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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
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The effects of work motivation in quality of work life and
A study on banking sector
Esra Zeynel
Süleyman Demirel University, Social Science Institution, Business Administration Doctoral
Programme, Isparta
Abstract
In terms of Suistainable development, in countries, the success and effectiveness of
instuitaions is quite important. One of the most important elements of providing success and
effectiveness of institutions that have the human resources is working effectively and
efficiently. In this respect, “motivation” is one of the most important factors in raising the
quality of work life in the institutions, employee productivity, the contribution of the
institution, and the sense of belonging in the institution. Motivation plays an important role in
business life. Motivation by definition means that the individual actuating motive. In the
business life, motivation, increase the concern of the employee's job, and as a result of raising
the quality of work life is an important factor that increase business efficiency. The higher
motivation increases the contribution of the institution by raising the productivity of the
employee. High rate of success of the organization by increasing employee motivation
provided by the institution will contribute to the country's economy. This aspects, in order to
take advantage of the present institutions active human sources,making efforts to enhance the
motivation of employees in achieving organizational effectiveness and efficiency and provide
the employees' job satisfaction. Happy and productive working lifes of employees in having a
sense of belonging in the institution can be used effectively in improving the motivation
factor is the result.This study measured the effect of bank employees, the care component of
motivation in raising the quality of work life survey was applied on the bank employees. In
this study, a survey was applied on bank employee in terms of assessment of the effect of
motivation in the raising the quality of work life of bank employee. Importance of motivation
arises in this sector. The higher motivation increases the productivity of employee,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
institutional effectiveness and quality of working life. Motivating factors should be applied by
institutions.
1.INTRODUCTION
Motivation is a motive that the people to take to move.Motivationword for Englishthat means
of move was derived from the root of “mot” in Latin. In the pscyhology motivation is used for
as purposeful behaviors that direct towards a specific goal with innate driving forces.( Keser,
2009; 88).
Work motivation is a motive that is a person who works in an organization directed to do his/
her job. The occurance this motive is due to some factors. This factors are researched in the
studies regarding with psychology in literatür. In The results of researches, significant results
regarding with motivational means are observed. Herzberg said that, in his studies in 1959
and 1966, the intrinsic factors that the employee motive to work and hygine or external
factors that led to de-motivation and dissatisfaction in the absence of them.According to
theory, intrinsic factors are related to the nature of the work itself, achievement, recognition,
responsibility and advancement. The dissatisfaction factors are associated with the
individiual’ş relationship to the environment in which he/she does his/her work. The most
important of these is company policy and administration that promotes ineffectiveness within
the organization. The other factors are supervision, working conditions, interpersonal
relationship, salary.(Eren , 2010: 511-512, Landy and Conte, 2010: 370-371).
The work motivation is the important concept in the Industrial or organizational psychology.
For organizations to succeed, increasing the productivity of employees is very important.
Increasing the productivity of employees relates to employess’ quality of work life and
employees’ happiness in the workplace.
Quality of work life, to provide the bestworking conditionsfor employeesin a workplace.
Moreexpressly, all factors related to the workplace fromthe physicalcharacteristics ofthe
workplace to the politics ofthe organization'smanagement and all factorsrelated to the
workplaceand employeesto allow forloving his/her job, the jobcharacteristics
andintrinsicfactorsrelated
to
theprovision
ofbusiness-compliance
refers
tothe
individual.(Barutçugil, 2004; 394, 395,396).
As shown inthis conceptualexplanations, the employee's job motivationfactors that, in fact,
elementsthat make upthe quality ofwork life. Therefore,with therise ofthe working
individual’sworkmotivation, positive impact onquality of work lifewillincrease.
Intrinsicmotivationfactors inimproving thequality ofwork life,organizationalpoliciesto
increase theindividual'smotivation toworkby raisingthe quality of life, increasebusiness
efficiency, increase theperformance. As a result ofall these positivedevelopments,the
organizationwill showa good performanceas soon as possible and it will succeed.The presence
ofsuccessfulorganizationsin a countryand its economya positive impact onthe welfare ofthe
countrywill betaken on important roles.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Motivationconcerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality,
and direction of ongoing behavior (Vinacke, 1962). The term “instinct” was gradually
replaced with terms such as “need”, “motive”, and “drive” (Viteless, 1953). Latham and his
colleagues (Latham& Budworth, 2007; Latham&Pinder, 2005) have reviewed the 100 year
history of motivation research in I-O psychology.Vroom (1964), proposed that VIE theory.
VIE consist of valence, instrumentality, expectancy. Vroom reasoned that psychological
objects in an environment also have attracting forces.
Between 1940 and 1960, the struggle for preeminence in motivation theory was between the
behaviorists and the need theorists. By 1960, the emergence of cognitive psychology resulted
in a radical shift in the battle for “motivational superiority”. New motivational theories
emerged that emphasized the thought and decision processes of the individual. Today’ş
theories of motivation are largely cognitive and emotional at their foundation. The differences
among them are more a matter of what people think about and how they think about choosing
courses of action, rather than any dispute regarding whether thought enters into motivation.
(Landy and Conte, 2010: 362).
Weiner (1991,1992) suggested that the best way to gain an understanding of the wide
variation in motivational theories, as well as of the evolution of motivational thinking, is
through the use of metaphors. A metaphor is intended to illuminate an obscure or difficult
concept by example. Weiner suggests that all motivational theories can be described by one of
two metaphors: the person as a machine, and the person as scientist. Person as machine:
Automatic response by individual, Responds to needs and drives, Responds to external stimuli
and reinforcement. Person as scientist: Voluntary response by individual: analyzes internal
and external information. Hypothesizes about the foundation for events and actions of others.
Develops goal and action plans.
Abraham Maslow (1943), suggested that the hierarchy of needs theory. Herzberg (1966),
revealed that two-factor theory. Locke (1980), motivation theory, behaviorism has addressed
a critical look at the strengths and shortcomings. Georgopoulos, Mahoney and Jones (1957),
have proposed the path-goal theory.
Adams (1965), proposed the ctheory of popular scientist. Festinger (1957), proposed the
theory of dissonance. Adams (1965), proposed by Festinger's ideas and improving the wellknown theory of "equality" has become a theory. Latham and Pinder (2005), examined, and
had proposed the theory of equality. Conner (2003), Bolino and Turnley (2008), studied the
theory of equality. Locke and Lactham (2002), researched goal-setting theory. Baldamu
(1951), Locke, Shaw, Saari, and Latham (1981), Ryan, (1970), goal-setting theory, Austin and
Vancouver (1996), goal-setting theory, Locke (1968), goal-setting theory, Locke and Latham
(1990), goal-setting theory, Locke and Latham (1996), goal-setting theory, Wiese and Freund
(2005), said that goal difficulty is a critical ingredient to both performance and satisfaction.
Mitchell, Thompson, George, Falvy, (2000), goal-setting theory, concept of commitment.
Locke and colleagues (1981), proposed that goal-setting theory, direction, effort, persistence,
strategy, feedback loop. Atkins, Wood, Rutgres, (2002), goal-setting theory, cognitive tasks.,
Youngcourt, Beaubien (2007) proposed that goal orientation prediction person’s achieve
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
work. Porath and Bateman (2006) proposed that specific self-regulatory tactics. Gollwitzer
(1990) supposed that focus on internal or external cues. Kuhl (1992) supposed that focus on
internal or external signs. Austin and Klein (1996) proposed that cognitive abilities roles.
Kanfer (1992) supposed that indivuduals need to depend on cognitive abilities (memory,
reasoning, comprehension).
2.METHOD
Questionnaire was administered to employees of the Bank. Data were analyzed using
SPSS 11 statistical package. Questionnaires were adapted by inspired from Erol Eren’s
motivational tools to encourage the scale of the survey, job satisfaction, job involvement and
an
Minnesota
job
satisfaction
Questionnaire.
All bank employees contained in Isparta city asked to be reached in the analysis, reached 140
people. 120 people were taken back. 102 form of these forms in the questionnaire that is
appropriate for analysis have been analyzed. Surveys have been done of face to face method
by the forms giving people exactly.
Analyses of demographic characteristics, frequency and percentage were analyzed.
The factor analysis has done for questions that measure work motivation and the quality .
Questions are grouped under four factors by factor analysis. By regression analysis Factor
groups between satisfaction with the quality of work life, the effects of these factors on
satisfaction with the quality of work life were measured. Difference tests were conducted for
all demographic characteristics to measure whether differences exist in terms of the quality of
work life satisfaction according to demographic characteristics And the results are described.
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis were researched as shown below. Fistly, frequencies tables are observed. The
statistical analysis sources are used in the analyses. (Sipahi e.a., 2006, Albayrak, 2006).
3.1.Frequencies Tables
According the statement of gender, freguency column, 50 people of respondents are
male, and 52 people are female and to the percent column, 49 percent of respondents is male
and 51 percent is female.
Male/Female
Valid
281
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Male
50
49,0
49,0
49,0
Female
52
51,0
51,0
100,0
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Total
102
100,0
100,0
Likewise, according the statement of age, frequency and percent are observed.
Age
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
20-25 age
18
17,6
17,6
17,6
2,00
40
39,2
39,2
56,9
3,00
28
27,5
27,5
84,3
4,00
10
9,8
9,8
94,1
5,00
6
5,9
5,9
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
And the frequency and percent results are observed in the following frequency tables
such as Level Of Education, Job Title, Marital Statu, Salary, Working Time At The Bank,
Sectoral Working Time and Bank Status.
Level Of Education
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
11
10,8
10,8
10,8
7
6,9
6,9
17,6
University (BA)
72
70,6
70,6
88,2
Master of Science
11
10,8
10,8
99,0
Doctorate
1
1,0
1,0
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
High School
College
degree)
282
(associate
Cumulative
Percent
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Job Tıtle
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Booth Personnal
55
53,9
53,9
53,9
Assistant Director
17
16,7
16,7
70,6
Director
12
11,8
11,8
82,4
Chief
13
12,7
12,7
95,1
Deputy Director
3
2,9
2,9
98,0
Manager
2
2,0
2,0
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
Marital Statu
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Married
62
60,8
60,8
60,8
Single
40
39,2
39,2
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
Salary
Valid
283
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
750-1000 TL
20
19,6
19,6
19,6
1001-1250 TL
21
20,6
20,6
40,2
1251-1500 TL
16
15,7
15,7
55,9
1501-1750 TL
15
14,7
14,7
70,6
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
1751-2000 TL
11
10,8
10,8
81,4
2001 TL and up 19
18,6
18,6
100,0
Total
100,0
100,0
102
Working Time At The Bank
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
0-1
13
12,7
12,7
12,7
1-5
39
38,2
38,2
51,0
5-10
26
25,5
25,5
76,5
10-15
14
13,7
13,7
90,2
15-20
3
2,9
2,9
93,1
20 and up
7
6,9
6,9
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
0-1
10
9,8
9,8
9,8
1-5
42
41,2
41,2
51,0
5-10
23
22,5
22,5
73,5
10-15
16
15,7
15,7
89,2
15-20
4
3,9
3,9
93,1
20 and up
7
6,9
6,9
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
Sectoral Working Time
Valid
Bank Status
Frequency
Percent
Valid
284
Cumulative
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Valid
Percent
Percent
Public
33
32,4
32,4
32,4
PrivateTurkish
53
52,0
52,0
84,3
PrivateForeign
16
15,7
15,7
100,0
Total
102
100,0
100,0
3.2.Factor Analysis
After reliability analysis, factor analysis was conducted. By the table checked, the
factor analysis consists of just a question was removed for it will not be healthy for the
analysis , factor analysis was again done. As a result, the load factor is still close to each other
for two separate factor group analysis of the questions in the order removed, the analysis was
repeated in the order. Four questions were removed. These four questions; incentives and
awards, granting a job he/she dislike, status of equipment and in-kind donations are affecting
the success of the workplace. Removing the effect level while the questions are considered by
the study. The latest results have emerged, such as factor analysis in the the following table.
Questions of recognition and appreciation and promoted close under the loads seen that the
two factors, however, that important questions for the purpose of the study were eligible for
the disconnection of. The factor analysis of the final table were seen that is significant and
analysis is continued
Rotated Component Matrix(a)
Component
1
2
3
4
Resposnsibility
,701
,392
-,018
,228
Participation in decision
making
,679
,244
,018
,308
,674
-,005
,315
,204
,673
,136
,435
,009
Work itself
Possibility of growth
and advancement
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Achievement
,662
-,083
,489
,130
,613
,506
,064
-,118
Appriciation and
recognition
,567
,415
,203
,212
Distrubition of tasks
between employee
,038
,869
,102
,156
,236
,773
,230
,050
,248
,696
,012
,342
,267
,197
,741
-,012
-,007
-,001
,732
,334
,250
,039
,686
,265
,152
,338
,579
,169
Possibility of holiday in
workplace
,103
,214
,121
,810
Job security
,126
,075
,354
,770
Promotion
The justice of
achievement,
appriciation, reward ın
organization
Salary
Interpersonal relations
superior
Healty benefits
Interpersonal relations
peers
Working conditions
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
,274
,143
,175
,653
Excessive working
According to this table he motivational factors are grouped under the four factors.
Looking at the quastions in the first factor, this factors are internal factors that individiual to
be succesful at work and providing motivate to work such as resposnsibility, participation in
decision making, work itself, possibility of growth and advancement, Achievement,
promotion, appriciation and recognition are seen.
The second factor group is related to task distribution between employee at the
workplace, wage levels in the workplace the justice of achievement, appriciation, reward ın
organization. This factor group brings together for the questions that affect perceptions of
justice is observed.
The third factor group is related to inter personal relations with superior or boss, inter
personel relations with peers, physical conditions at the workplace and health services
provided by the institution, indicate external factors with related to working conditions in the
workplace.
The last factor on the 4th group is related to possbility of holiday in the workplace,
job security and excessive working in the workplace, on personnel needed to feel comfortable,
job security guarantees, the right to allow use on a regular basis and the opportunity to work
within a normal period and the rest of the time will be important for personal life quality.
This group is concerned with employye rights. The sum of all factors that gives the quality of
work life.
FACTOR 1
FACTOR 2
Internal Factors
Working External Perception
Conditions Factors
Justice Factors
Resposnsibility
distrubition of tasks
between employee
participation in
decision making
the justice of
achievement,
appriciation, reward
ın organization
287
FACTOR 3
interpersonal
relations superior
FACTOR 4
Of Employee
Factors
possibility of holiday
in workplace
job security
healty benefits
Rights
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
work itself
Salary
interpersonal
relations peers
excessive working
possibility of growth
and advancement
working conditions
Achievement
Promotion
appriciation and
recognition
3.3.Regression Analysis
After the factor analysis, the regression analysis was done between the factor groups
that occured in the factor analysis and the quality of work life scale to observe whether a
significant relationship between motivational instruments and the work life quality. In the
analaysis, The factor groups are independent variables and the quality of work life satisfaciton
is dependent variable.
Model Summary(b)
Model
R
1
,781(a)
R Square
,611
Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
,594
,68856
ANOVA(b)
Sum of
Squares
Model
1
288
Regression
72,099
Df
Mean Square
4
18,025
F
38,017
Sig.
,000(a)
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Residual
Total
45,989
97
118,088
101
,474
Coefficients(a)
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
B
(Constant)
Std. Error
3,618
,068
REGR factor
score 1 for
analysis 1
,581
,069
REGR factor
score 2 for
analysis 1
,438
REGR factor
score 3 for
analysis 1
REGR factor
score 4 for
analysis 1
Standardized
Coefficients
t
Sig.
Beta
B
Std. Error
53,062
,000
,537
8,480
,000
,069
,405
6,391
,000
,154
,069
,143
2,253
,027
,401
,069
,371
5,852
,000
Because of Significant values are less than 0, 05 that the hypothesis test is meaningful.
Regression analysis shows that the relationship between the variables. Factors that increase
the motivation affects job satisfaction and improve the quality of work life.
Due to the results, there is a significant relationship between motivational tools and
quality of work life. When The work motivation is higher by using motivational tools, the
employees’ satisfaction related to the quality of work life increases. On the contrary, in the
absence of motivational instruments, the satisfaction related to the quality of work life
decreases.
So, the organizations should use motivational instruments, try to raise work motivation
of employees and thus improve quality of work life of employees.
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3.4.Nonparametric Difference Tests
Firstly, normality was researched for work life quality variable. And then, the
difference tests were done according to the demographic varables.
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnov(a)
Statistic
The Quality of Work-life
Satisfaction
df
,315
Shapiro-Wilk
Sig.
102
,000
Statistic
Df
,832
Sig.
102
,000
a Lilliefors Significance Correction
Ho : The Quality of Work-life Satisfaction is suitable for Normality
Because of the p value is less than 0,05, Ho P< 0.05 olduğundan Ho hypothesis is
rejected, is not suitable for normality. Therefore, demographic variables related to The
Quality of Work-life Satisfaction was analyzed with nonparametric tests.
In the Following analyses, The Ho Hypothesis is that the medians of demographic
variables are equal. And The all Ho Hypotheses are formed in the same way for all of
demographic variables.
Ranks
Male/
Female
Quality of Work-Life
Satisfaction
N
Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
50
51,10
2555,00
Female
52
51,88
2698,00
Total
102
Male
Test Statistics(a)
Quality of
Work-Life
Satisfaction
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Mann-Whitney U
1280,000
Wilcoxon W
2555,000
Z
-,145
Asymp. Sig. (2tailed)
,885
Ho: median are equal.
H1: The median is not equal.
Ho hypothesis is accepted. P value 0.885> 0.05 is considered that the median are equal.
Ranks
Egitim
Quality of Work-Life
Satisfaction
High School
39,55
7
64,43
University (BA)
72
52,94
Master of Science
11
45,09
1
59,50
Doctorate
Total
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Df
Asymp.
Sig.
291
Mean Rank
11
College (associate
degree)
Chi-Square
N
4,539
4
,338
102
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Chi-square statistic and p value are examined, because of p-value is greater than value of 0.05
the Ho hypothesis is accepted. The quality of work life satisfaction do not differ by educational
attainment.
Ranks
Salary
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
N
Mean Rank
750-1000 TL
20
51,33
1001-1250 TL
21
44,12
1251-1500 TL
16
47,44
1501-1750 TL
15
47,53
1751-2000 TL
11
62,64
2001 TL and up
19
59,95
Total
102
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Chi-Square
Df
5,815
5
Asymp.
Sig.
,325
Ho hypothesis is accepted because of p-value is greater than value of 0.05 and the
quality of work life do not differ by salary is considered.
Ranks
Job Title
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
292
N
Mean Rank
Booth Personnel
55
47,77
Assistant Director
17
47,68
Director
12
57,33
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Chief
13
53,19
Deputy Director
3
82,50
Manager
2
94,00
Total
102
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Chi-Square
Df
Asymp.
Sig.
10,597
5
,060
Ho Hypothesis is accepted, the p value is greater than 0.05. However, it must be said,
0.06 is a value close to the value of 0.05. Mean values of rank titles, deputy director and
director, the positions occupied by the lower difference which showed. Deputy director and
director of the quality of work life satisfaction varies for titles.
Ranks
Bank Status
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
Public
Mean Rank
33
55,67
Private-Turkish
53
51,06
Private-Foreign
15
40,53
Total
293
N
101
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Chi-Square
3,197
Df
2
Asymp.
Sig.
,202
Ho hypothesis is accepted because of p-value is greater than value of 0.05 and the
quality of work life do not differ by bank status is considered.
Ranks
Working Time
At The bank
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
13
52,58
1-5
39
43,64
5-10
26
50,06
10-15
14
59,50
15-20
3
71,00
20 and up
7
74,29
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Df
294
Mean Rank
0-1
Total
Chi-Square
N
10,857
5
102
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Asymp.
Sig.
,054
Ho hypothesis is accepted because of p-value is greater than value of 0.05 and the
quality of work life do not differ by working time at the bank is considered. However,
observed differences over 15 years.
Ranks
Marital
Status
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
N
Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
62
53,54
3319,50
Single
40
48,34
1933,50
Total
102
Married
Test Statistics(a)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Mann-Whitney U
1113,500
Wilcoxon W
1933,500
Z
-,936
Asymp. Sig. (2tailed)
,349
Ho hypothesis is accepted because of p-value is greater than value of 0.05 and the
quality of work life do not differ by marital status is considered.
Ranks
Age
Quality of Work Life
Satisfaction
295
N
Mean Rank
20-25 age
18
56,89
2,00
40
42,64
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
3,00
28
52,43
4,00
10
59,50
5,00
6
76,75
Total
102
Test Statistics(a,b)
Quality of
Work Life
Satisfaction
Chi-Square
Df
Asymp.
Sig.
10,864
4
,028
Hypothesis Ho is rejected, because of the p value is less than the value of 0.05, the
quality of work life varies according to age element.
As a result of , there is the significant relationship between motivation and the quality
of work life is observed in this study. In terms of Suistainable development, in countries, the
success and effectiveness of instuitaions is quite important. One of the most important
elements of providing success and effectiveness of institutions that have the human resources
is working effectively and efficiently. In this respect, “motivation” is one of the most
important factors in raising the quality of work life in the “institutions, employee productivity,
the contribution of the institution, and the sense of belonging in the institution. Motivation
plays an important role in business life. The work motivation increases the concern of the
employee's job, and as a result of raising the quality of work life is an important factor that
increase organizational efficiency. The higher motivation increases the contribution of the
institution by raising the productivity of the employee. High rate of success of the
organization by increasing employee motivation provided by the institution will contribute to
the country's economy. This aspects, in order to take advantage of the present institutions
active human sources, making efforts to enhance the motivation of employees in achieving
organizational effectiveness and efficiency and provide the employees' job satisfaction.
Happy and productive working lifes of employees in having a sense of belonging in the
institution can be used effectively in improving the motivation factor is the result. The higher
motivation increases the productivity of employee, institutional effectiveness and quality of
working life. Motivating factors should be applied by institutions.
296
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
REFERENCES
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experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 267-299). New York: Academic Press
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16. Keser, A., (2009), Labour Psychology, Ekin Press, Turkey.
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17. Latham, G.P., & Budworth, M.H., (2007), The Study Of Work Motivation in the 20th
Century. In L. Koppes (Ed.), THE History of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, pp.
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18. Latham, G.P.,& Pinder, C. (2005), Work Motivation Theory and Research At The Dawn
Of The Twenty First Century. Annual Review Of Psychology, 56, 485-516.
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Psychology, 65, 16-23.
20. Locke, E.A. & Latham, G.P., (2002), Building a practically useful theory of goal setting
and task motivation: A 35- year odssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705-717.
21. Locke E.A., Shaw, K.N., Saari, L.M., & Latham, G.P., (1981), Goal Setting and Task
Performance. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125-152.
22.Locke, E.A., (1968), Toward A Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives. Organizational
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23.Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P., (1990), A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance,
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24. Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P., (1996), Goal Setting Theory: An Introduction. In R. M.
Steers, L. W. Porter & G.A. Bigley (Eds.), Motivation and Leadership At Work (pp. 95122). New York: McGraw Hill.
25. Maslow, A.H., (1943). A Theory of Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
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The Goal Orientation Nomological Net. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 128-150.
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Performance. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 91, 185- 192.
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31. Vroom, V.H. (1964), Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley.
32. Weiner, B., (1991), Metaphors in Motivation and Attribution. American Psychologist, 46,
921-930.
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Sage.
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The effects of work motivation in quality of work life and A study on banking sector
Author
Author
Esra, Zeynel
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In terms of Suistainable development, in countries, the success and effectiveness of instuitaions is quite important. One of the most important elements of providing success and effectiveness of institutions that have the human resources is working effectively and efficiently. In this respect, “motivation” is one of the most important factors in raising the quality of work life in the institutions, employee productivity, the contribution of the institution, and the sense of belonging in the institution. Motivation plays an important role in business life. Motivation by definition means that the individual actuating motive. In the business life, motivation, increase the concern of the employee's job, and as a result of raising the quality of work life is an important factor that increase business efficiency. The higher motivation increases the contribution of the institution by raising the productivity of the employee. High rate of success of the organization by increasing employee motivation provided by the institution will contribute to the country's economy. This aspects, in order to take advantage of the present institutions active human sources,making efforts to enhance the motivation of employees in achieving organizational effectiveness and efficiency and provide the employees' job satisfaction. Happy and productive working lifes of employees in having a sense of belonging in the institution can be used effectively in improving the motivation factor is the result.This study measured the effect of bank employees, the care component of motivation in raising the quality of work life survey was applied on the bank employees. In this study, a survey was applied on bank employee in terms of assessment of the effect of motivation in the raising the quality of work life of bank employee. Importance of motivation arises in this sector. The higher motivation increases the productivity of employee,institutional effectiveness and quality of working life. Motivating factors should be applied by institutions.
Date
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2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/faef0dea82b11e22b2fc9a153ecdc9ae.pdf
2a121ad6e1d277acfeed98d3c88b6304
PDF Text
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Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and
elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272.
Smith J.W. (1997) The blood flukes (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae and Spirorchidae) of coldblooded vertebrates: Part 2. Helminthological Abstracts 66, 329–344.
Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp.
(Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus
maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston.
Williams E.H. & Bunkley-Williams L. (1996) Parasites of Offshore Big Game Fishes of
Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental
Resources and the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez.
Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate
causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu
28:131-134.
Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls
in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2
1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir,
Turkey
2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin,
Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein,
employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is
especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of
aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease
outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were
caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp.,
Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium
spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp.,
Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in
rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in
some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in
EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey,
First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from
Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum
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Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could
be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated.
Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment
1.INTRODUCTION
Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial
lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333
km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European
countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following
years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in
Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax),
Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel
(Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey
has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to
152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to
68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK 2012).
Type of fish
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Inland water Trout 56 026
58 433
65 928
75 657
78 165
Marine Trout
1 633
2 740
2 721
5 229
7 079
Total
57 659
61 173
68 649
80 886
85 244
Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (Ton) (TUIK 2012)
The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to
remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with
disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years,
disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and
mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal
consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and
loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major
constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
in fish have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the
development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic
infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact.
Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the
industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of
crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing
problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic
organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and
life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4.
symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated,
6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled.
The Plathelminthes typically are slightly dorso-ventrally flatted, witth a few
exceptions hermophroditic worms without an anus and some of them without a mouth and
intestine. Their surface layer is a tegument which is made of a syncytium. This Phylum
comprise monogeneans, digeneans and cestodes
Monogeneans are flatworms with representatives in freshwater, brackish and marine
habitatts. The most of species are ectoparasitic and they all have a direct life cycle. A few
species have adopted an endoparasitic life. They have a characteristic posterior attachment
organ called an opisthaptor. This organ is equipped with sclerotiinized structures as large
hooks, clamps and marginal hooklets. Also the fore part of the parasite has adhesive pads.
Using these adhesive structures he flatworm can move in a leech-like manner on the host.
2. Tetraonchosis:
2.1. Aetiology: Tetraonchus alaskensis, T. awakurai. T. oncorhynchi
The lenght of the T. awakurai is 650-1080 µm and width is 250-415 µm (Ogawa and Egusa
1978).
2.2. Epizootiology: Tha adult parasite attaches to the gill epithelium with its two pairs of
anchors and their associated marginal hooklets, then produce eggs. These are liberated to the
aquatic enviroment where they develop and hatch. The ciliated larva called oncomiracidium
seeks the its host, attaches, sheds the ciliated cells and moves to the gill filaments. Depending
on the ambient temperature the post larva develops to the adult stage on the gills (Buchmann
and Bresciani 2001). Oncomiracidia hatch from embryonated eggs and transmission occurs
when the temperature is above 10 °C (Ogawa and Egusa 1985).
2.3.Pathogenicity: Heavy infections mat elicit inflamatorry reactions in the gills, hyperplasia
of epithelial and mucous cella and haemorrhages.
2.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause hyperventilation, lethargy and mortality.
2.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasite on the gills of the host. The parasite has four eye
spots, four large hooks in the opisthahaptor.
2.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures, mechanical filtration of fish tank water to remove
oncomiracidia.
2.7. Treatment: Formalin, mebendazole and praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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3. Gyrodactylosis:
3.1. Aetiology: Gyrodactylus salmonis, G. salaris, G. derjavini, G. truttae, G. colemanensis,
Gyrodactylus elegans, G. cobitis. G. salmonis measures 0.5 mm in length and 0.15 mm in
width. The hamuli are stout and 53-65 um long.
3.2. Epizotiyology: They are vivipourus hermophroditic parasites. The female parasite give
birth to an almost fully developed daughter which already has a growing embryo in its uterus.
The parasites attcches to thebody surface, fins, buccal cavity. At a farm nets and buckets are
potential vehicles of transmission. Water-borne transmission occurs in spring when melting
ice frequently causes flooding between holding units. Shipment of fish from other facilities
are also potential sources of infeciton and so is the water supply of the farm.
3.3. Pathogenicity: Due to penetration of the epithelium by the marginal hooklets and the
feeding activitiy the fish may suffer from osmoregulatory distress. Opportunistic infections
may arise in the injured epidermis.
3.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish with parasite are cachexic, lethargic and overall dark in
clour (Cone and Cusack 1988).
3.5. Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of slides with the parasite shows the approximately
0.5 mm platyhelminth without eyespot but with two large ventral hamuli, connected by a
dorsal and ventral bar and 16 marginal hooklets. The shape and size of the hamuli and
hooklets are species characteristic.
3.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures. Strict prevention of the introduction of specific
gyrodactylids may be necesssary in farms with susceptible fish species.
3.7. Treatment: 4.5-5 % solution of NaCl for 1.5 to 2.5 min and then transfer immediately to
fresh runnig water. A second bath may be necessary after several days (Cone 1991).
Triclabendazole and nitroscanate are effective at dosages 40 g/kg of feed for 10 d and 0.6 g/kg
of feed for 1 d, respectively (Tojo and Santamarina 1988). Formalin, copper sulphate,
hydrogen peroxide, sodium per carbonate, mebendazole, praziquantel may use.
4. Discocotylosis:
4.1. Aetiology: Discocotyle sagittata, D. ohridana.
D. sagittata is up to 12 mm length, 3-4 mm width. The rectangular opisthaptor is equipped
with four pairs of clamps for attachment to gill.
4.2. Epizotiyology: Sanguinivorous polyopisthocotylean monogenean occur on the gills of
freshwater salmonid fishes, with an extensive geographical distribution in the Northern
Hemisphere. It occurs at low intensities in the wild (Valtonen et al. 1990). Eggs are produced
by the harmaphroditic worm. The egg embryonate and hatch. The larva seek the host and
develops into the adult stage.
4.3. Pathogenicity: The parasite feed on host blood and may cause anameia. Inflammatory
reactions may impair respiration. Heavy infection by D. sagittata can result in deleterious
effects on the host, especially in the context of fish farms. Rainbow trout reared in the Isle of
Man have been shown to harbourhigh parasite burdens (˃1000/fish) and exibit high mortality
rates due toparasite-induced anaemia (Gannicott 1997).
4.4. Symtomps: Anameia, morbiditiy, hyperventilation.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
4.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the up to 12 mm long worm on the gills of the host. They are
charecterized by the clamps on the opisthaptor.
4.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures should be applicated.
4.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Rubio-Godoy and Tinsley 2004)
Digeneans are heteroxenous and their adult stages are parasitic in vertebrates. They
need more than one host in their life cycles. Molluscs serve as first intermediate host.
Bivalves are also the fisrt intermediate host of Fellodistomatidae, Gorgoderidae
(Phyllodistomum) and Allocreadiidae (Crepidostomum). Adult digeneans usually have a
dorsoventrally flattened oval body with a smooth, spiny or corrugated surface, a sucker
around the anteroventral mouth and an additional ventral sucker, or acetabulum. Both suckers
are used for attachment and locomotion (Paperna 2006).
5. Crepidostomosis:
5.1. Aetiology: Crepidistomum farionis, C. metoecus
5.2. Epizotiyology: The first intermediate hosts in the life history of this trematode are
Pisidium amnicum and Sphaerium corneum. Although the latter is unusual, the second
intermediate host is the larva of the mayfly, Ephemera danica. There are two generations of
rediae, the first gives rise to daughter rediae, which in turn produce cercariae. Final host is
trout (Brown, 2009).
5.3. Pathogenicity. The parasites cause swelling of the intestine. Inflammation of the intestinal
wall may cause malabsorption. Parasite reduce the hemoglobin and hematocrit levels in the
fish (Klein et al. 1969).
5.4. Symtomps: Inflammatory state of intestinal wall, haemorrhages.
5.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite in the intestine. The charecteristic cephalic lobes and the
two suckers are found in both species.
5.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate host.
5.7. Treatment: Praziquantel is liable to have effect when used in feed oral treatmenta.
Articles
6. Phyllodistomosis:
6.1. Aetiology: Phyllodistomum simile
6.2. Epizotiyology: Brown trout, salmon parr. Large numbers of Phyllodistomum simile were
found in the urinary bladder of the trout from the River Teify. There was no evidence of a
seasonal variation in the occurrence of P. simile in trout aged two years or more.Trout aged
four or more years were more heavily infested than young trout and there was no indication of
the development of a total immunity with increase in the age of fishes. The life history of P.
simile was elucidated under experimental conditions by feeding the trout precocious
metacercariae present in daughter sporocysts obtained from the gill lamellae and epibranchial
cavity of the freshwater bi-valve, Sphaerium corneum (Thomas 1958).
6.3. Pathogenicity: Extension of urethrae.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
6.4. Symtomps: Not clear.
6.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasites in the urethrae or bladder.
6.6. Prophylaxis: Removal intermediate hosts.
6.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
7. Nanophyetosis:
7.1. Aetiology: Nanophyetus salmincola is a digenic trematode, which means that it is an
unsegmented worm that is flattened dorsoventrally. Adult worms alternate shape from “a
sphere to a long blunt rod. The worms are 0.8 to 1.1mm long and 0.3 to 0.5 mm wide and are
hermaphroditic, having both male and female reproductive organs in the same organism.
(Bennington and Pratt 1960).
7.2. Epizzotiyology: The life cycle of the N. salmincola requires three hosts. The first
intermediate host is an Oxytrema silicula stream snail. The second intermediate host is a
salmonid fish, though some non-salmonid fishes also play a role. Lastly, the definitive host is
most commonly a canid, though many other mammals are also definitive hosts, including
humans. Transmission of N. salmincola to the definitive host occurs upon ingestion of
parasite-infected fish (Bennington and Pratt 1960).
7.3.Pathogenicity: Cercariae invading fish fry may kill the fish probably due toimpairment of
the osmoregulatory system. The parasite can transmit bacterial infection (Neorickettsia
helminthoeca) to the dog.
7.4. Symtomps: Lethargy, morbidity, mortality of fish.
7.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metaacercariae in fish tissue. These are pyriform, unspined, large
oral sucker of same size as ventral sucker, short oesaphagus.
7.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts.
7.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect in the early stage of infection but this has not
been documented (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
8. Sanguinicolosis:
8.1. Aetiology: Sanguinicola alsea, S. davisi, S. fontinalis, S. idahoensis, S. klamathensis.
Sanguinicola fontinalis body very flat, elongate when fixed relaxed, colourless, translucent,
0.90 mm long, 0.21 mm wide after hot fixation, staining and mounting (Hoffman et al. 1985).
8.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite lives blood vessels of the fish. Eggs are produced wich
hatch to release the first larval stage called the miracidum.. These larvae from the eggs pass
out of the gills into the pond water. In the pond miracidia infect the intermediate host as snails
of the genus Oxytrema or Fluminicola. In the intermediate host sporocysts are developed and
release cercariae which are infective for the fish. Then parasite penetrate into the blood vessel
and develop there.
8.3. Pathogenicity: The release of eggs and penetrating miracidia mat elicit pathological
reactions in the gill and blood vessels.
8.4. Symtomps: Branchitis (diseased gill), swollaen kidney, mortality, morbidity, lowered
haematocrit.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
8.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite (length 0.5-0.9 mm) in the blood vessels (branchial,
renal, cardiac vessels). The adultfluke is lanceolate withour suckers and a narrow
oesophaagus. Eggs are thin-shelled.
8.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of snails from ponds and the environment. Filtration of pond water
to clear infective cercariae.
8.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have a effect but this has not been documented (Buchmann
and Bresciani 2001).
9. Diplostomosis:
9.1. Aetiology: Larvae (metacercariae) of Diplostomum spathaceum (Diplostomatidae,
Digenea). Body length of cercariae is 160-260 µm and the bifurcated tail stem is as long as
the body. The established metacercariae are flattened, about 400 µm in length, and possess
two suckers and an attachment organ (Hoglund 1999).
9.2. Epizotiyology: The life cycle involves pulmonate snails as first intermediate hosts, fish as
second intermediate hosts, and piscivorous birds as final hosts harbouring the adult worms.
Fish are infected with cercariae. The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish eating bird
releases eggs. These pass with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they hatch
and release free swimming miracidia. These infect the first intermediate host, a pulmonate
snail, Lymnaea pereger or L. stagnalis. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst,
develops. Tail bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocysts and are liberated to
the water where tthey seek a fish host. When attached to the skin the tail is lost and the
invasion process is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates
through the lymphatic ducts to the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva
develops into the metacercarial stage (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
9.3. Pathogenicity: The free-living feeding metacercariae lie in the cortex of the lens. Rupture
of the lens and proliferating lens epithelium are sometimes observed at the site of parasite
entry (Hoglund 1999). Cercarial penetration of skin may compromise osmoregulation
(Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
9.4. Symtomps: Infection may result in cataract formation within the lens, leading to partial or
total blindness. Starvation may cause a significant reduction in condition, or even death. After
penetration of the cercariae, lesions may form on the gills, body surface, and fins, which can
cause death, especially in young fish, at high infection rates (Hoglund, 1999).
9.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the metacercaria in the lens of the fish.
9.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts. Preventing access of final host (fish
eating birds) because they release parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may
reduce density of cercariae. Increrase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positevely
phototactic cercariae.
9.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) has been used orally in feed (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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10. Apatemonosis:
10.1. Aetiology: Apatemon gracilis
10.2. Epizotiyology: Adult trematodes live in birds. First intermediate host is a freswater
snail, the trout is the second intermediate with infective metracercariae. When the fish-eating
birds eats the fish it will result in maturation of tehe metacercaria into the adult stage in the
intestine of the bird.
10.3.Pathogenicity: The presence of metaccercariae in host tissue produce inflammatory
reactions which may affect physiological function of the organ. Trout infection with
Apatemon gracilis resulted in fibrogranulomatosis of the epicardium and failure in in-vitro
pumping performance (Tort et al. 1987, Watson et al. 1992).
10.4. Symtomps: Heavy infections associated witth lethargic fish. Heart function may
decrease.
10.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the fish tissue.
10.6. Prophylaxis: Eradication of intermediate host snails in the culture system and
surroundeings. Prevention of bird entry.
10.7. Treatment: Anthelmintic such as praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani
2001).
11. Tylodelphysosis:
11.1. Aetiology: Tylodelphys clavata, metacercariae; body lenght is 0.28-0.69 mm, width is
0.8-0.21 mm. Diameter of oral sucker is 0.025–0.047 x 0.021–0.039 mm, ventral sucker is
0.016–0.029 x 0.020-0.029 mm. Brandes's organ 0.048-0.079 x 0.021–0.045 mm (Karatoy
and Soylu 2006).
11.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish-eating bird sheds
parasite eggs. these are delivered with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they
hatch and release free awimminng miracida. The first intermediate host, a pulmonate
snail,become infected by penetration. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst, develops.
Tail-bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocyst and are liberated to the water
where they seek a fish host. When attached to the skinthe tail is lost and the invading process
is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates in the lymphatic ducts to
the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva develops into the metacercarial
stage.
11.3. Pathogenicity: The movements and excretion from the metracercaria may cause
disturbances of the eye function.
11.4. Symtomps: Normally metacercariae do not cause serious disease. However, penetration
of cercaria into small fish ma elicit mortality.
11.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the vitreous humour of the fish.
11.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediaate snail hosts. Preventing access of final fisheating hosts releasing parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may reduce density
of cercariae. Increase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positively phototactic
cercariae.
11.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) may be used orally in feed (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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The cestoda or tapeworms are exclusively endoparasitc and hermoaphroditic with no
asexual propagation in the intermediate host. Cestodes are oviparaous and have complicated
life cycles which in many cases include free-swimming ciliated larvae called coracidia. Other
cestode eggs infectt the host by hatching after ingestion. They have no mouth nor intestine.
They feed by absorbing of substances through their tegument.
12. Cyathocephalosis
12.1. Aetiology: Cyathocephalus truncatus
12.2. Epizootiyology: Hexacanth embryos of C. truncatus were found to develop optimally in
eggs cultured at between 15 °C and 20 °C for about 25 days. Gammarus pulex became
infected only by swallowing egg capsules a containing hexacanth embryos fed to them. The
young developing embryo grows over a period of about 10 weeks to the infective procercoid
stage in the body cavity of the amphipod. In fish, the tapeworm forms an attachment in the
distal end of a pyloric caecum 3 days after infection and matures in 8-10 days with production
of eggs. By the 15th day the attachment to host tissue has become so firm that it is impossible
to separate the worm from it. The tapeworm's hold on the caecal wall is probably achieved by
the sucking effect of the funnel-shaped scolex supplemented by the spike-like microtriches of
the inner scolex surface (Okaka 1984).
12.3. Pathogenicity: In heavily infected fish, the entire region of the pyloric caeca becomes
fused into a single mass which may additionally fuse with the abdominal body wall
immediately adjacent to it. In some cases, tapeworms were seen to have penetrated through
the caecal wall and were attached directly to the muscles of the abdominal wall with the
strobila still within the caecum. In other cases the whole tapeworm had moved through the
perforated distal tip of the caecum and was found free in the body cavity. Worms could also
be discharged into the intestinal tract with the detached distal, end of the caecum still held in
the soolex as described previously. Caeca with perforated tips are common in heavily infected
fish.
12.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish are often pale in colour, appearing very anaemic and
showed blister-like pustules on the skin of the abdomen. Light infections do not elicit
symptoms but mass mortalities in association with heavy infections have beeen described
(Okaka 1984).
12.5.Diagnosis: Unsegmented cestode with a maximum length of 5 cm. The scolex is cupshaped.
12.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate snail hosts.
12.7. Treatment: Praziquantel, mebendazole or albendazole may have effect due to their
anticestodal activity (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
13. Proteocephalosis
13.1. Aetiology: Procephalus longicollis
13.2. Epizootiyology: The adult hermaphroditic cestode produce eggs which are liberated to
the water. Following hatching the larava (coracidium) will be ingested by a copepode which
in turn becomes infected with the procercoid stage. When the fish eats the copepod this
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
crustacean will get deigested whereas the cestode larva develops into the adult stage in the
fish intestine. Adult cestodes are usually located in the anterior part of the intestine or caeca,
while juveniles may be found throughout the intestine (Scholz 1999). Parasite abundance is
highest in the period mid June - mid July
13.3. Pathogenicity: Mainly due to absorption of nutritive substances in the host intestine.
Inflammation of intestinalepitthelium due to cestode attachment.
13.4. Symtomps: It has been suggested that infections with P. longicollis reduce the growth of
rainbow trout (Priemer and Goltz 1986, Engelhardt et al. 1988).
13.5. Diagnosis: Detection in intestine of cestodes with four suckers.
13.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts.
13.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
14. Eubothriosis
14.1. Aetiology: Eubothrium crassum E. salvelini
14.2. Epizootiyology: Transmission of E. crassum occurs when fish ingest infected copepods,
and the first site of E. crassum is either the stomach or intestine, where digestion of the
copepod happens. Growth only commences when a plerocerciform worm moves into a
caecum, and larger worms are more likely to be found in anterior caeca, the preferred site of
E. crassum (Kennedy 1996). The increase in prevalence and abundance of E. crassum occur
from late March to mid May.
14.3. Pathogenicity: The presence of the cup-shaped scolex in the tip of the pyloric caecum
induces an extensive ball-shaped tissue reaction.
14.4. Symtomps: infection by E. crassum may have a negative effect on host condition factor..
Parasite cause direct mortalities among the heavily infected fish, and indirect mortalities by
predation from reduced growth, poor swimming performance and aberrant behaviour. The
negative growth effects highlighted are considered caused either by poor host nutrition due to
demands of the parasite or from reduced food gathering capabilities (Smith 1973).
14.5. Diagnosis: Detection of cestodes in the pyloric caeca and intestine.
14.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepos hosts. Filtration of water.
14.7. Treatment: Di-n-butyl tin oxide 80-160 mg/kg three days (Mitchell 1993)
15. Diphyllobothriosis
15.1. Aetiology: Diphyllobothrium is a genus of tapeworm which can cause
Diphyllobothriasis in humans through consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The principal
species causing diphyllobothriosis is Diphyllobothrium latum, known as the broad or fish
tapeworm, or broad fish tapeworm. D. latum is a pseudophyllid cestode that infects fish and
mammals. D. latum is native to Scandinavia, western Russia, and the Baltics, though it is now
also present in North America, especially the Pacific Northwest. In Far East Russia, D.
klebanovskii, having Pacific salmon as its second intermediate host, was identified (Muratov
and Posokhov 1988).
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15.2. Epizootiyology: Adult tapeworms may infect humans, canids, felines, bears, pinnipeds,
and mustelids. Immature eggs are passed in feaces of the mammal host. After ingestion by a
suitable freshwater crustacean such as a copepod (the first intermediate host), the coracidia
develop into procercoid larvae. Following ingestion of the copepod by a suitable second
intermediate host, typically a minnow or other small freshwater fish, the procercoid larvae are
released from the crustacean and migrate into the fish's flesh where they develop into a
plerocercoid larvae. The plerocercoid larvae are the infective stage for the definitive host.
15.3. Pathogenicity: Inflammatory reactions in the affected tissue.
15.4. Symtomps: Clinical signs of diphyllobothriasis are generally mild, and can include
diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, weight loss, fatigue, constipation and discomfort in
human. Approximately four out of five cases are asymptomatic and may go many years
without being detected (Scholz et al. 2009). In a small number of cases, this leads to severe
vitamin B12 deficiency due to the parasite absorbing 80% or more of the host’s B12 intake,
and a megaloblastic anemia indistinguishable from pernicious anemia (David and William
2006).
15.5. Diagnosis: Detection of pleurocercoids in the fish viscera of flesh.
15.6. Prophylaxis: Contamination of the environment with worm eggs should be prevented.
15.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001)
16. Triaenophorosis
16.1. Aetiology: Triaenophorus crassus, T. nodulosus
16.2. Epizootiyology: Adults of T. crassus and T. nodulosus occur in the intestine of the pike,
Esox lucius L. The first intermediate hosts of Triaenophorus spp. are cyclopoid copepods and
in European waters Cyclops vicinus and C. strenuus are the most important first hosts of T.
crassus (Kuperman 1973). Plerocercoids of T. crassus occur in the musculature of the fish
host, and in wild populations of salmonids and coregonids may cause loss of quality in fish
products. Infection first occurs in early June when the trout fry have been moved into the
cages (Bauer and Solomatova 1984).
16.3. Pathogenicity: Severe inflamatory reactions in muscles due to infectins with T. crassus.
The plerocercoids may exert pressure on organs and thereby disturb normal physiological
function.
16.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause letthargy and mortality of fingerlings.
16.5. Diagnosis: Detection of plerocercoids in the organs or muscles of the intermaediate host.
The worms have four characteristic hooks shaped as three-toothed combs in the scolex.
16.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts. Any pike in the surrondings
should be removed. Water filtration prevent to contaminate of copepods.
16.7. Treatment: Anticestodal drugs such as praziquantel mat have effect (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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63
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1227
Title
A name given to the resource
Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Author
Author
Erol, Tokşen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp., Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp., Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey, First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9e3d3e71d30efd54c99963097aa79973.pdf
9c0077332787dec126ee0fe786dd3570
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Kobya M. (2004) Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr (VI) by hazelnut shell
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99(14), 6017–6027.
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Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of
Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar
Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr,
ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly
on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).
41
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been
considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by
private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina,
mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in
Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing
sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae
production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted
to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes
and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites,
how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed,
and how they could be controlled and treated.
Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment.
1.INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industries in Turkey having grown in
volume by over 20 percent for the past ten years (Table 1). Production of the three major
species, namely rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and
seabream (Sparus aurata) increased rapidly during the 1990s, with efforts having been given
to the development of new species, such as the Black Sea turbot (Scophthalmus maeoticus)
and some Mediterranean species such as sharpsnout seabream (Diplodus puntazzo), common
seabream (Pagrus pagrus), common dentex (Dentex dentex) and groupers (Epinephelus spp.).
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) fattening, which started at the turn of the millennium
has been the latest development in terms of species diversity.
Species
Seabass/seabream
Trout
Shell
Tuna
Trout & seabass
Seabass & bream & new species
Trout
Seabass & bream & trout
Seabass
Total
Farm number
Rate (%)
Rate (%)
87
1
1
2
4
4
Capacity
(tonnes)
99 869
820
1 925
7 440
9 613
9 529
309
5
4
8
14
13
1
1
0
0
4 800
100
3.6
0.1
1
356
0
100
25
134 121
0
100
74
0.6
1.4
5.5
7.2
7.1
Table 1. Number of marine fish farm, capacities and production in 2009.
(http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_turkey/en)
Tuna aquaculture is presently in its early stages of development and will likely
continue to expand, but with this expansion, parasitic disease will become increasingly
important. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their
economic and ecological impact. Diseases problems including parasitic organisms are the
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main threat to further increas of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases
on tuna fish. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in tuna
fish. Each section is presented with 1.aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the
disease, 2.epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite,
3.pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4.symptoms, clinical signs of
the diseases, 5.diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6.treatment, how the infection
can be controlled.
2. Coccidiosis
2.1. Aetiology. Goussia auxidis
Mature oocysts (18-28 µm diameter) occur in the splenic pulp and in melanomacrophage
centres in the spleen and liver, and in the peribiliary connective tissues of the liver. The
oocyst has a thin membranous wall, and each contains four sporocysts but no oocyst
residuum. Sporocysts (length 8-12 x 6-7 µm) have a thickened wall with a faint dehiscence
suture occasionally visible (Jones 1990).
2.2. Epizootiology: The method of transmission of infection is unknown. 98 % (140 of 143)
of albacore, T. alalunga, and an individual yellowfin tuna, T. albacares, from the South
Pacific were found be infected (Jones 1990).
2.3. Pathogenicity: Oocysts occurred in both the liver and spleen where they produced
minimal host response. Host response appears to be minimal with slight proliferation of
fibroblasts around the oocyst in some fish. The spores are positively associated with
melanomacrophage centres but the degree of association varies from fish to fish (Jones 1990).
2.4. Symptoms: No clinical signs have been reported.
2.5. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Not required.
3. Uronemosis
3.1. Aetiology: Uronema nigricans
Fixed and stained parasite is variable in size ranging from 19.8-34 µm in length by 7.1-20 µm
in width. They contained distinctive somatic ciliature consisting of 12-14 longitudinal kineties
arranged in meridional rows (Munday et al. 1997).
3.2. Epizootiology: Until recently, infections of fish with Uronema sp. had been mainly
reported in aquarium species in which they were invasive and resulted in severe tissue
damage and subsequent mortalities (Cheung et al. 1980, Bassleer 1983). More recently the
potential for scuticociliatids to be a problem in mariculture has been highlighted by reports of
serious disease of larval and juvenile fish in Japan and Spain attributed to infection with
Uronema sp. (Yoshinaga and Nakazoe 1993, Dykova and Figueras 1994) and of mature sea
bass in the Mediterranean, where parasite was described as Philasterides dicentrarchi
(Dragesco et al. 1995). In Australia mortalities of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii in
growout seacages have also been reported with the causative agent being identified as
Uronema nigricans (Munday et al. 1997). Epizootiological factors which may be implicated in
the initiation of the disease in SBT are water temperature and host immune status. The
"swimmer" syndrome has not occurred when water temperatures have exceeded 18°C. SBT
maintain a body temperature of about 24°C, even in much colder water, so it is possible that
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
the parasite, which would be expected to have an optimum growth temperature of about 25°C
(Parker 1976), would be preferentially attracted to the fish under conditions of relatively low
water temperatures (< 18°C).
3.3. Pathogenicity: U. nigricans initially parasitizes the olfactory rosette at which stage the
host mounts a vigorous inflammatory response. If the host response is inadequate, the ciliate
then invades branches of the olfactory nerve present in the axis of the olfactory rosette. Even
though there is still some host response to invasion of the olfactory nerve the migration of U.
nigricans is probably then inexorable, ending in invasion of the brain, which causes locomotor
dysfunction and, ultimately, death. Generalised infections leading to severe mortalities in
larval marine fish were reported (Munday 1996).
3.4. Symptoms: Typically, affected tuna fish came to the surface, turned light blue and swam
vigorously around the cage. Eventually, the fish ceased compulsive swimming and exhibited
short bursts of forward motion with their heads out of water, followed by periods of sinking,
before once again coming to the surface and then repeating the process. Finally, the fish sank
and died at the bottom of the netpen (Munday et al. 1997).
3.5. Diagnosis: Presumptive diagnosis of the disease in SBT can be made by examining wet
preparations of CSF and brain. However, although a fluorescent antibody test has been
developed for cultured and environmental organisms (Watts 1995), this is not suitable for
clinical material because of autofluorescence of host tissues. Definitive diagnosis can be made
by microscopic examination of histological slides of nervous tissues. As clinical pathology
only reflects general stress and perturbed osmoregulation, it is of no specific diagnostic value.
3.6. Treatment: The most effective concentrations of formalin were 100 and 200 ppm where
total cell lysis occurred after 120 and 60 min respectively. Hydrogen peroxide was lethal to
the ciliate at all concentrations (Crosbie and Munday, 1999).
4. Kudoasis
4.1. Aetiology: Kudoa prunusi, K. crumena
Typical Kudoa crumena spores measuring 7.5 x 9.9 µm and 4.4-5.6 x 7.8-10.0 µm. Average
spore size of Kudoa prunusi is 9.63 μm in width and 7.50 μm in length (Meng et al., 2011).
4.2. Epizootiyology: K. crumena was reported in a yellowfin tuna (Kent et al. 2001). The
infections described by Langdon (1990) were in southern bluefin tuna caught off
southwestern Western Australia when the fish would have been 1-3 years of age and feeding
on cephalopods, crustaceans and salps (Kailola et al. 1993). Infections have also been
reported in southern bluefin tuna in South Australia (Rough 2000) and wild fish caught off the
New South Wales coast where the prevalence of about 1% affected fish was a cause of
commercial loss. The prevalence of K. crumena in albacore was reported as 5%. Kudoa sp.
infection of northern and southern bluefin tuna producing lesions in the flesh.
4.3. Pathogenicity: The infection in southern bluefin tuna produces white cysts 1-10 mm in
diameter which are apparently in the muscle (Rough 2000) although Langdon (1990)
produced evidence to suggest that most, if not all, cysts in southern bluefin tuna were in
peripheral nerves, especially the intercostal nerves. Histologically the cysts are found to
consist of numerous Kudoa spores surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Similar lesions because of
an unidentified Kudoa sp. have been reported in southern bluefin tuna and Langdon (1990)
suggested that the parasite could be K. nova, but as it does not produce myoliquefaction, this
seems unlikely.
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4.4. Symptoms. None reported.
4.5. Diagnosis. Kudoa sp. can be seen in wet preparations or histological sections. Numerous
plasmodia were localized not only in the cavity of the optic tectum but also in the tissue of
cerebellum. Host inflammatory response and gliosis were occasionally found around
plasmodia (Meng et al. 2011).
4.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention are practicable.
5. Hexacapsulosis
5.1. Aetiology: Hexacapsula neothunni
Spores measure 6.2-11.0 µm and have six shell valves each containing one polar capsule
(Lom and Dykova 1992). Kudoa nova spores measure 5.3-6.5 x 8.5-9.8 µm and have four
shell valves each containing one polar capsule.
5.2. Epizotiology: Most myxosporeans, for which life cycles are known, have a two-host
cycle with the myxosporean in a fish and an actinosporean in an invertebrate (Kent et al.
2001). As most juvenile tuna consume invertebrates such as squid and crustaceans (Kailola et
al. 1993), it is conceivable that these prey species could be alternative hosts.
5.3. Pathogenicity: The postmortem liquefaction of the muscle caused by the release of
proteases from the parasites that is the most dramatic result of the infection (Ogawa 1996).
Histologically, the myxosporean spores are found aggregated in the cystic structures and
usually produce minimal host response.
5.4. Symptoms: The parasites produce no clinical signs, and, while with heavy infections
cysts may be visible in the musculature
5.5. Diagnosis: Typical myxosporean spores can be easily found in wet preparations or
histological sections of affected muscles.
5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention is practicable.
6. Cardicolosis
6.1. Aetiology: Cardicola ahi, Cardicola forsteri
Adult flukes are dorsoventrally compressed and 100-150 μm in width, with marginal
tegumental spines, parenchymous body cavity, and indistinct reproductive and digestive tracts
(Cribb et al. 2000).
6.2 Epizootiyology: C. ahi has been reported from yellowfin and bigeye tunas (Smith 1997).
C. forsteri (Cribb et al. 2000) occurs in southern bluefin tuna. The intermediate hosts of
Cardicola ahi and C. forsteri are not known. It is also not known if teleosts, other than
Thunnus spp., act as final hosts. Colquitt et al. (2001) reported that the prevalence and
severity of the infection increased with the time that southern bluefin tuna were held in
captivity suggesting that the life cycle was maintained in the vicinity of the cages.
Additionally, tuna farmers have reported that infections tend to be more severe at new cage
sites suggesting that the parasite may also have a deleterious effect on the intermediate host.
6.3. Pathogenicity: Multifocal, white to yellow lesions involving the gills of infected southern
bluefin tuna are described. The lesions ranged in size from 2 to 12 mm and often extended in
an arc across the gills. The lesions appeared to be the result of the fluke ova impacting in the
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
afferent filamentary arteries where they stimulated a host response. Cardiac lesions were also
reported and noted many ova surrounded by granulomas. There was marked hypertrophy of
the cardiac spongiosa, presumably because of increased resistance to blood passing through
the partly occluded branchial vasculature (Colquitt et al. 2001). It may not be a coincidence
that bigeye tuna, which are known to be infected with C. ahi, have a much more compact
ventricular myocardium (74%) compared with northern bluefin tuna (30–50%) which have
not been reported to be to be infected with blood flukes (Santer and Greer-Walker 1980,
Smith 1997).
6.4. Symptoms: C. forsteri infections of cultured southern bluefin tuna lead to increased
mucus on the gills and have been associated with signs of respiratory distress, lethargy and
slightly increased mortality (Rough 2000).
6.5. Diagnosis: In southern bluefin tuna the gross lesions are characteristic enough to enable a
presumptive diagnosis. Histopathology is even more diagnostic, but definitive diagnosis
depends upon flushing the adults from the heart and identifying them.
5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Prevention of blood fluke infections depends upon an
understanding of the parasites life cycle and, therefore, is not possible at present.
7. Didymocystiasis
7.1. Aetiology: Didymocystis wedli
The membranous cysts on the gill filament are oval in shape and measure 3-6 mm in length by
1.5-2.8 mm in width, depending on the stage of development and contain two similar worms
applied closely against each other with opposite extremities. Under higher magnification we
can observe the porous surface of the cyst. The characteristic feature of the body shape of
D. wedli, with two distinct parts, can be well observed by light and scanning electron
microscopy. The forebody is elongate, cylindrical, and slender, measures 1-2.2 mm long by
00.1-0.3 mm wide. The tegument of ventral and dorsal surfaces of forebody is wrinkled
cobblestone-like, without spines or papillae. At higher magnification the oral opening is seen
in the retractil tip of the forebody. Sensory papillae were not observed around the oral
opening. The large hindbody has two symmetrical rounded lobes on the anterior end, forming
a groove, from which emerges the elongated forebody; the posterior third of the hindbody is
curved ventrally forming a somewhat pointed tail. The hindbody measure 3.4-10.2 mm in
length by 0.9-3.1mm largest widht. The dorsal surface is more prominent than the ventral,
forming a cover with tegumental transversal striations. There are no spines or papillae on
either the ventral or the dorsal tegumentary surface of the hindbbody, which presents the same
wrinkled cobblestone-like appearance (Kohn et al. 2001)
8. Anisakisasis
8.1. Aetiology: Anisakis simplex and Hysterothylacium cornutum (Williams and BunkleyWilliams 1996).
8.2. Epizootiyology: The definitive hosts of these parasites are marine mammals. Many other
species of fish can act as intermediate hosts.
8.3. Pathogenicity: The small third-stage larvae are found encapsulated in the peritoneal
mesenteries and, sometimes, the liver. If the fish are not quickly eviscerated it is possible for
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the larvae to migrate to the abdominal muscles. Anisakis sp. infections are of importance
because they can potentially infect humans.
8.4. Symptoms: The infections are covert.
8.5. Diagnosis: The presence of tightly coiled, encapsulated larval nematodes in the
mesenteries of tunas is suggestive of anisakid nematode infection, but definitive identification
of the larvae can be difficult.
8.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Human infection can be prevented by rapid evisceration of
the fish and/or cooking of the flesh. In most instances tuna destined for sashimi are
eviscerated soon after capture. There is no practicable treatment.
9. Copepodiasis
9.1. Aetiology: C. elongatus, Euryphros brachypterus, Penella filosa and Pseudocycnus
appendiculatus
Overall length of female of Pseudocycnus appendiculatus is 13.7 mm-15.6 mm. Anterior
quarter of ventral length bright red, rest of body yellowbrown, the red pigment persistent in
alcohol for at least several months. Cephalothorax subovate, (1.2 mm-1.3 mm x 1.2 mm),
greatest width a little posterior to midpaint. Second thoracic segment subovate, length/width
(0.6 mm-0.8 mm x 1.1 mm). Third thoracic segment, length/width (0.5 mm-0.6 mm x 1.0
mm-1.2 mm). Fourth thoracic segment subovate, length/width (1.7 mm x 1.2 mm-1.3 mm).
Trunk, excluding the anterior swollen portion, cylindrical, length more than 6 times width (6.6
mm-7.9 mm x 1.0 mm-1.1 mm), lateral margins parallel with 2 plate-like subsemicircular
dorsal projections, % trunk width, length % width, carried laterally on posterior margin.
Abdomen, length % width (0.6 mm-0.7 mm x 0.9 mm-l.0 mm), caudal laminae borne laterally
on posterior margin of abdomen, length 12 times basal width (3.4 mm-3.8 mm x 0.3 mm-0.4
mm). Egg strings extending from posterior margin of trunk, beneath platelike projections
dorsal to abdomen, present on only 1 specimen, as long as body, eggs uniserial, length 13.7
mm, posterior of egg strings empty of eggs in this individual (Hewitt 1969, Purivirojkul
2011).
9.2. Epizootiyology: As C. elongatus and Penella filosa have multiple hosts, tuna may become
infected from a variety of sources. However, Euryphorus brachypterus is almost genus
specific for Thunnus spp. (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996). In the case of C. elongatus
infecting captive southern bluefin tuna, capture trauma and high stocking densities are
believed to predispose to heavy infections (Rough et al. 1999).
9.3. Pathogenicity: Lesions because of the copepods are related to their grazing behaviour (C.
elongatus) or the damage caused by their attachment to the host (Euryphorus brachypterus and
Penella filosa). Opportunistic infections of the bacterium Aeromonas sp. have also been
reported in association with louse-associated damage to tuna eyes (Munday et al. 2003).
9.4. Symptoms: C. elongatus grazes on the integument of southern bluefin tuna and may
produce grazing trails including over ocular tissues. Damage to the eye results in keratitis,
panopthalmitis, cataract formation and blindness, leading to significant production losses
(Rough 2000, Munday et al. 2003). Very heavy infections of Euryphorus brachypterus have
been reported in northern bluefin tuna in which the pseudobranch has been carpeted with the
parasite leading to ulceration and bleeding (Rough et al. 1999). Similar, but less severe lesions
may be present on the gills and skin. The very large copepod Penella filosa penetrates into the
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
muscles of a number of tuna species. It has been reported to cause the fish considerable
discomfort (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996).
9.5. Diagnosis: Experts can make a presumptive diagnosis of these copepod infections based
on the morphology of the parasites and the types of lesions induced by their activities.
However, definitive diagnosis is only possible by a scientist skilled in identifying the
parasites.
9.6. Prophylaxis: Trauma may predispose to C. elongatus infections then reduction of damage
because of capture, towing and harvesting should simultaneously reduce the level of
infestation/damage caused by this copepod. Additionally, as this parasite and Penella filosa
are carried by other species of fish, it would be appropriate to keep other forms of aquaculture
separate from tuna farms (Rough et al. 1999).
9.7. Treatment: Although a number of therapeutants are capable of killing copepod parasites
(Lester and Roubal 1999) it is impracticable to use these agents under current tuna
aquaculture conditions. In addition, at the present level of loss of production, such treatments
would be uneconomical.
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(Digenea: Sanguinicolidae), of southern blue-fin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) in aquaculture,
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Crosbie, P.B.B. and Munday, B.L. (1999) Environmental factors and chemical agents
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(1995) Philasterides dicentrarchi, n. sp., (Ciliophora, Scuticoclliatida), a histophagous
opportunstic parasite of Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), a reared marine fish,
European Journal of Protistology, 31, 327-340.
Dykova, I. and Figueras, A. (1994) Histopathological changes in turbot Scophthalmus
maximus due to a histophagous ciliate. Diseases of Aquatic Organisims, 18, 5-9.
Hewitt, G.C. (1969) Pseudocycnus appendiculatus Heller, 1868 (copepoda, dichelesthiidae)
in New Zealand waters, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 3, 169176.
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Jones, J.B. (1990) Goussia auxidis (Dogiel, 1984) (Apicomplexa: Calyptosporidae) from tuna
(Pisces: Scombridae) in the South Pacific, Journal of Fish Diseases 13, 215–223.
Kailola, P.J., Williams, M.J., Stewart, P.C., Reichelt, R.E., McNee, A. and Grieve, C. (1993)
"Australian Fisheries Resources" Commonwealth of Australia, Brisbane.
Kent, M.L., Andree, K.B., Bartholomew, J.L., El-Matbouli, M., Desse,r S.S., Devlin, R.H.,
Feist, S.W., Hedrick, R.P., Hoffman, R.W., Khattra, J., Hallett, S.L., Leste,r R.J.G.,
Longshaw, M., Palenzeula, O., Siddall, M.E. and Xiao, C. (2001) Recent advances in our
knowledge of Myxozoa. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48, 395-413.
Kohn, A., Santos, A.L. and Baptista-Farias, M.F.D. (2001) Report of Didymocystis wedli
Ariola, 1902 (Digenea; Didymozoidae) from Thunnus albacares in Brazil, Memorias do
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Thunnus rnaccoyii (Castelnau). Dis Aquat Org 30:17-25.
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spp. Journal of Fish Diseases, 26, 187–206
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mariculture. Veterinary Parasitology 64, 95–105.
Parker, JG (1976) Cultural characteristics of the marine ciliated protozoan Uronema marinum
Dujardin. J Exp Mar Biol Eco124:213-226.
Purivirojkul, W. Chaidee P. and Thapanand-Chaıdee, T. (2011) New Record Of
Pseudocycnus Appendiculatus Heller, 1868 Parasites Of Yellowfin Tuna Thunnus Albacares
(Bonnaterre, 1788) in The Andaman Sea, Thailand, Walailak J Sci & Tech 2011; 8(1): 81‐85.
Rough KM (2000) An illustrated guide to the parasites of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus
maccoyii. South Australian Research and Development Institute, Adelaide.
Rough K.M., Lester R.J.G. and Reuter R.E. (1999) Caligus elongatus a significant parasite of
cultured southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii. Book of Abstracts, World Aquaculture, 99,
26 April–2 May 1999, Sydney, p. 655. World Aquaculture Society.
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Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and
elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272.
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Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp.
(Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus
maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston.
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Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental
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Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate
causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu
28:131-134.
Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls
in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2
1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir,
Turkey
2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin,
Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein,
employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is
especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of
aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease
outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were
caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp.,
Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium
spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp.,
Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in
rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in
some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in
EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey,
First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from
Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum
50
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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1226
Title
A name given to the resource
Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Author
Author
Erol, Tokşen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina, mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ba506bbd231217a22d4fac647aea7a6e.pdf
5ae125e49742a908a886fa6d4cec4da1
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Effect of steel plant pollution on photosynthetic apparatus of some spontaneous plants
by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging
EriolaZhuri Hida1, VeledinÇako2,FatbardhaBabani3,Theodhor Karaja4
1University ‘AleksanderMoisiu’, Durres, Albania,
2 Department of Physics, University ‘Ismail Qemali’,Vlora, Albania,
3 Biotechnology Department, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania,
4Physics Department, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania,
E-mails: eri_zhuri@yahoo.com, v.cako69@hotmail.com, fbabani@yahoo.com,
theodhor.karaja@yahoo.com
Abstract
Environmental pollution by the steel plant in Elbasan, the largest metallurgical complex in
Albania causes serious problems. Although the blast furnaces and basic oxygen converters
closed in 1991, small scale steel production from scrap metal continued. This steel plant
releasing chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere is considered a source of air
pollution.
Industrial siderurgic air pollution as other stressors affects growth and physiological functions
of plants. Pollution has effects on the photosynthetic performance of leaves and can modify
their optical and fluorescence properties either directly or indirectly. The chlorophyll (Chl)
fluorescence provides ample information on the performance of photosynthetic apparatus. Chl
fluorescence signatures of leaves as an efficient tool and a nondestructive method for the in
vivo analysis of plant stress is applying to describe and investigate the photosynthetic light
processes and quantum conversion at physiological conditions as well as to detect stress on
the photosynthetic apparatus. The chlorophyll fluorescence images were measured on leaves
using the FluorCam 700MF imaging system (Photon Systems Instrument) as a techniques that
offer the possibility to study the distribution and patchiness of fluorescence signatures over
the whole leaf area.
Chl fluorescence images were measured on the leaves of some spontaneous plants grown in
sites with different level of steel plant air pollution assessed on base of different distances and
different directions from the source of the pollution. Efficiency of photosynthetic apparatus of
analyzed plants was evaluated via chlorophyll fluorescence images during induction kinetics
and various fluorescence ratio images. The images of Chl fluorescence ratios, acquired by
pixel to pixel arithmetic operations performed by FluorCam software, were aplied as
indicators of the functional state or the damage of the photosynthetic apparatus. The potential
and effective quantum yields of photosynthetic electron transport were estimated too.
Observed differences on imaging of chlorophyll fluorescence signature and photosynthetic
pigment content of some spontaneous plants allowed characterizing of the photosynthetic
performance in order to evaluate the damage by plant steel air pollution.
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Keywords: chlorophyll fluorescence imaging, induction kinetics, plant steel air pollution,
photosynthetic apparatus, potential/effective quantum yield, spontaneous plant.
1.INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution by the steel plant in Elbasan, the largest siderurgical complex in
Albania causes serious problems. In this area operate some plants as steel plant operator
"Kurum“, cement factory "ECF", Establishment of Ferro-Chrome "ACR“.
This steel plant releasing chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere is considered a
source of air pollution. Monitored elements in the Elbasan area are:
- solids suspended in the air (LNP), rigid particles with dimensions smaller than 10 microns
(PM10)
- lead (Pb), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) in the air.
Siderurgic air pollution as other stressors affects growth and physiological functions of plants.
Pollution has effects on the photosynthetic performance of leaves and can modify their optical
and fluorescence properties either directly or indirectly. The chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence
signatures of plants have been applied as an efficient tool to describe and investigate the
photosynthetic light processes and quantum conversion to detect pollution effects on the
photosynthetic apparatus. Image analysis of the Chl fluorescence signals offers the possibility
to study the function of photosynthetic apparatus and to detect early stress damage in plants
by screening the fluorescence emission over the leaf area as well as the gradients and local
irregularities in fluorescence emission and ratios (Lichtenthaler 1996, Buschmann and
Lichtenthaler, Krause and Weis, 1991; Lichtenthaler and Miehé, 1997; Lichtentaler and
Babani, 2004; Schreiber1986). Various parameters and ratios of the Chl fluorescence
determined from the induction kinetics (Kautsky effect) can be used as indicators of the
functional state or stress damage of the photosynthetic apparatus and photosynthetic electron
transport (Babani and Lichtenthaler, 1996; Buschmann and Lichtenthaler, 1998; Govindjee
1995, 2004). Imaging of Chl fluorescence kinetics correctly screening the emission
heterogeneity reflects localized biotic or abiotic stress or heterogeneous metabolism. Offering
the possibility to study distribution and patchiness of fluorescence signatures over the whole
leaf area these techniques were developed as invaluable tool for determining the
photosynthetic performance of plants (Buschmann and Lichtenthaler 1998, Lichtenthaler and
Babani 2000; Lichtenthaler et al., 2000,Lichtenthaler and Babani 2004, Lichtenthaleret al.,
2007, Nebdal et al. 2000, Schreiber 2004).
The objective of the presented research is the evaluation of damage by plant steel air pollution
on spontaneous plants characterizing the photosynthetic performance by imaging of
chlorophyll fluorescence signature. Imaging of Chl fluorescence kinetics correctly screening
the emission heterogeneity reflects localized biotic or abiotic stress or heterogeneous
metabolism. Offering the possibility to study distribution and patchiness of fluorescence
signatures over the whole leaf area these techniques were developed as invaluable tool for
determining the photosynthetic performance of plants
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2.MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Plant material
Endemic-spontaneous plant Cercius siliquastrum grown in different steel plant pollution
conditions were analyzed. Study areas were chosen in three different locations: Dajti area (site
1) characterized by optimal physiological conditions, Krrabe area (site 2 2.6 km) and Elbasan
area(site3- 6 km)characterized by plant steel air pollution.
Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging of induction kinetics
Chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence induction kinetics were measured using the FluorCam 700MF
kinetics imaging system constructed by Photon Systems Instrumentto capture kinetics and 2dimensional maps of key fluorescence parameters. The fluorescence emission is induced by
two sets of 325 super-bright orange light emitting diodes (LED’s) (wavelength 605nm) that
provide excitation flashes or a continuous actinic irradiance controlled by defined protocol.
Fluorescence images are captured by CCD camera. The images are taken at 12-bit resolution
in 512 x 512 pixels of CCD chip. The size of an analyzed object is smaller than 10 13 cm.
The chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence images and induction kinetics were measured on predarkened leaves (30 min) using the FluorCam quenching protocol. The images of the
measured Chl fluorescence intensity were obtained on false colour, whereby black is the
lowest (zero) and red the highest fluorescence intensity.
Chlorophyll fluorescence images of parameters as F0 and F0’(minimum fluorescence in the
dark and in the light-adapted states), Fm and Fm’ (maximum fluorescence in the dark and in
the light-adapted states), Fp, (initial fluorescence increase caused by the actinic light
exposure) and Fs, (steady-state fluorescence in actinic light exposure) were recorded. Images
of various Chl fluorescence ratios obtained by pixel to pixel arithmetic operations performed
by FluorCam software were: maximum quantum yields of Photosystem II Fv/Fm and Fm/Fo;
effective quantum yields of Photosystem II Fv'/Fm‘andFm’/Fo’; fluorescence decline ratio in
steady-state which assess plant vitality Rfd=(Fp-Fs)/Fs; non photochemical quenching
coefficients NPQ=(Fm-Fm’)/Fm and qN=(Fv-Fv’)/Fv; where Fv=Fm-Fo and Fv’=Fm’-Fo’.
Kinetics of the fluorescence transient over the leaf area was performed by FluorCam software
where each data point represents one image. The represented induction kinetics are the mean
curves of six different kinetics from six different leaves grown in every study area.
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1.Image Fluorescence parameters
Fully green leaves of Cercius siliquastrum grown in optimal physiological conditions (Dajti
area-Site 1) from six different branches were analyzed. Images of the maximum fluorescence
in the dark Fm of all analyzed leaves exhibited almost the same distribution as well as the
same level of fluorescence signal over the whole leaf area. The images represented in Figure 1
(A) that belong to one of these leaves showed no irregularities and nearly uniform distribution
of fluorescence signatures.
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A
B
C
Figure 1. Images at the maximum fluorescence in the dark Fm of a leaf grown in optimal
physiological conditions A-site 1, and plan steel air pollution conditions B-site 2, C- site 3
(pseudoscale 0-700).
Images at the maximum fluorescence in the dark Fm of leaves grown in plan steel air
pollution conditions showed a different distribution of the fluorescence emission over the leaf
area as compare to the leaves grown in optimal conditions, especially leaves grown in site 3
(Figure 1, B, C). Fluorescence images at Fm displayed at the same pseudoscale clearly
showed changes of the values of this parameter and their distributions related to the
heterogeneity over leaf area between leaves grown in different conditions.
The shape of the fluorescence induction kinetics of green leaves grown in optimal conditions
demonstrated the healthy physiologically state of these leaves (Figure 2, A). While the shape
of the induction kinetics exhibiting an increase of the fluorescence signal at the steady state of
fluorescence demonstrated the effect of pollution to which were exposed leaves during their
growth (Figure 2, B, C).
A
B
Figure 2.Induced fluorescence kinetics of leaves of Cercius siliquastrumgrown in optimal
physiological conditions A-site 1, and plan steel air pollution conditions B-site 2, C- site 3.
Image fluorescence parameters of every leaf were calculated by FluoCam software as the
mean of the fluorescence signals of all pixels over the leaf area. The represent values of these
parameters (Table 1) correspond to a mean of six different leaves. The mean values of image
fluorescence parameters demonstrated the differences between leaves grown in different
conditions. The values of standard deviations of fluorescence parameters of leaves grown in
optimal conditions show no significant differences between analyzed leaves. The observed
increase of the values of standard deviations from optimal growth conditions to pollution
conditions can be illustrated the increase of the variability through the leaves as the effect to
stress exposure.
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Table 1. Induced fluorescence image parameters of leaves of Cercius siliquastrum grown in
area of optimal and plan steel air pollution conditions (mean of six leaves).
Cerciussiliquastrum
Image Fluorescence
Fo
parameters
Fm
Fv
Fo'
Fm'
Fv'
mean
130.8
406.8
276.3
141.7
181.4
40.0
std
(3.36)
(2.62)
(5.39)
(3.92)
(4.87)
(1.88)
mean
140.5
484.4
343.9
161.3
209.5
48.3
std
(4.35)
(39.60
)
(39.62
)
(16.5)
(18.29
)
(5.54)
mean
118.4
333.2
214.8
149.9
193.4
43.4
std
(5.54)
(64.12
)
(61.32
)
(26.76
)
(23.52
)
(13.49
)
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
3.2.Image Fluorescence ratios
Images of the fluorescence decline ratio Rfd of a green leaf grown in optimal conditions
showed almost no irregularities and a uniform distribution of the values of this ratios over the
leaf area (Figure 3 A). The values of Rfd ratios as plant vitality indicator demonstrated that
these full green leaves can be characterized by the high photosynthetic activity, as reflect by
the mean values the ratio 1.63 (Table 2).
A
B
C
Figure 3. The fluorescence decline ratio image Rfdof leaves of Cerciussiliquastrum grown in
optimal physiological conditions A-site 1, and plan steel air pollution conditions B-site 2, Csite 3 (pseudoscale 0-3).
The images of the fluorescence decline ratio Rfd of leaves grown in pollution conditions
(Figure 3 B, C) showed a non uniform distribution and increase of irregularities of the values
of this ratios over the leaf area.
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Table 2. Image fluorescence ratios of leaves of Cercius siliquastrum grown in area of optimal
and plan steel air pollution conditions (mean of six leaves).
Cerciussiliquastrum
Image
ratios
Fluorescence
Fm/Fo
Fv/Fm
Fm'/Fo'
qN
NPQ
Rfd
mean
3.15
0.684
1.27
0.856
1.240
1.63
std
(0.09)
(0.009)
(0.02)
(0.005)
(.053)
(0.10)
mean
3.09
0.66
1.12
0.826
1.732
1.26
std
(0.29)
(0.02)
(0.04)
(0.007)
(0.142)
(0.18)
mean
2.81
0.64
1.29
0.798
0.723
1.14
std
(0.65)
(0.080)
(0.036)
(0.145)
(0.308)
(0.377)
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
The values of Rfd ratios represented a lower mean values of the ratio comparing to the
optimal conditions, mean values of 1.26. The values of Rfd ratios in pollution growth
conditions represented the lowest mean values of the ratio comparing to two other growth
conditions, mean values of 1.14 (Table 2, Figure 3).
The distribution of the Rfd values over the leaf area as well as the values of the ratio
demonstrated a lower activity of photosynthetic apparatus of the leaves grown in plan steel air
pollution growth conditions in comparison of leaves grown in optimal conditions (Dajti area).
The observed decrease of activity of photosynthetic apparatus in pollution conditions seem to
be related to the distance of the source of pollution, (Figure 3, Table 2).
Figure 4.Fluorescence decline ratio Rfd of leaves in different growth conditions (mean of six
leaves).
The distribution of the Rfd values showed a considerable reduction of the activity of the
photosynthetic apparatus of the leaves grown in area of site 3 than of leaves grown in two
other areas as plants were grown in severe stress-pollution conditions
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The values of Rfd ratios as plant vitality indicator demonstrated that full green leaves can be
characterized by the high photosynthetic activity, as reflect by the mean The fluorescence
ratios that allow to estimate maximum and effective quantum yields of Photosystem II
(Fv/Fm,Fm/Fo) indicated a decrease of these ratios from optimal growth conditions to stresspollution conditions (Table 2).
Non photochemical quenching coefficient qN have been decreased in growth pollution
conditions (Table 2).
Increase of the standard deviation values were observed in all calculated fluorescence ratios to
pollution growth conditions in compare to optimal conditions. Observe increase can be
illustrated the raise of the variability through the leaves as the effect to pollution exposure.
4.CONCLUSIONS
Fluorescence images measured during induction kinetics, shape of the Chl fluorescence
kinetics and the values of the fluorescence parameters in the leaves of endemic plant
Cerciussiliquastrum grown in optimal conditions (Dajti area - site 1) exhibited a high
photosynthetic activity as is demonstrated by the values of fluorescence ratios which evaluate
the plant vitality and quantum yield of photosynthetic apparatus: Rfd=1.63, Fm/Fo=3.15.
Activity of photosynthetic apparatus of leaves grown in plant steel air pollution conditions
(site 2).was generally lower than activity of plants grown in optimal conditions: Rfd=1.26,
Fm/Fo=3.1.
Activity of photosynthetic apparatus of leaves grown in plant steel air pollution conditions
(site 3) -Elbasan area) demonstrated reduction compare to other areas as is expressed by the
lowest values of fluorescence decline ratio (Rfd=1.14,Fm/Fo=2.81); increased non-uniformity
distribution and heterogeneity of signal of fluorescence over the leaf area and shape of
induction kinetics.
Observed differences on imaging of chlorophyll fluorescence signature and photosynthetic
pigment content of spontaneous plants allowed to characterize the photosynthetic
performance in order to evaluate the damage by plant steel air pollution related to the
distance of the source of pollution.
REFERENCES
Babani F. and Lichtenthaler H.K. (1996). Light-induced and age-dependent development of
chloroplasts in etiolated barley leaves as visualized by determination of photosynthetic
pigments, CO2 assimilation rates and different kinds of chlorophyll fluorescence ratios. J
Plant Physiol 148: 555-566
Buschmann C. and Lichtenthaler H.K. (1998). Principles and characteristics of multi-colour
fluorescence imaging of plants. - J. Plant Physiol. 152, 297-314
Govindjee (1995): Sixty-three years since Kautsky: Chlorophyll a fluorescence. Australian
Journal of Plant Physiology 22: 131-160
Govindjee (2004): Chlorophyll a fluorescence: A bit of basics and history. In: Papageorgiou
G, Govindjee (eds) Chlorophyll fluorescence: A signature of Photosynthesis. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp 1-42
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Krause G.H. and Weis E. (1991). Chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis: the basics.
Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol. Biol 42: 313-349
Lichtenthaler H.K. (1987). Chlorophylls and carotenoids, the pigments of photosynthetic
biomembranes. In: Douce R, Packer L (eds) Methods Enzymol 148, pp. 350-382. Academic
Press Inc, New York.
Lichtenthaler H.K. and Babani F. (2000). Detection of photosynthetic activity and water stress
by imaging the red chlorophyll fluorescence. Plant Physiology Biochemistry 38: 889-895
Lichtenthaler H.K., Babani F. (2004). Light adaptation and senescence of the photosynthetic
apparatus. Changes in pigment composition, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and
photosynthetic activity during light adaptation, In George Papageorgiou G, Govindjee (eds):
Chlorophyll Fluorescence: A Signature of Photosynthesis, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Dordrecht,The Netherlands, pp 713-736.
Lichtenthaler H.K. and Buschmann C. (2001). Chlorophylls and carotenoids–Measurement
and characterisation by UV-VIS. Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry (CPFA),
(Supplement 1), pp. F4.3.1 - F 4.3.8. John Wiley, New York
Lichtenthaler H.K. and Miehe J.A. (1997) Fluorescence imaging as a diagnostic tool for plant
stress. Trends Plant Sci 2: 316-320.
Lichtenthaler H.K., Babani F., Langsdorf G. (2007). Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging of
photosynthetic activity in sun and shade leaves of trees. Photosynthesis Research, 93: 235244.
Lichtenthaler H.K., Babani F., Langsdorf G., Buschmann C. (2000). Measurement of
differences in red chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic activity between sun and shade
leaves by fluorescence imaging. Photosynthetica38: 521-529.
Krause, G.H., Weis, E. (1991): Chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis: the basics. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 42: 313-349.
94
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Title
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Effect of steel plant pollution on photosynthetic apparatus of some spontaneous plants by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging
Author
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Eriola, Zhuri Hida
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Environmental pollution by the steel plant in Elbasan, the largest metallurgical complex in Albania causes serious problems. Although the blast furnaces and basic oxygen converters closed in 1991, small scale steel production from scrap metal continued. This steel plant releasing chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere is considered a source of air pollution. Industrial siderurgic air pollution as other stressors affects growth and physiological functions of plants. Pollution has effects on the photosynthetic performance of leaves and can modify their optical and fluorescence properties either directly or indirectly. The chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence provides ample information on the performance of photosynthetic apparatus. Chl fluorescence signatures of leaves as an efficient tool and a nondestructive method for the in vivo analysis of plant stress is applying to describe and investigate the photosynthetic light processes and quantum conversion at physiological conditions as well as to detect stress on the photosynthetic apparatus. The chlorophyll fluorescence images were measured on leaves using the FluorCam 700MF imaging system (Photon Systems Instrument) as a techniques that offer the possibility to study the distribution and patchiness of fluorescence signatures over the whole leaf area. Chl fluorescence images were measured on the leaves of some spontaneous plants grown in sites with different level of steel plant air pollution assessed on base of different distances and different directions from the source of the pollution. Efficiency of photosynthetic apparatus of analyzed plants was evaluated via chlorophyll fluorescence images during induction kinetics and various fluorescence ratio images. The images of Chl fluorescence ratios, acquired by pixel to pixel arithmetic operations performed by FluorCam software, were aplied as indicators of the functional state or the damage of the photosynthetic apparatus. The potential and effective quantum yields of photosynthetic electron transport were estimated too. Observed differences on imaging of chlorophyll fluorescence signature and photosynthetic pigment content of some spontaneous plants allowed characterizing of the photosynthetic performance in order to evaluate the damage by plant steel air pollution. Keywords: chlorophyll fluorescence imaging, induction kinetics, plant steel air pollution, photosynthetic apparatus, potential/effective quantum yield, spontaneous plant.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
LEGACY of TURGUT ÖZAL and THE SUSTAİNABLE TRANSFORMATİON of
TURKEY with AK PARTY GOVERNMENTS
Erdoğan Selami, Acar Eray
Dumlupinar University, Kütahya, Turkey,
E-mails: erdogans274@mynet.com,acar_eray@hotmail.com
Abstract
Turgut Özal is one of the most important actors in the Turkish Political life. He made
fundamental changes in Turkey between 1983-1993 as a Prime Minister or President of
Turkish Republic. He not only tried to liberate Turkish economy but also political sphere.
Özal, especially focused on freedom of speech, freedom of belief and freedom of enterprise.
At the same time, the latest refers to the free market economy. Until Özal's period Turkish
political leaders applied the model of mixed economy, not free market economy, that is, the
structure of Turkish economy wasn't entegrate with global markets. İnitially, Özal changed it
and he started to set up export-oriented economic model, free interest rates, privatization,
etc... and then, made political reforms; like freedom of speaking the Kurdish language,
dissolution of 141, 142 and 163. articles of Turkish Ciriminal Code, application for full
membership to the European Union. Unfortunately, his succesors could not able to sustain his
revolutionary political and economic vision. İn this respect, 1990s can be considered as lost
years for the Turkey. Until AK Parti governments Turkey encountered deep economic and
political crises such as April 1994 and 28 February 1997. After from this miserable period,
with the AK Parti government Turkey returned to the Özal's reformist politics both politically
and economically. According to the arguments which are mentioned below, Özal's
transformation efforts will be examined from today's view. Besides, what are the main
characteristics of Özal and the AK Parti leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, can we say continuity
or divergence between them. İn Today's Turkey, what is the importance of Turgut Özal, can
we say that, Özal's ideas particularly in economic field-is being applied by the AK Parti
government.
Keywords: Özal, AK Parti, Free Market Economy, Economic Crises, Political Reforms,
Turkish Economy.
1.Turgut Özal And ANAP (Motherland Party)
Turkey encountered two important problems which were the political and economic crises in
the late of 1970s. 24 January 1980 Desicions (Özal architect of desicions), a series of
fundamental economic policy changes, couldn’t be carried out by the weak Demirel’s
minority government. These problems paved the way for the military intervention of Turkey
in September 12, 1980. The Junta came to power with overriding objectives, the first one was
to repress the political sphere by applying rigid measures against extremists and the second
objective was for economic restructuring (Boratav, 1998: 122 ; Topal, 2000: 122).The 1980
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Military Coup in Turkey was an attempt by the General Kenan Evren and his friends who
were called NSC (National Security Council) to reshape the Turkish political system for the
sustainabledemocratic order. Forthat reason, some measures were implemented between
September Coup 1980 and November 1983 by the military government to reestablish the
Turkish political arena. The new constitution was approved by a referendum in 1982.
(Ergüder, 1991: 152). After that, İn order to regulate party formation and electoral system the
new Political Parties Lawand Electoral Law were enacted in April 1983. Also, It was decided
that, new general elections would be realized in November 1983.
On the other hand, the ruling military government did not want coalition government for the
stability of political sphere. To provide this target they introduced %10 election threshold
which was very high. Similarly, according to this aim, they thougt to allow only two political
parties to attend the 1983 General Elections, one of them is moderate-right MDP (Nationalist
Domocracy Party), the other is moderate-left HP (Populist Party). But, the powerful Generals
gave permission reluctanly Özal’s Party ANAP to enter into elections due to foreign pressure
(Akdoğan, 2001:88; Ahmad, 2007: 189-190). However, the junta supported his own party
(MDP) strongly. İndeed, President Evren had already made a television speech before the
elections, he clearly criticized Turgut Özal and his party (MP), favoured MDP. İn any case,
Evren’s speech didn’t contributeMDP, but it damaged.At the end, NSC allowed to compete
of the three political parties for the 6 November General Elections.
Duringthe elections campaing it was understood that, Özal was ready for government, he
was talking abuot the measures to recover corrupted (ruined) economy, economic
transformation, free market economy, also selling to the Bosphorus Bridge etc. On the other
hand, the other two leaders (Necdet Calp and Turgut Sunalp) couldn’t say concrete projects.
Especially, MDP was presenting itself as the reprasantative of 12 September Military
Coup.Unlike Özal’s political meetings, their meetings were not exciting to Turkish voters.
Morever, Özal and his party managed to present itself as a civilian force, the most competent
among other two parties to normalize Turkish democracy and economic system. At the same
time, Özal were using more civilian discourse, he meant that his party autonomous from the
military (Akdoğan, 2001: 88).
ANAP was advocating consensus and toleration in political sphere unlike MDP and HP.
According to Özal, economic problems could be resolvedonly by decisive and logical
methods. That is, he meant that their government could overcome these problems. Turkish
People believed him. Only Özal’s Party used positive discources and formulations, other
parties preferred to say state-oriented rhetoric (Özkazanç, 1996: 1221). At the same time,
conversation programmes on TRT (Turkish Radio and Television) contributed Özal’s
success. At these programmes Özal told his economic projects simply and clearly instead of
ideological issues, (Heper, 2011: 206). Özal persuaded Turkish People on economic issues
easily. And, ANAP was able to win the elections getting a little more votes than 45 percent
(%45.2) 211 deputies (400/211) in the Elections of November 1983 and come to the power
only by itself (one-party government).
1.1. Özal’s Governments and Economic Transformation of Turkey
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The ideology of the ANAP was based on four different political views, nationalism,
conservatism, social justice, and market economy (ANAP programme, 1983). İn this respect,
Özal claimed that our party was the represantative of the whole society rather than a part of it.
Prime Minister Özal and his party acted carefully in order not to do an action to disturb the
soldiers (NSC), as it was transition government and comletely signed the desicions about the
economy can be seen. While noticing the conditions of that time, it is seen that this was a
logical preference. During those years Özal introduced himself as a calculating man by using
a rather moderate language and stressed on economical issues(Kalaycıoğlu, 2002: 46).
On the other hand, Özal accused the previous governments of being too closed in
international community and economy. According to him, Turkish politicians were hesitating
to be open to the international arena and attempting to built a wall around Turkey. İn this
context, closed society and closed economy meant an isoleted country. Özal aimed to
changed these closed policies (Topal, 2001: 40).The primacy aim of Özal was to make
structural changes in economy and to make the economy open to the out side (Kazdağlı
2003: 460) He eventually started to make his decisions into practice which he had planned
before. The major reforms of Özal roughly (Morgil, 1996: 104-105; Akad: 2000: 267).
-
He abolished “The Law of the Protection of the Value of Turkish Lira” that he had
come from the years of 1930.
The flexible exchange rate policy was started (It means no devaluation suddenly)
The control of prices was abolished (Black Market ended)
The importing limitations and quotas were almost completely abolished
Out of budget funds applications were established in order to get rid of the
bureaucratic formalities
Reduced beuraucracy for taking driver’s license and passport
Privatization efforts, the industrialization policies which are open to foreign
competition and the encouragement of the industrial and service investments.
Özal is usually remembered for his infrastructural projects that he had made for supporting
the investments. For instance, Fatih Sultan Mehmed Bridge (2.Bosphorus Bridge), Atatürk
Dam, highways, roads, harbours, airports, the commonization of the telephone networks of
the villages are appearing at the first sight for evaluating in this respect. İn the different
centres of Anatolia (Denizli, Konya, Kayseri etc.) the firms which were called as “Anatolian
Tigers” were able to exist by means of incentives that Özal had given (Öniş, 2000: 289).
By means of Özal’s radical economical transformations which we have counted above, the
import-substitution period in Turkish economy finished, an economical model that is exportoriented had been started with Özal (Çalık, 1992: 6). Thanks to these reforms, it wasn’t
anymore guilt to have foreing currency or foreign cigarettes in your pocket in Turkey. Also,
The absences of goods and queues of goods were no longer problems though they had been
very common before 12th September. Özal said that we souldn’t be afraid of making
competition with the World and gave to importance to the freedom of enterprising. İnstead of
being afraid globalisation, Özal made it stress that it was an oppurtunity for us. He often went
to on journeys abroad by making his plane full of businessman. İn his opinion, our age was
an age of individuals’, freedoms and oppurtunities. İn this context, ANAP governments gave
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incentives to the businessmans in every field, for that reason, big success were realized in
private sector, e.g tourism(Kazdağlı, 1996: 100). Besides successful enterprisers emerged in
all the parts of Anatolia. They started to export different goods to all around the World.
Between the years 1983-1989 in which Özal was ruling the country, the average growth rate
in a year in Turkey was more than 5 percent. Again in this period the export of Turkey had
been increased up to 350 percent (Öniş, 2000: 289). On the other side, the economic crises
that Turkey was used to, were not seen in Özal’s period. However didn’t only apply policies
based on economy, but he also wanted to entegrate the economical liberalism with the
political liberalism in the following period. We realize that serious steps were made in his
time in the field of democratization.
1.2. Özal and Democratization
Özal is generally accused of giving importance and first side to the liberalization in economy
rather than not making a serious liberalization in political field. When Özal started to rule the
country in 1983, the guardianship of the soldiers (NSC) was still continuing. Whether Özal
wanted political liberalization or not, there wasn’t a possibility for this in those times. The
sings of political liberalization can be seen from the year 1987. Later, when we look at his
reforms during his being the President of Republic (1989-1993), we can say that the political
liberalization was at the top. His most common reforms are the followings (Dağı, 2003: 249269; Acar, 2008: 202; Özbudun, 2003: 110, Barlas, 1994: 287):
-
-
İndividual application right to the European Human Rights Commission was given to
the Turkish citizens (1987)
Turkey made its application for being a full membership of the European
Union(1987)
The authority of the European Court of Justice was started to be accepted
The European and United Nations convention was accepted against torture
The 141st, 142nd, and 163rd articles of Turkish Criminal Code (TCK) which
prohibited the socialist and the islamic views, were abolished by the personal efforts
of Özal in April, 1991
He was the main actor in abolishing the prohibition of speaking in Kurdish
Turkey signed The European Social Charter and The Charter of Paris
On the other side, Özal signed some critical events that decreased the influence of the soldiers
and increased and showed the strength of the civilian rulers. İn 1987, he opposed to the
chosing of the General Staff without being asked to him and he appointed the person he
preferred as the General Staff (Necip Torumtay), not the one who was dictated to him
(Necdet Öztorun). Moreover, he checked a military force with his bermuda short (Heper,
2011: 223).
But the most important of all, he always underlined three freedoms througout his career:
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The Freedom of Thougt
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-
The Freedom of Religion and Conscience
The Freedom of Enterprise
İn fact, the political philosophy of Özal is hidden in these three sentences. However, Özal had
given importance mostly to the economic liberalism in his first ruling period (1983-1987) as
the military guardianship was going on, but, especially when he was the president, he was
able to make fundamental reforms in the field of democratization, he signed many important
progressions.
2. Stagnation Period of Turkey (1990s)
The coalition governments period started again in Turkey from 1991. The years of 1990s
were the years of economical and political crises with the coalition governments (1994etc.)
On account of the short lasting governments, political chaoses were always lived through.
Worse than this, 28th. February 1997 Post-modern Coup was realized. Turkey lost its
reformative identity in this period, failed the improvments througout the World as it was
struggling with the artificial problems inside the country, its macroeconomic balances were
damaged, its banks were robbed etc. On the other hand, the military and civilian bureaucracy
intervened in every part of public life. Also, elected governments and politicians were
threatened. That’s why the years of 1990s are called as the years in which Turkey went back
in economic and political liberalism. Nevertless, the most positive thing in this period was
that achieving the full membership status to the European Union in 1999.
3.The Governing of AK Party and Restarting of Transformation Period
As the DSP-MHP-ANAP Coalition Government took the country towards financial crises
and was unsuccesful at solving the problem of corruption, it carried the AK Party to the
government in the November 2002 Elections. İt was unsuspicious that the success that the
politicians working at AK Party had shown at the municipalities and except from this, the
KOBİs’ and the bourgeoise of Anatolian’s support was effective in this success (Öniş, 2010:
259). Two parties got the right to enter to TBMM after the elections. AK Party and CHP. AK
Party became the governing party. İn fact, AK Party came to the government after a similar
period of ANAP. Because ANAP had also come to the government as a result of a very deep
economical and political crises. Undoubtedly, a charismatic leader (Erdoğan) played an
important role in the success of AK Party as it had been like in ANAP (Özal).
AK Party promised that it would do reforms in the field of economics, in addition to this, it
would get rid of the problem of basic rights and freedoms. At the same time, AK Party
preferred to make stress on economical issues and European Union process insistently instead
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of classical ideological polarizations. People showed their support to AK Party’s liberal
policies in the 2002 elections (Altun, 2009:4).
4.AK Party Governments and Re-transformation of The Turkish Economy
Turkey regained its reformative identity that it had lost in the 1990 years with AK Party. The
Party stayed loyal to the free market economy and which had been started by Özal in the
period that was after 1980. İn addition to this, Erdogan declared the loyality to European
Union Process. İt started to apply the targets that it had put forward with patience in 2002
November after it came to government despite some political disadvantages (soldiers and
civilian bureaucracy). Erdogan’s Party also started to work intensely in many fields like
education, healt, building, transportation and others (Koç, 2011).
Besides, it stayed faithful to the IMF agreement that the former government had signed. By
means of successful financial discipline and decisive economical reforms, AK Party has
signed a lot of successes. Undoubtedly the European Union process has been one of the most
important supporting factors to achieve these successes (Öniş, 2010: 269). Once AK Party
became the government, it gave too much importance to this process, at the same time, by
means of this process it strengthened its legitimacy. İt should be pointed that the IMF criteria
are important about decreasing the inflation and net debt amount. The records of Republic
History has been achieved again in this period in the flow of foreing capital (Altun, 2009:
19).
Likewise it had been in ANAP’s (Özal’s period), big successes have been achieved in
national income and export during AK Party government. İf we look at these rougly
(www.tüik.gov.tr)
-
The export which has been 36 billion$ in 2002 increased to 134 billion$ in 2011
National income which was 230 billion$ in 2002 increased to 735 billion$ in 2011
The record was done in privatization between 2003-2011 (TÜPRAŞ. etc) 34 billion$
İf we look at the results in other fields in order to undertand the dimensions of the
transformation in Turkey (www.akparti.org.tr) :
-
Turkey has been introduced with High Speed Train
13.500 kilometres doubled-road has been built
TOKİ has been built about 500.000 flats
Service has been carried even to the farthest villages with the KOYDES and BELDES
projects
There hasn’t been any city without a university
Six zeros have been abolished for Turkish Liras
On the other hand, Likewise Özal The Prime Minister Erdoğan took the businessman with
him abroad so as to increase the trade. He abolished the vizas with a lot of countries. İn
addition to these the number of turists coming to Turkey has increased to 32 million from 13
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
million in 2011 (www.dha.com.tr). Accordding to these datas, It is clear that Erdogan’s Party
is developing to Turkey successfully, for that reason a large majority of Turkish voters
support his party increasingly.
5. Democratization and AK Party
AK Party had given the signals that it would make democratization steps from the time it
came to the government. The Prime Minister of that period, Abdullah Gül, stressed in his
speech of İCO’s Tahran Summit in May 2003 that the Muslim Countries had needed to care
more about the democratization, human and women rights (Duran, 2010: 341).
İn the following period, it could be seen that AK Party government was much sincere about
this subject by the motivation of European Union as well. İf we have to make notice to the
most known reforms (Dağı, 2010: 132-140; Koç, 2011: 15-20, Altun, 2009: 15;
www.akparti.org.tr).
-
-
The applications of state of emercency was abolished
The closing of political parties have been made difficult
State Security Courts were abolished
The Law of Getting İnformation has been enacted
The political propaganda with an other language (Kurdish) than Turkish has been
abolished
Broadcasting in Kurdish has been made free for private TV and radios. 24 hour
Kurdish broadcasting has been started in TRT 6.
İt has been allowed to established Kurdish Language and Literature Departments and
İnstitutions at Universities.
National Unification and Brotherhood Projects have been started
A lot of workshops about Alevi Problem has been done
On the 12th September, 2010, a large change of Constitution which decreased the
influence of the military in politics and brought a positive discrimination to the
women and children has been adopted.
On the 27th April, 2007, the civilian ruling (AK Party) has objected to the ememorandum, which was broadcasted in the internet by the General Staff, but AK
Party refused this memorandum and declared counter-memorandum in 28 April 2007
unexpectedly.
The success of AK Party both in the field of economy and its democratic standing has been
appreciated by the Turkish public. AK Party has achieved an effective success by increasing
its votes in the 3 general elections that followed one other.
On the other hand, in 1990s influence of the military was very high in political sphere, but
with AK Party governments, İt changed. When we look at the relationship between soldiers
and AK Party, Tayyip Erdoğan has signed a cautious reform without damagining and
destroying, by thinking the institutional reputation of TSK (Turkish Military Forces) (Aydın,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2012: 4). İn a new period Turkey has entered, the Generals have been giving applications for
retirement instead of memorandum now (İdiz, 2011: 17). Then, Turkey has been normalizing.
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İletişim Yayınları, 1996: Ankara
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Affairs, V.54, 2000
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Burhanettin Duran, “AKP ve Dönüşümün Aracı Olarak Politika”, H.Yavuz (Editor), AK Parti
ve Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul
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Özal?, Boyut Kitapları, 2003: İstanbul
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Turgut Özal, 20 Mayıs Vakfı, 1996: İstanbul
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Charismatic Leader Party” M.Heper, B.Rubin (Editoryal), Political Parties in Turkey, Frank
Cass Pub., 2002: Londra
Ertan Aydın, “Erdoğan’ın uzlaştırıcı reformizmi” Star Gazetesi Açık Görüş, 26.02.2012
Fahrettin Altun, “12 Eylül’den 12 Haziran’a Siyasi Partiler, AK PARTİ”, Seta Analiz, S.41,
2011: Ankara
Feride Acar, “Turgut Özal” (Çev: Zuhal Bilgin), M.Heper, S.Sayarı (Editoryal), Türkiye’de
Liderler ve Demokrasi, Kitap Yayınevi, 2008: İstanbul
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Feroz Ahmad, Bir Kimlik Peşinde Türkiye, Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2007: İstanbul
İhsan Dağı, “Kimlik Siyaset ve İnsan Hakları Söylemi”, H.Yavuz (Editör), AK Parti ve
Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul
Korkut Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi, 1908-1985, Gerçek Yayınevi 1998: İstanbul
Mehmet Barlas, Turgut Özal’ın Anıları, Sabah Kitapları, 1994: İstanbul
Metin Heper, Türkiye’nin Siyasal Hayatı,Doğan Kitap, 2011: İstanbul
Mustafa Çalık, “Özal: Türkiye’nin Önünde Hacet Kapıları Açılmıştır”, Türkiye Günlüğü,
sayı.19, 1992
Orhan Morgil, “Turgut Özal ve Ekonomi Politikaları”, İ.Sezal (Editor), Devlet ve Siyaset
Adamı Turgut Özal, 20 Mayıs Vakfı, 1996: İstanbul
Semih İdiz,“Muhtıra Değil Emeklilik Dilekçesi Veriliyor” Milliyet Gazetesi, 01.08.2011
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Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, I.B.Tauris Publishers, New York and London:
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Yusuf Ziya Öniş, “Neo-Liberal Globalization and the Democracy Paradox: The Turkish
General Elections of 1999” Journal of İnternational Affairs, V.54, Fall 2000
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Parti Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul
Yaşar Taşkın Koç, “Değişim ve Statüko Kıskacında Ak Parti”, Seta Analiz, S.6, 2009:
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110
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Title
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LEGACY of TURGUT ÖZAL and THE SUSTAİNABLE TRANSFORMATİON of TURKEY with AK PARTY GOVERNMENTS
Author
Author
Erdoğan, Selami
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Turgut Özal is one of the most important actors in the Turkish Political life. He made fundamental changes in Turkey between 1983-1993 as a Prime Minister or President of Turkish Republic. He not only tried to liberate Turkish economy but also political sphere. Özal, especially focused on freedom of speech, freedom of belief and freedom of enterprise. At the same time, the latest refers to the free market economy. Until Özal's period Turkish political leaders applied the model of mixed economy, not free market economy, that is, the structure of Turkish economy wasn't entegrate with global markets. İnitially, Özal changed it and he started to set up export-oriented economic model, free interest rates, privatization, etc... and then, made political reforms; like freedom of speaking the Kurdish language, dissolution of 141, 142 and 163. articles of Turkish Ciriminal Code, application for full membership to the European Union. Unfortunately, his succesors could not able to sustain his revolutionary political and economic vision. İn this respect, 1990s can be considered as lost years for the Turkey. Until AK Parti governments Turkey encountered deep economic and political crises such as April 1994 and 28 February 1997. After from this miserable period, with the AK Parti government Turkey returned to the Özal's reformist politics both politically and economically. According to the arguments which are mentioned below, Özal's transformation efforts will be examined from today's view. Besides, what are the main characteristics of Özal and the AK Parti leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, can we say continuity or divergence between them. İn Today's Turkey, what is the importance of Turgut Özal, can we say that, Özal's ideas particularly in economic field-is being applied by the AK Parti government. Keywords: Özal, AK Parti, Free Market Economy, Economic Crises, Political Reforms, Turkish Economy.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/41dd06da6902bd226cce52ecef68aa9a.pdf
698b7aa1ed9ef0efcd2fd542503a86f1
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Text
Sucuoglu, H. (2006) The Turkish seismic rehabilitation code, First European Conference on
Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, Geneva, Switzerland, 3-8 September.
Sengoz, A. (2007) Quantitative evaluation of assessment methods in the 2007 Turkish
Earthquake Code, Master Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, METU, Ankara.
TEC 2007, Specifications for buildings to be built in seismic areas, Turkish Earthquake Code
2007. Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, Ankara, Turkey.Tuncer O. Celep, Z. Yılmaz,
M.B. (2007) A comparative evaluation of the methods given in the Turkish Seismic Code,
WCCE–ECCE– TCCE
Joint Conference: EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI.
Medical Decision Support System for Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Diseases using DWT
and k-NN
Emina Alickovic, Abdulhamit Subasi
International Burch University, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies,
71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mails: ealickovic@ibu.edu.ba, asubasi@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract
Heart disease is a cardiovascular disorder that is most widespread cause of death in many
countries all over the world. In this work, k-Nearest Neighbor machine learning tool was used
to classify Electrocardiography (ECG) signals and satisfactory accuracy rate was achieved in
classification of ECG signals. The model automatically classifies the ECG signals into 5
different kinds: normal, Premature Ventricular Complex (PVC), Atrial Premature Contraction
(APC), Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) and Left Bundle Branch Block (RBBB). The
best averaged performance over randomized percentage-split is also obtained by k-Nearest
Neighbor (k-NN) classification model. Some conclusions concerning the impacts of features
on the ECG signal classification were obtained through analysis of different parameters of
kNN. The analysis suggests that kNN modeling is satisfactory performances in at least three
points: high recognition rate, insensitivity to overtraining and computational time it takes for
classification. The combined model with DWT and k-NN achieves the good. Obtained result
shows that the suggested model have the potential to obtain a reliable classification of ECG
346
�signals, and to support the clinicians for making an accurate diagnosis of cardiovascular
disorders.
Keywords: Electrocardiogram (ECG); Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT); k-Nearest
Neighbor (k-NN); Heart Arrhythmia; Premature Ventricular Complex (PVC); Atrial
Premature Contraction (APC); Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB); Left Bundle Branch
Block (RBBB).
1. INTRODUCTION
Heart diseases are a major cause of mortality in most of the countries around the world. In
2008, approximately 17 million people die each year due to this disease or 48 % of all deaths
in 2008. It is estimated that this number will even grow. In 2030, it is estimated that 23.6
million people will die from cardiovascular diseases (WHO | Cardiovascular diseases
(CVDs)). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 35000 or 66% of all deaths were due to cardiovascular
diseases (BiH). In Turkey, almost 31500 people (49 % of total mortality) died from
cardiovascular diseases (Turkey). Because of this many researchers have conducted in this
field in the world.
The Electrocardiography is noninvasive tool for detecting the electrical activity that
originates in the heart. Expression cardiovascular arrhythmia is used to describe any irregular
electrical activity originating from heart. Electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the most
significant apparatus for diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. The ECG signal classification
into different cardiovascular disease groups is a complex pattern recognition problem. These
signals are highly nonlinear also. Therefore, different techniques such as signal processing
techniques, machine learning methods, were used for this purpose.
The aim of this study is to introduce a method for detection of heart diseases in ECG
recordings. We propose a method for differentiating normal heartbeats (N) from left bundle
branch blocks (LBBB), right bundle branch blocks (RBBB), atrial premature contractions
(APC) and premature ventricular contractions (PVC) heartbeats (Clifford, Azuaje, &
McSharry, 2006). In this study, k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) classifiers combined with
statistical features extracted from DWT is used to classify ECG signals. To contribute to the
quantification of the routine ECG examination, a methodology has been developed for ECG
signal classification which consists of three steps. In the first step, the ECG signals are
decomposed into different frequency bands using discrete wavelet transform (DWT). In the
second step, statistical features extracted from these subband decomposed ECG signals to get
better accuracy for diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. In the last step, an unknown ECG
signal is classified as normal heartbeats (N) from left bundle branch blocks (LBBB), right
bundle branch blocks (RBBB), atrial premature contractions (APC) and premature ventricular
contractions (PVC) heartbeats using k-NN classifier.
347
�The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, information is given
about the materials and datasets used in this research. This section also explains methods
applied in each step of the ECG signal classification process. Also, three different k-NN
methods are discussed and compared. Section 3 gives discussion on the results achieved in
this study. Finally, the conclusions are summarized in Section 4.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Database
The ECG signals for training and testing datasets are obtained from MIT-BIH arrhythmia
database. Records were obtained by the Beth Israel Hospital Arrhythmia Laboratory between
1975 and 1979. This database is available online24. It contains two leads for upper and lower
ECG signals for all 48 records from 47 different patients. Patients are 25 men aged 32 to 89
and 22 women aged 23 to 89. Two records (201 and 202) came from same patient. Each of
these records is 30 minutes long with sampling frequency of 360 Hz. Each beat has been
labeled by at least two cardiologists. There are more than 109,000 labeled ventricular beats
from 15 distinct heartbeat types. There is an immense diversity in the amount of examples in
each heartbeat category. The biggest category is “Normal beat” and the smallest is
“Supraventricular premature beat” (with only two examples) (MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database
Directory).
2.2. Discrete wavelet transform
The DWT is a signal-processing technique having a lot of applications in science and
engineering. The wavelet transform (WT) permits the non-stationary signals discrimination
with diverse frequency characteristics [14]. It disintegrates a signal into wavelets (group of
simple functions. These wavelets result from a single function ψ, called the mother wavelet,
by dilations and translations as (Daubechies, Mallat, & Willsky, 1992; Vetterli & Herley,
1992).
a ,b t
1
a
t b
a
(1)
where a is positive number. Typically, a is 1 for the mother wavelet and growing a > 1 dilates
the wavelet, getting bigger on the interval over which it takes non-zero values.
24 http://physionet.ph.biu.ac.il/physiobank/database/html/mitdbdir/mitdbdir.htm
348
�The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is used to disintegrate a signal. It uses filters to extract
out of the ordinary frequency resolution components within the signal. The DWT has
compact support in time and frequency domain (Mallat, 1999; Marchant, 2003; Semmlow,
2004; Sornmo & Laguna, 2006). It examines the signal at different frequency bands, with
different resolutions. It separates the signal into two parts: a coarse approximation and detail
information. DWT uses two function sets called scaling functions and wavelet functions.
These two sets are allied to low-pass and high-pass filters, respectively. Every phase of this
scheme has two digital filters and scale changes by power of 2. In the process of reducing the
sampling rate, outputs of first high-pass and low-pass filters give the detail, D1 and the
approximation, A1, respectively. The first approximation, A1 is later decomposed and this
process is continued. Approximation and detail records are rebuilded from the Daubechies 4
(DB4) wavelet filter. More detailed explanation is given in (Mallat, 1999; Marchant, 2003;
Semmlow, 2004; Sornmo & Laguna, 2006; Adeli, Zhou, & Dadmehr, 2003; Akay, 1997;
Subasi, ECG signal classification using wavelet feature extraction and a mixture of expert
model, 2007; Subasi, Automatic recognition of alertness level from EEG by using neural
network and wavelet coefficents, 2005). The extracted wavelet coefficients give a firm
illustration showing the energy distribution of the ECG signal in time and frequency.
2.3. k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN)
k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) is proper mechanism for solving biomedical engineering
problems and, particularly, in evaluating biomedical signals, because of their wide range of
applications and usage and their potential to learn difficult and nonlinear relations. It is very
simple machine learning tool. The k-NN algorithm is object classification tool based on
nearest training samples in the feature. The algorithm does not depend on any kind of
statistical distribution of training examples. A number of distance measures are capable of
being used in k-NN algorithm. Still, the most popular distance is Euclidean. An object
classification is done by a mass election of its neighbors. Object is assigned to the class being
most frequent one its k nearest neighbors. k is usually selected to be small. When k is
selected to be 1, the object is just prescribed to the class of its nearest neighbor. Due to this,
the algorithm is called as the k-Nearest Neighbor (Jekova, Bortolan, & Christov, 2008). In
Our study, we used three different techniques implementing k-NN algorithm. All these three
methods are implemented in Weka (Weka 3 - Data Mining with Open Source Machine
Learning Software in Java). These three different techniques are called as: IBk, KStar and
LWL. Detailed description of these three different k-NN techniques is given in (Aha, Kibler,
& Albert, 1991; Cleary & Trigg, 1995; Frank, Hall, & McShary, 2003).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
349
�In this study five different heartbeat classes were analyzed. These are: N (normal heart beat),
RBBB (Right Bundle Branch Block), LBBB (Left Bundle Branch Block), APC (Atrial
Premature Contraction) and PVC (Premature Ventricular Complex).
The classification abilities for three different implementations of k-NN method applied on the
morphological ECG descriptors are estimated set obtained by processing all heartbeats from
MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. Two statistical indices; sensitivity (Sej) and specificity (Spj);
were computed for every heartbeat class j (N, PVC, APC, LBBB and RBBB). They are
calculated as (Jekova, Bortolan, & Christov, 2008):
Sp j
TN j
TN j FPj
Se j
TPj
TPj FN j
(2)
where TPj (true positives) represents the amount of correctly classified heartbeats of jth class
(e.g. RBBB classified as RBBB); TNj (true negatives) represents the amount of heartbeats
not being part of the jth class and not classified in the jth class (e.g. PVC, APC, LBBB and
RBBB not classified as N); FPj (false positives) is the amount of incorrectly classified
heartbeats in the class j (e.g. PVC,APC, LBBB and RBBB classified as N); FNj (false
negatives) is the amount of heartbeats of class j, classified in a different class (e.g. RBBB not
classified as RBBB) (Jekova, Bortolan, & Christov, 2008). 66 % percentage split gave the
best results in this research and results are given in Table 1 and their graphical representation
is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Table 1. ECG Signal Classification Results for k-NN Classifiers.
IBk
LVL
Se
Sp
Se
Sp
Se
Sp
N
0.897
0.897
0.891
0.897
0.891
0.908
APC
0.909
0.995
0.848
0.991
0.879
0.99
PVC
0.639
0.958
0.656
0.953
0.754
0.967
RBBB
0.907
0.991
0.893
0.993
0.92
0.993
0.951
0.975
0.971
0.978
0.931
0.969
LBBB
350
KStar
�Accuracy obtained for these three different k-NN methods are also compared. For IBk
accuracy obtained is 88.24 %, for KStar accuracy is 87.91 % and for LVL, accuracy obtained
is 88.73 %. As we can see from Figure 2, accuracies obtained LVL k-NN gave the best result.
Beside these results, time required for classification is small compared to other two methods,
what is showing that LVL kNN is the most appropriate k-NN method for ECG signal
classification.
Figure 1 Graphical representation of evaluation performance of k-NN classifiers
Figure 2 Graphical representation of accuracies achieved by using k-NN classifiers
351
�4. CONCLUSION
In this study, we developed an efficient combination of classifier and signal processing
technique, which proved by the different experiments is applicable for the classification of
the ECG signals. This was accomplished using combination of DWT and kNN methods.
These three kNN methods are IBk, KStar, and LVL. Because the experiments proved, the
combination represented as LVL k-NN and DWT subbands can achieve a better performance
than other two k-NN classifier methods over the five ECG signal patterns: normal (N),
Premature Ventricular Complex (PVC), Atrial Premature Contraction (APC), Right Bundle
Branch Block (RBBB) and Left Bundle Branch Block (RBBB). The proposed LVL k-NN
classifier together with DWT subbands meets the requirements for five ECG signal patterns
characterization and is able of classifying the ECG signals accuracy rate. In addition, the
suggested LVL k-NN classifier shows guarantee as a clinically valuable method of providing
numerical inputs to the next step of the interpretation phase of an ECG examination. This
proves that the LVL k-NN classifier can be important for capturing and expression of
knowledge helpful to a clinician. These results provide encouragement to develop and
evaluate a LVL k-NN method for quantifying the level of contribution of a cardiovascular
disorder.
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using wavelet transform. Journal of Neuroscience Methods (123), 69-87.
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Distance Measure. 12th International Conference on Machine Learning, (pp. 108-114).
Clifford, G. D., Azuaje, F., & McSharry, P. E. (2006). Advanced Methods and Tools for ECG
Data Analysis. Norwood, MA: Artech House.
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�Frank, E., Hall, M., & McShary, P. E. (2003). Locally Weighted Naive Bayes. 19th
Conference in Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (pp. 249-256). Acapulco, Mexico:
Morgan Kaufmann.
Jekova, Bortolan, G., & Christov, I. (2008). Assessment and comparison of different methods
for heartbeat classification, ScienceDirect, 30. Medical Engineering & Physics (30), 248-257.
Mallat, S. (1999). A Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing, Second Edition (Wavelet Analysis
& Its Applications). Academic Press.
Marchant, P. (2003). Time-Frequency Analysis for Biosystem Engineering. Biosystems
Engineering 85(3) , 261-281.
MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database Directory. Last Accessed on 2 22, 2012, from
http://physionet.ph.biu.ac.il/physiobank/database/html/mitdbdir/mitdbdir.htm
Semmlow, J. L. (2004). Biosignal and Biomedical Image Processing: MATLAB-Based
Applications. 270 Madison Avenue, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Sornmo, L., & Laguna, P. (2006). Bioelectrical Signal Processing in Cardiac and
Neurological Applications. Elsevier Academic Press.
Subasi, A. (2005). Automatic recognition of alertness level from EEG by using neural
network and wavelet coefficents. Expert Systems with Applications (28), 701-711.
Subasi, A. (2007). ECG signal classification using wavelet feature extraction and a mixture of
expert model. Expert Systems with Applications 32 , 1084-1093.
Turkey, Last Accessed on 2 22, 2012, from http://www.who.int/nmh/countries/tur_en.pdf
Vetterli, M., & Herley, C. (1992). Wavelets and filter banks: theory and design. IEEE
Transactions on Signal Processing , 2207-2232.
WHO | Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). (n.d.). Last Accessed on 2 22, 2012, from
http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/en/
353
�
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Medical Decision Support System for Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Diseases using DWT and k-NN
Author
Author
Emina , Alickovic
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Heart disease is a cardiovascular disorder that is most widespread cause of death in many countries all over the world. In this work, k-Nearest Neighbor machine learning tool was used to classify Electrocardiography (ECG) signals and satisfactory accuracy rate was achieved in classification of ECG signals. The model automatically classifies the ECG signals into 5 different kinds: normal, Premature Ventricular Complex (PVC), Atrial Premature Contraction (APC), Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) and Left Bundle Branch Block (RBBB). The best averaged performance over randomized percentage-split is also obtained by k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) classification model. Some conclusions concerning the impacts of features on the ECG signal classification were obtained through analysis of different parameters of kNN. The analysis suggests that kNN modeling is satisfactory performances in at least three points: high recognition rate, insensitivity to overtraining and computational time it takes for classification. The combined model with DWT and k-NN achieves the good. Obtained result shows that the suggested model have the potential to obtain a reliable classification of ECG signals, and to support the clinicians for making an accurate diagnosis of cardiovascular disorders. Keywords: Electrocardiogram (ECG); Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT); k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN); Heart Arrhythmia; Premature Ventricular Complex (PVC); Atrial Premature Contraction (APC); Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB); Left Bundle Branch Block (RBBB).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
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PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c384f6d9aaebba9c94c965ef03baccaa.pdf
bbbbbc2606dc9021b2af09484d98a326
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Model Of Kayseri In Enterpreneurship
Emin Karataş1, Mustafa Gülmez2, Hasan Erdoğan3
1Akdeniz Univercity Social Sciences Institut Department of Econometrics Antalya/Turkey
2Akdeniz Univercity School of Tourism &Hotel Management Antalya/Turkey
3 Akdeniz Univercity Ayşe Sak school of Applied Sciences Antalya/Turkey
E-mails: emin@ebitech.com, mgulmez@akdeniz.edu.tr
Akhism: an organized brotherhood in Anatolia related to trade guilds.
Abstract
Kayseri, is a historical Anatolian city, has been attracting the attention with its rapid
economic growth in recent years. In the past, the region of Kayseri was known as the centre
of Akhism.3 Today, the ancient values and philanthropy as well as entrepreneurial spirit and
commercial intelligence have an important role on its rapid development. Nowadays, because
of the request of commercial activities that come from the past, and the high
entrepreneurial spirit; Kayseri with its basic model, is seen as an exemplary city to other
provinces in Turkey. Emphasizing the increasing ratio of entrepreneurial activities in Turkey,
this article describes the entrepreneurial characteristics of Kayseri, and also describes the
presence of an exemplary model of Kayseri as a factor of entrepreneurship. The
model features, and its acquisitions will be expressed. A sustainable model of Kayseri in the
culture of entrepreneurship and the reflections of this model will be discussed. Making use
of the surveys conducted on entrepreneurship, the features and the differences of
entrepreneurs of Kayseri will be emphasized. Finally the results of the survey made by us
about Kayseri and entrepreneurship will be interpreted by comparing the range of indicators
with other provinces.
Keywords: the model of Kayseri in industry, commerce and entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs
of Kayseri, culture of entrepreneurship
1. INTRODUCTION
Entrepreneurship is the core mechanism of economic growth and sustainable development.
Entrepreneurship introduces the society with new resources, and new technologies and
thus earned to previously unused or less used resources to the economy and the increase in
production occurs. Restructured company or a brand-new company in a country increase the
volume of employment and as a result of all these records, it makes a positive impetus
3 Akhism: an organized brotherhood in Anatolia related to trade guilds.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
to economic development. By examined levels of international development, resource
allocation in the backward countries are not as good as the developed countries, as an
efficient resource allocation requires successful entrepreneurs who may develop it, and
may transfer information from other countries. So countries have successful entrepreneurs are
more advantageous than other countries. (Ulusoy et al., 2007)
Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity rate (TEA), can be defined as Entrepreneurship
performance, is continuously increasing in Turkey. Also this ratio reached to 11% in 2011, is
the Europe's highest level of entrepreneurship. With 7% of the EU average level of
entrepreneurship; entrepreneurship in European Union countries could not yet the desired
size, and lags far behind of Turkey and the United States. (GEM, 2012)
Turkey, with the increase of conscious entrepreneurs and the increasing economic growth
ratio due to the biggest increase of loans and supports that given to entrepreneurs since 2005
indicates that entrepreneurial performance of Turkey has also increased a very large
proportion since 2000. Nowadays, Turkey begins to represent the entrepreneurial spirit of
Europe. While entrepreneurial activities were very few amounts in the early 2000s, behind
this great leap in 10 years, it is said to spread the effect of the spirit of entrepreneurship in
some Anatolian cities to other cities and it leads to increase in the number of entrepreneurial,
conscious individuals. In short, we must emphasize that the number of entrepreneurs has
increased and established enterprises in the market and the economy gained continuity in
Turkey.
Among the
most important
reasons
for Turkey to
acquire a
break
through
in entrepreneurship, the
widespread
entrepreneurial
culture
is
shown. Having this culture since time immemorial, some Anatolian cities such as Kayseri set
an example to other cities. Kayseri, pulling head to the nation with this kind of expansion of
entrepreneurial activities, leads Turkey to quickly become the European leader in
entrepreneurship. Urban development model and this entrepreneurial culture of Kayseri form
the basis of our research.
Entrepreneurs can be described as a person who invests his capital in order to produce goods
and services by taking the risk into profit or loss. In general, we can easily say that Kayseri
citizens have the spirit of entrepreneurship because of working perseverance that coming
from family traditions and aiming to invest money into various sectors by getting the risks
instead of saving money up. In addition, when the entrepreneurial spirit scores are calculated
by provinces, Kayseri with 7.9 score is over on the average of Turkey’s 6.2.
Kayseri plays
the
role
of a
pioneer
with
some
factors
such
as;
planned development, the expectation of future economic, industrial potential, the trade
potential, entrepreneurial spirit, and competitiveness of firms in Turkey. One can easily
interpret from the table that the reasons such as, lacking of agricultural potential, low labor
costs and seeming to be a very attractive city for investors, cause Kayseri citizens give the
more importance to commerce and industry sector developments and make investments to
produce new lines of business.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Due to lack of suitable land for agriculture and livestock, Kayseri keeps back in plant and
livestock production value of the order of values than Turkey indicators. This leads Kayseri
citizens’ to turn out another line of business and commerce. In export rankings, Kayseri is
one of the foreground cities in Anatolia, which indicates the importance of industry and
production for the city. Moreover, being in the background in consumption shows the
widespread saving culture.
Having much more opened/closed companies, SME investment incentive certificates, cash
loan usage, patent and trademark applications, and industrial design registration and taking
the front place of the rankings of ISO first 500 companies shows how Kayseri has the
high level of entrepreneurship. Kayseri is a city that prides itself with entrepreneurs. In the
2011 rankings of Forbes 100, there were 17 rich people from Kayseri. Anyone living in
Turkey and even strangers has always expressed entrepreneurial culture in Kayseri. (Tercan,
2011: 22)
2. MODEL OF KAYSERİ IN ENTREPRENEOURSHIP: CONSTITUTION AND ITS
FEATURES
Latterly, Kayseri has been one of the most spoken cities in Turkey with its huge
entrepreneurial investments and city planning developments. City has a great influence on
Turkish economy and politics. Representing the conservative but also accommodating face of
Anatolia and with fast growing economy and using equity capital for investments without any
subsidy from the government, the city also attract attention of the foreign investors. In
Kayseri Report, that has been prepared by Open Society Foundation, world’s one of the
leading non-governmental organization (ngo), and European Stability Institute (ESI) which
based in Austria, the researchers named the city as “Islamic Calvinists” by comparing the
economic performance of the city with the work ethics of the Protestants. (Özcan, 2005)
Although the economic growth in Kayseri made climax in last 20 years, we have to indicate
that it has a 50 years background. We can say that “Mercantile intelligence, diligence and
high power of production” are some of the reasons that helped this development but maybe
the most important ones are the individual specialities of the society with old traditions and
ancient values. Today, the economical growth which is based on “entrepreneurship, saving
and charity” shows us the absolute development of Anatolia. We can search out that using a
model from the past experiences helped out the development of the city. (Özcan, 2005)
There is a historical background of the city's trade tendency. Kayseri’s geography had been
the center of commerce and urbanization last 1500 years. “Yabanlu Bazaar” which is the
first known commercial purpose fair in the world, is one of the indicators of this tendency.
Entrepreneurial spirit of Kayseri, has known to hold the remaining commercial heritage of the
Greeks and Armenians, and moved it even further. "The most well-thought-of human is that
producing” philosophy has been adopted here. (Özcan, 2005)
One of the important features that should be underlined in the economic success of Kayseri
is the tradition of Akhism. Akhism is the name of an economic Anatolian struggle between
128
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Turkish trade guilds against the Byzantines which for many years lived on this land and hold
the commercial life in their hands, at the first years when Turks began to settle in Anatolia. A
strong economic life is required in order to become permanent on the lands obtained from
the wars. Ahi Evran who first established this business called Akhism, assumed leadership of
this business. Stated, that people brought the first quality standard on production, after
centuries we can say this development here, has carried the traces of this culture. (Özcan,
2005). Today's entrepreneurs in Kayseri can be described as “modern Akhis”. Kayseri’s this
modern Akhis offer a powerful proposal model for the future of Turkey with respect to their
forces of production, business morality, remaining from the public, charity, strong ties with
each other, and the dominant cultural and religious values.
2.1. SUSTAINABILITY OF THE MODEL
It is possible to mention about sustainability of this basic sample development model in the
long term. Prepared according to the answers given by 100 businessmen from Kayseri, a
sustainability model for Kayseri with subjective criteria was transferred to the
findings below: (Yerlikhan, 2011: 134)
Sustainability Index score; 6.87, taking 2nd place in cities ranking.
Economic Performance score; 6.54, taking 4th place in cities ranking.
Social Performance score; 7.40, taking 1st place in cities ranking.
Kayseri is an extremely well developing city in the eyes of the business world. It is obvious
that Kayseri is a business-oriented city. Kayseri’s business people indicate that the reaching
point of the sustainability of Kayseri is not fully reflected to the quality of Kayseri
life. Kayseri business expects a jump in the economy and increase in the number of young
entrepreneurs in future.
3. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND APPLICATION OF MODEL
In the light of all the data and explanations mentioned above, we get the following
hypothesizes that their accuracy can be demonstrated with some applications:
1. Business intelligence, diligence, and the high level of production are specific characters
of Kayseri citizens, and this is usually acquired from family.
2. Kayseri’s entrepreneurial potentials are higher than other provinces.
3. Susceptibility to trade is an important factor on entrepreneurial potentials in Kayseri and
predisposition to this trade for entrepreneurs comes from usually family (especially in the
profession of the father being a merchant and industrialist).
4. Investment is seemed to be a civic duty in Kayseri, by the awareness of that, forprofit investments are located.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
3.1. RESEARCH RESULTS OF KAYSERİ MODEL
To compare Kayseri citizens and non-Kayseri citizens and in order to identify some of
the distinct features Kayseri’s entrepreneurs; a basic multiple-choice survey especially in the
southern provinces, is made and SPSS statistical package program was used for the analysis
and assessment of results. Using SPSS software on the survey data, the frequency
distribution, mean, percentages and t tests were used. Some demographic information about
the entrepreneurs participating in the survey is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Some Demographic Characteristics of Participants
Homeland
f
%
Distribution of Father Profession
f
%
Kayseri
42
70
Farmer
6
6
Out of Kayseri (others)
18
30
Worker
13
36
Total
60
100
Officer
15
35
Education
f
%
Merchant
12
16
Primary
4
6
Industrialist
8
7
Secondary
19
32
Other
6
10
University
37
62
Total
60
100
Total
60
100
According to Table 1, 70% of research participants are from Kayseri, and 30% from out of
Kayseri. Looking at the education, as high as 62% portion of entrepreneurial
participants graduated university. Also, the vast majority of participants’ father professions
are workers (36%) and employees (35%).
Table 2. Reasons for entrepreneurial investment
Birthplace
130
Kayseri
Out of Kayseri
Reasons for entrepreneurial investment
%
%
Family support
60
40
Predisposition to trade (Experience)
67
33
Perseverance to work
77
23
Other
57
43
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
As can be seen from Table 2, Kayseri’s perseverance to work, comparing to
those outside of Kayseri is very high. This data supports the 1st hypothesis.
Table 3. Forms of Setting up entrepreneurs’ business
Birthplace
Kayseri
Out of Kayseri
How did you set up your business?
%
%
By working as a apprentice, monitorial or master
75
25
Father job
67
33
By education
67
33
Doing partnership
77
23
According to Table 3, the majority of entrepreneurs in Kayseri, starting their business by
working as apprentice, monitorial, or master, they trained in this way, and formed a
partnership while setting up their own business. A previous study (Esen, 1999: 104) also
showed the similar results, that Kayseri had the maximum number of trade entrepreneurs by
grown in the bottom. From this perspective, the apprentice-master concept is seemed to be an
indicator of work ethic in Kayseri also effective on sustainability of the model.
Table 4. Distribution of Investment Ideas for Entrepreneurs between Kayseri citizens and non
Kayseri citizens
Birthplace
Kayseri
Out of Kayseri
Thoughts on Investment and Employment
%
%
Investment is a virtue
62
38
Investment is a civic duty of every citizen
80
20
Investment is profitable
72
28
Other
50
50
As shown in Table 4, the majority of participants in Kayseri (80%) are aware that investment
is a civic duty. Difference is significant from those observed in non Kayseri
citizens. This confirms our 4th hypothesis.
T-test
131
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
T-test was used to determine whether or not there exist differences between two independent
groups (with
Kayseri’s
citizens, and those
out
of
Kayseri)
in
terms of
entrepreneurship expressions (variables).
T-test (distribution) which
is
useful
especially when the observation size is below 30, its symmetric structure forms a bell
curve (Altunışık et al., 2002: 158). On the assessing of t-test primarily variances are checked
whether they are different or not, for that 'Levene' test results were examined. T-test
results are in the following table (Table 5).
Table 5: t Test Results for Entrepreneurial Variables Regarding the Differences between the
Groups
Entrepreneurial Expressions
Birthplace N Meana St. Dev.a
t test
Kayseri
42
1.
In my city, many people know how to set up
and manage to a business that may grow faster.
Out of Kays. 18
3,71
1,01
Supported
2,72
1,31
t= 3,157
Kayseri
42
2.
In my city, to establish a new business is
perceived as an appropriate method to become rich. Out of Kays. 18
3,73
1,30
Not Supported
3,77
1,11
t= -0,112
Kayseri
42
3.
In my city, the physical infrastructure (roads,
communication tools, waste expenses) are properly
Out of Kays. 18
organized for new and emerging companies.
4,02
1,09
Supported
2,88
1,27
t= 3,502
42
3,90
1,14
Supported
Out of Kays. 18
3,22
1,16
t= 2,106
42
3,33
1,18
Supported
Out of Kays. 18
2,27
0,95
t= 3,341
Kayseri
4.
In my city, many people can evaluate new
business opportunities without losing any time.
5.
For young people, the possibility of making
their own affairs in my city is higher than the
possibility of working for someone else.
p*
0,003
0,911
0,001
0,04
Kayseri
0,001
a: Scale range (Likert Scale) - 5: Strongly Agree,- 1: Strongly Disagree
*p<0,05
According to t-test in Table 5, those can be said briefly: about entrepreneurship; with respect
to 1st, 3rd, 4th and 5th expressions, the significant difference are observed between
Kayseri’s entrepreneurs and out of Kayseri entrepreneurs. Only 2nd statement no difference
was observed. The 1st, 3rd, 4th and 5th statements are basically about entrepreneurship, and
their mean for Kayseri is higher than other provinces. This is a clear indication that Kayseri’s
entrepreneurship potential is higher than other provinces. This confirms our
2nd hypothesis. Moreover,
as can
be
seen
from the
3rd
expression related
especially infrastructure, Kayseri has a very good infrastructure for entrepreneurs thus
supports the creation of a sample entrepreneurial culture structure in our model with the high
level of infrastructure services.
4.CONCLUSION
132
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The majority of entrepreneurs in Kayseri make commercial investments, detecting the
awareness of the investment as a civic duty. The present study result that we have also
supports the earlier research findings on this issue. (Esen 1999:148). Adem Esen et
al's study, reported that 67.5% of Kayseri's entrepreneurs, take the awareness of that as a
civic duty. Today, we can observe an increase in our study that, this ratio has reached a
value as high as 80%. This shows the model of entrepreneurship in Kayseri is adopting
by more and more people every day and shows the continuity of this culture.
Kayseri's entrepreneurs catch up with the kernel. They started their business as an
apprenticeship then by working hard, they improve themselves and up in their job, and then
they started to become a partner in that business, so that companies today have formed multimember liability partnerships. Whose father’s profession is trader or industrialist is
considerable amount. Today, Kayseri is a city that prides with its diligence, and
entrepreneurial activities. Kayseri also is a model city with continuous improvements.
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�
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Title
A name given to the resource
Model Of Kayseri In Enterpreneurship
Author
Author
Emin, Karataş
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Kayseri, is a historical Anatolian city, has been attracting the attention with its rapid economic growth in recent years. In the past, the region of Kayseri was known as the centre of Akhism.3 Today, the ancient values and philanthropy as well as entrepreneurial spirit and commercial intelligence have an important role on its rapid development. Nowadays, because of the request of commercial activities that come from the past, and the high entrepreneurial spirit; Kayseri with its basic model, is seen as an exemplary city to other provinces in Turkey. Emphasizing the increasing ratio of entrepreneurial activities in Turkey, this article describes the entrepreneurial characteristics of Kayseri, and also describes the presence of an exemplary model of Kayseri as a factor of entrepreneurship. The model features, and its acquisitions will be expressed. A sustainable model of Kayseri in the culture of entrepreneurship and the reflections of this model will be discussed. Making use of the surveys conducted on entrepreneurship, the features and the differences of entrepreneurs of Kayseri will be emphasized. Finally the results of the survey made by us about Kayseri and entrepreneurship will be interpreted by comparing the range of indicators with other provinces. Keywords: the model of Kayseri in industry, commerce and entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs of Kayseri, culture of entrepreneurship
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f967d3b24ffc69c1eac2badc691dfef4.pdf
194545d27cd5d8001587e0fed92f5540
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
ERGENEKON, S. (1996), Tasarruf Eğilimini Etkileyen Sosyolojik Faktörler, PhD Thesis,
Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences , İstanbul
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Meaning of The QURAN, http://www.kuranikerim.com/english/m_indexe.htm
YAZIR, E.H.( 1992), Hak Dini Kur’an Dini, Zehraveyn Yayınları, İstanbul
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Macroeconomic determinants of Sustainable Development
in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Emil Knezović, Uğur Ergun
International Burch University, Faculty of Management,
71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: kinez88@hotmail.com
Abstract
The origin of term sustainable development comes from forestry and it means the extent of
cutting and putting the new trees on the planet. Synonymous for it is sustainability and it
refers to ability to endure as much longer as it is possible. This paper shows the degree of
correlation between sustainable development in Bosnia and Herzegovina and five
macroeconomic determinants: unemployment, export, import, average salaries and CPI as a
measure for inflation. The paper provides information about importance of economy in this
process and it explains all variables that are used. It is based on the period of five consecutive
years (2007-2011). Research for all of five variables was conducted on monthly basis for this
period, so in total it provides 58 data (January and February of 2007 are excluded) for each
variable. Next thing that this paper shows is the current position of the country in terms of its
development. The paper represents a combination of basic research (provides a lot of useful
information about the topic) and quantitative research (shows numerical results that are
gotten by the analysis of the problem). Unemployment, as one of the biggest and growing
problems in the country, is dependent variable and paper tries to prove relationships among
this variable and the others. Results in the paper are obtained through descriptive analysis.
The paper provides data about causes for high unemployment in our country and it shows
how much impact each variables mentioned above have or does it have at all. Finally, paper
shows on what country should put more emphasize in order to improve its current position
and to be able to compete with more developed countries.
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Keywords: sustainable development, unemployment, export, import, salary, inflation, CPI,
economy, GDP
1. INTRODUCTION
Actions done should not affect people that are inhabited there. Sustainable development
represents holding the balance among consumption, savings and regeneration of all our
resources. Sustainable development is a process of change and it has to start from each
individual and it continues by transmitting it to each area of our lives. One quotation
describes, in the best way, change that sustainable development influences. It says: “Insanity
is doing the same thing over and over and expecting different result”.36 As starting point of
process, known as sustainable development, it refers to year 1970, when World leading
countries made an agreement to allocate 0.7% of their total gross national income in order to
help those countries which are struggling. In 1992 at conference in Rio de Janeiro sustainable
development became a leading term in field of politics about environment. Sustainable
development implies four ways of consolidation (use of resources, investments, technical
development and institutional changes). During the process the understanding of sustainable
development has been spread to two fields more: economic and social. All three are making
so called “magic triangle” of sustainable development. Today, UN represents the leading
international organization that deals with it. It was founded in 1945, right after the Second
World War in order to harmonize the situation and to make “relationships” among countries.
It represents an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation
in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human
rights, and achievement of world peace.37 Today, this organization is consisted of 193
countries members.
This paper defines basic terms related with sustainable development, explains data used in the
research and provides the results on five consecutive years. The aim of the paper is to
examine and analyze macroeconomic determinants of sustainable development in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
2. BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Bosnia and Herzegovina is positioned on the Balkan Peninsula with total area of 51 172
square kilometers and estimated population of 4.5 million people. Country is bordered with
Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro. Capital city is Sarajevo.
2.1 History
First recorded appearance of name Bosnia has happened in 10th century in a geo-political
handbook of Byzantine emperor Constantine VII. Since ninth century Bosnia was an
independent country and it was governed by Bans. Independency was kept on until 1463,
when last Bosnian Ban was removed and Ottoman Empire conquered this region. In 1878
36 Albert Einstein, (attributed) US (German-born) physicist (1879 - 1955),
http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/26032.html
37 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations
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Bosnia became a part of Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1914 Gavrilo Princip, a member of
youth movement called “Young Bosnia”, assassinated Austro-Hungarian heir Franz
Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This event was, as most of historians say, an event that started the
First World War. After the end of the War, in 1918 Bosnia becomes a part of country called
country of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs, which was renamed in 1929 in Kingdom of
Yugoslavia. After Second World War Kingdom Yugoslavia became Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia and was operating under that name until October 1991. In that year
Bosnian people vote for sovereignty and in February of 1992 for independency. In May 22 of
1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina became a member of UN. Dayton agreement in November of
1995 marked the end of four years war in the country. Bosnia and Herzegovina is consisted
out of two administrative units: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska.
The special status in the country has region of Brcko-District and it is not part of neither of
those two units.
2.2 Politics and Political structure
Based on its state organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina represents unique state structure in
the world. Legislative power is given to bicameral Parliament consisted of House of
Representatives and House of People. At the top we have presidency that is made out of three
members. Each of them elected based on his ethnic characteristics. So, one is representative
of Bosniaks, one is representative of Serbs and one is representative of Croats. Council of
ministers represents central government and is consisted out of six ministers with positions in
fields of external affairs, international trade and economy, civil affairs and communication,
human rights and refugees, European integration, and finally treasury. On the state level we
have established several agencies whose primary occupation is to create reports about
sustainable development.
2.3 Sustainable Development
As a part of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina was specialized in raw and energy
production. Additionally, most of military production was done in the country. It was hugely
due to huge amount of resources that were available especially for hydro and energy
production. Among that, Bosnia and Herzegovina was and still is rich by coal and metal.
Highly intensive production and exploitation of these resources were not what Sustainable
development policies imply. It was totally opposite since there was imbalanced relationship
between economy and ecology. In time when idea of Sustainable Development was formed
and developed in Rio de Janeiro, Bosnia and Herzegovina was going through war. When in
1997 Rio 5 conference was done, this country was occupied by its own reconstruction and
could not participate in developing the process of sustainable development. However, later on
through several international programs, Bosnia and Herzegovina succeed to join the process
of sustainable development and participated in forming MAP – Mediterranean Action Plan.
2.4 Economy
Since the end of the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina had two main issues. One was to rebuild
its infrastructure that was totally destroyed during the four years of war. The second one was
to change the “style” of economy. Before, in this country is so called central economy, where
most of institutions were government owned and now they had to privatize them. The main
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help for rebuilding were FDI. Total FDI in period from 1994 to 2011 is around 8 billion of
BAM, where the “best” year of FDI in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 2007 where this country
total around 2.4 billion of dollars. This year represent 30% of all FDI since 1994.
Among the main investors (2010 estimated) we have Austria (1.88 billion of BAM), Serbia
(1.72 billion of BAM), Croatia (1.35 billion of BAM) and Slovenia (1.07 billion of BAM).
When it comes to sector investments were mainly done in manufacturing where main
companies of steel production faced joint venture. In the second place of FDI we have
banking services which results in many foreign banks in our countries. In this sector we have
highest investments from Dubai, Croatia and Austria. Economy in Bosnia and Herzegovina
has faced the wall in last few years after continues growth in period before it. As whole world
faces today, this country also feels the consequences of global crisis. The 2009 was the worst
year where it GDP felt for 3%. However, this country started to recovering and in the last two
years has increasing GDP.
3. DATA USED
3.1 Unemployment
Based on International Labor Organization we define the unemployment as situation in which
people without job could not find one in past four weeks. Another definition adds that
unemployment represents a situation in which qualified worker, who are willing to work in
current conditions can not find the job. This problem is presented in each country in the
world and all governments are dealing with it. Among the reasons we can find: labor costs,
low investments from companies, political reasons, low qualifications, personal behavior, job
dissatisfaction, national policies, new technologies, economic crisis and discrimination.
Having in mind the current structure of labor market economists differentiate three main
types of unemployment; structural (the gap between availability of jobs and demand for the
workers), frictional unemployment (when people change their jobs or they move on to the
other regions or countries) and cyclical unemployment (there is generally low number of
available jobs in the market). In order to measure unemployment economists use
unemployment rate. Several international organizations are dealing by comparisons of
unemployment among the countries. Among them we have Eurostat, OECD and ILCP. Based
on the latest information Bosnia and Herzegovina takes 188th place among 200 ranked
countries. This data shows that Bosnia is dealing with big issues regarding unemployment
and that big part of its labor force is unemployed.
3.2 Trade
Trade is term that we use every day. It represents a situation in which good or service change
its owner. In order to earn money trade must happen and place where it happens is called
market. We can identify two types of trade in economy: domestic trade and international
trade. Domestic trade represents the situation where all transactions are done within a
country. On the other hand, international trade represents situation in which two or more
countries made transactions among themselves. Import happens in situation when a domestic
country buys goods and services from foreign one. In most cases two main reasons stand for
doing import. One is that domestic company can import products that have higher quality
and/or lower price than the ones that are produced within the country. On the other hand
some services such as computer equipment, for example Apple is not produced in Bosnia and
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Herzegovina, and so the only way to have it on the market is to import it. Export refers to
opposite situation. It happens when goods and services are produced at home and sold in
other country. As for import several reasons stand for export too. Among them there are
possibilities to earn higher profit, because export gives ability to company to produce and sell
more.
3.3 Inflation
Inflation represents the degree by which price level of goods and services has raised in
certain period. At the same time value of money has decreased, since for the same money
buyer can buy less now. Inflation can result in real decrease of money value, which results in
uncertainties in future. This is seen as negative effect of inflation. On the other hand inflation
can give authorities and government possibility to adjust nominal rates and to call promotes
investments in nonmonetary areas. However inflation is normal from time to time and in
some cases shows how economy is doing. Inflation may be divided into cost push inflation
(companies decide to increase their prices because their costs have increased) or demand pull
inflation (demand for certain product increases so much that it is far more above the supply of
that product). Formula for CPI is new price / old price x 100.
3.4 Salary
Salary represents a payment from company, organization or other legal entity to an employee
on a periodical basis. Salary is important to economy since it provides finance to population
so they can spend and move money around. Based on the contract terms between employer
and employee we may distinguish salary by time (workers are paid for the time they work in
their companies), salary by work (company pays its worker regarding the work done such as
time spent on work and quality of finished work) or salary by results (workers are paid based
on quantity they have produced). Economy ranges workforce based on its income. The main
part of household income is its salaries and that why today there are several categories or
salary grades. Those often called “levels of salaries” distinguish employees and importance
of position they occupy. Same as in other areas of economy there has to be levels of income
so economy could produce different products that have different prices and etc. Beside
national or in modern time, global economic reasons, salary provides information to
individuals so they can be able to see their current position.
4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Unemployment
has
varied in the period of
five years.
As
already
mentioned
unemployment may be
the reason of several
factors. As we can see
from the chart one the
left, unemployment was
decreasing until 2009. It
is assumed that world
crisis from 2008 stroke.
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Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009, and it results in increase of 5.98% of unemployment rate in
3 years. Analysis of 58 data for each variable on 5 year basis shows the following:
Descriptive Statistics
N
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
Unemployment
58
66761.00
469967.00
536728.00
511660.1552
17367.22390
Import
58
824155.00
719309.00
1543464.00
1205184.3793
171683.70156
Export
58
346719.00
385687.00
732406.00
562313.4310
90477.96194
Inflation
58
3.30
-1.20
2.10
.2931
.60491
Salaries
58
203.00
625.00
828.00
764.9483
59.53693
Valid N (listwise)
58
Standard deviation for unemployment shows that most of the data is somewhere around the
mean. When it comes to trade, import counts for 69,900,694.00 of BAM (68.19%), while
export counts for only 32,614,179.00 of BAM (31.81%). This shows that in almost five year
(January and February of 2007 excluded) Bosnia and Herzegovina made trade deficit of
37,286,515.00 of BAM. Inflation in 58 months totaled to 17% which means that if people
could buy certain things for 100 BAM in February of 2007 in December of 2011 they had to
paid 117 BAM. Average salaries increased from 625 BAM to 828 BAM or for 32.48%. It
increased until 2009 and from that point it has almost a flat curve. In December of 2011
Bosnia and Herzegovina counted 536,728.00 of unemployed people or 43.83% of its total
workforce. Even if this number of unemployed people is the record for five years the
percentage of unemployed people is not the biggest one (44.74% in March 2007). Beside
unemployment standard deviation is low only in salary while higher standard deviation we
have in import and export and extremely high in inflation which means that results varying
hugely from the mean.
5. CONCLUSION
The aim of this paper was to examine five determinants of economic sustainable development
of Bosnia and Herzegovina and to see how they impact situation. From the results we could
see that the main reason for unemployment, among the variables mentioned, is trade. Huge
trade deficit is among the leading reason why this country stagnates in sustainable
development. In order to operate with profit, company s revenue has to exceed the expenses.
Same goes for economy; if there is no positive outcomes out of trade, in that case country
cannot operate positive. However, it is important to increase export, because based on several
economic theories it increases employment. On the other hand, economic researches show
that relationship among unemployment and import is strongly negative, which means that
increase in import also increases employment. Reason for that is that there is more
consumption, which represents that economy is growing and that more money is available.
The upcoming years will be crucial for the country since data shows slight stabilization in the
last year. It shows that country started to recover a little bit from the crisis that hit it in the
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2009. In 2010 government made a strategic plan with several strategic goals in order to move
forward. Among the goals they put macroeconomic stabilization, competiveness,
employment, sustainable development and EU integration. In order to succeed government
has to implement policies developed in this strategic plan efficiently and has to coordinate
among these five goals, because the only way to have results is to implement them in the
same time.
REFERENCES
Agency of statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Last Accessed April 29, 2012,
http://bhas.ba/?option=com_saopstenje&cbgodina_saopstenja=2012&pregled=1&lang=ba
A. Hodžić (2008). Geo-economic and geopolitical importance of the Balkan region in the
expansion of European Union. Center for Security studies.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Council of Ministers, Directorate for Economic Planning
(2010). Development strategy of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
CIA - Central Intelligence Agency, Last accessed on April
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html
28,
2012,
N.L. Dobretsov, A.V. Kanygin, and A.E. Kontorovich, Paper on Economics and Environment
as Factors of Sustainable Development of Siberian Mineral Resources
Quotations Page, Last Accessed on April 22, 2012, http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/
26032.html
Tutor2u, Last Accessed on April 10, 2012, http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2macro-causes-of-inflation.html
Wikipedia, Last Accessed April 29, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations
The Applicability of Green Economy Policies: Governance Approach and Sustainable
Development
Fatma Neval Genç, Gülizar Seda Çorak, Murat Yılmaz
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences,
09900, Nazilli, Aydın, Turkey.
E-mails: fatmanevalgenc@gmail.com, seda.corak@adu.edu.tr, muratyilmaz@adu.edu.tr
Phone: +90 256 347 70 11
Abstract
This report tries to focus on how the “governance” approach can enable “green economy”
that develops along with change in the field of energy. As is known, governance approach
emerged as a product of public administration paradigm starting to change at 1970s, and is
330
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1342
Title
A name given to the resource
Macroeconomic determinants of Sustainable Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Author
Author
Emil, Knezović
ERGÜN, Uğur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The origin of term sustainable development comes from forestry and it means the extent of cutting and putting the new trees on the planet. Synonymous for it is sustainability and it refers to ability to endure as much longer as it is possible. This paper shows the degree of correlation between sustainable development in Bosnia and Herzegovina and five macroeconomic determinants: unemployment, export, import, average salaries and CPI as a measure for inflation. The paper provides information about importance of economy in this process and it explains all variables that are used. It is based on the period of five consecutive years (2007-2011). Research for all of five variables was conducted on monthly basis for this period, so in total it provides 58 data (January and February of 2007 are excluded) for each variable. Next thing that this paper shows is the current position of the country in terms of its development. The paper represents a combination of basic research (provides a lot of useful information about the topic) and quantitative research (shows numerical results that are gotten by the analysis of the problem). Unemployment, as one of the biggest and growing problems in the country, is dependent variable and paper tries to prove relationships among this variable and the others. Results in the paper are obtained through descriptive analysis. The paper provides data about causes for high unemployment in our country and it shows how much impact each variables mentioned above have or does it have at all. Finally, paper shows on what country should put more emphasize in order to improve its current position and to be able to compete with more developed countries. Keywords: sustainable development, unemployment, export, import, salary, inflation, CPI, economy, GDP
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78b61ae77abdda48b13a5564b99d1896.pdf
3e6bf77347fd2d912952e29c172a68ac
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2009. In 2010 government made a strategic plan with several strategic goals in order to move
forward. Among the goals they put macroeconomic stabilization, competiveness,
employment, sustainable development and EU integration. In order to succeed government
has to implement policies developed in this strategic plan efficiently and has to coordinate
among these five goals, because the only way to have results is to implement them in the
same time.
REFERENCES
Agency of statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Last Accessed April 29, 2012,
http://bhas.ba/?option=com_saopstenje&cbgodina_saopstenja=2012&pregled=1&lang=ba
A. Hodžić (2008). Geo-economic and geopolitical importance of the Balkan region in the
expansion of European Union. Center for Security studies.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Council of Ministers, Directorate for Economic Planning
(2010). Development strategy of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
CIA - Central Intelligence Agency, Last accessed on April
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html
28,
2012,
N.L. Dobretsov, A.V. Kanygin, and A.E. Kontorovich, Paper on Economics and Environment
as Factors of Sustainable Development of Siberian Mineral Resources
Quotations Page, Last Accessed on April 22, 2012, http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/
26032.html
Tutor2u, Last Accessed on April 10, 2012, http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2macro-causes-of-inflation.html
Wikipedia, Last Accessed April 29, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations
The Applicability of Green Economy Policies: Governance Approach and Sustainable
Development
Fatma Neval Genç, Gülizar Seda Çorak, Murat Yılmaz
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences,
09900, Nazilli, Aydın, Turkey.
E-mails: fatmanevalgenc@gmail.com, seda.corak@adu.edu.tr, muratyilmaz@adu.edu.tr
Phone: +90 256 347 70 11
Abstract
This report tries to focus on how the “governance” approach can enable “green economy”
that develops along with change in the field of energy. As is known, governance approach
emerged as a product of public administration paradigm starting to change at 1970s, and is
330
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
specially emphasized by supranational organizations like The United Nations, The European
Commission and The World Bank. This is because; the increasing energy demand leads the
world to a new energy economy and the search for renewable energy sources. While financial
policies are crucial for sustainable development, applicability and consistency of these
policies can be succeeded by networks and tight relationships between the actors that
governance has developed.
Keywords:Green Economy, Governance, Sustainable Development, Global Warming and
Climate Change, Carbon Tax.
1.INTRODUCTION
Our world experiencing Global Crisis in 2008 continues to discuss effects of this crisis on
one hand while it goes through global climate change on the other hand. We encounter with
new serious signs indicating that nature becomes more and more unbalanced every passing
day. In addition, it becomes difficult to meet unlimited needs of the world population, which
increases day by day, through limited resources. Accordingly, search for new resources is
launched. Principally aiming at growing after crisis, the world targets sustainable
development by giving weight to renewable ones among existing resources in addition to
search for new resources.
Today, global climate change is not an agenda topic for only scientists, heads of state and
summits but also civil society and economists. This is because; it is possible to recover this
problem by adopting “green economy” policies that bring about energy transformation and
focus on efficiency, growth and employment in investments. In brief, four main conditions of
sustainable development are human, environment, energy and economy. Aiming at creating
an active and conscious civil society as a sector, governance approach can introduce a model
that is capable of meeting this deficit. This model can be developed through relationships of
sectoral and social networks. This is because; global climate change is not a problem that can
be overcome by states alone. It is not low-cost, and it does not have boundaries. This study
will focus on global climate change, renewable energy resources, energy-economy
relationship and “green economy”-related alternative policies developed/expected to be
developed by supranational organizations and governments (states) generally and by Turkey
specially within the framework of “sustainable development” concept emphasized by
governance approach. The present study will also deal with approaches and activities of “civil
society”, which is expected to take an active role in formation of these policies and is one of
main components of governance.
The first chapter focuses on global climate change and the process concerning recognition of
the problem. The second chapter deals with birth of the concept of governance and its
importance in sustainable development. The third chapter chronologically examines global
and local steps taken in the matter of climate change (Rio UN Conference on Environment,
IPCC, KYOTO, HABITAT etc.) and touches upon paradigm changes experienced in the
administrative mentality and appearance of governance in these steps. The fourth and last
chapter focuses on policies and financial instruments developed by developed and developing
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countries in the field of green economy, theoretically examines carbon Tax in particular, and
discusses possible effects of Turkey’s accession to Kyoto Protocol.
1.1. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: RECOGNITION OF THE PROBLEM
The change our world has gone through since its existence has determined living
space, class and cycle of living beings at the present time. The “moment” we are in also bears
witness to this change and affects natural change of the world. Considering that earth
assumedly started to be formed approximately 5.5 billion years ago and the first living being
assumedly appeared 3.5 million years ago, and the first human being started to live on the
earth just nearly 100 thousand years ago, it is possible to say that there is a difference of 5.4
billion years between formation of earth and start date of human being to live on the earth.
Apart from problematique of evolution and physical development of human beings, which is
included in the field of study of anthropologists, looking at universal content historical data
we have, we can say that human being got acquainted and started to interact with earth not a
very long time ago from the point of earth. This interaction, which covers the entire history
of human being, is a process still continuing. It is accepted that human beings have deformed
earth and atmosphere within this process as a result of invention of machinery,
industrialization and rapidly increasing growth of technology.
The surmise that natural cycle of the world was deformed due to human factor was reached
upon examination of external effects (seasons, weather events etc.) and movements (rotation
of the world, crustal movements etc.) experienced by human beings that come from “nature”.
It was stated for the first time in declaration of 1972 UN Stockholm Conference that
everyone had a right to have good living conditions in a quality environment. This right was
included in “third-generation rights”. The 56th article of the Constitution of the Republic of
Turkey says, “Everyone has the right to live in a healthy, balanced environment.” and
emphasizes that it is the duty of the state and citizens to improve the natural environment, to
protect environment health and to prevent environmental pollution. Limitedness of bearing
capacity of the environment was also suggested for the first time at Stockholm Conference. In
this context, a basis of the sense of sustainable development was formed.
Environmental problems had been categorized as air pollution, water pollution and soil
pollution until the last twenty years. However, the earth started to get heated as a result of
increase in technology use, non-controllable growth in industrialization, and emission of
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and ozone gases having heat retention features),
therefore global warming and climate change problem came to be more important than all
other environmental problems. This is because; no other problem than global climate change
and global warming has directly threatened humanity to this degree. Global warming is a
deepened problem, which is also associated with other environmental pollutions. Global
warming was a topic discussed only in a couple of academia of developed countries in the
1980s. The importance of the problem was recognized at a lated speed. Upon recognition of
the problem, The World Climate Conference was held in 1979, and a scientific infrastructure
was prepared through establishment of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
in 1988 (Karakaya, 2008:11).
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Global warming and environmental problems have no boundaries. It is not possible to expect
that a pollution experienced in Asia will not affect other lands and oceans of the world. From
this point of view, global climate change is a common problem of all individuals, all states
and all organizations, and can be overcome only through cooperation and common will. One
should not regard policies developed in regard to global climate change as of special power
groups. Global order is not static, but dynamic. In fact, governance approach is an important
paradigm to avoid this idea. Decisions should be made through participation of different
actors from each level. They should be implemented through efforts, interaction and
supervision of these actors.
A large number of international studies, meetings and agreements have been carried out up
until today regarding environmental problems and global climate change, which are
considered common problem of the entire humanity. However, active “stakeholder”
participation, openness, transparency, accountability, measurability, effective communication
channels and a fair environment are needed in decision making, implementation and
evaluation processes for adoption, applicability and consistency of generated ideas, prepared
plans or alternative policies. Considering that environmental problems are regarded as a
common problem of the entire humanity, governance approach is closely related to ensuring
green economy and sustainable development with participation paradigm and principles it has
developed. It would be appropriate to touch upon dynamics and history of governance
approach prior to proceeding to relationship of governance with sustainable development and
green economy and mentioning financial policies implemented for green economy.
2. PARADIGM CHANGE EXPERIENCED IN ADMINISTRATIVE MENTALITY:
GOVERNANCE
General propositions made concerning classical administrative mentality and traditional
public administration organization (Weber Bureaucracy) started to remain incapable as
expectations and demands from states increased because different administrative mentalities
were adopted by different countries as a result of new world order after the World War II and
need-based consumption approach of citizens changed. Firstly, in the 1960s, different
bureaucratic models were compared through Comparative Public Administration. At the end
of this comparison, non-functionality of principles of classical public administration approach
(rules set in detail, strict hierarchy, specialization, unity of command, over-monitoring) was
revealed. New Public Administration and New Public Management approaches, which
shifted public administration to business administration axis and aimed at eliminating
democracy and representation crisis having gone on in public administration in a certain way,
survived until the 1990s. It can be thought that these approaches emerged as alternative
models to criticisms addressing to interventionist structure of state. However, both
mechanisms of state and citizens should internalize behavioral changes required by
democratization within the process where democratic systems and constitutionalism are
questioned, and they should go through different experiences in order to advance their
political cultures and levels of consciousness in this direction. Efforts that were launched by
democratic systems on the way to achieving best as of the 1980s in particular focused on new
models and concepts allowing for direct participation of people in government and aiming at
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removing jacobinism and fanaticalness. Public administration order experiencing a crisis of
concept and identity (Kalfa, 2011:404) adopted an utterly different identification with the
concept of “governance”. Although the concept of governance had appeared in some
academic studies in the USA beforehand, it took the first serious stage in the Report named,
“Sub Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth; A Long Term Perspective Study”
published by The World Bank in 1989 as “good governance”. Then, it was generalized by
United Nations, OECG and IMF in the following years (Uysal et al., 2011: 15). The concept
of “governance” taking shape with the slogan, “State that does not row, but steers” (Koçak,
2010:470) enabled necessary meanings to be attributed to it in a field having certain meaning
deficits. Governance approach, which includes active and effective urban administrations
within the framework of the participation-localization-demilitarization triangle instead of
clumsiness of traditional public administration mentality in provisions of services and
fulfillment of demands, covers more flexible and horizontal organization instead of
complicated traditional public organization allowing participating at minimum level and
includes active civil society as a sector, has adopted the following principles as general
administration principles: transparency, openness, participation, accountability, flexibility,
effectiveness and efficiency in use of public resources. Governance approach develops
partnership and cooperation model in administration. According to Public Administration
dictionary of TODAIE, governance is a structure or order formed by results obtained through
joint efforts of all relevant actors in a social political system (Bozkurt and Ergun, 2008:274).
Versatility and participation of governance as a model refers to participation and coming
together of all actors/parties in a public administration system in terms of order (Gündoğan,
2010:16-17). Development of methods aimed at solution of problems by the society itself is
of great importance for legitimacy of decisions and achievement in solution of problems. In
governance, society consists of relationships between networks of public, private and
voluntary organizations. Thanks to relationships and partnerships between networks, active
participation of different segments of the society is ensured. These partnerships bring about a
special link. Networks with different characteristics (civil–military bureaucracy, private
sector, non-governmental organizations) play an active role in the process of constituting
public policies within interaction and communication with one another (Üstüner, 2003:4950). What is important is to enable for networks with different structures and different
characteristics to meet on a common ground in policies to be constituted and decisions to be
implemented. Civil society, which is now regarded as a sector, has started to lead the state. In
this sense, governance puts an emphasis on active citizen and civil society participation at
each level (local-national-international), but on a local scale in particular. Governance should
be adopted as a model and system in order for green economy policies, which are developed
to ensure sustainable development, to be set and implemented. It is an inevitable requirement
to determine financial-economic solution models developed or to be developed concerning
global warming and climate change, which are common problem of today and future, through
participation and support of multi-stakeholder partnerships and active civil society.
3. SUSTANABLE DEVELOPMENT-GOVERNANCE RELATIONSHIP
Having summarized multi-level and participatory structure of governance, it is necessary to
emphasize the meaning carried by governance in terms of sustainable development.
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Sustainable development is a concept representing the relationship, more precisely the
compromise between economic development and environment (Sönmezoğlu, 1989:547). In
this context, we think that it would be more useful to touch upon history of sustainable
development and its link with governance without proceeding to economic dimension of the
issue.
3.1. Governance, Rio UN Conference on Environment and Agenda 21
Recognition of problems related to environment and natural cycle of the world took place in
the 1960s when the Cold War made its presence felt. The fact that habitat, living space of
human beings, and future of humanity were in danger was understood during discussion of
dimensions of nuclear armament and disaster scenarios likely to emerge during nuclear war.
Following these discussions, a rapid increase occurred in studies on environmental problems
and future of humanity. Club of Rome, which regarded itself as “world citizen” and
expressed its anxieties about future of humanity, published the report named “The Limits to
Growth” in 1972, which made its mark on the last forty years (Bardi, 2011: ix). This report
emphasized that facilities of environment for human beings to live in the next generations
were decreasing more and more. The fact that this report was followed by UN Conference on
the Human Environment, foundation of the UN Environment Programme, acceptance of
Declaration of the Human Environment and establishment of World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1983 revealed that environmental problems could not be
ignored by governments or supranational organizations, and that sustainable development
approach should absolutely be adopted when constituting both economic and political
policies.
A frightening picture was drawn in Bruntland Report (Our Common Future) run by UN in
1987 concerning future habitable spaces and resources in the world, and a basic definition
was made for sustainable development in parallel with that. The report defines sustainable
development as, “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Çetin,
2006:2). According to this report, the only way out of humanity against environmental
problems, which got harder and harder every passing day, was to establish a bridge between
environmental development and economic growth and to make development sustainable
(Yıkmaz, 2011:17). Certain recommendations and warnings were given to governments
concerning revision of growth, risks associated with technology use, controlling population
increase, adoption of economic policies in accordance with environmental problems and
sustainable development.
Evaluations made in the period until 1992 demonstrated that consciousness about the matter
and precautions taken for preventing environmental problems fell short of the expectations.
Decisions having the characteristics of a recommendation and investigations performed in the
form of an assessment did not have any deterrent force. 1992 Rio UN Conference on
Environment (Rio Summit/1992 Earth Summit) became an important step for adoption of
sustainable development with action strategies and outputs it developed. Sustainable
development constituted main agenda of 1992 Rio UN meeting. At the end of Rio Summit,
Rio Declaration was published to indicate rights and obligations of countries in the matter of
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global climate change and development and to determine principles of sustainable
development. Agenda 21 action plan, which is referred to as an expression of a global
consensus and political commitment at the highest level aiming at actualizing “sustainable
development” which targets establishment of a balance between development and
environment (Aydın Kent Konseyi [Aydın City Council], 2011), was drawn up as an annex to
the declaration.Prepared with the aim of reducing destruction on nature and abandoning all
kinds of technologies harming the environment, Agenda 21 set the agenda of the 21st century
as “sustainability of humanity”. Agenda 21 highlighted inevitability of global partnership for
achieving the said sustainability. In addition, Agenda 21 is different from other studies in that
it argues that non-state actors should also share the responsibility for preventing
environmental problems and ensuring sustainable development (Göktürk, 2008:3).
Agenda 21 emphasized the importance of participation and cooperation of local governments
in process for planned activities to be carried out and goals to be achieved. In parallel with
that, it was decided to set Local Agendas 21 to determine problems on site, to monitor
activities, to ensure local participation and to do principal local plans (The Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, 1992: the article 28). In this scope, establishment of Local
Agenda 21 mechanisms became another output of the conference whose main theme was
sustainable development. Within the framework of this idea, local Agenda 21 aims at
preparation and implementation of a long-term strategic plan concerning achieving goals of
Agenda 21 and bringing solutions to local sustainable development problems, and requires
actualization of governance based on participatory and multi-actor local partnerships within
the scope of this target (Göktürk, 2008: 2).
It would not be wrong to say that Local Agenda 21 mediates localization and legitimation of
global decisions. Local Agenda 21 introduced governance model, which was based on
partnership and participation, instead of urban administration based on centralization and
hierarchy. The first organization in which the concept of governance became a subject to
international strategies is meaningful in terms of our topic. As mentioned above, it was
planned in the third chapter of 1992 Rio UN Conference on Environment to constitute units
close to people in order to ensure participation and cooperation via governance approach
through becoming a field and instrument of collective administration with common
participation of all actors in the system by setting aside a one-way administrative mentality.
In this context, it was aimed at establishing a governance network based on participation by
means of Local Agenda 21 mechanisms.
From 1992 UN Rio Summit to the present, many studies and meetings have been conducted
on sustainable development at both national and international scales. Among these efforts,
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994), Istanbul HABITAT II Summit
(1996), KYOTO protocol (1997), UN Millennium Summit (2000) Johannesburg Summit
(2002) and projects and compressive studies carried out for Rio+20 Summit (2012) can be
regarded as held within the body of United Nations. As a founding member of the United
Nations, Turkey did not remain indifferent to efforts performed. Turkey developed policies
on the basis of sustainable development and governance, and consistently emphasized
sustainability and a participatory administration model in its development plans. As a matter
of fact, the seventh chapter of the 9th Development Plan includes the article, “Fulfillment of
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international obligations will be realized in the framework of the principle of sustainable
development and the principle of common but differentiated responsibility” (SPO, 2006). In
2010, SPO prepared the comprehensive Turkey 2010 Millennium Development Goals
Report, and set the target of integrating sustainable development principles with country
policies and programmes and reversing annihilation of environmental resources (SPO, 2010).
In the 2012 programme of the 9th Development Plan, policy priorities and measurements are
mentioned following the article, “Main goal is to reach adequate environmental protection
level and to make cities clean and safe places with high life quality through protection of
human health, natural resources and aesthetic values in accordance with sustainable
development principles” (SPO, 2011). Specialized Commission Report on Good Public
Governance discussed the actions to be taken in order to ensure participation at each level
and to activate civil society. National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan (2007) and finally
National Experience on Carbon Markets and Future Outlook (2011) reports indicate that
Turkey is included in, willing for and interested in environmental sustainability process.
Since main purpose of our study is to establish the link between governance, sustainable
development and green economy within a theoretical framework and under particular
limitations, it is not possible for us to present information pertaining to all studies and
activities conducted from Rio up to the present.
3.2. Governance in Constitution of Sustainable Development Policies
Measurable targets can be set and these targets can be accomplished if policies and practices
concerning environmental problems are developed based on cooperation of various
stakeholders/partners (central government, local governments, civil society and private
sector), that is, governance.
It is important to focus on governance approach concerning how to ensure sustainable
development. In this scope, reports such as “governance for sustainable development”
(UNED, 2001) and “global environmental governance” (Halle and Najam, 2011) were
prepared, and policies suggested in these reports were implemented. It was emphasized in the
Governance for Sustainable Development report that governments, supra-national
organizations and civil society had a general deficiency in implementation of sustainable
development following the 1992 Rio Summit, that the deficiency stemmed from nonexistence of sufficiently harmonious actions of the said networks, and that common policies
for future should be generated and implemented within the framework of governance.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) holds the idea that administration
of networks and partnerships is not same as that of classical organizational management.
While classical administrative mentality makes mention of use of personnel and financial
resources, business plans and work evaluation, governance approach focuses on shaping
relationships between actors and stakeholders and accountability of structures acting in
cooperation and actions of these structures. This is because; it is difficult to ensure
transparency and accountability of multi-stakeholder partnerships within classical
organizational management approach. Accountability is a concept answering the question,
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“Why is a work performed; who is responsible for this work; in which aspect is this person
responsible for work?” Accountability becomes bidirectional when processes and plans are
distributed to exercise one’s authority and obligations are expressly indicated and
responsibility is shared. While a vertical accountability-based partnership is formed in the top
management mechanism, there is a horizontal accountability between stakeholders/partners.
A fair process which includes transparency of information and decision making processes as
well as negotiation and participation methods is required for policies constituted and
decisions made by administration mechanisms, courts and all kinds of decision making
bodies to acquire public confidence and support.
According to International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), key aspects of
governance that should be discussed in terms of sustainability include (IISD,2011);
Vision, mission, goals and objectives – what is the network or partnership all about?
“Network principles" or "partnership principles" – operating values that guide collaboration.
Decision-making process - what types of decisions does the membership have the authority to
make, or to delegate their representatives to make?
Accounting / reporting – how will the network or partnership report to its stakeholders and
broader communities/audiences on its work and its financing?
Other issues that may be of concern - e.g., project proposals and results of projects; role of
the secretariat; roles of special committees; procedures for withdrawing from the
collaboration; dispute-resolution mechanisms; and limitations on advocacy.
Upon looking at the above-mentioned key aspects, it is observed that governance steers
sustainable development discussions in the matter of determination of international strategies
at a local and global scale.
Governance approach also focuses on civil society-government partnership, a public
organization mechanism’s hosting a partnership for sustainable development, and
possibility/impossibility of ensuring a cooperation between organizations completely
independent from governments (IISD, 2008: 10-21). International organizations established
for sustainable development have generally focused on the concept of multi-stakeholder
governance. In a public system, authority and power generally come from state. However,
this power is legitimized only when it is shared. During environmental governance
discussions, legitimacy basis of green economy policies is sought in common decisionmaking processes. Relevant international organizations and supra-national organizations, the
United Nations in particular, accept that consistency can be achieved in implementation of
these decisions only through a multi-actor participation which is parallel with governance
approach. It is possible to see this situation in reports, studies and plans published. Green
economy policies, which are expected to make sustainable development possible,
undoubtedly include technical issues and require establishment of initiatives/networks with
high technical capacity. At this point, recommendations and opinions related to targets are
expected from groups of specialists in order to set measurable targets and develop technical
strategies. 1992 Rio Declaration (UNCED 1992) demonstrated that consciousness of and
responsibility for environmental and social issues were inevitable, and emphasized that this
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responsibility had to be distributed among all stakeholders. Participation of people and all
actors in the system (a whole of pieces interrelated with one another) is of great importance
for regulations made for solution of the problems to bring about public benefits. It is
undoubtedly a basic truth that each one of stakeholders has different characteristics, and they
are not actors with the same importance level. Pre-determination of goals and expectations
helps us concerning which organizations should make what kinds of attempts, and what kind
of roles the stakeholders will take within initiative. Pre-determination of goals and
expectations is a necessary stage in terms of attribution of different characteristics to each
stakeholder and differentiation of roles of stakeholders. Multi-stakeholder process is an
effective model for development and implementation of environmental and social
responsibilities, and leads actions in accordance with sustainable development approach. In
conclusion, governance of stakeholders is an approach that should be primarily adopted for
ensuring conformity between new institutional structures formed to overcome environmental
problems, which is a public issue.
IISD developed various strategies to ensure sustainable development in particular.
Sustainable development strategies are not a simple documentation. These plans are an
adaptable and consistent process of strategic and coordinated activities (Figure 1). The model
can be expressed as follows (IISD, 2011b);
It is necessary to develop a vision for an effective and progressive process based on
mutual consensus, to continue to set new goals and to determine returns of achieving
these goals, and to use this achievement as a guide for the next step of learning
process.
A particular importance should be attached to establishment of coordinated
mechanisms and continuous monitoring of operation of such mechanisms.
Model of the governance, which creates a difference, has a special place in the sense
that it adopts harmonious strategic processes rather than big planning schemes,
competition rather than authoritativeness, a strong relationship between networks and
hierarchical structure rather than strict hierarchy, monitoring, learning, progressing
and feed backing rather than controlling, and learning more rather than being content
with what is known.
Figure 1:Components of Strategic and Coordinated Activities Aimed at Sustainable
Development: National Sustainable Development Strategy and Process
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Reference: (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2011)
According to this model, leadership, planning, implementation and monitoring processes are
followed on the basis of participation and coordination. Leader should determine strategic
approach, show his/her commitment to and concentration in the issue, internalize sustainable
development principles aimed at intergenerational and mutual solidarity, and have other
stakeholders adopt the same. Plans should build on a legal and organizational basis and be
subjected to a political evaluation. In the implementation process, a particular attention
should be paid to accountability, financing and intervention of policy initiatives in the
process. In the monitoring process which is the last component; evaluations should be made
in regard to strategies, sustainable development approach should have been understood, and
learning and adaptation process should have been gone through.
Other examples of efforts of UN and its affiliated organizations on governancesustainable development relationship are “National Strategies for Sustainable Development”
(NSSD) research project and “Governance Structures for National Sustainable Development
Strategies” (GSNSDS) studies. NSSD is an international common research project
concerning strategies undertaken and stakeholders efforts conducted for sustainable
development on a national scale in various countries. GSNSDS is an effort in which a study
group constituted by OECD within the body of International Institute for Sustainable
Development examines good governance examples and their effectiveness regarding
sustainable development strategies in approximately 20 countries.
4. ECONOMIC and FINANCIAL POLICIES DEVELOPED IN THE WORLD AND
IN TURKEY WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF GREEN ECONOMY
Although recognition of Global Warming and Climate Change problem, attraction of
attentions to this issue, and rise of level of consciousness have made up the first step, it is a
fact that deterrence can be achieved only through economy. Therefore, the most effective
way of protecting the environment is adopting methods such as making polluters to
compensate for harms of their activities harmful to environment, introducing tax incentives
for activities not damaging the environment, legally prohibiting practices harming the
environment or imposing additional tax burden on these kinds of practices (Bilgin and
Orkunoğlu, 2010: 80).
In this way, production and consumption channels will turn to encouraged eco-friendly mode
of production or consumption of substitute goods instead of carrying out an activity within
the scope of environment tax in order to avoid additional tax burden. Considering from the
point of public revenues, the fact that administrative costs of environment tax practices are
lower than other practices38 and they have an impact reducing tax burden on other sources of
taxation thanks to income-generating feature will create a positive impact (Bilgin and
Orkunoğlu, 2010: 80).
38 Financial instruments reduce administrative expenses as the cost for decreasing sourcing through
command-control mechanism is several fold more than the cost for decreasing it by implementing
environment tax (FULLERTON et al., 2008:3).
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4.1. Financial Instruments Used in Environmental Policies
Environmental policies phase of sustainable development includes guiding decisions and acts
of economic actors in favor of environment by increasing costs of choices bringing a high
level of damage to environment and encouraging the choice with a high social benefit.
Among many components of environmental policies, the most effective ones are policies
built on the market basis in that they are cost-effective and enable new production techniques
to be created and expanded through supporting eco-friendly technologies.
Financial instruments related to environment can be examined under two groups. However,
scope of the present study only theoretically deals with purpose and effects of environment
taxes and, focuses on Carbon Tax collected over carbon-content fuels, which are the most
important cause of global warming and climate change.
4.1.1. Environment Taxes: The fact that right of possession and disposition of global
collective goods (free goods) belongs to entire world and environmental resources do not
have any price set under market conditions causes these resources to be used abusively. In
addition, environmental effects lead to externalities that mean social benefit or cost. While
beneficial externalities increase social welfare, the cost aspect of it lays a burden on the
society. Accordingly, the most important instrument in environmental policies is to enable
environmental externalities spreading as social cost to be compensated by those causing this
externality by imposing an additional tax burden, that is, to “internalize externalities” as
stated in the literature.
In the European Union and OECD countries, taxes are implemented within the framework of
environmental policy through adapting existing taxes to environment39 and loading an
additional tax burden on polluters for their activities causing negative externalities in the
environment. Accordingly, the expression of environment tax includes both taxes and duties
and charges (Çelikkaya, 2011:99).
Environment taxes have double dividends in the sense that they internalize negative
externalities, and reduce tax burden on labor and capital thanks to revenue earned from this
tax (Fullerton et al., 2008: 3; Monrgenstern, 1995: 6).
4.1.1.1. Purposes of Environment Taxes
39 That tax collected over lead gasoline, which is more harmful to environment due to lead content,
is higher than the tax collected over unleaded gasoline, which is less harmful to environment, can
be given as an example for this practice which is called tax discrimination.
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4.1.1.1.1. To Internalize Negative Externalities:Economic units that carry out activities
harmful to environment create a cost that does not reflect on market price of these harmful
goods, which is social cost. This is a market failure (Çelikkaya, 2011: 99). An additional tax
should be imposed on those causing social cost as a price to eliminate this failure. This is
because, environmental resources are public goods, and if an additional tax is collected over
use of these resources, market price of the resource subject to tax will increase, and therefore
a decrease will be achieved in consumption, which is the goal desired to be accomplished. In
addition to fall in environmentally hazardous consumption, new, cleaner and eco-friendly
production technologies will be adopted from the side of production.
4.1.1.1.2. To Reduce Tax Burden on Labor: It is aimed for special tax on environmentally
hazardous activities to reduce burden of taxes such as income tax, special security premiums
and corporate tax by increasing tax burden on these activities, that is, to enable for tax burden
to be distributed more fairly (Çelikkaya, 2011:99).
Chart 1: Reducing Effect of Environment Tax Revenue on Tax Burden on Labor
Price
SMC
P’ --------------------------------------------------------- PMC+Environment Tax
P
PMC
Demand
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Q
QAmount of Consumption of Goods Polluting the Environment
Reference : (Fullerton et al., 2008:11)
“Let’s assume that we will examine the market of an environmentally hazardous goods under
a circumstance where there is no state control concerning environmental pollution. Demand
curve indicates marginal utility provided by this goods for consumer at the end of
consumption. In this market, marginal utility (demand curve) and private marginal cost
(PMC) intersect at P price and Q amount levels. However, negative externality caused by
consumption of environmentally hazardous goods creates a cost on the rest of the society.
Accordingly, Social Marginal Cost (SMC) is higher than Private Marginal Cost (PMC). In
this market, ratio of tax to be applied according to who pollutes pays for it approach
(Piqovian approach) will reduce the difference between social marginal cost and private
marginal cost (by increasing PMC), accordingly price of this goods will rise from P level to
P’ level. Rise in price will lead consumers to consume less by guiding them to substitutes of
the said goods” (Fullerton et al., 2008: 11).
Increased revenue obtained by state through environment tax will reduce the tax collected
over incomes. In this way, the difference between gross revenue and net revenue of
employees will decrease, accordingly labor supply will increase. As a result, tax burden on
labor will be decreased (Fullerton et al., 2008: 11).
4.1.1.1.3. To Generate Revenue:Sustainable development and green economy mean
protecting the nature for today's generation as well as next generations (Regional
Environmental Center REC Turkey, 2006: 9). Many financial policies adopted for this
purpose fulfill their financial functions as other taxes do in the sense that they generate
revenue for state.
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Chart 2: Environment Taxes in EU (Billion Euro, GDP %)
Energy
Transportation
Environmental Percentage of Taxes in GDP
Pollution and Natural Resources
Total
Reference: (Stamatova and Steurer, 2011: 1)
4.1.1.2. Economic Effects of Environment Taxes
4.1.1.2.1. Effect of Environment Taxes on Distribution of Income: Taxes levied on
investments are already addressing to rich people who have a chance to replace their
investments with eco-friendly investments supported by state. Since low-income families
allocate higher amount of money to fuel in comparison to high-income families (Akkaya,
2000:3) and use fossil fuels like coal, they may be negatively affected by carbon tax.
However, this situation is prevented through exceptions granted up to certain energy
consumption levels40(Akkaya, 2000: 3).
On the other hand, carbon tax is seen to have neutral effect on distribution of income
(Akkaya, 2000: 3) considering other indirect effects such as restriction of environmentally
40 In The Netherlands, no tax is collected for consumption of 800 cubic meters natural gas and
consumption of 800 kwh electricity. It is seen that tax imposed for decreasing energy consumption
keeps its effectiveness as this exception amount is not set as very high (Akkaya, 2004:4).
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hazardous consumption, use of revenues for encouraging investments, fall of tax burden on
labor and provision of compensatory payments (Özdemir, 2009: 22–23).
4.1.1.2.2. Effect of Environment Taxes on Competition: In countries implementing
green tax reform, some sectors recommend ways such as voluntary participation instead of
environment taxes because of possibility of these taxes to affect international competition
negatively.
There will as many winners as losers in sectoral or international competition at the end of
environment tax practices. In fact, an effective taxation in fight with pollution will also
decrease costs in the long term. In addition, the more countries adopt implementation of
environment taxes, the less international competition is affected. After all, it is tried to
prevent loss of competitiveness through implementing exemption, exception and tax return
mechanisms in many sectors, and revenue of environments taxes collected is returned to these
sectors as incentives.
4.2. Carbon Tax
Among environmental problems, the most hazardous one is global warming and climate
change. The basic reason for that is greenhouse gases emitted during burning of fossil fuels
whose usage has gradually increased since the Industrial Revolution (Koç and Garip,
2008:151). Carbon dioxide gas has the greatest share in greenhouse gases concerning which
policies are directed by the Kyoto Protocol. Karbon Tax, which is a specific tax collected
over carbon emission amount, is the most important phase of fight with climate change in
terms of financial instruments.
When there is an activity of an economic actor causing a negative externality in the
environment, this externality turns into social cost if it is not included in the market price.
Accordingly, policy instruments may be deterrent only if they directly increase costs of
relevant activities through affecting prices. Therefore, Carbon Tax collected over carboncontent fossil fuels based on the principle, ‘who pollutes pays for it’ seems to be the most
effective instrument.
Although environment is a global property and the problem should be solved by
taking global-scale measurements, it is not possible to implement a global taxation. However,
Carbon Tax is undoubtedly the most important tax as it appears in many international
agreements and introduces inter-country partnerships in terms of implementations.
Even though cost of environmental problems and fights with these problems is high, it
is seen that marginal cost of protection by carbon tax is less than marginal benefit to be
obtained through protection of the environment (Hotunluoğlu and Tekeli, 2007: 112).
Carbon taxation is a practice aimed at reducing the difference between private costs occurring
in the situation where no tax is imposed and social cost imposed by negative externalities,
which occur at the end of activities causing carbon emission, on society by adding carbon tax
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burden to cost functions of those performing such activities (Hotunluoğlu and Tekeli,
2007:111). Reduction of carbon emission was suggested in 1988 Toronto Conference, and a
reduction target of 20% was set for the first ten years (Repetto, 1992: 54). It was decided to
determine emission strategies for a common purpose in UN Convention on Climate Change,
which was signed in 1992 with participation of more than 150 counties (Repetto, 1992: 54).
In the first ring of production chain; taxation is implemented starting from fossil fuel
sources such as mines and wells, which affects all stages of fossil fuel use as it reflects on
producers and companies processing these sources or using them as inputs and consumers
such as households purchasing carbon-content goods and services. Consumers will respond to
rise of energy prices by carbon tax by using less fossil fuel, and producers will react to it by
turning to less carbon-content inputs (Repetto, 1992:54). However, effectiveness of carbon
tax depends on price flexibility of fuel41 and return of carbon tax revenues to clean
investment and production techniques (Çelikkaya, 2011:104–105).
In regard to development process of carbon tax in practice, we can say that it started to be
discussed for the first time in England in the 1970s. However, carbon taxation was firstly
implemented by Finland in 1990, and Norway and Sweden in 1991. Then, the Netherlands
and Denmark put it into effect. These countries were the first EU member countries adopting
carbon tax (Hotunluoğlu and Tekeli, 2007:115; Çelikkaya, 2011:104–105)).
4.2.1. Effectiveness of Carbon Taxation in Practice
Carbon tax transfers right of possession from those polluting the environment to state.
Therefore, individuals have to pay tax to state in order to get back their right to pollution. In
this context, carbon tax, which is effective as an economic instrument, intervenes in the
market, and accomplishes environmental purpose through equalization of marginal social
benefit and marginal social cost. In addition, financial purpose is accomplished by generating
public revenue (Hotunluoğlu and Tekeli, 2007).
While some people argue that since tax increases costs, it will create a disadvantage for
domestic producers especially in energy-intensive sectors, opponents state that carbon tax
will encourage new technological developments and bring about positive results in terms of
competition in the long term (WRI, 2008: 1–2)
Some econometric analyses demonstrated that environment taxes collected in countries
implementing carbon taxation did not have any significant effect on carbon dioxide emission.
This situation can be attributed to three reasons (Hotunluoğlu and Tekeli, 2007:121-122):
41 Environment-related taxes are mostly implemented in the sectors of energy and transportation.
According to estimations, flexibility is high in the energy sector in the long term. Therefore,
environment taxes have a very important effect on reduction of energy demand in the long term.
Studies on gasoline demonstrate that price elasticity is quite high (Kulu, 2001:3).
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Environment taxes do not cover the entire carbon dioxide emission, and requirement for tax
to cover the entire emission mentioned in the carbon theory tax cannot be achieved.
Energy-intense sectors using significant amount of fossil fuels have an influence on
government for giving exceptions and exemptions as they become disadvantageous as a
result of rise in costs by tax (WRI, 2008:1–2), they fail to proceed to clean production
techniques in the short term, and accordingly they face the danger of falling behind in
international competition. This tax cannot completely accomplish its environmental and
financial purpose due to exemptions granted in this manner.
Although the primary purpose of this tax is to restrict environmentally hazardous activities
and carbon emission in theory, financial resource-related purpose is attached more
importance because of large amount of tax revenues (Yıldız, 2006: 104).
In addition, it is seen that environment taxes, which must directly regard the environmental
goal and are “primarily” categorized as environmental taxes, are shaped as taxes collected
over goods due to ease of implementation instead of adoption as a pollution tax (Akkaya,
2000:3).
How these tax revenues are used is of great importance for effectiveness of implementation
of carbon tax. Obtained tax revenues can be used for meeting budget deficits in order to
ensure macro-economic stabilization independently from the purpose of taxes. This, however,
requires tax ratio to be at a level to keep tax revenues at maximum42. Accordingly, if Carbon
Tax is not raised to a level sufficient to be deterrent for obtaining large amounts of tax
revenues, it will not be possible to reduce harmful gas emission to the level targeted within
the framework of sustainable development (Tekin and Vural, 2004:325).
Ratios in goods and services on which all types of environment taxes will be implemented
must be correctly set in order to accomplish the purpose effectively. Considering Carbon Tax,
which is collected in direct proportion to carbon content, tax to be imposed on coal must be
higher in comparison to natural gas as it is a more polluting fossil fuel due to carbon content
it contains (Akkaya, 2000:3)
4.3. Kyoto Protocol and Turkey
The most important legal document concerning reduction of carbon emission is Kyoto
Protocol. According to this Protocol, countries appearing on the Annex-1 list of the Protocol
(EU member countries being in the first place) have to reduce their emission levels by %5
from levels observed in 1990 during the 2008-2012 period. Turkey became a party to Kyoto
Protocol with a Law accepted on 05/02/2009, and made a commitment to reduce carbon
emission until 2013. In this way, parties to the Protocol entered into an important obligation
regarding prevention of environmental pollution (Regional Environmental Center REC
Turkey, 2006: 31).
42 Laffer Curve.
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Unlike other agreements, Kyoto introduces three flexibility mechanisms in order to
decrease costs in reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Environment and Forestry, 2009:24-25):
Joint Implementation: This is a project-based mechanism to be implemented by countries
appearing in Annex-1. If necessary conditions are fulfilled with this implementation, Annex1 countries can conduct emission reduction project among themselves. That is to say, when
an Annex-1 country achieves emission reduction, it wins an “Emission Reduction Unit”, and
can sell this amount to another Annex-1 country.
The Clean Development Mechanism: This mechanism is implemented between Annex-1
countries and non Annex-1 countries. Annex-1 countries are regarded to realize an actual
reduction in emission ratios through technology transfer within the scope of projects they
carry out in non Annex-1 countries. Annex-1 countries use Certified Emission Reduction
Credits they have won at the end of the project within the scope of their own reduction
obligations, and gain right to generate more emissions in the country up to this amount.
Emissions Trading: In this market-based implementation, if any country included in Annex-1
list achieves more emission reduction than it commits, it can sell this additional reduction
defined in Annex-B to parties included in Annex-1.
Table 2: Turkey’s Current Participation in Flexibility Mechanisms
Kyoto Instruments
Host Country
The Clean Development Mechanism NO
Guest Country
. YES .
Joint Implementation
NO
NO
Emissions Trading
NO
NO
Reference:(Republic of Turkey Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2011:80)
4.4.1. Turkey as a Party in Fight with Global Warming and Climate Change
Since Turkey was an OECD member, it was included in both Annex-1 and Annex-2
lists in 1992 when UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was opened for signature.
Although Turkey supported purposes and general principles of the convention, it did not
become a party to convention until 2004. In the 7th Parties Conference held in Marrakech in
2001, it was decided to “delist Turkey from Annex-2 and to give it a place in Annex-1 in
another position different from the Annex-1 countries by recognizing its ‘special
circumstances’”. Upon this decision, Turkey became a party to UNFCCC on the 24th of May
2004 and to Kyoto Protocol on the 26th of August 2009 (Possible Effects of Kyoto Protocol
on Turkish Energy Sector, 5).
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4.5. A Critical Perspective on Environment Taxes and Carbon Markets
It is possible to criticize effectiveness of environment taxes from many aspects.
Possibility of polluting environment as much as affording taxation does not generate a
healthy result. In addition, it does not seem to be a fair solution for those who are already
low-income and have to use fossil fuels like coals which are supplied much and relatively
cheaper.
Considering carbon markets, although emissions trading seems to encourage countries
for emission reduction by allowing them for generating revenue through selling emission
reduction they achieve more than the set amount, it does not seem that it will eliminate fossil
energy dependency because it gives other counties to generate emission more than the
limitation.
“Turkey is also in voluntary carbon market with some clean energy production
projects, and aims at increasing its share in this market. This is because a company
developing clean production techniques will sell its own emission credit to a company
polluting environment and avoiding facing heavy costs of it within the scope of Kyoto
Protocol Clean Development Mechanism. This will cause purchasing company to continue
hazardous production by paying the price for it” (Konak, 2011:154). The fact that developing
countries have a chance to purchase pollution they generate instead of adopting industrial
production techniques that bring less damage to environment will delay new structural
changes in industrialization. Although renewable energy type projects like energy efficiency,
solar energy, biogas, geothermal, wind, hydroelectricity, which can make the greatest
contribution to sustainable development, are large in number among The Clean Development
Mechanism projects, these projects bring about low amount of emission reduction and
introduce few credits (Konak, 2011:164).
On the other hand, the fact that carbon markets have turned even environmental issues
into an instrument of speculation tarnishes plausibility of solution seeking. That The Czech
Republic, The Netherlands, Estonia, Sweden and France declared their national emission data
in April 2006 early and it was realized that they generously distributed carbon credits led to
speculations in the carbon market (Konak, 2011:163 ) and carbon prices fell instantly.
Therefore, fall in cost of purchasing carbon credits and decrease in profit of selling emission
reduction surplus caused companies not to prefer emission reduction.
In short, Kyoto flexibility mechanisms mediate not reduction, but transfer of emission
from one place to another.
Another problem the world faces within global climate change is food problem.
Turkey has productive soils and a high bio-diversity. Complementary component of making a
direct investment in protection of nature is making an investment in biological capacity.
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Among ways of increasing productiveness of land are returning distorted lands to their
previous conditions, improving land tenures, improving land management, product
management and crop productivity. To achieve this, factors such as land tenures of
landowners, land ownership problems and lack of infrastructures should be solved (WWF,
2010:94).
Considering the problem and developed solutions together, it is seen that more
concrete and realistic solutions are needed in terms of justice of income and environment.
Approaches such as making existing fuel sources less hazardous through techniques like
filtering and making investment in heat insulated and energy-efficient buildings and transport
systems that consume less energy, that is, making production energy-efficient seem to be
beneficial solutions at this stage.
Since increase in GDP is not enough alone today, changing consumption habits and
raising awareness concerning the fact that resources of our world are limited and gradually
decreasing are the primary solutions to be adopted.
5.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is environment which has suffered most in the process of fulfilling unlimited needs
through limited resources. The fact that this damage which is “human” related returns again
to human to damage him caused seriousness of this problem to be recognized and become a
topic focused on by not only marginal groups and scientists but also national and
international organizations, heads of states, media and economists. Although nature has selfperpetuation feature, technology and industrialization, which advance at a speed impossible
to keep pace with, destroy this ability of nature in the ratio of their own speeds.
Continuing its rapid economic growth, the world has encountered a big problem
which is impossible to be compensated and threatens “today” and “future”: Global warming
and climate change. A new concept appeared in the 1970s in which not only physical capital
but also human capital and environment increased their importance: Sustainable
development. To develop by meeting the needs of the present without limiting the future
generations. Economy, public administration, social policies, civil society, media, national
and international organizations should progress shoulder to shoulder in order for sustainable
development to be really ”sustainable”.
Especially multi-national companies shifted their production to developing countries
as a result of removal of limitation on international trade. Capital mobility and search for
cheap labor also had an impact on this tendency of the companies. These companies
concentrating in petrochemical, automotive, electronics, rubber and pharmaceutical sectors
that bring the greatest damage to environment started to rapidly pollute these regions which
had remained naturally intact until their intervention. Green economy (environmental
economics) developed within the framework of sustainable development aims at minimizing
the damage to environment at the stages of production, consumption and leaving waste on
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nature, and requires use of efficient and more renewable energy resources. While national
and international steps taken for environment increase every passing day, they bring along
certain responsibilities. Since implementation of these policies arouses fear of missing
foreign capital among developing countries that desire to achieve a rapid growth even though
they are subjected to industrial waste, these countries cannot properly implement green
economy policies. In this case, it is thought that a choice has to be made between
environment and economy. However, environmental policies will already show their benefits
in the long term. In this context, the most effective solution is adoption of green economy
policies aimed at achieving production, growth and economic development without polluting
environment or by bringing minimum damage to environment instead of falling into a
dilemma and making a choice between giving up production for environment or growing
even if it results in damaging the environment.
Environment is a global common property. Sustainability of environment can be
achieved only through an international cooperation. Within this framework, the most
important international step is Kyoto Protocol, to which Turkey became a party in 2009, and
the most prominent financial instrument is carbon tax. Taking into consideration
environmental negative externalities, which occur in production and consumption stages, in
production and pricing besides this tax and other environmental taxes will be deterrent due to
obligation of bearing cost of destroying environment. These taxes should be homogenously
imposed on a global scale as much as possible, and rise in prices and costs in the entire world
should not negatively affect sectoral and international competition in order for these taxes to
fulfill their environmental and financial purposes duly. Governments should regulate
exemptions and exceptions without tarnishing the purpose of taxation. Revenues obtained
from additional environment taxes should be used for encouraging eco-friendly activities and
developing new production techniques. In this sense, progress should be achieved through
technology transfers. At this point, social policies including training should be developed,
and specialists should be trained and employed in these fields.
In Turkey, environment taxes do not absolutely serve their purposes. There are many
answers to the question, “Is it possible to implement Carbon Tax in Turkey?” On the other
hand, effect of this taxation on citizens should be taken into consideration besides
introduction of an emission reduction. The fact that our economy, in which foreign
investments have a big share, does not have the luxury to lag behind international
competition in this period makes it probable for industrial segment, which comes first to be
affected by carbon tax, to put leverage on government for receiving exemptions and
exceptions. In addition, it is possible for carbon tax to negatively affect low-income families
considering that they allocate greater part of their incomes to fuel consumption in comparison
to high-income families and most of these low-income families use fossil fuels like coals that
contain high level of CO2. Natural gas, which emits less carbon than coal, appears to be first
alternative for households. In this context, local governments have a great responsibility for
carrying out necessary infrastructure works.
Since enterprises in Turkey cannot take part in emission trading as a purchaser until
2012 within the scope of Kyoto Protocol, they can perform sales only in foreign voluntary
carbon markets. Important changes will occur in their tax burdens as they will become both
purchaser and seller as of 2012
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Actors of sustainable development are environment, society and economy.
Accordingly, environmental policies to be implemented in accordance with this purpose
should be given credit and adopted by society. Therefore, people should be expressly
informed especially about financial policies to be implemented, principle of transparency
should never be violated, and effectiveness should be achieved between institutions of the
sate within an absolute information sharing and cooperation. Public sector, civil society and
private sector, that is all segments of the society, should fulfill their part for sustainable
development, and they should act in tandem.
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Identifying The Dimensions Of Attitudes Toward Vocational Economy And Commerce
Education: A Research In Sarajevo, Bosnia And Herzegovina
A.Tuba Duman, Uğur Ergün
Internatıonal Burch Unıversıty, Faculty of Economıcs,
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovına
E-mails: d.aybalatuba@yahoo.com, uergun@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to identify the dimensions of attitudes toward vocational
economy and commerce education in high schools in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1343
Title
A name given to the resource
The Applicability of Green Economy Policies: Governance Approach and Sustainable Development
Author
Author
Emil, Knezović
ERGÜN, Uğur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This report tries to focus on how the “governance” approach can enable “green economy” that develops along with change in the field of energy. As is known, governance approach emerged as a product of public administration paradigm starting to change at 1970s, and is specially emphasized by supranational organizations like The United Nations, The European Commission and The World Bank. This is because; the increasing energy demand leads the world to a new energy economy and the search for renewable energy sources. While financial policies are crucial for sustainable development, applicability and consistency of these policies can be succeeded by networks and tight relationships between the actors that governance has developed. Keywords:Green Economy, Governance, Sustainable Development, Global Warming and Climate Change, Carbon Tax.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90cc2e6c5d61303196cae1ac7b01a119.pdf
e31c54ff96e238d928ec453c520529bf
PDF Text
Text
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Density, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al2O3‖, Ceramics international,
28, 195-200.
Barsoum, M.W. (1997) ―Fundamentals of Ceramics‖, Mc Graw Hill, New York, USA.
Kalpakjian, S. (1997) ―Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials‖, Prentice Hall 4. Edition, USA.
Yıldırım, İ. (2002) ―The effect of Production Condition and Composition on The Strength
Properties of Al2O3 and SiC‖, PhD Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, ISTANBUL
Aneziris, C.G. Scharfl, W. and Ullridch, B.(2007) ―Microstructure Evaluation of Al2O3
Ceramics with Mg-PSZ and TiO2 Additions‖, Journal of the European Ceramic
Society, 27, 3191-3199.
Glass Foams Containing Fly Ash And Sheet Glass By Adding Calcite As Foaming Agent
Ediz Ercenk1, Gunhan Bayrak2, Senol Yilmaz1, Volkan Gunay3
1Sakarya University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Esentepe Campus, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey,
2Sakarya University, Arifiye Vocational School, 54580 Arifiye, Sakarya
3TUBITAK-MAM, Material Institute, 41470 Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
Abstract
Glass foam is a porous isolation material used for heat isolation. In this study, the possibilities
of glass foam production using calcite as a foaming agent was investigated. The mixture was
prepared 10% wt. of waste window glass and 90% wt. Seyitömer thermal power plant fly ash.
2.5 to 10% wt. calcite was added to mixture and pressed under 75 MPa pressure by uniaxial
cold pressing to obtain cylindrical specimens. Pressed samples sintered at 750-950 °C
temperature range for 1 hour according to differential thermal analysis (DTA) results. The
effect of calcite addition and sintering temperature on the porosity, density, compressive
strength, microstructure and crystalline phases were investigated. It was determined that the
284
�properties of glass foams was changing depend on calcite addition as foaming agent and the
sintering temperature. The results showed that calcite provide foaming in specific proportions
for glass foam production.
Keywords: Calcite, fly ash, glass powder, glass foam
1. INTRODUCTION
Calcite is an abundant rock-forming mineral in the Earth's upper crust. It is a carbonate
mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It has a defining mohs
hardness of 3, a specific gravity of 2.71, and its luster is vitreous in crystallized varieties.
Color is white or none, though shades of gray, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown,
or even black can occur when the mineral is charged with impurities. The dissolution and
precipitation behavior of calcite has been widely studied since it plays an important role in
rock weathering and soil chemistry and therefore these processes impose controls on the
natural sequestration of CO2. The carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is given off as bubbles and the
calcium dissolves in the calcinations reactions. Because of this features, some minerals
including carbonate can be used for foaming process (Vavouraki 2008, Wikipedia 2012).
Foam glass is a porous heat-insulating and soundproof material, with true porosity up to 90
vol.%. Foam glass is a heterophase system consisting of the gaseous and the solid phases. The
solid phase is glass that forms thin walls of single cells several micrometers thick. The cells
are filled with the gaseous phase. These materials have many properties such as high surface
area, high permeability, low density, low specific heat for high thermal and acoustic insulation
and high chemical resistance. Glass foams are resistant to water and water vapor and do not
burn. Commercial glass foams exhibit porosity, apparent density and compressive strength
values of about 85–95 vol.%, 0.1–0.3 g/cm3 and 0.4–6 MPa, respectively (Fernandes 2009).
Several synthesis routes are available to produce foam materials such as bubbles generation in
slurries or in a green body during a specific thermal treatment, reaction sintering, sol–gel
methods, direct foaming, pyrolysis of organic additives and polymeric sponge method (de
Sousa 2008). There are a lot of investigations for production of glass foam materials. To
investigate the effect of different additives and different raw materials on foaming process is
popular issue, recently.
In the current study, the production possibilities of glass foam materials including sheet glass,
fly ash and calcite were investigated. It is possible that this study can provide new view point
for producibility of more economical glass foam material.
285
�2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
In the present study, cullet of commercially produced soda lime sheet (SLS) glass and power
plant fly ash (Seyitömer-Turkey) were used as raw materials and their chemical analysis was
performed by x-ray fluorescence (PHILIPS PW2404). The chemical compositions of fly ash
and sheet glass were given in Table 1. and Table 2., respectively. Firstly, cullet glass was
crushed and then dry milled using a ring mill (RETSCH). The main mixture was prepared fly
ash 10 wt. % and sheet glass 90 wt. %. Calcite was added to mixture in the proportions of 2.510 % against sheet glass proportion in main mixture decreased by calcite addition for using
more waste fly ash. Four different compositions were prepared from glass and fly ash
with calcite addition by using ball mill for 1 h. The code schedule for samples was given in
Table 3.
Table 1. Chemical composition of fly ash
Oxi
de
SiO2
Al2
O3
Fe2
O3
Mg
O
Ca
O
SO
3
K2
O
TiO
2
NiO Na2
O
Wt.
%
56.8
96
17.2
46
10.6
28
5.13 4.31 2.39 1.55 0.67 0.23 0.31
7
6
8
4
7
6
1
P2O Cl
5
L.O
.I
0.12 0.02 0.44
8
8
5
Table 2. Chemical composition of sheet glass
Oxid
e
SiO2
Na2
O
CaO
%
73.19
5
9.916 8.59
0
MgO Al2O
3
Cl
K2O
TiO2 Fe2O
3
SO3
L.O.
I
5.99
8
0.02
5
0.10
8
0.04
0
0.33
8
0.09
1.515
0.185
Table 3. Sample code schedule
286
Sample code
Cullet (wt.%)
Fly ash(wt.%)
Calcite (wt.%)
25C
87.5
10
2.5
50C
85
10
5
75C
82.5
10
7.5
100C
80
10
10
�In establishing an optimal heat treatment procedure for foam reduction the thermal behavior
of glass cullet, fly ash and carbonates lays a key role. Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
(SEIKO Exstar 6000) was used to determine glass transition and crystallization temperature
for raw materials.
The cylindrically shaped samples with diameter of 25 mm and thickness of 15 mm obtained
by uniaxial pressing (800 kg/cm2) were sintered between 750 °C and 950 °C for 1 h
according to DTA results of sheet glass, fly ash and calcite. To characterize the prepared
samples apparent density, porosity, compressive strength and visual observation were
performed. Leica stereo microscopy was used for visual studies. X-ray diffraction analysis
(XRD) was used for phase analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL 6060)
was carried out for microstructural investigations. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) using
analyze phases present in the coatings over a 2Ө range of 10o–90o were used for
characterization of the glass foam samples.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
DTA results of raw materials used glass foam production are shown in Figure 1. Glass
transition temperature was determined 550 °C for sheet glass (Figure 1a). Calcite exhibits a
strong endothermic peaks corresponding to moments of weight loss (Figure 1b) characteristic
of this material. The endothermic peak (790 °C) was due to the decomposition of calcium
carbonate (calcite) with release of CO2, according to the Eq. (1). The total weight loss was
about 45%.
CaCO3
CaO+
CO2
(1)
An exothermic peak in DTA analysis of fly ash was detected at 460 °C (Fig. 1c).
Accordingly, the weight loss of 3.1% occurs at the same temperature. This exothermic peak
occurs due to the unburned carbon reaction in fly ash. In this study sintering and foaming
temperatures were selected according to DTA results shown in Figure 1.
287
�(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1. Thermal analysis (heating rate 5 °C/min) of (a) sheet glass, (b) calcite and (c) fly ash
Tridymide (ASTM chard no: 42-1401), Cristobalite (ASTM chard no: 82-0512), Diopside
(ASTM chard no: 75-1092) and Augite (ASTM chard no: 78-1391) phases were determined
by XRD analysis. Augite was determine in sample including calsite 10 % but not determined
for the sample including calcite 2.5 %. The first significant point in XRD results is that peak
intensities and numbers increase with increasing sintering temperature due to better
crystallization. The intensities of Diopside and Augite peaks increase with increasing calcite
addition and sintering temperature, clearly. The zone under the XRD patterns illustrates glass
structure in body. The changing volumes of this zone infer to crystallization. When the
sintering temperature was 950 °C, this zone got narrow, markedly. The effect of sintering
temperature on crystallization is seen this way, clearly. Especially, Tridymide and Augite are
characteristic phases for glass foam material in literature (Fernandes 2009).
After the sintering process, dimensional change test was performed for the samples. These
results were given in Figure 2. It was shown that there are two important parameters
influencing dimensional change. The first parameter is sintering temperature, the second is
calcite addition. In general, dimensional change increases with increasing sintering
temperature up to 900 °C. Above the this temperature, vitrification effect of liquid phase
sintering mechanism cause firing shrinkage due to better sintering. Calcite addition has a
positive effect on dimensional changes for calcite addition 2.5-5 %. When the calcite addition
increased, dimensional changes decreased because of over gassing reactions. When the
reaction between CaCO3 and O2 occurs, CaO and CO2 gases form. Released gas provide
softening and expansion for matrix. This mechanism is related to foaming process. When the
foaming agent volumes increased excessively, gas pressure increases and the gas bubbles
consisting of porosities explode due to high pressure. It is possible that the pressure of CO and
CO2 gases force glass matrix and thus, gas pores shrinkage happen (Hasheminia 2012). That
the highest dimensional change value is 41.17 % was determined in calcite 5 % reinforced
sample sintered at 900 °C. Calcite addition has negative effect on dimensional changes for
some situation.
288
�45
Dimensional Change, %
40
35
30
25
20
25 C
50 C
75 C
100 C
15
10
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
Sintering Temperature, °
Figure 2. Dimensional test results versus sintering temperature
The macro photographs of samples can be seen in Figure 3. It is clear that dimensional
changes and sintering temperatures increase in direct proportion. Increasing sintering
temperature provide better sintering. The highest dimensional changes and the most foaming
were observed in samples sintered at 900 and 950 °C. The samples including calcite 5 % were
exposed to deformation. At 750-850 °C, pores and cracks on the surfaces formed due to the
escaping gas from the decomposition of CaCO3. This situation infers that gas pressures in
these samples are maximum point. When it comes to other samples, the volume expanded and
the surfaces became smooth with increasing temperature.
Figure 3. The macro photographs of samples
The curves of porosity values of the samples depending on sintering temperature are given in
Figure 4a. Porosity values are correlation with dimensional change results. The highest
porosity value was measured in coded 50 C sample sintered at 850 °C. The samples sintered
at low temperatures have higher density and lower porosity due to the occurrence of a higher
viscosity. The maximum porosity values in this study were calculated as 49.25 % in sample
including calcite 5 % sintered at 850 °C. This value for commercial glass foam material is
about 85-95 % (Scheffler 2005). The porosity values are correlation with macro photographs
of samples. The samples containing higher calcite content have lower porosity values.
289
�The density changes with sintering temperature are shown Figure 4b. The lowest density was
measured as 0.43 gr/cm3 in 25 C coded samples sintered at 850 °C. The samples including
calcite 5 % sintered at 800-850 °C have lowest density because of their pore structure. In
these samples, pore size is not big compared to other groups but pore numbers are too much,
comparatively. Density values in commercial glass foams are about 0.1-0.3 gr/cm3 (Scheffler
2005). Apparent density of the glass foam obtained from glass-calcite mixture is about 0.4-1
gr/cm3. The density increases with increasing calcite addition. Extensive calcite addition
cause negative effect on foaming process. Higher sintering temperatures have similar effect
on foaming and densities due to better sintering and lower viscosity.
1,2
60
25 C
50 C
75 C
100 C
1,0
Density, gr/cm
Prosity, %
3
50
40
0,8
0,6
30
25 C
50 C
75 C
100 C
0,4
20
0,2
700
750
800
850
900
950
700
1000
(a)
750
800
850
900
950
1000
Sintering Temperature, °
Sintering Temperature, °
(b)
Figure 4. a) Porosities versus sintering temperature, b) Density values versus sintering
temperature
The curves of compressive straight depending on sintering temperature were given in Figure
5. These results are correlation with porosity and density values. Porosity values are inversely
proportional to the compressive strength. Compressive strength decreases with increasing the
amount of porosity. The highest compressive straight values (4.75 MPa) are gained from the
samples including calcite 10 %. In general, compressive straight decreases with increasing
sintering temperature. Calcite addition has adverse effect compared to sintering temperature
effect.
290
�Compressive Streight, MPa
5
25 C
50 C
75 C
100 C
4
3
2
1
0
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
Sintering Temperature, °
Figure 5. Compressive straight versus sintering temperature
Figure 6 shows the typical aspect of the glass foams of all the investigated compositions. The
amount of calcite in the batch considerably affects the size and the shape of the pores. In
general, the glass foam samples have inhomogeneous microstructures with irregular pores
with a high scattering in their size (0.1–1 mm). Some pores were smaller than others, these
pores were then sealed by the glassy phase when the sintering temperature increased due to
the increasing viscosity. Since the addition of more calcite produced more gas, the pores
became larger, suddenly. This situation is also observed in similar studies (Fernandes 2009,
Bernardo 2007, Chong Liao 2012).
Figure 6. Stereo microscopy visions of samples of cross-section surface
4. CONCLUSION
XRD analysis showed that Tridymide, Cristobalite, Diopside and Augite crystalline phases
formed in the glass foams. 49.25 % is the highest porosity value in coded 5C sample sintered
at 850 °C. The lowest density 0.43 gr/cm3 was measured in coded 25C sample sintered at 850
°C. The porosity sizes increases with increasing sintering temperature. In the same time,
calcite addition has a positive effect on foaming process in general. But calcite addition
caused adverse effect on foaming process in some condition due to gas reactions. Micro and
macrostructure analysis shown that the pore sizes and shapes are very irregular and the
structures seem inhomogeneous.
291
�REFERANCES
Vavouraki A. I. Putnis C. V. Putnis A. and Koutsoukos P. G. (2008) An Atomic Force
Microscopy study of the growth of calcite in the presence of sodium sulfate, Chemical
Geology, 253, 243–251.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite (2012).
Fernandes H.R. Tulyaganov D.U. and Ferreira J.M.F. (2009) Preparation and characterization
of foams from sheet glass and fly ash using carbonates as foaming agents, Ceramics
International, 35, 229–235.
de Sousa E. Rambo C.R. Hotza D. Novaes de Oliveira A.P. Fey T. and Greil P. (2008)
Microstructure and properties of LZSA glass-ceramic foams, Materials Science and
Engineering A, 476, 89–97.
Hasheminia S. Nemati A. Eftekhari Yekta B. and Alizadeh P. (2012) Preparation and
characterisation of diopside-based glass–ceramic foams, Ceramic interanational, 38, 20052010.
Scheffler M. and Colombo P. (2005) Cellular Ceramics: Structure, Manufacturing, Properties
and Applications, wiley-vch verlag gmbh&co. , Weinheim.
Bernardo E. Cedro R. Florean M. and Hreglich S. (2007) Reutilization and stabilization of
wastes by the production of glass foams, Ceramics International, 33, 963–968.
Liao Y.C. and Huang C. Y. (2012) Glass foam from the mixture of reservoir sediment and
Na2CO3, Ceramics International, 38, 4415–4420.
Sustainable Urbanization And Ecocities
Çiçek Eda, Demirkiran Özlem,
Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkiye
E-mails: edacicek@sdu.edu.tr,ozlemdemirkiran@sdu.edu.tr
Abstract
Nowadays, fears about leaving a liveable world to next generations are increased. While
sources are decreasing rapidly, demands are increasing more swiftly. In order not to restrict
next generations‘ right to live, some measures must be taken. At this point, sustainable
urbanization concept came forward. Therefore the governments brought ecocities to agenda.
In this study, the phenomena of urbanization, sustainability, sustainable urbanization are
examined briefly. Problems caused by urbanization are detected. And the ecocity approach
that implemented for the realization of sustainable urbanization is discussed. Lastly, sample
ecocities from different places are dealt with.
292
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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1258
Title
A name given to the resource
Glass Foams Containing Fly Ash And Sheet Glass By Adding Calcite As Foaming Agent
Author
Author
Ediz , Ercenk
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Glass foam is a porous isolation material used for heat isolation. In this study, the possibilities of glass foam production using calcite as a foaming agent was investigated. The mixture was prepared 10% wt. of waste window glass and 90% wt. Seyitömer thermal power plant fly ash. 2.5 to 10% wt. calcite was added to mixture and pressed under 75 MPa pressure by uniaxial cold pressing to obtain cylindrical specimens. Pressed samples sintered at 750-950 °C temperature range for 1 hour according to differential thermal analysis (DTA) results. The effect of calcite addition and sintering temperature on the porosity, density, compressive strength, microstructure and crystalline phases were investigated. It was determined that the properties of glass foams was changing depend on calcite addition as foaming agent and the sintering temperature. The results showed that calcite provide foaming in specific proportions for glass foam production. Keywords: Calcite, fly ash, glass powder, glass foam
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General)