165 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/26fb72a37c55cf17ca4dfee524fa5795.docx 18c7fe542699c5ae262f76052938d366 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8db72aa6d2fdb3927f9a32c469b669c2.pdf e9a071f5e68b08dd3bec7d00d25e33c3 PDF Text Text KLASİK TÜRK ŞİİRİNİN SANAT FELSEFESİ BAĞLAMINDA OKUNMASINA DAİR Halil İlteriş KUTLU Gazi Üniversitesi, Klasik Türk Edebiyatı Anabilim Dalı, Ankara / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Sanat Felsefesi, Estetik, Klasik Türk Şiiri. ÖZET Klasik Türk şiirinin estetik temelinin nereye ve nasıl dayandığına dair sorular bugüne kadar Şark edebiyat geleneğinin kendi dinamikleri içerisinde çoğu kez gündeme getirilmiş, bu sınırlı çerçevede incelenmiş, tartışılmış fakat tutarlı bir cevaba ulaşılamamıştır. Dolayısıyla Klasik estetiğin neliği ve nasıllığı ile ilgili hükümler devamlı olarak değişkenlik göstermiş, geçerliliği olan bir temele oturtulamamıştır. Estetiğin esas itibariyle duygusallığın sağladığı bilgilerin bilimi olması ve birikimini ekseriyet güzellik kavramı üzerine inşa etmesinden hareketle Şark edebiyat geleneğinin estetik temellerini felsefi düzlemde aramak, cevap aranan pek çok soruya çözüm bulmada önemli katkılar sağlayacaktır. Teknik açıdan XIII. ve XIV. asırlarda sistematize olmaya başlayan Klasik Türk şiiri, estetik boyutunu Arap, İran, Hint ve özellikle Yunan kültürlerinden oluşan heterojenik bir sentezden kazanmış ve güzellik kavramını, idealize edilmiş platonist bir aşkın merkezinde inşa etmiştir. Klasik Türk şiirinin teşekkülünde çok önemli bir yere sahip olan tasavvufî nazariyelerin de ontolojik ve epistemolojik kaynağının, İslamî düşünceden daha çok Antik Yunan felsefesi olduğunu göz önünde bulundurduğumuzda reel dünyadan soyutlandırılmış bu edebiyat anlayışının sadece varlık ve bilgi düzeylerini değil temel aldığı estetiğin neliğini ve nasıllığını da felsefede aramak söz konusu problematiğin çözümüne kapı aralayacaktır. Klasik şiir estetiğinin Aristo kaynaklı taklit (mimesis), Platon merkezli idea esasına mı dayandığı yoksa hayal gücünden aldığı ilhamla bir yaratma teşebbüsünden mi ibaret olduğu ve tüm bunlardan hareketle Klasik Türk şiir geleneğindeki güzelliğin doğaya mı yoksa sanata mı dahil edilmesi gerektiği gibi estetiği ilgilendiren sorular, Klasik Türk şiirindeki edebi zevkin nereden kaynaklı olduğunu açıklamaya yönelik pek çok cevabı bünyesinde barındırmaktadır. Bu çalışmada Klasik Türk şiirinin estetik temelleri, sanat felsefesinden hareketle izah edilmeye çalışılmıştır. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2229 Title A name given to the resource KLASİK TÜRK ŞİİRİNİN SANAT FELSEFESİ BAĞLAMINDA OKUNMASINA DAİR Author Author KUTLU, Halil İlteriş Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sanat Felsefesi, Estetik, Klasik Türk Şiiri. ÖZET Klasik Türk şiirinin estetik temelinin nereye ve nasıl dayandığına dair sorular bugüne kadar Şark edebiyat geleneğinin kendi dinamikleri içerisinde çoğu kez gündeme getirilmiş, bu sınırlı çerçevede incelenmiş, tartışılmış fakat tutarlı bir cevaba ulaşılamamıştır. Dolayısıyla Klasik estetiğin neliği ve nasıllığı ile ilgili hükümler devamlı olarak değişkenlik göstermiş, geçerliliği olan bir temele oturtulamamıştır. Estetiğin esas itibariyle duygusallığın sağladığı bilgilerin bilimi olması ve birikimini ekseriyet güzellik kavramı üzerine inşa etmesinden hareketle Şark edebiyat geleneğinin estetik temellerini felsefi düzlemde aramak, cevap aranan pek çok soruya çözüm bulmada önemli katkılar sağlayacaktır. Teknik açıdan XIII. ve XIV. asırlarda sistematize olmaya başlayan Klasik Türk şiiri, estetik boyutunu Arap, İran, Hint ve özellikle Yunan kültürlerinden oluşan heterojenik bir sentezden kazanmış ve güzellik kavramını, idealize edilmiş platonist bir aşkın merkezinde inşa etmiştir. Klasik Türk şiirinin teşekkülünde çok önemli bir yere sahip olan tasavvufî nazariyelerin de ontolojik ve epistemolojik kaynağının, İslamî düşünceden daha çok Antik Yunan felsefesi olduğunu göz önünde bulundurduğumuzda reel dünyadan soyutlandırılmış bu edebiyat anlayışının sadece varlık ve bilgi düzeylerini değil temel aldığı estetiğin neliğini ve nasıllığını da felsefede aramak söz konusu problematiğin çözümüne kapı aralayacaktır. Klasik şiir estetiğinin Aristo kaynaklı taklit (mimesis), Platon merkezli idea esasına mı dayandığı yoksa hayal gücünden aldığı ilhamla bir yaratma teşebbüsünden mi ibaret olduğu ve tüm bunlardan hareketle Klasik Türk şiir geleneğindeki güzelliğin doğaya mı yoksa sanata mı dahil edilmesi gerektiği gibi estetiği ilgilendiren sorular, Klasik Türk şiirindeki edebi zevkin nereden kaynaklı olduğunu açıklamaya yönelik pek çok cevabı bünyesinde barındırmaktadır. Bu çalışmada Klasik Türk şiirinin estetik temelleri, sanat felsefesinden hareketle izah edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/765e11c32fe1af9ba3cc690b35e27fef.pdf 7cc11f22c02b0dbe68f06022538f5bda PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Davenport, T. (2007). Competing on analytics, The new science of winning. Conference Report, Harvard Business School Publishing Herschel, R., & Jones, N., (2005). Knowledge management and business intelligence: importance of integration, Journal of knowledge management ORACLE. (2008). Gaining Competitive Advantage through Enterprise Planning Retrieved November 21, 2011 from www.oracle.com The Concours group. (2007). Business Analytics: Six questions to ask about information and competition. Boardroom imperative Wang, H., & Wang, S. (2008). A knowledge management approach to data mining process for business intelligence. Industrial Management and Data Systems Yeoh, W., & Koronios, A. (2010). Critical success factors for Business Intelligence Systems. Journal of Computer Information Systems Km Applications In Bosnian Managerial Practices Ozlen Kursad, Mahmutović Zehra, Mekić Ensar, Herić Emina International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E –mails: kozlen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract Knowledge Management has emerged globally to facilitate sustainability of the organizations as a result of competitive environment. Organizational learning not only asserts and promotes organizational outcome and improved performance, but also plays a significant role in achieving innovation and overall satisfaction through internalization; staff engagement, staff motivation and empowerment, leadership and configuration. This paper focuses primarily on its application within Bosnian managerial practices. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the presence of Knowledge Management within 246 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Bosnian managerial practices, its intensity, influences on organizational strategy, and benefits as well as outcomes coming from it. As a result of literature review, a 7-point Likert scale survey was developed and the survey was distributed to the companies by emailing, otherwise companies were visited directly. The companies vary from private to public, in different areas of business performance. The respondents have different positions through bottom to the top management. The data gathered were examined descriptively and the results are discussed accordingly. Keywords: knowledge management, strategy, decision making, motivation, benefits 1.INTRODUCTION Over the years, knowledge management research, its implications and benefits have achieved great popularity. So far, in the twenty- first century knowledge is widely recognized as the most important single factor in creating and sustaining more effective organizational performance (Li Hua, 2010). What is evident in this approach is that the effective creation of knowledge depends upon knowledge transfer, knowledge sharing and organizational learning. Many organizations nowadays are approaching knowledge as a primary source of their success, employee engagement and satisfaction. On the other hand, there are many of others which are refusing to import knowledge based plans into their overall strategy, and in that way are becoming reluctant to change. Modern organizations make knowledge management (KM) an explicit part of their strategy in order to utilize the knowledge and experiences of individuals within the organization. The underlying assumption for KM in an enterprise context is that the enterprise’s productive function consists of work to transform organizational knowledge into outcomes in order to obtain organizational benefits (Burstein and Linger et. al 2003). From this perspective, KM is a part of organizational value chain and presumed to have a positive impact on the organization. This paper will examine knowledge management application in local community of Bosnian managers. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is relatively small country with a struggling economy and in many political disputes over years already, we are willing to see how Bosnian white and blue collar employees perceive knowledge management, whether they apply it in their strategy, how open they are to implement this approach in order to improve the overall quality and efficiency of their businesses. 247 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 1.1.Literature Review A review of the knowledge management literature was conducted using standard electronic databases. The literature review has been focused on 15 articles which are considered to be representatives of the most relevant literature for the study (Table 1). However, besides those articles, there was instant usage of KM book (Handžić & Zhou, 2003). Table 1 Summary of relevant articles Furthermore, a number of relevant case and theoretical studies from Europe, America and Asia are documented. Frize et. al (2005) describe a KM framework for ethical decision making support. Their article is based on creating value in health-care organizations through KM applications. In their article, authors state that “While relatively little attention has been paid to the use of knowledge management for ethical decision support, a few comparable 248 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo decision tools have been under development for the NICU environment”. Mills and Smith (2010) approached KM from more organizational perspective. They said that “For many organizations achieving improved performance is not only dependent on the successful deployment of tangible assets and natural resources but also on the effective management of knowledge. As such, investments in knowledge management continue to increase dramatically from year to year”. Rouse (2002) Conley and Zheng (2009) as well as Coakes et al (2009) more specifically approached KM implications in terms of decision making, organizational success and improvement. 2.Research methodology 2.1.Variables Identified research variables as a result of literature review are shown in Table 2. The survey questions have been developed according to the variables. Table 2 List of variables 1. Knowledge enablers refer to the organization environment and communication technology within the organization. 2. Technology facilitates KM processes through the organisation. 3. Motivation. Each organization within its overall strategy considers one part related to motivating its employees to obtain best work results. In relation to that certain incentives, rewards or benefits can be provided in order to make difference between peak and weak performers. Knowledge management does not fall anywhere behind requiring certain motivation maintenance in order to stay present in the company. Related to that our interest was to determine if organization is applying knowledge management in its strategy, how much of interest is showing, or more precisely what efforts are allocated to maintain it through high motivation of employees, and stuff. 4. KM Assets. Every enterprise should first of all realize how important it is to "know what they know" and be able to make maximum use of the knowledge. They need to know what their KM assets are, and how to manage and make use of these assets to get maximum return. 249 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Most traditional company policies and controls focus on the tangible assets of the company and leave unmanaged their important knowledge assets. But the fact is that KM assets in business environments are quite more important than tangible assets including financial assets and etc., because they represent a useful mechanism for gaining the competitive advantage. 5. KM Adoption. To succeed in organisational KM strategy and to meet the business objectives of the implementation, it is imperative to ensure adoption of the system within the user base. The focus of the implementation should be on increasing and maintaining the usage of the system in terms of number of users participating, increasing the number of transactions on the system and improving the quality of the transactions. There are a lot of challenges faced through the adoption of KM, so the current research considered the variable regarding the adoption of KM. Benefits: There can be populated a long list of benefits which KM and its adoption within the organization provide. In this study, benefits from KM have been categorized as personal benefits and organizational benefits. 6. Personal Benefits. When all the people in an organization understand what they already know, what they need to know and what they don't yet know about something for their tasks, then people can collaborate better to reach their goals. Individuals will get more accomplished because of the knowledge shared within a group, and groups can collaborate better because they have a common goal and a clear starting point. The benefits of knowledge management can take a company struggling with the information processing cycle and productivity and therefore make it a much more efficient and success-oriented workplace. 7. Organisational Benefits. Benefits on the organizational level include overall inclined productivity and output, better innovation and implementation of new ideas and better customer service. 2.2.Sample Space The survey was conducted on several private and public organizations in different industries per see. Banks are not put into the basket, since they are the branches of the banks from abroad. Mainly high rank employees in organizational chart such as supervisors, presidents of board committee, auditors and CEOs were targeted. On the other hand, the other level employees were also surveyed. The surveys were distributed by e-mailing several companies and asking whether they found the survey appropriate to fill out. A response rate of 76% (152/200) was achieved from distributed surveys. One experienced difficulty is that the awareness of KM in general. Hence brief explanations about KM, its pros and cons are given to the respondents. Another challenge was that lack of 250 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo trust towards this kind of surveys which require giving certain internal information about company (even though that they are not from financial nature). Furthermore, the survey was distributed both on English and Bosnian language respectively. Findings 2.3.Demographics Demographics part includes respondent’s gender, their positions within the department, and their education levels. Respondents were half from males and half from females (Figure 1). Figure 1 Gender of the Respondents The education levels of the respondents are found out to be extremely high. There are only three high school graduates. Almost one third has master degrees and twelve have PHD degrees. Table 3 Education Levels of the Respondents The positions of the respondents were grouped according to their similar characteristics. While grouping them, ILO standards have been considered (Budlender, 2003). Nearly half of the respondents have managerial roles within the organisations. There are 47 lecturers who are working in two private international universities in BiH. 251 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 4 Positions of the Respondents The surveyed respondents are asked to state the current KM implementation phase in their organisations. They could choose more than one option among the given alternatives. According to the results, 30 organisations are detected to have no KM strategy. 58 organisations have developed KM strategies but they did not or couldn’t start the strategies. On the other hand, almost one third (49) of the respondents stated that their organisations have started to implement their KM strategies. 32 of them commented that knowledge share can be successfully employed in their departments within the organisations. Additionally, 27 of them believe that KM practices have become a part of their organization’s corporate culture. Furthermore, 35 respondents think that the organisational internal environment is suitable for KM to emerge. However, 24 of them don’t think that it is not valid for their external environment. 252 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Figure 2 KM Implementation Phases of the Surveyed Companies According to Table 5, it can be identified that the environment for knowledge sharing is slightly suitable. Therefore, there is a very little amount of knowledge share. Table 5 KM Enablers 253 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo As observed from Table 6, the companies are investing slightly on technology. So, the organisations have weak technologies to support KM activities through the organisation. Table 6 Technology Motivational issues seem to be extremely weak through the organizations to implement KM (Table 7). Table 7 Motivation When the assets for KM is considered, the organizations are identified that they do not give importance to KM assets (people, organizational capital, customer relationship, etc.) and therefore they don’t have satisfactory level of KM embodied with the organization (Table 8). 254 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 8 KM Assets As observed from Table 9, the organizations have slightly adopted KM processes. Table 9 KM Adoption The respondents slightly feel that they get benefit from KM applications. On the other hand, they seem to adopt and as a result of this adoption they seem happy with the benefits (Table 10). 255 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 10 Personal Benefits The respondents are less optimistic about organizational benefits compared to personal benefits. But they are still slightly agreed that KM applications are beneficial for the organizations (Table 11). Table 11 Organizational Benefits 3.Discussion The overall variables are shown in Table 12. The results suggested a slight agreement in general. It can be understood from the results that KM issue in BiH is in its early phases. Therefore, it needs more attention to develop KM implementation strategies. First of all, a knowledge enabling environment within and outside the organisations should be developed. 256 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Technology tools to facilitate KM processes can be used more. On the other hand, the motivation to implement KM is very weak. So it needs more attention. Otherwise it may be difficult to adopt KM solutions. Furthermore, the results implied that the organisations should enrich their knowledge assets. Finally, if all the conditions are satisfied, it is clear that both the organisations and the individuals will increase their benefits. Table 12 Overall Variables 4.CONCLUSION In practice, the knowledge management function has been improved by the internet and information technology within and outside the organization (Barney, 1991; Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Therefore, it has become essential to coordinate different information coming from different parts of the world and knowledge workers (Amar, 2002; Coakes et. al, 2009). The current study realized that in order to perform KM effectively, organizations have to learn how to manage KM as a function rather than as a technical skill. The first step in this process is to devise a management strategy for carrying out KM and if the strategy is wellunderstood so that everyone in the organization can seek guidance from it pertaining to the various aspects of management, such as the social and cultural. It is taken for granted here that a system incorporates both social and technical elements. In a nutshell, it can be understood that KM in Bosnia and Herzegovina is emerging yet. Future research may evaluate the value of each type of knowledge exchange and thus demonstrate the best composition of a successful knowledge management strategy for different organizations according to the social, cultural, economic and political composition and placement. 5.Directions for Future Research The interest of Knowledge management research is expected to substantially increase. In the current study, the concentration was on the Knowledge management application in BiH managerial practices. The results have provided useful information considering the awareness about the importance of KM in BH companies and to which extent Knowledge management is implied. This study points to several key areas that require further analysis. For example, 257 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo subsequent research might involve conducting a longitudinal study of organizational culture and knowledge transfer, providing a more empirical causal link between these two constructs. Along these same lines, a longitudinal case study might involve actual manipulation of organizational knowledge. Another potential research may attempt to find out the strategies to maximize knowledge management practices in BiH. Also there could be conducted researches which would more deeply explain the connection between Knowledge management practices with the other organizational key parts. REFERENCES Barbosa, J. G. P., Gonçalves, A. A., Simonetti, V. and Leitão, A. R. (2009). A Proposed Architecture for Implementing a Knowledge Management System in the Brazilian National Cancer Institute. BAR, Curitiba, 6(3), art. 5, p. 247-262 Budlender, D. (2003). Improving occupational classifications as tools for describing labour markets: A summary of recent national experiences. Retrieved October 23, 2011, from www.ilo.org: http://www.ilo.org/integration/resources/papers/WCMS_081752/lang/en/index.htm Burstein, F. and Linger, H. (2003). Supporting post-Fordist work practices: A knowledge management framework for supporting knowledge work. Information Technology & People, 16(3), pp.289 – 305 Chen, S.C., Yang, C.C., Lin, W.T., Yeh, T.M., and Lin, Y.S. (2007). Construction of key model for knowledge management system using AHP-QFD for semiconductor industry in Taiwan. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 18(5), pp.576 – 597 Coakes, E., Amar, A.D. and Granados, M. L. (2010). Knowledge management, strategy, and technology: a global snapshot. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 23(3), pp.282 – 304 Conley, C. A. and Wei, Z. (2009). Factors critical to knowledge management success. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11(3): 334-348. Corrao, S., Arcoraci, V., Arnone, S., Calvo, L., Scaglione, R., Di Bernardo, C., Lagalla, R., Caputi, A. P. and Licata, G. (2009). Evidence-Based Knowledge Management: an approach to effectively promote good health-care decision-making in the Information Era. Internal and Emergency Medicine, 4(2), 99-106, Driessen, S., Huijsen, W. O. and Grootveld, M. (2007). A framework for evaluating knowledge-mapping tools. Journal of Knowledge Management, 11(2), pp.109 – 117 Frize, M., Yang, L., Walker, R. C. and O’Connor, A. M. (2005). Conceptual Framework of Knowledge Management for Ethical Decision-Making Support in Neonatal Intensive Care. Information Technology in Biomedicine, 9 (2), pp. 205 - 215 258 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Gasson, S. and Shelfer, K. M. (2007). IT-based knowledge management to support organizational learning: Visa application screening at the INS. Information Technology & People, 20(4), pp.376 - 399 Handzic, M., & Zhou, A. Z. (2005). Knowledge Management: An Integrative Approach, Chandos Publishing, Oxford, UK. Meso, P., Troutt, M. D. and Rudnicka, J. (2002). A review of naturalistic decision making research with some implications for knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management, 6(1), pp.63 – 73 Mills, A.M. and Smith, T.A. (2011). Knowledge management and organizational performance: a decomposed view. Journal of Knowledge Management, 15(1), pp. 156-171. Rizzi, C., Ponte, D. and Bonifacio, M. (2009). A new institutional reading of knowledge management technology adoption. Journal of Knowledge Management, 13(4), pp.75 – 85 E-commerce in Bosnia &Herzegovina Ozlen Serife, Obralic Merdzana, Cickusic Emir, Ejupi Dzenis, Dzaferovic Emir International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E –mails: serifeozlen@hotmail.com, mobralic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract With the rising of e-commerce in the past few years, distinct buying patterns and preferences have emerged for specific groups and other demographics. Since e-commerce is still a relatively new phenomenon in B&H, our goal was to collect enough information and measure those patterns in order to understand how consumers connect with the new technology. This paper lays the foundation with brief introduction to definition of e-commerce, followed by history timeline of e-commerce evolution and some important trends and factors which are generally known to have influence on people’s attitude toward online shopping. This is then followed by their general perceptions and preferences of online shopping including product and payment option selection. Each of these e-commerce “generalities” is compared to the information achieved as a result of collected surveys whose respondents are from different regions of Bosnia & Herzegovina. Furthermore, it will also investigate the favorable as well as negative website characteristics 259 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1174 Title A name given to the resource Km Applications In Bosnian Managerial Practices Author Author ÖZLEN, M. Kürşad MAHMUTOVIC, Zehra MEKIĆ, Ensar MEKIĆ, Emina Abstract A summary of the resource. Knowledge Management has emerged globally to facilitate sustainability of the organizations as a result of competitive environment. Organizational learning not only asserts and promotes organizational outcome and improved performance, but also plays a significant role in achieving innovation and overall satisfaction through internalization; staff engagement, staff motivation and empowerment, leadership and configuration. This paper focuses primarily on its application within Bosnian managerial practices. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the presence of Knowledge Management within Bosnian managerial practices, its intensity, influences on organizational strategy, and benefits as well as outcomes coming from it. As a result of literature review, a 7-point Likert scale survey was developed and the survey was distributed to the companies by emailing, otherwise companies were visited directly. The companies vary from private to public, in different areas of business performance. The respondents have different positions through bottom to the top management. The data gathered were examined descriptively and the results are discussed accordingly. Keywords: knowledge management, strategy, decision making, motivation, benefits Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/80b1f6ac780d173c5a773936b9671913.pdf 39a9489d522b6cb79b0a9abe92d7ede5 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Knowledge Economy And Effect On Women’ S Employment In Turkey Arslan İbrahim1, Dineri Eda1, Taş İsmail2 1Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey, 2Tunceli University, Tunceli, Turkey E-mails:arslan@gantep.edu.tr, egursel@gantep.edu.tr,ismailtas@tunceli.edu.tr Abstract In recent years, information and communication technology has changed remarkable by effect of globalization movement that occurring in the world. This changing also affected world economy significantly at the same time. Nowadays the new economic relations based on information technologies, such as labor and capital have reduced the importance of production factors and information has been the most important elements in the production factors. Continuously variation in technology with the creative power of information causes a change in the employment parallel. The main purpose of the study is to examine how information and communication technologies have changed the direction of the woman’s employment. Along with the development of information and communication technologies, computer and communication tools take place of the labor force could be decreased the number of employment, may also increase with the emergence of new business opportunities. Like many other developing countries, Turkey is implementing various projects and taking some steps to adapt and take advantages of benefits of the knowledge economy. With all other economic variables women’s employment is also affected by the steps thrown and this response has socially importance. This paper aims to investigate Turkey's harmonization process in the knowledge economy and how knowledge economy impacted on female employment in Turkey and make some assumptions for future. Keywords: Economy Knowledge economy, Woman’s Employment, Unemployment, Turkey’s 1.INTRODUCTION From primitive society to present, highlighted changes in the all life was formed by the accumulation of knowledge. The center of civilization moved from primitive society to agriculture sector by years. Over time, the importance of the agricultural sector has decreased and industrialization replaced of agricultural sector by the improving of technology. After the process of industrialization in the knowledge economy has been the only representative of civilization. According of Toffler, agricultural sector is the first stage of economic development, after that industrialization period took place, in the last stage service economy has emerged (Toffler, 1970). Knowledge economy is production and services based on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and scientific advance, as well as rapid obsolescence. The key component of a knowledge economy is a greater reliance on intellectual capabilities than on physical inputs or natural resources (Powell and Snellman, 180 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 2004). Many sectors have key input for itself. In an agricultural economy land is the key resource. In an industrial economy natural resources, such as coal and iron ore, and labor are the main resources. A knowledge economy is one in which knowledge is the key resource. it is not new how knowledge important for economy (Houghton and Sheehan, 2000). Knowledge economy is revolution for the world’s gaining a new dimension to itself. In the whole world all limits are eliminated and economic, cultural and social life became accessible anytime, anywhere by the effect of knowledge economy with information and communication technologies. When developed countries are using possibilities of information and communication technologies in the most effective way, developing countries staying behind the time for catching new technologies. Turkey begins to take a part in the global economy re-integrated micro-and macro-economic changes in this process by the advantages of information and communication technologies. This paper aims to investigate how women employment affected by the knowledge economy and information and communication technologies taking place in Turkish economy. This paper also examines if women employment went up or went down as result of using knowledge economy in economic activity intensively. 2.Structure of Employment in Knowledge Economy and Literature Review The new economic relations which based on the knowledge economy is reduced the importance of factors of production such as labor and capital, notwithstanding information has been the most important element for production factors. People needed financial capital in past but today they needed knowledge, patents, copyrights, information assets, brain power and experience except financial capital (Akolaş, 2000). Technology is changing by the creative power of information this also causes a parallel change in employment. Depending on technological developments, new industries have emerged and nature of the personnel employed has also changed. Information technology and communications sector has controlled market conditions in present and as a result of this change certified importance of information (Yeloğlu, 2004). This situation leads to change in the qualities of those who were employed. The development information and communication technologies help to people show their expertise and skills. If a country does not make investment to improve human capital that country will have inequality for using information and communication technologies in global world. Developments in computer and communication technologies are forcing businesses to follow the development in perspective of cost, time, quality and service issues (Şahin, 2010). When they are following this development they are also changing qualify of their employment. The increasing prevalence of information and communication technologies are increasing demand for qualified people and also decreasing demand for unqualified people. Toffler stressed "the technology is feeding itself in three stages, the first one is creativity and the second one is practical applicability, last one is diffusion of technology to society. (Toffler: 1970). It may take certain time for work force to conform to changes in the employed labor force. Developments of internet and information technologies are named as the new economy in the 1990s in America. Then labor productivity has increased in EU and unemployment rates remained low compared previous years (Freeman, 2002). Women workforce in the service sector was 92% and male workforce was 74% in 2008 in the world. In addition to woman workforce more than male workforce in service sector, male 181 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo workforce more than female workforce in science, engineering and technology sectors (www.wrc.org.uk. Accessed 04/26/2012). Employment rate of female labor in the agricultural sector went down to 42.2% from 50% in Turkey between the years 2004 and 2011. At the same period employment rate of male labor in the agricultural sector moved to 18% from 21%. Employment rates of male in the industry sector raised up to 31% from 28% despite of fact that female employment rate went down from 16% to 15%. When the service sector is examined we show that female employment increased from 33% to 42%. Male employment in service sector remained around 50% at the same period (http://www.tuik.gov.tr. accessed: 26.04.2012). Atik and Tombak (2012) examined women employment in knowledge economy and employment structure in turkey compared to US, Japan, EU, BRIC countries. They figure out that women employment could not take enough place in knowledge economy, women mostly work in agriculture sector in Turkey. Atik and Altınparmak (2010) tested contribution of knowledge economy to employment in Turkey compared with 27 EU countries. As a result of analysis, female labor force more employed then male labor force. According to the paper contribution of knowledge economy to employment is about 28,7 in 2008. Freeman (2002) tested relationship between earnings per hour and computer usage in the early 2000’s. he found positive relationship between variables. Yeloğlu (2004) compared Turkey with EU countries about variables of knowledge economy and changing in years between 1995 and 1999. He figured out Turkey similar to North European counties about knowledge economy. Arslan (2010) investigated the relationship between woman employment and knowledge economy. They used panel data analyses to test relationship between the years 2000 and 2009. According to results, significant relationship has been identified between the variables. In addition it has been found long term causality from knowledge economy to woman employment. 3.Employment Structure of Women Labor Force In the late of 1970’s economy began to liberalization by the effect of development in the computer and liberal views. at the beginning of the 1990s new media, digital networks and information and communication technologies replaced of electronic age. This innovation brought by the knowledge economy leads people to do all transactions through a virtual environment. The internet users and ratio between total population and internet users in Turkey are given in following table comparison with other countries. Table 2. 1. Internet Users and Population Statistics for 2011 Estimated Population Ratio of Total Countries Internet Users in 2011 Population 182 USA 313,232,044 245,203,319 78.20% Japan 126,475,664 99,182,00 78.40% Germany 81,474,834 65,125,000 79.90% France 65,102,709 45,262,000 69,50% Italy 61,016,814 30,026,824 49.20% �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Spain 46,754,824 29,093,984 62.20% Turkey 78,785,548 35,000,000 44.00% Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm Some countries where highest numbers of internet users are given in the table above. Turkey ranked 10 from 20 countries in 2011 also Turkey ranked 11 from 20 in 2010. The woman internet users in Turkey are shown in the table following over years. Table 2. 2. Internet and Computer Using Rates for women in Turkey between 2004 and 2011 Years 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Numbers of Internet Users 6,1 5,6 20,7 26,6 28.0 31,7 35,3 Numbers of Computer Users 8,2 8,0 23,7 28,5 30,0 33,2 36,9 Source: http://www.tuik.gov.tr After 2005 woman internet users are increased rapidly. It is reached 35,3% in 2011. In the same way numbers of woman computer users are increased rapidly. It is reached 36,9% when it was jus 8,2% in 2004. Table 2. 3. The Relationship between Education Level and Computer Usage For Woman in Turkey Not High Years Elementary Secondary Faculty Graduated School School 2004 0,3 0,4 6,0 26,2 2005 0,4 1,2 16,9 64,9 2007 0,3 5,3 30,1 82,4 2008 1,2 7,1 38,3 85,5 2009 1,3 9,3 47,1 86,7 2010 1,6 10,6 48,5 68,2 89,9 Table 2.3. showed that women who do not graduated from any school used computer almost zero percent but this rank reached just 1.6 percent in 2010. Women who graduated elementary school use computer more then not graduated ones but increased from 0.4% to 10.6% in six years. For the secondary school level almost half of women used computer in 2010. For high school level we could not find more data but table showed that 68,2% of women used internet graduated from high school. This rank is reached high level for the woman who graduated faculty. It was almost 90 % in 2010. That is quite sure number of woman who use computer increased after 2004 rapidly. Table 2. 4. The Relationship between Education Level and Internet Usage For Woman in Turkey Not Years Elementary Secondary High Faculty Graduated School School 183 2004 0,2 0,2 3,6 8,3 22,6 2005 0,2 0,3 9,8 27,1 57,9 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 2007 0,2 3,9 23,3 49,1 80,7 2008 0,8 5,9 35,6 57,0 85,1 2009 1,1 7,7 43,5 62,4 85,8 2010 1,1 9,6 46,2 66,4 88,8 Table 2.4. showed that Turkey has same characteristic for Computer and internet usage for woman. Both of table almost have same ranks. Woman who graduated from faculty using internet more than 80% after 2005. The use and access of women to information and communication technologies is lower than in men. Reasons for this problem;  Low level of literacy rate and educational level  Women have less time because of her role in society  Woman have less financial resources in society  Geographical location: women are living in rural areas more than men in developing countries. Traditionally, the sectors separated such as agriculture, industry and services. Table 2. 5. Female Employment Rates in Agriculture-Industry-Service Sector Years Agriculture Industry Service 2004 50.8 16,1 33.1 2005 46.3 16,6 37.0 2006 43.6 16,4 40.0 2007 42.7 16,1 41.2 2008 42.1 15,7 42.2 2009 41.6 15,3 43.1 2010 42.4 15,9 41.7 2011 42.2 15,2 42.6 Woman labor force in agriculture was 50.8% in 2004. Then woman labor force decreased by 8 percent over years and it was 42,2% in 2011. Woman labor force in industry did not change much. It was on the line between 15-16%. Woman who worked in service sector increased by 9 percent at the same period and reached to 42,6 in 2011. This table also showed 8 percent loss in agriculture moved to service sector for women employment. 3.1.Result In recent years, the technological developments have led to a new social and political dynamics. Activities of the economic units are faster and cost effectively with effect of information and communication technologies. Information is a today's most important 184 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo production factor. Source of value creation in the knowledge economy are education, information technology and science. Knowledge economy moved location of business areas to virtual environment based on technology. As a result of this, the way of employment has also changed using. Using information became more important than using physical strength to employee. In this case government must generate some policies for individuals to adjust them to conditions that knowledge economy brought. Women's employment is an issue that needs to be emphasized even more important. Women, non-governmental organizations to adapt to these improvements in technology, the state has to undertake the activities. It is important problem for developing and underdeveloped countries that women were left out of the labor force. Woman in society mostly has not and has no money for developing her personal skill. this issue important especially for their competitive strength against male workforce in knowledge economy. Woman work force mostly employee in agriculture sector and woman work force increased in the last decade in turkey but still so far from developed countries. Government should make policies to increase using of information technologies. Otherwise it could be so hard for the woman change their work sector and employee in knowledge sector. Government also leaves some budget for developing personnel skills. At the same time woman adopt herself to technology age to employee in knowledge sector. Developing countries should follow new technology age’s requirement and adopt it to economy for catching developed countries. 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Sociol. 30:199–220 John Houghton and Peter Sheehan (2000). “A Primer on the Knowledge Economy” Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University Economic Costs And Benefits Of The Eu Enlargement: The Impact On The Eu And Seec’s Kurtagić Haris, Nuroglu Elif International University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, B&H E-mails: kurtagic.h@hotmail.com,enuroglu@ius.edu.ba Abstract The South-eastern enlargement of the European Union will be the sixth enlargement since establishing the European Community in 1957. The research uses the Gravity model, and measures the factors that have an influence on trade. The Gravity model involves coefficients 186 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1324 Title A name given to the resource Knowledge Economy And Effect On Women’ S Employment In Turkey Author Author Arslan, İbrahim Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, information and communication technology has changed remarkable by effect of globalization movement that occurring in the world. This changing also affected world economy significantly at the same time. Nowadays the new economic relations based on information technologies, such as labor and capital have reduced the importance of production factors and information has been the most important elements in the production factors. Continuously variation in technology with the creative power of information causes a change in the employment parallel. The main purpose of the study is to examine how information and communication technologies have changed the direction of the woman’s employment. Along with the development of information and communication technologies, computer and communication tools take place of the labor force could be decreased the number of employment, may also increase with the emergence of new business opportunities. Like many other developing countries, Turkey is implementing various projects and taking some steps to adapt and take advantages of benefits of the knowledge economy. With all other economic variables women’s employment is also affected by the steps thrown and this response has socially importance. This paper aims to investigate Turkey's harmonization process in the knowledge economy and how knowledge economy impacted on female employment in Turkey and make some assumptions for future. Keywords: Knowledge economy, Woman’s Employment, Unemployment, Turkey’s Economy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0771c481f09b920dcf081288710e8cd6.pdf 96be6eb4d0b9765aaa11513cbeeab82e PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Ahmet Baytok Faculty of Tourism Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Hasan Hüseyin Soybali Faculty of Tourism Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey hsoybali@aku.edu.tr Ozcan Zorlu Faculty of Tourism, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey ozcanzorlu@aku.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims to analyze knowledge management (KM) processes in thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar province in Turkey. Within the scope of this research, the KM processes applied in thermal hotels have been determined through conducting questionnaire surveys. Descriptive analyses of hotel managers’ views on KM processes were presented. Also, discriminant analysis was used to determine differences between participants’ views based on their demographic characteristics. As a result of the study, it was found that thermal hotels highly apply KM processes. Knowledge creation is the most applied KM process among others. In Introduction addition, it was found that informal communication should be encouraged in order to improve knowledge sharing. Keywords: Knowledge Management, Thermal Hotels, Afyonkarahisar. JEL Classification: M15, L83. D83, Article History Submitted: 06 Jun 2013 Resubmitted: 25 September 2013 Accepted: 22 October 2013 159 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu Knowledge is the main determinant of transforming business techniques and technologies into a competitive tool. Since competitors cannot benchmark or copy possessed unique knowledge, this fact makes the knowledge significant (Tiwana, 2003: 72). Thus, knowledge and knowledge management (KM) is one of the most important asset in business, and one of the most researched subjects in academic literature. KM is seen as an essential and important tool for companies in sustaining their existence and gaining competitive advantage (Martensson, 2000: 204; Schönström, 2005: 17; Sandhawalia and Dalcher, 2010: 313, Stapleton, 2003: 97) has been firstly coined by Dr. Karl Wiig in academic literature. It is described by American Productivity and Quality Center (APQC) as a systematic approach (integrating people, processes, technology, and content) to enable information and knowledge to be created and flow to the right people at the right time so that their work and decisions can add value to the mission of the organization (Leawitt, 2003). KM has also engendered many new concepts and categories in using knowledge to create value (Dalkir, 2005: xiii). Nowadays, all companies gather information by interacting with their business environment; transform this information to the knowledge and run using this knowledge consonantly with their know-how, values, beliefs and internal rules (Davenport and Prusak, 2000: 52). This process, which is also named as KM processes naturally exists in organization (Shi, 2010: 12), expresses a structured coordination to effective management of knowledge (Gold, Malhotra, Segars, 2001:187) and is mainly related to how knowledge is created and used in organization (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995: 59). When the KM literature is reviewed, it is seen that KM processes have been categorized differently by many researchers (Alavi and Leidner, 1999; Liebowitz, 2001; Bouncken, 2002; Bryant, 2003; Holsapple, Jones and Singh, 2007; Fink and Ploder, 2011). As these categorizations are considered, KM processes can be classified as knowledge acquisition, knowledge creation, knowledge sharing, knowledge storage and documentation, knowledge use. These processes will be explained in detail in next section. Contrary to its popularity in business management literature, it is seen that the number of studies on KM processes in hospitality industry is very limited. Thus, KM is a relatively new concept for hospitality management literature and much more detailed studies need to be conducted in order to understand the KM and KM processes in hospitality industry. 160 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey In this context, this study aims to draw attention to KM in hotels by evaluating KM processes in thermal hotels. Within the scope of this research, the KM processes applied in thermal hotels have been determined through conducting questionnaires. Percentage and frequency tables are used to show participants’ demographic characteristics and see participants’ views about KM processes. Finally, discriminant analyses refer differences between participants’ views based on their demographic characteristics. KM Processes in Hospitality Enterprises Tourism as a knowledge intensive industry consists of complex and dynamic network structures (Baggio, 2006). Intangible, inseparable, perishable and heterogeneous characteristics of tourism product and its compound nature make knowledge important for tourism industry. Acquiring knowledge instantly and using it in production, consumption and operational activities are rarely important in other sectors as much as tourism industry (Poon, 1993). Knowledge plays vital role in tourism industry and industry cannot fulfill its functions completely without knowledge (O’Connor, 1999). Increasing and diversifying needs and expectations of tourism demand, increased competition and efficient use of resources make knowledge important in tourism, and knowledge sharing becomes core of tourism business (Pollack, 1995). Hospitality enterprises are mainly service producers. For the achievement of final products, hospitality companies collaborate with a variety of service industries like travel agencies, tour operators, transporters, entertainment, shopping. Thus hospitality industry have knowledge-based or knowledge intensive service processes (Kahle, 2002). Moreover, the industry is knowledge-intensive as a result of the nature of service product, where the service delivery occurs as a result of interaction between customers and employees, and where it is required that employees are acknowledged about customers’ needs in order to achieve customer satisfaction (Kahle, 2002; Kotler, Bowen and Makens, 1999; cited by Hallin and Marnburg, 2007:3). In addition, knowledge management is important for hotel chains which have to deliver an overall quality standard in geographically distributed hotels (Medlik, 1990: 153; cited by Bouncken, 2002: 27). Possible application areas of knowledge management systems in hospitality and tourism are business planning (process of planning capacities, quality standards and prices of additional services), service operations (hotel facilities planning, event scheduling) quality 161 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu improvement (e.g. managing customer complaints) and reaction on emerging cases (Gronau, 2002). And, possible knowledge sources can be contents of files on a server, intranet pages, directory of business relevant persons, e-mail traffic that is guided to specialists for certain situations (e.g. for technical maintenance (Gronau, 2002). Bounken (2002: 30) classifies this knowledge stated in sources as task- specific, task-related, transactive memory and guest–related knowledge for hotels. Hoteliers should always seek, use and value knowledge like professionals in other business sectors. Thus knowledge existing in hospitality enterprises should be managed in the scope of strategic manner with certain processes. Cooper (2006) classifies knowledge management processes in hotels as knowledge stocks and mapping, knowledge capturing, knowledge codifying, knowledge flow and knowledge transfer. And, Bouncken (2002) classifies those processes as knowledge identification, acquisition and development of knowledge, knowledge accumulation, retrieval and distribution, and knowledge controlling. On the other hand we classify KM processes, in accordance with general KM literature, as acquisition, creation, sharing, storage and documentation, and utilization of knowledge as mentioned earlier. Knowledge Acquisition: Companies firstly try to identify knowledge that exists outside and inside of organization but cannot be detected/found, in the context of knowledge acquisition (Shi, 2010: 12; Isa, Abdullah, Hamzah, ArsHad, 2008: 105, Bratianu, 2011: 6, Al-Busaidi, 2011: 402, Sun, 2010: 508). In this stage, the required knowledge generally has information characteristics. Companies capture required information in two ways, from inside and outside of the organization (Wiig, 1999: 2). First, they capture knowledge existing in the organization by knowledge workers. Second, they outsource or purchase required information existing outside of the organization (Bergeron, 2003: 95). Companies capture required information by means of their customers, suppliers, competitors, relation with strategic alliances (Fink and Ploder, 2011: 52), books, software, academic publications, research reports and video conferences (Bratianu, 2011: 6). Besides companies utilize structured interviews, talk loud analysis, protocols, questionnaires, observations and simulations to capture the required information (Dalkir, 2005: 81). Bouncken (2002) states that in hospitality enterprises knowledge acquisition concentrates on external knowledge retrieval from customers, external experts, tourist offices and often enhances the assimilation of previously unnoticed information. The author also emphasizes that knowledge develops (captures) via service research, service practice and distribution and cooperation of knowledge among employees in hotels. 162 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Knowledge Creation: Knowledge creation is getting new and useful knowledge from the information that is captured from the sources existing inside and outside of the organization. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995: 5973) describe knowledge creation as a process of socialization, externalization, combination and internalization. According to researchers, implicit/tacit knowledge creation is a spiral process starting at the individual level and moving up through expanding communities of interaction that crosses sectional, departmental, divisional and organizational boundaries (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995: 72). On the other hand, knowledge which is created in the organization should be shared before and after knowledge creation processes in order to use it efficiently at an individual and organizational level. Knowledge Sharing: Knowledge sharing can be described as transferring or disseminating of knowledge from a worker, group or organization to another (Lee, 2001: 324). Also, it can be described as interaction between explicit and implicit knowledge (Lee, Gillespie, Mann and Wearing: 2010: 474). In a broader perspective, knowledge sharing is composed of the activities that involve gathering, absorbing, and/or transferring product and/or service information between organizations and customers, alliance partners, and/or employees (Chen and Barnes, 2006). To provide effective knowledge sharing in organizations; motivation and encouragement systems and an open organizational structure should be designed to support knowledge flow, technological support should be provided such as intranet and internet (Cook and Cook, 2004: 314; Riege, 2005: 29). Physical areas that enable informal communication such as talking rooms, water cooler/teapot and cafeteria areas should be designed and finally some activities that enable face to face communication should be organized such as meetings (Davenport and Prusak, 2000: 89-95). Contrary to this fact, high personnel turnover and rotating staff limit the knowledge sharing in hotels. Thus, hotels’ management should concentrate on transforming tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. Knowledge Storage and Documentation: This process basically aims to make organizational knowledge accessible for everyone. Knowledge storage and documentation process identifies which knowledge will be stored in the organization (Hattendorf, 2002: 65), and includes codification and storing of knowledge captured from organization members and external sources (Alavi and Leidner, 1999). Knowledge Utilization: This process basically consists of carrying out activities to ensure that the knowledge is applied productively for its benefits (Fink and Ploder, 2011: 52). Organizational knowledge utilization 163 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu can be categorized as knowledge use at micro and macro level. Management of knowledge in micro level is prior and essential in organizational knowledge utilization to increase organizational performance and profitability. On the other hand, it is intended to use explicit knowledge disclosed by the organization to its environment as a part of marketing strategy or as a survival tool in a competitive market (Reychav and Weisberg, 2006: 225). In knowledge utilization processes, companies gain competitive advantage and create value by combining knowledge with products and services, applying it within new projects (Kasvi, Vartiainen and Hailikari, 2003: 572), and using this knowledge in decision making, policy making, problem solving and developing new products to meet human/enterprise needs (Salo, 2009; Al-Busaidi, 2011: 403). Knowledge Management in Thermal Hotels and Afyonkarahisar as a Thermal Tourism Destination Utilization of thermal water resources for health purposes is one of the oldest travel motivations dating back to ancient Egypt, Greek and Roman periods (Özer, 1991). Today, the effort for the utilization of natural thermal resources with support of the modern medicine, has caused the emergence of thermal tourism which is defined as a type of tourism which consists of various types of utilization methods such as "thermo-mineral water bath, drinking, inhalation, mud bath, cure (treatment) applications which combine supporting treatment methods as the climatic cure, physical therapy, rehabilitation, exercise, psychotherapy and diet as well as the use of thermal waters for entertainment and recreational purposes (Kültürve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2013). The realization of thermal tourism activities in an area is only possible with the existence of thermal facilities which includes spas where “mud, under-ground, sea and climate related natural healing elements are used as treatment instruments, drinking cure centres and climatic cure centres and recreational and treatment units in these locations (ResmiGazete, 2005). The necessity to meet the treatment and recreational demands together in thermal tourism, distinguishes management and organizational structure of thermal tourism enterprises from others (Özbek, 1991). Service delivery in the same place for healthy and patient guests in thermal enterprises, having cure units in their organizational structure, application of different programs (physical therapy, rehabilitation, diet etc.) to patients within the scope of cure applications and need for certain period of time (21 days in average) for the completion of curing practises (Arasıl, 1991) and necessity to enrich recreational areas require these enterprises to operate in a 164 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey complex structure and system (Özbek, 1991). This structure makes the knowledge important in thermal hotel enterprises to be able to manage the activities efficiently and effectively. Thermal hotels are the enterprises which produce hospitality services same as other accommodation enterprises. Therefore, the acquisition, creation, sharing, storage, and utilization of knowledge in all areas falling within the scope hospitality enterprises’ operations also apply to thermal hotel enterprises. For example, collection of knowledge from health institutions in target markets on frequently observed common diseases and health problems which can be treated by thermal treatment in those areas or obtaining knowledge related to competitors and their operations refers to the acquisition of knowledge management processes. The use of that knowledge for the planning and execution of their activities and development of new treatment methods and services is knowledge creation. The delivery of knowledge about meals arranged by the specialist doctor in the cure centre to the kitchen for preparation and food and beverage departments for its service can be given an example to knowledge flow and share. The storage of knowledge related to treatment practices to use it on the patients who indicate the similar health problems in future in databases/warehouses, and keeping information on weekly, monthly and annual occupancy rates in the front office is knowledge storage / documentation process. The use of acquired, created, shared and stored knowledge in a thermal hotel for the determination of future management strategies can be expressed as an example of the knowledge use. Afyonkarahisar, an Aegean Province, is located in Phrygian Region which is planned to be developed as thermal tourism destination together with Ankara, Eskisehir, Kütahya and Uşak provinces in the Turkey’s tourism strategy for 2023 (Kültürve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2013a). The basic attraction of the province, in terms of tourism is the natural thermal water resources located in its four regions; Ömer-Gecek (Centre), Hüdai (Sandıklı), Heybeli (Bolvadin) and Gazlıgöl (İhsaniye). All of these four thermal tourism regions of Afyonkarahisar have been announced as Thermal Tourism Region by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. According to the 2012 statistics of Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 14 Ministry registered operation licensed hospitality enterprises operate in Afyonkarahisar. The bed capacity is 4,925 in these enterprises. There are also 15 Ministry registered investment licensed hospitality enterprises with a 9,100 bed capacity. The hospitality supra-structure of Afyonkarahisar is largely formed by the hospitality enterprises established for thermal tourism purposes. The most quality enterprises are especially located in Ömer165 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu Gecek in city centre and Sandıklı- Hüdai (The most quality enterprises are especially located in Ömer-Gecek in city centre and Sandıklı- Hüdai regions). There are 5 five-star hospitality enterprises with a 3,204 bed capacity in Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism region. 1,140 beds are available in Sandkl-Hüdai in two five-star hospitality enterprises. The share of these two regions in total Ministry registered bed capacity reaches to as high as 88%. While mostly a condominium supra-structure is observed in Gazlıgöl (While mostly a condominium supra-structure is observed in Gazlıgöl thermal tourism region), Heybeli thermal tourism region has small thermal enterprises which are operated by Bolvadin District Municipality. According to 2012 statistics of Ministry of Culture and Tourism, a total of 264,841 visitors of whom 7,720 are foreign and 257,121 are Turkish citizens were accommodated in Afyonkarahisar ( Afyonkarahisar İl KültürveTurizm Müdürlüğü, 2013). Methodology In this descriptive study, it is primarily aimed to determine whether thermal hotels use KM and if it is to what degree they use KM processes in the scope of strategic management. Other basic objective of the study is to assign, on the condition that KM processes in thermal hotels differentiate according to some demographic variables of middle and senior hotel managers. It is also assumed that results of the survey will contribute to the related literature and hotel managers or owners who want to practice KM in his/her hotel in the context of strategic management to gain competitive advantage especially in the long term. A quantitative research method was preferred to collect required data in this study. Thus, questionnaire method which is mostly preferred of quantitative research method was used. The questionnaire basically consists of two main sections. Some close-ended questions such as gender, age, department, and years of working experience in the hotel were asked to hotel managers in the first section. A 5-point Likert Scale consisting of 32 items about KM processes took part in the second section of the questionnaire. With these items, it is aimed to gather required data related to acquisition, creation, sharing, storage and documentation, and utilization of knowledge. KM process statements were adapted from Shi’s (2010) PhD dissertation on KM. The questionnaire was conducted starting from 10 February 2013 to 25 March 2013 in seven 5 star hotels located in Afyonkarahisar. A total of 67middle and senior managers were asked to complete the questionnaire 166 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey form vis-à-vis. PASW 18 statistical package programme was used to analyze the gathered data. Data Analyses For the purpose of the study, reliability analyses were performed in order to detect the validity of questionnaire data for the descriptive and discriminant analyses at beginning of the data analyze phase. As shown in Table 1, Cronbach Alpha defining reliability coefficient was found 0.955 for the 32 items of the questionnaire. Furthermore, Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found over 0.70 in each sub-factors of the KM scale. Questionnaire where the Cronbach Alpha coefficient is over 0.70 is often accepted as reliable in social sciences (Lehman et al. 2005). Thus, the data collected via questionnaire in this study was accepted reliable for the descriptive and discriminant analyses. Table 1. Reliability Test Results KM scale (32 items) KM scale sub-factors a) Knowledge acquisition b) Knowledge creation c) Knowledge sharing d) Knowledge storage and documentation e) Knowledge utilization Cronbach Alpha 0.955 n 32 0.853 0.834 0.702 6 5 7 0.907 7 0.871 7 Just after the reliability analyze some demographic variables of middle and senior managers of the thermal hotels were analysed by descriptive analysis. As shown in Table 2, a great majority of the participants are men (65.7%), and 39 participants are married (58.2%) while 41.8% of the population is single. More than half of 67 participants with 56.7% namely 38 managers are between the ages of 25 and 34. Other major group involves the participants whose ages are between 35 and 44. According to results in Table 2, 34.3% of the participants have bachelor degree, while 21 participants (31.3%) graduated from high school, and 15 participants (22.4) have associate’s degree. So, it can be said that a great majority of the middle and senior managers of thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar are well educated with the percent of 57.7. Thus, we assumed that most of the middle and senior thermal hotel managers have information about KM 167 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu and they know how to use knowledge in accordance with a strategic perspective especially to gain competitive advantage in long term. 168 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Table 2. Results of Some Demographic Variables of the Participants Variable Gender Age group Marital status Education Department Subdimension Male Female 24 and younger ages 25 to 34 ages 35 to 44 ages 45 to 54 ages Married Single Primary education High school graduated Associate's degree Bachelor degree Master/PhD degree Food and Beverage Front Office Housekeeping Spa-Wellness Accounting Sales Marketing Senior Management Public Relations Animation Technique Services Human Resources 44 23 65.7 34.3 Cumulative Percentage (%) 65.7 100 7 10.4 10.4 38 19 3 39 28 56.7 28.4 4.5 58.2 41.8 67.1 95.5 100 58.2 100 6 9.0 9.0 21 31.3 40.3 15 22.4 62.7 23 34.3 97.0 2 3.0 100 17 25.4 25.4 12 7 7 6 17.9 10.4 10.4 9.0 43.3 53.7 64.1 73.1 5 7.5 80.6 3 4.5 85.1 3 4.5 89.6 3 4.5 94.1 2 3.0 97.1 1 1.5 98.6 Frequency Percentage (n) (%) 169 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu Year of working experience in hotel Total (N)67 Missing Value Less than 1 year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11 years and above Missing Value 100 % 1 1.5 100 14 20,9 20.9 35 12 52,2 17,9 73.1 91.0 5 7,5 98.5 1 1,5 100 The descriptive analyze results indicate that 25.4% of the participants are working at Food and Beverage departments of the thermal hotels. Also, another major group consists of Front Office department chiefs/managers with the percentage of 17.9. Departments of the participants ranked after Front Office ranked as Housekeeping (10.4%), Spa-Wellness (10.4%), Accounting (9.0%), Sales and Marketing (7.5%), Senior Management (4.5%), Public Relations (4.5%), Animation (4.5%), and others (4.5%) including Technique Service and Human Resources. Thus, results of this study are largely depend on F&B, Front Office, Housekeeping and SpaWellness department chiefs/managers’ answers. Lastly, results show that a great majority of the participants have been working in the hotel from 1 year to 5 years (52.2%, n: 35). The percentage of middle and senior managers working for the less than one year is 20.9 with 14 participants. Degree of KM Use in Hotels In this section, the degree of KM processes used in thermal hotels was evaluated based on participants’ views with descriptive analysis. Means and standard deviations were calculated to determine participants’ response rates to the items. Participants’ views about KM processes are presented in Table 3. Due to the results of all items above 3.00 (No idea) mean level, it can be assumed that thermal hotels realize all required transactions in the scope of KM processes. 170 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Table 3. Descriptive Analysis Results of Knowledge Management Processes Knowledge Utilization Knowledge Storage and Documentation Knowledge Sharing Knowledge Creation Knowledge Acquisition Subdimensions Items Our hotel frequently seeks new knowledge outside the organization. Our staff regularly gets new knowledge from external sources. Our hotel systematically analyses customer needs. Our hotel regularly captures knowledge of our competitors. Our hotel captures knowledge obtained from public research institutions including universities and etc. Our hotel regularly captures knowledge obtained from industrial associations, competitors, clients and suppliers. Our hotel frequently comes up with new ideas about our products and/or services. Our hotel frequently comes up with new ideas about our working methods and processes. If a traditional method is not effective anymore, our hotel develops a new method. Our hotel develops new ideas and innovations in collaboration between different departments. Our hotel develops new ideas and innovations in collaboration with external partners such as suppliers and clients. In our hotel information and knowledge are actively shared within the departments. Different departments actively share information and knowledge among each other. Employees and managers exchange a lot of information and knowledge. Our hotel shares a lot of knowledge and information with strategic partners. Our hotel shares knowledge with competitors (through industrial associations, directly, etc.). In our hotel, previously made solutions and documents are easily available. In our hotel, much knowledge is distributed in informal ways (in the corridors, break rooms, etc.). Our hotel does a lot of work to refine, organize and store the knowledge collected. The information sources, manuals and databases at our hotel's disposal are up-to-date. Hotel staff is systematically informed of changes in procedures, instructions and regulations. Our hotel has much information in the form of documents, databases. Our hotel possesses many core business processes and services. We are used to documenting in writing the things that are learnt in practice. We make sure that the most important experiences gained are documented. Our hotel uses existing know-how in a creative manner for new applications. Our hotel is able to use the employees' knowledge in various business activities. Our hotel responds to changes in our customers' needs. Our hotel achieved major process improvements as a result of analyzing and applying knowledge from external parties. Different departments of our hotel frequently apply knowledge that was x s.s 3.88 4.21 4.04 0.930 0.946 0.976 3.62 1.064 4.19 0.821 4.26 0.966 4.12 0.976 3.94 1.127 3.82 1.066 4.01 0.913 3.94 1.149 3.88 1.122 3.88 1.038 3.82 0.893 3.61 0.936 4.03 1.023 2.42 1.416 4.05 0.999 3.99 0.929 4.09 1.011 3.94 3.98 0.919 0.969 3.98 1.088 3.96 0.991 3.92 0.966 3.72 1.042 4.32 0.880 3.96 1. 134 3.75 1.146 171 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu shared by other departments. Many new ideas that our hotel develops are brought into reality. Our hotel’s databases and documented knowledge are frequently used by employees. 3.70 1.115 3.70 1.243 x: Mean, s.s: Standard Deviation. Results shown in Table 3 indicate that, analyzing of customers’ needs systematically (x: 4.21 and s.s: 0.946) is the most applied knowledge acquisition process. Capturing knowledge from industrial associations, competitors, clients and suppliers (x: 4.19 and s.s: 0.821) is the second highest knowledge acquisition process among other acquisition activities. This activity followed by seeking new knowledge outside the organization (x: 4.15 and s.s: 0.949). On the other hand, capturing knowledge obtained from public research institutions including universities is the least realized process when it is compared to the others. Participants’ views about knowledge creation process refers that respondent thermal hotels effectively creates new knowledge in different ways. Coming up with new ideas about hotel products and services (x: 4.26 and s.s: 0.966) is the most applied method in knowledge creation process among these ways. Coming up with new ideas about our working methods and processes (x: 4.12 and s.s: 0.976) is the second most applied transaction. Thus, we can assume that thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar are considered developing new ideas important. Also, as it is seen in knowledge creation sub-dimension, thermal hotels develop new methods when a classic method is not effective anymore (x: 3.94 and s.s: 1.127), and also, thermal hotels develop new ideas in collaboration between departments (x: 3.82 and s.s: 1.066). But these two methods are relatively less applied among others in knowledge creation process. Participants’ views about knowledge sharing process indicate that thermal hotels share the knowledge effectively, except for distributing knowledge in informal ways. With respect to the results in knowledge sharing subdimension, availability of previous solutions and documents (x: 4.03 and s.s: 1.023) is the most important part of the knowledge sharing in thermal hotels. Sharing knowledge effectively within departments is the second most important way of knowledge sharing experiences (x: 3.94 and s.s: 1.149) in respondent hotels. As mentioned before, the least applied way to share knowledge in thermal hotels among the others is the distribution of necessary knowledge in informal ways (x: 2.42 and s.s: 1.416). This fact reflects two close-related and important situations in thermal hotels. First, thermal hotels generally use formal ways in communication and sharing knowledge. Second, by preferring formal ways especially in 172 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey communication, thermal hotels play an inhibiting role in sharing knowledge. Also, from the results about knowledge storage and documentation process, it can be seen that storage and documentation of knowledge is an important phase for KM in thermal hotels. Thus, all items regarding to storage and documentation have a mean level upper than 3.90. Informing hotel staff about changes in procedures, instructions and regulations (x: 4.09 and s.s: 1.011) is the most applied method in knowledge storage and documentation. This method is followed by refining, organizing and storing of collected data (x: 4.05 and s.s: 0.999), and updating information sources, manuals and databases (x: 3.99 and s.s: 0.929). Also, regarding the results, thermal hotels give an importance to possess core business processes and services (x: 3.98 and s.s: 1.088), documenting in writing (x: 3.98 and s.s: 0.969) and documentation of important experiences (x: 3.96 and s.s: 0.991). At the final stage of descriptive analyses about KM process, knowledge utilization degree in thermal hotels is evaluated using participants’ views. The results of this sub-dimension reflect that thermal hotels use knowledge in order to rapidly changing customers’ needs (x: 4.32 and s.s: 0.880). When we consider the achievement of a hotel establishment basically depending on satisfying customer, using knowledge for better services becomes more and more important. Thus, we can clearly state that thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar are aware of the importance of KM. Regarding results, achieving major process developments by gathering and analyzing knowledge from external parties (x: 3.96 and s.s: 1.134) is the second highest way in knowledge utilization. Other important using areas of knowledge in thermal hotels are developing new applications via know-how (x: 3.92 and s.s: 0.966), application of shared knowledge in different departments (x: 3.75 and s.s: 1.146), using employees’ knowledge in business activities (x: 3.72 and s.s: 1.042). If we summarize the descriptive results about KM, thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar give importance to KM, and as a result KM processes are highly applied in these hotels. When we consider subprocesses in KM processes, knowledge creation (x: 4.03) is the most applied sub-process among the others. Knowledge acquisition (x: 4.02) and knowledge storage and documentation (x: 4.00), knowledge use (x: 3.85) and knowledge sharing (x: 3.65) sub-processes follow knowledge creation sub-process. Thus, it can be assumed that in thermal hotels, KM 173 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu is an essential part of providing service quality and gaining competitive advantage in the scope of strategic management. 174 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Discriminant Analyses of KM Processes At this last phase of data analyses, to determine whether KM processes vary regarding to different thermal hotels and some demographic variables of participants. In this context, firstly a Kruskal-Wallis H test performed in order to determine whether KM process differs according to respondent hotels. Kruskal-Wallis H test results presented in Table 4 indicate that KM processes differ in the context of thermal hotels (p<0.05 and p: 0.01). So, it can be figured out that each thermal hotel operating in Afyonkarahisar is applying its own KM project. Then, it can be assumed that each hotel ownssome core KM steps which vary their KM project from other thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar. And, thus we can assume that KM projects are considered as a core competence by thermal hotels. Table 4. Kruskal-Wallis H Test Results Regarding to Thermal Hotels ChiSquare 19.875 13.762 14.050 10.205 KM process in general Knowledge acquisition Knowledge creation Knowledge sharing Knowledge storage and 19.423 documentation Knowledge utilization 24.436 *: Correlation is important at 0.05 significant levels. df Asymp. Sig. 4 4 4 4 0.001* 0.008* 0.007* 0.037* 4 0.001* 4 0.000* After determining KM processes which differ regarding to thermal hotels, Manny-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis H tests were performed in order to identify whether KM processes differ regarding to participants’ demographic variables. In this context, firstly Manny Whitney U tests were performed to see whether KM processes differs regarding to gender of the participants. Second, Kruskal-Wallis H tests were performed in order to determine whether KM processes differ in terms of different age group, education level, working department and year of working experience of participants. In all tests Asymp. Sig. which refers significant level is higher than 0.05 for general KM processes and its sub-dimensions. So, KM processes in thermal hotels do not significantly differ regarding to gender, age group, education level, working department and year of working experience of who took part in the study. 175 �Ahmet Baytok, Hasan Hüseyin Soybali, Ozcan Zorlu According to results of discriminant analysis presented in earlier paragraph, it is assumed that KM processes are not related with demographic variables of middle and senior managers in thermal hotels. When this fact has been taken into consideration within the scope of strategic management, it is seen that middle and senior managers apply similar KM processes in thermal hotels. Thus, thermal hotels apply KM processes in the scope of strategic management as their core competence, but these projects do not depend on managers’ demographic variables. Conclusion In today’s intensive competitive environment, thermal hotels improve their services with new strategic management tools in a creative manner. As one of these management tools, KM is gaining more importance among tourism industry and among thermal hotels as an important contributor to tourism industry. On the other hand, since the KM applications are relatively new in thermal hotels, there are still many problems in application KM processes. Furthermore, some hoteliers still do not have enough knowledge about KM processes. Thus, with this study evaluating KM processes in thermal hotels, it is aimed to provide a basic resource to the hoteliers and the related literature. According to the results of this study, thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar give importance to KM. As a result, KM processes are highly applied in respondent hotels. Among them, knowledge creation is the most applied KM process and knowledge acquisition, knowledge storage and documentation, knowledge utilization and knowledge sharing follows knowledge creation process. On the other hand, KM projects differ according to each thermal hotel. So, it can be concluded that each thermal hotel has its own specific methods or steps in KM processes. Also, results show that KM projects are independent from demographic characteristics of hotel managers. Thermal hotels should consider some suggestions given below in order to gain more benefit from KM processes. First of all, all respondent thermal hotels should be in collaboration with academic institutions in the scope of gathering external knowledge and making this knowledge usable in KM. For example, thermal hospitality enterprises can obtain knowledge on new treatment methods from universities and use them in their curing units. In addition, thermal hospitality enterprises can develop joint training programs with universities to improve ability and qualifications of their employees. Second, thermal hotels should develop much more processes that support 176 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey knowledge sharing among departments. As well as formal knowledge flow, development of technology infrastructure which enables the enterprises to provide an electronic platform (intranet, e-mail etc.) to exchange information between employees can be encouraged. For example, the knowledge on diet programs prepared by the specialists in cure centers can be transferred to kitchen, service and front-office departments electronically. Electronic knowledge databases which provide access to all essential information for the departments can be formed.Third, knowledge sharing processes should be reconsidered in the hotels. In this context infrastructures required by new technologies can be formed to accelerate the flow of knowledge among departments. Fourth, effective using of knowledge databases should be encouraged among employees. The level of authorization of all staff can be increase to obtain all the necessary knowledge from the automation systems used in thermal hotel enterprises. For example, a cure centre employee can be authorized to get knowledge related to other departments from the joint databases. Fifth, informal communication should be supported to promote transforming of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. In this context, especially during breaks, the practices can be promoted to share the knowledge related to employees’ works. For instance, instead of unnecessary conversations like gossiping during the break, employees can be encouraged to be with knowledge facilitator in managerial position and share the knowledge. During the working hours, various social activities which enable employees to come together and exchange knowledge can be planned. In the process of socialization, asking newly recruited employees to work with the experienced employees in a master-apprentice relationship for a certain period of time speeds up the process of socialization as well as transfer of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge can be possible through with working with experienced employees and new employees together. Sixth, thermal hotels should benefit more from experiences and expertise of employees. Empowerment practices and practices to allow employees to use their initiative and take more responsibility can be realized. And at last, in KM process, applying of developed ideas can improve knowledge sharing and motivation and satisfaction of employees. Application of this research in a limited area such as seven thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar is one of limitations of this study. Also, lack of quantitative researches about KM processes in tourism industry makes it difficult to compare the results of this study with other studies. 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Manuscript for the European American Business Journal. 1-6. 182 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2401 Title A name given to the resource Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Author Author BAYTOK, Ahmet SOYBALI, Hasan Hüseyin ZORLU, Özcan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to analyze knowledge management (KM) processes in thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar province in Turkey. Within the scope of this research, the KM processes applied in thermal hotels have been determined through conducting questionnaire surveys. Descriptive analyses of hotel managers’ views on KM processes were presented. Also, discriminant analysis was used to determine differences between participants’ views based on their demographic characteristics. As a result of the study, it was found that thermal hotels highly apply KM processes. Knowledge creation is the most applied KM process among others. In addition, it was found that informal communication should be encouraged in order to improve knowledge sharing. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-03-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c13cc4bbb0367ec94fdbcc07bf4bf904.pdf dc0d9eb1e30479e662289752dea6e065 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Ahmet Baytok Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Hasan Hüseyin Soybalı Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey hsoybali@aku.edu.tr Özcan Zorlu Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey ozcanzorlu@aku.edu.tr As a result of globalization and intensive competition, knowledge and knowledge management has become the main factor that determine the market value of the enterprises or organizations. With its increasing importance knowledge has become an important component in creating competitive advantage and business capital has begun to be distinguished as physical capital and intellectual capital. As a basic resource of intellectual capital, organizations have to effectively and systematically manage this knowledge in order to survive and create sustainable competitive advantage in long term. In simple terms, knowledge management refers to creation, adaptation, dissemination and usage of required knowledge within organization and among organisations through a well-planned process. Hence, knowledge management express a certain process and this process consists of certain steps such as acquiring, creating, documenting, disseminating, sharing and use of knowledge. Especially in 1990s, with the increasing attention to knowledge management (processes), it has become one of the most debated management concepts and numerous studies conducted in the scope of this emerging concept. Contrary to its popularity in business management literature, it’s seen that number of studies on knowledge management (processes) in hospitality industry is very limited. Thus, knowledge management is a relatively new concept for hospitality management literature and much more detailed studies need to be conducted in order 13 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo to understand the knowledge management and knowledge management processes in hospitality industry. In this context, this study aims to draw attention to knowledge management in hotels by evaluating knowledge management processes in thermal hotels. Within the scope of research the knowledge management processes applied in thermal hotels has been determined through conducting questionnaire surveys. Percentage and frequency tables are used to present participants’ demographic characteristics and learn participants’ views about knowledge management processes. Finally, discriminant analysis determines differences between participants’ views based on their demographic characteristics. Keywords: Knowledge, Management, Thermal Hotel, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1461 Title A name given to the resource Knowledge Management Processes in Thermal Hotels: An Application in Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey Author Author BAYTOK, Ahmet SOYBALI, Hasan Hüseyin ZORLU, Özcan Abstract A summary of the resource. As a result of globalization and intensive competition, knowledge and knowledge management has become the main factor that determine the market value of the enterprises or organizations. With its increasing importance knowledge has become an important component in creating competitive advantage and business capital has begun to be distinguished as physical capital and intellectual capital. As a basic resource of intellectual capital, organizations have to effectively and systematically manage this knowledge in order to survive and create sustainable competitive advantage in long term. In simple terms, knowledge management refers to creation, adaptation, dissemination and usage of required knowledge within organization and among organisations through a well-planned process. Hence, knowledge management express a certain process and this process consists of certain steps such as acquiring, creating, documenting, disseminating, sharing and use of knowledge. Especially in 1990s, with the increasing attention to knowledge management (processes), it has become one of the most debated management concepts and numerous studies conducted in the scope of this emerging concept. Contrary to its popularity in business management literature, it’s seen that number of studies on knowledge management (processes) in hospitality industry is very limited. Thus, knowledge management is a relatively new concept for hospitality management literature and much more detailed studies need to be conducted in order to understand the knowledge management and knowledge management processes in hospitality industry. In this context, this study aims to draw attention to knowledge management in hotels by evaluating knowledge management processes in thermal hotels. Within the scope of research the knowledge management processes applied in thermal hotels has been determined through conducting questionnaire surveys. Percentage and frequency tables are used to present participants’ demographic characteristics and learn participants’ views about knowledge management processes. Finally, discriminant analysis determines differences between participants’ views based on their demographic characteristics. Keywords: Knowledge, Management, Thermal Hotel, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ff3225651fbcacccf7631b61523ff7c.pdf b2dc846f3e0c906ac526d0de461a0573 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Yıldırım, Ş. (2003). Ticaret Egitimi Arastırması. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB) Mesleki ve Teknik Egitim Arastırma ve Gelistirme Merkezi Baskanlıgı Yayını (Editör), Ankara Vanfossen, B.E., Jones, J.D., Spade, J.Z., (1987). Curriculum tracking and status maintenance. Sociology of Education 60, 104–122. Yıldırım, O. and Dalgeç, A. (1993). Küresellesme ve Muhasebe Egitimi, XIII, Türkiye Muhasebe Egitimi Sempozyumu, İzmir. Knowledge Maps & Knowledge Mapping: Literature Review Admir Čavalić, Erkan Ilguen International Burch University,Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract This study provides information about Knowledge Mapping as a tool of Knowledge Management, how it is used and how do we “occasionally” use it daily. Main part of this paper focuses on the relation among an organisation and knowledge mapping, and how kmaps are important and what’s their purpose. After a broad analysis of articles from nowadays significant researchers about knowledge mapping I was able to extract the main issues, statements and definitions on knowledge mapping and what would help an organisation in its strategic positioning and development in the manner of k-maps. Moreover, where to focus on, in the need of preparing a knowledge map. Also, which k-maps developed throughout the time and their difference among each other? Keywords: Knowledge Mapping, Knowledge Management, Organisation, Strategic Positioning 1. INTRODUCTION Knowledge is an accepted and significant base for competitive advantages and companies started to establish new smart information system. One of the key processes in Knowledge Management is Knowledge Mapping. The main use of knowledge maps is to get an outline about the available sources of information and to help in finding appropriate sources quickly. So therefore a source can be expertise, knowledge, a person, etc. In order to apply any knowledge mapping technique, an organization must be sure of its success and efficiency. A basis to identify the level of knowledge of an organisation could be the knowledge map which also can support the strategic positioning in terms of knowledge management. In an organisation one of the most important goals is the expertise location. In this expertise mapping the organisation’s knowledge needs to be inventoried as well as to map the organisation’s information flow. The common approached to achieve this are assessment of interviews, abilities records and extensive surveys and analysis. 373 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo "Knowledge mapping is a process by which organisations can identify and categorise knowledge assets within their organisation - people, processes, content, and technology. It allows an organisation to fully leverage the existing expertise resident in the organisation, as well as identify barriers and constraints to fulfilling strategic goals and objectives. It is constructing a roadmap to locate the information needed to make the best use of resources, independent of source or form".43 Knowledge Mapping in not a term that is new, in fact we all are practising knowledge mapping throughout our whole and everyday life. The only difference is that we are not writing/drawing it down and we are not doing it systematic. So basically knowledge mapping is having a record of information and knowledge we need like where we can get it from, who holds it, whose expertise is it, and so on. A good example would be our home. When we need to find something that we need and which is in our home it would be easy and fast to find it because we have almost all information and knowledge about “where is what” and “who knows what” at our home. This map which is about our home and which in our mind it is always updated, therefore we are able to act quickly and precised. But of course to have such a “mind” map about our organisation and organisational knowledge would be impossible. Since there is too much information and many individuals included. This is where knowledge mapping comes to action and shows us details of every knowledge that exist in the organization containing information about location, quality, and accessibility; and all the knowledge which is required to run the company smooth, means it enables us to find the knowledge we need easy and efficiently. It is important to note that the main aim of knowledge maps is not to create new knowledge but to structure and provide an easy access to knowledge which already available within the organisation. To find out and assess the knowledge assets of an organisation and make the organisation have maximum benefits from these assets. 2. Additional Definitions of Knowledge Mapping “Knowledge mapping is a process of surveying, assessing and linking the information, knowledge, competencies and proficiencies held by individuals and groups within an organization.”44 - Dr Ann Hylton, KeKma-Training 2002 “It's an ongoing quest within an organization (including its supply and customer chain) to help discover the location, ownership, value and use of knowledge artifacts, to learn the roles and expertise of people, to identify constraints to the flow of knowledge, and to highlight opportunities to leverage existing knowledge. Knowledge mapping is a important practice consisting of survey, audit, and synthesis. It aims to track the acquisition and loss of information and knowledge. It explores personal and group competencies and proficiencies. It illustrates or "maps" how knowledge flows throughout an organization. Knowledge mapping helps an organization to appreciate how the loss of staff influences intellectual 43 Vestal, Wesley. "Knowledge Mapping 101". Presentation at USAID Knowledge for Development Seminar September 22, 2003. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK308.pdf 44 "U.S. Agency for International Development." U.S. Agency for International Development. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.usaid.gov/>. 374 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo capital, to assist with the selection of teams, and to match technology to knowledge needs and processes.”45 - Knowledge Mapping: A Practical Overview by Denham Grey March, 1999 “Knowledge mapping is related to making knowledge that is available within an organisation translucent, and is about giving you the insights into it's quality.”46 - Willem-Olaf Huijsen, Samuel J. Driessen, Jan W. M. Jacobs “Knowledge mapping externalizes networks of cognitive relationships and renders them in graphic form. This pictorial approach to individual or group knowledge assists in the formation and maintenance of shared mental models and streamlines collaboration. Knowledge maps are commonly referred to as mind maps, semantic networks, and concept maps.”47 - Jonassen, D. H., & Carr, C. S. (2000) & Novak, J. D. (1998) “A knowledge map is a presentation of one or more aspects of the knowledge available within an organization that aims to fulfill a specific information need for one or more employee roles within the organization.“48 - Driessen, Huijsen and Grootveld To sum up all the definitions, knowledge mapping is a process and an approach to information that can be applied to any area that requires knowledge; it can also be used in specific circumstances such as implementing technological modification, preparation for an acquisition, introducing a new policy, or mapping intellectual capital. 3. Knowledge Mapping: Where to Focus? 3.1 Strategic 3.1.1 Enterprise-level Strategic business, technical, market knowledge Determine the organization’s “bench strength” Identify areas to focus KM efforts 45 "Knowledge Mapping: A Practical Overview." : Impact Alliance. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.impactalliance.org/ev_en.php?ID=2011_201>. 46 "Thoughts.com." Where Is the Map? 3 Easy Steps to Construct a Speech. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.thoughts.com/colbygross511/where-is-the-map-3-easy-steps-to-construct-a-speech>. 47 "Definition: Knowledge Mapping." Definition: Knowledge Mapping. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://technologysource.org/extra/83/definition/2/>. 48 "Mapping the People in Your Organisation." Mapping the People in Your Organisation. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.moxy.com.au/index.php/moxy-knowledge/18-articles/60-mapping-thepeople-in-your-organisation>. 375 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3.1.2 Cross-functional between divisions/business groups Operational assessment of working knowledge 3.2 Tactical Working group/process Tactical and operational knowledge applied to process excellence, innovation, customer relationship - USAID, 2003 4. Classification of Knowledge Maps 4.1 Through classification of knowledge maps many advantages can be achieved: A descriptive overview (which can function as an inventory or repository) A problem solving heuristic (that relates possible mapping solutions) Reduces the complexity characteristic (in choosing a knowledge map format) Recognition of similarities and differences (among different types of knowledge maps) To compare (different knowledge maps) May reveal new forms of knowledge maps (which are not applied yet) 4.2 Through classification of knowledge maps many disadvantages may appear: - Focus on description, instead of explanation Reification (pretending that an ideal archetype does exist) Static (difficult to adjust as a domain changes and evolves) Due to these disadvantages it is recommended that the classification system should rely on more than just one classification principle and should suggest various, alternative classification criteria. A classification should minimize the differences within a group and maximize the differences between groups. Knowledge maps are classified by: - Purpose Graphic Form Content Application Level Creation Mode Furthermore, according to this it can be classified in questions forms: 1. Which knowledge management purpose do I want to achieve with the map? (The “why?” of the map.) 2. Which kind of content about knowledge do I want to represent in the map? (The “what?” of the map.) 3. Who should use the map in which context or situation and at what level? (The “for whom?” and “when?” of the map) 376 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4. Which graphic form should be used and who can create the map in what way? (The “how?” and “who?” of the map) So basically knowledge maps differ themselves in the usage of why, what, for whom, how and who wants information and to whom we want to transfer it. Therefore, their limitation lies in that that we can’t mix them, even there are some possibilities. But they are limited by the purpose and how we want to transfer our information and knowledge throughout an organisation. In the next two pages you will be able to see 2 tables. Table 1 shows sample knowledge maps types based on these primary classifications. Table 2 deliberates on which kind of knowledge map may be useful for a given knowledge management process or challenge. Those two tables were taken from the research article from Martin J. Eppler, A process-Based Classification of Knowledge Maps and Application Examples. 5. Conclusion Since a knowledge map gives you information of knowledge and information within your organisation, IBU would benefit from a knowledge map. It would have fast access to many information about the students, professor, grades, etc and IBU in total. It would be an easy effort to see which students are visiting/joining IBU. Which nationality, age, previous education, gpa, etc they have; also the progress of the students throughout their education. As well as the satisfaction of students about the professors, grade overview of all of them, etc. We would be able to see which quality IBU is offering, what kind of professor they have. Who has a phd or master title, where they taught before, etc. All this would be beneficial to IBU but I think that every university should and must have a regularly updated knowledge map. But I think that IBU already have some kind of knowledge map due to its regularly surveys which are offered to students. Knowledge Map Classification A. Classifying knowledge maps by intended purpose or KM process (‘‘why?’’) 1. Knowledge creation maps: illustrate the planned steps to develop a certain (organizational) competence or create new knowledge (i.e., a technology road map) 2. Knowledge assessment or audit maps: illustrate the evaluation of certain knowledge assets graphically, for example, by a 2 x 2 matrix (axes: current ability and future importance) 3. Knowledge identification maps: provide a graphic overview on knowledge assets (experts, patents, practices) and points to their locations/coordinates 4. Knowledge development or acquisition maps/learning maps (a) Learning overview and learning path maps (b) Learning content structure maps (c) Learning reviewing/repetition maps 377 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 5. Knowledge transfer, sharing, or communication maps: show who transfers knowledge to whom 6. Knowledge application maps: show which knowledge is necessary for carrying out certain processes or steps in a single process 7. Knowledge marketing maps: can be used to signal competence to the public in a certain domain B. Classifying maps by their content (‘‘what?’’) I. By (digital and analog) content formats: 1. websites (incl. blogs, portals, homepages), 2. documents (incl. books), modules), 3. databases or repositories, 4. learning objects or online courses (or 5. other file formats (e.g., sketches, drawings) II. By content types: 1. methods, 2. processes, 3. experts (incl. groups), 4. organizations/departments/ institutions, 5. lessons learned/experiences, 6. skills and competencies, 7. concepts, 8. events, 9. patents, 10. knowledge or communication flows or relationships, 11. interests or knowledge needs C. Classifying maps by the application level (‘‘who?’’) 1. Personal knowledge maps (visualizing one’s own skills or expert contacts, see Eppler and Sukowksi, 2000 or Burnett et al., 2004) 2. Dyadic knowledge map (to support knowledge creation, transfer, or assessment between two people) 3. Team knowledge maps (visualize the skills present or needed in a project team, like the T-matrix, see Eppler and Sukowksi, 2000) 4. Departmental knowledge maps 5. Community knowledge maps 6. Organizational knowledge maps 7. Inter-organizational/network knowledge maps D. Classifying knowledge maps by graphic form (‘‘how?’’) I Table-based format (for an example see Heng, 2001) 1. Person by skills table 2. Skill area by people table 3. People by documents 4. Team by project experience table II. Diagrammatic format 1. Structure diagrams (a) Venn diagram, (b) concentric circles (with or without segments), (c) matrix (i.e., 2 x 2), (d) network diagram, (e) mind map, (f) concept map (Tergan and Keller, 2005), (g) cognitive map (Huff and Jenkins, 2002), (h) strategy map, (i) fishbone 378 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 2. Process diagrams (Galloway, 1994) (a) Timeline, (b) swim lane chart, (c) flow chart, (d) event chain, (e) critical path method, (f) Gantt chart, (g) cycle chart, (h) decision tree, (i) value chain, (j) flight plan (Eppler and Sukowksi, 2000) III. Cartographic format 1. Geographic map: globe/continent/land/island/region, 2. informational map: park, 3. tube/metro (Burkhard and Meier, 2005) map, 4. galaxy/stars, 5. sea/ocean, 6. building/ architectural map IV. Metaphoric format (a) From the natural realm: 1. tree, 2. iceberg, 3. canyon, 4. mountain, 5. river, 6... (b) Man made artifacts: 1. house, 2. temple structure, 3. radar screen, 4. bridge, 5. race track, 6... E. Classifying maps by their creation method (‘‘how?’’ and ‘‘who?’’) 1. Maps that are automatically and dynamically generated by the computer (such as selforganizing maps, see Kohonen, 2001) 2. Maps that are semi-automatically generated (automatically assembled and optimized by analysts) then 3. Maps that are designed once by domain and mapping experts and then used in the same way by all users 4. Maps that are iteratively created, modified, or extended by the map user(s) themselves (community generated maps) 379 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo REFERENCES 1. Vestal, Wesley. "Knowledge Mapping 101". Presentation at USAID Knowledge for Development Seminar September 22, 2003. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK308.pdf 2. "U.S. Agency for International Development." U.S. Agency for International Development. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.usaid.gov/>. 3. "Knowledge Mapping: A Practical Overview." : Impact Alliance. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.impactalliance.org/ev_en.php?ID=2011_201>. 4. "Thoughts.com." Where Is the Map? 3 Easy Steps to Construct a Speech. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.thoughts.com/colbygross511/where-is-the-map-3-easy-steps-to-constructa-speech>. 5. "Definition: Knowledge Mapping." Definition: Knowledge Mapping. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://technologysource.org/extra/83/definition/2/>. 6. "Mapping the People in Your Organisation." Mapping the People in Your Organisation. Web. 15 May 2012. <http://www.moxy.com.au/index.php/moxy-knowledge/18-articles/60mapping-the-people-in-your-organisation>. Links used: 1. http://lpis.csd.auth.gr/mtpx/km/material/knowledge%20maps.pdf 2. http://www.slideshare.net/dtandukar/KMap 3. http://it.toolbox.com/wiki/index.php/Knowledge_Map 4. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK308.pdf 5. http://www.moxy.com.au/index.php/moxy-knowledge/18-articles/46-knowledge-mapping 6. http://kmwiki.wikispaces.com/Knowledge+mapping 7. http://knowledge-mapping.blogspot.de/2006/11/concept-mapping-today.html 8. http://www.tlainc.com/articl180.htm 9. http://www.trainmor-knowmore.eu/AC44FB2A.en.aspx 10. http://ezinearticles.com/?Knowledge-Mapping&id=9077 11.http://www.moxy.com.au/index.php/moxy-knowledge/18-articles/60-mapping-the-peoplein-your-organisation 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1345 Title A name given to the resource Knowledge Maps & Knowledge Mapping: Literature Review Author Author Admir , Čavalić ILGÜN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study provides information about Knowledge Mapping as a tool of Knowledge Management, how it is used and how do we “occasionally” use it daily. Main part of this paper focuses on the relation among an organisation and knowledge mapping, and how kmaps are important and what’s their purpose. After a broad analysis of articles from nowadays significant researchers about knowledge mapping I was able to extract the main issues, statements and definitions on knowledge mapping and what would help an organisation in its strategic positioning and development in the manner of k-maps. Moreover, where to focus on, in the need of preparing a knowledge map. Also, which k-maps developed throughout the time and their difference among each other? Keywords: Knowledge Mapping, Knowledge Management, Organisation, Strategic Positioning Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ecf90d0703f0c8a6ad4324b4dbc55724.docx ccc6cb2bf4ea5438db09689c567509e0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fc14c77d56fd882cac66fb1bd37920f1.pdf cf63269e2f473cccb7775b4009390318 PDF Text Text ��������     �������    ����� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3160 Title A name given to the resource Kohezijska politika Evropske unije i perspektive regionalnog razvoja država zapadnog Balkana Author Author SADIKOVIĆ, Elmir Abstract A summary of the resource. Politika regionalnog razvoja je prihvatanjem koncepta „evrope regija“ 80-tih godina XX stoljeća postala jednom od najznačajnijih zajedničkih politika za koju se u prosjeku izdvaja 1/3 ukupnog budžeta Evropske unije. Zasniva se na solidarnosti prema ragijama koje posebno zaostaju u ekonomskom i socijalnom razvoju, te na koheziji koja se ogleda u nastojanju da se postigne ujednačen razvoj cjelokupnog prostora Evropske unije. Sve države članice Evropske unije imaju uspostavljenu regionalnu strukturu ili su u procesu uspostavljanja regija kao autonomnih političko – ekonomskih i razvojnih jedinica. Različitosti modela izvedene regionalizacije evropskih država su predodređene prirodno – geografskom konfiguracijom, karakterom političkog sistema i specifičnim društveno – istorijskim okolnostima u kojima se odvijao proces regionalizacije. U kontekstu evropskih integracija i razvoja koncepta „euroregija“, kao prekograničnih regija, regionalizacija se javlja i kao poseban oblik transnacionalne integracije i saradnje evropskih država i naroda. Fenomen regionalizacije iznimno je značajan u savremenim geo - političkim i ekonomskim okolnostima u kome se nalaze zemlje zapadnog Balkana. Politika regionalnog razvoja Evropske unije za zemlje zapadnog Balkana istovremeno predstavlja i priliku ubrzanog ekonomskog i socijalnog razvoja kroz korištenje evropskih fondova, ali samo ukoliko pokažu sposobnost da oblikuju vlastitu strategiju i politiku regionalnog razvoja u skladu sa političkim i ekonomskim ciljevima regionalnog razvoja Evropske unije, ukoliko razviju odgovarajuće institucionalne i kadrovske kapacitete lokalnih i regionalnih vlasti, te uspostave efikasne mehanizme koordinacije i saradnje svih razina vlasti u planiranju i realizaciji projekata regionalnog razvoja koje finansira Evropska unija. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8bfe4138c8f7c64806bbdcd291147ca1.pdf 27685eda4499a7625e641afb06226cc1 PDF Text Text KOKUJI (国字): THE JAPANESE “NATIONAL CHARACTERS”. A CASE STUDY: THE JAPANESE ACQUATIC FAUNA Giovanni Borriello* Roma Tre University, Italy Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 30.06.2015 Abstract: The great influence that the Chinese writing system has had on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese writing systems is widely demonstrated. Nevertheless, besides the use of the characters directly imported from China, these cultures have had the necessity to create “national characters” to satisfy the needs of their own languages. This paper, that analyzes this phenomenon in the Japanese environment, begins with an analysis of the reasons that have pushed the Japanese “to create” own characters and the reasons why at a certain moment such “creation” has been suspended. In the second part of the paper samples of kokuji will be presented that can be circumscribed to those with radicals 魚・鳥・木・草 and that result to be surely the most numerous and related to species of flora and fauna japonica. Key words: Kokuji, Japanese Kanji, National Characters. �On Web page http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm is possible to read the following presentations in Japanese and English for the first kokuji online dictionary edited by Ōhara Nozomu1: 「俥・柾・畠・鯰」が国字ではないというとみなさんは驚かれますか。この辞典では 、定説ともいえる扱いを受けてきた文字についても再調査を行い、国字説の誤りを是正す るとともに、多くの新たな国字の追加を行っています。 読者の皆様方からのご指摘の点を含め改善に努めてはいますが、改善すべき点は残っ ています。ご質問のメールもいただけるようになりましたが、本辞典の内容に対する典拠 を付けた反論もお待ちしております。 読者の方からのメールにより、欧米からもアクセスしていただいていることがわかり ました。 リンクしていただいているページも増えつつあります。基本的にリンクフリーではあ りますが、リンクした旨ご連絡いただくようお願いします。 日本を代表できる「和製漢字の辞典」として恥ずかしくないものにしていきたいと存 じますので、気が付かれた点や感想・質問など遠慮なくメールしていただきますようお願 いいたします。 漢字・ジテン（辞典・字典・事典を含む）に関する質問をお受けするために掲示板を 、私の全てのWebページを一覧できるために『ジテン・フェチの漢字辞典』を、開設いた しましたので、こちらもご利用ください。2 Wasei Kanji no Jiten – Dictionary of Kanji created in Japan is the first online dictionary dedicated to Kokuji (Kanji created in Japan). Almost all Kanji (Chinese characters) in Japanese were imported from Chinese. But some characters were created by Japanese people. We call them Kokuji 国字 (literally “national characters”). For example, touge 峠, mountain pass was created combining ‘mountain’ 山, ‘up’ 上, and ‘down’ 下. This dictionary includes some Kokuji and Kanji which was thought as Kokuji.3 ***** * Giovanni Borriello PhD (giovanni.borriello77@gmail.com), Professor of History and Institutions of Asia, Roma Tre University, Italy. 1 Ōhara Nozomu (ed. by), Wasei kanji no jiten, 2000, http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm (13.06.2015) 2 http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm (13.06.2015) 3 http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/abstract.htm (13.06.2015) �It is known that the Japanese enriched the vocabulary of Chinese characters (hanzi, kanji) with characters of their own coinage, called kokuji (‘national characters’)4. Overall, their number was calculated in 15005. In general, they could be introduced to make use graphically locutions, concepts, especially names of things found absent in Chinese lexicons. It can be confirmed at first glance from the high percentage of kokuji with radicals of “tree” and “fish”, likely to indicate actual or presumed native species, of which precise corresponding Chinese appeared missing. The matter would appear more compelling because among the other things is well-known the variety and richness of the Japanese flora and fauna patrimony with an high number of species listed as japonicae, even if they are not exclusive of Japan, but in any case “typical” of its terraqueous environment6. Now, if we extrapolate the kokuji of its aquatic fauna, we are faced with a list of characters, such as the following, taken from the Dōbun tsūkō7 by Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725): 魸 namazu, 鰯 iwashi, 鱈 tara, 鯲 dojō, 鯐 subashiri, 鮱 bora, gigi, 鯒 kochi, 鮲 mate, 鱰 shiira, 魞 eri, isaza, konoshiro, 鯎 ugui, 鯑 kazunoko, asari. Reviewing them individually, we find the following data on the basis of the main current lexicons and any possible recurrences in Chinese8: 魸 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’ (Parasilurus asotus)9; 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’ (Sardinops melanostictus)10; 4 They are also referred to as waji 和字・倭字, wazokuji 和俗字, honpō seisakuji 本邦製作字, wasei kanji 和製漢字. 5 Anne Commons, “The development of kokuji (‘Chinese’ characters coined in Japan)”, in Fifth Annual Graduate Student Conference on East Asia, Columbia University, 1996. 6 For an overview of the phenomenon, see Giovanni Borriello, “The Historical Development of the kokuji 国字 Phenomenon in Japan”, Susret Kultura 6, Međunarodni interdisciplinarni simpozijum Susret kultiura, II, Filozofski fakultet, Novi Sad, 2013, I, pp. 507-512. http://digitalna.ff.uns.ac.rs/sadrzaj/2013/978-86-6065-040-7121 7 Itani Zen’ichi (edited by), Arai Hakuseki, “Dōbun tsūkō”, Arai Hakuseki shū, Tōkyō, Seibundō shinkōsha, 1936, pp. 407-476. 8 In References, they are reported the abbreviations for the dictionaries and lexicons consulted for the following notes. 9 Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten confirm the use of the kokuji. For the lemma namazu, Kokujikō by Ban Naokata and Wasei kanji no jiten report the kokuji too; Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 report, always with the same meaning, the character 鯰, that is unanimously classified as kokuji. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for namazu the character 鯰, ascribing the lemma to the area of Wakayama. Of the three kokuji reported, Ricci attests the character 鯰 with the reading nien. 10 For the Chinese, Ricci gives the same character with the reading ruo and the same meaning. �鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’ (Gadus morhua)11; 鯲 dojō ‘Japanese loach’ (Cobitis barbatula)12; 鯐 subashiri ‘Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna’13; 鮱 bora ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’ (Mugil cephalus)14; isaza ‘Biwa goby’ (Chaenogobius isaza)15; konoshiro ‘Japanese gizzard shad’ (Konosirus punctatus)16; 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’ (Leuciscus hakonensis)17; 鯑 kazunoko ‘Herring roe’18; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’19; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’20; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’21; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphin fish’ (Coryphaena hippurus)22; In Chinese, the character is attested with the reading xue as generic name for ‘cod’. The character is given in Morohashi, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma dojō, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 give the character 鰌, a common use Chinese character with reading qiu and the meaning of ‘small 11 12 fish that lived in the mud’; for the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten use the compound 泥鰌, niqiu in Chinese. 13 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma subashiri, Kōjien introduces the compound 州走, of common use in Chinese with the reading chouzou. The lemma is not reported in Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 14 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma bora, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce, always with the meaning of ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’, the character 鯔. The latter character is recorded, both in Dōbun tsūkō by Arai Hakuseki and in Morohashi as kokuji and with the reading of kochi too. The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For isaza, Kōjien uses the character 鯋, of common use in Chinese with the reading sha for ‘white shark’. 16 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson; for the same lemma konoshiro, Kenkyūsha 32, 15 Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鰶, a common use character in Chinese. 17 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma ugui, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the Chinese compound 石斑魚 shibanyu. 18 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Nelson, Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma kazunoko, Kenkyūsha 74 gives the characters 数の子. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten don’t record the entry. 19 The kokuji, with the related lemma of gigi, is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten only. 20 All the Japanese dictionaries, except for Kokujikō and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten, that don’t record the lemma, identify this fish with the same kokuji. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading yong and with the same meaning in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian. 21 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten only. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten don’t record the lemma mate. 22 Kokuji and lemma attested in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74. �魞 eri ‘Japanese lizardfish’ (Synodus saurus)23; asari ‘Japanese little-neck clam’ (Tapes philippinarum)24. ***** To the list of Arai Hakuseki, we can add the following kokuji, extrapolated from other lexicons: anago ‘Japanese variety of conger of the Species Conger japonicus’25; ayu ‘Japanese sweetfish’ (Plecoglossus altivelis)26; 魹 azarashi ‘Japanese hair seal’ (Phoca vitulina)27; 鰕 ebi ‘Japanese lobster’ (Uruptychus japonicus)28; hamo ‘Japanese barracuda’ (Sphyraena japonica)29; 鰚 haraka ‘Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna’30 鰰・鱩 hatahata ‘Japanese sandfish’ (Arctoscopus japonicus)31; 23 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. Morohashi records the reading eso too, that we can find also in Kenkyūsha 74 to which is ascribed, in this latter dictionary, the character 鱠 of common use in Chinese with the reading kuai. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for the same kokuji the reading eso ascribing it to the area of Wakayama. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested only in Giles with the reading ren to indicate a ‘fabulous creature half man, half fish’. 24 Kokuji and lemma attested in Morohashi, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma asari, Kōjien introduces the mixed form 漁り, while Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten use the Chinese compound 浅蜊 jianli. 25 The kokuji is recorded only by Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma anago, Kenkyūsha 32 uses the transcription in hiragana あなご replaced in Kenkyūsha 74 with the compound 穴子, of common use in Chinese with the reading xuezu. 26 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji ; Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 give for the lemma the character 鮎, that is a common use character in Chinese with the reading nian, for an unspecified variety of trout. In turn, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten ascribed the previous character assigning it also the readings ai and ae. 27 Wasei kanji no jiten only confirms the kokuji. For the lemma azarashi, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 use, always with the meaning of ‘seal’, the compound 海豹, that is of common use in Chinese with the reading haipao and the meaning of ‘sea lion’, other name for ‘seal’, while this lemma is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 28 The kokuji is recorded in Kenkyūsha 32, Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma ebi, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the compound 海老, hailao in Chinese. 29 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma hamo, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the character 鱧 of common use in Chinese with the reading li. 30 Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten agree on the generic designation. Other dictionaries don’t attest the kokuji or the lemma. 31 The first kokuji is recorded in Morohashi, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten; Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 give the character 鱩 too, that Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten classify as kokuji, while Gendai �鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’32; 鮃 hirame ‘Japanese halibut’ (Paralichthys olivaceus)33; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’ (Pleurogrammus azonus)34; ・ ・鯔 ina ‘Japanese amberjack’ (Seriola dumerili)35; inada ‘Japanese amberjack’ (Seriola lalandi)36; 鮖 kajika ‘Japanese sculpin’ (Cottus hilgendorfi)37; kamasu ‘Japanese saury’ (Cololabis saira)38; karasumi ‘Mullet roe’39; ・鮙 karei ‘Japanese plaice’ (Pleuronectes platessa)40; Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten for the same lemma gives the transcription in hiragana はたはた ascribing the noun to the area of Akita. 32 Kokuji given only in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten records only the lemma with the transcription in hiragana はや, that ascribes to the area of Kyōto. 33 Both Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten record the character, but Morohashi gives it also the readings -hei, -byō, and doesn’t classify it as kokuji. Kōjien introduces for the same lemma the compounds 平目 pingmu and 比目魚 pimuyu. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses only the compound 平目 pingmu, ascribing it to the area of Shichio, while both Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 use for the lemma hirame the compound 比目魚 pimuyu. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading p’ing in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian, that identifies it with the Japanese hirame. Tha fact that the character is a kokuji seems to be sure as confirmed in the definition that we can find in the Chinese dictionaries. Then, it was replaced by the Chinese characters that, alluding to the characteristics of the eyes, better identify the fish. 34 Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten report it as kokuji. Kenkyūsha 32 doesn’t record the lemma, while Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses the transcription in hiragana ほっけ, ascribing the lemma to the area of Fukushima. 35 The first character is recorded in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten, but Morohashi doesn’t classify it as kokuji. For the lemma ina, Wasei kanji no jiten records the kokuji too, while Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce, for the same lemma, the kokuji 鯔. The latter is recorded, both in Dōbun tsūkō by Arai Hakuseki and in Morohashi, as kokuji and with the reading of kochi as well. Indeed, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for ina the Chinese character 鰤 with the reading shi and with the same meaning, but ascribing the noun to the area of Kyōto. 36 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma inada, Kōjien uses the transcription in hiragana いなだ, while Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the common Chinese character 鰍 qiu, with the meaning of ‘Japanese amberjack’. For the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduces the already reported character 鰤, as previously seen, for the lemma ina, ascribing it to the area of Shizuoka and of Ishikawa and implicitly meaning the identity between inada and ina. 37 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson. For the lemma kajika, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鰍, that is a common use character in Chinese with the reading qiu. 38 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kamasu, Kōjien introduces the character 魣 xu, while Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 give the compound 梭魚 suoyan. Indeed, the lemma is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 39 The kokuji is recorded in Wasei kanji no jiten only. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74, for the lemma karasumi, use the transcription in hiragana からすみ. Such form in hiragana is given in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten as well and ascribed to the area of Ōshū. �鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’ (Katsuwonus pelamis)41; kawagisu ‘Japanese gudgeon’ (Pseudogobis esocinus)42; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’ (Sillago japonica)43; ・鯉 koi ‘Japanese carp’ (Cyprinus carpio)44; kujira ‘Japanese whale’ (Balaena mysticetus)45; masu ‘Masu salmon’ (Oncorhynchus masou)46; 鮴 mebaru ‘Japanese rockfish’ (Sebastes inermis)47; 鰘 muroaji ‘Japanese horse mackerel’ (Trachurus japonicus)48; mutsu ‘Japanese blue fish’ (Scombrops boops)49; ・鯰 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’ (Parasilurus asotus)50 The first kokuji is given in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten only. The latter gives the kokuji 鮙 too. For the lemma karei, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten record the Chinese character 鰈 die. 41 Kokujikō, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Wasei kanji no jiten and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten record the kokuji 鰹 present in Morohashi as well, but not classified as kokuji. In the consulted Chinese dictionaries, the kokuji 40 鰹 is attested with the reading jian in Giles and in Ricci only. 42 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kawagisu, Kenkyūsha 32 uses the mixed form 川ぎす, while Kenkyūsha 74 introduces the compound 川鱚, where the second character is recorded as kokuji in all the Japanese dictionaries consulted, except for Dōbun tsūkō that doesn’t record the character. 43 The kokuji is recorded in all the Japanese dictionaries consulted, except for Dōbun tsūkō and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten that don’t give the kokuji and the lemma kisu. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading xi and with the same meaning in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian. 44 The first kokuji is recorded in Wasei kanji no jiten only, that for the lemma koi, gives the kokuji as well, that Morohashi doesn’t’ classify as kokuji. For the lemma koi, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the character 鯉, that Nelson only classifies as kokuji. In Chinese, the character 鯉 is recorded with the same meaning and reading li in Ricci only. 45 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kujira, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74, and the Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten as well, use the Chinese character 鯨 jing. 46 The kokuji is attested in Wasei kanji no jiten only. For the lemma masu, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鱒, that is a Chinese character with the reading zun. Indeed, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten for the same lemma uses the transcription in hiragana ます, ascribing the lemma to the area of Fukushima. 47 Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson only register the kokuji 鮴.For the lemma mebaru, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 眼張 of common use in Chinese yanzhang. Indeed, there aren’t attestations in Kenkyūsha 32 or in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 48 Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten attest the kokuji 鰘, while for the lemma muroaji, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 室鯵, that are common use characters in Chinese with the reading shisao. 49 Wasei kanji no jiten only registers the kokuji, while for the lemma mutsu, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the Chinese character 鯥 lu, Kenkyūsha 32 gives the compound 石鮅魚; for the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses the transcription in hiragana むつ ascribing the noun to the area of Shiga. 50 See note 4. �鮄 saba ‘Chub mackerel’ (Scomber japonicus)51; 魝・ ・ saku ‘Chum salmon’ (Oncorhynchus keta)52; same ‘Japanese variety of great white shark’ (Carcharodon carcharias)53; 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer whale’ (Grampus orca)54; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’ (Zenopsis nebulosa)55; tai ‘Red seabream’ (Pagrus major)56 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’ (Leuciscus hakonensis)57; urumeiwashi ‘Sardine variety of the Species Etrumeus micropus’58 . ***** Now, of these kokuji listed: 51 Wasei kanji no jiten and Morohashi give the character 鮄, that Morohashi doesn’t record as kokuji. For the same lemma, Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce 鯖, a common use character in Chinese with the reading qing. 52 With saku is identified a variety of ‘salmon’ (Oncorhynchus keta), the most important Japanese species of salmon, that it is possible to find mainly in the Tonegawa and Nakagawa rivers. Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji 魝, that Morohashi records for the lemma saku, but doesn’t classify it as kokuji. In the Chinese dictionary consulted, the only one that gives this character is Giles with the reading of jie and the meaning of ‘to dissect’ or ‘to cut (slice) the fish to be dried’. For the lemma saku, Kokujikō and Wasei kanji no jiten give the kokuji and as well, that are not in the other Japanese lexicons consulted. For the same lemma, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce, giving the readings sake and shake too, the common use character in Chinese 鮭 kui. 53 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma same, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 use the character 鮫, that is a common use character in Chinese chao. Morohashi, Kōjien, Nelson, Wasei kanji no jiten and Kenkyūsha 74 give the kokuji 鯱. It is not attested in the other Japanese and Chinese dictionaries. 54 Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji 魴, that Morohashi records for the lemma tai, but doesn’t classify it as kokuji. It is not attested in the other Japanese dictionaries consulted. Indeed, the kokuji is recorded in all the Chinese dictionaries consulted with the reading fang and the same meaning. So is it really a kokuji or simply a Chinese character acquired from Japan, then abandoned because not indicating an important character or species? 56 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten, for the lemma tai, introduce the character 鯛, that it’s a common use character in Chinese with the reading tiao. 55 57 Dōbun tsūkō, Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten give the kokuji 鯎, that it’s not attested in the other Japanese characters. For the lemma ugui, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 石斑魚 shipayu. Indeed, the lemma ugui is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 58 With urumeiwashi is identified a ‘Sardine variety’ of the Species Etrumeus micropus. Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji , that is not attested in the other Japanese dictionaries. For the lemma urumeiwashi, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the compound 潤目鰯 runmuruo, of common use in Chinese. The lemma is not attested in Kenkyūsha 74. �Forty-nine are names of fishes: 魸・ ・鯰 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’; 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’; 鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’; 鯲 dojō ‘Japanese loach’; 鮱 bora ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’; isaza ‘Biwa goby’; konoshiro ‘Japanese gizzard shad’; 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphinfish’; 魞 eri ‘Japanese lizardfish’; anago ‘Japanese variety of conger of the Species Conger japonicus’; ayu ‘Japanese sweetfish’; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’; hamo ‘Japanese barracuda’; 鰰・鱩 hatahata ‘Japanese sandfish’; 鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’; 鮃 hirame ‘Japanese halibut’; ・鯔 ina ‘Japanese amberjack’; kamasu ‘Japanese saury’; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’; ・ inada ‘Japanese amberjack’; 鮖 kajika ‘Japanese sculpin’; ・鮙 karei ‘Japanese plaice’; 鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’; kawagisu ‘Japanese gudgeon’; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’; ・鯉 koi ‘Japanese carp’; masu ‘Masu salmon’; 鮴 mebaru ‘Japanese rockfish’; 鰘 muroaji ‘Japanese horse mackerel’; mutsu ‘Japanese blue fish’; 鮄 saba ‘Chub mackerel’; 魝・ ・ saku ‘Chum salmon’; ‘Japanese variety of great white shark’; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’; ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’; same tai ‘Red seabream’; 鯎 urumeiwashi ‘Sardine variety of the Species Etrumeus micropus’. Three of marine mammals: 魹 azarashi ‘Japanese hair seal’, whale’. One of crustaceans: 鰕 ebi ‘Japanese lobster’. kujira ‘Japanese whale’, 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer �One of molluscs: asari ‘Japanese little-neck clam’. Two of roe: 鯑 kazunoko ‘Herring roe’, karasumi ‘Mullet roe’. Two are varieties of “Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna”: 鯐 subashiri, 鰚 haraka. ***** Therefore, we have in total fifty-eight kokuji of which thirteen are still in use today. From the series of forty-nine kokuji related to the fishes’ names, there are the following ten: 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’; 鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphinfish’; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’; 鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’; 鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’. Of the three kokuji relating to the names of mammals, the only one still in use is 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer whale’. Of the two names of unidentified marine species remains in use only 鰚 haraka that in the Japanese dictionaries used is reported exclusively as “fish” (魚). ***** �Summing up, we can deduce the following situation. Many kokuji, and they were the majority, or thirty-three, fall into disuse. They could be introduced when Japanese were not even aware of the existence of corresponding kanji (or kanji compounds). Once it was found to have in the Chinese vocabulary, they were abandoned in favor of the latter. This is the longer list: xuezu; asari → 浅蜊 ZH dian li; anago → 穴子 ZH ayu → 鮎 ZH nian; 魹 azarashi → 海豹 ZH hai pao; 鯲 dojō → 鰌 ZH qiu・泥鰌 ZH niqiu; 鰕 ebi → 海老 ZH hailao; 魞 eri → 鱠 ZH kuai; 鱧 ZH li; 鮃 hirame → 平目 ZH pingmu・比目魚 ZH pimuyu; isaza → 鯋 ZH sha; 鮖 kajika → 鰍 ZH qiu; karei → 鰈 ZH die; 鯨 ZH jing; shisao; konoshiro → 鰶 ZH ji; karei・鮙 kujira → masu → 鱒 ZH zun; 鮴 mebaru → 眼張 ZH yanzhang; 鰘 muroaji → 室鯵 ZH mutsu → 鯥 ZH lu; 鮄 saba → 鯖 ZH qing; 魝・ ・ 鮫 ZH chao; 鯐 subashiri → 州走 ZH chouzou; shipayu; inada → 鰍 ZH qiu・鰤 ZH shi; kamasu → 魣・梭魚 ZH suoyu; kawagisu → 川鱚 ZH zhuanxi; 鮗・ hamo → saku → 鮭 ZH nian; same → tai → 鯛 ZH tiao; 鯎 ugui → 石斑魚 ZH urumeiwashi → 潤目鰯 ZH junmuruo. A number of kokuji, to be precise eight, falls into disuse, because they had to prevail on them other kokuji. Indeed, we have found that some nouns had been created with more kokuji, who apparently had been introduced as “neologisms” created in different locations or by different “authors”; it was the case for the following: for the lemma bora (‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’), they had been introduced two kokuji 鮱・鯔, the latter prevailed on the first one; the same phenomenon was found for the lemma hatahata (‘Japanese sandfish’), where among the two kokuji created, 鰰・鱩 prevailed the second one. For the lemmas koi, ina and namazu, for which they had come into use even three kokuji, 鮘 koi・ koi・鯉 koi; ina・ ina・鯔 ina; 魸 namazu・ namazu・鯰 namazu, prevailed respectively 鯉 koi, 鯔 ina e 鯰 namazu. They were probably kokuji adopted to designate an identical variety or fish species maybe in different regions and then replaced by those of more frequent or widespread use that consolidated the coding. Finally, a series of seven kokuji was replaced, as we have already seen, or by one or more kanji or by transcriptions in kana only: anago → あなご・穴子 ZH xuezu; inada → いなだ; �masu → 鱒 ZH zun・ます; hatahata, hokke → ほっけ; mutsu → 鯥・石鮅魚・むつ, 鰰 hatahata → はたはた・鱩 karasumi → からすみ. ***** So from the analysis of a small group of kokuji emerges already the complexity of the phenomenon that is behind the characters created in Japan. Definitely a phenomenon rarely studied in Japan itself, where it tends to talk only of kanji and kana and to limit the notion of kokuji mostly to the “Japanese” writing in general59. In truth, that of kokuji, as complex of characters come into use in Japan, is a phenomenon that follows the entire course of the Japanese language and writing and should therefore be put in an historical context through a precisely record of the occurrences of each characters in the texts that have remained and their frequency at least in the literary use. The study should also be thorough about the possible “geographical” pertinences of each attributions of the names, as already reported in the notes for some kokuji or their transcriptions in kana. They are examples: hokke → ほっけ ascribed to the area of Fukushima; Shiga; 鰰 hatahata → attributed to Akita and masu → ます e mutsu → むつ ascribed to the area of karasumi → からすみ to Ōshū. The sampling shown authorize us to conjecture that the phenomenon has manifested itself already at the beginning of the adoption of the Chinese writing. It can explain how many characters of local creation prove then superfluous to the finding of Chinese counterparts already in use and then become obsolete. It may be also interesting to note that of all the above mentioned kokuji, it seems that the Chinese used just the following eight entered and remained in current use: 魞 eri → ZH kuai; 鮃 hirame → ZH ping; 鰯 iwashi → ZH ruo; 鰹 katsuo → ZH jian; 鱚 kisu → ZH xi; 鯒 kochi → ZH yong; 魴 tai → ZH fang; 鱈 tara → ZH xue. 59 Satō Kiyoji (ed. by), Kokugaku kenkyū jiten, Tōkyō, Meiji shoten, 1972, p. 77 �References Borriello Giovanni, “The Historical Development of the kokuji 国字 Phenomenon in Japan”, Susret Kultura 6, Međunarodni interdisciplinarni simpozijum Susret kultiura, II, Filozofski fakultet, Novi Sad, 2013, I, pp. 507-512. http://digitalna.ff.uns.ac.rs/sadrzaj/2013/978-86-6065-0407121; Borriello Giovanni, “I kokuji della fauna volatile”, in Mastrangelo Matilde, Maurizi Andrea (ed. by), I dieci colodi dell’eleganza. Saggi in onore di Maria Teresa Orsi, Roma, Aracne, 2013, pp. 69-83; Commons Anne, “The development of kokuji (‘Chinese’ characters coined in Japan)”, in Fifth Annual Graduate Student Conference on East Asia, Columbia University, 1996. Giles Herbert (ed. by), A Chinese-English Dictionary, Shanghai, Kelly & Welsh, 1892, (Giles); Haig John H. (ed. by), The New Nelson. Japanese-English Characters Dictionary, Rutland, Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1997, (Nelson); Hirayama Teruo (ed. by), Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten = Dictionary of Japanese Dialects, Tōkyō, Meiji shoin, 1992-94, (Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten); Instituts Ricci (ed. by), Grand Dictionnaire Ricci de la Langue Chinoise, Paris-Taipei, Desclée de Brouwer, 2001, (Ricci); Itani Zen’ichi (ed. by), Arai Hakuseki, “Dōbun tsūkō”, Arai Hakuseki shū, Tōkyō, Seibundō shinkōsha, 1936, (Dōbun tsūkō); Iwasaki Tomihei, Kawamura Jujirō (ed. by), Kenkyūsha New Japanese-English Dictionary, Tōkyō, Kenkyūsha, 1932, (Kenkyūsha 32); Iwasaki Tomihei, Kawamura Jujirō (ed. by), Kenkyūsha New Japanese-English Dictionary, Tōkyō, Kenkyūsha, 1974, (Kenkyūsha 74); Mathews Robert Henry (ed. by), Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary, Shanghai, China Inland Mission and Presbyterian Mission Press, 1931, (Mathews); Morohashi Tetsuji (ed. by), Dai kanwa jiten, Tōkyō, Taishūkan shoten, 1955, (Morohashi); Shinmura Izuru (ed. by), Kōjien, Tōkyō, Iwanami shoten, 1991 (Kōjien); Oga Tetsuo (ed. by), Dai nihon hyakka jiten = Enciclopedia Japonica, Tōkyō, Shōgakukan, 1967- , (Japonica); Ōhara Nozomu (ed. by), Wasei kanji no jiten, http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm, 2000 (Wasei kanji no jiten); Satō Kiyoji (ed. by), Ban Naokata, “Kokujikō”, Kokugogaku kenkyū jiten, Tōkyō, Meiji shoin, 1977, (Kokujikō); �Wu Guanghua (ed. by), Han ying da cidian, Shanghai, Shanghai jiao, 1996, (Han Ying Da Cidian). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2910 Title A name given to the resource KOKUJI (国字): THE JAPANESE “NATIONAL CHARACTERS”. A CASE STUDY: THE JAPANESE ACQUATIC FAUNA Author Author Borriello, Giovanni Abstract A summary of the resource. The great influence that the Chinese writing system has had on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese writing systems is widely demonstrated. Nevertheless, besides the use of the characters directly imported from China, these cultures have had the necessity to create “national characters” to satisfy the needs of their own languages. This paper, that analyzes this phenomenon in the Japanese environment, begins with an analysis of the reasons that have pushed the Japanese “to create” own characters and the reasons why at a certain moment such “creation” has been suspended. In the second part of the paper samples of kokuji will be presented that can be circumscribed to those with radicals 魚・鳥・木・草 and that result to be surely the most numerous and related to species of flora and fauna japonica. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3492 Title A name given to the resource KOMPARATIVNA KNJIŽEVNOST I KNJIŽEVNOST MANJINE: NA PRIMERU RUMUNSKE KNJIŽEVNOSTI U VOJVODINI Author Author Ćorković, Mirjana Abstract A summary of the resource. Many scholars claim that a unique definition of minority literature does not exist, although they agree it is crucial to choose an adequate theory and method of research in order to understand its values. Starting from contemporary comparative literature's notions on world literature, regional and national as well as „minority“ literature, the article aims to explore ways in which a „minority“ literature could step into an intercultural and interliterary dialog with other literatures on local, regional and global level, searching for their similarities and differences. The study indicates that choosing a transnational and transcultural approach on literatures created in multicultural spaces as Vojvodina is, such as literary imagology and cultural memory, brings results that differ from those achieved from traditional national and international perspective. Keywords: comparative literature, minority literature, Romanian Literature, Vojvodina, imagology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e27494e814c13b421ae4b08550a15294.docx 53510b32db886fbc4552741446f04060 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/067565bc3e384f53893359a2752c3925.pdf fcda9a1f8335a629a03acddf88b8d8f5 PDF Text Text KOMPLİMENTİ U TURSKİM DARAMAMA Merima GRABČANOVİĆ Tuzla Üniversitesi, Felsefe Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Tuzla / Bosna Hersek Ključne riječi: Pragmatika, učtivost, kompliment, drama SAŽETAK Pragmatika je naučna disciplina koja se bavi isključivo upotrebom jezika u komunikaciji. Tačnije, ona proučava komunikativna sredstava kao što su: na koji način čovjek daje i prima saopštenja i od čega komunikacija zavisi u određenoj situaciji. Učtivost nas uči kako da budemo pažljivi prema ljudima oko nas. Ovo je zapravo primjer pozitivne učtivosti. Pozitna učtivost olakšava nam prijatnu komunikaciju. Međutim, postoji i negativna učtivost i ona stvara neprijatnost, sukob i stres. Drama je književni oblik koji je napisan uglavnom da bi se izveo na daskama. Dramski dijalog je dosta pogodan za analizu teorije govornih činova. Dijalog u drami se znatno razlikuje od govora koji svakodnevno vodimo. Kompliment je riječ francuskog porijekla (compliment) i označava pohvalu, laskanje ili udvaranje. Za komplimente možemo reći da su najbolji primjer pozitivne učtivosti. Davanjem komplimenata činimo da se naš sagovornik osjeća bolje i ugodnije u datom trenutku. Možemo reći da je kompliment upućen sagovorniku jedna vrsta poklona koji nema materijani oblik. Da bismo razdvojili kompliment iz konteksta svakodnevnog govora, moramo uočiti pretjerivanje. Pretjerivanje daje komplimentu konačan oblik. Komplimenti su veoma bitni jer uspostavljaju bliskost sa sagovornikom i na taj način čine da se sagovornik osjeća bolje. Komplimenti se daju najčešće za izgled, zatim za postignuće, ličnost, imovinu i na odnos koji imaju sagovornici. U turskom jeziku kompliment (iltifat) ima značenje poštovanje ili uljudnost. Ljudi mogu odgovoriti na komplimente na razne načine: prihvatanje, odbijanje i izbjegavanje. Tursko društvo karakteriše pozitivna učtivost. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2018 Title A name given to the resource KOMPLİMENTİ U TURSKİM DARAMAMA Author Author GRABCANOVIC, Merima Abstract A summary of the resource. Ključne riječi: Pragmatika, učtivost, kompliment, drama SAŽETAK Pragmatika je naučna disciplina koja se bavi isključivo upotrebom jezika u komunikaciji. Tačnije, ona proučava komunikativna sredstava kao što su: na koji način čovjek daje i prima saopštenja i od čega komunikacija zavisi u određenoj situaciji. Učtivost nas uči kako da budemo pažljivi prema ljudima oko nas. Ovo je zapravo primjer pozitivne učtivosti. Pozitna učtivost olakšava nam prijatnu komunikaciju. Međutim, postoji i negativna učtivost i ona stvara neprijatnost, sukob i stres. Drama je književni oblik koji je napisan uglavnom da bi se izveo na daskama. Dramski dijalog je dosta pogodan za analizu teorije govornih činova. Dijalog u drami se znatno razlikuje od govora koji svakodnevno vodimo. Kompliment je riječ francuskog porijekla (compliment) i označava pohvalu, laskanje ili udvaranje. Za komplimente možemo reći da su najbolji primjer pozitivne učtivosti. Davanjem komplimenata činimo da se naš sagovornik osjeća bolje i ugodnije u datom trenutku. Možemo reći da je kompliment upućen sagovorniku jedna vrsta poklona koji nema materijani oblik. Da bismo razdvojili kompliment iz konteksta svakodnevnog govora, moramo uočiti pretjerivanje. Pretjerivanje daje komplimentu konačan oblik. Komplimenti su veoma bitni jer uspostavljaju bliskost sa sagovornikom i na taj način čine da se sagovornik osjeća bolje. Komplimenti se daju najčešće za izgled, zatim za postignuće, ličnost, imovinu i na odnos koji imaju sagovornici. U turskom jeziku kompliment (iltifat) ima značenje poštovanje ili uljudnost. Ljudi mogu odgovoriti na komplimente na razne načine: prihvatanje, odbijanje i izbjegavanje. Tursko društvo karakteriše pozitivna učtivost. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548