksta koji govori o amajlijama koje Italijani najĦeńĤe koriste protiv malera. Tu, naime, cornetti rossi (Ħuveni crveni roščići) postaju crvene kifle, crveni konac, crvene potkovice, bijeli luk. U prvom sluĦaju nepoznavanje tog karakteristiĦnog simbola, vezanog posebno za kulturu juņnog dijela Italije, uticalo je na to da se imenica cornetto ne prepozna kao deminutiv imenice corno-rog, veĤ se, bez razmińljanja, uzima u svom drugom znaĦenju – kroasan, kifla. Ostale varijante prevoda ukazuju na negativnu interferenciju kulture ciljnog jezika. Naime, crveni konac, potkovica, pa i bijeli luk jesu znaĦenjski ekvivalenti crvenih roščića u nańoj kulturi, ali im nikako nije mjesto u tekstu Ħija je osnovna namjera da nam pruņi informacije koje vezano za fenomen sujevjera karakterińu upravo Italijane. Ispravan prevod dobijen je samo u sedam od ukupno petnaest ispitnih tekstova. 8. ZakljuĦak Cilj ovog rada bio je da se prikaņu leksiĦke greńke koje su uoĦene na korpusu prevoda studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. Ovdje nijesmo govorili o tome koje su od navedenih greńaka karakteristiĦnije za niņi, a koje za vińi stepen uĦenja italijanskog jezika na spomenutom univerzitetskom nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. StatistiĦki obraħeni i uporeħeni rezultati, zajedno sa rezultatima analize greńaka na ostalim jeziĦkim nivoima istog korpusa, pomoĤi Ĥe nam da utvrdimo kako teĦe proces usvajanja planom predviħenih jeziĦkih znanja, i u kojoj mjeri su ostvareni glavni ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja. Na taj naĦin dobiĤemo smjernice koje Ĥe nas uputiti u poboljńanje pojedinih segmenata nastavnog procesa. Ono ńto je oĦigledno jeste da studentima treba bolja „obuka― u korińĤenju jednojeziĦnog rjeĦnika i interneta prilikom prevoħenja. U tom smislu, treba insistirati na njihovom korińĤenju na samim vjeņbama. Koliko god to vremena od Ħasa oduzimalo, profesor, kao koordinator procesa prevoħenja, ne bi trebalo da daje rjeńenja prevodilaĦkih problema, veĤ da natjera studente da sami do njih doħu, eventualno uz pomoĤ njegovih smjernica. 358 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Doprinos u savladavanju uzroka najfrekventnijih greńaka mogao bi da pruņi i potencijalni udņbenik za prevoħenje65 koji bi sadrņao dodatak sa malim rjeĦnikom laņnih parova i sa napomenama o kontrastivnim razlikama izmeħu dva jezika koje su se u rezultatima istraņivanja pojavile meħu ĦeńĤim uzroĦnicima greńaka na razliĦitim nivoima. Joń jedno veoma vaņno pitanje koje se nameĤe i o kome treba povesti raĦuna jeste usklaħenost teorijskih predmeta i vjeņbi iz jezika, buduĤi da sam Ħin prevoħenja predstavlja spregu svih steĦenih jeziĦkih i vanjeziĦkih znanja. References Calvi, M. V.(2003). La traduzione nell‘insegnamento delle lingue e nello studio dei linguaggi specialistici. http://www.ledonline.it/ledonline/tradurrespagnolo/tradurrespagnolo_02_calvi.pdf Carreres, A. (2006). Strange bedfellows: Translation and Language teaching. The teaching of translation into L2 in modern languages degrees; uses and limitations. http://www.cttic.org/ACTI/ papers/Carreres.pdf Di Sabato, B.(2007). La traduzione e l'apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue. http://www.glottodidattica.net/Articoli/articolo1_04.pdf House, J.(2009). Translation, Oxford University Press Ivir, V. (1984). Teorija i tehnika prevoĎenja. Novi Sad: Centar «KarlovaĦka gimnazija» Sremski Karlovci zavod za izdavanje udņbenika. LazareviĤ, R. (2009). ZnaĦaj upotrebe rjeĦnika u nastavi stranog jezika. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B (priredile), Individualizacija i diferencijacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti (str: 207-213). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009). Predlog udņbenika za vjeņbe prevoħenja s italijanskog jezika na vińim godinama studija. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B. (priredile), Autonomija učenika i nastavnika u učenju i nastavi jezika (str. 313-317). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ Little, D, Perclová, R. (2003) Evropski jezički portfolio namijenjen nastavnicima i mentorima. Podgorica: Ministartvo prosvete i nauke Pym, Anthony (1992). Translation Error Analysis and the Language Teaching, in: Cay Dollerup & Anne Loddegaard (priredile), The Teaching of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 279-288 SamardņiĤ, M. (2008). Studentski prevod izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog ocenjivanja. U VuĦo, J. (priredila), Evaluacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti. Zbornik radova (str.133-145). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. 65 O tome u LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009) 359 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 52 Title A name given to the resource LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Author Author Piletić, Deja Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/61943e1a9cab7217b72e923627a9bbf8.pdf ac29c16826953794065cd9d2c6edd3cd PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Length-length and length-weight relationships of the round sardinella Sardinella aurita Valenciensis, 1847 (Osteichthyes, Clupeidae) from the Aegean Sea Bahar Bayhan, Ali Kara Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, 35100 Bornova-Izmir, Turkey E-mail: bahar.bayhan@ege.edu.tr Abstract This study describes the length-weight (LWR) and length-length (LLR) relationships of round sardinella Sardinella aurita (Linnaeus, 1758) from Izmir Bay, Turkey. A total of 1948 specimen of S. aurita collected from fisherman’s catch with gillnets from November 2004 to October 2005 were used for this study. Fish size ranged in total length (TL, minimum) 15.0 cm for males, 14.2 cm for females and 14.2 cm for both sexes. The parameters a and b of the length-weight relationships were calculated as W=aLb and LWRs for males, females and the total sample population determined to be W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and W=0.0027L3.340 respectively. The values for allometric coefficient b of the LWRs showed positive allometric growths in the both sexes. LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL equation in all sexes and combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows: TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL, FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further indicated that LLRs were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01). Keywords: Round sardinella, Sardinella aurita, length-weight relationship, condition factor, Izmir Bay, Aegean Sea. 1. INTRODUCTION Length-weight relationhips, LWRs, are important because they; (a) allow the conversion of growth-in-length equations to growth-in-weight, (b) for use in stock assessment observations; (c) allow an estimate of the condition of fish and (d) are useful for between region comparisons of life histories of a certain species (Wooton, 1990; Pauly 1993; Petrakis and Stergiou, 1995; Gonçalves et al., 1997; Binohlan et al., 1998; & Moutopoulos and Stergiou, 2002). Relationships between different types of length (length-length relationships, LLRs), are also very important for comparative growth studies and also useful in local and interregional morphological and life historical comparisons in species and populations. In fish studies, fish length is often more rapidly and easily measured than mass. Thus information on the lengthweight relationships makes it more convenient to determine mass where only the length is known. In the field, the tail flukes of fish are often cut, making it difficult to measure the total 110 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo length correctly to measure the total length. Knowledge of the standard length should allow the total length to be determined (Binohlan et al., 1998; & Lalèyè, 2006). The aim of this study is to determine relationships of length-weight and length-length in S. aurita captured from Izmir Bay in central Aegean Sea and find out monthly differences in view of the parameters involved. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fish samples were collected monthly during commercial fishing trials using gillnets from Izmir Bay (Fig. 1). The study period was from November 2004 to October 2005. Gillnets used to catch S. aurita in Izmir bay have the characteristics below: twine thickness 210 D/3 no, multiflament mesh size (bar length) 23-25 mm, 105-210 meshes deep, hanging ratio of the float line, E=0.67. Gillnets are utilized as drift nets ranging from 800 to 1600 m in length. They are usally used within 5m from surface down to bottom. Mean annual temparature of sea water in Izmir bay is 18.5 Cº with the lowest 10.5 Cº in February and the highest 25 Cº in July. Figure 1 Sampling locality of Sardinella aurita in Izmir bay (central Aegean Sea) . 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Length-weight and length-length of S. aurita inhabiting Izmir Bay of central Aegean Sea in Turkey were estimated by sexes and sampling time. All relationships were found to be significantly linear in all cases. 111 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo A total of 1948 individuals were sampled during the study period and the shortest, 14.2 cm TL and the longest, 28.5 cm TL individuals obtained in August. It was determined that 52.4% of the fish were female (n=1014), 47.5% male (n=921) and 0.07% immature (n=13). Because immature individuals did not reach adult body shape, length-weight relationship was not measured (Froese, 2006). The sex ratio was not significantly different from parity (x2=4.469; p˂0.01). female:male ratio was calculated as 1:10. Erkoyuncu (1995) and Avşar (1998) pointed out that female:male ratio may vary between 1:1 and 1:1.3 in a typical population. The values obtained in our study were within the reasonable range expected for a natural population. Monthly length-weight relationships for males, females and the total sample population were determined as W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and W=0.0027L3.340 respectively (Table 1). The b value was used in the length-weight relationship as the indicator of the growth type of S. aurita, to find out whether there deviation from isometric growth had occurred between the sexes and among the sampling times. Monthly LWRs of S. aurita presented in Table 1 show that the calculated allometric coefficients vary between 2.121 (May) and 3.777 (February) in males and between 2.350 (October) and 3.762 (December) in females. As expected, an allometric relationship was observed between length and weight of the species. In males, allometry was closer to isometry, however total population found a positive allometry including males and females. Gonadal development affected the relationship between length and weight of the individuals positively, of females in particular. The t-test was used to compare a significant distinction between the calculated slope (b) values and the cube of the length (Table 1). Male and female individuals did not exhibit a significant difference during spring summer and autumn months, however they showed a significantly defined variation especially in winter months, which was found to be caused by the fact that gonads mature in winter when the slope value of female individuals was highest in particular. On the other hand, slope values (b) of males began to increase in autumn to reach maximum in winter in the same way as in females. In winter months, abdomen of the fish increased most just because of gonadal development, with a even more positive allometric growth. The intercept a values diminished in winter for both female and male individuals as compared to the rest of the year. The index of length-weight pointed to winter months when reproduction occurs intensively and condition is minimum. All allometric coefficients (b) estimated in this study were within the expected range 2.1-3.7, and according Benegal and Tesch (1978); Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) allometric coefficients may range from 2 to 4. 112 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1235 Title A name given to the resource Length-length and length-weight relationships of the round sardinella Sardinella aurita Valenciensis, 1847 (Osteichthyes, Clupeidae) from the Aegean Sea Author Author Bahar, Bayhan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study describes the length-weight (LWR) and length-length (LLR) relationships of round sardinella Sardinella aurita (Linnaeus, 1758) from Izmir Bay, Turkey. A total of 1948 specimen of S. aurita collected from fisherman’s catch with gillnets from November 2004 to October 2005 were used for this study. Fish size ranged in total length (TL, minimum) 15.0 cm for males, 14.2 cm for females and 14.2 cm for both sexes. The parameters a and b of the length-weight relationships were calculated as W=aLb and LWRs for males, females and the total sample population determined to be W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and W=0.0027L3.340 respectively. The values for allometric coefficient b of the LWRs showed positive allometric growths in the both sexes. LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL equation in all sexes and combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows: TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL, FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further indicated that LLRs were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01). Keywords: Round sardinella, Sardinella aurita, length-weight relationship, condition factor, Izmir Bay, Aegean Sea. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d7300c730ac69fde94b8513ba3e5435e.pdf 1d51ac9fb36e24aaf5265b2485dfdfec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Gültekin YILDIZ Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Sakarya University, Turkey yildizg@sakarya.edu.tr Adem BALTACI Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Kırklareli University, Turkey adem.baltaci@kirklareli.edu.tr Abstract: Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Keywords: Performance Appraisal Errors, Leniency and Severity Errors, Collectivist and Individualist Culture. Introduction Performance appraisal whose necessity and benefits have been proved by numerous researchers has been presented as an objective and rational function in business management books and guide books; most of its appraisal methods have been developed basing upon the assumption that the raters will be objective and free from prejudice in their observation and decisions. Otherwise; it does not matter how perfectly and impeccable your system works for the errors will be inevitable during the process since the people who will carry out the appraisal and the ones who will be affected by its results are all human beings. When the complexity of today’s human behavior patterns and the inadequacy of the appraisal systems in encompassing these behavior patterns are considered, it is obvious that performance appraisal errors will play an important role in the theoretical and the practical researches in the forthcoming years. The researchers have made great efforts and developed numerous methods in order to find a method which is free of errors. This effort is displayed evidently by Landy and Farr’s (1980:82) statements: “Mighty efforts have been made to discover the potential effects of various appraisal formats for many years. The alleged hypothesis states that the instrument being used to obtain the information has a substantial importance on the accuracy and expedience of the obtained information.” In fact, one of the reasons of these numerous methods to be able to choose in performance appraisal is the indefinite attempts made by researchers to develop an enduring method against appraisal errors. But, a method which is free of errors has not been developed yet. The prevalence of appraisal errors are stated by Warmke and Billings (1979:124) by following words: “The subjective appraisals made about the employee’s performance are usually get spoiled and corrupted by the errors like halo or leniency.” Another comment made by Spool (1978:853) that supports this view and also states that appraisal errors are everywhere: “The methods based on observation are nearly much more vulnerable against human error margin than almost all other methods.” The importance of the problem resulting from the appraisal errors is also highlighted by Borman (1979:410): “Unfortunately, performance appraisals are nearly inevitably corrupted by appraisal errors (e.g. halo, leniency error) and they probably present in accurate appraisal results of individuals which were obtained during performance appraisal process.” Proved existence of appraisal errors are an obstacle to the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and have a negative effect on organization employees’ beliefs and satisfaction regarding appraisal results. Ilgen 342 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo proved that despite the researches done for years to develop and improve this process, the dissatisfaction about performance appraisals have not decreased. Murphy and Cleveland displayed that performance appraisals are hard core target of criticism and complaints and this dissatisfaction have become a norm in most of the companies (Holbrook, 2002:102). Because performance appraisal results form a basis for management decisions and the dispute among performance appraisal results which arise between the uppers and the inferiors probably cause interpersonal conflicts (Greenberg, 1991:51-60). The employees get satisfied with appraisal results only if their beliefs about their performances, which are high, match with the results. Employees consider that the feedbacks are unfair when their appraisal results are low and especially when they get less positive results than their expectations. As this will be inferred from the explanations given above, typical dependent variable of the performance appraisal researches is the accuracy of the performance measurement and in this context a lot of independent variables (roles, instruments, goals, criteria etc.) have been examined in order to determine their effects. But there is a quite need to examine “the appraisal errors” which are one of the most important factors that have adverse effects on the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and also to research in depth the effects of the context in which these errors took place. In this work, from performance appraisal errors, leniency and severity errors have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist culture. The main purpose of the work is to display how collectivist and individualist values affect the raters’ tendency towards leniency and severity errors. In the framework of this basic purpose, the answers for the following questions are being looked for in this research: 1. How do the collectivist and individualist culture values affect leniency and severity errors? 2. Does the raters’ individualist or collectivist cultural background differentiate their tendency towards errors (leniency and severity)? 3. Can the collectivist and individualist culture values be the explanatory of leniency and severity error? It has been aimed at attaining the goals of this work in the context of these questions. Leniency and severity errors have been theoretically examined in terms of a socio–cultural factor by using secondary data by means of literature study. Culture and Performance Appraisal Errors We can define culture in brief as an integrated system consisting of characteristic behavior models of the members that belong to society (Czinkota et al., 1999:35). In other words, culture consists of perception, believing, evaluation, communication and the shared factors which provide acting among the people who share a language, a historical period, and a geographical region (Triandis, 1996:408). Thereby, it is considered that culture has a strong and continuous impact on individual and corporations in all over the world. Especially starting from 1970s, culture has become a controversial concept in terms of culture, business and management. Until recent years, while it is alleged that management is universal, international culture was being ignored but in the recent years it has been started to investigate about the influences of the intercultural differences on the management and it has been proved basing upon the specific researches that cultures affect the individuals and direct them to different behavior models. It has been observed that the people who live in different cultures react differently against similar subject and conditions. Consequently, this intercultural differentiation is an explanatory of important problems since they affect working methods of the corporations, behavior models of the individuals and management styles (Sargut, 2001:137). One of the problems is the errors made in performance appraisal which provide how effectively the human resources are used in the organizations, most outcomes of which are used in managerial operations and actions. Appraisal errors are judgmental errors which occur while an individual observes and assess the other one (Latham et al., 1975:550-555). What is ideal in performance appraisal is that the appraisal results reflect the accurate, unprejudiced judgments processes. But, as it has been mentioned earlier, since the people are at stake in the appraisal, lots of emotion, needs, attitudes and values involve in the process. Accordingly, it depends on a lot of factors to find out what extend it was created in an unprejudiced way and whether it was really used or not to guide the appraisal. The most important factor among these is the cultural characteristics that the rater possesses. Leniency and Severity Error, Collectivist and Individualist Culture Before starting to discuss how cultural differences of the raters affect their tendency towards leniency and severity errors, it is useful to present the definitions of these errors and what collectivist and individualist culture means in order to be able to understand the case. Leniency error is one of the common errors which are faced in performance appraisals (Ilgen and Feldman, 1983). Leniency error is defined as an error which impels to make higher appraisals compared to other raters and a valid/reliable tendency as to certain raters (Kane et al., 1995:1039). According to another definition, leniency error is the case when the raters unjustly give higher scores, appraisal results. These scores are 343 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo evaluated by the distances of middle point of the scale to other scores or by their range to an accurate score (Saal et al., 1980:413-428). In other words, leniency errors limit the used value range and this causes a statistical decrease in the validity. Just opposite of the leniency error is severity error that this is the case when the rater evaluate the employee’s performances lower than it actually is (Can et al., 1998:167). In other words, it is the case when the rater evaluates and employee or a group of employees lower than they actually are without taking into account their actual success level. This tendency is usually observed among the raters who are inexperienced and not exactly aware of the factors that affect the performance, whose self-confidence is low and also who get low appraisals. Besides that the desire to show themselves as a perfectionist and an exacting manager and high standards in the corporation play role in such appraisals (Bayar, 2002). Collectivism means that people connect tightly to the social environment, the social members’ take care of each other and protect the organization’s members and interests. Individualist means that individuals have loose connections with the social framework and they are responsible for themselves (Hofstede, 1983:79). According to another definition, individualism is the tendency that people only care about their and their families interests (Hudgetts and Luthans, 1993:103). The first main discrepancy between collectivist person and individualist person falls out in the point how these people define themselves. While the collectivist person feels himself dependent on the other members of the group, individualist person displays more independent attitudes. Second discrepancy point falls out in the positioning regarding the goals. While the individualist person’s goals differentiate from the goals of the group that he/she belongs to, collectivist person’s goals make compliance with the goals of the group. While the individualist person determines his/her collectivist behavior according to his/her personal requirements and the rights which he/she perceives, collectivist person acts group norms according to his/her duties and responsibilities. For a collectivist person, having relationships with internal group and other people comes before rationalism. However individualist person makes rational calculations which keep cost and benefit rates in the front (Sargut, 2001:187). Collectivist culture individuals have the features of owning alignment, challenge, conflict avoidance and more compatible behavior models. It seems that individual initiatives are not encouraged and the ideas are determined within the group (Hofstede, 1984). On the contrary individualist cultures are described with their features which accept conflict, consistency and put less emphasis on compliance, individual initiative is expected and individual’s thought expressions are valuable. Therefore, in individualist cultures it is expected to show greater tendency to opinion diversities. Performance Appraisal in Collectivist and Individualist Culture These distinctive features of the societies which have been mentioned above reflect on organizational structures according to dominant culture and accordingly on performance appraisal systems. Here, Hofstede’s individualist and collectivist dimension in the research that he carried out in order to explain how and why the people from different cultures act as they will be expository as to be able to understand the issue better. Forasmuch as some performance appraisal researchers claim that collectivist and individualist dimension is the most important cultural dimension which has an impact on performance appraisal. Because, the person who provides the assessments and feedback affect performance appraisal process in many aspects such as the purpose and content of performance appraisal process (Milliman et al., 1998:157) Hofstede analyzed culture in four dimensions in his study which he carried out on 116,000 employees in 40 countries. These dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and collectivism, masculinity and feminity. Hofstede’s individualism and collectivism dimension corresponds to “the relationship between the individual and collectivism which rifles in a certain society” (Hofstede, 1984:148). To express more explicitly, individualism and collectivism dimension is related to what extent the individuals’ goals and need prevail over the groups that is belonged to goals and needs (Triandis, 1989; Hofstede 1984). Individualist societies care for individuals’ competition over the group’s welfare and individuals define themselves with their own characteristics and success (Fiske et al., 1998). For instance, in such a culture, individuals act according to their personal interests and employee–employers’ relations are generally perceived as a business exchange (Seddon, 1987) and freedom of choice and individual initiative are emphasized. Within this culture, most of the multi–sourced performance appraisal systems have been designed to obtain a comprehensive and objective assessment about the individual’s performance (London and Smither, 1995; Denisi and Kluger; 2000). Usually, individual performance assessments which have been obtained from various sources are valued. As long as feedback performance develops self–confidence and success, individualists attribute value to constructive and critical feedback (Milliman et al., 1998). The importance of personal relations between the subject and raters has been reduced in order to facilitate to provide the critical feedback and performance development. On the other hand, due to the collectivist cultures’ nature, they have shown a tendency not to overrate the role of the individuals in any case. Thus, in performance appraisal, it is focused on group performance rather 344 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo than individual performance of each members of a group. The employees who work in a collectivist culture make an effort to see their own interests above the groups’ interests (Hofstede, 1984) and employers recruit the individuals who take place in their groups and whose behavior overlap with the group behavior (Huo and Von Glinow, 1995). For the collectivists, it is very important to save the appearance (Fiske et al., 1998), to reduce the differences and to maintain the harmony and good relations among the group members. The practices which are individual–based human resource management covers is perceived as a threat to the team spirit since it moves attention from group success to the individuals’ success. The Impact of the Raters’ Collectivist and Individualist Cultural Background on Their Tendency to Make Mistakes about Leniency and Severity It is not too surprising that cultural differences which affect organizational structures appraisal systems also have influences on leniency and severity errors from assessment errors. As mentioned before collectivist cultures care about in–target goals togetherness, cooperation, loyalty and commitment; challenges and disputes among group members are ignored at all costs. Therefore, raters in performance appraisal mostly make lenient assessments; so disputes, resentments, in–group this harmony are being ignored (Milliman et al., 1998). The date obtained from feedback sessions proves that the collectivists tend to ignore the disputes among the employees (Cascio and Bailey, 1995). Within the collectivist cultures, it is more important to ensure compliance with others, to gain a sense of belonging than reflecting a positive personal image which could disrupt the group harmony (Korsgoard et al., 2004:874). To ignore these problems in order not to distort the image may cause the appraisals regarding employee performance to be more lenient and inaccurate. The researchers have revealed in a research that the Malaysians whose individualism is low avoid giving negative feedback and Chinese managers make leniency errors in the appraisals they perform (Chow, 1998; Seddon, 1987). As a support to this, in a research carried out in Republic of China, in which 982 couples who work in 9 different institutions in leader and subordinate positions have been used as subjects, the appraisals regarding performance that individuals carried out on their own are compared to the appraisals regarding inferior performance that were performed by supervisors. Results indicate that Chinese employees assessed their own performance less tolerant than their supervisors. These results contrast with the performance appraisal results which American employees typically do about themselves and are more lenient compared to their inspectors (Farh et al., 1991:129). These results coincide with the results of Hofstede’s (1997). Hofstede has found out in his study that the employees who belong to Republic of China are the most collectivist and American employees are the most individualist. Leniency error which arises among American employees is compatible with view that the individualist appraisers have the impulse to see/perceive themselves as positive as possible. This view rooted in a profound way in western, individualist tradition which emphasizes individual achievement, personal competence and self-respect. Exaggerated personal perceptions accord with individualist cultures; and don’t accord with collectivist cultures which promote interpersonal harmony a interdependence, solidarity and group harmony (Farh et al., 1991:131). The Effects of Psychological Process on Leniency and Severity Errors To display the psychological processes regarding the appraisers who have different cultures can lead to some different results as to performance appraisals. Thus, individualists focus on their own uniqueness, to achieve their goals, their internal reference forms, self ego (Oyserman et al., 2002). This case potentially drives them to do harsher assessments on other people’s behaviors models. The collectivists think that self-ego may easily be affected by static social environment (Triandis, 2001). For collectivists, happiness implies control and self-restraint in emotional and behavioral expressions. Thus it will be possible to maintain relations away from dispute. Contrary to the judgments of collectivists, the question of causality and attributions are based on social context in which social boundaries and behaviors take place. Collectivists’ focus on the case and context (on the attitudes and behaviors of, in other words, on the content and characteristics of cases compared to individualists) in which a behavior is being fulfilled can be a disadvantage to obtain accurate performance appraisals. Collectivists have higher chances to make leniency error to maintain in-group harmony, because they want to ensure the group to attain its goals and to maintain its happiness. Furthermore, the group members’ behaviors can be interpreted in the context of social boundaries (Oyserman et al., 2002). As a result, determined for collectivists rationalism means the importance of determined fixed and static group relations in which the exchange is based on the principles of equality and generosity. While explaining the research results, Smith (2004) claims that in-group harmony in collectivist societies will encourage the individuals to do more tolerant assessments which include consent/acceptance. 345 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In individualist cultures, it is not a big problem for individualists (compared to the collectivists) not to give negative feedback for the fear of creating conflict among the employees. On the contrary, it is a priority to express the attitudes and opinions in an honest way. In addition, individualists may tend to present harsh appraisal results; because task performance and development are more important than the goal of maintaining compatible relations among the employees. According to them, if the old relationships are quite troublesome, new relationships can be easily established. According to the individualists, the relations are perceived as the facilitator factors which serve to obtain their own interests. This makes the appraisal differences between the individualists and collectivist to be noticed easily. Cultural Differences between the Rater and Ratees Another case which the culture can have a significant impact on appraisal behavior is the case when the rater and ratees have different cultural backgrounds. For example, since the labor force is culturally more different, this situation may occur often in North American institutions. In these cases, since the rater is not aware of the behavior models within the ratee’s culture, the accuracy of the appraisals decrease (Triandis and Brislin, 1984:1006-1017). For instance, an individualist rater may not be focusing on the contributions of the ratee to the group he/she belongs to and may not care his/her team work skills. On the contrary, a rater with a collectivist perspective may put more emphasis on the roles of the ratees in the team, the contributions they make for the achievement of the team’s goals and he/she may pay less attention to their individual performance. As a result, these cultural misunderstandings may cause to be fallen in leniency error in one and severity error in another. Motivation Approaches of the Raters Another issue that must be dealt with here is the relationship between severity error and motivation in the context of individualism and collectivism. Researchers offered explanations on the effect of motivation behind the appraisers’ lenient and severe appraisals. Accordingly, it’s possible that managers can make different appraisal regarding the employees’ motivation according to their individualist and collectivist cultural background. Increasing number of studies suggest that North Americans for whom individualist values are dominant within the context of business, are less aware of their colleagues’ socio-emotional expressions (Sanchez-Burks, 2002). Although the recent intercultural surveys which have been carried out indicate that people constantly say that the money is a factor that satisfies least their needs (Sheldon et al., 2001) an intercultural research which was carried out by Morris and his friends about global company the idea that North Americans bring a “Market Orientation” to their interpersonal relationships, in other words, they evaluate their relationships according to their interests (Morris et al., 2000:97-123). As a support to this research, Miller claims that Western individualism puts a greater emphasis on the role of external factors about the others’ behaviors and has a common belief about “self–interest norm” (Miller, 1999:1053-1060). Self–interest norm defends that if any economic interests exist, even if in the cases which employees believe that they are internally motivated, external factors would be more effective. However, within the collectivist cultural contexts that self–interest norm is less determinant, it is expected that managers potentially will pay more attention to the internal factors that motivate the employees. When the managers’ who belong to collectivist culture compared to the individualists, their employees will be assessed in the most useful way for the groups. Therefore, if the high appraisal results will mean more employee satisfaction and more compatible relations, the managers will make lenient errors depending on high assessments. In accordance with this, according to Morris and his friends’ findings, unlike North American employees who have individualist values, Spanish employees have demonstrated a proximity orientation (having a high emotional commitment with his work–mates) and Chinese employees have demonstrated a family orientation (a self–sacrifice orientation for group) (Morris et al., 2000:97123). As a result, in the collectivist cultures, even if the low assessment results are deserved, the motivation decrease among the people at the point of performance development (Longenecker et al., 1987), the raters’ tendency to maintain positive relationships with the subjects (Murphy and Cleveland, 1995) may cause them to fall in leniency error. As it will be understood from the researches, in the performance appraisal, the raters’ cultural differences will influence their tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. An effective performance appraisal system will only be possible with the creation of a system which offers valid and reliable results that are free of errors. In the establishment of such a system, the need for not ignoring cultural differences among the raters, determination of the socio–cultural factors in the error analysis play a critical role. 346 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion Performance appraisal has become available in all areas of industry in today’s business life and it has become an application which has a strategic competition advantage in the globally severe competitive conditions. In a survey made by Locher and Teel, it has been observed that 89 % of the companies that participated in the survey placed their performance appraisals on a regular basis (Locher and Tell, 1977). Bass and Barrett argued that all institutions have a method regarding employee’s performance appraisal that they carry out secretly or explicitly (Bass and Barrett, 1981:259). Despite the increasing popularity of performance appraisal, there is a need to do a further examination as to socio- cultural factors on appraisal errors which affect negatively the performance appraisal activities. The research indicates that there is a need to do a very good analysis of social and cultural factors in order to be able to explain the variability of leniency and severity errors are judicial errors which the raters do during the appraisal process. So it is a result of distorted judicial process that here raters’ tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. To determine the intercultural differences in the context of leniency and severity errors is very important both as a reflection of cultural differences on independent dimension and also as to intercultural research methodology and the inferences in terms of emic/ethic features. An aspect of the methodology will be emic when it is associated with a culture, in other words, only when it moves in a certain way in a culture. If it works in a similar way in many cultures then it is considered to be independent from culture and it is called ethic. When seen from this perspective, our study was to reveal an emic reality. What this reality is that raters’ cultural differences affect their tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. References Bass, B. M. ve G. V. Barrett (1981), People, Work And Organizations, Allyn And Bacon Inc., Boston, s.259. Bayar, B. (2002), “Performans Değerlendirme Sürecinde Yaşanan Sorunlar ve Direnç”, http://www.insankaynaklari.com/cn/ContentBody.asp?BodyID=17, 20.02.2006 Borman, W. C. (1979), “Format And Training Effects On Rating Accuracy And Rater Errors”, Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, s.410. Can, H., A. Akgün ve Ş. Kavuncubaşı (1998), Kamu Ve Özel Kesimde Personel Yönetimi, 3. Baskı, Siyasal Kitabevi, Ankara, s.167. Cascio, W. F. ve E. Bailey (1995), “International Human Resource Management: The State Of Research And Practice”, Shenkar, O., Global Perspectives Of Human Resource Management içinde, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Chow, K. W. (1998), “The Management Of Chinese Cadre Resources: The Politics Of Performance Appraisal (1949-84)”, International Review Of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 54. Czinkota, M. R., I. A. Ronkainen ve M. H. Moffet (1999), International Business, The Dryden Press, Orlando, s.35. Denisi, A. S. ve A. N. Kluger (2000), “Feedback Effectiveness: Can 360 degree appraisals be improved?”, Academy Of Management Executive, Vol. 14, No. 1. Farh, J., G. H. Dobbins ve B. Cheng (1991), “Cultural Relativity In Action: A Comparison Of Self Ratings Made By Chinese And U.S. Workers”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44, s.129,131. Fiske, A. P., S. Kitayama, H. R. Markus ve R. E. Nisbett (1998), The Cultural Matrix Of Social Psychology, McGraw Hill, New York. Greenberg, J. (1991), “Using Explanations To Manage Impressions Of Performance Appraisal Fairness”, Employee Responsibilities And Rights Journal, Vol. 4, s.51-60. Hofstede, G. (1983), “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practises And Theories”, Journal Of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, s.79. Hofstede, G. (1984), Culture’s Consequences: International Differences In Work-Related Values, Abridged Ed., Sage, Beverly Hills. Hofstede, G. (1997), Cultures and Organizations Sofware of the Mind, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Newyork. Holbrook, R. L. (2002), “Contact Points and Flash Points:Conceptualizing The Use Of Justice Mechanisms In The Performance Appraisal Interview”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 12, s.102. Hudgetts, R. M., ve F. Luthans (1993), International Management, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, s.103. Huo, Y. P. ve M. A. Von Glinow (1995), “On Transplanting Human Resource Practices To China: A Culture-Driven Approach”, International Journal Of Manpower, Vol. 16, No. 9. 347 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ilgen, D. R. ve J. M. Feldman (1983), “Performance Appraisal: A Process Focus”, Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 5. Kane, J. S., J. H. Bernardin, P. Villanova ve J. Peyrefitte (1995), “Stability Of Rater Leniency: Three Studies”, Academy Of Management Jourmal, Vol. 38, No. 4, s.1039. Korsgaard, A. M., B. M. Meglino ve S. W. Lester (2004), “The Effect Of Other Orientation On Self-Supervisor Rating Aggreement”, Journal Of Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 25, s.874. Landy, F. ve J. Farr (1980), “Performance Rating”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 87, No. 1, s.82. Latham, G. P., E. D. Pursell ve D. L. Dossett (1975), “Training Managers To Minimize Rating Errors In The Observation Of Behaviour”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 60, No. 5, s.550-555. Locher, A. H. ve K. S. Teel (1977), “Performance Appraisal - A Survey Of Current Practices”, Personnel Journal, Vol. 56, No. 5. London, M. ve J. W. Smither (1995), “Can Multi-Source Feedback Change Perceptions Of Goal Accomplishment, SelfEvaluations, And Performance-Related Outcomes? Theory-Based Applications And Directions For Research”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 48. Longenecker, C. O., H. P. Sims ve D. A. Gioia (1987), “Behind The Mask: The Politics Of Employee Apraisal”, The Academy Of Management Executive, Vol. 1. Miller, D. T. (1999), “The Norm Of Self-Interest”, American Psychologist, Vol. 54, s.1053-1060. Milliman, J., S. Nason, E. Gallagher, P. Huo, M. A.Von Glinow ve K. B. Lowe (1998), “The Impact Of National Culture On Human Resource Management Practices: The Case Of Performance Appraisal”, Advances In International Comparative Management, Vol. 12. Morris, M. W., J. M. Podolny ve S. Ariel (2000), “Culture, Norms And Obligations: Cross-national Differences In Patterns Of Interpersonal Norms And Felt Obligations Toward Coworkers”, Wosinska W., D. Barrett, R. Cialdini, ve J. Reykowski, The Practice Of Social Influence In Multiple Cultures içinde, Lawrence Erlbaum, NJ, s.97-123. Murphy, K. R. ve J. N. Cleveland (1995), Understanding Performance Appraisal Social Organizational And Goal-Based Perspectives, Sage Publishing, USA. Oyserman, D., H. M. Coon ve M. Kemmelmeier (2002), “Rethinking Individualism And Collectivism: Evaluation Of Theoretical Assumptions And Meta-Analysis”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 128. Saal, F. E., R. G. Downey ve M. A. Lahey (1980), “Rating The Ratings: Assesings The Psyhometric Quality Of Rating Data”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, No. 2, s.413-428. Sanchez-Burks, J. (2002), “Protestant Relational Ideology And (In)attention To Relational Cues In Work Settings”, Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, Vol. 83. Sargut, S. (2001), Kültürlerarası Farklılaşma ve Yönetim, 2. Baskı, Đmge Kitabevi, Ankara, s.137,187. Seddon, J. (1987), “Assumptions, Culture And Performance Appraisal”, Journal Of Management Development, Vol. 6. Sheldon, K. M., A. J. Elliot, Y. Kim ve T. Kasser (2001), “What Is Satisfying About Satisfying Events? Testing 10 Candidate Psycholgical Needs”, Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, Vol. 80. Smith, P. B. (2004), “Acquiescent Response Bias As An Aspect of Cultural Communication Style”, Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 1. Spool, M. D. (1978), “Training Programs For Observers Of Behavior: A Review”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 31, s.853. Triandis, H. C. (1989), “The self And Social Behaviour In Differing Cultural Contexts”, Pyschological Review, Vol. 96, No. 3. Triandis, H. C. (1996), “The Pysychological Measurement Of Cultural Syndromes”, American Psychologist, Vol. 51, No. 4, s.408. Triandis, H. C. (2001), “Individualism-Collectivism And Personality”, Journal Of Personality, Vol. 69, No. 6. Triandis, H. C. ve R. W. Brislin (1984), “Cross-Cultural Psychology”, American Psychologist, Vol. 39, s.1006-1017. Warmke, D. L. ve R. S. Billings (1979), “Comparison Of Training Methods For Improving The Psychometric Quality Of Experimental And Administrative Performance Rating”, Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, s.124. 348 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 247 Title A name given to the resource Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BALTACI, Adem Abstract A summary of the resource. Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1041 Title A name given to the resource Let Them Speak: Alternative Activities to TTT Author Author Cakir, Yesim Abstract A summary of the resource. Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. If students do not learn how to speak or do not get enough opportunity to speak in the language classroom, they may soon get demotivated and lose interest in learning. On the other hand, with interesting activities and games, speaking in class can be a lot of fun, which will also raise students’ motivation and energize classes. The aim of this workshop is to provide teachers with interesting ideas and fun activities to get students to speak and make classes fun and dynamic places to be. The workshop will begin with an activity called Diamond Game (appropriate for all levels) that teachers can use on the first day of the school as an ice-breaker activity or anytime as a speaking activity. Then another fun and energetic activity called Fruit Basket (appropriate for lower levels) will be introduced. This activity is specially good for kinesthetic students as it gets them to speak and move at the same time. The next activity will be Fish Bowl (appropriate for upper-intermediate and above). In this challenging activity, students improvise a conversation by using the prompts written by their classmates. (Two other similar activities Whose line is it anyway? and Royal Banquet will also be mentioned briefly.) Tick-tock (appropriate for higher levels) is another challenging and enjoyable activity which helps students to practice speaking within the given time. The last activity; Secret Word (appropriate for higher levels) is a fun way to revise vocabulary and get students to speak. (Another similar activity; Throw for a word will also be mentioned briefly.) These activities provide a great way to energise speaking lessons and they require little or no preparation on the part of the teacher. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c8b1712e2e3763facaf9f5a12e0c52fe.pdf be1c7ebbe9ee5b91edd0340a62837f06 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter Recognition Using Machine Learning Algorithms Author Author Merima Ćeranić, Samed Jukić Abstract A summary of the resource. Optical character recognition represents the mechanical or electronic conversion of handwritten, typed or printed images into coded text. Optical character recognition is widely used as a form of data entry from records that have been printed, and it can include invoices, bank statements, passports and many more. In the research, Optical character recognition reads data from the Re-Captcha dataset of images, converts them into strings, and these strings are used for testing, training and calculating prediction accuracy. The methodologies used are Convolutional neural network and Recurrent neural network. The convolutional neural network consist of neurons that receive data and group them according to similarity. A recurrent neural network cycle can be created between the connections of nodes, allowing the output from nodes to influence the subsequent input to other nodes. For data were used Re-Captcha images, and for the prediction of characters from images was used TensorFlow with Keras. The best results that are produced can be compared between first and last result, where the loss for first result was 20.63 and value loss was 16.45, while last result has loss of 0.56 and value loss of 2.96. Keywords Keywords. Keras, OCR, Re-Captcha, Tensorflow Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2637-2835 (Print) DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2022423 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Language A language of the resource English language Type The nature or genre of the resource Original research https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e71bae251cd206cc781206be25fc46ea.pdf c6d4b90a72c947321783ec665ff28707 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Letter transformation at linguistic understanding of deaf people Prof. Husnija HasanbegoviĤ Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology University of Tuzla, BiH husnijamaj@hotmail.com Abstract: The paper analyzes the importance of writing in linguistic understanding of the text, through the transformation of the original programmed hand alphabet as the font (PC & DEAFNESS). The aim of the research was to examine the understanding of the correspondence between the deaf children, through comparative analysis at understanding of the content at transformation of PC&DEAFNESS into font Times New Roman. To realize the set goal, the combined programs were used to write two letters at the specially designed software package. Research was conducted on a sample of 70 subjects of deaf children, which is divided into two equal and uniform subsample of the 35 subjects, of which one subsample is an experimental group and the second control group. The experimental group was writing to each other with programmed alphabet, with the possibility of transformation of the letter, and the control group with standard script, with no possibility of transformation. Evaluation of results and testing hypotheses about the significance of the difference of writing two letters and understanding at deaf children, has been expressed by the analysis of changes, using canonical discrimination analysis, which showed that the two samples differ significantly, at a significance level of P = 0.00. It was found that the respondents of experimental group showed better results in writing programmed alphabetical letter, with the possibility of transformation of the font. Key Words: programmed alphabet, remote communication of the deaf, pragmatic method, printed sign language Introduction We observed two groups of people in objective reality. Ones with hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing) and ones with no hearing impairment (so called ordinary). Deaf child has the same chances for psychic and physic development like ordinary child, but if we consider hearing impairment influence on socialization we will find a problem to discuss. The speech is very important in human development. The most important and first function of speech is communication and so then socialization. Deaf child has to relay on visual experience and when it is about communication and socialization, deaf child experiences troubles. Deaf can develop their speech but it is conditioned with many factors. With frequent use of speech and by using appropriate rehabilitation procedures their speech can be developed. The newest technologies and researches do not solve these problems. Even CI does not make expected progress. According to World Federation of Deaf in developing countries there is less than 20% deaf children that go to school regular. The most of young deaf continue living after schools illiterate and with poor knowledge about society. The reason is nonexistence of appropriate rehabilitation and language programs. Lets review older and recent surveys. About 50% young after finishing secondary school read and write worse than 10 year old ordinary child (Traxler, 2000). About 30% deaf and hard of hearing finish secondary school functionally illiterate (Marschark, Lang, Alebertini, 2002). Now there are possible solutions. The writing should be activated in early period of life, 5 years (E. Ferreiro, 1990; D.Olson, 1994). The importance of early writing is explained at Dickinson, McCabe and Essex, 2006. The logic is simple, to be literate deaf child has to learn language of the community. It can learn letters, learn to write but if it does not know language then it does not know what are the things it writes or reads (Halliday, 1975; Wells, 1981; Kress, 1994; Mayer and Wells, 1996; Mayer, C. 1998; Luetke-Stahlman, 1998; Kyle and Harris, 2006). The important thing is methodological admittance at training (Paul, 1998). Why deaf spell in hand alphabet? It is about dynamic perception that is the consequence of psychic dimensions of deaf person (HasanbegoviĤ, H. and SinanoviĤ, O. 2008). The importance of hand alphabet is not known yet at scientific public (HasanbegoviĤ, 2004). This survey has the task to point on better results with use of hand alphabet. 616 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method of the Study We used method of experiment and then we did quantitative analyzes. For experiment we tested the success of text retyping. We use two different fonts for comparison. The first standard Latin font in MS Word, example: Times New Roman. The second newly crated, original one hand alphabet font that is explained at paradigmatic method of teaching deaf to language (Hasanbegovic, 2007). Sampling We had sample of 70 deaf children. We divided it in two equal and homogenous sub samples. The first was experimental and the second was control group. The experimental group had an opportunity to use one hand alphabet font, and the control group had not. Varijable The most important variable in this experiment was the variable about clear typing. We took into consideration the number of mistyped and substituted letters or graph in total count of words in the the text. Data Analysis Processes We done the data analysis on very simple way. We gave children the text to retype. Then we compared the results of experimental and control group and processed data in SPSS software under discriminative analysis. Findings and Discussion Writing The writing is very complex activity and in order to learn it one has to learn to speak first. These two activities are connected and conditioned each other. People express their feelings, taught and experiences by speech and write. The most complex type of language expression is written text. In order to send clear message one has to specify all details, even those that are not said in oral speech. Ordinary children learn to speak, then in school they learn to write. Despite those, children with hearing impairment learn to speak and write at the same time, which consider troubles. It is very clear now why deaf children never achieve the writing skill level as ordinary ones. They have weak vocabulary, write slow, make grammar mistakes. The writing and oral speech are the part of same mental process. The difference is in expression form. Deaf write as they speak, so their written text is the best for language skills. The fact that is called literacy is conditioned by language knowledge level, so the logical procedure of learning is speech and then writing. The child learns language by listening and then it practice speaking and finally it learns to write. Because deaf children can not learn hear, but they can learn to pronounce, my researches showed that reverse procedure can be useful. Children learn to write first, using the transformation of letters to dynamic basis of hand alphabet that is psychological acceptable to deaf children. There is statistic important difference between those children that were tested with use of Times New Roman windows font and those that were using newly created experimental font that represents one hand alphabet. Experimental group had better results. The control group (the one that used Latin font) typed 967 words with 91 mistakes (9,41%). They had missing letters in 31 words (3,21%) and they had wrong letters in 51 words (5,27%). The experimental group typed 16 words with mistakes (2,38%). They had missing letters in 11 words (1,63%) and they had wrong letters in 5 words (0,74%). Conclusions and Recommendations This survey proves that one hand alphabet font supports typing/writing at deaf children. The deaf child interaction with computer is logical because the computer supports those dynamic dimensions that are familiar with the basis of deaf cognitive development. Because of that, today we can find a lot of mini software which purpose is to help deaf. The language education requests many skills while programming courses and educational programs and the most important thing is to know psychology of deaf. So there are less software that is supported with this type of admittance. Despite those software with one hand alphabet font solves those problems and helps deaf to write/type. The computer software for education of deaf is consisted of next products: DEAF&WRITING – one/two hand alphabet font, DEAF&KEYBOARD – adapted keyboard with one/two hand alphabet marks on it, and operative program for language learning. DEAF&WRITING is one/two hand alphabet font published in (HasanbegoviĤ, 2004). It enables more efficient way of reading, writing and learning at deaf. Also it enables distance communication, printing and its wide usage. For that purpose we also invented keyboard for deaf with one/two hand alphabet marks on it (DEAF&KEYBOARD). The operative program is constructed like dictionary with words in it that have dynamic 617 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo support, like pictures, pronounces, sing language examples for every word, and it can be used with Latin or one/two hand alphabet font. Operative program characteristics The operative program is unique teaching technology that has all interactivity needed to focus attention of student, and most important thing, it gives results. The program is standalone flash .exe that can be started from CD or hard drive. The program request installed one/two hand alphabet font for optimal use. The program has three dimensional space that represents classroom. There are panels that are hidden in the walls. All panels have hide/show option and all can be started at the time. So it is up to pupil to use desired panels for learning. The language and pronounce learning is based on original approach. The most frequent words are explained in details with implementations on all panels. They have picture symbol that associate the word with its semantic representation. 618 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Barnett, W. S. (2001). Preschool education for economically disadvantaged children: Effects on reading achievement and related outcomes. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research: Volume 1 (pp. 421–443). New York: The Guilford Press. Dickinson, D., McCabe, A., & Essex, M. (2006). A window of opportunity we must open to all: The case for preschool with high-quality support for language and literacy. In D. Dickinson & S. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research: Volume 2 (pp. 11–28). New York: The Guilford Press. 428 Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 12:4 Fall 2007 Ferreiro, E. (1990). Literacy development: Psychogenesis. In Y. Goodman (Ed.), How children construct literacy (pp. 12–25). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Halliday, M. (1975). Talking one‘s way in: A sociolinguistic perspective on language and learning. In A. Davies (Ed.), Problems of language and learning (pp. 8–33). London: Heinemann. HasanbegoviĤ, H., & SinanoviĤ, O. (2008) Estimate of certain psychic characteristics at tested deaf people. Acta Medica Saliniana;37:127-131. HasanbegoviĤ H. (2004) Manual alphabet as an aid in understanding the language of deaf, ''Defektologija'' br. 12: 89-92. Kress, G. (1994). Learning to write (2nd ed). New York: Routledge. Kyle, F., & Harris, M. (2006). Concurrent correlates and predictors of reading and spelling achievement in deaf and hearing school children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11, 273–288. Luetke-Stahlman, B. (1998). Language issues in deaf education. Hillsboro, OR: Butte Publications. Marschark, M., Lang, H., & Albertini, J. (2002). Educating deaf students: From research to practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Mayer, C. (1998). Deaf children learning to spell. Research in the Teaching of English, 33, 158–180. Mayer, C., & Wells, G. (1996). Can the linguistic interdependence theory support a bilingual model of literacy education for deaf students? Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 93–107. Olson, D. (1994). The world on paper. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Paul, P. (1998). Literacy and deafness: The development of reading, writing, and literate thought. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Traxler, C. (2000). The Stanford achievement test, 9th edition: National norming and performance standards for deaf and hard of hearing students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 337–348. Wells, G. (1981). Learning through interaction: The study of language development. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 619 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 92 Title A name given to the resource Letter transformation at linguistic understanding of deaf people Author Author Hasanbegović, Prof. Husnija Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper analyzes the importance of writing in linguistic understanding of the text, through the transformation of the original programmed hand alphabet as the font (PC & DEAFNESS). The aim of the research was to examine the understanding of the correspondence between the deaf children, through comparative analysis at understanding of the content at transformation of PC&DEAFNESS into font Times New Roman. To realize the set goal, the combined programs were used to write two letters at the specially designed software package. Research was conducted on a sample of 70 subjects of deaf children, which is divided into two equal and uniform subsample of the 35 subjects, of which one subsample is an experimental group and the second control group. The experimental group was writing to each other with programmed alphabet, with the possibility of transformation of the letter, and the control group with standard script, with no possibility of transformation. Evaluation of results and testing hypotheses about the significance of the difference of writing two letters and understanding at deaf children, has been expressed by the analysis of changes, using canonical discrimination analysis, which showed that the two samples differ significantly, at a significance level of P = 0.00. It was found that the respondents of experimental group showed better results in writing programmed alphabetical letter, with the possibility of transformation of the font. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics