14 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2da505b92a74a06b761350733338aef1.pdf 34135370499fa878e988c23c20573612 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo A Rumelian Legend: Safiye Erol and Ciğerdelen Assist. Prof. Nesîme Ceyhan Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Turkish Language and Literature, Çankırı, Turkey nesimeceyhan@hotmail.com Abstract: Ciğerdelen, a novel of Safiye Erol first published in 1946, is an important study of Ottoman conquest idea and the Balkan adventure. We can say that the book contains intertwined a few novels. On the one hand the book can be handled as a post-modern romance, on the other hand, as a post-modern historical novel that focused on Ottoman’s protection and defense of the Balkans. The book does not stay away from the tradition of Turkish folk narration, and has biographical features with the traces from author’s life. Safiye Erol, as a daughter of a Balkan originated family, succeeded to carry the Ottoman’s love of Balkans into a concrete ground with this novel. In this paper, we will try to analyze Cigerdelen, one of the novels that get the Balkans to the center, by starting from its title and pointing out the couple meaning and repetition sprinkled by the author to the whole novel. Ciğerdelen is one of the sad novels which are not appreciated, or whose value is not understood or not wanted to understand in Turkish literature history. This situation is totally related to the reputation of Safiye Erol but Erol is one of the special authors of the Turkish literature. Unfortunately, the same fate of oblivion and silence and abandonment is subject to her productive friend, Samiha Ayverdi. Ciğerdelen is an important milestone for modern Turkish novel. The novel has a more complex fiction than her other novels and has a spiritual atmosphere based on inspiration when we look at the writing process of the novel. Safiye Erol, in an interview with her‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡, says that she lost twelve kilos, fainted twice while writing this novel and after completion she was still sickbed. Behind the strong influence of the novel on the reader, we can say that the writing of the author is as if she was living all the events herself. Ciğerdelen can be evaluated as a novel that is fiction on a two layer meaning from the beginning to the end. There is an outer story and an inner story in the novel. The inner story consists of two interconnected stories that facilitate the cognition and make sense of outer story. While the outer story is opening the soul doors of an intellectual woman of 1940s Turkey, the inner story is presenting a woman who is loyal to her love of the years that are witnessing the conquest and protecting the Balkans of Ottomans. Canzi of modern Turkey and Cangüzel of the conquest days are common souls that are suffering from similar pains of love. In fact Canzi is carrying the fate of her ancestor Cangüzel. “Ciğerdelen” on the one hand represents strong loves of two women, on the other hand represents one of the frontier castles of Rumelia, an important castle if surrended it will require us to come from all Rumelia. Ciğerdelen Castle Legend is a legend in Armorer (Silahtar) History. As an influence of “Red Apple (Kızıl Elma)” ideal, Turks walked to the West, and fought for Ciğerdelen Castle and similar ones with conquest soul and faith. Border castles became grave for many innocent Turkish raiders, and brought them to martyrdom. Each conquer of a castle is something like a union with beloved; from now on it carries the danger or risk of losing. In the novel, strong faith to these castles with patient and love of sons of Fatih (evlad-ı Fatihan), and tolerance to every difficulty and at last martyrdom is consubstantiated to patient and faith for the love of opposite gender despite the rudeness and cruelty of human being. The conclusion is reaching the sainthood of lover soul by healing from all evils. The basic hero of the novel, Architect Turhan Tuna, is the grandson of Bosnia Serhatli Koca Turhan Bey, the son of Hersekoğlu Ahmet Pasha who was the standard bearer of Sultan Fatih, the chief vizier of Beyazid, the second and Yavuz Sultan Selim. The heroine Canzi in other words Cangüzel is from the breed of Cangüzel, the wife of Mustafa Durakça from the roots of Yellow Spahis (Sari Sipahiler) of same family. These two grandchildren are going to live the continuing of their ancestors’ stories in Istanbul three centuries later. The novel starting with the separation of Canzi (Cangüzel) and Turhan Tuna is interrupted by returns and the narration of Rumelian Legends written by Canzi and with the completion of the legend it is back to the beginning for the result of the love of Turhan Tuna and Canzi. [1] Mehmet Nuri Yardım, Safiye Erol Kitabı, Published by Benseno, Đstanbul, 2003, p. 62. (cited from Kandemir, Edebiyat Alemi (Newspaper), Year:1, Number:13, July 28, 1949) 433 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Canzi (Cangüzel) is a divorced woman. The common family stories about Rumelia recognized with Turhan Tuna by coincidence brings them closer to each other. This getting closer will not be enough for Turhan Tuna and the strength of his love will drag him to a diseased jealousy. Canzi is going to try to discipline Turhan Tuna with Ciğerdelen Legend. This way depending on getting a moral tradition will not be enough for the lover in order to open his eyes. In a moment when the suspect made him crazy without the lust of Canzi, Turhan Tuna owns her and is going to lose the love of Canzi. This process which is a beginning of a great pain for Canzi will make both hero and heroine ill. These two hearts that solve their mistake with heartburns that occurred centuries ago in Rumelia, will find cure for their illnesses by getting closer to divine love from human love. The Rumelian Legend presented to Turhan Tuna in the novel is as follows under three topics: Yellow Spahis: Bosna Serhatli Koca Turhan Bey, son of Hersekoğlu Ahmet Pasha, settles to the land given in Stulni-Belgrade County with his whole family after the bravery that he showed in the Balkans. He makes a big farm house. His son Veli Bey and his grandson Sinan Bey, lived in this farm house for three generations and contributed to the protection of this area. Turhan Bey and his grandson Sinan Bey became martyr near Ciğerdelen; his son Veli Bey trains and grows up Mustafa Durakça, the grandson of Sinan. When Veli Bey retired from fighting, Mustafa Durakça started to become a hero in Rumelia. On one hand having education with his friend young Hafız Nuri, the imam of the farm house, on the other hand he was staying in Hungarian villages and having tendency to wine with him. Durakça, fighting in the borders with Hafız Nuri, falls in love with Mariska Kemeni, the daughter of Hungarian Governor Kemeni. Despite all the anxiety of his mother Sümbül Hanım, the support of his grandfather Veli Koca encourages him. He goes into action after the information that Mariska will be kidnapped by her cousin Graf Stefan. Mariska abandoned her nationality, religion and family for Mustafa Durakça. After a little battle with Graf Stefan, Mariska is taken to the farm house as the wife of Mustafa Durakça. Wounded Graf Stefan was brought to the farmhouse as well. He was treated there. Durakça showed great respect to Graf Stefan after saying that Mariska’s cousin cannot be my captive. Graf Stefan was affected from the bravery of Mustafa Durakça and Hafız Nuri after his friends’ betrayal. Graf Stefan who lost his lover had a great soul exam. His enemy Turks became new friends never leave him alone. Graf Stefan ranges to Turkish side and becomes Muslim and changes his name to Feridun Bey (Hungarian Feridun). Mariska Kemeni becomes Muslim and changes her name to Cangüzel before marrying Mustafa Durakça. At first she has no problem with her new living style as a result of her love, later starts to miss the Hungarian habits and entertainments. Most of the time, she cannot find Mustafa Durakça next to her. Her pregnancy unites with rebels. The newly born child is given his grandfather’s name, Sinan. Cangüzel’s exam starts with loving Sinan idolatrously. In the world, who loves anyone or anything more than God (Allah); the exam will be from there; cruelty and torture will give no respite. Stefan Graf passed love exam and found Islam. Mustafa Durakça became martyr while defending Ciğerdelen Castle like his father and grandfather. Cangüzel is separated from her first love in this way. She becomes thoroughly addicted to her son and closes her eyes with his torment. Sinan was a scapegrace son and ruined his mother. To any entity should not go to extremes in love. The Secret of Lovers: In this section Turhan Tuna tries to analyze his torment in the days that he falls apart from Canzi. He nestles to the story of Kerem and Asli. His strong love to Canzi broke off him from Canzi. First love is a spiritual disease, and then spreads to the body. Architect Turhan Tuna working for the reconstruction of Thrace lies in bed with fever. He cannot sleep, cannot eat, struggles with the delusions among the dreams of his ancestors. Seven Veils: The second story related to Canzi’s family continues around Sinan the scapegrace son of Cangüzel. The venue is again Şahin Konağı. Cangüzel and Veli Koca had passed away. Hafiz Nuri, old and faithful Adviye Molla, Hungarian Feridun are managing the house. “What wisdom is that the hardest sorrow comes to the men from the most beloved ones.”§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ The plot of this story is this sentence written in the beginning of the story. One day Adviye Molla asks Hafız Nuri: “Does loving too much mean the greatest crime in the life?” Hafız Nuri replies: “Loving too much is attributing a partner to God.”********************* After causing to death of his mother, Sinan who has no signs from the bravery of his father and grandfather will become a difficult exam for Zuhre - the daughter of Hafiz Nuri. While Şahin Konak becomes a ruin, Hungarian Feridun and Hafiz Nuri try to protect the honor of Yellow Spahis. After the Martyrdom of Hafız Nuri in Ciğerdelen Castle defend, his daughter Zühre is brought to Sahin Konak without obeying to his will in which he wanted his daughter to be sent to Bosnia. Zühre’s exam with love starts here. Her father trained her very well but she falls in love with Sinan. Sinan is a monster with seven veils. He did not love anyone really, and caused many of the women’s death beside his mother. Zühre will face his seven big cruelties after coming together with him. Zühre behaves resignedly to every cruelty, and first gets marry with Sinan. He devotes Zuhre for his sister-in-law Duriye Hanım as he wants Duriye Hanım’s assets. He gets divorced from Zühre and gives all the assets of Zühre to Duriye Hanim as a wedding present. When Zühre gives birth to Sinan’s son, Sinan [2] Safiye Erol, Ciğerdelen, Published by Kubbealtı, Đstanbul, 2007, p.120. [3] Same book, p.120. 434 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo marries Zühre with old Saraç Ismail and keeps her in front of his eyes near his house. Sinan Bey cannot come closer to his son as he is scared from Duriye Hanım. He becomes such a dishonest person that he forces Zühre to serve Duriye Hanım. Zühre will endure all the events with patient; with her heart opened to God she will pass away as a holy person in the borders. Her son Nuri will be a proud for his ancestors but also will die in Ciğerdelen. These stories will help to recover jealousy disease of Turhan Tuna to Canzi (Cangüzel) and obsession for one person more than everything. When Turhan Tuna recognizes God, after purifying his love, like all other lovers, will meet Canzi’s mercy and the love will turn to union with beloved. The events occurred around Ciğerdelen Castle, the stories of souls with obsession to love, grudge, ego, and ambition, stories of people who recognize the exams in the world and who do not put the basic plot of the novel. Everybody has a Ciğerdelen. Who serves what will get the return. A soul devoted to God and his path will be away from all sorrows of the world. Everybody has a Ciğerdelen Castle inside him or her. 435 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 731 Title A name given to the resource A Rumelian Legend: Safiye Erol and Ciğerdelen Author Author Ceyhan, Nesîme Abstract A summary of the resource. Ciğerdelen, a novel of Safiye Erol first published in 1946, is an important study of Ottoman conquest idea and the Balkan adventure. We can say that the book contains intertwined a few novels. On the one hand the book can be handled as a post-modern romance, on the other hand, as a post-modern historical novel that focused on Ottoman’s protection and defense of the Balkans. The book does not stay away from the tradition of Turkish folk narration, and has biographical features with the traces from author’s life. Safiye Erol, as a daughter of a Balkan originated family, succeeded to carry the Ottoman’s love of Balkans into a concrete ground with this novel. In this paper, we will try to analyze Cigerdelen, one of the novels that get the Balkans to the center, by starting from its title and pointing out the couple meaning and repetition sprinkled by the author to the whole novel. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fac96c39ee07704574213534788ad71.pdf 8c5dcc209f0f7c3cbdab818a64d56a2c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Serkan Doğanay Atatürk University, Turkey sdoganay@atauni.edu.tr Mete Alım Atatürk University, Turkey metealim @atauni.edu.tr Na mık Tanfer ALTAŞ Atatürk University, Turkey ntanfer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Keywords: Environmental protection, national park, sustainable development, Turkey Introduction The rapidly growing world population and technological developments resultinthe use of natural sources intensively. Especially the increase in manufacturing,the development of cities and the expansion of trade pave the way forthe emergence of worldwide environmental problems. Environmental changes and impairment affect also the natural sources negatively in terms of causing their reduction and losing their quality. It began to be realized that environmental problems were reaching global level in 1960s. In this sense, almost every country began to getinvolved in attempts to contribute to providing sustainable progress and reducing the deterioration of natural balance. Scientific, social and economic benefits of nature protection zones began to be perceived apparently and as a consequence of this,the amount of the conserved area today is 1 billion ha (Demirel 2005: 7) The idea of forming national park which is one of the approaches to protect the nature came into prominence in the second half of the 19th century. Yellowstone National Park which was taken under preservation in 1872 in the USA was the first practice of this idea. In the same period, the concept of nature conservation was adopted by countrieslike Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Mexico. The geographicallocation of Turkey paved the way for the affluence of Turkey in terms of both natural and culturalsources. However,the factthatthe firstsettlement dates back to old times and the intense beneficial use of the area gave rise to many environmental problems. The idea to erect national parks in Turkey aiming at protecting rare species of plants and animals, cultural entities,land forms and hydrographical sources began 223 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to develop in 1950s. The firstlegalregulation in Turkey regarding national parks was made withthe article 25 of the Forest Law no 6831 which was implemented in 1956. Afterwards, the 2. article of National Parks Law no 2873 brought forward the concepts of nature protection zones, natural parks, natural monuments and recreation spots in addition to national parks. (Doğanay 2001:151-153, Turkey Environmental Organization 1999:335). In this article, the concept of national park is defined as the nature segments that own scientifically and aesthetically unique national and international natural and cultural values, and also recreation and tourism spots (Akıncı 1996:222). By the regulations made in this field, today totaling 206 protection zones including the national parks (40), natural parks (30), natural monuments (105) and nature protection zones (31) are present in Turkey. The aggregate surface area of the aforementioned protection zones is 1028565 ha and the 897657 ha of which belong to national parks, and this constitutes 1.2 % ofthe country’stotalsurface area.In 1993, protection zones (572395 ha) made up only 0.7 % of the total surface area of the country (Taşlıgil 1994:259). Just taking the national parks into consideration, itis seen that about 1.1 % of Turkey has been taken under preservation. This data revealsthatthere was an acceleration in the attempts to identify the protection zones after 1990. As a matter of fact, 19 oftotal 40 national parks were identified after 1990. National parks which are among the most efficient approaches to transferring natural and cultural sources to the next generations after preserving them consciously are of great importance for scientific studies besides their being the centre of attraction for tourists. Protection zones like national parks which are vitally important for sustainable environmentalapproach are facing some basic problems which need to be solved as expeditiously as possible. The negligence of the balance between preservation-utilization, and the high pressure oftourism are the greatest problems. Accordingly, primarily Turkey’s national parks and their geographical distribution in conjunction with their causes are discussed in this study. Afterwards,the problems encountered in national park areas and in the neighboring areas are dealt with from the point of preservation- utilization balance, and local economy and are attempted to come to a conclusion. National Parks and Their Geographical Distribution The most common way of preserving the nature in the world is national parks. Because of their natural and cultural characteristics,that some geographical areas are protected and putinto the service of human beings for cultural and touristic reasons forms the basis of the foundation of national parks (Doğaner 1985:119). Therefore, in accordance with the idea of sustainable environment, the idea to build up a balance between preservation and utilization isenvisaged. Turkey isthe intersection point of the continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Additionally,the variety of land forms and its being surrounded with water provides Turkey with affluence interms of both plant and animal existence. Nevertheless, the fact that the first settlement date goes long way back brought about the serious devastation of natural sources. Though itis estimated that 10000 years before B.C, 75 % of the area on which Turkey is located currently was covered with forest,today this rate has gone down to 25 %. Within the same period, wetland has receded from 6 % to 1 %. Related to the intense exploitation, while forest, moor and wetlands have diminished, agricultural and settlement areas have steadily increased. The alterations in the natural habitatresulted inthe extinction of 12 kinds of endemic plant species and brought along 1189 more plant species tothe verge of extinction (Demirel 2005:24). Itis getting more and more crucial to conserve the wealthy diversity of plants against the rising human activities. Protection zones like national parks undertake a prettyimportantfunction in conserving especially the endangered species. The conservation and declaration of national parks are carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. The first national park which was taken under protection in 1958 is Yozgat Çamlığı National Park (Figure 2). The latest national park is Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park which was declared in 2008 (Figure 3). The number of national parks inthe country has reached 40 today. The grand total ofthe surface area of national parksis around 897657 ha.In our country, between the years 1950-1959 4, 1960-1969 5,1970-1979 7, 1980-1989 5, 1990-1999 11, 2000-2009 8 national parks were identified and established (Table 1).Yozgat Çamlığı (264 ha) and Bird Paradise National Park (64 ha) are the ones with the smallest area (Arı, 2003: 9). Bird Paradise National Park, which was certified to have 64 ha surface area in 1959, was scaled up to 24047 ha in 2005. The largest one of allthe national parks in Turkey is Beyşehir Lake National Park with its 88750 ha of surface area. Historicalrelics, geomorphological formations,flora, hydrologicalfeatures and the presence of diverse bird species compose the value of this park. Ağrı Mountain National Park (87380 ha), Kızıl Mountain National Park (59400 ha), Aladağlar National Park (54524 ha) and Kaçkar Mountains National Park (51550 ha) are following the previously mentioned national park in the order of magnitude (Table1). Natural, cultural, historical and archaelogical values they possess are regarded in the process of 224 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo designating the national parks in Turkey (Figure 4). Justto give an example, while Gelibolu Peninsula National Park and Başkomutan Historical National Park have been taken under protection due totheirimportance in terms of war history, Güllük Mountain (Termessos), Karatepe-Aslantaş, Olimpos-Beydağları Beach, Köprülü Canyon, Boğazköy- Alacahöyük and Troya Historical National Parks have been designated as national parks for their high historical value areas and for harbouring archealogical relics. We also have national parks which were designated as national parks because of their natural vegetation and wild life. Yedigöller National Park, Dilek Peninsula- Müyük Menderes Delta National Park, Ilgaz Mountain National Park, Kovada Lake National Park, Đğneada Longoz Forests National Park, Tek Tek Mountains National Park and Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park are some examples of these kinds of national parks. Some ofthe national parks in Turkey come into focus with their different source of values. To illustrate this, Köprülü Canyon National Park owns rich flora besides archaeological relics. Altındere Valley National Park, which islocated in the Eastern part of Black Sea Region, is known forits embodying a universal archaeological and historicalstructurelike Sümela Monasteryin addition to its natural values (Doğanay, 2003: 43-64). Göreme Historical National Park has been declared as protection zone as it possesses amazing geological formations like fairy chimneys, old settlements, churches and a high tourism potential. Uludağ, Saklıkent, and Ilgaz Mountain National Parks are also of great importance as winter tourism centers. Taking a look atthe regional distribution of national parks,itis vividly seen that 31 of 40 national parks are situated in the regions on the coast. Mediterranean (11)isthe region with the most national parks. Black Sea (8), Marmara (7), Egean (5), Central Anatolia (4), Eastern Anatolia (3) and Southeastern Anatolia (2) are the regions coming after it (Figure 1, Table 1). Morphological characteristics, diverse flora, historical and cultural values arethe reasons why national parks are situated mostly in coastalregions (Yaşar, 2000: 185). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Region Province Area (ha) Date Aladağlar N.P. Mediterranean Niğde, Adana, Kayseri 54524 1995 Mediterranean Adana 16430 2008 Southeastern Anatolia Adıyaman 13850 1988 Aegean Afyon, Kütahya, Uşak 40742 1981 Eastern Anatolia Ağrı, Iğdır 87380 2004 Black Sea Ankara 1195 1959 Mediterranean Antalya 6702 1970 Mediterranean Antalya 34425 1972 Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Nemrut Mountain N.P. Başkomutan Historical N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Soğuksu N.P. Güllük Mountain (Termessos)N.P. OlimposBeydağları Coast N.P. 9 Köprülü Canyon N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 36614 1973 10 Altınbeşik Cave N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 1156 1994 11 Hatila Valley N.P. Black Sea Artvin 17138 1994 12 Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Black Sea Artvin 3766 1994 13 Dilek PeninsulaBüyük Menderes Delta N.P. Aegean Aydın 27675 1966 14 Bird Paradise N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 24047 1959 Source Value - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Bird existence - Sea turtle and Flora - Historical open air museum - Watching sunrise - Cultural values - Cultural values - Flora and fauna -Flora - Recreation and entertainment -Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Geological formations - Geological and geomorphological formations - Cave ecosystems - Geological and geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Hydrographical structure -Flora - Well protected maquis flora of the Mediterranean - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Diverse bird species -Flora - Bird observation 225 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -Flora and fauna - Multiplicity of tourism - Flora and fauna - Geological and geomorphological formations 15 Kazdağı N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 21300 1993 16 Küre Mountain N.P. Black Sea Kastamonu, Bartın 37172 2000 17 Yedigöller N.P. Black Sea Bolu, Zonguldak 2019 1965 18 Uludağ N.P. Marmara Bursa 12732 1961 19 Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 33000 1973 20 Troya Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 13350 1996 21 Ilgaz Mountain N.P. Black Sea Çankırı, Kastamonu 1088 1976 -Flora - Mountain and winter sports - Recreation and entertainment 22 BoğazköyAlacahöyük N.P. Central Anatolia Çorum 2634 1988 - Archaeological relics (Hittite state center) 23 Honaz Mountain N.P. Aegean Denizli 9616 1995 24 Gala Lake N.P. Marmara Edirne 6090 2005 25 SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. Eastern Anatolia Kars, Erzurum 22980 2004 26 Kızıldağ N.P. Mediterranean Isparta 59400 1969 Mediterranean Isparta 6534 1970 Central Anatolia Kayseri 24523 2006 Marmara Kırklareli 3115 2007 27 28 29 Kovada Lake N.P. Sultansazlığı N.P. Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30 Beyşehir Lake N.P. Mediterranean Konya 88750 1993 31 Spil Mountain N.P. Aegean Manisa 6694 1968 32 Marmaris N.P. Aegean Muğla 33350 1996 33 Saklıkent N.P. Mediterranean Muğla, Antalya 12390 1996 34 Göreme Historical N.P. Central Anatolia Nevşehir 9572 1986 35 KaratepeAslantaş N.P. Mediterranean Osmaniye 7715 1958 226 - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological formations - Flora - Mountain and winter sports - War history - Flora and fauna - Geomorphological formations - Historical relics - Geological structure - Geological and geomorphological formations - Archaeological relics -Flora (endemic species) - Wetland areas - Lake and forest ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Historical relics and war history -Flora (Pinus sylvestris forests) - Mountain and winter sports -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Fresh and salty water ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Longoz forest - Mountain and forest sports - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations -Flora - Hydrological features - Diverse bird species - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical settlements - Geological formations (Fairy Chimney) - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 36 Kaçkar Mountain N.P. Black Sea Rize 51550 1994 37 Tek Tek Mountain N.P. Southeastern Anatolia Şanlıurfa 19335 2007 38 Altındere Valley N.P. Black Sea Trabzon 4800 1987 Eastern Anatolia Tunceli 42000 1971 Central Anatolia Yozgat 264 1958 39 40 Munzur Valley N.P. Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Mountain and winter sports - Flora and fauna - Historical and archaeological characteristics - Cultural values (Sümela Monastery) - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment Table 1: National parks in Turkey,1958-2009 (http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr-20.04.2009). Figure 1: Geographical distribution of national parks in Turkey (2009). National Parks: 1.Aladağlar N.P. 2.Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. 3.Nemrut Mountain N.P. 4.Başkomutan Historical N.P. 5.Ağrı Mountain N.P. 6.Soğuksu N.P. 7.Güllük Mountain (Termessos) N.P. 8.Olimpos-Beydağları Coast N.P. 9.Köprülü Canyon N.P. 10.Altınbeşik Cave N.P. 11.Hatila Valley N.P. 12.Karagöl-Sahara N.P. 13.Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. 14.Bird Paradise N.P. 15.Kazdağı N.P. 16.Küre Mountain N.P. 17.Yedigöller N.P. 18.Uludağ N.P. 19.Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. 20.Troya Historical N.P. 21.Ilgaz Mountain N.P. 22.Boğazköy-Alacahöyük N.P. 23.Honaz Mountain N.P. 24.Gala Lake N.P. 25.SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. 26.Kızıldağ N.P. 27.Kovada Lake N.P. 28.Sultansazlığı N.P. 29.Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30.Beyşehir Lake N.P. 31.Spil Mountain N.P. 32.Marmaris N.P. 33.Saklıkent N.P. 34.Göreme Historical N.P. 35.Karatepe-Aslantaş N.P. 36.Kaçkar Mountain N.P. 37.Tek Tek Mountain N.P. 38.Altındere Valley N.P. 39.Munzur Valley N.P. 40.Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. 227 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. Altındere Valley N.P. Gala Lake N.P Başkomutan Historical N.P. 228 Figure 3: Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Troya Historical N.P Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Nemrut Mountain N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Figure 4: Views of some national parks inTurkey. Discussion and Conlusion The greatest threat the world faces today is the deterioration of the natural environment. The fact that environmental problems have ascended to desperate straitsin the global scale entailsinternational collaboration. Almost every country in the world aims at developing by establishing a balance between human being and natural sources, and also without depleting the natural sources. With this purpose in mind, sustainable growth is given alot ofimportance with respectto social, ecological, economic,locational and cultural dimensions. The diverse natural and cultural sources Turkey contains are witnessing a heavy exploitation of them. Because of this, a balance policy between preservation and utilization related to the use of them without contaminating, mutilating and depleting has been adopted. In this sense, national parks also draw attention. Nevertheless,there are some problems present which need to be solved as urgently as possible forthe protection of source values of national park zones,reforming them and increasing their significance in terms oftourism. Com mon problems regarding national parks are managerial,legal, economic and educational (Demirel, 2005: 394-401). Furthermore, that intense tourism pressure and local inhabitants can’t be associated with protection zones threatens preservation and utilization balance. The duty of the management of national parks is carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is directly affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. A large number of organizations take it upon themselves to protect the nature directly orindirectly. This kind of administrative structure createslack of coordination and it hampers the practicality of plans in protection zones. To resolve the problem, a new restructuring in which there are expert staff who can devise the source values national parks own is required. The protection zones in our country are protected with 6 differentlaws. Thisindicatesthat protection zones are in greatlegal disorder. Nature Protection Law which embraces all otherlaws is needed immediately in this field. High cost and scarcity of grantis one of the burning issuesinthe process of protection.In orderto dispose ofthisissue, more fund should be allocated to national parks and the revenue generated out of national parks should be submitted to park administration. Financial affairs have downgraded national parks in terms oftrained staff and equipment.The existing problems are the utmost hurdles on the way to the protection of the source values national parks have and their enhancement. Itis a common belief in developed countries that natural environment must be protected. However, the sense of responsibilityto protectthe nature istoo low in countrieslike Turkey. For this reason,the best solution tothis problem is educating individualsregarding the issue ofenvironment and its protection. Allthe classesthat constitute our country should lay claim to preservation policy in collaboration. One ofthe burning problems of national parksis high tourism pressure. Therefore,theidea of exploitation wins out over the preservation and utilization balance in the institutions which were established with the idea of providing this balance. With the above stated approach,itis notlikely to conserve the source values of national parks and to improve them too. This situation gives the illusion that the national parks of the country were established with the intention of serving tourism. For Turkey to get rid of this dilemma, an elaborate plan of national parks must be prepared. In these plans, source values and their importance must be identified thoroughly. Additionally,the zones which are not available to people and the zones the source values of which will be taken under protection, and the zones which are available for daily use should be determined. Accordingly,touristfacilitiesmust be deployed outside national park zones. One of the major deficiencies of the idea of preservation in Turkey is that local population can’t be associated with protection zones. The traditional perception model which restricts human activities and 229 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo anticipatesthe migration of human beings that are within the borders of protection zone or their utilizing natural sources is being abandoned. Instead of this,there is an attempt in which local elements can get involved in the decision making process and with theirlifestyles,they can become an integral part of source utilization strategies (Arı 2003: 29). Protection zones in our country generally constrain locals’ economic utilization zones. Due to financial difficulty,this paves the way for migration and locals’ developing negative attitude towards protection zones. Bearing this in mind, making the locals an integral part of preservation, allowing them to utilize the source values of national parks economically without damaging them will be a modern approach. The most efficient way to preserve historical and cultural values and passthem down to future generations without depleting and devastating them is national parks. Collaborating with one another,all groups of people in the society should develop an integrated approach that can meet the expectations. This approach which also forms the basis of sustainable progress will be a milestone in determining not only our nation’s but also the common future of whole humanity. References Akıncı, M. (1996). Oluşum ve yapılanma sürecinde Türk çevre hukuku. Kocaeli Kitap Kulübü Yay., Bilim Dizisi: 1,Đzmit. Arı, Y. (2003). Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı’nda park yönetimi-yöre halkıilişkisi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (9), 737. Demirel, Ö.(2005). Doğa koruma ve milli parklar. Karadeniz Teknik Üniv. Yay. No: 219, Orman Fak. Yay. No: 37, Trabzon. Doğanay, H. (2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya. Doğanay, S. (2003). Coğrafi özellikleri açısından Altındere Vadisi Milli Parkı. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (10), 43-64. Doğaner, S.(1985). Turizmde Doğanın Önemi ve Türkiye’de Doğayı Koruma Çalışmaları.Đstanbul Üniv. Deniz Bil. ve Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2,(2). Doğaner, S.(2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Özgüç, N. (1998). Turizm coğrafyası(özellikler-bölgeler). Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Sarı, C. (2007). Çeşitli koruma statülerindeki alanların turizm amaçlı kullanımı: Güllük Dağı (Termessos) Milli Parkı örneği. Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sever, R. & Bekdemir, Ü. (2007). Eko-turizm açısından Karagöl-Sahara Milli Parkı (Artvin-Şavşat). Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sezer, Đ.(2006). Dilek Yarımadası-Büyük Menderes Deltası Milli Parkı’nın coğrafi etüdü (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Atatürk Üniv. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum. Somuncu, M. (2003). Türkiye’nin koruma altındaki dağlık alanlarda turizm/rekreasyon ve çevre etkileşimi: Aladağlar ve Kaçkar DağlarıMilli Parkı örnekleri. CoğrafiÇevre Koruma ve Turizm Sempozyumu, 2003, Đzmir. Somuncu, M. (2004). Dağcılık ve Dağ Turizmindeki Đkilem: Ekonomik Yarar ve Ekolojik Bedel. Ankara Üniv. Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 1, Ankara. Taşlıgil, N. (1994). Spil Dağı Milli Parkı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 29,Đstanbul. Yaşar, O. (2000). Ülkemizde Milli Park ve Benzer Statüdeki Alanların Dağılımı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 35, Đstanbul. http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 515 Title A name given to the resource A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Author Author Doğanay, Serkan Alım, Mete ALTAS, Namık Tanfer Abstract A summary of the resource. The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 863 Title A name given to the resource A Sample Text Comprehension Activity Prepared According To Textuality For 2nd Step 6th Grade Primary School Turkish (Mother Tongue) Courses To Gain The Skill Of Reading Author Author Yıldız, Cemal Şimşek, Nil Didem Abstract A summary of the resource. Reading is a field that feeds all skills. Students gain experience in each reading process and they acquire the basic reading and writing skills at school. Then it becomes a habit of reading. Students improve their reading skills when they do an activity in the coursebooks. They develop the capacity of understanding and increase the reading effort as well. The purpose of this study; is to gain reading skills to the students with the help of text comprehension activity, prepared according to the textuality. The most important target of Turkish Lesson Curriculum which has been prepared according to the constructivist approach, is to provide students read the text correctly and provide them understand it completely. In this study, any kind of activity which aims understanding of the text according to the textuality, will be submitted in 6th grade Turkish lessons. Those kinds of activities provide students perceive and interpret easily. Text comprehension activities that we do in our study, consist of three parts; pre-text studying (summary, visual summary, monitoring, result deduction, planning), targeted-text studying (reading monitoring/strategy) and final-text studying (genre analysis). So that, thought to these activities, the object of the author, the genre of the text, language and expression feature, development of intellectual and emotional and word frame may be easily recognized. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6350dd7aebd474c55ad10b183ff0d7ea.pdf 86e9c36433be7d486a3228cfa3086e1a PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System Eglantina HYSA Epoka University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Tirana, Albania ehysa@epoka.edu.al ABSTRACT This study deals with the relationship between underreported earnings, KEYWORDS savings and old-age pension. The presented model is taken from the Reporting Earnings, Proportional paper “Underreported Earnings and Old-Age Pension System: An Pension, Basic Pension, MeansElementary System” of Hungarian Academy of Science and is applied tested Pension to the Albanian data. Three pension systems have been compared: 1the proportional, 2- the proportional plus basic pension and, 3- the proportional with means testing. The workers are grouped such as, awell-paid who report their full earnings (so-called the evaders), b- wellpaid who report only the minimum earnings and c- the poorly paid. It is assumed that the evaders have a hidden part of earnings for their old- ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 16 September 2011 Resubmitted: 4 Spring 2012 Resubmitted: 10 February 2012 Accepted: 27 March 2012 age. The main result of the study is the following: if the evaders can be recognized and excluded, then the best system is the means-tested one. JEL Codes: H55, D91 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 143 �Eglantina HYSA Introduction As far as global economy is considered, the pension system is found to be one of the most discussed systems as the main pillar of the life-long expenditure distribution. Ex-communist countries, such as Albania, are often found face to face with the immediate need of reforms in such systems. Developing countries have difficulties in choosing the appropriate pension system because of a large gamma of variable that can be used in the model, different characteristics countries and the lack of a fix “receipt”. Meanwhile, the experience of the developed countries have to be considered important. The aim of this paper is to develop a model of pension system by using the Albanian official Statistical Data and considering general knowledge about this market. There exist two pure forms of mandatory pension systems: the proportional, which reflects the life-long contributions, and the basic benefit, which relies in fixed quote (defined benefit). Proportional pension system transforms the workers’ savings into pensions proportionally to their earnings, while the flat benefit, is paid independently to the earnings. At the same time there can exist a lot of combinations between these two extrem systems (Disney, 2004). For example, the British system provides a flat benefit for each individual, whereas additional pensions are taken into consideration in the mean-testing. Another example can be the case of Hungarian pension system, a combination of proportional and basic system (Augusztinovics and Martos, 1996) This study is based on the study made by the Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Science (2008). The Hungarian system is a combination of both systems, the proportional and the basic one. The third system we deal with is that of means-tested, which take into consideration additional pensions. There exist a debate to remove the fixed component, which favorize the poorlypaid workes with short contrats. The debates pushed toward proposals such as the immediate need of a new system combining the fixed component and the proportional one. This study presents the means-tested system which has lower costs and increases the low pensions only. The level of the informal economy in the region countries and especially in Albania, is widely studied but often without coming to a consolidate conclusion. However, this phenomenon prompted the Albanian government in 2006 and 2007 to un- 144 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System dertake a more comprehensive survey conducted in the labor market. The aim was to minimize the underreporting of private sector wages. The Council of Ministers, in 4th of May, 2007 determined the monthly reference salary to be used for the calculation of social security contributions and health, and personal income tax, according to the nomenclature of economic activity (for employees in the non-public performing unskilled jobs). Self-employed workforce in the agricultural sector is considered poorly-paid (the minimum legal quota). While those who claim less income than they earn, are the people who ignore the old-age pension and thus save some of the hidden income for the period of retirement. Literature Review There exist two main forms of mandatory systems. The first one is known to be the German system. In this system, a benefit proportional to lifetime contributions which provides a generous relative pension for everybody but requires quite high mandatory contribution rate. The second one is known to be the original British system. In this system, a universal flat pension which alleviates old-age poverty with modest mandatory contribution rate but requires complementary benefits. Another type of pension system can be considered the means-tested system. The fixed quota is conditional and if the proportional benefit is lower than the minimum value, then the benefit is topped up to the minimum. Friedman and Cohen (1972) have dialed with the comparison of a universal flat pension and the means-tested and have suggested the reduction of the welfare program size by replacing the former by the latter. According to Feldstein (1987), the fact that the optimal choice between a meanstested program and a universal program depends on the character of the working population has an important general implication for the design of social security programs. It implies that, if the working population can be subdivided into groups that differ in the relevant parameters, it may be optimal to have a means-tested program for some groups and a universal program for others. He found that welfare is higher in the optimal means-tested system compared to the universal one. In his model he neglected wage heterogeneity and labor supply flexibility. As a consequence the flat plus benefit reduces to a flat benefit and the means-tested benefit is Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 145 �Eglantina HYSA zero for the life-cyclers. The study of Augusztinovics (2005) has shown that there will be considerable differences among cohorts in the wage level and also a large part of the cohorts retiring in the next decades will have quite low pensions. A later study of Augusztinovics and Köllő (2008) demonstrated the occurrence of differences through the cohort. As a solution of poverty these studies have suggested: 1- a significant scaling down of the present proportional benefits and contribution rate and 2- introducing a universal flat benefit, to be financed from new taxes. Barr and Diamond (2008) following the analysis of Varian (1980) have strongly emphasized the insurance provided by the progressive pension system when the future earnings are uncertain at the start. The insurance function of the pension system has been neglected here. They studied the Chile’s means-tested pension system where they founded that the lower-paid savings would increase, whereas the others savings would have a decrease. But the overall situation would slightly improve. In another study, Fehr and Habermann (2008) have founded that their optimum is a strong progressive system. They computed a general equilibrium model by taking into consideration the individual risk of career paths and life spans. They used the concept of a socially optimal “progressive pension arrangement” by determining the key parameters. The means-tested was excluded from their analysis. Models of pension systems Proportional Pensions In this study the model of Hungarian Academy of Science is used and applied for the Albanian case. The population number is taken unchanged, making the assumption that each young is active in the labor market and each old person is in retirement. R is the symbol of working years for a normal worker and S, the years spend in pension. Dependency ratio defined as the rapport between the pension years and the working years is µ = S R . The “wage” presents the total wage cost, which is used as total wage and denoted by w . Contribution of each individual in the pension fond is forcasted to be equal to the rate τ of total reported wage. Fiscal effects have been eleminated. Another assumption in the model is that the reporting or not of the exact income will not be directly related the the pension system applied in the country. Lastly, the system is taken in equilibrium, the incomes equals the expenses. 146 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �wage cost,aswhich usedand as denoted total wage by wof . Contribution of each wage cost, which is used total is wage byand w . denoted Contribution each individual in theindi fond is equal forcasted to rate be equal thereported rate τ ofwage. total reported wage.have Fiscal effec pension fond is pension forcasted to be to the τ of to total Fiscal effects been eleminated. Another assumption thethe model is thatorthe or not of thewill exact eleminated. Another assumption in the model is in that reporting notreporting of the exact income be directly related the the pension applied in the country. Lastly, the sys not be directly not related the the pension system applied system in the country. Lastly, the system is taken A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System the incomes equals the expenses. in equilibrium, in theequilibrium, incomes equals the expenses. The rate of informal economy found to be the largest in Albania compared The rate of informal economy is found to be isthe largest in Albania compared to the other in the region (approximately 50% is ofthe GDP). is the reason of countries in thecountries region (approximately 50% of GDP). This mainThis reason of main categorizing thecate The rateworkers of informal economy is found to be the largest in Albania compared to the in three different types: workers in three different types: other countries in the region (approximately 50% of GDP). This is the main reason of categorizing the workers in workers three different types:L) 1) Poorly-paid (denoted 1) Poorly-paid workers (denoted L) 2) Middle or highly-paid workers categorized according to their reporting status: 2) Middle or categorized 1) highly-paid Poorly-paidworkers workers (denoted L) according to their reporting status: The workers reporting all(R) their incomes (R) The workers reporting all their incomes Theworkers workers unrreporting theirtoincomes (U). status: or highly-paid categorized according their reporting -2) Middle The workers unrreporting their incomes (U). - The workers reporting all their incomes (R) and ƒL , being positive The frequency each is type workerƒ(U). isƒas follows: ƒR, ƒUall ƒL , being positives andallhaving The frequency typeunrreporting ofper worker as of follows: - per Theeach workers their incomes R, U and a sumspecial of 1. Incase some caseeconomies of developed economies whereisfiscal is pr a sum of 1. In some of special developed where fiscal evasion prettyevasion nothing, and ƒL , beingthe all total positives The frequency per eachfrequencies type of worker is be as follows: ƒR,0.ƒUConsidering one of these can equal to work force as a one of these frequencies can be equal to 0. Considering the total work force as a unit, the workeruni and having a sumisof 1. Intosome special case of developed economies where fiscal stated number is statednumber to be equal to 1. be equal to 1. evasion is pretty nothing, one of these frequencies can be equal to 0. Considering the totalIn work as a unit,the theproximate worker is stated equal toalbanian 1.( by focusing the attemption to aim of to thebeactual system, on ( bythefocu In the attemption to force proximate aim of number the the actual albanian system, undertaken reforms), the it is supposed that in thethe basic system the individuals receiv undertaken reforms), it is supposed that in system individuals receive what they In the attemption to proximate aim ofthe thebasic actual albanian system, ( by focusing    in represents therate contribution rate in thisactual system report, which is denoted by *. that on the is undertaken reforms), supposed the basic system the  it isrepresents the contribution in individuals this system. The report, which denoted by *. ∗  benefits are: b and b earnings of the workers are: and , while their w  w w τ represents the contribution they are: report, denoted by U*. their earningsreceive of thewhat workers benefits are: wR which  wU isand wL ,R while b R and b U  b LR. Based U L  w = w andreported wL , earnings; rate in this system. The actual earnings of the workers are: R U the on the abovetheassumptions, the∗benefits are to b R    wR andb R on the above assumptions, benefits to proportional the reported earnings; ∗ ∗are proportional while their benefits are: b R and b U = b L . Based on the above assumptions, the  where  is therate replacement rate in the∗ proportional b U   wisL , the ∗ Some system. in the importantSom bU   benefits wL , where b∗ R proportional = β ∗ wR and bsystem. are proportional toreplacement the reported earnings; U = β wL such asL to thebecase be legallywage the minimum wage there details such as details the ofreplacement w legally minimum when theimportant there when is no the actual andis n L toproportional , where β ∗ case is the rateofinwthe the system. Some fictitious partial employment will be simplyfied in this model. (Kertesi and Kollo, 20 fictitiousdetails partial employment will simplyfied this model. Kollo, wLbe to be legally theinminimum wage(Kertesi when theand there is no2003 and such as the case of Tonin, 2005). Tonin, 2005). actual and fictitious partial employment will be simplyfied in this model. (Kertesi and Kollo, 2003 and Tonin, 2005). and the Theearnings total reported earnings by actual ( WL ), ones ), and the are actual ( W ), ones whichareare( Wequal The total reported are denoted by are ( W denoted L ), whi The total reported earnings are denoted byL ( WL ), and the actual ones are (LWL ), to: to: which are equal to: and   fand  f R  fU W WL  f R wR   fUWL f L fw wRR  f Lf RwL fU wR  f L wL Rw U  f L wL WR  LR WL = f R wR + ( fU + f L )wL and WR = ( f R + fU )wR + f L wL    the system istosupposed to be in equilibrium, Wthe rela WL . So the rela Since the system is supposed to be in equilibrium, then,  WL  then, WL ..So So relation between Lthe Since theSince system is supposed be in equilibrium, then, ∗      the replacement rate tion between the contribution rate, the contribution the replacement  τandand the contribution rate, and therate, replacement rate is   :   rate  is  :    Given that the replacement rates higher,that it isthose assumed that those their who earnings report all th Given that thethat replacement rates are it isitare assumed Given the replacement rateshigher, are higher, is assumed that thosewho whoreport reportall all will not money to consume in the future. However, the evaders will save to prop will not their saveearnings money to save consume in the future. However, the evaders willthe save proportionally will not save money to consume in the future. However, evaders what they do not report in order to consume in the old-age. Saving rate is what they report in order consume in theinold-age. Saving rate supposed to be:supp willdo savenot proportionally to whattothey do not report order to consume in theisold- age. Saving rate is supposed to be: 0  σ  τ ∗ , and annual savings: σ (wR − wL ) . The efficiency ratio is: ρR σS which can be equal to, smaller or greater than 1. The comparison between “Young-Age Consumption” and “Old-Age Consumption” is used to have the full picture of the whole life cycle consumption. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 147 �Eglantina HYSA Young-age consumption is: ( ) ( ) ( ) c∗ R = 1 − τ ∗ wR ; c∗U = 1 − τ ∗ wL + (1 − σ )(w R − wL ) ; c∗ L = 1 − τ ∗ wL Old-age consumption is: d ∗ R = b∗ R ; d ∗U = b∗ L + ρ (wR − wL ) ; d ∗ L = b∗ L In the proportional system, the actual or reported low earning ensure a low pension and a low consumption in the old-age. Basic Pension System In this system, the contribution rate is supposed to be given as: b0 which is financed from a consumption tax rate ιˆ . Each individal will pay his/her proportional tax after each consumption. This kind of reform, the scaling-down of the proportional system and a simultaneous introduction of a basic pension, has been enspired by the work done of several authors (Augusztinovics, 2005; Barabas, 2006). The gross pensions are as follows: b bˆR = βˆwR + 0 1 − ιˆ and b bˆU = bˆL = βˆwL + 0 1 − ιˆ Different from the pension contribution, the payment of the consumption taxes are assumed to be unavoidable. However, this kind of system can be difficult to be applied in Albania. The lack of box offices, the problem of tax evasion, indirectly VAT calulation method, (all included in the informal economy), are some of the problematic issues making the application of this system difficult. No saving is assumed to be present in the basic pension system. Total consumption is equal to total production, being equal to total incomes too. Since µ pensioners correspond to 1 worker, the tax equation is as follows: µb0 = ιˆWR The down-scaled contribution τw finance only the reduced labor pension βˆw : τˆWL = µβˆWL , so τˆ = µβˆ . The equation below emphasizes the assumption that all total expenses are unchanged. 148 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System τˆWL + ιˆWR = τ ∗WL By replacing ιˆ from old equation to the new one then, τˆWL + µb0 = τ ∗WL The reduced contribution can be determined as follows: τˆ = τ ∗ − µb0 WL It is supposed that µb0 ≤ τ WL in order to have positive contribution so, b0 ≤ τ ∗WL µ . ∗ Young consumption is: cˆR = (1 − ιˆ )(1 − τˆ )wR ; cˆU = (1 − ιˆ )(1 − τˆ )wL + (1 − σ )(w R − wL ) ; cˆL = (1 − ιˆ )(1 − τˆ )wL Old consumption is: [ ] dˆR = (1 − ιˆ )bˆR ; dˆU = (1 − ιˆ ) bˆL + ρ (w R − wL ) ; dˆL = (1 − ιˆ )bˆL Benefits and consumption of workers who report lower incomes / or actually have low incomes, have increased significantly compared to the proportional system. The benefits of type R have been reduced. Means-tested Pension System This is the last type of the pension systems analysed in this paper. The two previous systems can have some evident problems. For example, in the basic system, the workers reportiong their full earnings, (R), will benefit less than those in the proportional system. Those who do not fully report their earnings, (U), will benefit more than the part they do not report. The third system, means-tested, will try to enhance the problematic issues faced in the presented systems. In this case the goverment can distinguish the needy person (L) and the evader (U). Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 149 �Eglantina HYSA Now there are three types of benefits: bR = β wR ; bU = β wU and bL = bˆL where bˆL = β wL . In this model the benefits of needy persons are the only ones to be financed by the taxes: µf L bˆL − β wL = i WR ( ) Contributes τ w are financed from the proportional component β w : τ = µβ . By using the last equation then, τ WL + i WR = τ ∗WL τ W + µf LbˆL − f Lτ wL = τ ∗WL U The contribution rate in the model of means-tested is: τ = τ ∗WL − f L µbˆL WL − f L wL It is supposed that τ ∗WL ≥ f L µbˆL in order to have a positive contribution rate. The only difference between the means-rested system and proportional one is the exclusion of the evaders. By excluding the evaders, the needy pension increases and the pension of highly-paid persons decreases, without making the distinguish between fully reported or not. Albanian Case Data specification and determination Based on the the statistical data of average mean for the Albanian population working average years before retiring are R = 35. 35 Substracting the working average years from average living years, which is found to be 74 years for the albanians, and supposing that the average years of entering to labor market is 20 (taking into account both qualified and unqualified workers), it is calculated that the average time spend in retirement is 20 years, denoted by S . The dependency ratio, which is the rapport 0.57 of retirement years to working years, is µ = 0.57. The calculations related to the revenus are based on employment data of average salaries according to sectors published by INSTAT (2007). The following assumption have been done because of the lack of detailed data corresponding employment salaries. 150 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System 1- All the labor force founded in public institutions or in private sectors (except the agricultural sector) are categorised as well-paid individuals. 2- The work force founded in the agriculture sector are assumed to be poorly-paid individuals. 3- The Albanian informal economy, (in year 2004 OECD “measured” that the informal level in Albania to be 30%-60%), is assumed to be 50%. 4- All the individuals working at public institutions report their fully earnings. Based on the above assumptions and data of INSTAT, employers distributions is as below: f R = 0.3 ; fU = 0.12 0.12 and f L = 00.58 .58 The rapport of earning distribution between well-paid and poorly-paid is calculated to be 4.3 (It is assumed that the average salary in the privat sector is 60.000 ALL, in the public sector 35.650 ALL and the minimal wage in the privat sector, excluding agricultiral sector, is 14.000 ALL). Briefly, the earning distribution is wR = 4.3 , wL = 1 . The average reported wage is WL = 2 , which is consistend to albanian data published by the Institute of Statistics, 2x140000=28000 ALL. In addition, it is assumed also that the basic benefit is equal to the half of the average proportional pension b0 = τWL (2 µ ) and the contribution evander saves half the money that the Social Security would save from him from his hidden earnings, σ =τ 2. Table 1. Main Parameters Parameter Population distribution according to their reporting ƒR ƒU ƒL Saving Rates, σ Base Run 0.3 0.12 0.58 0.119 Full Reporting 0.42 0 0.58 0.119 Every low earner evander 0.3 0.7 0 0.119 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 151 �Eglantina HYSA Base Run The distribution is as follows: f R = 0.3 ; fU = 0.12 0.12 and f L = 00.58 .58 Table 2 presents the parameters and the benefits of the evander in three systems while table 3 summarises the consumption vectors. Table 2. Parameters of three pension systems Contribution Rate Tax Rate The Evader’s Benefit τ ι bU Proportional 0.239 0 0.42 + Basic Benefit 0.119 0.099 0.674 + Means-tested Benefit 0.179 0.05 0.314 Type Contribution rate is founded to be 0.239 for the Albanian case. This is the rate paid by the employer to the Social Securities. The Albanian system is near to the proportional system analized in this paper. In the basic benefit system contribution rate is approximately halved, meanwhile a consumption tax of about 9.9% is added up. This system increases the benefits of evaders by around 60% but it does not make any distinction between full reports (R) and underreports (U). A partial solution for this problem can be found by integrating a component of tested-means. By this, a considerable increase of contribution rate compared to basic benefits is found where consumption tax decreses from 9.9% to 5%. The impact of explained systems in the consumption vectors can be seen in Table 3. Table 3. Characteristics of three pension systems Type Proportional Young-age Consumption Old-age Consumption cR cU cL cR cU cL 3.272 3.668 0.761 1.806 0.813 0.420 + Basic Benefit 3.413 3.701 0.794 1.229 0.999 0.607 + Means-tested Benefit 3.354 3.687 0.780 1.350 0.811 0.674 152 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System The benefits of type R and L, without taking into account the taxes, are equal to the respective consumption in old-age. Not the same implication happens to the U type, which saves for consumption during the retirement. Even if the rate of U is not high enough, there is nothing to worry about U type individual consumption, because as seen in table 3, his consumption is 1.94 times greater than L type individual. If the consumption level of young-age and old-age of different systems are compared, then the means-tested system is found to be superior to the basic one because this system supports the need’s old-age consumption (L) rather than the evander’s consumption. Table 3.a. Characteristics of three pension systems in terms of WR Young-age Consumption Type Proportional Old-age Consumption cR cU cL cR cU cL 1.363 1.528 0.317 0.753 0.339 0.175 + Basic Benefit 1.422 1.542 0.330 0.512 0.416 0.253 + Means-tested Benefit 1.397 1.536 0.325 0.563 0.338 0.281 No evaders Even if the used assumption is non-realistic for the Albanian case, it is important to present the case when there are no evaders. f R = 0.42 0.42 and fU = 0 The contribution rate is the same as in the proportional system, τ = 0.239 . Table 4 includes the new parameters, while table 5 presents all the results according to the last parameters. Table 4. Parameters of three pension systems (no evaders) Contribution Rate Type Tax Rate τ ι Proportional 0.239 0 + Basic Benefit 0.119 0.119 + Means-tested Benefit 0.175 0.064 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 153 �Eglantina HYSA Since the evaders disappeared, in the basic system the tax rose from 9.9% to 11.9% and in means-tested system from 5% to 6.5%, while the contribution rate decreases from 17.9% to 9%. Table 5. Characteristics of three pension systems (no evaders) Type Young-age Consumption Old-age Consumption cR cU cL cR cU cL Proportional 3.272 - 0.761 1.806 - 0.420 + Basic Benefit 3.337 - 0.776 1.276 - 0.683 +Means-tested Benefit 3.320 - 0.772 1.320 - 0.775 The consumption changes are more complex. In the proportional system there is no change, while in the basic one the consumption of young-age increases (independently from income level), and the consumption of old-age decreases relating their income levels. The underlying fact is that these variations in the consumption levels are very low or insignificant. The means-tested system advantage compared to the basic one is diminushed insignificantly. Low income elders’ consumption decreases in both systems. Every low-paid is evader This model supposes that low-paid individual is an evader. f R = 0.3 and fU = 0.7 Based on the definitions, means-tested system is reduced to a proportional system (since there are no individuals in need), this is the reason why we do not examine this case. Table 6 represents the new parameters while table 7 gives the results. Table 6. Parameters of three pension systems (all evaders) Contribution Rate Tax Rate Evader’s Benefits τ ι bU Proportional 0.239 0.000 0.420 + Basic Benefit 0.119 0.056 0.653 Type 154 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System Here it can be observe just one change comparing to the basic system, the tax rate decreases from 11.9% to 5.6%. Table 7. Characteristics of three pension systems (all evaders) Young-age Consumption Type Old-age Consumption cR cU cL cR cU cL Proportional 3.272 3.668 - 1.806 0.813 - + Basic Benefit 3.576 3.738 - 1.267 1.407 - The changes occured in the pension basic system are as follow: the consumption of individuals which are no-evader and are high-paid is increased compared to the basic system. In the same time, the problem of pension basic system are found to be more evident, in this case the evaders exploit the full contributors. Conclusion The aim of this study is to find possible answer to the question: Which of the social insurance systems is the best for the Albanian case? Three system types have been analysed by applying the actual albanian values. The findings of this study strongly support the means-tested system, given that this system has positive impact on the needy fraction of the population and shows only an increase in the pension of the low income people compared to basic system. After all these detailed calculations, it can be concluded that, if all the evaders are excluded, and without making difference between the pension systems, the government has to choose the means-tested system and not that of basic one. In case the evaders can not be excluded, the solution is not so simple. Briefly, if the savings are directly connected to pension system, then the difference between consumption rates in both, means-tested and basic system are insignificant. Another important issue to be mentioned is that the lower the part of proportional component in total pension, the higher the well-paid individuals number which underreport their wages. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 155 �References Albanian Cabinet (2007). Official Bulletin, Decision No. 285, 04.05.2007, No. 59, 18.06.2007 Augusztinovics, M. (2005). The dynamics of retirement saving-Theory and Reality, Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Volume 11, Nos. 1-2, July 2000 Augusztinovics, M. and Kollő, J. (2008). Pension System and Fragmented Labor Market Careers, Gál et al. eds. 154–170. Augusztinovics, M. and Martos, B. (1996). Pension Reform: Calculations and Conclusions, Acta Oeconomica, 48 (1-2). Barabas, Gy. (2006). Pension Reform in the Trap of Tax system and Low Employment, Portfolio Conference: The Hungarian Pension Reform in International Mirror. Barr, N. and Diamond, P. (2008). Reforming Pensions: Principles and Policy Choices, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Disney, R. (2004). Are Contributions to Public Pension Programs a Tax on Employment?, Economic Policy 39, 267-311. Fehr, H. and Habermann, C. (2008). Risk Sharing and Efficiency Implications of Progressive Pension Arrangements, Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 110, 419-443. Feldstein, M. S. (1987). Should Social Security Means be Tested?, Journal of Political Economy 95, 468-484. Friedman, M. and Cohen, R. (1972). Social Security: Universal or Selective, Washington DC, American Enterprise Institute. Kertesi, G. and Kollő, J. (2003). Fighting Low Equilibrium by Doubling the Minimum wage? Hungary’s Experiment, Bonn, IZA’s Discussion Paper. OECD (2004). The Informal Economy in Albania: Analysis and Policy Recommendations, OECD 2004. Simonovitas, A. (2008). Underreported Earnings and Old-Age Pension: An Elementary Model, Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest. 156 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Tonin, M. (2005). The Effects of the Minimum Wage in the Economy with Tax Evasion, Stockholm, IIES, Stockholm University. Varian, H. R. (1980). Redistributive Taxation as Social Insurance, Journal of Public Economics 14, 49-68. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 157 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1074 Title A name given to the resource A Simple Model Referring Evasion Case in Albanian Pension System Author Author HYSA, Eglantina Abstract A summary of the resource. This study deals with the relationship between underreported earnings, savings and old-age pension. The presented model is taken from the paper “Underreported Earnings and Old-Age Pension System: An Elementary System” of Hungarian Academy of Science and is applied to the Albanian data. Three pension systems have been compared: 1- the proportional, 2- the proportional plus basic pension and, 3- the proportional with means testing. The workers are grouped such as, awell- paid who report their full earnings (so-called the evaders), b- wellpaid who report only the minimum earnings and c- the poorly paid. It is assumed that the evaders have a hidden part of earnings for their oldage. The main result of the study is the following: if the evaders can be recognized and excluded, then the best system is the means-tested one. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a2ba27bbdc8d9d9edd59da318e44f2e.pdf 71bd7a69f64d3a5a918be234cf00b43f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC SKETCHES Hüseyin EFE English Language Teaching, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey huseyin_efe@hotmail.com Hakan DEMĠRÖZ English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters, Cumhuriyet University, Turkey hakandemiroz@gmail.com Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĠR English Language and Literature, Lecturer, Erzincan University, Turkey ancient---mariner@hotmail.com Abstract: Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Key Words: situational learning, spoken language, language teaching, authentic sketches 1. Introduction Language teaching takes place in many settings. There are many factors influencing learning. Malamah – Thomas (1987) describes setting in terms of three levels in an education system:  The country  The school  The classroom After determining basic elements of setting, there occurs another question:  What is the relationship between ‗the role of English in the country‘ and ‗teaching in English at school‘? Whether English is spoken in the community outside the class or alternatively never heard is closely related to main problems of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). Also the role of English in the school and its place in the curriculum is important (McDonough and Shaw, 1998). 399 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Conditions for Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) FLT has a complex structure and it involves many conditions likewise all other educational activities. An ideal grouping of these conditions can be as follows:  Proximity to spoken language  Equality of four skills  Internal and external interferences of learner  Teaching/learning materials An effective teaching is possible only when these conditions have optimal values on teaching atmosphere. The first condition – proximity to spoken language – should be as the first step for a communicative language teaching approach. Because there are many studies proving that learning is achieved by obtaining comprehensible input from original or at least authentic settings (Piske and Scholten, 2009). 3. Situated Learning Situated learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger, learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. As an instructional strategy, situated cognition has been seen as a means for relating subject matter to the needs and concerns of learners (Shor, 1987). A situated learning experience has four major premises guiding the development of classroom activities (Anderson, Reder, and Simon 1996; Wilson 1993): (1) learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations; (2) knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations; (3) learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge; and (4) learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex, social environments made up of actors, actions, and situations. The key components of situated learning model are:  Stories  Reflection  Cognitive apprenticeship  Collaboration  Coaching  Multiple practice  Articulation of learning skills  Technology (McLellan, 1996). As an overall assessment, situated learning model can provide a valuable tool for enhancing the design and implementation of teaching/learning experiences. The efficiency of the SL model should be considered in accordance with the innovative ideas of FLT to be able to provide a good example of its application in the field. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. Situated learning is a useful model for those who are seeking a communication atmosphere to make language teaching more effective by means of communicative purposes as this learning model emphasizes the importance of real settings of knowledge. 4. Communicative Language Teaching When the subject is ‗to teach a language to communicate‘ then Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) appears to be as the inevitable and probably most appropriate approach. CLT is based on communicative competence which is described as the knowledge needed to be able to communicate effectively (Thornbury, 2006). 400 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo CLT aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of Communicative Approach (CA) by making communicative competence as the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language and communication (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). In a CLT design, language functions are emphasized rather than forms and grammatical patterns of a language. All four language skills are studied to have a meaningful competence of language. Besides, CLT is generally associated with notional – functional syllabuses (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). 5. Authentic Materials 5. 1. The Description of Authentic Materials Authentic materials are those educational materials which can be used to teach authentic and natural knowledge, competences and abilities. Those materials do not need to be developed or prepared for the purpose of educational. While explaining authentic materials which are used in FLT, Widdowson (1990) emphasizes that those materials are designed to reflect the spoken language to learners. 5. 2. Some Advantages of Authentic Materials      Learners have the chance of hearing original dialogues of spoken language. Learners learn about the cultural patterns of target language. Learners learn about the change in the language. Learners learn about the daily news of that society speaking the language. Authentic materials are easy to be prepared and used in educational settings. 5. 3. Sketches as Authentic Materials Authentic materials are divided into three groups as - written materials - visual materials - audio – visual materials Sketches are the examples of written materials. Some simplified play pieces also can be used as good sources of spoken language. In a sketch dialogue, an authentic language atmosphere can be created and through this context many language patterns can be reflected. While using sketches as authentic written material to spoken language, the key points are the same as they are in all other authentic materials:  simplification  revision for cultural issues  appropriateness to the context. 6. Methods and Procedures 6. 1. Introduction The aim of this study is to review SL in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. 6. 2. Process Before starting the study, both groups were given a language proficiency test including reading comprehension and vocabulary questions as pre – test and the same test were given at the end of the study as post – test. The results of both tests were evaluated by means of answers and their percentage in whole (right – wrong - null). 401 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Basic material of the study is a sketch book which is published on line in a web site for the purpose of teaching spoken English to the speakers of other languages. Sketches were given to experimental group (14 male, 10 female; 24 students in total) beforehand the courses. During the courses, vocabulary was given to the students so that they were encouraged to use dictionary and find out the meanings of the vocabulary. Students were not obliged to act out the roles as they were freshmen and it would be embarrassing for them to act out in front of their classmates. The sketches were read by them as role – plays and during the activities they were modeled to give the meaning of the context through the intonation. Control group of the study (12 male, 11 female; 23 students in sum) were given plain texts with different topics including nearly the same vocabulary and contexts. Likewise the experimental group, those students were also encouraged to look up the vocabulary and answer reading comprehension questions. 7. Analysis and Findings 7. 1. The results of pre – test Before the reading activities that lasted 8 weeks, both groups were given a language proficiency test including vocabulary and reading comprehension questions as well as idioms. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 100 correct answers: W: 120 % 40 N: 20 Percentage of C: 50 correct answers: W: 160 % 20 N: 30 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 70 % 5 N: 158 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 87 correct answers: W: 108 % 38 N: 35 Percentage of C: 51 correct answers: W: 119 % 22 N: 60 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 92 % 5 N: 126 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers As it can be seen from the table, there was no significant difference by means of proficiency levels of the two groups and they are homogenous. 7. 1. The results of pre – test After 8 weeks of research conveyed with both experimental group and control group, above mentioned proficiency test was given again to determine the difference between the two groups. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 95 correct answers: W: 90 % 38 N: 55 Percentage of C: 64 correct answers: W: 130 % 27 N: 46 Percentage of C: 31 correct answers: W: 81 % 13 N: 128 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 97 correct answers: W: 114 % 39 N: 29 Percentage of C: 57 correct answers: W: 120 % 24 N: 53 Percentage of C: 17 correct answers: W: 103 % 7 N: 10 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers 7. 3. Overall Assessment and Students Opinions It is obvious that authentic sketches work as suitable tools of conveying spoken language patterns. During the study, the students were interviewed for the efficiency and appreciation of the process. After 8 weeks 402 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of study, the majority of the students in the experimental group expressed their appreciation for the course design provided them many language patterns and also they found those sketches very useful to learn about the cultural elements of target language. Student A: (Experimental group) ―It is interesting that I learn easily while reading and my vocabulary becomes more and more stable. When I try to remember a word for example ‗flattered‘ I manage it by remembering the sketch ‗The ticket inspector‘. It helped me try to speak.‖ Student B: (Experimental group) ―I started to feel that I am learning English and I learnt many new words.‖ Student C: (Experimental group) ―Now I know how to joke in English because I learnt an idiom while reading ‗The passport office.‖ Student D: (Control group) ―I learn the vocabulary of the text but when I have a new one generally I missed the old passages‘. I think reading is a good activity but it is very complex.‖ Student E: (Control group) ―The passages have long sentences so it is boring for me.‖ 8. Conclusion FLT is a quite challenging activity especially for those trying to teach the language in a country where the language itself is neither used nor spoken in the community for everyday needs. In a setting where comprehensible input is restricted to teaching/learning activities, it is essential to use authentic materials to develop productive skills. Authentic materials are among the main elements of a SL practice. They build up an artificial language environment and this leads an effective learning/acquisition of the language. Language learner/student needs to speak and listen to be able to master his/her productive skills. Spoken language is difficult to be reflected by using plain texts. In this study, the difficult task of teaching spoken language, expressions, idioms and vocabulary which are used vividly in daily speaking settings have been achieved by the use of authentic sketches in a SL atmosphere. As a result the students could beat their fears of learning language and they learnt many idioms, vocabulary and daily practical expressions. When the scores of both groups are compared it is obvious that this kind of teaching practices may be very effective with many advantages. 403 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H.A. (1996). Situated learning and education, Educational Researcher, 25(4), pp. 5-11. Larsen – Freeman, D. (2008). Techniques and principles in language teaching. London: Oxford University Press. McDonough, J. & Shaw, C. (1998). Materials and methods in ELT. Oxford: U.K. Blackwell Publishers. McLellan, H. (1996). Situated learning perspectives. Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey: USA Piske, T. & Young – Scholten, M. (2009) Input matters in SLA. London: U.K. Multilingual Matters/Channel and View Publication. Shomossi, N. & Ketabi, S. (2007). A critical look at the concept of authenticity. E – Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 4(1) pp: 149 –155. (http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v4n12007/shomoossi.pdf - last access 12.04.2011) Shor, I. (1987) Critical teaching and everyday life. USA: University of Chicago Press Chicago: Thornbury, S. (2006). An A – Z of ELT. London: U.K. Macmillan Books for Teachers. Widdowson, H. G. (1990) Aspects of language teaching. Oxford: U.K. Oxford University Press. Wilson, A. (1993). The promise of situated cognition. USA : Jossey-Bass San Francisco http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-3/adult-education.html (last access: 14.04.2011) Appendix A : A Sample Sketch: The ticket inspector Scene : A compartment on a train Characters: A passenger on a train, a ticket inspector,a steward and a waiter The passenger is sitting in a compartment on a train. He is reading a newspaper. The steward opens the door. 404 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Steward: Coffee! Passenger: No. thanks. (The passenger closes the door, and continues reading. The waiter opens the door.) Waiter: Seats for dinner! Passenger: No, thanks. (The passenger closes the door again, and continues reading. The ticket inspector opens the door.) Inspector: Tickets! Passenger: No, thanks. Inspector: Pardon? Passenger: I don't want a ticket, thank you. Inspector: I'm not selling tickets, sir. Passenger: No? Inspector: No, I want to see your ticket. Passenger: Oh, I haven't got a ticket. Inspector: You haven't got a ticket? Passenger: No. I never buy a ticket. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: Well, they are very expensive, you know. Inspector: Sir, you're traveling on a train. When people travel on a train, they always buy a ticket. Passenger: Err… Inspector: And this is a first-class compartment. Passenger: Yes, it is very nice, isn't it? Inspector: No, sir. I mean: This is a first-class compartment. When people travel in a first-class compartment, they always buy a first-class ticket. (They look at each other for a moment.) Passenger: No, they don't. Inspector: What? Passenger: A lot of people don't buy tickets. The Queen doesn't buy a ticket, does she' Eh? Eh? Inspector: No, sir, but she's a famous person. Passenger: And what about you? Where's yours? Inspector: Mine? Passenger: Yes, yours. Your ticket. Have you got a ticket? Inspector: Me, sir? Passenger: Yes, you. Inspector: No, I haven't got a ticket. Passenger: Ooh, are you a famous person? Inspector: (Flattered) Famous? Well, not very (Back to normal) Sir, I am a ticket inspector. I inspect tickets. Are you going to show me your ticket? Passenger: No, I haven't got a ticket. 405 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Inspector see. (The ticket inspector puts his hand into his pocket.) Passenger: 'What are you going to do? Inspector: I'm going to write your name in my book. Passenger: Oh Inspector: What is your name, sir? Passenger: Mickey Mouse, (The inspector begins to write.) Inspector: Mickey Passenger: Mouse. M-O-U-S-E. (The inspector stops writing.) Inspector: Your name, sir? Passenger: Karl Marx? William Shakespeare? Charles Dickens? Inspector: I see, sir. Well, if you're not going to tell me your name, please leave the train, Passenger: Pardon? Inspector: Leave the train. Passenger: I can't. Inspector: You can't what? Passenger: I can't leave the train. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: It's moving, Inspector: Not now, sir. At the next station. Passenger: Oh. Inspector: It's in the book, sir. When you travel by train, you buy a ticket, and if you don't buy a ticket, you Passenger-Inspector: leave the train. Inspector: Here we are, sir. We're coming to a station. Please leave the train now. Passenger: Now? Inspector: Yes, sir. I'm sorry, but Passenger: Oh, that's OK. Inspector: it's in the book, and what did you say? Passenger: I said: That's OK.' Inspector: OK? Passenger: Yes, this is my station. Goodbye. (The passenger leaves the train.) 406 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 59 Title A name given to the resource A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC Author Author EFE, Hüseyin DEMİRÖZ, Hakan AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c5f802074863a20714cd55baf79a5299.docx 4c0a9aede05f1d601e7bf0f1e7452554 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a9e2e4ce28cff61c1f9a4d8bbf678977.pdf bbfac0b376a35915d2b6e94986454b4c PDF Text Text A Sociolonguistic Account of the Gender and Culture Based Language Effect Aida Huseinović & Azamat Akbarov International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: Mother tongue, Second language acquisition, language culture, gender differences in languages, politeness in languages, solidarity ABSTRACT There is an old saying among Bosnian people “How many languages you know that much you are worth”. From this old saying we see that knowing a language is a very important thing. It’s not just being able to communicate with other people, it’s showing how well educated a person is. While learning a foreign language it is being impossible not to compare it with your mother tongue and to check if there are any differences or perhaps similarities between the language/s. Do L1 and L2 have similarities in respect of grammar, pronouns, word order in the sentence, gender differences, politeness and etc?! In this case Bosnian is considered as mother tongue and English, Turkish as foreign languages. While acquiring second language the important thing on what a person pays attention is the way how politeness is expressed. Some languages as Bosnian and Turkish have the ways of politeness when having a conversation with someone elder expressed but English doesn’t. Is it a good thing or not? Which language has politeness fully expressed? Learning languages and paying attention if they have words that are focusing on gender differences, as we know nowadays many males and females may have the same occupation. Is it seen as an offense towards a female person referring them with the word that is usually used for males, or vice versa? Do we refer to them as equal or do we pay attention on their gender? How is politeness differentiated in these languages? Those are aspects on which this project is focused on, and they are considered as being of great importance while acquiring second language. Another important aspect is, paying attention on the role of all these named components while acquiring a foreign language. Do they lead to misunderstandings, wrong usage, or perhaps to something else? � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1706 Title A name given to the resource A Sociolonguistic Account of the Gender and Culture Based Language Effect Author Author HUSEINOVIĆ, Aida AZAMAT, Akbarov Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Mother tongue, Second language acquisition, language culture, gender differences in languages, politeness in languages, solidarity ABSTRACT There is an old saying among Bosnian people “How many languages you know that much you are worth”. From this old saying we see that knowing a language is a very important thing. It’s not just being able to communicate with other people, it’s showing how well educated a person is. While learning a foreign language it is being impossible not to compare it with your mother tongue and to check if there are any differences or perhaps similarities between the language/s. Do L1 and L2 have similarities in respect of grammar, pronouns, word order in the sentence, gender differences, politeness and etc?! In this case Bosnian is considered as mother tongue and English, Turkish as foreign languages. While acquiring second language the important thing on what a person pays attention is the way how politeness is expressed. Some languages as Bosnian and Turkish have the ways of politeness when having a conversation with someone elder expressed but English doesn’t. Is it a good thing or not? Which language has politeness fully expressed? Learning languages and paying attention if they have words that are focusing on gender differences, as we know nowadays many males and females may have the same occupation. Is it seen as an offense towards a female person referring them with the word that is usually used for males, or vice versa? Do we refer to them as equal or do we pay attention on their gender? How is politeness differentiated in these languages? Those are aspects on which this project is focused on, and they are considered as being of great importance while acquiring second language. Another important aspect is, paying attention on the role of all these named components while acquiring a foreign language. Do they lead to misunderstandings, wrong usage, or perhaps to something else? Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d35945fb8f7e9878f19507c31e0c3c2f.pdf fa3b4d9bc6af718bd755f18cb01fcc3c PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Ram, S. and Sheth, J. N. (1989) Consumer resistance to innovations: the marketing problem and its solutions, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 5-14. Rodgers, S. and Harris, M. A. (2003) Gender and E-Commerce: An Exploratory Study, Journal of Advertising Research, 43(3), 322-329. Rudolph, T., Rosenbloom, B. and Wagner, T. (2004) „Barriers to online shopping in Switzerland, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16(3), 55-74. Seock, Y. K. and Norton, M. J. T. (2008) College Student’ Perceived Attributes of Internet Websites and Online Shopping, College Student Journal, 42(1), 186-198. Sulaiman, A., Ng, J. and Mohezar, S. (2008) E-Ticketing as a new way of buying tickets: Malaysian perceptions, Journal of Social Science, 17(2), 149-157. Tamimi, N., Sebastianelli, R. and Rajan, M. (2004) Examining the relationship between demographics and the frequency of online purchasing, Proceedings of 9th Asia-Pacific Decision Sciences Institute Conference, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://iceb.nccu.edu.tw/proceedings/APDSI/2004/pdf/097.pdf Teo, T. S. H. (2006) To buy or not to buy online: adopters and non-adopters of online shopping in Singapore, Behaviour & Information Technology, 25(6), 497-509. The Interbank Card Center (BKM) (2011) E-commerce Transactions, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://www.bkm.com.tr/bkmen/istatistik/sanal_pos_ile_yapilan_eticaret_islemleri.asp United States Census Bureau (2010) E-Stats, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://www.census.gov/econ/estats/2009/2009reportfinal.pdf Yang, B., Lester, D. and James, S. (2007) British and American attitudes toward buying Online, Oxford Journal, 6(1), 18-27. Zukowski, T. and Brown, I. (2007) Examining the Influence of Demographic Factors on Internet Users’ Information Privacy Concerns, In Proceedings of SAICSIT Conf.'2007, 197204. A Study About Mobbing On Students, The Relationship Between Their Personality Traits And Mental Status Zeki Akinci, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yusuf Yilmaz Akdeniz University, Turkey E-mails: zakinci@akdeniz.edu.tr, onuridemirel@mynet.com, yusufyilmaz@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract The purpose of this study is to assess the effect of psychological violence (mobbing) on the mood of students attending colleges and on how the mood affects their traits. In this context, the effect of the violence level as psychological impact on the mood of students was examined in the process of personality traits. The sample group of the study consists of 250 46 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo last class students studying at a social sciences vocational school in Antalya, Turkey. Behaviour scale for psychological violence, scale of personality characteristics and depression scale were used in the study. Perceptions of mobbing of the students came from rural areas with low-income are higher than city dwellers students with normal or high income levels. However, it was observed that male students were exposed to mobbing more than female students. Keywords: Psychological violence, personality traits, mood BACKGROUND 1. MOBBING According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), mobbing is defined as, " behavior in attitudes for the purpose of manifesting individual or group sabotage, revenge, cruel, malicious or insulting " (Karavardar, 2009). At the same time, mobbing is identified as a problem rapidly growing in workplaces by International Labour Organization. Mobbing, constituting behavior to the target person for humiliating and intimidating. This type of behavior are laid out with the open or secret using verbal or nonverbal behaviors (Lewis et al., 2002). Mobbing is done expressing hostile and unethical communication in a systematic way in working life that is applied by one or a few people against a person to make one helpless and defenseless according Leymann'a (1996). Mobbing behavior is usually performed, covering a long period. According Tınaz (2008), eight chapters are grouped under the facts underlying the mobbing behavior. These are:        Enforcing individual to get the rule of group accepted To enjoy from hostility Only the pleasure Boredom Reinforce prejudices Believe that they have exclusive rights Selfishness The risk of mobbing targets is valid for everyone in all businesses and cultures. Although mobbing process mechanism in the process develops in different ways in different offices typically it is observed in a very typical and a similar way. Four different types of individual are in danger of being victimized in workplaces (Huber, 1994): Only one person: This person can be a single male / female working in an office whether he/she works with the large numbers of female or visa versa in a workplace. A different person: any person who is non-fusible and different from others, This can be an individual dressed in a different manner as well as impaired or foreign person. Sometimes, being just one single person within married persons in an office, or being a married person within singles is a sufficient reason to be victim of mobbing. Mobbing possibility is very high of minority people to be involved in a group. 47 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Successful people: has a major achievement, winning the admiration of the supervisor or direct administration of a customer or a person who praises, can easily envied by colleagues. All kind of games are played from behind of individuals, rumors can be removed and expose to work sabotage. New particapated person: Prensence of a popular person working in that position before, or have very much liked than the new arrival one with higher quality than the other persons working there increases the risk of being victim of mobbing. Workplace mobbing, takes place in four phases (Tınaz et al, 2008). In the first stage, the conflict is in question The second stage, there is the start of the workplace psychological harassment The third stage, the introduction of business management and false ascription and definitions could be mentioned In the fourth stage, there are moving away from working life Mobbing, as the results of both the victim exposed to mobbing is of great importance both in terms of business (Tinaz, 2008). According to the report of the International Labour Organisation (1998), mobbing in terms of business, medium-and long-term, interpersonal relations, and undermine the entire business environment. 2. PERSONALITY Personality is the own image factors affecting behaviors on thinking and feeling. The personality encompasses all the behaviors, which are constantly under the influence of internal and external stimuli of the individual constituting psychological, biological, genetic properties and all the abilities acquired, motives, emotions, desires, habits. (Tınar, 1999:93). However, people built distinctive form of a relation with other members which can be defined as a consistent and structured in internal and external environment (Cüceoğlu, 1997: 404). Personality is the complex of the ensemble of a number of features. But all this came together and combined with an individual on the basis of features, mainly the issues related to the three main divisions. Generally, a double function, which may be associated with one of three slice. In fact, in this issue it is not possible to make a distinction in the form of clear and precise lines. This is an abstraction and generalizations to better understand the formation of personality. By such an approach, the concept consists of three slices. These are the character, temperament and talent. Interpersonal differences, differences in the relationship of these features will lead to differences or features (Erdogan, 1994: 244-245). Character: Personality and the concept "character" is the most frequently used in the same sense, Character, refers to the social and moral property of personality. Character, is like a skeleton of personality. The concept of the character is closely related to social values and moral rules with its environment (Zel, 2001: 27). Temperament: The second aspect of personality is mood. In fact, character significantly depends on temperament (temperament). Temperament is a significant aspect of continuous and cyclical. The behavior is seen as the evolution of social, moral aspects, temperament, 48 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo which is the continuous part of these aspects. The hereditary aspect of the property show individual attitudes, which should be considered as the propert of person. Talent: is the most important skill constituting the third slices of personality. Talent, owned by an individual refers to the entire mental and physical abilities. It is all of the form of features to analyze, realize outcome and perform some of the facts, such as the totality of mental properties. 2.1. Personality Type A and B The stress was firstly revealed by two cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman in the late 1960s. It is perceived to be the concept of "type A" and "type B" personality styles that has today wide acceptance (Luthans, 1995:406). Personality type has been closely associated with daily lives of individuals and at the levels of exposured stress. According to the findings on this subject, type A has higher heart disorders probability then type B. (Vecchio, 1995: 498). In addition, in middle and lower echelons of organizations type A personality were more successful than individuals, but B personality individuals are more successful than A toplevel, since they are patient and detailed thought. In this case, it is possible to say that might be more successful by making shifts individuals with Type A and type B in accordance with the requirements of time and environment,. However, it should be known that the probability of achieving seems within the individuals (Luthans, 1995: 407). Behaviors of type A are aggressive, impatient and very much intended. They want to be more successful as quickly as possible. Lively, energetic feel, and hold themselves do not tolerate. With the behavior of type B is the individual, on the contrary less competitive, less devoted to work and less susceptible to time. Such people are in less conflict with time and more balanced to life and has very comfortable. Running in a stable speed and feel more confidence in himself. It can not be said A type more or less successful than B type person. In addition, Friedman and Rosenman said that there was no pure people as type A or type B, instead, it might have expressed more inclined to one of two types. For example, one often exhibits a type A personality traits, but can be a calm and quiet for a short time, in some cases he can even forget the time (Moorhead and Griffin, 1992: 463). Personality type of discovered by researchers has been associated closely with eachother at both levels of exposure to stress in their daily lives of individuals. Following lists is the "Feel and the complex motion referred to as the properties of persons " type A and B by Rosenman Friedman and (Luthans, 1995: 304): Tablo 1: A and Type B Personality Traits Type A Personality Traits Type B Personality Traits They are in action every time. They are interested in time Quick walk. Patient Quick eat. Do not like to brag. 49 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Quick walk. Do for fun, not to win games and sports. Impatient. Inside of a comfortable way to rest. Do two things at a time. Are not under the pressure of finishing the job immediately There is no free time. They are earnest persons. The numbers are against the obsessions. Never do not rush Numbers tend to measure success Aggressive. Competitive. Are under continuous pressure of time 3. DEPRESSION Depression is a feeling of deep gloom, in a state of thought, speech and motion slowdown, recession, worthlessness, smallness, weakness, reluctance, thoughts and feelings of pessimism is a syndrome with symptoms such as slowing down the physiological functions (Öztürk, 1985). For example, fail in get a job, fall in entered an exam, losing-close relatives cause emotionally depression in situations. State of emotional distress can be short put, sometimes days, it can also take weeks or even months. Here are some of the features in humans depression (South, 2009: 307-308):       oneself to feel worthless and inadequate, to lose the joy of life, self-constantly feeling tired, to look at people and events pessimistically, the person's continuous speech, to complain constantly. The outer appearance of the person who is neurotic depression, usually depressed, sad and hopeless. There is a fake-view of depressive person with grotesqueness or expression-less face. Each event is seen from the pessimistic direction, he has no interested in any activity giving pleasure, may not be alone, can sit for hours by staring. He can complain of difficulties living in low concentrating. Sleep disturbances, restlessness, can cause symptoms such as irritability and internal tension (Kutash, 1965: 967). According to the theory developed by Beck and his colleagues, depression is not mainly disorder of feeling it is a cognitive disorder. Three important cognitive disorders are refered to the formation of depression (Beck, 1979): Person's self negative view: Depressive people feel algae itself, incomplete, defeated, serves as worthless and inadequate. Believes, and sees itself being no-loved rejects himself due to omissions. 50 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Negative overview to experiences: Depressed people interpret it as an indication of the lack of environment interaction. Negative look to the future: People desperate future, in the dark, deprived and feels frustrated. Personality traits may be a risk factor for depression. Difficulty in coping with stress and interpersonal relationships throughout the life of an individual creates a neurotic, dependent, obsessive, introverted, low self-esteem, non-aggressive, anxious, pessimistic personality traits, which are reported to be developing things more on the depression (Unal, 2000). 4. METHOD 4.1. Population and Sampling The study population were consisted of students in the Akdeniz University. The sampling was done from the last grade students attending School of Social Sciences in Akdeniz University. Students was chosen from ones since students had spent more time. They could also better evaluate the school and their spiritual status behavior containing the mobbing. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed to students, and of 300 questionnaire 271 could be received and was statistically evaluated by 90.3% ratio as re-cycle. 4.2. Data Collection Tool Personal Information Form. In this form, questions are asked in order to obtain information the participants age, gender, reading program, income level, family, school and accomodation. Furthermore, questions were asked as "had they the opportunity what would be their choice?" to the students and to choose between two options was requested. The answers were evaluated to be "choice opportunity" score to these questions. Mobbing Survey In the first running of questionnaire 45 questions covering the "psychological intimidation Leymann (LIPT) Scale" developed by the first researcher Leymann (1996) and 14 questions of Rakness Einarsen (1997) on mobbing and appropriate 40 questions of "Negative Behavior (NAQ) Scale" developed by Denise Salin (Salin, 2001) were used. These issues in the form of judgments took place in survey and answering were asked as the one mark of the options related to himself ¨to be "always", "often", "sometimes", "rarely" and "never". "5-point Likert Scale " was used to be scaling method of basic research. Personality Questionnaire Personality type, is a modified version of the Jenkins activity survey (Jetkins, Ayzanski and Rosenman, 1971). In this study, to identify the personality on the structure of A and B, personality scale of Durna were used (Durna, 2004). 20 items were considered (Moorhead and Griffin, 1992: 465; Baltaş and Baltaş: 2000: 148-150) to be the personal characteristics of a scale containing. habits, attitudes towards time under various conditions, environment, relationships, thoughts and feelings about. These issues in the form of judgments took place in survey and answering were asked as the one mark of the options related to himself ¨to be "always", "often", "sometimes", "rarely" and "never". "5-point Likert Scale " was used to be scaling method of basic research. 51 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Analysis of Mental Status Questionnaire. Beck Depression Index (BDI) developed in order to measure emotional, cognitive, somatic, and motivational components by a self-report scale (Beck, 1961). BDI is one of the most frequently tools used giving information about himself on research and clinics. Although the main objective is to evaluate the symptoms of depression in a comprehensive way it is allow the assessment of cognitive content. The scale is composed of 21 items, two items on emotions, eleven items on cognitions, two-material behavior, five-item on physical symptoms, an item is divided to the symptoms within persons. A questionnaire consisting of 21 questions were used in the evaluation of BDI. Each item is composed of four head. 4.3. Data Analysis For the purpose of the study, independent sample t test (Independent Samples T-Test) and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used. In making binary comparisons, Scheffe cases in homogeneity of variance; Tamhane test was used in cases not provided. The data was analyzed using SPSS 17.0 sofware by 0.05%. 0.05-0.01 levels of significance were considered during investigation. 5. RESULTS AND COMMENTS 5.1. Demographic Properties Demographic findings on individuals included in the study are given in Table 1. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants Variable Gender Age Programme Income level 52 N % Female 142 52,4 Male 128 47,2 Total 270 99,6 18-19 70 25,8 20-21 135 49,8 22 and above 64 23,6 Total 269 99,3 Education in the Daytime 143 52,8 Education in the Evening 128 47,2 Total 271 100 Low 54 19,9 Medium 193 71,2 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Family's residence place Staying with family Choose a school High 23 8,5 Total 270 99,6 of Village 44 16,2 County 32 11,8 City 195 72,0 Total 271 100 Yes 138 50,9 No 132 48,7 Total 270 99,6 1-4 183 67,5 5-8 35 12,9 9-12 37 13,7 13 and above 16 5,9 Total 271 100 105 38,7 166 61,3 271 100 What would be your Same school choice if the Different school opportunity Total In examining the demographic characteristics of respondents, 52.4% of respondents indicating gender females, 47.2% percent is composed of males. 25.8% of the participants examined the age groups' range as 18-19 ages, 20-21 ages by 49.8% and the age above of 22 by 23.6%. 52.8% of the participants are attending day-school, 47.2% percent are in the night academic programs. In terms of income levels, 19.9% of respondents were reported to be low, 72.2% percent moderate and 8.5% is seen to have high levels of income. Participants' families, 16.2% percent in the villages, and 11.8% lived in towns by 72% in cities of the respondents live together with their families by 50.9% and 48.7% lives in an environment separated from their families. The participants prefers are examined in view of attending school as a choice, 67.5% percent of those who chose the first of four preference, 12.9% percent of those who chose between the fifth and the eighth choice, those who choose between nine and twelve chosen by 13.7%, and 5.9% is between 13 and further chooser. Participants had the opportunity to make a choice again, 38.7% was stated to "would choose the same school", and 61,3% had "would choose another school,". 53 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 5.2. Results on gender differentiation Table 2: The Independent Samples T Test Results of The Students Regarding Their Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing According to Gender Variable Level N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean df Personality Female 132 61,9167 10,22274 Male Mobbing ,88978 127 63,8976 9,12943 P 257 -1.643 ,102 263 -4,198 ,000** 259 -,864 ,388 ,81011 Female 140 50,1786 12,93162 1,09292 Male 2,66260 125 61,8000 29,76873 Depression Female 134 30,3209 8,26588 Male t ,71406 127 31,2520 9,13563 ,81066 **. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level. When the Table 2 is examined, a significant difference is not found between personality and depression according to gender variable. On the other hand, perception of male students on mobbing are higher than female students at 0.01 significant level. 5.3. Results on differentiation by age Table 3: ANOVA Analysis on Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing in terms of Age. Sum Squares Age Personality Between Groups 361,885 Mobbing df Mean Square F Sig. 2 180,943 1,913 ,150 94,588 ,391 ,677 ,061 ,941 Within Groups 24119,882 255 Total 24481,767 257 Between Groups 423,625 2 211,813 Within Groups 141383,068 261 541,698 Total 141806,693 263 Depression Between Groups 9,349 Within Groups 54 of 19579,155 2 4,674 257 76,183 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Sum Squares Age of Personality Between Groups 361,885 Mobbing df Mean Square F Sig. 2 180,943 1,913 ,150 94,588 ,391 ,677 ,061 ,941 Within Groups 24119,882 255 Total 24481,767 257 Between Groups 423,625 2 211,813 Within Groups 141383,068 261 541,698 Total 141806,693 263 Depression Between Groups 9,349 2 4,674 76,183 Within Groups 19579,155 257 Total 19588,504 259 When the Table 3 is examined, a significant difference is not found between depression, personality and mobbing according to age variable of the students in ANOVA analysis. 5.4. Findings related to differentiation by program category Table 4: The Independent Samples T Test Results of The Students Regarding Their Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing According to Program Category Variable Level Personality Mobbing Depression N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Daytime 137 61,7372 9.63547 0.82321 Evening 123 64,0407 9.80415 0.88401 Daytime 139 54,2518 22.85274 1.93834 Evening 127 57,2677 23.47658 2.08320 Daytime 135 30,1630 8.65957 0.74530 Evening 127 31,4803 8.70582 0.77252 df t P 258 -1,909 ,057* 264 -1,061 ,290 260 -1,227 ,221 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. When the Table 4 is examined, a significant difference is not found between mobbing and depression according to program category variable. On the other hand, perception of evening program students on personality are slightly higher than daytime program students at 0.05 55 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo significant level. Accordingly, the evening education students can be said to be prone to Type A students of daytime education can be said to be prone to Type B personality traits. 5.5. Implications for differentiation according to the category of income Level Table 5: ANOVA Analysis on Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing in terms of Family Income. Income N Personality Low 52 64,6731 184 62,4076 High 23 Total Low Deviation Squares 10,12611 B. Groups Mean df Square 2 129.506 9,61227 W. Groups 24207.089 256 94.559 61,3478 9,69821 Total 24466.100 258 259 62,7683 9,73806 54 61,4074 27,20399 B. Groups 6312.071 2 3156.036 188 52,7074 17,27366 W. Groups 135784.555 262 518.262 High 23 66,8696 43,04575 Total 142096.626 264 Total 265 55,7094 23,20010 Low 54 34,5185 10,54504 B. Groups 957.217 2 478.608 184 29,7500 7,70866 W. Groups 18715.895 258 72.542 High 23 30,2174 9,40965 Total 19673.111 260 Total 261 30,7778 8,69861 Middle Depression Sum of 259.011 Middle Mobbing Mean Std. Middle F P 1,370 ,256 6,090 ,003** 6,598 ,002** **. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level. When the Table 5 is examined, there is no differences between the income levels of students and perceptions of the personality. A significant difference were observed between perceptions of depression and mobbing at the 0.01 level. High income group to the students' exposure to mobbing rate is higher than others. Depression levels of low-income group are higher than other income groups of students. 56 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 5.6. Findings about where her family lives differentiation by category Table 6: ANOVA Analysis on Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing in terms of Family’s Place of Residence. Family's place of residence Personality Mobbing Depression N Mean Std. Sum of Deviation Squares Village 42 63.5000 9.83337 B. Groups County 32 64.4063 City 186 Total Mean df Square 132.235 2 66,117 8.59429 W. Groups 24564.977 257 95,584 62.4032 9.94872 Total 24697.212 259 260 62.8269 9.76504 Village 44 65,5227 29.93286 B. Groups 5143.399 2 2571.699 County 30 52,5667 15.15138 W. Groups 136975.323 263 520.819 City 192 53,9271 21.92216 Total 142118.722 265 Total 266 55,6917 23.15809 Village 41 33,7073 11.44387 B. Groups 444.633 2 222,316 County 32 31,2188 8.48427 W. Groups 19267.047 259 74,390 City 189 30,1005 7.92152 Total 19711.679 261 Total 262 30,8015 8.69044 F P ,692 ,502 4,938 ,008** 2,989 ,052* *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. **. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level. When the Table 6 is examined, there is no differences between family’s place of residence and perceptions of the personality. A significant difference is observed between perceptions of mobbing at the 0.01 level and a partial difference is observed in the perceptions of depression at 0.05 level. Rural origin students' perceptions of mobbing were higher than other students. However, students’ with rural origin perceptions of depression were slightly higher that of the other students. 5.7. Implications for School Choice Opportunity differentiation by category Table 7: ANOVA Analysis on Personality, Depression and Perception of Mobbing in terms of the Opportunity to Choose. 57 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo your choice if the opportunity N Mean Personality 1,00 103 63,1359 9,77296 ,96296 2,00 157 62,6242 9,78579 ,78099 1,00 103 54,8835 21,06773 2,07586 2,00 163 56,2025 24,43640 1,91401 1,00 104 30,0288 8,11741 ,79598 2,00 158 31,3101 9,03701 ,71895 Mobbing Depresyon Std. Std. Error Deviation Mean df t P 258 ,413 ,680 264 -,452 ,652 260 -1,168 ,244 6. CONCLUSION School life, constitutes an environment in which students spend a large portion of their days. The Students who have different ideas, expectations, experiences, personalities, lives and the life plans come together in the school life. Despite these differences, unintended consequences can occur within these persons who have to do training together. Students can exhibit undesirable behavior against student friends due to the problems living in private lives, targets they want to reach. Due to differences in behavior lasting persistent and long period may cause psychological intimidation and mobbing. For this reason, students are exposed to many adverse conditions and behaviors under intense stress experienced in the school environment. This behavior causes being unhappy of students exposed to mobbing, which leads to both psychologically and physically disorder. At the end of this study it has been understood that many students against negative behavior exhibit different responses by the effect of personality traits. According to results of study, type A personality characteristics which have higher prone to perceptions of mobbing than students prone to personality related to type B. Perceptions of mobbing of the students came from rural areas with low-income are higher than city dwellers students with normal or high income levels. However, it was observed that male students were exposed to mobbing more than female students. As a result, school boards should support the students on how begining and continue of mobbing process can be prevented. Psychological resistance, searching of possessed rights, perceived social support and measurements to copy with stress and awareness should be raised by education programs. 58 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo REFFERENCES _____________ (1998). When Working Becomes Hazardous. World of Work The Magazine of the International Labor Organizations (ILO), 26: 6-9. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Depression, New York, Guilford. Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Cüceloğlu, D. (1997). İnsan ve Davranışı: Psikolojinin Temel Kuramları. Remzi Kitapevi, İstanbul. Erdoğan, İ. (1994). İşletmelerde Davranış. Beta Basım Yayım, İstanbul. Güney, S. (2009). Davranış Bilimleri. Nobel Yayınevi, Ankara. Huber, B. (1994). Mobbing: Psychoterror am Arbeitsplatz, Niedernhausen, Falken. Karavardar, G. (2009). İş Yaşamında Psikolojik Yıldırma ve Psikolojik Yıldırmaya Direnç Gösteren Kişilik Özellikleri ile İlişkisi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Kutash, S. B. (1965). Psychology, 12: 71-78. Psychoneuroses. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of Clinical Lewis, J., Coursol, D. & Wahl, K. H. (2002). Addressing Issues of Workplace Harassment: Counseling The Targets. Journal of Employment Counseling, 39: 109–116. Leymann, H. (1996). The Content and Development of Mobbing at Work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5(2): 165-184. Luthans, F. (1995). Organizational Behavior. Literatür Yayıncılık, İstanbul Moorhead, G. & Griffin, R. W. (1992). Organizational Behavior. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. Öztürk, M.O. (1985). Psikanaliz ve Psikoterapi. Sevinç Matbaası, Ankara. Tınar, M. Y. (1999). Çalışma Yasamı ve Kişilik. Mercek Dergisi, MESS, 14. Tınaz, P. (2008). İşyerinde Psikolojik Taciz. Beta Yayıncılık, 2.Baskı, İstanbul. Tınaz,P., Bayram, F. & Ergin,H. (2008). Çalışma Psikolojisi ve Hukuki Boyutlarıyla İşyerinde Psikoljik Taciz (Mobbing), Beta Yayınevi, İstanbul. Ünal, Y. (2000). Depresyon ve Kişilik. Duygudurum Bozuklukları Dizisi, 1(2): 72-76. Vecchio, R.P. (1995). Organizatioanl Behavior, Fort Worth: Dryden Press, England. Zel, U. (2001). Kişilik ve Liderlik: Evrensel Boyutlarıyla Yönetsel Açıdan Araştırmalar, Teoriler ve Yorumlar. Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara. 59 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1148 Title A name given to the resource A Study About Mobbing On Students, The Relationship Between Their Personality Traits And Mental Status Author Author Zeki , Akinci Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to assess the effect of psychological violence (mobbing) on the mood of students attending colleges and on how the mood affects their traits. In this context, the effect of the violence level as psychological impact on the mood of students was examined in the process of personality traits. The sample group of the study consists of 250 last class students studying at a social sciences vocational school in Antalya, Turkey. Behaviour scale for psychological violence, scale of personality characteristics and depression scale were used in the study. Perceptions of mobbing of the students came from rural areas with low-income are higher than city dwellers students with normal or high income levels. However, it was observed that male students were exposed to mobbing more than female students. Keywords: Psychological violence, personality traits, mood Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1c2deca3660e74c63ff17a694d583f56.docx 48ac7cae918a6b9f06ecffeb9a99dd43 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3a35a19351f7212850cf0bfb95f4a7f9.pdf 676e1d7bb6b8a049f55c693d129b2476 PDF Text Text A Study Based on the Expressions of Politeness in Turkish and French Murat Demirkan & Dilber Zeytinkaya Marmara University/ Istanbul, Turkey Key words: politeness, expressions, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, intercultural consciousness ABSTRACT In order to develop intercultural consciousness, people have to study the politeness principles of the society in which two languages are talked. Students can gain the necessary communication skills by learning the politeness principles. In Grice’s cooperative principal, it is necessary to teach the principles of politeness in addition to quality, quantity, importance and style principles. According to the research results, the schoolbooks that teach Turkish and French do not cover sufficiently the dialogues and exercises related to the principles of politeness (“...” Kazmaz: 2012). This study aims at making a comparative analysis of the usage of the principles of politeness both in Turkish and French. As a special kind of communication channel, the politeness expressions show themself not only in sentences, words, intonations but also in some facial expressions like smiling or looking. In this research, by taking into consideration some concrete practices of the politeness theory, the importance of teaching two languages as foreign languages will be underlined and some concrete examples of politeness discourse for which Grice’s cooperative principal fails to explain will be discussed. The principles of the politeness theory -as image, influence, perception, impression- which are also the main research areas of sociolinguistics and pragmatics will be analysed with some special examples in respect to their contribution to language teaching. In the first part of the study, the theoretical views Goffman, Brown and Levinson, Lakoff and Leech, KerbratOrecchioni and in the second part the politeness expressions peculiar to French and Turkish language will be comparatively analysed. In the concluding part, the importance of the politeness principles in language learning will be emphasised. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1839 Title A name given to the resource A Study Based on the Expressions of Politeness in Turkish and French Author Author DEMIRKAN, Murat ZEYTINKAYA, Dilber Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: politeness, expressions, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, intercultural consciousness ABSTRACT In order to develop intercultural consciousness, people have to study the politeness principles of the society in which two languages are talked. Students can gain the necessary communication skills by learning the politeness principles. In Grice’s cooperative principal, it is necessary to teach the principles of politeness in addition to quality, quantity, importance and style principles. According to the research results, the schoolbooks that teach Turkish and French do not cover sufficiently the dialogues and exercises related to the principles of politeness (“...” Kazmaz: 2012). This study aims at making a comparative analysis of the usage of the principles of politeness both in Turkish and French. As a special kind of communication channel, the politeness expressions show themself not only in sentences, words, intonations but also in some facial expressions like smiling or looking. In this research, by taking into consideration some concrete practices of the politeness theory, the importance of teaching two languages as foreign languages will be underlined and some concrete examples of politeness discourse for which Grice’s cooperative principal fails to explain will be discussed. The principles of the politeness theory -as image, influence, perception, impression- which are also the main research areas of sociolinguistics and pragmatics will be analysed with some special examples in respect to their contribution to language teaching. In the first part of the study, the theoretical views Goffman, Brown and Levinson, Lakoff and Leech, Kerbrat-Orecchioni and in the second part the politeness expressions peculiar to French and Turkish language will be comparatively analysed. In the concluding part, the importance of the politeness principles in language learning will be emphasised. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f59dbd62758d2e87d97fd70493d65373.pdf eb1e8855476a062db68980ea6f493231 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A study of anxiety among the Graduation Learners of English as a Foreign Language in Pakistan. Ammara Adeel Comsast University Lahore, Pakistan The Department of English Language aammara84@gmail.com Abstract: The learning of English as a foreign language in Pakistan takes place in two different types of Educational Institutions – Urdu and English Medium. Some students, in a pilot study, were reported to have acquitted themselves well in their language class while others not so well, particularly in speaking the language in the classroom. The main reason for low performance in this regard was reportedly attributed to anxiety and nervousness among the low performers. In order to ascertain this hypothesis empirically, this researcher carried out a full fledge research to this effect. The study as such used qualitative semi- structured individual interviews and focus group discussion. A total of thirty four participants including twenty seven learners and seven experienced language teachers participated in the research. The findings suggest that anxiety in communication stems, on the one hand, in the learners from their self created perceptions and beliefs about themselves, and on the other, from the strict and formal classroom environment in the educational institutions. On the basis of these findings the study suggests some measures to be followed in the classroom to alleviate the element of anxiety in the learners. Such measures are expected to yield positive results in the performance of the learners. 1. Introduction Foreign language scholars, teachers and learners have long been interested in identifying variables which affect the process of foreign language learning. Foreign language researchers have empirically found that variables play a vital role in learners‘ success or failure in academic settings in learning a foreign language. Krashen (1985) observed speaking/talking in classroom as the most anxiety stimulating activity for learners. Kim (1998) reported that students in a reading classroom undergo lower anxiety level than students in conversation class. This study intends to find the answer of the following research questions related to anxiety in Pakistani learners in English at advanced level. 1) What kind of anxiety is encountered by Pakistani learners in speaking English language? 2) What are the various factors of anxiety in speaking English in language classrooms? 3) What kind of techniques can be used to alleviate anxiety while the English language in the class? 2. Literature Review Anxiety which stems from learning and speaking a foreign language is termed as ‗Foreign language anxiety‘. This multifaceted phenomenon was defined as ―distinct complex of self-conceptions, beliefs, feelings and behavior related to classroom learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process‖ (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986, p. 128). Some researchers reported a negative relationship between foreign language anxiety and language achievement (Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1980; Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977). However, others reported no relationship or a positive relationship between language anxiety and performance (Backman, 1976; Chastain, 1975; Pimseleur, Mosberg, & Morrison, 1962; Scovel, 1978). Research on ‗Language anxiety‘ has suggested that certain false beliefs about language learning have a constant source of tension, anxiety and frustration in the classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 127). Gynan (1989) used terms such as ‗erroneous‘ and ‗irrational‘ for the beliefs held about language learning by learners which can be a constant source of anxiety.. In addition to unrealistic beliefs different activities performed in the language classroom which mainly involves speaking in front of the class, have been marked out as most anxiety provoking factors. Koch and Terrell (1991: cited in Young, 1991,p. 429 and Horwitz 2001,p. 119) found that in Natural Approach classes 121 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo more than half of their subjects expressed oral presentations and oral skills in front of the class as most anxietyproducing activities. 3. Methodology In order to shed light on diverse experiences of individuals, qualitative method was considered as an appropriate approach in this study. 3.1 Population The population of the present study was a large university i.e. COMSATS Institute of Information Technology at Lahore, Pakistan where total of 4671 students were enrolled in various disciplines at graduation, post graduation, M.Phil and PhD levels. 3.2 Participants The participants of the study were seven experienced Non-Native teachers of English Language and twenty seven university students of graduation level. Out of thirty four subjects, eighteen were males and sixteen were females. Their ages ranged between seventeen years to thirty eight years. The teaching experience of all teachers ranged between one and a half years to eleven years at various levels. 3.3 Instrument a. Individual Interviews Individual interviews were conducted from learners as well as teachers within two weeks time. The time taken by interviews ranged from 10 min to 20 min. All the interviews were conducted in English language and tape recorded (see appendix for questions adapted from Tanveer, 2007). b. Focus Group interviews Fifteen learners in total from various disciplines participated on voluntary basis in focus group discussion which lasted for about forty minutes. 3.4 Data Analysis The tape recorded individual and focus group interviews of both learners and teachers were listened and transcribed ‗verbatim‘ by the researcher. Afterwards, initial and focused group coding was applied to obtain results. 4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Types of Anxiety in Pakistani Learners Most of the previous researches identified the enervating effect of anxiety while communicating in the foreign language (Beier, 1951; Deffenbacher, 1980; Spielberger, 1966). Consistent with the past research approximately all the participants of the present research reported the negative impact of language anxiety on communication which result in hesitation and avoidance behavior. All the participants strongly agreed on the debilitative effect of language anxiety on learners while speaking. There were only two respondents who pointed out the facilitative effect of language anxiety apart from negative one. Types of Speaking Anxiety in Pakistani learners Debilitative (mostly) Facilitative (very rare) 122 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo De-motivation Hesitation Avoidance behaviour Loose confidence Forget things chance to learn more motivates prior preparation of activities 4.2 Sources of Anxiety in English Language Classroom The classroom environment, different communicative situations, and general perceptions of learners on speaking English language have been found to have strong links with language anxiety while speaking. 4.2.1 Strict and Formal Classroom Environment Consistent with the previous research, the participants (both teachers and learners) of the present research stated strict and formal classroom environment as one of the very important cause inducing speaking anxiety in learners. a) Fear of Negative Evaluation Many learners asserted that classroom is the place where so many students and teachers are constantly noticing their mistakes and the responses of the class fellows make them afraid to speak. The same apprehensive feelings of students were also pointed by language teachers. Many of them expressed that students get silent and unvoiced because of this fear clearly showing their speaking anxiety. Such responses articulate fear of negative evaluation under highly formal classroom environment which are similar to the past research which also revealed that the level of anxiety of learners increases under highly evaluative situations, specially in foreign language classroom where teachers and peers constantly monitor their performance (Daly, 1991: cited in Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999, p. 218). Due to dual schooling system (Urdu and English medium) of Pakistan many learners are unable to develop required communicative skills in them. In Pakistan Urdu medium schools do not provide exposure and practice of second language speaking to learners. As a result, whenever they are required to express themselves in front of others the fear of negative evaluation over powers them. b) Role of language teacher Teacher is responsible for creating communicative environment between students. While certain teachers are strict in terms of accuracy and they believe on snubbing the students at the spot. Their humiliating methods of error correction of learners induce anxiety in them. It was also elaborated that teacher has a ‗powerrelation‘ with the students and whenever they exercise this power it stimulates language anxiety in speakers and makes the classroom environment strict. Moreover, many of students felt that the method of error-correction of certain teachers is so direct and humiliating that they never want to participate in their class. In Pakistani education system mostly teacher is an ‗authoritative‘ figure and learning is ‗teacheroriented‘ instead of students. This reduces students‘ chance to speak in classrooms to a great extent. The negative image of teachers in the mind of students does not let them participate in their classrooms and they avoid future communication attempts and prefer to remain silent. c) Classroom activities Different classroom activities make classroom environment threatening for learners. Participants were of the view that class presentations make the classroom environment stressful and highly formal. Even the very confidant learner expressed his inability and lack of confidence in giving presentations. Similarly, teachers also articulated that students have to collect material and arrange data before giving presentation in front of the audience; which was found by many learners as stressful activity of language classrooms. 123 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The present research reinforced the findings of previous research by Young (1990), Koch and Terrell (1991) and Price (1991). All of them found that participants of their study considered oral presentations most anxietyprovoking activity in the language classroom. Apart from class presentations, pointing students to speak or to give answers of the questions asked stimulates anxiety in them. On the other hand, group activities were pointed to be less anxious and comfortable by language teachers. In group work they have room to divide, discuss and share the given activity. In group work anxiety is present in learners but its level decreases. Most of the learners agreed with the teachers that group work is less anxiety inducing. Those individuals who tried to escape from individual tasks for them group work is relaxing. It was found that many students in university at graduation level had their schooling in Urdu medium where English was just taken as a subject to obtain marks by cramming. Moreover, in Urdu medium schools learners normally start learning English language from grade five or above from very simple text books. Such exposure to English language is not sufficient for students at all. When such learners reach at their university level, where different classroom activities are compulsory part of language classroom and good mastery of language is required. They find themselves unable to express due to low English proficiency which increases their anxiety many folds. In addition to that, the teachers who use to teach in Urdu medium schools are mostly found to be strict, authoritative and less skilled in language classrooms. This makes language classroom uncomfortable and exasperating for learners. 4.2.2 Self-related cognitions and perceptions about speaking English Past research has revealed that anxiety in learners is created by their ―cognitive interferences based on self-related cognitions‖ (Tanveer, 2007). The self-perceptions of learners, beliefs about speaking English language, perceived scholastic competence and self-esteem are some of the factors related to learners‘ cognition which produced language anxiety in them (see Krashen, 1985; Horwitz et al., 1986; Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999 ). Some of the self-related cognitions identified in this research correspond to earlier cited cognitions, but they vary from individual‘s personality traits and their experience of foreign language learning. Many of the teachers posited that their students believe that they cannot speak English at all. They perceive English as a tough language. This feeling makes them tense and anxious about speaking English language. Many of the teachers and learners shared identical views on the students‘ believe expressing their inability to speak English. One of the reasons for this perception is comparison with peers. As a result of this comparison many learners felt that they cannot speak English. This also generates inferiority complex in them. A female teacher asserted that many of the students believe that there is no room for mistakes while speaking. For them making mistakes was something highly negative. Another belief of learners was pointed by another teacher that speaking a language is ability, not possessed by all. This is consistent with the findings of Horwitz et al. (1986). Another identified belief of students was that many students compare themselves with the anchors and actors in TV and movies. They feel that they should be like them and in practical life when they find themselves unable to express the way they think; this creates a negative perception in them about their abilities and language competence. One more perception about speaking English was that it is used to share scholarly ideas only by learned and educated people. The most important belief of students was that speaking English is a ‗status‘ symbol and many of them felt that people speak English to ‗show-off‘ not to convey their message. The same belief of students was assured by teachers that general prevalent perception in our society is that English is a ‗status symbol‘ and people use to ‗show off‘ knowledge. It is considered in our society that English is language of elite class and people use it to impress somebody rather then conveying knowledge or ideas. Moreover, people believe that a person who speaks English belongs to educated and economically well settle family. 124 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Anxiety Model of Pakistani Speakers Self-related cognition and perceptions Strict and Formal classroom environment Can‘t speak English Fear of negative evaluation Role of language teacher Individual tasks Class discussions Group and pair work Presentations Singled out to answer Classroom activities Schooling system (Urdu, English) Social class/family background Lack of exposure and practice Comparison with peers Fear of linguistic mistakes Attitude towards mistakes Speaking --- an ability Perceived speaking competence English --- a status symbol English --- sharing of scholastic ideas English --- hinders relation building 4.3 Strategies to Reduce Speaking Anxiety In order to improve speaking, by lowering anxiety of learners in foreign language following techniques are suggested in language classrooms. 1. Truly communicative approach should be applied by language teachers which provide learners with maximum room for practice of speaking English. 2. Teachers should be supportive and congenial and should utilize indirect method of error correction. 3. Students should be realized that errors are part of speaking. 4. Adequate time for classroom activities and continuous practice should be provided to students to build up their confidence. 5. Teachers should help learners in realizing their irrational beliefs and they should be substituted with reasonable commitments for English language speaking. 125 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 6. Different creative and fun activities like discussions, presentations, interviews, videos, songs, role plays etc should be employed by language instructors tactfully to make speaking of English language fun for learners. 5. Conclusion Like previous conducted research this interview study also revealed that speaking is most anxiety provoking second language skill. All the participants agreed that learners undergo language anxiety in speaking more then any other skill of language. There was no significant difference in the perceptions of teachers and learners on the identified language provoking factors but they differ in their experiences and observations. Almost all research participants emphasized that speaking English in front of others induces feeling of anxiety and nervousness. Most of the times classroom situations are extremely challenging to learners‘ communicative abilities in the form of class discussion, pair and group work, class presentations and answering questions when singled out. In addition to that, many other self-created concepts about speaking English were found to be aggravating factors of anxiety for learners. Appendix Interview Questions Q1: What do you think is the role of anxiety in speaking English language? Q 3: What are the different situations and language classroom activities that have been found by you to be anxiety- provoking? Q 5: Have you noticed any particular kinds of beliefs or perceptions about speaking English language? and what do you think how they play a role in causing speaking anxiety? Q 6: How do you think speaking anxiety can be successfully controlled? References Backman, N. (1976). Two measures of affective factors as they relate to progress in adult second-language learning. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 10, 100-122. Beier, E. G. (1951). The Effect of Induced Anxiety on Flexibility of Intellectual Functioning, by Ernest Gunter Beier...[A Thesis.]: American psychological association. Chastain, K. (1975). Affective and ability factors in second-language acquisition. Language learning, 25(1), 153-161. Clément, R., Gardner, R., & Smythe, P. C. (1980). 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Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern language journal, 70(2), 125-132. Kim, S. Y. (1998). Affective experiences of Korean college students in different instructional contexts: Anxiety and motivation in reading and conversation courses. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. Koch, A. S., & Terrell, T. D. (1991). Affective relations of foreign language students to natural approach activities and teaching techniques. Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications, 109-125. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications: Longman. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. Modern language journal, 75(3), 296-304. Ohata, K. (2005). Language anxiety from the teachers‘ perspective: Interviews with seven experienced ESL/EFL teachers. Journal of Language and Learning, 3(1), 133-155. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (1999). Factors associated with foreign language anxiety. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20(02), 217-239. Pimseleur, P., Mosberg, L., & Morrison, A. L. (1962). Student factors in foreign language learners. Modern language journal, 46, 160-170. Price, M. L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious students. Language Anxiety From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall, 101-108. Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research. Language learning, 28(1), 129-142. Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press. Tanveer, M. (2007). Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on communication in the target language. University of Glasgow. Educational Studies, Faculty of Education: unpublished doctoral dissertation. Young, D. J. (1990). An investigation of students' perspectives on anxiety and speaking. Foreign Language Annals, 23(6), 539-553. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? Modern language journal, 75(4), 426-439. 127 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 22 Title A name given to the resource A study of anxiety among the Graduation Learners of English as a Foreign Language in Pakistan. Author Author Adeel, Ammara Abstract A summary of the resource. The learning of English as a foreign language in Pakistan takes place in two different types of Educational Institutions – Urdu and English Medium. Some students, in a pilot study, were reported to have acquitted themselves well in their language class while others not so well, particularly in speaking the language in the classroom. The main reason for low performance in this regard was reportedly attributed to anxiety and nervousness among the low performers. In order to ascertain this hypothesis empirically, this researcher carried out a full fledge research to this effect. The study as such used qualitative semi- structured individual interviews and focus group discussion. A total of thirty four participants including twenty seven learners and seven experienced language teachers participated in the research. The findings suggest that anxiety in communication stems, on the one hand, in the learners from their self created perceptions and beliefs about themselves, and on the other, from the strict and formal classroom environment in the educational institutions. On the basis of these findings the study suggests some measures to be followed in the classroom to alleviate the element of anxiety in the learners. Such measures are expected to yield positive results in the performance of the learners. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 966 Title A name given to the resource A Study of Death of a Salesman in the Light of Louis Althusser’s “Ideology” Author Author Yazdani, Saeed Exir, Mohammad Abstract A summary of the resource. Althusser’s work on “ideology” offers literary critics the possibility of an entirely new kind of literary criticism. It has offered a revolutionary theory of society in whose terms literature could be understood, and a politically significant rationale for doing so. In the light of his work, it seemed that literary criticism could for the first time become both scientifically true and politically radical. The main purpose behind an ideology is to offer change in society and introduce a set of ideals where conformity already exists, through a normative thought process. What ideology creates in people’s minds is a sense of illusion of being important and also being free. The result of such an imposed thought is loss of identity which Althusser mentions as a process of turning individuals into subjects and the slaves of the system unconsciously. The core of all Miller’s works is fragmentation of the American society. He left for the history of theater, his great tragedy, Death of a Salesman, as an outstanding modern drama. Miller is an anomalous figure in the American theater, both reviled and exalted to the highest level for his work, often for the same reason. His themes are shaped more by social and political arguments than by the grieving of the human heart. Death of a Salesman mixes the tradition of social realism that informs most of Miller’s works with a more experimental structure that includes fluid leaps in time as the main character, Willy Loman, drifts into memories of his sons as teenagers and turns to be a victim of his own delusions of grandeur and obsession with success, which leads to failure. In this article an attempt is made to analyze Miller’s work the light of Althusser’s ideology, with reference to such new concepts as Interpellation (Subject), ISAs (Ideological State Apparatuses), RSA (Repressive State Apparatus). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics