151 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c41a51f25e3e091c9dc9896d6f247c73.pdf ee4003994c37f67336d9acd105894099 PDF Text Text INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Margarita Kulagina Language Studio “4U” Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Keywords: globalization, intercultural education, modern educational courses. �Nowadays we live in the world of fast and easy communication, dealing with people of various cultures and backgrounds. Economic, political and historical changes have created new forms of intercultural interaction in the process of globalization. Stanley Fischer (2001) in his speech The Challenge of Globalization in Africa pointed out that globalization is a multi-faceted concept, containing many important social, political, environmental, cultural and religious dimensions, which affect every human being in this or that way. As Henry Teune (2002) explains globalization has changed the world enough to demand serious rethinking about comparative social research in our era of globalization. As a result of globalization world society is becoming more multicultural. It makes us recognize, respect and value diversity. The terms cultural diversity and multiculturalism have already become a part of our life. In this regard, the interest of researchers from all over the world towards successful interaction between the representatives of various groups is constantly growing. Communication that lacks appropriate cultural content can become the source of misunderstanding and communication failure that can lead to negative effect. Therefore, one of the most important skills of nowadays is the ability to develop communicative competence in order to take part in the life of multicultural communities and changing society. The interaction of representatives of different nationalities has been made more commonplace by the fluidity of the political and economic conditions in many countries (Kasatkina, 2010). This process continues to occur as individuals keep on feeling compelled to take extraordinary attempts to uproot themselves from their familiar cultural and linguistic groups and immigrate to different cultural and linguistic communities. This can be achieved thanks to intercultural education. First of all, it is necessary to define the term of intercultural education itself. As Harry H. Giles, Victor E. Pitkin and Thelma Ingram (1946) notice this expression didn’t appear in the Education Index until after 1941 and it only came out in Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature in 1943. They give the following definition: Intercultural education is education to improve understandings and practices of good human relations between individuals of the many culture groups. It is also interesting to look at the work of historian Nicholas Montalto, who made a research A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941, where he shows the routes of intercultural education in the USA. It appeared as a response to the changes that took place in the society which were caused by the new coming immigrants from southern and northern Europe. During the first two decades of the 20th century there was a foreign language movement in American libraries, providing the new members of society with the literature in their native languages. It was an attempt to fulfill successful communication between the representatives of different nations and to create positive intercultural dialogue. Active discussion about the necessity of intercultural education was connected with the growth of immigrants coming to Western Europe, especially to France, Benelux, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Different approaches were introduced and the most widely-spread were immigrant education, intercultural education, multicultural education and anti-racist education. The main accent was made on successful assimilation with the main focus on language learning mainly. The followers of immigrant education organized special classes for newcomers where they studied together with other migrants outside of the majority group. It was absolutely evident that this approach didn’t work well �and educators had to look for new methods. Later in 1980-1990 researchers in many European countries started active developing of multicultural education with the main concentration on integration rather than assimilation. The focus was on tolerance and different cultures. In many schools there were organized special cultural events on different theme days. However, this approach led to even bigger separation underlining the division into “ours-others” concept. Educators came to a conclusion that intercultural education should become an integral part of learning process without subdivision of students into minority and majority groups. Nowadays, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) (2005) define intercultural education as an …education which respects, celebrates and recognises the normality of diversity in all areas of human life. It sensitises the learner to the idea that humans have naturally developed a range of different ways of life, customs and worldviews, and that this breadth of human life enriches us all. It is education, which promotes equality and human rights, challenges unfair discrimination, and promotes the values upon which equality is built. According to the INTO (2002) it is also about “…respecting cultural difference and promoting anti-racism, it is not simply the knowledge of a variety of cultures. It aims to counter misconceptions and negative stereotyping of different cultures, religions and nationalities and seeks to develop an appreciation of other cultures in the context of a critical appreciation of local/Irish cultures. Intercultural education celebrates the positive aspects to cultural diversity as well as drawing attention to the power differences between groups and societies”. The UNESCO Guidelines on intercultural education published in 2007 identifies the key issues and challenges related to education and multiculturalism such as culture, culture and education, culture and language, culture and religion, but also cultural diversity and majority or minority cultures, multiculturalism and interculturalism. It also defines the role and objectives of intercultural education as learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. The guideline presents the legal framework to which intercultural education can make reference: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, international treaties and conventions, covenants, declarations and recommendations. Also the outcomes of the main international conferences are given and allow the educators to use them in forming the programme and developing new educational concepts. Finally three main principles that frame these guidelines are presented and followed by indications on how to achieve them. The general issues are the following: Principle I: Intercultural Education respects the cultural identity of the learner through the provision of culturally appropriate and responsive quality education for all. Principle II: Intercultural Education provides every learner with the cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to achieve active and full participation in society. Principle III: Intercultural Education provides all learners with cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills that enable them to contribute to respect, understanding and solidarity among individuals, ethnic, social, cultural and religious groups and nations. Intercultural education has been actively discussed by world leading politicians, researchers, educators and scientists for about four decades. The European Commission has �created a strong legal basis on which action for intercultural dialogue and against discrimination can also be developed in the education sector. These are the related documents that can be used while working over the curriculum:  Racial equality directive (2000/43/EC);  Employment framework directive (2000/78/EC);  Directive COM(2008) 426;  Renewed social agenda;  Intercultural dialogue support through EU programmes. Educators have come to a conclusion that modern learning process should be oriented at getting new skills, especially communicative ones, rather than gathering information and remembering facts. Teachers’ aim is to prepare students for real life in diverse society, saving learners’ own identity and respecting the others. The number of immigrants is constantly growing and newcomers are actively taking part in the life of communities they are coming to. Learners’ backgrounds differ in terms of religion, socio-economic status, parents’ education, values, attitudes, lifestyles and abilities. All these factors accentuate social and cultural pluralism. In Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools (2002), the Department of Education and Science explains the main points of intercultural education for children that can successfully be referred to any modern learning process, aiming to foster conditions conducive to pluralism in society. Intercultural education raises awareness of learners’ own culture and attunes them to the fact that there are other ways of behaving and value systems. It helps to develop respect for lifestyles different from their own so that learners can understand and appreciate each other. In view of the intense spread of English in the world, its teaching becomes global. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the Englishspeaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. One of the tasks today is often to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistics reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, wrong understanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. According to professor Claire Kramsch (1993), culture is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them. Wilga Rivers (1981) points out that we must focus on both appropriate content and activities that enable students to assimilate that content. Activities should encourage them to go beyond fact, so that they begin to perceive and experience vicariously the deeper levels of the culture of the speakers of the language. Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe has presented the detailed guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education useful for both educators and those who are responsible for curriculum planning. The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of Europe designed a programme of learning through languages aiming at developing plurilingual and intercultural pedagogic approaches. Educators understand the importance of intercultural education and developing cognitive skills and abilities in their students in order to make them successful in changing �multinational and multicultural world. At the same time intercultural education is aimed at recognizing socio-cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as respecting and understanding different groups in the same society. Undoubtedly, modern technologies for the creation of educational next-generation products will improve the efficiency of formation of linguistic and intercultural competence of the learner and help to lead a successful dialogue between the representatives of various cultures. References Fisher, S. The Challenge of Globalization in Africa. Yaoundé, Cameroon, 2001. Giles, H. Review of Educational Research Vol.16, No.1, Social Foundations of Education (Feb.1946), pp.39-45. Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools. Dublin, 2002. Kasatkina, N. Analyzing Language Choice among Russian-Speaking Immigrants to the United States. The University of Arizona, 2010. Kramsch, C. Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Montalto, N. A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941. New York: Garland, 1982. Rivers, W. Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Teune, H. Is Globalization An American Ideology? XV World Congress, International Sociology Association, Brisbane, Australia, 2002. INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/GuideEPI201 0_EN.pdf http://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/mtp4/broschure-mtp4-EN-web.pdf https://www.education.ie/en/Schools-Colleges/Information/Intercultural-EducationStrategy/mig_intercultural_education_strategy.pdf http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/intercultural.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2957 Title A name given to the resource INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Author Author Kulagina, Margarita Abstract A summary of the resource. The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d4b4cf17b060ab4fb9a86b67f72a035b.pdf c1ae51c1a1b882e70f06a19a40583a2f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Gurgen Balasanyan Department of Foreign Languages Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute gurgenbalasanyan@yahoo.com Abstract: The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Keywords: culture, culturology, dimensions of culture, intercultural communication, interculturality, non-formal education. Introduction As one of the founders of the contemporary disciplines on the study of culture – Edward Tylor states: ―…culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‖ (Haas, 1944). The statement claims that everything directly or indirectly related to the mankind, anything created or maintained is subjected to cultural influence. Does this mean that to be able to understand a person, to effectively communicate and to build proper relationships, one needs to master the cultural specifics of each and every individual? What is the relation of the individual to the nation? Is the culture necessarily brought down to nations and ethnicities or is this a concept which extends beyond demographic dimensions? The hypothesis we are putting before ourselves are the following: - Should interculturality be analyzed as a separate discipline in the learning agenda; - What is the effectiveness of non-formal education? Is it an alternative to formal education or a separate distinguished methodology kit that can be applied for particular needs. The work tends to serve the needs of the modern multinational society in terms of elaborating on what makes up an ―interculturally competent‖ individual; what it takes to understand a person, to avoid or to tackle intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup clashes of cultural coloring. It furtherly dwells upon how those competencies should be developed in a classroom and a non-classroom atmosphere. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper proposes an alternative viewpoint on developing the intercultural competences and intercultural sensitivity – non-formal education. The particular attention on the non-formal methodology block is justified by the fact that non-formal education gains more and more worldwide prioritization as an effective tool-kit which manages to best combine the usefulness with entertaining process. Already today and even more tomorrow, it is no longer sufficient to think only in terms of formal education. It is therefore necessary to widen our understanding of education, making life-long learning a 525 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reality. People continuously seek for alternative means of education; systems that would prove to be effective and goal-oriented and that would best satisfy human curiosity. The practical value of the work consists in the fact that the two interrelated areas that are taken under observation – the concept of interculturality and intercultural society and the development of intercultural competence through non-formal education, are underobserved and underapplied in Armenia. Being a vastly homogeneous monoethnic country, Armenia lack intercultural communication skills which makes it much harder to interact with the international visitors, to adopt tolerance and respect towards diversity and to be able to best get assimilated into a new cultural environment when shifting to a new country for a long- or short-term stay. Secondly, despite the educational reforms and innovations that are continuously being advocated in Armenia and despite the fact of her joining several reforms of the European Commission including the ―White Paper on Youth‖, the non-formal education is not only underapplied but also underestimated and not recognized. That‘s why the work draws parallels between formal and non-formal education trying to differentiate the ideology and implementation peculiarities that lie under each of them. Method of the Study The chain the work follows is based on the principle of ―general-specific-practical continuum‖: The study was mainly carried out in two phases. The first phase was to find out what are the tendencies for intercultural learning in the world, what is perceived by saying diversity at present, and how it is viewed in terms of learning and comprehension. The second phase, which derived primarily from the discovered need for new approaches to intercultural learning, was carried out through theoretical research on the main concepts and strategy frameworks. Finally, the paper was concluded with the classification of non-formal educational tools and the introduction of specific methods for stimulating intercultural learning. Apart from introducing different concepts and theories, it goes on proposing definite practical tools on intercultural learning. The icebreakers, energizers, role plays, and simulation games aim to give the non-formal education practitioner a vast diversity of tools that can be adopted according to the specific aim, atmosphere and audience characteristics. Stages of Intercultural Learning One of the first models on intercultural learning stages was suggested by Milton J. Bennett who viewed intercultural learning as a process of evolving the intercultural sensitivity. Bennett predicted the close link between the personal development and intercultural sensitivity and claimed that the development of cultural sensitivity should be an inseparable part of intercultural learning to reach effective communication process; his developmental model deals with the continuum of increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural difference, starting with ethnocentrism and decreasing to the recognition and acceptance of difference. He calls this stage as ethnorelativism. The main underlying concept of Bennett‘s model is what he calls ―differentiation‖ (Bennet, 1993), and how one develops the ability to recognize and live with difference. Differentiation can be interpreted in two ways: firstly, it refers to reality when people look at one and the same thing differently; secondly, it refers to the fact that cultures differ from one another in the way they maintain patterns of differentiation.; in other words, it refers to how people interpret the world around them. Therefore, intercultural sensitivity aims at developing the capacity in every individual to perceive the fact that people see things differently and respect the different worldviews. Ethnocentrism and Ethnorelativism as Stages for Intercultural Awareness As defined by Bennett, ethnocentrism is the stage when the person assumes his worldview being the only possible and the only right one. The most characteristic thing for ethnocentrism is denial: this is the stage when the person simply denies the existence of other worldviews. Denial leads either to isolation when the person cuts himself off the surrounding not to encounter the reality of difference; or to separation when the person intentionally puts the difference far away. However, we should note that separation is a stage up from isolation since in this case the person at least recognizes the difference (but of course, he does not accept it). The second stage identified by Bennett is defense: this is the process when the individual perceives difference as a threat since it offers an alternative to his form of reality. The attitude that is most probably to be adopted is denigration when the different worldview is perceived negatively and is strongly criticized. The other implication of defense is superiority, i.e. when the person considers his worldview as being superior and pays practically no attention on the other coexisting worldviews. Bennett also considers the opposite reaction – the socalled ―reversal‖, when the person perceives the other culture as superior and undervalues his own one. The last stage of ethnocentrism identified by Bennett is minimization, i.e. when the other culture is clearly recognized, yet an attempt is made to minimize or overlook its meaning. 526 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The key idea for ethnorelativism is the assumption that cultures can only be understood relative to one another and that particular behavior can be understood within a cultural context only. The first stage for ethnocentrism is acceptance; this is the stage when the person comes to accept the verbal and non-verbal difference behavior variations within cultures and to realize that those differences deserve respect. This ultimately leads to the recognition of values and the variations within those values that strongly predetermine the worldview and behavioral conduct. The following stage towards cultural sensitivity is adaptation; this is the reverse process for acceptance, i.e. when the person gives up his own values and norms to accept those of the other /dominant/ culture. This might ultimately lead to the loss of identity. Central to adaptation is empathy – the attempt to think of a particular thing or situation through the prism of the other culture only with no reference to his own one. Empathy might later enlarge to pluralism, i.e. looking at things through multiple cultural frames. The final stage as identified by Bennett is integration, when an attempt is made to integrate different frames into one. This might ultimately lead to the development of a person with no cultural identity, i.e. as someone being an integrated outsider. The first stage to integration is the contextual analysis of the situation through multiple cultural backgrounds. One thing to be made clear is that this final stage is identified by Bennett as an ―arrival point‖ not a final one. What Bennett‘s model tries to prove is that intercultural learning is a process that is described by continuous advancement (with the possibility to move back and forth in the process), and that it is possible to measure the person‘s intercultural awareness according to his degree of intercultural sensitivity. Summing up, we should say that Bennett‘s model proves how complex the process of intercultural learning is: starting with cultural identity and the realization of the identity to the recognition of the other worldviews and ultimately to their integration for better understanding the differences emerging on day-to-day basis. Finally, one of the key messages brought forth by Bennett is that although intercultural learning is analyzed on the individual level, it ultimately suggests the capacity to leave peacefully in a diverse environment. Intercultural Competence Regardless of the actual communication being of global or international character, intercultural communication principles remain the key guiding the process of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism. These principles may have equal relevance when a tourist seeks help or when a politician advocates world peace. Intercultural principles concentrate on openness to the other, active respect for difference, mutual comprehension, active tolerance, validating the cultures present, providing equality of opportunities, fighting discrimination. Communication between different cultural identities can appear paradoxical in the sense that it requires recognition of the other both as similar and as different. In this context, according to Ouellet (Oullet, 1991), intercultural education can be designed to promote and to develop: a better comprehension of cultures in modern societies; a larger capacity of communication between people from different cultures; a more flexible attitude to the context of cultural diversity in society; a better capacity of participation in social interaction, and the recognition of the common heritage of humanity. As stated by different scholars /Brislin, Yoshida, Pedersen, Tong-Toomey/, the goal of intercultural learning is to prepare people for more effective interpersonal relations when they interact with individuals from different cultures other than their own; in other words, it is about facilitating effective communication. As we will later on touch upon the idea, most of the scholars identify the need for the intercultural communication and learning being organized in the way to ensure the process itself is enjoyable and interactive. Advancing with the main competences identified as important for intercultural communication, especially that in an educational environment, we should bring them down as follows: observing, identifying and recognizing; comparing and contrasting; negotiating meaning; dealing with or tolerating ambiguity; effectively interpreting messages; limiting the possibility of misinterpretation; defending one's own point of view while acknowledging the legitimacy of others; accepting difference. Interculturally competent are the students who possess the above identified capacities that can be classified under knowledge (cognition), attitudes (emotions) and skills (behavior) and who are able to: 527 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (i.e. have a good understanding and awareness of their own culture); be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures; understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (i.e. understand and be aware of what other people think of their own culture); be aware of how they see the target culture. In other words, intercultural learning is a bilateral process; you observe the target culture and get to understand your own one in between. The better perception of one‘s own culture will undoubtedly contribute to the better understanding the other cultures, recognizing and accepting the difference, and living in diversity with tolerance and open for new information with every step one makes with a representative of another culture. Above all, despite the fact that there is not an educational discipline as intercultural learning, there are keys that aim at guiding the process of acquisition of proper skills, among them: Confidence and Respect : Building up confidence is a cornerstone of intercultural learning; it is a prerequisite that we feel comfortable to share different viewpoints, perceptions and feelings, to arrive at acceptance and understanding. It requires a lot of patience and sensitivity in order to create such a learning atmosphere which enables us to listen to each other as equals, to empower each individual‘s self-confidence. This means that we need to give space to everybody‘s expression; to value all experiences, talents and contributions; our various needs and expectations. When the big part of what we might share is about values, norms and strong basic assumptions, we will need a lot of confidence in the ones we share with. Mutual trust goes hand in hand with mutual respect, honesty in our sharing. Experiencing Identity: We, as human beings, have our own cultural identity, which means, our own background and experience; and the learning process is achieved through overcoming the obstacles and the barriers stemming for the culture. We have all a personal reality which has shaped us, and we will continue to live there, enriched with new knowledge and experience. That means, in intercultural learning processes, we have to deal constantly with where we come from, what we have lived and encountered. Trying to understand ourselves, our own identity, is a prerequisite to encounter others. Constructed Realities: Nothing is absolute. There are many ways to read and discern reality. Even the representatives of one and the same culture interpret the situations and the circumstances differently; this is true in all its senses: we have seen it both in the verbal and non-verbal communications as well as in basic assumptions such as that of time and space. Consequently, the learning process should be accompanied by some efforts: to respect personal freedom and decision, to accept other views equally and seek the reconciliation of different viewpoints, and to be conscious of our personal responsibility. In Dialogue with the Other Intercultural learning places ―the other‖ at the heart of understanding. It starts through dialogue. Oftentimes it is challenging to perceive your own self and the other as being different yet complementing each other. In this understanding, the other becomes indispensable for a new discovery of the self. The process towards such an intercultural sensitivity implies – understood as a process towards the other – to touch and change our very self. Intercultural learning opens up the chance to identify with the perspective of the other, the respectful experience of attempting to ―walk in each others‘ shoes‖ without pretending to live what the other lives. It can enable us to experience and learn real solidarity, believing in the strength of co-operation. Intercultural learning in this context is as well a way to discover our own capacity for action. And this, again proves the theory of mutuality that we have touched upon in the previous section when speaking of the mutuality of the discovery and learning process in intercultural communication. Questions and Change Therefore, we need to accept that there is not always an answer, but remain in constant search, accepting and welcoming change. Reflecting on it, we will need the capacity to question ourselves. Intercultural education places the other at the center of relations. It encourages a continuous questioning of presuppositions, of things we normally take for granted and encourages a constant opening to the unknown and the not understood. In a process of interaction and mutual discovery every human being can fulfill himself or herself – personally, socially and globally. In the intercultural context, the shame is to avoiding asking questions rather 528 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo than vividly showing that something is new and unknown to the interlocutor; the important thing here is the openness of the latter for new information and perception of the other culture with all its diverse system. Comprehensive Involvement Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behavior in an intensive way. The comprehension of the complexity of this process and all its implications demand a lot from us. Language as element of culture is a central aspect in intercultural communication, and at the same time limited, often a source of misunderstanding. It must thereby not be used as a means of dominance – especially considering different language skills – but can be one tool of communication. All other signs – like body language – have to be equally respected. Since we are fully involved in this kind of learning, we should allow ourselves to be completely part of the processes happening (*see Chapter 2 – Interculturality for a more comprehensive information on the cultural coloring of verbal and non-verbal communication). Potential for Conflict If we see the variety of perceptions different cultures have of time, space, social and personal relations, etc. it will be very probable to suppose the raise of conflicts or uneasy situations in intercultural communication. Hence, we need to develop conflict management skills, while considering the complexity when dealing with the notion of culture. The key factor here is the belief that diversity is helpful and enriching, and it creates ground for new information and joyful learning. Not every conflict has necessarily a solution, but it certainly needs to be expressed. Under the Surface Intercultural learning aims at very deep processes and changes of attitudes and behaviors. It means to deal a good part with the invisible forces and elements of our culture, of our inner self (see: Iceberg Model presented in Chapter 2), many things beneath the ―water surface‖ are unconscious and cannot be expressed clearly. This discovery implies tensions with which we have to deal. It is obviously not easy to accompany people in this process. The most important thing is that we need the courage to go further, to challenge ourselves and others. A Complex Matter in a Complex World Trying to summarize the issues pointed out above, it becomes clear that we need very careful and comprehensive approaches allowing a maximum of discernment. Even culture goes beyond national borders and knows many forms and overlapping. Moreover, the cultures themselves are not homogenous; they are comprised of cultures held by community groups or even individuals. Many perspectives have to be met, tensions have to be considered. It is a challenge to any educational approach not to simplify the variety of reasons and implications present, the different values emphasized, the different realities and histories lived. Intercultural learning approaches need to respect these diverse experiences, interpretations and knowledge and adopt diverse methodologies accordingly. Conclusion The study has shown that culture is neither a homogeneous unit not a static, clear-cut phenomenon; it is a complex system of shared values, behavioral conduct, worldview and treatment that guide the human interaction wherever he/she is involved. It is a system characterized by its dimensions and components which come together as a whole shaping the human individuality and its unity with the community; hence, culture is directly communication-relevant. What we have meant by saying communication-relevant is that the whole communication process, starting with initiating a conversation with a particular person on a particular topic to its effective flow and the final conclusion is determined by the condition of how culturally competent the interlocutors are. The modern world has erased the boundaries between the states and therefore, for any specialist, for any full member of the present-day society, it is far not enough to limit oneself by the genetic cultural competence that is delivered by nature to be able to interact with the ―species‖ of one‘s own culture. One should be able to be as sensitive when talking to a Muslim /if we are allowed to generalize it to this largest scale/ as one would be when talking to a Buddhist; and how can a person possibly do so if he/she does not know that the single movement of the thumb denotes completely different concepts in those cultures, let along the perception of time of positioning; One should never be offended when being avoided to look in the eye and vice versa – to be as direct as holding the hand of someone one has known for less than an hour; One should never predict that the 529 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low-context information that would be easily interpretable by his culture would be as easily digested by a person holding another culture; and finally one should never think that to ask ―How much do you earn‖ is as nonprovocative as it would be in his culture. The study helps to identify why in cultures like Armenian it is more common to see isolation and defense towards something that seems, new, different and why people with monoethnic communities have got the perception of superiority towards other cultures. It has shown that the cultural or intercultural adaptation is a long lasting process, and the degree to which the person would shift from the denial of the foreign culture into accepting it depends on how tolerant and interculturally sensitive the person is. This is all that makes up the subject-matter of intercultural learning. Furtherly, the thesis brought into comparison the different educational settings and drew parallels between the effectiveness of each of them as being structured, half-structured and non-structured. It managed to show that the horizontal relationship between the instructor and the pupil is more effective compared to the vertical relationship when dealing with intercultural learning and capacity development. The diversity of the tools and methodologies offered in the work show that non-formal education, being more dynamic and more adjustable to the specifics and the needs of the particular classroom, offers instructor/trainer/teacher more varieties for being able to reach the learning objective to the most possible extent. The work furtherly showed that being inclusive and entertaining in character, the non-formal education methodologies are more acceptable in the diverse audience. A person would feel more reluctant to identify himself and his opinion when directly asked the question than when it is done through a simulation game; the education and learning process would be more inclusive when the student himself is part of the process through a simulation game on an unknown culture than when having to read and prepare a report on it; the instructor would more easily break the ease of communication between the newly formed group through an icebreaker on the names and the ability to remember those names than when going through the register and identifying each one‘s full name separately. And finally, the study showed that the non-formal learning process is not genuine and perfect in character either; it more difficult to assess in terms of evaluation and in terms of holding the learner accountable for the knowledge he has to acquire. The non-formal education tools presented in the work are designed primarily for developing the intercultural competence and sensitivity; however, they can be adjusted to other learning needs. The latter can be done in accordance with the peculiarities of the audience, the preference of the participants and the instructor and on the resources available at hand. The proposed continuation of the work might be the investigation of intercultural learning on an educational policy level to bring it into the school curricula to be applied directly or in-between the other school subjects. The question that should be raised is whether intercultural learning should be investigated mandatorily a t school or the outdoor and non-structured activities are enough to meet the basic needs. The second question that remains unaddressed as relevant for the Armenian reality is the following: what hiders the spread recognition of both of the non-formal education as a methodology skit and of the achievements one can mark in a non-formal structure in Armenia; what are the steps needed for advocating nonformal learning and its recognition on a state level; why the YouthPass and the like still under the shadow as certificates for competence and knowledge. 530 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCE Allport, G. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact Hypothesis and Ethnic Relations. Psychological Bulletin , pp. 319-342. Baepler, P. (2003). White Slaves, African Masters. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 588(1) , 90-111. Bennet, M. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. Paige. Boas, F. (1907). Anthropology. Boas, F. (1909). Decorative Designs in Alaskan Needlecases: A Study in the History of Conventional Designs Based on Materials in the US National Museum. The University of Chicago Press. Brewer, M. (1996). When Contact is not Enough: Social and Intergroup Cooperation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 291-303. Carron, G., & Carr-Hill, R. (1991). Non-FOrmal Education: Information and Planning Issues. Internaitonal Institute for Educational Planning, Research: UNESCO. Cirigliano, G. (1981). La Educacion Abierta. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. Combs, P. (1973). New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth. New York: International Council for Educational Development. Croft, T., & Crolla, V. e. (2003). Toolkit 8: Social Inclusion. Council of Europe: Department of Youth and Sport. Gaertner, S. D. (1996). Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Induction of a Common in Group Identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 271-290. Haas, M. R. (1944). Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati. Language, Vol. 20, No. 3 , 142-149. Hager, D. (2010). New Problems in Intercultural Education. 30 (4), 162-167. Hal, E. &. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences: Keys to Success in West Germany, France, and the United Sates. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. Harper, D. (2001). Online Etymological Dictionary. Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural Differences in Learning and Teaching. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10 , pp. 301-320. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Humphreys, D. (n.d.). Diversity in College Curriculum: How Colleges and Universities are Preparing Students for a Changing World. Retrieved September 20, 2002, from Diversity Web: http://www.diversityweb.org/leadersguide/DREI/bod.html Jeunesse, Y. F. (2005). Policy Paper on Recognition of Non-FOrmal Education: Confirming the Competences of Young People in the Knowledge Society. Juffer, K. (1985). Researching Culture Shock: The Culture Schock Adoptation Inventory. US Information Agency. Kleis, J. L. ((1973)). Toward a contextual definitionof non-formal education. Non-formal education discussion papers , pp. 3-6. Marginson, S. (2000). Rethinking academic work in the global era. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management (22), pp. 23-25. 531 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mason, D. (n.d.). Culture Shock: A Fish out of Water. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from http://international.ouc.bc.ca/cultureshock/printext.htm McGrew, W. (1998). Culture in Nonhuman Primates. Annual Review of Anthropology , p. 323. Mills, H. G. (1954). Character and Social Structure. London: O.U.P. Mitter, S. (2002). Coyote 6. Strasbourg: Council of Europe: Direcotrate of Youth and Sport: European Youth Cenre, Strasbourg. Otton, M. (2002). Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education. Oullet, F. (1991). L‘Éducation interculturelle: essai sur le contenu de la formation des maîtres. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. Paige, R. (1993). Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press. Rose, C. (2008). Intercultural Learning. British Council, Italy. Ruth, B. (1934). Patterns of Culture. Boston: Houghton Miflin. Smith, D. (1997). Diversity Works: The Emerging Picture of How Students Benefit. Washington, DC: AAC&U. Teekens, H. (2001). Teaching and Learning in the International Classroom. Amsterdam: Nuffic. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Understanding Intercultural Communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company. Tomasello, M. (1999). The Human Adaptation for Culture. Annual Review of Anthropology 28. Tylor, E. (1920). Primitive Culture. London: John Murrain. Tylor, M. (2007). European Portfolio for Youth Leaders and Youth Workers. Council of Europe: Directorate of Youth and Sport. Tylor, W. (1948). A Study of Archeology Memoir 69. American Anthropological Association , 96. UNESCO. (2006). Guidebook for Planning Education in Emergency and Reconstruction. UNESCO. Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 6th Edition. Oxford University Press. Yoshida, R. B. (1994). Intercultural Communication Training: An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA. 532 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 80 Title A name given to the resource Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Author Author Balasanyan, Gurgen Abstract A summary of the resource. The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 990 Title A name given to the resource Intercultural Linguistic Competence and EFL Immersive Environments Author Author Majetic, Senka Abstract A summary of the resource. Currently, we are witnessing a new emphasis on the inseparability of language and culture in the development of policies and programs for the teaching of foreign languages. For language learners, an awareness of the cultural facets of language makes it easier to comprehend the topics and situations they encounter when reading or listening. Exposure to the culture of the people who speak the language being learned also leads to increased understanding and tolerance. There are many excellent sources to help teachers connect culture with the language learning process. For example, to develop an English as a foreign language (EFL) program at our university, we consulted the linguistic communicative benchmarks from the Council of Europe. Additional guidelines are available from the national Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, which provides valuable information on how to help students (1) understand the perspectives of other cultures, (2) compare of others with their own, and (3) use the foreign language outside the school setting. These cultural objectives enhance an EFL program where ″the true content of the foreign language course is not the grammar and the vocabulary of the language, but the cultures expressed through that language″ (National Standards in Foreign Language Education project 2006, 47-48). When developing our program, we felt that literature modules would be a great way to incorporate U.S. and British cultural elements while strengthening English reading abilities. We also recognized that using literature offered the potential to create an interesting multimedia experience and to introduce variety and more extensive exposure to English. Although unabridged literature is typically appropriate for advance learners, there is a renewed interest in integrating graded literary materials such as simplified novels that are written especially for beginning and intermediate level students. Therefore we structured our program around graded literary readers, in this case simplified novels, as well as associated audio recordings, films, and other supplementary texts and exercises. The aim of this article is to describe the implementation and results of two cultural multimedia modules that center on the simplified novels 1984 by George Orwell and Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36d4bc37003f48ff34c37c6473963e88.docx 126b94a9a4c4c5cc0fb9659c03726a1b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0cba5ea81156e71c9b3bc7070bc69e42.pdf 305414e8045e70ec73cdb80226dcede2 PDF Text Text Intercultural Linguistic Competence Development Marie J. Myers Queen's University/ Ontario, Canada Key words: beliefs; intercultural awareness, new implementations ABSTRACT With new developments in applied linguistics, foreign language teacher preparation programs come under a great deal of scrutiny. Teachers have to grasp the different degrees of difficulty and the different amounts of detail involved in acquiring professional know-how and at the same time understand that these have to be balanced accurately across cultures. A number of suggestions have been made for the processing of information in an intercultural context through a step-by-step mental approach . In today's global knowledge economy some parameters take on crucial importance in situational contexts (Gee, 2006; Myers, 2012; Olson, 2004). Developing awareness of self and of how people interact in their native language is a crucial aspect of this approach. In order to enhance comprehensibility, for clearer output on language teaching issues, we have proposed an integrated model derived from two perspectives (looking at linguistic and intercultural aspects) and including a number of processes with a focus on a 'new grammar approach', culture and assessment of intercultural linguistic competence. We investigated teacher endorsement of new implementations through written contributions. Data were collected and analyzed to uncover emergent themes. The findings point to the perceived importance of the following three main topics namely, the new grammar approach based on developments in applied linguistics, a new way to integrate culture knowledge in teaching and the new approach to assessment of linguistic competence. These findings will be discussed in light of the literature and contextual elements. The results indicate that these new implementations required a change in beliefs. Overall we found that the students in the courses put on 'new lenses' and most of them accommodated in their mind's eye. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1847 Title A name given to the resource Intercultural Linguistic Competence Development Author Author MYERS, Marie J. Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: beliefs; intercultural awareness, new implementations ABSTRACT With new developments in applied linguistics, foreign language teacher preparation programs come under a great deal of scrutiny. Teachers have to grasp the different degrees of difficulty and the different amounts of detail involved in acquiring professional know-how and at the same time understand that these have to be balanced accurately across cultures. A number of suggestions have been made for the processing of information in an intercultural context through a step-by-step mental approach . In today's global knowledge economy some parameters take on crucial importance in situational contexts (Gee, 2006; Myers, 2012; Olson, 2004). Developing awareness of self and of how people interact in their native language is a crucial aspect of this approach. In order to enhance comprehensibility, for clearer output on language teaching issues, we have proposed an integrated model derived from two perspectives (looking at linguistic and intercultural aspects) and including a number of processes with a focus on a 'new grammar approach', culture and assessment of intercultural linguistic competence. We investigated teacher endorsement of new implementations through written contributions. Data were collected and analyzed to uncover emergent themes. The findings point to the perceived importance of the following three main topics namely, the new grammar approach based on developments in applied linguistics, a new way to integrate culture knowledge in teaching and the new approach to assessment of linguistic competence. These findings will be discussed in light of the literature and contextual elements. The results indicate that these new implementations required a change in beliefs. Overall we found that the students in the courses put on 'new lenses' and most of them accommodated in their mind's eye. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 894 Title A name given to the resource Interculturalism in Croatian Language Classroom Author Author Cvikic, Lidija Abstract A summary of the resource. Important goals of a modern language classroom are development of intercultural competence and sensitivity to other cultures (CEF 2001). The majority of research about multiculturalism/intercultural competence in language teaching and learning has been undertaken in a foreign language classroom (e.g. Goebbel, Helmke 2011, Byram & Feng 2006), since that is the place where the "other " culture is most often encountered. Therefore today intercultural education is an integral part of programs for educating foreign language teachers. However, the question is whether interculturalism is/ should be a part of a mother language classroom and what are mother language teachers' experiences with interculturalism and intercultural pedagogy. This paper deals with attitudes and believes that mother language teachers in Croatia have about interculturalism. Even though Croatia is perceived as a culturally and linguistically homogenous country with 96% of its population speaking Croatian as a L1 (www.dzs.hr), the reality is very different. Some regions and communities in Croatia are ethnically and linguistically more diverse than the others. Also, there is a growing number of immigrants, i.e. foreigners in Croatian big cities. This results with the fact that Croatian classrooms are not any more monocultural and monolingual (Jealska & Cvikic 2009, Kuvac & Cvikic 2004), and interculturalism is recognized and emphasized as a special value in Croatian National Curriculum as well. On the bases on research conducted among teachers in Croatian primary schools and student teachers, this paper will answer following questions: How well are Croatian teachers prepared to work in multicultural settings? What are teachers' believes and attitudes toward interculturalism? Do they integrate intercultural content in their teaching and how? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9dfb9435d439330b602628ab5a8246dd.docx 70daf06e8484e25e8ef230bcd98902d8 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1f964ac4df0a8e16af8b17f64486d0c0.pdf 27fac6e5388daf5e6e9f362429cc379f PDF Text Text IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD UDK 332.14 Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Prof. dr. Jasmina Osmanković Ekonomski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Email: jasmina.osmankovic@efsa.unsa.ba Doc. dr. Jasmin Hošo Ekonomski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Mr. Marijana Galić Federalni zavod za programiranje razvoja Sažetak: Regionalna nauka, kao što je poznato, kreira teorijski okvir za definiranje regija, regionalizaciju, regionalni razvoj i politiku regionalnog razvoja. S obzirom na ograničeni prostor, osnovni cilj rada je naznačavanje, s jedne strane, interesa, mjerenog brojem objavljenih radova u nekim relevantnim bazama, za regionalizaciju, kao i za specifične subteme: administrativnu regionalizaciju, statističku regionalizaciju, euroregije, evropske makroregije, a s druge strane, naznačavanje nekih osnovnih odrednica bosanskohercegovačke stvarnosti u vezi sa ovim temama. Kada je riječ o vremenskom okviru onda je to period posljednjih četvrt stoljeća. Dužina vremenske serije determinirana je konkretnom temom. Osnovna metoda je historijska i deskriptivna, kronološko izlaganje, kao i analiza vremenskih serija. Rad, pored uvoda i zaključka, sadrži teorijski okvir, rezultate pretraživanja relevantnih baza i osnovne informacije vezano za specifična pitanja regionalizacije Bosne i Hercegovine. Sastavni dio rada je popis korištenih izvora. Rad sadrži šest slika, 87 fusnota i referira se na 41 izvor, kao i 53 linka. Ključne riječi: teorija, regionalizacija, administrativne regije, statističke regije, euroregije, evropske makroregije, ScineceDirect, baze 671 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić UVOD Da li „bogatstvo naroda“ zavisi od regionalizacije? 1 Da li regionalizacija i regionalna kooperacija mogu osigurati „kraj siromaštva“ 2? Da li je regionalizacija „mogućnost našeg doba“ da se reducira i/ili eliminira siromaštvo? Raste li značaj regionalizacije u „doba neizvjesnosti“, u doba krize? 3 U kakvom odnosu je regionalizacija sa „moći i razvojem“? 4 Kako i koliko regionalizacija utječe na to „kako se zemlje natječu“? 5 Kakva je veza između regionalizacije i slobode, regionalizacije i mogućnosti funkcioniranja 6? Da li su i koliko teme; regionalizacija, administrativne regije, statističke regije, ekonomske regije, evropskih makoregije predmet istraživanja i publiciranja? S obzirom na ograničeni prostor, fokus je na nekoliko poznatih, standardnih, često korištenih, ali i relevantnih baza. Riječ je o bazama koje pomažu da se dobije uvid koliko je određeni pojam, problem, rješenje prisutan u ukupnoj javnosti, u institucijama koje reprezentiraju politiku, ali i u akademskim krugovima. Istovremeno će se za svaku od ovih tema ili subtema, u najosnovnijem, dati osvrt na Bosnu i Hercegovinu. Bosna i Hercegovina je bila predmet administrativne, političke, ekspertne, ekonomske, statističke regionalizacije. Bosna i Hercegovina u cjelini ili njeni dijelovi participirali su u formiranju teritorija prekogranične suradnje, euroregija, evropskih makroregija, kao i specifičnih regionalnih cjelina. Pored toga, regionalizacija Bosna i Hercegovina je tema političkih partija i sadržaj njihovih programa, tema evropskih i drugih eksperata, naučnih radova, saopćenja, diplomskih, master i doktorskih radnji, strategija, prostornih planova i strateških razvojnih dokumenata, javnih, akademskih i političkih debata. Interes i izazov Temeljna pitanja su da li je regionalizacija uzrok ili posljedica toga da se neki regioni razvijaju brže nego drugi, da su značajne razlike u nivou socijalnog, ekonomskog i ukupnog blagostanja regiona 7. Ovo pitanje je aktualno i u Bosni i Hercegovini. To vodi ka narednom pitanju: Šta je region? U odgovoru na ovo pitanje može se podsjetiti na neke pristupe definiranju regiona. koje izdvaja Dawkins 89. Odgovor na postavljane pitanja determinira teorija regionalnog ekonomskog razvoja, koje se temelje na nekoliko različitih intelektualnih Smith, A. (1952) Bogatstvo naroda, Kultura Beograd, Beograd Sachs, J. (2007) Kraj siromaštva – ekonomske mogućnosti našg doba, ALGORITAM Zagreb, Zagreb 3 Gablbraith, K. J. (1977) Doba neizvjesnosti, Stavrnost Zagreb, Zagreb; Soros, G. (1999) Kriza globalnog kapitalizma, RABIC, Sarajevo 4 Olson, M. (2002) Moć i razvoj, Stubovi kulture Beograd, Beograd 5 Vietor, K. H. R. (2010) Kako se zemlje natječu – strategija, struktura i državno upravljanje u globalnoj ekonomiji, Harvard Business School Press, MATE Zagreb, Zagreb 6 Sen, A. (2002) Razvoj kao sloboda, Filip Višnjić Beograd, Beograd 7 Barbić, J. (2010) Nova hrvatska lokalna i regionalna samouprava, HAZU, Zagreb 8 Dawkins, I. C. (2013) Regional Development Theory: Conceptual Foundations, Classic Works, and Recent Development, 370, Journal of Planning Literature, str.131-172 9 Armstrong H. i Taylor, J. (2000) Regional Economics and Policy, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1 2 672 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije tradicija. Prema Dawkins sve se mogu sistematizirati u dvije grupe. Prvu grupu čine teorije utemeljene na teoriji regionalnog ekonomskog razvoja, i to: preciznije na hipotezi interegionalne konvergencije, teoriji lokacije 10, eksternoj ekonomiji, modelu prostorne kompeticije i teoriji centralnog mjesta. Drugu grupu čine alternativne teorije regionalnog ekonomskog razvoja, i to: teorije konvergencije, teorije regionalne ekonomske divergencije, strukturalne teorije, institucionalne teorije, neoklasične teorije. 11 Za razumijevanje regije i regionalizacija u Bosni i Hercegovini posebno je bitna teorija polova razvoja, novi i alternativni pristupi, osnovni i izvedeni modeli nove ekonomske geografije Krugmana 12. Pretraga pojma „regionalizacija Bosne i Hercegovine“ na „googlu“ nudi oko 8500 13, a ukoliko filtriramo prema kriteriju „točno navedene riječi“ nudi se oko 900 14 rezultata. Na „google scholar“ pretraživanje pojma „regionalizacija Bosne i Hercegovine“ rezultira sa 590 15 naslova. Na istoj stranici 16 može se pristupiti 1370 naslova na temu „regionalizacija“, a 95200 naslova ako je ključna riječ „regionalization“ 17, 2540 radova ako su ključne riječi „regionalization Bosnia and Herzegovina“ 18. Pretraživanje teorijskih, empirijskih i drugih radova na temu regionalizacije nudi ogroman broj rezultata. Samo pretraživanje baze Svjetske banke za ključne riječi „regionalization of Bosnia and Herzegovina“ nudi 29 rezultata 19, a pretraživanje po ključnoj riječi „regionalization“ 490 rezultata 20 Pretraživanje e-library Svjetske banke nudi 46 rezultata 21 Pretraživanja baza Ujedinjenih naroda nudi 35 rezultata za Krešić, I. (1977) Prostorna ekonomija – osnove teorije lokacije, razmještaja i organizacije u prostoru, Informator, Zagreb 11 Dawkins, I. C. (2013) Regional Development Theory: Conceptual Foundations, Classic Works, and Recent Development, 370, Journal of Planning Literature, str.131-172 12 Bogunović, A. (2011) Regionalna ekonomika i politika, Ekonomski fakultet Zagreb, Zagreb; Bogunović, A. (2001) Ekonomske integracije i regionalna politika, WTO, NAFTA, Univerzitet u zagrebu, Zagreb; Dawkins, I. C. (2013) Regional Development Theory: Conceptual Foundations, Classic Works, and Recent Development, 370, Journal of Planning Literature, str.131-172; North, C. D. (2003) Institucije, institucionalna promjena i ekonomska uspješnost, MASMEDIA Zagreb, Zagreb 13 https://www.google.ba/?gws_rd=cr&ei=1YJGU9W8FsKAtAbQn4A4# q=regionalizacija+Bosne+i+Hercegovine 14 https://www.google.ba/search?hl=hr&as_q=regionalizacija+Bosne+i+Hercegovine &as_epq=regionalizacija+Bosne +i+ Hercegovine&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_nlo=&as_nhi=&lr=&cr=&as_qdr=all&as_sitesearch =&as_occt=any&safe=images&as_filetype=&as_rights= 15 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Regionalizacija+Bosne+i+Hercegovine &btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C5&as_sdtp= 16 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Regionalizacija+&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5 17 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=regionalization&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5 18 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=regionalization+bosnia+and+ herezgovina&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5 19 http://search.worldbank.org/all?qterm=regionalization+Bosnia+and+Herzegovina 20 http://search.worldbank.org/all?qterm=regionalization+&title=&filetype= 21 http://elibrary.worldbank.org/action/doSearch?AllField=regionalization+Bosnia+and+Herzegovina 10 673 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić ključne riječi „regionalization Bosnia and Herzegovina“ 22, a 644 rezultata za ključnu riječ „regionalization“ 23 Pretraživanje oficijelne stranice Evropske unije nudi preko 2100 rezultata za upit „regionalization Bosnia and Herzegovina“ 24, a preko 69250 rezultata za upit „regionalization“ 25 Od ovog broja skoro 10.000 rezultata je vezano za ekonomiju, financije i investicije. Pretraživanje Springerove web stranice 26 za ključni pojam regionalization“ rezultira sa oko 8700 naslova, od toga oko 1340 u oblasti ekonomije 27 28 Preko 300 radova koji su se bavili regionalizacijom pripada regionalnoj nauci, kao subdisciplini. Ostali radovi pripadaju međunarodnoj ekonomiji (273), okolišu (250), geografiji (244) i politici (226) 29 ScineceDirect sadrži preko 12,5 miliona naučnih radova iz svih oblasti 30. Oko 11.559 radova se bavi regionalizacijom 31 U periodu do 1995. objavljena su 2532 rada, a od 1996. oko devet hiljada radova 32. http://search.un.org/search?ie=utf8&site=un_org&output=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_ Website_en&num=10&lr=lang_ en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe=utf8& q=regionalization+Bosnia+and+Herzegovina&Submit=Go 23 http://search.un.org/search?q=regionalization+&btnG=Search+UN+Website&outpu t=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_ ebsite_en&num=10&lr=lang_en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe =UTF-8&ie=UTF-8&Submit=Go&ulang= hr&sort=date%3AD%3AL%3Ad1&entqrm=0&ud=1&exclude_apps=1&site=un_org 24 http://europa.eu/geninfo/query/resultaction.jsp?SMODE=2&ResultCount =10&Collection=EuropaFull&Collection=Europa SL&Collection=EuropaPR&ResultMaxDocs=200&qtype=simple&DefaultLG=en&ResultTemplate= %2Fresult_en.jsp&page=1&QueryText=regionalization+Bosnia+and+Herzegovina&y=0&x=0 25 http://europa.eu/geninfo/query/resultaction.jsp?SMODE=2&ResultCount=10&Collection =EuropaFull&Collection= EuropaSL&Collection=EuropaPR&ResultMaxDocs=200&qtype=simple&DefaultLG=en&ResultTem plate=%2Fresult_en.jsp&page=1&QueryText=regionalization+Bosnia+and+Herzegovina&y=0&x=0#q ueryText=regionalization+&tab=europa 26 Baza koja sadrži preko osam miliona naslova, od toga preko pet miliona članaka (radova). Ova stranica osigurava pristup milionima naučnih dokumenata (knjiga, radova, protokola, časopisa, itd) http://link.springer.com/ 27 http://link.springer.com/search?query=regionalization&facet-discipline=%22Economics%22 28 Elektronska baza podataka koja obuhvata preko 8.000.000 u punom tekstu iz skoro svih naučnih oblasti – period 1997 - 2007. Sadrži oko 3000 časopisa od kojih su preko 2000 peer-reviewed časopisi. Izdavač je Elsevier, jedan od najpoznatijih svjetskih izdavača. http://www.efsa.unsa.ba/bic/ba/bazepodataka 29 http://link.springer.com/search?facetdiscipline=%22Economics%22&query=regionalization&sortOrder=newestFirst 30 http://www.sciencedirect.com/ 31 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557177250&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=1583c7b1c754498ec07d5afd82bcda46&searchtype=a 32 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557177250&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=1583c7b1c754498ec07d5afd82bcda46&searchtype=a 22 674 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Slika 1: Broj rezultata u ScienceDirect za ključnu riječ „regionalization“1996-2013. Izvor: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557177250&_ sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1297551 2&md5=1583c7b1c754498ec07d5afd82bcda46&searchtype=a Gornji podaci potvrđuju rastući interes za regionalizaciju. Godišnja produkcija radova je varirala od 224 u 1996. do 833 rada u 2013. Samo u prvim mjesecima 2014. u ovoj bazi publicirano je preko 400 naslova. Broj radova dokazuje interes, aktualnost teme, ali ne nudi jednoznačan odgovor na osnovno pitanje ovog rada da li je regionalizacija generator problema, da li kontinuirano bavljenje ovom temom onemogućava da se uoče stvarni problemi i energija, znanje, sredstva usmjere na njihovo rješavanje i/ili da li postoji neka „optimalna“ regionalizacija koja će biti rješenje svih, između ostalog, i bosanskohercegovačkih razvojnih i drugih problema. 675 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić Administrativna regionalizacija bila je tema skoro 84500 radova u ScienceDirect bazi. 33 Interes za ovu temu kontinuirano raste. U periodu do 1995. objavljeno je 19345 naslova, a u periodu nakon toga skoro 65300 naslova ili 3,4 puta više. Ako se analizira publiciranje na godišnjem nivou broj publiciranih radova raste sa 1387 rada u 1996. na 7847 rada u 2013. (5,7 puta više). U prvim mjesecima 2014. već je objavljeno oko 3850 radova, a za 2015. najavljena četiri rada. Administrativno uređenje Bosne i Hercegovine temelji se na Dejtonskom mirovnom sporazumu 34. Država je uređena kao dva entiteta i distrikt Brčko 35. U okviru Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine 36, kao jednog od dva entiteta, formirano je deset kantona. Na teritoriji ovih deset kantona 37 djeluju 74 općine. Drugi entitet, Republika Srpska čine 64 jedinice lokalne samouprave 3839. Pored općina, jedinice lokalne samouprave su i četiri grada, i to grad Sarajevo, glavni grad Bosne i Hercegovine, zatim gradovi Banjaluka, Mostar i Istočno Sarajevo 40. Prema tome, temeljem mirovnog sporazuma, respektiranja zatečenog stanja na terenu i u funkciji zaustavljanja rata, određeni broj osnovnih teritorijalnih jedinica oblikovanih stoljećima je podijeljen. 41 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557195866&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=d9455d1526439eb0366cfd5fc53b2274&searchtype=a 34 Dokument iz novembra 1995 http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/peace/BoH%2019951121.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Agreement; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Agreement 35 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C4%8Dko_District 36 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Agreement; http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/washagree_0301199 4.pdf; http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/peace/BoH%2019940301.pdf 37 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantons_of_the_Federation_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina 38 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities_of_Republika_Srpska 39 Zakon o lokalnoj samoupravi http://www.vladars.net/sr-SPCyrl/Vlada/Ministarstva/muls/Documents/%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%20 %D0%BE%20%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98% 20%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0 %B8%20%D1%81%D0%BB.%20%D0%B3%D0%BB.%20101%2004%20%2042%2005%20118 %2005%20%2098%2013.pdf 40 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina 41 Više vidjeti radovi Osmanković, Pejanović, Galić, Gušić, Sadiković, Halilbašić, Trnka, Bublin i drugi u periodu 1996-2013. 33 676 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Slika 2: Broj rezultat u ScienceDirect za ključnu riječ „administrative region“ 1996-2013. Broj radova na temu "s dminis trativni region" u ScienceDirect u periodu 1996-2013. 20 12 20 10 20 08 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Izvor: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557195866&_ sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1297551 2&md5=d9455d1526439eb0366cfd5fc53b2274&searchtype=a Efikasnost administrativne teritorijalne organizacije je bila predmet brojnih analiza, istraživanja, propitivanja javnosti, akademskih krugova, domaćih i međunarodnih eksperata 42. U najkraćem došlo se do sljedećih zaključka. Prvi zaključak je da je administrativna organizacija u cjelini neefikasna, da je skupa, da je neracionalna, da nije fleksibilna, da angažira previše budžetskih sredstava, da nije ekonomski i demografski održiva 43, da nema potreban kapacitet da apsorbira tehničku pomoć, programe i fondove Evropske unije, ali i drugih bilateralnih i multilateralnih partnera, da je prepreka ekonomskom i ukupnom razvoju, da je prepreka u procesu integriranja Bosne i Hercegovine u Evropsku Uniju 44 45 46. Drugi zaključak, ove ocjene vrijede samo za jedan entitet Bosne i Stavovi Vlade Bosne I Hercegovine o teritorijalnoj organizaciji, Sarajevo, 1992. Preuzeto sa: http://www.slobodanpraljak.com/ MATERIJALI/RATNI%20DOKUMENTI/PLANOVI_SPORAZUMi_IZJAVE_O_USTAVNOMUSTROJSTVU_BiH_1991_ 1995 /60.pdf; Stavovi Naše stranke o teritorijalnoj organizaciji, Sarajevo, 2012.http://www.radiosarajevo.ba/novost/83679#; Pavić, V. (2010) Veličina lokalnih jedinica – europske tendencije I hrvatske nedoumice. http://www.iju.hr/HJU/HJU/preuzimanje _ files /20101%2005%20Pavic.pdf; Koprić, I. (2010) Karakteristike sustava lokalne samouprave u Hrvatskoj, Hrvatska javna uprava, Zagreb, http://www.iju.hr/HJU/HJU/preuzimanje_files/20102%2004%20Kopric.pdf 43 http://www.hercegovina.info/vijesti/vijesti/bih/novo-uredjenje-fbih-ili-bankrot 44 Brnjas, Z. Regionalizacija jedinica lokalne samouprave http://zlatkobrnjas.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/5-regionalizacija-jedinca-lokalne-samouprave-rh.pdf; 42 677 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić Hercegovine 47 48 49 50 51 52. Treći zaključak, administrativna regionalizacija je „lažni“ „prividni“ problem 53. Stvarni problem je nepostojanje konsenzusa o temeljnim vrijednostima, o onome što je sadržaj, suština regionalnog razvoja, a ne njegova forma. 54 55 Četvrti zaključak, ono što je stvarno bitno je mogućnost funkcioniranja regija kao rezultata administrativne regionalizacije, regija kao okvira za poboljšavanje života koji živimo i sloboda koje uživamo 56 Lukić, S (2014) 99 gradova koje treba odmah ukinuti http://globus.jutarnji.hr/hrvatska/99-gradovakoje-treba-odmah-ukinuti 45 Anon. (2008) Administracija i državne službe u 27 država članica EU http://suk.gov.rs/dotAsset/12238.pdf 46 Trnka, K et al. (2013) Ustavne promjene Federacije BiH, Sarajevo, http://bljesak.info/rubrika/vijesti/clanak/pripremljeno-188-preporuka-za-reformu-ustava-federacijebih/8427 47 Rodić, R. (2008) Kreiranje i uvođenje novog modela raspolaganja I vlasništva nad lokalnim resursima u BiH, Ekonomski institut Banjaluka, http://www.ekinst.org/cms/upload/1.%20Kreiranje%20i%20uvodjenje%20modela% 20raspolaganja %20i% 20vlasnistva%20nad%20lokalnim%20resursima%20u%20BiH.pdf Mijačić, D. (2012) Regionalizacija, regionalizam i regionalni razvoj u RS, http://www.lokalnirazvoj.org/upload/Book/Document/2012_06/Inter_Newsletter_1.pdf 48 Trnka, K. (2013) Specifičnost ustavnog uređenja BiH. Reviza za ustavnu reformu i filozifiju prava, http://revus.revues.org/ 110 49 K+Trnka, K. (2014) Kako preurediti Federaciju BiH? http://forum.avaz.ba/showthread.php?4855Kako-preurediti-FBiH 50 http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/reakcije-izjave-o-ukidanju-kantona-i-fbihneodgovorne/25087540.html; http://dalje.com/hr-svijet/zubak--u-federaciji-bih-je-najbolje-donijetinovi-ustav/475820; http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/ content/reakcije-izjave-o-ukidanju-kantona-ifbih-neodgovorne/25087540.html; http://www.hrsvijet.net/index.php?option=com _content&view=article&id=25995:kolumna-mio-relota-cilj-reforme-federacije-bih-je-legitimiranjedominacije-bonjaka-&catid=58:mio-relota&Itemid=336 51 http://www.oslobodjenje.ba/vijesti/bih/mile-lasic-ili-ce-politicari-prihvatiti-prijedlog-za-reformu-fbihili-ce-ih-pomesti-nemiri52 Trnka, K. (2010) Federacija BiH Paralelna kriza http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/balkans/bosniaherzegovina/209%20Federation%20of%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina%20%20A%20Parallel%20Crisis%20BOSNIAN.pdf 53 Smić, M. et al. (2007) Efikasan opštinski menadžer, Centar za slobodne izbore i demokratiju, Beograd, http://cesid.org/images/ Efikasan % 20op%C5%A1tinski%20menad%C5%BEer.pdf 54 Sadiković, E. (2014) Federalizacija BiH rješenje za BiH ili korak ka njenoj dezintegraciji, http://www.magazinplus.eu/clanak/ doc-dr- elmir-sadikovic-federalizacija-rjesenje-za-bosnu-ihercegovinu-ili-korak-ka-njenoj-dezintegraciji/ 55 http://www.nasastranka.ba/en/projekcija-ustava-bih 56 Draganić, A. et al (2006) Strateški plan razvoja lokalne samouprave u BiH, Savez gradova i općina, Banjaluka, http://www.sogfbih.ba/uploaded/download/Strateski%20plan%20razvoja%20lokalne%20samouprave %20u%20BiH.pdf 678 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije . Sloboda izbora i kontrola nad vlastitim razvojem je suštinski aspekt ekonomske, socijalne i svake druge održivosti administrativne regionalizacije. 58 59 57 U periodu od 70-ih godina prošlog stoljeća radilo se na formiranju koherentnog i jedinstvenog teritorijalnog okvira za prikupljanje i kompiliranje statističkih podataka, kao osnove za kreiranje strategija, planova i politika. U tom procesu oblikovanja statističke regionalizacije ili teritorijalnih jedinica za potrebe statistike mogu se uočiti i analizirati promjene u sljedećim periodima: 1995-99; 1999-2003; 2003-2006; 2006-2010 i dalje. 60 Statistika regionalizacija Bosna i Hercegovine u skladu sa ciljevima, principima, načelima i kriterijima EUROSTAT-a i iskustvima zemalja koje su definirale statističke regije je jedna od obaveza koju je Bosna i Hercegovina preuzela potpisivanjem Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju i koju do sada nije ispunila. 61 I drugim zemljama je trebalo dosta vremena da pronađu optimalno rješenje regionalizacije za potrebe statistike 62 63 64. Na listi EUROSTAT-a trenutno se nalazi 98 NUTS-1, 272 NUTS-2 i 1315 NUTS-3 regiona 65 66 Statistička regionalizacija 67 je trebala biti rješenje i kvalitetna statistička osnova za kreiranje strategija, politika, pristupanje euroregijama, fondovima i programima. Međutim, trenutno je statistička regionalizacija više problem, jer diskusija u akademskim, politički, javnim, stručnim krugovima vezano za ovu, na prvi pogledu, stručnu temu ne nudi odgovor nego otvara brojna nova i stara pitanja. Kriteriji i principi, kao i iskustva mogu biti od koristi u traženju rješenja, ali treba imati u vidu je uočeno signifikantno odstupanje od kriterija, posebno kriterija demografske veličine, i u starim i u novim članicama kod oblikovanja Blažić, (2014) Ni općine koje imamo ne rade, a komali nove http://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/blazic-niopstine-koje-imamo-ne-rade-a-kamoli-nove-clanak-187213 58 Sen, A. (2002) Razvoj kao sloboda, Filip Višnjić, Beograd; Todaro, P. M. i Smith, C. S. (2006) Ekonomski razvoj, Šahinpašić Sarajevo, Sarajevo 59 Radić Milosavljević, I. (2012) Tipične nadležnosti regiona: evropska iskustva, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1009&context=ivana_radicmilosavljevic 60 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/history_nuts 61 Osmanković et al. (2009) Statistička (NUTS) regionalizacija Bosne i Hercegovine, Ekonomski institut Sarajevo, Odbor za ekonomske nauke Akademije nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo 62 Hadžović, D. i Hodović, M. (2012) Kako do podjele BiH na statističke regije? Policy Brief Centar za sigurnosne studije, Sarajevo 63 Lilić, S. et al. (2009) Evropski dokumenti o regionalnoj autonomiji, Zaječar, http://www.raris.org/download/regionalizacija /Regionalizacija_brosura-srpski.pdf 64 Zaključci Vijeća Ministara o statističkim teritorijalnim jedinicama (2012) http://www.vijeceministara.gov.ba/saopstenja /sjednice/zakljucci_sa_sjednica/default.aspx?id=13252&langTag=hr-HR 65 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/introduction 66 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Glossary:NUTS 67 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/index.cfm?TargetUrl=DSP_PUB_WELC 57 679 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić statističkih regija na drugom i trećem nivou 68. U traženju rješenja korisna bi mogla biti analiza iskustava zemalja članica EU 69 i zemalja ne članica EU 70. Pretraživanje ključne riječi „statistics regions“ u ScienceDirect bazi rezultatira sa 521220 naslova 71 U periodu do 1995. objavljeno je preko 117 hiljada radova, a u periodu poslije 1995. preko 404 hiljade publikacije ili oko 3,5 puta više. Analiza perioda pokazuje tendenciju rasta. Maksimalan interes je evidentiran u 2013. (preko 45 hiljada radova). 72 Slika 3: Broj rezultata u ScienceDirect za ključna riječ „statistical region“ 1996-2013. Broj publiciranih radova u ScienceDirect u periodu 19962013. kljucna rijec s tatis tical region 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 20 13 20 11 20 09 20 07 20 05 20 03 20 01 19 99 19 97 19 95 0 Izvor: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557218899 &_sort=&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12975 512&md5=487a4d52a 0b4ccae3fdaa1255b3da1da&searchtype=a 68 Više vidjeti radovi Osmanković et al u periodu 2000-2010. 69 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/correspondence_tables/national _structures_eu 70 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/correspondence_tables/national _structures_non_eu 71 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557218899&_sort=r&_st=13 &view=c& _acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12975512&md5=487a4d52a0b4ccae3fdaa 1255b3da1 da&searchtype=a 72 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557218899&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=487a4d52a0b4ccae3fdaa1255b3da1da&searchtype=a 680 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Evropa koristi pojam euroregion da označi institucionaliziranu transnacionalnu prekogranični kooperaciju regija ili dijelova teritorije dvije ili više zemalja 73. Kao što se može vidjeti, interes za formiranje euroregiona mjeren brojem formiranih regiona po godinama je oscilirao (ukupno 97). Maksimum je bio u 1998. kada je utemeljeno devet euroregiona. Bosna i Hercegovina participira u sljedećim euroregionima: Dunav-Drava-Sava od 1998. 74 75, Drina-Sava-Majevica (Bosna i Hercegovina, Hrvatska i Srbija) od 2003., Jadranska euroregija od 2006 (Albanija, BiH, Hrvatska, Italija, Crna gora i Slovenija). 76 Prema Regulativi od 1082/2006 postoji mogućnost formiranja The European Grouping for Territorial Cooperation (EGTC), koje imaju obavezno skupštinu i direktora 77. Od 1985. postojala je mogućnost formiranja (EEIG) European Economic Interest Grouping (Regulacija 2137/85) 78 Slika 4: Pregled euroregiona forimiranih u periodu 1958-2010. Broj euroregioni po godini gormiranja 1958-2010 20 09 20 06 20 03 20 00 19 97 19 94 19 91 19 87 19 78 19 73 19 58 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Izvor: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Euroregions . za jedan euroregion nedostaje podatak o godini formiranja Euroregion, kao ključna riječ u ScienceDirect 79 javlja se 60 puta. Radovi su nastali u periodu od 1992. Produkcija radova na ovu temu je oscilirala, ali pokazuje tendenciju rasta. 80 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroregion http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroregija_Dunav-Drava-Sava 75 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Euroregions Na posljednjoj listi ne nalazi se euregion DunavSava-Drava 73 74 76 http://www.adriaticionianeuroregion.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=68&Itemid =53&lang=hr 77 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Grouping_for_Territorial_Cooperation 78 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_economic_interest_grouping 79 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557189321&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=c8df4175b88abbf51c09b861beafc486&searchtype=a 681 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić Slika 5: Broj rezultata u ScineceDirect za ključnu riječ „euroregia“ 1992-2013. Broj radova u SCD 1992-2013 " euorregion" 20 12 20 10 20 08 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 19 94 19 92 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Izvor: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557189321&_ sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1297551 2&md5=c8df4175b88abbf51c09b861beafc486&searchtype=a U istoj bazi objavljena su 134 rada gdje je ključna riječ makoregion 81 Do 1992. objavljen je 41 rad, a poslije 93 rada ili 2,3 puta više. Interes za ovu temu oscilira, ali sa trendom rasta. Maksimalan interes, mjeren brojem publiciranih radova, je bio u 2011. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557189321&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12 975512&md5=c8df4175b88abbf51c09b861beafc486&searchtype=a 81 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557206860&_sort=r&_st =13 &view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=12975512&md5=b6d0f03f396 940256945ca9ec6801f20&searchtype=a 80 682 �Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Slika 6: Broj rezultata u ScineceDirect za ključu niječ „macroregion“ 1992-2013. Broj objavljenih radovi u ScienceDirect 1993-2013. Macroregion 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 20 11 20 09 20 07 20 05 20 03 20 01 19 99 19 97 19 95 19 93 0 Izvor: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=557206860&_ sort=r&_st=13&view=c&_acct=C000228598&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1297551 2&md5=b6d0f03f396940256945ca9ec6801f20&searchtype=a Na nivou Evrope formirane su četiri makroregije za potrebe strateškog planiranja i koordinacije politika, fondova i programa, i to: Baltička, Dunavska, Alpska i Jadranskojonska 82. Bosna i Hercegovina je član dvije evropske makroregije Dunavske 83 i Jadranskojonske 84 Članovi Dunavske makoregije su: Njemačka, Austrija, Mađarska, Češka, Slovačka, Slovenia, Bugarska, Rumunija i Hrvatska. Bosna i Hercegovina je zajedno sa Srbijom i Crnom gorom pridruženi član, a zemlje susjedi su Moldova i Ukraina. To je prostor sa oko 115 miliona stanovnika. 85 Formiranje makroregije trebalo bi osigurati sljedeće koristi, i to: brži i čistiji transport, jeftiniju i sigurniju energiju, kvalitetniji okoliš, prosperitet, turističku i kulturnu atraktivnost makroregije, sigurnost. Kao prioritetna područja za unaprjeđenje identificirani su: transport, energija, okoliš, socio-ekonomski razvoja i sigurnost. Rješavanje mnogih problema ove makoregije pokriveno je politikama Evropske unije, kao i benefitima po osnovu kooperacije. Jadransko-jonsku makoregiju čine četiri zemlje članice Evropske unije: Hrvatska, Grčka, Italija i Slovenia, kao i još četiri zemlje Albania, Bosna i Hercegovina, Crna gora i Srbija. Osnovni ciljevi strategije ove makroregije su da promovira održivi ekonomski i socijalni prosperitet regije kroz rast i kreiranje radnih mjesta, unaprjeđenje atraktivnosti, kompetitivnosti i povezanosti, kao i kroz zaštitu okoliša 86. Za Bosnu i Hercegovinu može biti ili morala bi biti i relevantna Strategija Jugoistočne Evrope do 2020. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/cooperate/macro_region_strategy/index_en.cfm http://www.danube-region.eu/ 84 http://www.interact-eu.net/macro_regional_strategies/macro_regional_strategies/283/3921 85 http://www.danube-region.eu/about/the-danube-region 86 http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/sea_basins/adriatic_ionian /documents/com_2012_713_en.pdf 82 83 683 �Jasmina Osmanković, Jasmin Hošo, Marijana Galić Vijeća za regionalnu kooperaciju (RCC), kao i EU2020 87 Strateški ciljevi razvoja Jugoistočne Evrope su da se poboljšaju uvjeti života u regionu, podigne kompetitivnost i razvoj slijedeći strategiju Evropa 2020. Prema tome, Bosna i Hercegovina je dio nadnacionalnih evropskih makoregija i teritorijalnih integracija, koje su definirale strategije razvoja do 2020. Bosna i Hercegovina u vezi sa ostvarivanjem ovih strategija ima određene obaveze, ali i mogućnosti, odnosno šanse. ZAKLJUČAK Interes, mjeren brojem publiciranih radova u analiziranim naučnim bazama, kao i bazama međunarodnih institucija pokazuje kontinuirani rast broja radova kod kojih se kao ključna riječ identificira regionalizacije, ali i određene specifične regije: administrativna, statistička, euroregija i evropska makoregija. Ukupna produkcija u periodu nakon 1990. znatno je veća od produkcije u prethodnom periodu. Broj objavljenih radova u analiziranom periodu od 1992. odnosno 1995. do 2013. za najveći broj analiziranih pojmova iz godine u godinu raste. I u slučaju kada postoje određene oscilacije, analiza pokazuje trend rasta. Prema tome, dokazano je da postoji interes, da je evidentan trend rasta. Dokazano je da stvarnost kreira izazove za regionalnu nauku, posebno vezano za kriterije i modele regionalizacije. Javnost i politika često regionalizaciju, preciznije novu regionalizaciju, nove regije, novu regionalnu autonomiju, nove općine, teritorijalne zajednice apostrofiraju kao rješenje socijalnih i ekonomskih problema. Primjera ima dosta u Bosni i Hercegovini (pitanje trećeg entiteta, pitanje održivosti određenih općina, pitanje zakona o glavnom gradu, pitanje transformacije iz općine u grad, drugo), ali i zemljama nečlanicama Evropske unije (na primjer Srbija, Ukraina), kao i u zemljama članicama Evropske unije (Italija, Španija, Velika Britanija, Austria, Hrvatska, Slovenija, itd). I pored toga i dalje su ostala otvorena brojna pitanja vezana za međuzavisnost regionalizacije i razvoja. Da li „bogatstvo naroda“ zavisi od regionalizacije? Da li regionalizacija i regionalna kooperacija mogu osigurati „kraj siromaštva“? Da li je regionalizacija „mogućnost našeg doba“ da se reducira i/ili eliminira siromaštvo? Raste li značaj regionalizacije u „doba neizvjesnosti“, u doba krize? U kakvom odnosu je regionalizacija sa „moći i razvojem“? Kako i koliko regionalizacija utječe na to „kako se zemlje natječu“? Kakva je veza između regionalizacije i slobode, mogućnosti funkcioniranja? Da li je regionalizacija rješenje ili problem koji odlaže rješavanje. Istraživači i kreatori politike još tragaju za optimalnom regionalizacijom svjesni da ona jeste potreban, ali ne i dovoljan uvjet i odgovor na aktualna socijalna i razvojna pitanja. Otvoreno je pitanje da li su mogućnosti recentnih regionalizacija i šanse koje daju regionalne strategije socijalno i ekonomski valorizirane. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Agreement; 690 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3128 Title A name given to the resource Interes i izazov: Teorija, politika i stvarnost regionalizacije i kooperacije Author Author OSMANKOVIĆ, Jasmina HOŠO, Jasmin GALIĆ, Marijana Abstract A summary of the resource. Regionalna nauka, kao što je poznato, kreira teorijski okvir za definiranje regija, regionalizaciju, regionalni razvoj i politiku regionalnog razvoja. S obzirom na ograničeni prostor, osnovni cilj rada je naznačavanje, s jedne strane, interesa, mjerenog brojem objavljenih radova u nekim relevantnim bazama, za regionalizaciju, kao i za specifične subteme: administrativnu regionalizaciju, statističku regionalizaciju, euroregije, evropske makroregije, a s druge strane, naznačavanje nekih osnovnih odrednica bosanskohercegovačke stvarnosti u vezi sa ovim temama. Kada je riječ o vremenskom okviru onda je to period posljednjih četvrt stoljeća. Dužina vremenske serije determinirana je konkretnom temom. Osnovna metoda je historijska i deskriptivna, kronološko izlaganje, kao i analiza vremenskih serija. Rad, pored uvoda i zaključka, sadrži teorijski okvir, rezultate pretraživanja relevantnih baza i osnovne informacije vezano za specifična pitanja regionalizacije Bosne i Hercegovine. Sastavni dio rada je popis korištenih izvora. Rad sadrži šest slika, 87 fusnota i referira se na 41 izvor, kao i 53 linka. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3524 Title A name given to the resource INTERKULTURALNA EDUKACIJA I MULTILINGVIZAM NA BALKANU1 Author Author Mutavdžić, Predrag Abstract A summary of the resource. Iako je na Balkanu oduvek prisutan multilingvizam, karakteristika ovog dela evropskog kontinenta je ta da se balkanski narodi nikada nisu u većoj meri zainteresovali da uče i usvajaju jezike svojih neposrednih suseda. Činjenica je da su sve savremene balkanske države višejezične, odnosno da unutar granica balkanskih država žive brojne manjine i etničke zajednice koje su sačuvale kako svoje kulturno i etnično obeležje tako i svoje jezike. Ti jezici, nažalost, nisu u podjednakoj meri u svim državama Balkana priznati, ili su i dalje zvanično nepriznati. Ovo je direktna posledica podudaranja sa zvaničnom nacionalnom i jezičkom politikom koja se sprovodi u njima a koja i dalje propagira čvrst nacionalni stav o „jednoj državi, jednoj naciji i jednom jeziku“. Balkanski narodi još nisu naučili kako treba da komuniciraju između sebe, jer i pored viševekovnog suživota nisu uspeli da se upoznaju. Dodatno, komunikaciju između njih opterećuju brojni nerešeni problemi (teritorijalni, nacionalni, religijski, kulturni itd) kao i teško breme istorijskog nasleđa. Budući da su svi balkanski narodi usmereni ka ulasku u Evropsku uniju, jedna od prvih lekcija koju treba da savladaju jeste interkulturalna komunikacija. Samo na taj način moguće je sačuvati i jezički i kulturno-civilizacijski diverzitet Balkana kao važan deo ukupnog kulturno-civilizacijskog nasleđa ujedinjene Evrope. Ključne reči: Balkan, multilingvizam, interkulturalna edukacija, balkanski jezici. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c57c05b4aff43032f4fe7411ffdfa69.docx af6afbc1fe770c96f552f762e45bd31f https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bcf3e1a778ad6c3e6d81a490a3713d32.pdf 875115a95c2a48f1b9f4e7847db0e95a PDF Text Text ��      �  ��  �     �������������� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3155 Title A name given to the resource Interkulturalno obrazovanje: Nužnost današnjice Author Author LUKAČ ZORANIĆ, Amela R. IVANOVIĆ, Aleksandar Abstract A summary of the resource. Autori se u radu bave neophodnošću uvođenja interkulturalnog obrazovanja u sistem visokog obrazovanja na prostoru bivše Jugoslavije. S tim u vezi, autori u radu najpre ukazuju na pojam interkulturalnost, praveći pritom poređenje sa značenjem ovog pojma i pojma multikulturalnost. Također, autori ističu važnost uvođenja predmeta Intekrulturalno obrazovanje, ljudska prava i pomirenje u kurikulume studijskih programa, kao neophodan uslov za upoznavanje različitih kultura i poštovanje različitosti. U drugom delu rada, autori prikazuju sopstvena iskustva u implementiranju predmeta Interkulturalno razumevanje, ljudska prava i pomirenje na studijskim programima Internacionalnog univerziteta u Novom Pazaru u sklopu trogodišnjeg regionalnog programa koji se realizuje u saradnji sa Helsinškim komitetom iz Norveške pod nazivom: „Gradimo mostove, a ne zidove: Uloga univerziteta u izgradnji mira“. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d38ab9d1fb86cc39026b5bc5177861fd.pdf 18be3e9c10ee062855f19f4e06316a54 PDF Text Text �����������   �        ��  ������ https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/71a725618970e2cbf23e6256ffc13679.docx 303c055a71fc2a34f99fecd846952ba5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3097 Title A name given to the resource Interlokalni sukob zakona u oblasti imovinskih odnosa bračnih partnera u Bosni i Hercegovini: Osvrt na buduća komunitarna koliziona pravila Author Author ALIHODŽIĆ, Jasmina KREŠIĆ, Boris Abstract A summary of the resource. Ustavom Bosne i Hercegovine izvršena je podjela nadležnosti između države i entiteta. Koncept od kojeg polazi navedeni ustavno-pravni akt je enumeracija nadležnosti institucija Bosne i Hercegovine, uz presumpciju nadležnosti u korist entiteta. Time je oblast privatnopravnih odnosa dovedena pod jurisdikciju Republike Srpske, Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, te Brčko Distrikta. Imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera u Bosni i Hercegovini uređeni su Porodičnim zakonom Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Republike Srpske i Brčko Distrikta, koji u pogledu zakonskog imovinskog režima sadrže imperativna pravila. Različita rješenja u pogledu regulisanja bračne stečevine mogu dovesti do nepravednih odluka u sudskoj praksi, kao i do neprovođenja bračnih ugovora. Imajući u vidu različito zakonsko normiranje karaktera bračne stečevine, autori ukazuju na mogućnost pojave interlokalnog sukoba zakona u situaciji kada je jedan privatnopravni odnos obilježen prisustvom međuentitetskog elementa, nakon čega predlažu i rješenja za prevazilaženje istog. Dodatni doprinos rada je eksplikacija odnosa između budućih komunitarnih kolizionih normi i domaćeg zakonodavstva u ovoj oblasti, što je posebno značajno imajući u vidu obaveze usklađivanja domaćeg prava sa acquis communautaire. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8d9f0fe789cc30e1874664345604bf4.pdf 83c908f3f5d1dd47f46168bb504f3b04 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies     Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Postsocialist Society Merita H. Meçe Clemson University mmece@g.clemson.edu Abstract: Significant increase of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected people’s connections and their identity.   Keywords:  Internal Migration, Social Identity Theory, Social Identity, Prejudice, Stigma New social phenomena were differently perceived by the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. On the one hand, the concept of social identity struggled between inclusionary/exclusionary boundaries; on the other hand, prejudice and stigma triggered from this complex reality. This paper applies Social Identity Theory to JEL Classification: Article History Submitted: 12.6.207 Resubmitted: 8.2.2018 Accepted: 25.5.2018 examine how internal migration affects social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian post-socialist http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JE COSS17724 society. This qualitative study is based on desk research and secondary data drawn by national statistics and cross-sectional research conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. It concludes that more longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the dynamics of social identity construction within the context of internal migration in Albania. This is necessary to promote a more inclusive society in order to accommodate social diversity and view internal migrants as local agents of development rather than objects of prejudice and stigma. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 56 �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   Introduction   A growing body of research indicates that internal migration is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. It is rapidly growing in both, time and space raising various challenges (World Bank, 2009; Meng, 2012; Potts, 2012). Even though it affects the life of so many people worldwide, it is not easily measured. Thus, data about its scale are limited and outdated (World Economic Forum, 2017). Statistics estimate 740 million internal migrants worldwide (United Nations Development Programme, 2009). Internal migration highly increased in Albanian post-socialist society. Formerly this phenomenon was strictly controlled by the government and subject to central planning of distribution of human resources. The exact number of the internal migrants in Albania is unknown for two main reasons: a) some certain groups such as Roma population are not officially registered as internal movers. Thus, they are under recorded in national censuses; b) statistics from the population registers of the local government units are inaccurate and unreliable (Vullnetari, 2014). However, the World Bank estimated around 500,000 internal migrants in Albania during the period 1991-2005 (UNDP, 2009). On the other hand, Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) (2002) estimated 252,735 people who migrated from one prefecture to another during the period between two censuses (1989-2001). But the increasing scale of this phenomenon is triggered by uneven and complex realities among regions within a country (International Organization for Migration, 2015). Research shows that it is combined with stretching processes of fast urbanization. Thus, connections among people and their identity are dialectically impacted. In a broader sense, the concept of social identity offers possibilities to open up the influence of the environment on the self. It relates to: a) possible influences of the culture or ethnic group the individual is belonging to; b) personal situations and circumstances along with groups where individuals belong to or not; c) their direct contact with other people (Haas, 2008; Reicher, Spears and Haslam, 2010). According to Social Identity Theory, individuals strive to have a positive selfimage in order to become a member of the group which enhances this possibility (Haas, 2008). They are involved in social comparisons to favorably differentiate ingroup from out-group members (Dovidio et al., 2005; McLeod, 2008). While they think, feel, and act as members of collective groups socially constructed by the group’s frame of reference (Padilla and Perez, 2003), they stigmatize other groups, devaluate and discriminate them (Kurzban and Leary, 2001; Dovidio et al., 2005; McLeod, 2008). Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 57 �Merita H. Meçe   Research carried out during the last decades in various countries and regions highlighted several causes of the discrimination of the internal migrants mainly: a) complex structures (Lee and Piper, 2013), b) legal and institutional barriers (International Labor Organization and International Office for Migration, 2001; Afridi, Li and Ren, 2012), c) socio-cultural barriers (Jungteerapanich, 2014), d) gender (Weber, 2014), and e) religion (Engbers, 2015). However, limited research has been documented on the impact of internal migration on social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma especially outside Europe and North America. The impact of internal migration on social identity construction has been little explored in Albanian post-socialist society as well. Literature shows that research conducted during this period mostly focused on: a) the challenges of this phenomenon on the new urban space (Cila, 2006; Mele, 2010; Pojani, 2013; Dirks, 2014), b) limited and inadequate service delivery (UNDP, 2000; UNDP, 2002; Hagen-Zanker and Azzarri, 2009) and c) gender inequality (United Nations Women, 2014; Jorgji, 2015). Very few studies addressed how internal migration shaped social identity and affected group boundaries between existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. In addition, very limited data are available to make some comparisons. The main purpose of this paper is to examine how internal migration affects social identity construction and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian postsocialist society. This qualitative study is based on two research questions: 1) To what extent does internal migration affect social identity construction and group boundaries in Albanian post-socialist society? 2) What are its implications for prejudice and stigma? Since research about this topic is scant in Albania, this study intends to contribute to this discussion by addressing this gap in the current literature and research. Methods and Paper Organization Both, desk research and secondary data analyses are used to address two research questions of this qualitative study. Secondary research is mainly focused on the review of the concepts of internal migration and social identity based on migration theories and Social Identity Theory. It is combined with an overview of the profile of the internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society, its dynamics and characteristics. Secondary data are drawn by various national statistics, reports and studies conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   in Albania is the main official data source on internal migration. This national   statistical institute is responsible to conduct censuses, process data, release results nationwide and produce reports. Population reports issued by it during the period under study have been widely used in this paper. Other data have been drawn by cross-sectional studies conducted in limited geographical areas of the country in different periods of time by several researchers and organizations with a specific focus on migration. Data collection period varied between 2-6 months and their target group covered both sexes and different age-groups. They highlight how internal migration failed to successfully accommodate the differences among the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. The relational term of ‘social identity’ served as both, a function of similarities with ‘us’ and a function of differences with ‘them’. Thus, prejudice and stigma triggered. This paper is composed of five parts. Following the first part which presents introduction (including methods and paper organization), the second part provides a theoretical framework of the concepts of internal migration and social identity based on migration theories and Social Identity Theory. The third part provides a profile of the internal migration in Albania during the years of transition to market economy and how it affected social identity construction. Implications on stigma and prejudice are provided in the fourth part. Some conclusions are drawn in the fifth part followed by study limitations. Theoretical Framework of Internal Migration and Social Identity Theory This section helps understand how the dynamics of the modern life ‘on the move’ affect groups’ boundaries and shape both similarities and differences among people. It shortly explains the theoretical framework of the phenomenon of internal migration, its key characteristics and main drivers. Furthermore, it briefly describes the relational nature of the concept of social identity based on Social Identity Theory. Definition of Internal Migration, Its Drivers and Some Theoretical Aspects Definition of internal migration is very challenging because internal migrants stay within country borders but move across provinces, municipalities, rural and urban settings. Especially nowadays the definition of this phenomenon is becoming more unclear because cities grow and consume satellite towns. On the other hand, satellite towns develop and provide residence along the outskirts of cities. But, the definition of the internal migration may depend not only on the classification of government entities but also on the purpose of migration (Fleury, 2016). Literature defines Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 59 �Merita H. Meçe   internal migration as movement of people within the country, from one administrative unit to another (IOM, 2005; IOM, 2008; Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016). It represents one of the most spread forms of migration (Geddes et al., 2012) even though discussion on its patterns and trends is limited due to lack of adequate data (Rees et al., 2016). Research highlights four types of internal migration mainly: rural-urban, rural-rural, urban-rural, and urban-urban. But rural-urban migration is the fastest growing type of internal migration that dominates in most poor countries (IOM, 2005; IOM, 2008; Geddes et al., 2012). Internal migration flows differ from their direction, composition and duration (IOM, 2008). They can be temporary, permanent, circular, voluntary or for economic purposes, marriage or education (Fleury, 2016). But this definition of internal migration is not always a fitting word for migratory movement especially when it refers to the term ‘voluntary’ internal migration. It is hard to believe that departure of people from their place of origin that does not guarantee their livelihood is ‘voluntary’ (IOM, 2005). However, the literature mainly deals with permanent internal migration because official demographic, economic and employment statistics can easily track it (IOM, 2005; Rees et al., 2016). Evidence shows that internal migration is fuelled by the effects of and interactions between economic differentials (Kanbur and Venables, 2005; Geddes et al., 2012; Rees et al., 2016), social inequalities (Kobzar et al., 2015; Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2017), political instability and state fragility (World Bank, 2009; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2014), demographic imbalances (Aroca and Maloney, 2005) and environmental hazards (Geddes et al., 2012; Clewett, 2015). The neo-classical approach views migration as an adjustment mechanism to labour market inequalities and employment (Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson, 1998; Green and Worth, 2015). The main goal of the internal migrants is to maximize utility (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016) through access to employment or improvement of terms and conditions in employment (Fielding, 2012; UNESCO, 2017). According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2016), more than 75 percent of the world’s poor population resides in rural areas and depends on agriculture for subsistence. Lack of access to markets, poverty and food insecurity pushes them to migrate in urban areas. But the neo-classical approach emphasizes that decisions to migrate to the areas that offer the highest net return to human capital (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016) are taken at micro-level and macro-level (Aroca and Maloney, 2005; Hagen-Zanker, 60 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   2008). Micro-level theories have been focused on the decisions taken by individuals   to migrate (Hagen-Zanker, 2008) and their characteristics (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016). On the other hand, macro-level theories explain migration as a result of uneven spatial distribution of labour (King, 2012) and the existence of macrostructural forces embedded in exploitative and economic power imbalances of global capitalism (Morawska, 2013). Besides these, modern migration theory highlights a range of reasons that push people to migrate. Their motives vary between temporary and permanent migration. Spatial inequalities in quality of life increase their expectation to achieve better wellbeing elsewhere (Lall, Selod and Shalizi, 2006; Macours and Vakis, 2010; Dustmann and Okatenko, 2014). In this paper, internal migration is defined as a permanent movement of people from one administrative unit to another with a special emphasis from rural areas to urban areas of Albania. Based on state statistics and national censuses, this type of migration highly spread in the country after 1991 when Albania changed its political system. Other types of internal migratory movements are neither discussed nor examined in this paper. Social Identity Theory Social Identity Theory (SIT) is a social psychological theory which was initiated by Henri Tajfel by the beginning of the 1970s. It intends to explain how individual behaviour reflects individuals’ larger societal units with the help of group processes, intergroup relations and the social self (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995; Padilla and Perez, 2003). The core idea of this theory is that membership in a social group determines the behaviour of the individual (Davis, 2014). It defines social identity as a person’s sense that he or she belongs to a certain group or social category along with the value and emotional significance attached to it (Tajfel, 1972). This definition implies two key elements: a) belief that an individual belongs to a social group; b) group membership is important to individual’s self (Whitley and Kite, 2010). Social identity provides a bridge between the individual and the society. It is a relational term which defines people as a function of their similarities and differences with others (Reicher, Spears and Haslam, 2010). Social identity is focused on the structures that differentiate one group from another (Burke and Stets, 1998). Besides this, social identity is shared with others providing a basis for shared action. Meanings attached to social identity are products of our collective history (Reicher, Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 61 �Merita H. Meçe   Spears and Haslam, 2010) because group members enact roles that are part of group’s expectations (Turner et al., 1994). Groups give their members a sense of belonging to the social world, a particular social status, protection, security and emotional support (Korostelina, 2014). That is why they are an important source of pride and self-esteem (Tajfel, 1979). Belonging to a certain group means being like other group members and viewing things from the group’s perspective (Stets and Burke, 2000; Korostelina, 2014). According to Social Identity Theory, social identity has three main components: a) social categorization; b) social identification; c) social comparison (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). Social categorization is a process that puts people including ourselves into categories. It labels them in ways that associate their self-image with the categories they belong to (Tajfel, 1979). It sharpens intergroup boundaries and produces group- distinctive normative perceptions (Hogg, Abrams and White, 1995). According to Tajfel (1979), people create categories due to their limited capacities to process information. Therefore, social categorization simplifies their understanding of the world. It helps individuals define their place in the society through segmenting, classifying and ordering the social environment (Tajfel, 1981). Social categories precede individuals in their personal history. Individuals are born in a structural society where the sense of self largely derives from the social categories they belong to (Hogg and Abrams, 1988). They provide a self-definition of a person in terms of the characteristics of the category (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995). They make the individual have a unique self-concept because during the life course, the individual is a member of a unique combination of social categories (Hogg and Abrams, 1988). Social identification is a process where individuals associate themselves with certain groups and adopt the identity of the group they have been categorized as belonging to (McLeod, 2008). They show emotional significance to their identification with a group and self-esteem bound with group membership (Brewer, 1991). Guided by the need to be unique and the need to belong, individuals perceive themselves to be similar and have positive qualities with in-group members. They maintain their distinctiveness and perceive themselves different from out-group members who possess less favourable qualities striving to remain detached from them (Brewer, 1991; Brown, 1995). Social comparison aims at evaluating the social groups to which individuals belong to (Tajfel, 1978). Social Identity Theory implies not only social categorization of individuals but also groups’ evaluation. Individuals prefer to positively differentiate 62 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   themselves from others. The outcome of comparison with out-groups might be   advantageous or disadvantageous for their status (Taylor and Brown, 1988). Tajfel and Turner (1979) argued that social identity can be positive or negative depending on the evaluation of the group that contributes to it. Since people have a basic need to have a positive social identity, self-evaluative consequences of social identity strongly motivate members of one group to keep self-enhancement by comparing themselves with others (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995). A General Overview of the Internal Migration in Albanian Post-socialist Society This part describes the profile of internal migration in Albania after 1991. It examines how social identity construction appeared in the context of changing of the meaning of social category. It highlights the complexity of groups’ boundaries created during the process of social identity negotiation where in- and out-groups interactions are redefined. Profile of Internal Migration in Albanian Post-socialist Society Internal migration has been one of the most dramatic features of the development of Albanian post-socialist society. It occurred rapidly and did not follow any normal trend (UNDP, 2002). Before the change of the political system, this phenomenon was tightly regulated and highly controlled by the central government (INSTAT, 2014). Policies that restricted the free movement of population were lifted after 1991 when the socialist system collapsed. The country was exposed to rapid and substantial changes that affected its social, economic and political structure. Mass uncontrolled and unplanned migration of population (mainly from villages and remote mountainous areas) towards towns and cities led to overpopulation of some urban areas (UNDP, 2000; World Bank, 2003) and drastic depopulation of some others (INSTAT, 2014). Relocation of the whole household is one of the characteristics of internal migration in Albania. Statistics show that one in five families in Albania has experienced internal migration (INSTAT, 2010). The 2011 Census data revealed that 10 percent of the population now live in a different town or village compared to that of a decade ago. More than 10 percent of the internal migrants had moved multiple times (INSTAT, 2014). The unknown experience of multiple moves spread during the last decade. It was combined with high tendency of direct moves and impacted the total number of urban population. For the first time in the history of Albania, population living in urban areas outnumbered that living in rural areas (INSTAT, Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 63 �Merita H. Meçe   2014). Figure 1 shows rural-urban population distribution trends in Albania based on data of the last three censuses. Figure 1: Rural-Urban Population Distribution Trends in Albania, 1989-2011 Source: INSTAT (1990); INSTAT (2014) Diverse drivers of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society include: a) economic motives. People rapidly reacted against negative externalities caused by economic transformations during the first years of democratic transition. These factors pushed people away from collapsed agricultural cooperatives and state farms. In addition, destructive effects of sudden closure of industries in mono-industrial interior towns increased the trend of movement of their inhabitants towards big cities (King and Vullnetari, 2013); b) city life attraction. People were willing to benefit from advantages of ‘modern’ urban lifestyle. However, their aspirations were not always fulfilled. Both, the scarcity of well-paid jobs and their settlement in periurban informal areas hindered them (King and Vullnetari, 2013); c) democracy deficit. Fragile democracy was followed by weak state institutions, lack of rule of law and lack of trust in governmental structures. Democracy deficit activated traditional customary law especially in the Northern part of Albania. Revitalization of Kanun of Leke Dukagjini was followed by blood feud (honour killing). To escape from blood feud conflicts, many highlanders migrated from their villages to other parts of the country (UNDP, 2000; Peço, 2014; Meçe, 2017). 64 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   But, socio-economic and political development of the country determined not only   the dimension, but also the direction of internal migration in Albania (UNDP, 2002). The majority of the internal migrants were from geographically landlocked, underdeveloped and mountainous parts of the North and North-eastern areas of Albania. Their total population decreased by 21 percent during the period 20012011. Newcomers were settled in lowlands and coastline particularly in Durres and Tirana regions. Statistics show that, after 1991, the annual population growth rate in Kamza Municipality located just 11 km away from Tirana (the capital city of Albania) was 66 percent (INSTAT, 2014). This dramatic demographic boom recorded in main regions and cities of the country increased their population density. It affected their urbanization process and impacted relationships among the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers (UNDP, 2002; INSTAT, 2014). The 2011 Census data showed that 49 percent of the newcomers resided in Tirana while 15 percent resided in Durres (INSTAT, 2014). The majority of the newcomers (more than 50 percent) was young (aged 15 – 34 years). The distinct peak was reached by 20-24 age-group. Women were more involved in internal migration and they represented 59 percent of the total internal migrants. Different from men who migrated for employment purposes, the main purpose of internal migration of women was related to family issues. In general, the largest group of internal migrants has a lower secondary education (INSTAT, 2014). Internal Migration and Social Identity in Albania The structure of the Albanian post-socialist society was highly affected by mass ruralurban migration towards main cities (UNDP, 2000; Likaj and Baltaci, 2008; Titili, 2015). This was followed by the change of city values and gradual loss of traditional features of the city life. Socio-economic, educational and cultural differences between existing city population and the newcomers became evident. They were the main cause of tension and poor social cohesion (UNDP, 2000; Ndreka, 2014). The newcomers were not always welcomed by the existing city inhabitants. They faced their resistance to consider them ‘as part of their group’. Local norms and customs they inherited from their place of origin were deeply rooted in the mentality of the newcomers. They practiced them in the new communities where they were settled even though they were not easily ‘digested’ by the existing city inhabitants. Thus, boundaries between the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers were deepened (UNDP, 2002; Titili, 2015). Lack of patience to accommodate social diversity became problematic especially in areas formerly recognized as populated by old city communities (UNDP, 2002; Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 65 �Merita H. Meçe   Likaj and Baltaci, 2008). For instance, in Tirana city, existing inhabitants proudly categorised themselves as ‘Tironsa’ (a dialect word used by those who were born and raised in Tirana city or lived there for a very long time. It means ‘We are from Tirana’) (Bardhoshi, 2011). They identified themselves as part of this group and openly expressed their feeling of belonging to it. Its members attributed positive values to its membership and showed strong attachment to their group. They spoke in Tirana dialect to preserve their Tirana city group identity. The members of this group perceived themselves as being different from the newcomers’ group. According to ‘Tironsat’ group, ‘Tironsit’ were kind and generous people. They respected their neighbours and the rules of the community life. They were very connected to their city and linked its development with their life events. But this group was very disappointed with the newcomers. Its members felt that the newcomers destroyed their cosmos and community life (Bardhoshi, 2011). In his study conducted in 2011 with 1000 participants (500 existing inhabitants and 500 newcomers after 1991 located in the periphery of Tirana), Janaqi (2014) found that 82 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants perceived their culture as being threatened by the culture of the newcomers. According to them, the newcomers used harsh and aggressive vocabulary. They applied the ‘rule of the strongest’ to get what they wanted. They did not apply civilized means of communication (Ribas-Mateos, 2005; Bardhoshi, 2011). In some other cases, the group of the existing city inhabitants viewed the group of the newcomers as rivals. They blamed them for deterioration of their quality of life. This was more evident in both, the labour market and in the share of the benefit of city services and facilities. According to the existing city inhabitants, the newcomers were like ‘proletarians’. They had nothing to lose because they had a low level of education and did not have resources. Thus, they were willing to take up every job and did not negotiate for their salary. This sudden competitive situation fostered the ‘in-group solidarity’ among the members of the existing city inhabitants to help each other. For instance, in Tirana city, in many cases, they approached each other to ask a favour for other group members by saying ‘Nimoje pak kët Tironsin tim’ (a dialect expression used by people born and raised in Tirana or lived there for a long time. It means ‘Help a little bit my Tirana fellow’). However, in the periphery of the main cities, there were cases when group boundaries were translated into a clear division of the territory. On the one side, there were areas characterized by modern patterns of lifestyle, on the other side, there were areas that failed to accommodate diversity (Titili, 2015). The strong sense of rural belonging of the newcomers was expressed in the identification of the new geographical location of their community. For instance, in the main road (heading 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   from Tirana to Kamza city), internal migrants from Kukes region had placed an   orientation sign where it was written ‘Kukës – 100 m djathtas’ (it means ‘Kukes is 100 m on the right’). But geographically Kukes is located in the Northern part of Albania about 130 km far from Kamza. During the process of ‘spontaneous regulation of their space’, newcomers developed a dual social identity. On the one hand, they pretended to be residents of suburban environment. Thus, they identified themselves as city inhabitants and negotiated with the host society for their rights and equal treatment. On the other hand, they practiced their patriarchal mentality within the family and kinship (Sinani, 2013). Thus, they insisted on their rural identity and felt more comfortable within their rural social group. In his study conducted in 2011 with 1,000 participants (500 were newcomers and 500 were existing inhabitants from Tirana), Janaqi (2014) found that 93 percent of the newcomers did not feel comfortable to reside in an area surrounded by local inhabitants. But newcomers’ social identity construction was not a smooth process. It was dominated by old norms of gender division of labour and inter-generational conflict. Ndreka (2014) conducted a qualitative study in Spitalla area (Durres city) which is highly affected by internal migration. In total, 400 participants were interviewed (132 males and 268 females). They were internal migrants from Dibra region (located in the North eastern part of Albania) who had migrated in the study area during the last 10 years. She found that female newcomers of this community were not very willing to be involved in community life making group boundaries stronger. Even though they were more deprived in the city than in their village of origin, they followed strict patterns of rural lifestyle. Their primary role was focused on family chores and child upbringing (Ndreka, 2014). Thus, they categorised themselves as rural women and identified themselves as members of this group. In 2009, Çaro, Bailey and van Wissen (2012) conducted 25 in-depth interviews with migrant women from the northern part of the country who resided in four sites of Kamza. They found that their social networks outside their migrant community were poorly developed. According to the respondents, their dialect, tradition and way of living hindered their interactions with the host society. They perceived themselves as being rural and preserved their rural identity despite many years of migration to the city. One of the main reasons for this was that they were part of the clusters which shared strong tradition and the nostalgic feeling about their origin (Çaro, Bailey and van Wissen, 2012). Moreover, in his study, Doçi (2013) mentioned a qualitative research conducted with 800 internal migrants who were based in Breglumasi area (part of Tirana Municipality). From their face-to-face Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 67 �Merita H. Meçe   interviews, it was found out that their community life was under patriarchal norms of male domination. In general, family life outside the community was very limited. Traditional gender division of roles had increased female subordination because of the fear of men not to lose the control over their wives and daughters (Doçi, 2013). Thus, male newcomers developed new mechanisms to strengthen their sense of rural belonging. They categorised themselves as rural people and were strongly attached to their rural identity. Furthermore, inter-generational conflict dominated the process of social identity construction among the newcomers located in the main cities of Albania after 1991. Tensions were observed between the young generation of the newcomers born in the city (or migrated there at a very young age) and the old generation of the newcomers born in the rural areas. While the first group was proud to claim that it was from the city, the second one strongly emphasized that it was from the village. The old generation of internal migrants was happy to stick on its sense of rural belonging. It categorised itself as being originally from the village and attached itself to the group of the rural newcomers. Thus, it insisted to be located in those neighbourhoods of the cities where other rural families from their village of origin were accommodated. But, this situation complicated the daily life of the newcomers’ school children. They had to balance their traditional life at home/neighbourhood with their wish to be like other peers of host society in the school and community. Children reported that they were warned every morning by their parents to be away from other children who did not belong to their region of origin and did not have their customs (Andoni, 2017). In this way, their parents served as gatekeepers of children’s social identity preservation. They wanted to keep group boundaries and transmit them to young generation. But children wanted to cross them, adjust to new city life and bridge with the group of city children. Therefore, they were in a dilemma because, after school hours, they had to go back to their strict family mentality (Andoni, 2017). Even young rural migrants with high expectations from city life were not able to bond in any social group. They tried to interact with young people from the existing city inhabitants group and be part of it. But group boundaries were not always flexible. Living for several years in the periphery of Tirana city, some of them started speaking in the dialect of Tirana. They dressed like Tirana city youngsters and went to night pubs. But when they ‘categorised’ themselves as ‘Tironsa’ and wanted to join ‘Tironsat’ group, its members laughed at them ‘Ky osht Tirons i vjetër që ka 5 vjet m’Tironë’ (it is an expression in Tirana dialect that means ‘This person is an old Tirana citizen who lives here for 5 years’). 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   Despite efforts made by children and the youth from the newcomers’ group to   change their social identity and join the city inhabitants group, the other members of the newcomers group positively evaluated their group. The process of social comparison with the group of the existing city inhabitants yielded positive results for both groups. Each of them evaluated their group as having more advantages than the other group. For instance, the group of the newcomers evaluated its members as hardworking persons who tried hard to make their living despite relative deprivation imposed by the local inhabitants. They perceived the members of the other group as being lazy. They valued the ability of their group members to use different coping mechanism to overcome difficulties faced. They appreciated in-group support (Janaqi, 2014). On the other hand, the group of the existing city inhabitants positively evaluated its group in various aspects including: high level of education, tolerance, civic education, politeness, etcetera. Implications of Internal Migration on Prejudice and Stigma Internal migration impacts transformation of self and raises various social consequences. Segmentation of migrants has implications for their social identity. Arbitrary categorization of individuals has been stigmatizing and disempowering (Schimmele and Wu, 2015). Usually internal migrants are perceived as nondominant groups exposed to negative social evaluations of their group, dilemma or threat of their identity (Tajfel, 1978). Both, the intensification of the dynamics of the modern life and its unequal development path have provoked the tendency of negatively valued groups to tend to move into groups with a positive social identity (McLeod, 2008). Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or behaviours towards members of a certain group (Augoustinos and Reynolds, 2001). It is experienced by people who belong to certain categories or groups with negative evaluations (Haas, 2008). Prejudice has been traditionally understood as rigid, bad, unjustified, erroneous and emotional (Augoustinos and Reynolds, 2001). Research shows that ongoing prejudice can produce external attribution for negative outcomes. In general, minority groups have been devalued and prejudiced by the majority groups (Dovidio et al., 2005). In their study on the impact of China’s hukou system on social identity and inequality, Afridi, Li and Ren (2012) found that migrant children were labelled less intelligent and had low academic results. Migrant girls faced dual discrimination caused by discrimination against rural migrants and gender discrimination. They concluded that even though China is a homogenous society, long-term systemic approaches of social exclusion between rural areas and urban areas had played a Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 69 �Merita H. Meçe   powerful role in prejudice and discrimination. This influenced behaviour of migrant children (Afridi, Li and Ren, 2012). Moreover, social stigma is defined as a function of the possession of a particular attribute that conveys a devalued social identity in a particular context (Crocker, Major and Steele, 1998). It is a special kind of relationship between attribute and stereotype (Goffman, 1963) that arises during social interactions of the individuals with a social identity that does not meet normative expectations of the society for the attributes that they should possess (Kurzban and Leary, 2001). These attributes cause negative stigmatization of groups. They are usually associated with powerlessness and minority standing (Padilla and Perez, 2003). Stigmatization is a process that affects both, how individuals perceive themselves and how they feel that the others perceive them (Goffman, 1963). It denigrates others by putting one group in a psychologically superior position (Turner, 1982). Stigmatized groups are very often subject to negative attitudes and negative treatment. Perceptions of discrimination can negatively impact their mental and physical health because they produce high levels of stress (Williams, Spencer and Jackson, 1999). Goffman (1963) distinguished three types of stigma: a) that related to various physical deformities; b) individual characteristics perceived as mental disorder and weak will; c) tribal stigma related to race, religion and nation. Frable (1993) identified two dimensions of stigma respectively, danger and visibility. It was assumed that the higher the visibility of a stigmatized person is, the greater its negative impact on social interaction is. Visibly stigmatized individuals with devalued social identity might be challenged in their daily interactions. Being aware of the negative connotations of their social identity, they might be excluded from interactions while try to minimize their stigma (Padilla and Perez, 2003). Research conducted in 2013 with 868 individuals (mainly internal migrants) from Bathore Administrative Unit of Kamza Municipality in Albania showed that 27.4 percent of the respondents confirmed that they left their home in the northern part of the country to escape conflicts and blood feud consequences (Peço, 2014). But the existing local people in Kamza labelled them ‘Chechens’ or ‘Maloks’ (a pejorative word used for those who come from mountains). In addition, they blamed them as the main cause of high crime rate in the country due to the application of Kanun (Schwander-Sievers, 2008). Not only internal migrants from the northern part of Albania but also internal migrants from the southern part of the country were subject to prejudice and stigma. 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   The existing local inhabitants in both Tirana and Durres main cities stigmatized   newcomers from the southern villages and labelled them ‘Katunars’ (a pejorative word in the dialect of Tirana and Durres regions that implies uncivilized people who come from villages). They complained all the time by saying ‘Na mbyten katunaret’ (‘Village people are suffocating us’). Prejudice about newcomers has been expressed in various ways. In his study conducted in 2011 in Albania with 1,000 participants (500 were existing inhabitants while 500 were new comers after 1991), Janaqi (2014) found that: a) 78.9 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants did not want to educate their children in the schools dominated by children of the families who migrated in their host society after 1991; b) 54.3 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants categorically refused to sell their land to a newcomer; c) 43.3 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants declared that they openly expressed their direct prejudice towards newcomers; d) 85.7 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants thought that they were more civilized that newcomers (Janaqi, 2014). Conclusion This paper examined how internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected social identity construction and group boundaries along with its implications on prejudice and stigma. Focused on permanent rural-urban migration, it argued that this complex and diverse phenomenon exposed both local people and newcomers in different dilemmas and challenges about their social identity. Based on Social identity Theory, it analysed how group membership assigned social identity by favouring in-group and unfairly discriminating, prejudicing and stigmatizing outgroup. Usually viewed as having a lower social status than that of the local people, newcomers were negatively viewed, unequally treated and imposed to multiple identities. But migration and human mobility are inseparable part of the modern life that goes hand in hand with transformative social processes and ongoing dynamics. Thus, more research is needed to understand both, identity negotiations in the host society (at societal level) and double norms/mechanisms that newcomers apply to ensure ingroup positive social identity. It will be worthy to search how they negotiate within the group to make sure that its values will not be compromised by their inclusion in mainstream society. More longitudinal research is needed to capture various challenges of social identity construction among different age groups and gender. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 71 �Merita H. Meçe   Finally, at policy making level, it will be very helpful to design more accountable policies that encourage multi-cultural communication, diversity promotion and social identity respect. Prejudice and stigma towards the newcomers does not help social cohesion and the process of social integration. This attitude will not stop or minimize the phenomenon of the internal migration. On the other hand, it is not helpful for both, young and old generations to live in a hostile and fragmented environment. Awareness raising and education programs to promote inclusion and social integration are important to remove barriers among the groups. There is a need to view internal migrants as local agents of development and contributors of local change. This is important not only in short-term but also in long-term in order to achieve a more cohesive society based on mutual respect and peaceful coexistence. Limitations This paper has four main limitations: a) firstly, it is focused on secondary data drawn by research conducted during the period 1991-2017. However, very few studies on internal migration and social identity in Albanian post-socialist society were available for analysis; b) secondly, longitudinal research on impact of internal migration on social identity construction in Albania lacks. Thus, data collected by some crosssectional studies have been used. However, they were conducted one point in time and in fragmented areas; c) thirdly, some regions including Western Balkan countries and Eastern Europe are short in this research topic. Therefore, comparisons with other regions where the phenomenon of internal migration is evident have been partially applied; d) fourthly, the primary focus of this study is internal migration during the years of Albania’s transformation to the open market economy. Thus, external migration is neither discussed nor addressed in analyses conducted. References Afridi, F., Li, X.Sh., & Ren, Y. (2012). Social identity and inequality: The impact of China’ s Hukou system. Discussion Paper No. 6417, IZA, Germany. Andoni, B. (2017). Life and death in Kamza: between old tradition and capital city life. Reporter.al. Retrieved 15 April 2017 from https://www.reporter.al/jeta-dhe-vdekjane-kamez-midis-kryeqytetit-dhe-tradites-se-qemotit/ Aroca, P., & Maloney, W.F. (2005). 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Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Significant increase of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected people’s connections and their identity. New social phenomena were differently perceived by the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. On the one hand, the concept of social identity struggled between inclusionary/exclusionary boundaries; on the other hand, prejudice and stigma triggered from this complex reality. This paper applies Social Identity Theory to examine how internal migration affects social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian post-socialist society. This qualitative study is based on desk research and secondary data drawn by national statistics and cross-sectional research conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. It concludes that more longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the dynamics of social identity construction within the context of internal migration in Albania. This is necessary to promote a more inclusive society in order to accommodate social diversity and view internal migrants as local agents of development rather than objects of prejudice and stigma. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed DOI Digital object identifier doi:"10.14706/JECOSS17724 " Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 1986-8499, H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory