14 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/93ad8e438ec751c94c2d0a3af49697f2.pdf b743dfacd07d30b2dd135db34a79b93f PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (2), pp. 33-47, Winter 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Dr. sci. Davor Trlin Doc. dr. Esad Oruč International Burch University davor.trlin@ibu.edu.ba esad.oruc@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: In this paper, through the analysis of the normative framework for the operation of these institutions, but also their activity, and the application of international standards in BiH, we will try to find an answer to the question of whether Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state or a protectorate. A lot has been achieved through the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, but most of it was due to the activity of the international community. According to the General Framework Agreement for Peace, this activity does not envisage a protectorate. However, especially in the first years of the functioning of post-Dayton Bosnia and Herzegovina, many constitutional and legal theorists tried to define the legal nature of Bosnia and Herzegovina's dependence on the international community in certain elements (which later softened). The results showed no unambiguous answer. In the last fifteen years, this issue has moved to the periphery of interest in domestic and regional constitutional and legal science. But it seems the time to re-establish it has come, especially in light of the announcement of changes in the attitudes of key actors in the international community towards Bosnia and Herzegovina. We are also interested in the issue related to this central research, which is the degree of sovereignty of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina inside and outside, given the Dayton construct of the international community's involvement in the constitutional and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sažetak: U ovom radu ćemo, kroz analizu normativnog okvira za djelovanje ovih institucija, ali i njihov sam aktivitet, te aplikaciju međunarodnih standarda u BiH, pokušati doći do odgovora na pitanje da li je Bosna i Hercegovina država ili protektorat. Kroz implementaciju Daytonskog sporazuma se postiglo dosta, ali većinom je zaslužan bio aktivitet međunarodne zajednice. Taja aktivitet ni, prema Općem okvirnom sporazumu za mir, ne predviđa protektorat. Ipak, posebno u prvim godinama funkcioniranja post-Daytonske Bosne i Hercegovine, brojni ustavno-pravni teoretičari su pokušavali definirati pravnu prirodu odnosa ovisnosti Bosne i Hercegovine prema međunarodnoj zajednici u određenim elementima (koja se kasnije sve više ublažavala). Rezultati su pokazali da nema jednoznačnog odgovora. Ovo pitanje je u posljednjih petnaest godina u domaćoj ali i regionalnoj ustavno-pravnoj nauci prešlo na periferiju interesiranja. Ali, čini se da je vrijeme da ga se ponovo postavi, posebno u svjetlu najave promjena odnosa ključnih subjekata međunarodne zajednice prema Bosni i Hercegovini. Takođe nas interesuje i pitanje koje je povezano s ovim centralnim istraživačkim, a to je stepen suvereniteta države Bosne i Hercegovine unutra, ali i prema vani, imajući u vidu Daytonski konstrukt uključenosti međunarodne zajednice u ustavno-politički sistem Bosne i Hercegovine. Keywords: Protectorate, International Community, High Representative, Peace Implementation Council, Bonn Powers. Ključne riječi: Protektorat, Međunarodna zajednica, Visoki predstavnik, Vijeće za implementaciju mira, Bonske ovlasti. Article History Submitted: 30 October 2020 Accepted: 10 December 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 1. UVOD Ustavni sistem Bosne i Hercegovine je determiniran sporazumom za mir, koji je postignut u Daytonu (Ohio, SAD) novembra 1995. godine, a formalno potpisan u Parizu, decembra 1995. godine. Aneks 4 ovog sporazuma je Ustav Bosne i Hercegovine. Prema Članu I tačka 2, Bosna i Hercegovina je demokratska država koja funkcionira u skladu sa zakonom i na osnovu slobodnih i demokratskih izbora. Iako ova odredba proklamuje koncept demokratije, Aneks 4 sadrži dosta normi koje nisu u skladu sa demokratskim principima, ali je i antinomičan, tj. određene njegove odredbe su međusobno nesaglasne (npr. proklamovan je princip zabrane diskriminacije, ali istovremeno je pojedinim kategorijama uvedeno nejednako aktivno i pasivno biračko pravo, odnosno postoji otvorena ustavna diskriminacija). O donošenju ovog akta, ali i pojedinim njegovim odredbama, te komparaciji ovog akta sa drugim aneksima sporazuma bitnim za ovaj rad ćemo detaljnije pisati u slijedećim poglavljima. 2. POJAM PROTEKTORATA Protektorat je jedan odnos ovisnosti jedne (slabije) države od druge (jače), protektora. Klaić (1986), pod „protektorom (protekcijom) podrazumijeva: 1. pokrovitelj, zaštitnik; 2.u međunarodnom pravu država koja preuzima nad nekom zemljom protektorat. Protektorat- pokroviteljstvo, zaštićivanje, okrilje, obrana uopće, a osobito: formalno pokroviteljstvo jače države nad slabijom; faktički- pokroviteljstvo je oblik zavisnosti koji imperijalističke države nasilno nameću drugim zemljama; 2. naziv ovako okupirane zemlje; isto i protektorstvo.” Prema Ibleru (1987) nastaje na temelju međunarodnog ugovorai kojim se odnos ovisnosti uređuje tako što se navode prava i dužnosti obiju strana (s. 259). Iz ovog razloga se npr. ne može prihvatiti da je Čehoslovačka bila pod protektoratom Trećeg Rajha, budući da između njih nije zaključen ugovor. Protektirana oblast je uspostavljena jednostranim aktom okupacije, i postala je dio „teritorije velikog njemačkog Rajha“. U Hoffmanovoj analizi (1987) navodi se da se država zaštitnica ugovorom obavezuje da će štiti protektiranu državu od agresije ili drugih oblika povrede prava zajamčenih međunarodnim pravom, te od internog ugrožavanja, a država zaštitnica preuzima njene ovlasti u međunarodnim odnosima (s. 1153). Dvije su vrste protektorata: potpuni i ograničeni. Kod potpunog protektorata država štićenica u potpunosti ugovorom o protektoratu stavlja svoje aktivnost u nadležnost države zaštitnice, a kod ograničenog zadržava poslovnu sposobnost, ali je ograničena naknadnim odobrenjem protektora. Seidl i Hohenveldern (2006) navode da protektirani teritorij ne ulazi u državni teritorij protektora, državljani zadržavaju svoja državljanstva, a ugovori koje protektor zaključuje obavezuju protektiranu državu (s. 177). Neki pravni teoretičari među oblike „složenih država“ ubrajaju i protektorat. Berislav Perić (1994) dijeli složene države na: 1) protektorat, 2) unija (realna i personalna), 3) konfederacija, 34 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč 4) federacija (s. 103). Fuad Muhić (1998) smatra da su se kroz istoriju razvila dva osnovna oblika složenih država – konfederacija i federacija (s. 104-107). Ovaj autor navodi da su unije „oblici povezivanja država koji se nalaze na sredini između konfederacije i federacije.“ – (s. 109). Dijeli ih na realne i personalne unije, a kao vrstu personalne unije podrazumijeva protektorat: „Kao oblik državnog uređenja, unije su u modernom dobu iščezle, i na njih donekle podsjećaju samo veze nekih malih evropskih državica sa susjednim državama, koje za njih obavljaju većinu najvažnijih poslova (veze San Marina sa Italijom, Monaka sa Francuskom, Lihtenštajna sa Švajcaskom i Andore sa Španijom i Francuskom). Takva veza naziva se protektoratom (štićeništvom)“ (s 109.). Međutim, moderna pravna teorija kao ni međunarodno pravo ne smatraju protektorat za oblik državnog uređenja već za odnos ovisnosti. Tako ih svrstava Degan (2000), a ne među oblike država (s. 294-295). Najviše su protektori bili Francuskaii i Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo Velike Britanije i Sjeverne Irskeiii. Schweisfurth (2006) je dao detaljan pregled protektorata UK (s. 25.). Može se reći da je klasičnih protektorata, kao odnosa dvije države (zaštitnice i štićenice) kroz povijest nestalo i da su se oni transformirali u tzv. „Međunararodnu teritorijalnu upravu“, institut međunarodne zajednice kojim ona osigurava međunarodni pravni poredak. Protektorat nisu ni slučajevi kad se manja država služi većom za obavljanje određenih poslova (primjer Lihtenštajna u odnosu sa Švicarskom ili San Marina u odnosu sa Italijom), gdje države imaju autonomiju odlučivanja. To npr. nije slučaj sa Monakomiv pa se može reći da je ispravna tvrdnja Seidla i Hohenvelderna (2006) da je ovo jedan od rijetkih primjera (oslabljenog) protektorata u savremenom društvu (s. 176.). 3. ULOGA EKSTERNOG FAKTORA U USTAVOTVORNOM DRŽAVNOM POSTUPKU „Daytonski“ ustav nije jedini slučaj u ustavnoj istoriji da je ustav određene države sačinjen uz pomoć i nadzor eksternog faktora. Tako su savezničke okupacijske sile, nakon poraza Njemačke u Drugom svjetskom ratu, ukinule Weimarski ustav, koji je bio na snazi u Njemačkoj od 1919. do 1945. godine. Na snagu je, u Zapadnoj Njemačkoj“ stupio Temeljni zakon (23. 05. 1949. godine, nakon što je odobren 08. 05. 1949. godine, u Bonnu (sve su Zemlje, osim Bavarske, takođe potvrdile), te od, strane Saveznika Drugog Svjetskog rata 12. 05. 1949. godine). Ovaj ustav je sada, uz određene amandmane, na snazi u Saveznoj Republici Njemačkoj. Sačinili su ga, pod usmjeravanjem Zapadnih sila, 1948. godine, ministri-predsjednici zapadnonjemačkih država, koji su formirali Parlamentarno vijeće. Takođe je Ustav Japana od 03. 05. 1947. godine, kojeg je, pod nadzorom Vrhovnog komandanta Savezničkih snaga, Douglasa MacArthura, sačinio određen broj državnih službenika i vojnog osoblja SAD. Nakon toga su japanski pripadnici akademske zajednice pregledali i modificirali tekst, prije konačnog usvajanja ustava od strane Nacionalnog dijeta, parlamenta Japana. Ustav od 1947. godine je zamijenio dotadašnji autoritarni sistem kvaziapsolutne 35 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 monarhije, sa liberalnom demokratijom, a cilj učešća Saveznika je bio da se suspregne militaristički nacionalizam japanske vlade. 4. SUVERENOST, MEĐUNARODNO PRAVO I USTAVNO PRAVO Tri osnovna elementa državne organizacije su: stanovništvo, teritorija i suverena vlast. Prije nego što objasnimo sintagmu „suverena vlast“, trebamo prvo objasniti šta zapravo znači termin „vlast“ i u čemu je to suštinska razlika između moći i vlasti. Vlast je institucionalizovana i legitimizovana moć. Prema Viskoviću (2006) „Vlast je nešto više od gole moći i prisile. To je prisila koja je legitimna ili barem formalno zasnovana na običajnim i pravnim normama, tj. koja je po mišljenju nekih ljudi opravdana kao „dobra“ ili se barem poziva na običaj i pravo.“ (s. 19). Vlast znači da se tačno znaju hijerarhijski odnosi između onih koji imaju vlast i onih koji je nemaju (tj. između nadređenih i podređenih) i da se ti odnosi moraju poštovati. Razne su vrste vlasti, ako je moć određenih društvenih subjekata zasnovana na pravnim normama. Tako postoje ekonomska vlast, roditeljska vlast, državna vlast. Ova zadnja, državna vlast najviša je vlast u društvu. Vrhovnost državne vlasti je element državne suverenosti. Državna suverenost se manifestira dvojako: 1. kao unutrašnja suverenost (profesor Visković ju naziva „pravna vrhovnost“) i 2. kao vanjska suverenost. 1. Unutrašnja suverenost državne vlasti znači da država ima isključivo pravo da stvara najviše pravne akte. Državna vlast ima pravo izricati određene sankcije za nepoštivanje dispozicija pravnih normi iz pravnih akata koje je donijela, i u tu svrhu koristi prinudu. Ona je jedina organizacija u društvu koja ima monopol legalne fizičke prinude. Perić (1994) navodi:„“Glede toga predložio bih da državu treba šire definirati kao onu društvenu organizaciju koja ima: (1) VLAST, koja (a) unutar državnih granica raspolaže NE monopolom prisile, nego NAJVEĆOM prisilom, (b) u odnosu na druge države, dakle „prema vani“, nastupa kao „jednak s jednakima“. Ova vlast, također, ima sljedeća obilježja: ona je društvena organizacija, suverena, ona je i prisilna. Ima svoj: (2) TERITORIJ, (3) STANOVNIŠTVO i (4) PRAVO, tj. PRAVNI POREDAK. Ukazujući na činjenicu da državna vlast, ako hoće ostati državna, mora na svom teritoriju raspolagati (ne monopolom fizičke prisile, jer to je nemoguće) n a j v e ć o m ili n a j j a č o m p r i s i l o m. Nadalje, ako takva država izgubi i tu najjaču prisilu, ona bi prestala biti državna vlast i njene bi izreke prestale biti pravo. Druga politička snaga, koja bi u svoje ruke preuzela ili osvojila tu najveću i najjaču prisilu, time bi postala i nova državna vlast.“ (s. 137). Država nije i jedina organizacija u društvu koja stvara pravne norme. To su i brojni subjekti autonomnog prava (privredna društva, vjerske organizacije, sindikati...). Moderno poimanje suverenosti je nastalo zahvaljujući konceptima narodne suverenosti i pravne države. Ono je dokinulo apsolutističko, feudalno poimanje suverenosti države o pravno neograničenoj vlasti monarha. 36 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč 2. Vanjska suverenost državne vlasti znači da je državna vlast nezavisna u odnosu na druge državne vlasti (tj. jednoj državi nijedna druga država ne može nametati svoju volju). Ona je u međunarodnim odnosima ravnopravna sa drugim državnim vlastima, bez obzira na sve razlike koje u modernom društvu objektivno postoje između država. Ipak, postoje i određeni, istina, ne brojni slučajevi pravne neravnopravnosti državnih vlasti u međunarodnoj zajednici i međunarodnim odnosima. To se najbolje vidi na primjeru Vijeća sigurnosti, gdje sile pobjednice Drugog svjetskog rata imaju pravo veta. Suverenost državne vlasti u modernom društvu može biti veća ili manja. Brojne su države u kojima se vode oružani sukobi i one koje su u specifičnim odnosima ovisnosti o drugim državama, međunarodnim organizacijama ili čak cijeloj međunarodnoj zajednici država. Svaka država mora pribavljati sredstva kojim se osigurava materijalna osnova za brojne zadatke koje država mora obavljati, ali i da bi mogla egzistirati. Tim sredstvima se zadovoljavaju i objektivno postojeće potrebe u društvu (prvenstveno ekonomsko-socijalne prirode), ali se i zadovoljavaju dobra neophodna za reprodukciju ljudske vrste i same države. Postavlja se pitanje da li šira decentralizacija unitarne države, odnosno veće nadležnosti federalnih jedinica, znače i dijeljenje suverene državne vlasti između oblika decentralizacije i unitarnih država, odnosno federalnih jedinica i federacije? Teoretski, suverenost državne vlasti ne može biti podijeljena. Suverenost državne vlasti je jedinstvena. Određena unitarna država ili federacija može samo biti više ili manje suverena, ako je u unitarnoj državi oblicima decentralizacije data široka autonomija – npr. kod zakonodavne decentralizacije, odnosno ako u federativno uređenim državama federalne jedinice imaju brojne nadležnosti i to one koje su u velikom broju federacija na saveznom nivou. Zavisno od oblika državnog uređenja, uže političko-teritorijalne zajednice mogu dobiti određena prava i dužnosti reguliranja finansijskih odnosa na svojoj teritoriji. Tako, samo federalne jedinice, kao i sama federacija imaju finansijska prava. To nije slučaj (izuzev kod zakonodavne decentralizacije), kod unitarnih država. Dakle, kod unitarnih država, za razliku od federacija, samo centralna vlast ima (puni) finansijski suverenitet. Kod Dautbašića (2004), u njegovom udžbeniku, nalazimo da je kod unitarnih država postoje dva sistema regulisanja odnosa između centralnih organa i decentralizovanih i lokalnih organacentralizovani i decentralizovani finansijski (fiskalni) suverenitet (s. 57). Kode centralizovanog finansijskog suvereniteta, kakav je apliciran npr. u Francuskoj Republici, centralne vlasti zakonom utvrđuju temeljne elemente fiskalnih dažbina (npr. porezna osnovica), a decentralizovani organi i lokalni organi svojim pravnim aktima dalje razrađuju i reguliraju ove dažbine. Decentralizirani finansijski suverenitet (npr. primijenjen u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu Velike Britanije i Sjeverne Irske), znači da decentralizovani i lokalni organi vlasti imaju široke ovlasti u pogledu reguliranja finansijskih (i uže, fiskalnih) odnosa, dok centralni organi samo kontroliraju cjelokupni finansijski i fiskalni sistem unitarne države. Kod federacija postoje i vertikalno i horizontalno raspoređivanje potreba i prihoda, tj. raspoređivanje između federacije i federalnih jedinica i 37 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 javnopravnih kolektiviteta, i horizontalno raspoređivanje potreba i prihoda, tj raspoređivanje između javnopravnih kolektiviteta istog stepena. Profesor Dautbašić (2004) navodi da se vertikalno raspoređivanje prihoda vršilo, a i sada se vrši, po nekim od sljedećih sistema: sistem učešća, konkurentni sistem, sistem odvajanja, sistem povezivanja (zajednica), sistem jednoobraznosti, kombinirani sistem, te da postoje dva metoda za primjenu sistema separacije, sistema zajednice i mješovitog (kombiniranog) sistema: automatski (utvrđuje se fiksna kvota prihoda za nosioce finansiranja) i diskrecioni (koji se sastoji od pojedinačnog odlučivanja o raspoređivanju prihoda u ovisnosti o vrsti i obimu potreba) (s. 58-62). Još treba napomenuti da je svaka državna vlast titular javnih subjektivnih prava. Ona se nazivaju državnim javnim subjektivnim pravima. Dihotomija javnih subjektivnih prava je, inače, na individualna javna subjektivna prava i državna javna subjektivna prava. Otajagić (2005) piše o državnim javnim subjektivnim pravima, te objašnjava da se ona nalaze u ustavnom, upravnom i procesnom pravu, i prema svom objektu, dijele se na: 1. čisto lična državna prava, odnosno prava na svoju radnju (npr. pravo na krivičnu sankciju utvrđenu krivičnim zakonima); 2. prava države na tuđu radnju neimovinskog karaktera (npr. pravo na vojnu službu pojedinaca); 3. prava na tuđu radnju imovinske prirode (npr. pravo države na određivanje i naplatu poreza) i 4. čisto imovinska državna prava (npr. pravo na slobodnu trgovinsku zonu u drugoj državi na osnovu ugovora) (s 78 i 79). Kod unitarnih decentralizovanih država ne postoji, izuzev kod zakonodavne decentralizacije, pojava da su oblici decentralizacije titulari ovih državnih javnih subjektivnih prava. Rijetke su federacije koje na centralnom nivou nemaju mnogo državnih javnih subjektivnih prava, a da ih suprotno, federalne jedinice imaju više nego savezna vlast. 5. MEĐUNARODNO UGOVARANJE USTAVA: SLUČAJ BIH Kod Sokola i Smerdela (1998) nalazimo da je Daytonski mirovni sporazum sklopljen između predsjednika Republike Hrvatske, Republike Bosne i Hercegovine i Savezne Republike Jugoslavije, uz sudjelovanje predstavnika konstitutivnih naroda u BiH, te uz aktivno sudjelovanje američkih dužnosnika (s 297). Ovim sporazumom je okončan oružani sukob ali su se i postavili temelji za organizaciju državne vlasti BiH. Potpisan je u Parizu 14. 12. 1995. godine, kao Opći okvirni sporazum za mir. Opće odredbe Sporazuma, potpisali su, za Republiku BiH, Alija Izetbegović, za Republiku Hrvatsku, Franjo Tuđman, za Saveznu Republiku Jugoslaviju, Slobodan Milošević. Kao svjedoci, Sporazum su potpisali predstavnici EU, Francuske Republike, Savezne Republike Njemačke, Ruske Federacije, Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva Britanije i Sjeverne Irske i Sjedinjenih Američkih Država. Ovaj dokument ima 11 članova, te isto toliko aneksa. Kod Bakotića su navedeni Aneksi (1998): Aneks 1-A - Sporazum o vojnim aspektima mirovnog rješenja, Aneks 1-B - Sporazum o regionalnoj stabilizaciji, Aneks 2 Sporazum o granici među entitetima i srodnim pitanjima, Aneks 3 - Sporazum o 38 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč izborima, Aneks 4 - Ustav, Aneks 5 - Sporazum o arbitraži, Aneks 6 - Sporazum o pravima čovjeka, Aneks 7 - Sporazum o izbjeglicama i prognanicima, Aneks 8 - Sporazum o komisiji za očuvanje nacionalnih spomenika, Aneks 9 - Sporazum o javnim poduzećima Bosne i Hercegovine, Aneks 10 - Sporazum o provedbi civilnih aspekata, Aneks 11 - Sporazum o međunarodnim operativnim policijskim snagama (s. 6). Pored ovih 11 aneksa, koji uređuju detaljnije obaveze za njegovu realizaciju, postoje još dva opća dodatka – Sporazum o parafiranju i Završnu izjavu sudionika u posrednim mirovnim pregovorima u BiH. Sporazumom nijedna strana nije stekla pravo nad Bosnom i Hercegovinom. Kada je riječ o centralnom istraživačkom pitanju ovog rada, treba napomenuti da su se strane obavezale prihvatiti aranžmane koji se odnose na civilnu implementaciju sporazuma, tj. OHR i Visokog predstavnika. Aneksom 10, potpisnici „zahtijevaju imenovanje visokog predstavnika, koji će biti imenovan u skladu sa relevantnim rezolucijama Savjeta bezbjednosti UN“, takođe je Visokom predstavniku u mandat dato i tumačenje Sporazuma. Na osnovu ovog aneksa, uspostavljen je Ured Visokog predstavnika. 6. DA LI JE BOSNA I HERCEGOVINA PROTEKTORAT: TEORIJA I NORMA Ideja o Bosni i Hercegovini kao protektoratu se često spominjala tokom 1993. godine u sklopu mirovnih pregovora i različituh prijedloga za prekid ratnih sukoba i buduće organizacije države, a Andrassy, Bakotić i Vukas (2006) pisali da se predlagala se čak i za pojedine dijelove Bosne i Hercegovine ili gradove (s. 111). Daytonski sporazum uspostavio je sistem uloge međunarodne zajednice u funkcioniranju javnog sistema u BiH. Tako Aneks 3 (Sporazum o izborima), zadužuje OSCE da uspostavi izborni sistem u BiH. Aneksom 7 (Sporazum o izbjeglicama i prognanicima) poziva se UNHCR da pripremi plan repatrijacije i povratka raseljenih osoba. Organizacija Ujedinjenih Nacija je, na osnovu Sporazuma o Međunarodnim operativnim snagama, zadužena da organizira policijske snage. Za ovaj rad najznačajniji je Aneks 10 koji predviđa instituciju Visokog predstavnika čiji je, kako se navodi kod Sloan (1998) zadatak da koordinira aktivnostima organizacija i agencija koje se uključene u projekat civilnog aspekta mirovnog rješenja (s. 84). Prvi Visoki predstavnik bio je švedski diplomat Carl Bildt, koji je za vrijeme svog mandata formirao Vijeće za provedbu mira, koje je uključivalo 40 zemalja i 10 međunarodnih organizacija, s ciljem koordinacije humanitarnih organizacija, Ujedinjenih nacija, UNHCR-a i OSCE-a. Bosna i Hercegovina je bila podvrgnuta saradnji sa Haškim sudom za bivšu Jugoslaviju (ICTY). Član IX. Ustava BiH je odredio: “Nijedna osoba koja izdržava kaznu što ju je izrekao Međunarodni sud za bivšu Jugoslaviju i nijedna osoba protiv koje je taj sud podigao optužnicu, a koja se nije pokorila nalogu da izađe preda nj, ne može se kandidirati ni biti imenovana ili birana ili na koji drugi način postavljena na bilo koju javnu funkciju na području Bosne i Hercegovine.” Ovo se ne može smatrati ograničenjem suvereniteta u okviru protektorata međunarodne zajednice, nego naprosto obavezom države koja je proistekla iz 39 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 članstva u Ujedinjenim Nacijama. U prilog tome ide i činjenica da su i Hrvatska, te Srbija i Crna Gora imale jednaku obavezu saradnje sa istim međunarodnim forumom. Smatramo da se može prihvatiti Maslin (2000) da je Opći okvirni sporazum za mir, ugovorni odnos kojim bi se mogao zasnovati odnos protektorata (s. 8). Međutim, njime se on nije zasnovao niti proglasio (a takođe ni neki drugi oblik ovisnosti, npr. starateljstvo).v Protektirani odnos nije reguliran ni u jednom od ugovorenih odnosa i ovo je vjerovatno i ključni argument za osporovanje teze da je Bosna i Hercegovina protektorat (Dautbašić 1998, 51 ). Nema države kao subjekta međunarodnog prava koja stupa u funkciju protektora niti se vidi izražena volja Bosne i Hercegovine da slobodu u odlučivanju podvrgne ograničavanju od strane druge države. Da Bosna i Hercegovina nije protektorat posebno se vidi i iz činjenice da su državni organi Bosne i Hercegovine vanjsku suverenost od početka post-Daytonske ere imali u potpunom kapacitetu, a država je svoj međunarodnopravni subjektivitet koristila bez ikakvih ograničenja kakva su imale protektirane države (Maslin 2000, 6). Ostalo je da ispitamo da li je unutrašnja suverenost ograničena, što ćemo učiniti u redovima koji slijede. Iz brojnih normativnih rješenja može se zaključiti da Bosna i Hercegovina nije protektorat. Tako, Ustav BiH u članu I ističe kontinuitet Republike Bosne i Hercegovine koja nastavlja pravno postojanje prema međunarodnom pravu kao država, uz prilagodbu unutrašnjeg uređenja prema predviđenim odredbama Sporazuma. Bosna i Hercegovina ostaje članica Ujedinjenih nacija, te može tražiti članstvo u organizacijama unutar sistema Ujedinjenih nacija i drugim međunarodnim organizacijama. Takođe, prema članu VII/2 Ustava BiH, ostaje ili postaje strankom međunarodnih sporazuma nabrojenih u Prilogu I Ustava.vi U prilog tezi da Bosna i Hercegovina nije protektorat idu i određene nadležnosti Predsjedništva BiH, i to: samostalno vođenje vanjske politike, imenovanje ambasadora i drugih međunarodnih predstavnika Bosne i Hercegovine, predstavljanje Bosne i Hercegovinu u međunarodnim i evropskim organizacijama i ustanovama, te mogućnost traženja članstva u organizacijama i ustanovama kojih Bosna i Hercegovina nije članica. Iz ovoga se može zaključiti da Bosna i Hercegovina nije ni protektorat potpunog oblika. Osnovi tvrdnji zastupnika ideje da Bosna i Hercegovina jeste protektorat, nalaze se u pojedinim odredbama Ustava, a posebno Aneksa 10, koji sadrži Sporazum o provedbi civilnih aspekata mirovnog rješenja. Kada je riječ o Ustavu, u navedenom smislu, relevantne su odredbe koje uređuju izbor i imenovanje sudaca Ustavnog suda BiH. Tri suda Ustavnog suda (od ukupno devet) bira predsjednik Evropskog suda za ljudska prava, a oni ne smiju biti državljani Bosne i Hercegovine ni susjednih država. Prvog guvernera Centralne banke, koji također nije smio biti državljanin Bosne i Hercegovine niti neke susjedne države, imenovao je Međunarodni monetarni fond, a Ustav BiH je propisao i da Guverner može imati odlučujući glas u slučaju neriješenog ishoda glasanja (Član VII.2 Ustava BiH.). 40 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč Kod Bakotića (1998) se može izvršiti uvid da je ključni razlog zašto su pojedini autori tvrdili da je Bosna i Hercegovina protektorat je pravni položaj Visokog predstavnika u ustavnom sistemu BiH, a posebno njegovo konačno pravo u pogledu tumačenja Sporazuma o provedbi civilnih aspekata mirovnog rješenja (s. 148). Treba napomenuti da se rješenja koja se tiču Visokog predstavnika, mogu dovesti u suprotnost sa Aneksom 4, koji propisuje da su građani i konstitutivni narodi i Ostali u Bosni i Hercegovini suvereni. Drugi razlog je bio angažman međunarodne zajednice u vidu Međunarodnih operativnih policijskih snaga Ujedinjenih nacija (IPTF) zbog implementacije programa pomoći u cijeloj Bosni i Hercegovini. IPTF je nastao nakon što su Republika Bosna i Hergecovina, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine i Republika Srpska, zaključili Sporazum o međunarodnim oružanim snagama, na osnovu kojeg su zahtijevali da Vijeće sigurnosti UN pokrene operaciju UNCIVPOL, tj. da uspostavi vid UN policije sa ciljem povećanja međunarodnog mira i sigurnosti, podržavanjem država članica u konfliktu, post-konfliktnim i drugim kriznim situacijama. Cilj je bio realizirati efektivnu, efikasnu, reprezentativnu, odgovarajuću i odgovornu policijsku službu koja služi i štiti populaciju. IPTF je bio autonoman u obavljanju poslova, a njihovim aktivnostima koordinirao je Visoki predstavnik, koji je izdavao upute Povjereniku na čelu IPTF-a. Između ostalog, pomoć IPTF-a se sastojala u obučavanju osoblja za osiguranje primjene prava te procjenu prijetnji javnom poretku, te savjetovanje u pogledu sposobnosti službi za osiguranje primjene prava da se nose s takvim prijetnjama. Od 1998. godine, visoki predstavnik međunarodne zajednice je dobio prošireni mandat, pa je mogao sam donositi odluke koje ustavni organi ne mogu donijeti. Ovo, kao i prisustvo SFOR-a je opredijelilo pojedine autore, poput Sokola i Smerdela (1998), da zauzmu stav da je Bosna i Hercegovine protektorat (s. 299). Koncem 1997. godine, Vijeće za provedbu mira u BiH u Bonnu jednostavno „pozdravlja odluku Visokog predstavnika da koristi svoje široke ovlasti“, a što uključuje ovlast smjenjivanja izabranih dužnosnika, nametanja i ukidanja zakona u Bosni i Hercegovini, kao i drugih nedefiniranih mjera koje on smatra nužnima. Zbog ovakve formulacije, tj. načelnog odobravanja preuzimanja ovih ovlasti od strane Visokog predstavnika na ovoj konferenciji, one se danas zovu Bonskima. Visoki predstavnik je imao autonomiju u korištenju „Bonskih ovlasti“; države potpisnice i države svjedoci Daytonskog sporazuma nisu imale nikakvu ulogu. Visoki predstavnik, nikome nije davao argumente, obrazloženja za donesene odluke. Pojedini autori, poput Pehara (2012) su smatrali da za njih i nije bilo moguće podastrijeti jasne, razumljive i opće valjane razloge (s 3-9). Visoki predstavnik u implementaciji ovih ovlasti preuzeo tri državne funkcijezakonodavnu, izvršnu i sudsku. Odluke mu po pravnoj prirodi najviše liče na akte egzekutive, budući da su neposredno izvršive. Ovo je u kontradikciji sa postojanjem Ustavnog suda BiH, ali i implementacija Schmittove ideje da čuvar ustava treba biti predsjednik, tj. izvršna vlast (s. 211-253) (za razliku od Kelsena, koji je tvrdio da to treba biti ustavni sud). Visoki predstavnik je ovlašten da tumači Daytonski sporazum u cijelosti, pa i odredbi koje se tiču samog sebe, tj. on ima ovlast tumačenja svojih ovlasti. Njegov legitimitet izvodi se „odozdo“, tj. 41 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 iz građana Bosne i Hercegovine, ali i „odozgo“, jer on treba da djeluje po uputama Upravnog odbora Vijeća za provedbu mira (PIC-a).vii 7. AKTIVITET MEĐUNARODNE ZAJEDNICE PREMA DRŽAVNIM ORGANIMA BIH Decembra 1995. godine je Vijeće sigurnosti Ujedinjenih nacija ovlastilo države članice da u roku od godine dana uspostave međunarodne implementacijske snage (IFOR) sa mandatom da nadziru i podupiru provedbu odredbi Sporazuma o vojnim aspektima mirovnog rješenja i Sporazuma o regionalnoj stabilizaciji, te djeluju u skladu sa glavom VII Povelje Ujedinjenih nacija. Prema Lerotiću (2004), provedbu sporazuma trebale su jamčiti snage NATO-a od 60.000 vojnika (s. 138). Lapaš (2004) navodi da je IFOR, sastavljen od kopnenih, zračnih i pomorskih snaga NATO-a, (s. 217) je zamijenio UNPROFOR, a kasnije su snage IFOR-a zamijenile Stabilizacijske snage (SFOR). Aneks 10 se vrlo teško provodio. Prisustvo međunarodne zajednice se opravdavalo nedovoljnim stepenom demokratičnosti lokalnih lidera, i to OHR-a za provedbu postavljenih demokratskih ciljeva, a ITA-e za tržišnu ekonomiju i slobodu medija (Wilde 2001, 601). Iako je „bonski“ mandat evidentno nedemokratski, korišten je više puta u toku evolucije društveno-političkog sistema post-Daytonske BiH. U početku su visoki predstavnici snažno koristili „bonske“ ovlasti, i to kroz cijeli period svog mandata. Ilustrativan je primjer nametanja amandmana na Ustav F BiH, koji je Visoki predstavnik Wolfgang Petrisch izveo pred kraj mandata, u aprilu 2002. godine, a na osnovu odluke Ustavnog suda F BiH iz jula 2000. godine. Visoki predstavnik Valentin Inzcko je 2011. godine suspendirao Odluku Središnjeg izbornog povjerenstva, tijela koje je među najvažnijim u institucionalnodemokratskom sistemu. Visoki predstavnik Schwarz-Schilling je 2007. godine donio odluku da je nevažeća odluka Ustavnog suda BiH u kojoj je utvrđeno da su smjene ili zabrane rada političkih dužnosnika u BiH od strane Visokih predstavnika, kršenje temeljnih političkih prava tih dužnosnika. Na ovaj način se dovodila u pitanje i vladavina prava u BiH. Takođe se onemogućilo da su sva tri kulturna segmenta u BiH, postojanje i funkcionisanjem institucije Visokog predstavnika, onemogućene da kroz neposredni dijalog dođu do rješenja (O stavovima Visokog predstavnika Carlosa Westendropa u: D’Amato 1999,). Istina, dešavalo se i da se izbjegne djelovanje Visokog predstavnika. Republika Srpska je uspjela blokirati Lajčakovu odluku od 19. oktobra 2007. godine o promjeni etničkih kvota potrebnih za ulaganje veta u Vijeću ministara i Parlamentu BiH. Milorad Dodik je 2011. godine uspio zaobići Visokog predstavnika Valentina Inzka i postići dogovor s visokom predstavnicom EU za vanjske poslove i sigurnosnu politiku, Catherine Ashton, o potrebi reformiranja pravosudnih organa na nivou BiH. Aktivitetom Visokog predstavnika formirane su brojne institucije na državnom nivou (uspostavljeno Visoko sudsko i tužilačko vijeće BiH, uspostavljeni Sud BiH i Tužilaštvo BiH), te prenesene nadležnosti sa entiteta na 42 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč nivo Bosne i Hercegovine. Od 2000.-2006. godine došlo je do obimne izmjene ustavnog uređenja BiH, bez ijedne intervencije u sam Ustav BiH, ali su zato izvršene izmjene entitetskih i kantonalnih ustava, a brojni zakoni su stupilli na snagu. Ovdje je međunarodna zajednica imala odlučujuću ulogu, putem Ureda Visokog predstavnika. Od 2006. godine su domaće politične snage sve više i više preuzimale ulogu u legislativi. Nakon ovog perioda se generalno smanjivala intervencija međunarodne zajednice u pravni sistem BiH, a region je generalno bio manje u fokusu također. Neki su sektori javnog sistema reformisani bez nametanja rješenja od Visokog predstavnika (odbrana, uspostavljanje sistema indirektnog oporezivanja, itd.). Ključna godina za promjenu uloge Visokog predstavnika u političkoj praksi bila je 2006. godina. Prvo je, nakon isteka mandata Paddyja Ashdowna,viii Upravni Odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira, donio odluku o pripremi zatvaranja Ureda visokog predstavnika, odnosno o prestanku važenja „bonskoga mandata“. Nakon toga je došlo do neusvajanja tzv. „Aprilskog paketa“ ustavnih reformi. PIC je Odluku o pripremi za zatvaranje Ureda visokog predstavnika, odnosno o prestanku važenja „bonskog mandata“ donio 23. 06. 2006. godine. Ova je odluka obrazložena činjenicom da je vrijeme da BiH preuzme odgovornost za vlastitu sudbinu. Istovremeno je BiH iz faze implementacije Daytona ušla u fazu „euro-atlantskih integracija“. U februaru 2007. Upravni odbor PIC-a odgađa tu odluku, a mandat Visokog predstavnika je produžen za nešto više od godinu dana (do juna 2008.). Samo je Rusija izdvojila mišljenje u komunikeu o podršci djelovanja Visokog predstavnika pod „bonskim ovlastima“. Vremenom je konsenzus o primjeni „bonskih ovlasti“ iščezao. Politički direktori Upravnog odbora Vijeća za provedbu mira su na sastanku u Bruxellessu 26. i 27. 02. 2008. godine utvrdili slijedeće zahtjeve koje organi BiH trebaju ispuniti prije zatvaranja OHR-a, a koje su organi Bosne i Hercegovine već prethodno prihvatili: - Prihvatljivo i održivo rješenje pitanja raspodjele imovine između države i drugih razina vlasti; - Prihvatljivo i održivo rješenje za vojnu imovinu; - Potpuna provedba Konačne odluke za Brčko; - Fiskalna održivost (promovirana putem Sporazuma o utvrđivanju stalne metodologije za utvrđivanje koeficijenata za raspodjelu sredstava UINOa i osnivanje Nacionalnog fiskalnog vijeća); i - Zaživljavanje vladavine prava (demonstrirano putem usvajanja Državne strategije za ratne zločine, donošenjem Zakona o strancima i azilu i usvajanjem Državne strategije za reformu sektora pravosuđa). Pored ovih ciljeva, Upravni odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira je također utvrdio dva uvjeta koje treba ispuniti prije zatvaranja OHR-a: - Potpisivanje SSP-a; i - Pozitivna procjena situacije u BiH od strane Upravnog odbora Vijeća za provedbu mira utemeljena na punom poštivanju Daytonskog mirovnog sporazuma. 43 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Upravni odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira je redovno na svojim sastancima od 2008. godine vršio uvid u pomake ostvarene u pogledu realiziranja programa (tzv. 5+2). OHR je konstatovao da, iako su u nekim oblastima ostvareni pomaci, zbog neslaganja domaćih političkih elita, postoje zastoji u realizaciji programa. Nakon ovog perioda je Visoki predstavnik prestao sa intervencijama u pravni sistem BiH. Pehar (2014) smatra da se ovo, pored težnje o samostalnom razvoju bosanskohercegovačke demokratije, vjerovatno desilo i zbog nastojanja da se na globalnom planu spriječe konfrontacije između Ruske Federacije i SAD, te između SAD i Evropske unije. 8. ZAKLJUČAK Protektorat nije institut savremenog međunarodnog i unutrašnjeg prava. Danas su rijetke situacije u kojima samo jedna država obnaša ulogu države zaštitnice. Umjesto protektorata u ulozi zaštitnika određene države u posljednih četrdeset godina se javlja međunarodna zajednica kroz tzv. međunarodnu teritorijalnu upravu. Daytonski mirovni sporazum ne predviđa protektorat i vrlo je precizan u određivanju uloge Visokog predstavnika, kada mu propisuje da je dužan da „pomaže naporima koje strane ulažu“, da „nadgleda“ i „koordinira“. Uloga međunarodne zajednice je, uz neke druge faktore, bila segment ograničenja unutrašnjeg suvereniteta Bosne i Hercegovine, iako je, paradoksalno, mnogo učinila u formiranju državnih organa i sprovođenju izbora. Ostali su drugi faktori koji ometaju da Bosna i Hercegovina ima pun unutrašnji kapacitet na svom teritoriju, a to su prvenstveno djelovanje pojedinih političkih elita, ali izvedbeni oblik federalizma, koji su manifestuje kroz manjak ekonomskih funkcija BiH te generalno državnih javnih subjektivnih prava (oba koncepta su predstavljena u poglavlju 4). Stiče se dojam da je strategija izlaska međunarodne zajednice iz ustavnog i političkog sistema Bosne i Hercegovine bila da se ne oktroiraju demokratske vrijednosti, već da njen politički sloj i njeni građani, moraju da ih nauče, a za to treba vremena. Nastojalo se i vremenom ograničene ovlasti Visokog predstavnika rijetko koristiti kako bi se državljanima Bosne i Hercegovine dala prilika da sami upravljaju svojom sudbinom. Smanjivala se ovisnost Bosne i Hercegovine od međunarodne zajednice. „Klasičnim“ protektoratom bi ova ovisnost bila još i veća, a spriječila bi samoodrživost bosanskohercegovačkog društva. Vježbe iz demokratije su svaki slijedeći izbori, koji se odavno odvijaju bez međunarodne zajednice. Međunarodna zajednice želi pustiti političkim elitama da se dogovore oko novog Ustava. Takođe, ne miješa se u proces odvajanja ekonomije i pravosuđa od politike, što se odvija veoma sporo. Iz svega se vidi da se trenutno i da će se u budućnosti uloga međunarodne zajednice svoditi na to da usmjerava i pomaže. Nejasno je da li će Visoki predstavnik u budućnosti nametati određene ključne zakone (ekonomske reforme, povratak izbjeglica, nova radna mjesta...), ako većina članova parlamenata ne bude spremna da ih donese. Najavljeno je npr. nametanje Zakona o negiranju genocida. U intervjuu za njemački TAZ, Visoki predstavnik Valentin 44 �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč Inzko je nedavno izjavio kako tzv. princip pod nazivom „ownership” (princip preuzimanja odgovornosti od strane domaćih političara) nije bio uspješan u BiH. Pojasnio je i da je OHR imao dvije faze: „robusnu fazu koja je trajala 12 godina i koja je donijela čuda – zajedničku graničnu policiju, šest dodatnih ministarstava na razini cijele države, zajedničko Ministarstvo odbrane pri čemu je od tri vojske postala jedna kao i zajedničku valutu – konvertibilnu marku koja je postala stabilna.”. Nakon ovog je nastupila druga faza suzdržavanja od primjene Bonskih ovlasti, a Inzko smatra i da bi sada trebala uslijediti „treća faza u kojoj bismo morali ponoviti neke elemente iz prve faze, inače ćemo izgubiti još 15 godina”. Bosna i Hercegovine evidentno može funkcionisati i bez velikog uplitanja međunarodne zajednice, ali je njen put prema Evro-Atlantskim integracijama onda jako spor. Djeluje da se procesi poput: jačanja nadležnosti BiH, deblokada institucija i reforma pravosuđa, ne mogu adekvatno izvesti bez međunarodne zajednice. To nas ipak ne dovodi do zaključka da je BiH protektorat, što ona nije, ni prema teorijskom pojmu ovog odnosa ovisnosti, ali i prema Daytonskom sporazumu. Činjenica je da taj odnos još uvijek ne postoji u Teoriji države i prava, Međunarodnom pravu i Ustavnom pravu. Najbliži je odnosu međunarodne uprave, ali nije ni to. Kada pravnici nešto ne mogu definisati nazovu to sui generis (poseban oblik). Tako bismo i mi, do neke adekvatnije terminologije, nazvali odnos ovisnosti BiH prema međunarodnoj zajednici, koji postoji i prema pravnim rješenjima, ali i npr. prema odnosu prema MMF-u, nazvali „poseban oblik odnosa ovisnosti sui generis“. 45 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 LITERATURA 1. Andrassy, J., Bakotić, B. & Vukas, B. (2006) Međunarodno pravo, sv. 1, Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 2. Bakotić, B. (1998) Daytonski sporazum, Zagreb: Pravni fakultet Sveučiliπta u Zagrebu. 3. Dautbašić, I. (2004). Finansije i finansijsko pravo, Sarajevo: Magistrat. 4. Degan, V. Đ. (2000). Međunarodno javno pravo, Rijeka: Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Rijeci. 5. Hoffman, G. (1987). Protectorates. u: R. Bernhardt, (ur.) Encyclopedia of Public International Law, sv.10, Amsterdam, New York, Oxford, Tokyo, North-Holland, 1153-1154. 6. Ibler, V. (1987), Rječnik međunarodnog javnog prava, Zagreb: Informator. 7. Klaić, B. (1986) Rječnik stranih riječi, Zagreb: Nakladni zavod MH. 8. Lapaš, D. (2004) Sankcija u međunarodnom pravu, Zagreb: Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu. 9. Lerotić, Z. (1996). Postdaytonska Hrvatska, Politička misao, sv. 33., br. 4., 131149. 10. Maslo, S. (2000). Bosna i Hercegovina između „principa odgovornosti“ i protektorata, Pravna misao, 9-10/2000 11. Muhić, F. (1998) Teorija države i prava III izdanje, Sarajevo: Magistrat. 12. Office of the High Representative (2008). Očitanje sa: http://www.ohr.int/program-52-2/ . 13. Otajagić, F. (2005). Javna subjektivna prava u složenim državama, Sarajevo: Studentska štamparija Univerziteta u Sarajevu. 14. Pehar, D. (2012). Bosna i Hercegovina kao veleposlanstvo Visokog predstavnika – republikanska kritika, Političke analize, br. 10, 3-9. 15. Pehar, D. (2014). Zašto Visoki predstavnik sa “bonskim” mandatom nikada nije značio pozitivni pomak za Bosnu I Hercegovinu: četiri refleksije. Očitanje sa linka: https://www.idpi.ba/visoki-predstavnik/ 16. Perić, B. (1994) Država i pravni sustav, Šesto izdanje, Prvo izdanje u „Pravnoj biblioteci“, Zagreb: Informator. 17. Rješenje Firera i Kancelara Rajha od 16. 03. 1939. godine, RGBI, I 1939 s. 485. 18. Schmitt, C. (1929) Čuvar ustava, u: S. Samardžić (iz.) Norma i odluka – Karl Šmit i njegovi kritičari Prevod njemačkog originala: Danilo N. Basta, Beograd: „Filip Višnjić“, 211-253 19. Schweisfurth, T. (2006). Völkerrecht, Tübingen. 20. Seidl I. & Hohenveldern, T. (2006.). Völkerrecht Tübingen. 21. Sloan E. C. (1998). The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina u: Bosnia and the New Collective Security, London: Praeger, 1998. 22. Sokol & Smerdel (1998) , Ustavno pravo, Zagreb: Informator. 23. Visković, N. (2006) Teorija države i prava, Zagreb: Birotehnika. i 46 Usp. Rješenje Firera i Kancelara Rajha od 16. 03. 1939. godine, RGBI, I 1939 s. 485. �Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč Najpoznatiji su oni nad Marokom (od 1912.- 1956. godine), i Tunisom (1881.-1956. godine). Posljednji britanski protektorat je Brunei . 1959. je Brunei dobio samostalnost, ali su vanjski poslovi i odbrana i dalje bili u nadležnosti Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva. 1983. godine je ugovorena puna nezavisnost, a od 01. 01. 1984. godine, Brunei je samostalna država, koja je 1984. godine primljena u Ujedinjene nacije. iv Na osnovu ugovora od 27. 07. 1919. godine, Francuska je imala uticaja na personalni sastav vlade Monaka. Do današnjeg dana, francuska vlada ima odgovornost za odbranu Monaka, dok Monako ima samo male policijske snage i stražu palate. Ugovorom koji je potpisan 09. 11. 2005. u Parizu, Monako je dobio veću autonomiju u međunarodnim odnosima, ali i dalje ima obavezu da se za najvažnija pitanja konsultira sa Francuskom. v Razlog je što bi takav odnos bio u suprotnosti sa članom 78. Povelje Ujedinjenih nacija i uslovima pod kojima je BiH primljena u članstvo UN-a. Šire: Edin Šarčević, Ustav iz nužde, Rabic, Sarajevo, 2010., s. 332. vi To su: Konvencija o sprečavanju i kažnjavanju zločina genocida iz 1948., Ženevske konvencije I-IV o zaštiti žrtava rata iz 1949. sa Ženevskim protokolima I-II iz 1977., Konvencija o statusu izbjeglica iz 1951. s Protokolom iz 1966., Konvencija o državljanstvu udatih žena iz 1957., Konvencija o smanjenju slučajeva bez državljanstva iz 1961., Međunarodna konvencija o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije iz 1965., Međunarodni pakt o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima iz 1966., Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima iz 1966. s fakultativnim protokolima iz 1966. i 1989., Konvencija o ukidanju svih oblika diskriminacije žena iz 1979., Konvencija protiv mučenja i drugih okrutnih, nečovječnih ili ponižavajućih postupaka ili kazni iz 1984., Evropska konvencija o sprečavanju mučenja i nečovječnih ili ponižavajućih postupaka ili kazni iz 1987., Konvencija o pravima djeteta iz 1989., Međunarodna konvencija o zaπtiti prava svih radnika migranata i članova njihovih obitelji iz 1990., Evropska povelja za regionalne ili manjinske jezika iz 1992., Okvirna konvencija za zaštitu nacionalnih manjina iz 1994. vii Ovo uključuje: Sjedinjene Američke Države, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo Velike Britanije i Sjeverne Irske Njemačku, Francusku, Tursku (u ime Organizacije islamske konferencije), Rusku Federaciju, i Predsjedništvo Evropske unije. viii Riječ je o Visokom predstavniku koji je sa funkcije smijenio najviše dužnosnika u BiH (uključujući i smjenu člana Predsjedništva BiH). Samo u 2004. godini je smijenio šezdeset dužnosnika Republike Srpske zbog „nekooperativnosti u pronalaženju i hapšenju Radovana Karadžića“. Samo mjesec dana prije (juni) iste godine, je Parlamentarna skupština Vijeća Evrope, pozdravila činjenicu smanjivanja broja intervencija Visokog predstavnika u BiH, što je bila jedna indicija jačanja demokratije u BiH. ii iii 47 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat? Author Author Davor Trlin, Esad Oruč Abstract A summary of the resource. U ovom radu ćemo, kroz analizu normativnog okvira za djelovanje ovih institucija, ali i njihov sam aktivitet, te aplikaciju međunarodnih standarda u BiH, pokušati doći do odgovora na pitanje da li je Bosna i Hercegovina država ili protektorat. Kroz implementaciju Daytonskog sporazuma se postiglo dosta, ali većinom je zaslužan bio aktivitet međunarodne zajednice. Taja aktivitet ni, prema Općem okvirnom sporazumu za mir, ne predviđa protektorat. Ipak, posebno u prvim godinama funkcioniranja post-Daytonske Bosne i Hercegovine, brojni ustavno-pravni teoretičari su pokušavali definirati pravnu prirodu odnosa ovisnosti Bosne i Hercegovine prema međunarodnoj zajednici u određenim elementima (koja se kasnije sve više ublažavala). Rezultati su pokazali da nema jednoznačnog odgovora. Ovo pitanje je u posljednjih petnaest godina u domaćoj ali i regionalnoj ustavno-pravnoj nauci prešlo na periferiju interesiranja. Ali, čini se da je vrijeme da ga se ponovo postavi, posebno u svjetlu najave promjena odnosa ključnih subjekata međunarodne zajednice prema Bosni i Hercegovini. Takođe nas interesuje i pitanje koje je povezano s ovim centralnim istraživačkim, a to je stepen suvereniteta države Bosne i Hercegovine unutra, ali i prema vani, imajući u vidu Daytonski konstrukt uključenosti međunarodne zajednice u ustavno-politički sistem Bosne i Hercegovine. / In this paper, through the analysis of the normative framework for the operation of these institutions, but also their activity, and the application of international standards in BiH, we will try to find an answer to the question of whether Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state or a protectorate. A lot has been achieved through the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, but most of it was due to the activity of the international community. According to the General Framework Agreement for Peace, this activity does not envisage a protectorate. However, especially in the first years of the functioning of post-Dayton Bosnia and Herzegovina, many constitutional and legal theorists tried to define the legal nature of Bosnia and Herzegovina's dependence on the international community in certain elements (which later softened). The results showed no unambiguous answer. In the last fifteen years, this issue has moved to the periphery of interest in domestic and regional constitutional and legal science. But it seems the time to re-establish it has come, especially in light of the announcement of changes in the attitudes of key actors in the international community towards Bosnia and Herzegovina. We are also interested in the issue related to this central research, which is the degree of sovereignty of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina inside and outside, given the Dayton construct of the international community's involvement in the constitutional and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords Keywords. Protektorat, Međunarodna zajednica, Visoki predstavnik, Vijeće za implementaciju mira, Bonske ovlasti. / Protectorate, International Community, High Representative, Peace Implementation Council, Bonn Powers. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2566-4638 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JEH2021323 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/12e3f17de9b0e90606d47caa6ad09f60.pdf 006c07311a567400a76719e99abf843c PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (2), pp. 23-32, Winter 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Adisa Ahmetspahić, MA University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina ahmetspahicadisa1@gmail.com Abstract: Mind colonization has been a burning issue in the last few decades in the fields of science and humanities. It is argued that mind colonization of the indigenous populations has been conducted via education and language in the mission of ‘civilizing’ since education and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world. Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy imposed through mind colonization. Zitkala-Ša’s autobiographical collection of short stories titled American Indian Stories (1921) documents her boarding school experience and the acquisition of the colonizer’s education and language. The present paper seeks to address mind colonization through language and education on the example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories relying on a number of theories and approaches. The paper also reflects on the importance of Zitkala-Ša mastery of the colonizer’s language. Keywords: Native American, mind colonization, education, language, boarding schools Article History Submitted: 3 November 2020 Accepted: 28 December 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 1. INTRODUCTION Native American self-determination and activism officially began with the formation of the Red Power Movement in the 1960s. The Red Power Movement emerged when the US Congress sought to abolish tribal organization by relocating Native American communities off the reservations, thus enticing assimilation. Cross-country protests, the seizure of Alcatraz Island and Wounded Knee occupation were all part of Native American appeal for self-government and self-redefinition caused by “the political and economic threats to indigenous people, land, and sovereignty” (Coulombe, 2001, p. 34-35). Writers and scholars, such as Vine Deloria Jr. with his book Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto (1969), also partook in the movement for the Native American cause. Nevertheless, Native American activism had begun in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries as evident in the speeches by Native American chiefs who advocated Native American right to sovereigntyi. Although frequently overlooked and neglected, the personage of ZitkalaŠa (original name: Gertrude Simmons Bonnin), a Yankton Sioux, is illustrious both for her literary oeuvre and ardent activism which sought to promote the rights of the Native American population and resist colonial binarities. ZitkalaŠa graduated from Quaker boarding school in Wabash, Indiana and Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana. She obtained a diploma in teaching and afterwards worked at the Pennsylvania Carlisle Indian Industrial School (Fisher, 1979, pp. v-xii). As noted by Tadeusz Lewandowski in his study of Zitkala-Ša’s luminary titled Red Bird, Red Power: The Life and Legacy of Zitkala-Ša (2016), Gertrude Simmons Bonnin’s embracement of the name Zitkala-Ša (Red Bird) and her zealous nature adumbrated the pan-Indian solidarity and the formation of Red Power groups. Zitkala-Ša’s essays, public speeches, and establishment of the National Council of American Indians in 1926 make her a predecessor to the midtwentieth century Native American (female) activism (Lewandowski, 2016, p. 14). In a similar vein, Mary A. Stout describes Zitkala-Ša’s literary opus as follows: “Although she wrote as an American Indian and a female at a time when few similar voices were being heard, she did not flinch, nor did she moderate her voice” (303). Much of Zitkala-Ša’s life is known from her autobiographical stories and essays collectively known as American Indian Stories (1921). This particular work is deemed to be one of the earliest examples of unaided autobiographical writing, i.e. without any mediators such as interpreters or editors. The stories and essays are concerned with her Native American childhood, teenage years spent at the boarding school in Carlisle, and her subsequent life and work (Fisher, 1979, pp. v-vi). American Indian Stories has been a frequent topic in the analyses of ZitkalaŠa’s and Native American biculturality and double consciousness as well as boarding school experience. However, little attention has been paid to education and language in American Indian Stories and no attention to education and language as a mind colonizing weapon on the example of this short story 24 �Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Adisa Ahmetspahić collection. The present paper argues that education and language are some of the most powerful armory in mind colonization. American Indian Stories shows that both education and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world. Another notable aspect of this short story collection is its discussion on how resettlement and mind colonization work together towards the erasure of the colonized. It can be inferred that Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy imposed through mind colonization. The paper takes a dialectic approach in its analysis, relying on a number of differing theories and studies, including those by Homi Bhabha, Michel Foucault, and Abdul JanMohamed, which speak of power/knowledge relations in the (post-) colonial context and the reversal of these relations. The contrariety of the theories is not discussed due to space constraints and the thematic preoccupation of the paper. Therefore, the working of the theories toward the idea of mind colonization is paid more heed. 2. COLONIZING THE MIND: EDUCATION AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN AMERICAN INDIAN STORIES Boarding schools are considered to be only one among a plethora of the assimilation policies imposed upon the Native American population. The inception of boarding schools is traced to 1860s when the Bureau of Indian Affairs founded the first boarding school on the Yakima reservation. “Kill the Indian Save the Man”, coined by Richard Henry Pratt who established Carlisle Indian School, was the boarding schools’ raison d'être (“History and Culture”, n.d.). Pratt’s motto is evocative of the Manichean understanding of the world as a series of antagonistic structures, e.g. good-bad, light-dark. In the (post-) colonial context, the term was used by JanMohamed in Manichean Aesthetics: The Politics of Literature in Colonial Africa (1983) to denote the colonial relations in terms of conflicting categories between the colonizer (‘good’, ‘civilized’) and the colonized (‘bad’, ‘degenerate’): The colonial world is a Manichean world. It is not enough for the settler to delimit physically, that is to say with the help of the army and the police force, the place of the native. As if to show the totalitarian character of colonial exploitation the settler paints the native as a sort of quintessence of evil …. The native is declared insensible to ethics; he represents not only the absence of values, but also the negation of values. He is, let us dare admit, the enemy of values, and in this sense he is the absolute evil. (as cited in JanMohamed, 1983, p. 4) Such understanding of the world endorses the legitimacy of colonial claims for the usurpation of the land as well as the usurpation of the mind conducted through boarding schools. However, both types of usurpation are 25 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 tightly linked as argued by Teresa L. McCarty. Based on the US legal documents, McCarty concludes that there is a link between education and land balkanization. In 1887, Senator Henry Dawes formulated a policy known as The General Allotment Act, or Dawes Act. The policy presented an appeal for the partition “of reservation lands into 160 acre family parcels, with the surplus to be sold to the whites.” (McCarty, 2013, pp. 51-52). Concurrently, a law requiring education for all Native American children was passed. Parents who did not abide by this law were imprisoned. In other words, sequential physical and mental larceny would ensure a faster erasure of Native American cultures (McCarty, 2013, pp. 51-52). According to John McLeod, “[c]olonialism uses educational institutions to augment the perceived legitimacy and propriety of itself, as well as providing the means by which colonial power can be maintained” (2000, p.140). Perceived legitimacy of the colonizer originates from the perceived epistemological hierarchy. According to Foucault, epistemological hierarchy is engendered by power/knowledge relations, especially disciplinary power as the one practiced at boarding schools, whereby power shapes knowledge to hew the purposes of those who possess the power. Foucault further suggests that if knowledge signifies and/or produces the truth and if knowledge is conditioned by power, it follows that truth also is a protean notion conditioned by power: ‘Truth’ is to be understood as a system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation and operation of statements. ‘Truth’ is linked in a circular relation with systems of power which produce and sustain it, and to effects of power which it induces and which extend it. (Foucault, 1980, p.133) Manifest Destiny is a fitting example of the above-mentioned interpretation of truth as a concept strongly attached to “the forms of hegemony, social, economic and cultural, within which it operates at the present time” (Foucault, 1980, p.133). Apart from having been a justification for imperial and colonial expansion, Manifest Destiny was a firm belief that the English nation was chosen by God, on account of its supremacy in all aspects of life, to eradicate what they deemed to be savage customs in the indigenous population. In the words of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, the colonizers attempted to change “the mental universe of the colonized” (1986, p.16) and to succumb the colonized to their version of truth. As mentioned previously, education, which implies the acquisition of the colonizer’s language in this context, is one of the methods of mind colonization. The recruitment of Native American children for boarding schools was mostly performed by Christian missionaries. In 1632, Gabriel Sagard, a missionary, informed that Native American languages are “defective in words for many things…like Trinity, Glory, paradise, Hell, Church etc.” (as cited in Irwin,2002, p. 106). Sagard’s words reflect the Eurocentric view of the world and Foucauldian notion of truth. Sagard as a member of the colonizer’s race was able to postulate his knowledge of the world 26 �Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Adisa Ahmetspahić as a fact. Zitkala-Ša’s first contact with the missionaries confirms Sagard’s previously mentioned words. The missionaries seized the imagination of Native American children by telling them stories of “a more beautiful country than [Native American]” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 39), and a country where grew red, red apples; and how we could reach out our hands and pick all the red apples we could eat. I had never seen apples. I had never tasted more than a dozen red apples in my life; and when I heard of the orchards of the East, I was eager to roam among them. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, pp. 41-41) The excerpts point to a patronizing perspective that compares worldviews and favors one over the other as a fixed idea of truth which, as Foucault states, “induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse” (Foucault, 1980, p.119). The missionaries’ presentations of the country induced pleasure in the minds of Zitkala-Ša and other Native American children since they pleaded with their mothers to let them go with the missionaries. Simultaneously, the missionaries formed knowledge and presented definite truths that places where Native Americans resided were not beautiful, thus instilling epistemological hierarchy in their minds and ultimately the genesis of the inferiority complex as well as the prosperity of the superiority complex. JanMohamed argues that “[s]uch claims, designed to rationalize and perpetuate the colonizer’s dominant position, are not accurate appraisals of reality but rather projections of the settler’s own anxieties and negative self-images” (1983, p. 3). As presented further in the narrative, the children were subjected to strict educational and dietary regimes. Upon their arrival, they had their clothes taken away and soon after their hair cut. In the story titled “The Cutting of My Long Hair”, Zitkala-Ša recounts the moment when her braids, cultural markers, were cut off. Zitkala-Ša realized the gravity of the situation because “[their] mothers had taught [them] that only unskilled warriors who were captured had their hair shingled by the enemy. Among our people, short hair was worn by mourners, and shingled hair by cowards” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 54). Without her braids, she would also be considered a coward defeated in a different type of battle. Along with the loss of hair, she felt the loss of her spirit which was invested in the Native American system of beliefs. The above-mentioned practices of haircutting and the imposition of the colonizer’s attire would prove viable in the process of mind colonization. As an adult Zitkala-Ša reflects back on Native American education in the light of the attitude that such cruel treatment is a method of ‘civilizing’: In this fashion many have passed idly through the Indian schools during the last decade, afterward to boast of their charity to the North American Indian. But few there are who have paused to question whether real life or long-lasting death lies beneath this semblance of civilization. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 99) 27 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Zitkala-Ša’s words speaking about death, a long-lasting one, hint at genocide though a cultural one. George E. Tinker maintains that cultural genocide involves the destruction of those cultural structures of existence that give people a sense of holistic and communal integrity. [...]Finally, it erodes a people’s self-image as a whole people by attacking or belittling every aspect of native culture. (1993, p. 6) In addition to clothingii, which, in Tinker’s terms, constitutes cultural practices, language is another structure that provides people with identity and a structure frequently used in cultural genocide. For wa Thiong’o, language is the most straightforward method of mind colonization since language carries cultures and histories which in turn carry “the entire body of values by which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world” (1986, p. 16). On a similar note, Foucault perceives knowledge and language as inextricable concepts of the mind: “It is in one and the same movement that the mind speaks and knows. [...] Hence the possibility of writing a history of freedom and slavery based upon languages” (Foucault, 2005, pp. 95-97). When translated into the world of colonialism, Foucault’s argument would indicate that if the colonizer’s language is imposed then the colonizer’s truth is imposed through it. Rules against speaking Native American languages at boarding schools were strict and punishments were severe. One of the Comissioners of Indian Affairs, Hiram Price, explains the “No Indian Talk” rule: “The Indian child … must be compelled to adopt the English language.” (as cited in McCarty, 2013, pp. 52-53). John D.C. Attkins, another Commisioner, expounds the same: “There is not an Indian pupil … who is permitted to study any other language than our own” (as cited in McCarty, 2013, pp. 52-53). The above-referenced insistence upon the acquistion of the English language by the indigenous population has several interpretations. Tove Skutnabb-Kangas and Robert Dunbar’s study Indigenous Children’s Education as Linguistic Genocide and a Crime Against Humanity? A Global View (2010) highlights linguicism, “linguistically argued racism”, as one of the leading arguments for English language learning and a more subtle method of subduing minority groups (p. 41). According to Skutnabb-Kangas and Dunbar, linguicism leads to linguicide, the genocidal campaign against indigenous languages (2010, p. 40), which concurs well with cultural genocide mentioned above. However, there is a political dimension to it which argues for the augmentation of dominance. Bill Ashcroft et al’s definition of language in the process of colonization is rooted in the main tenets of power/knowledge relations introduced by Foucault as outlined earlier in the paper. Ashcroft et al argue that language is “the medium through which a hierarchical structure of power is perpetuated, and the medium through which conceptions of ‘truth’, ‘order’, and ‘reality’ become established” (2002, p. 7). 28 �Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Adisa Ahmetspahić Zitkala-Ša reverts the idea of power by excelling in the colonizer’s language. Zitkala-Ša’s objective can be traced to her schooldays. It is mentioned in the story collection that a series of language misunderstandings occurred at school. The confusions resulted in severe beatings of the children and ignited young Zitkala-Ša contempt of such an education: “Within a year I was able to express myself somewhat in broken English. As soon as I comprehended a part of what was said and done, a mischievous spirit of revenge possessed me” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 59).Soon after, she began attending oratory competitions as the college representative. In one of the competitions, Zitkala-Ša faced blatant racism when some college rowdies threw out a large white flag, with a drawing of a most forlorn Indian girl on it. Under this they had printed in bold black letters words that ridiculed the college that was represented by “squaw”. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 79) The rest of story has it that she won the competition and that“[t]he he evil spirit laughed within [her] when the white flag dropped out of sight, and the hands which hurled it hung limp in defeat” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, 80). Despite her momentary feelings of triumph, Zitkala-Ša is aware of how the education at boarding schools altered her identity, as presented in “The Four Strage Summers” story: During this time I seemed to hang in the hearts of chaos, beyond the touch or voice of human aid. My brother, being almost ten years my senior, did not quite understand my feelings. My mother had never gone inside of a school house and so she was not capable of comforting her daughter who could read and write. Even nature seemed to have no place for me. I was neither a wee girl nor a tall one; neither a wild Indian nor a tame one. This deplorable situation was the effect of my brief course in the East, and the unsatisfactory “teenth” in a girl’s years. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 69) Zitkala-Ša’s feelings of (un)belonging or the state of in-betweeness are ascribed to her partial immersion into both cultures precipitated by her education as a Native American at the boarding school. JanMohamed problematizes the position of the colonized after colonial education as a double bind position that is unable to espouse any of the two polarities: if he chooses conservatively and remains loyal to his indigenous culture, then he opts to stay in a calcified society whose developmental momentum has been checked by colonization. If, however, the colonized person chooses assimilation, then he is trapped in a form of historical catalepsy because colonial education severs him from his own past. (1983, p. 5) 29 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Zitkala-Ša’s Native American community, represented by her mother, shunned the education of the colonizer for its goals and methods, which she speaks of in the story “Incurring My Mother’s Displeasure:” “Her few words hinted that I had better give up my slow attempt to learn the white man’s ways” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 76). It is revealed throughout the stories that Zitkala-Ša’s mother held a grudge against her decision to go to college for a long period of time since her mother perceived the act as something that would deepen the chasm of acculturation. As outlined in the above-quoted section, Zitkala-Ša felt she did not belong fully to her Native American community any longer. Similarly, the white community did not see her as an equal, even after she had attained their education and started working as a teacher at Carlisle, evident when her employer told her the following: ““I am going to turn you loose to pasture!” He was sending me West to gather Indian pupils for the school, and this was his way of expressing it” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 85). He is assuming a condescending attitude and categorizing her as if she were a chained animal that would be given freedom by those who possess the power over it. Bhabha defines the double bind position mentioned previously as Third Space. For Bhabha, the friction between antagonistic/manicheancultures, which have opposing truths, assists the emanation of new identities. According to Bhabha, although dangerous, this position need not necessarily be unfavorable since the “interstitial passage between fixed identifications opens up the possibility of a cultural hybridity that entertains difference without an assumed or imposed hierarchy” (Bhabha, 1994, p. 4). Hence, Bhabha’s theory might be beneficial in analyzing Zitkala-Ša’s ability to appropriate education and language as a power reversal strategy that would benefit her in spreading the Native American cause in the language of the colonizer. It seems as if Zitkala-Ša followed Ema LaRocque’s formulation: “I have sought to master this language so that it would no longer master me” (as cited in McLeod, 2000, p. 125). Ashcroft et al argue that writing in English would prove high-yielding for many Native Americans since the language enabled them “to intervene more readily in the dominant discourse, to interpolate their own cultural realities, or use that dominant language to describe those realities to a wide audience of readers” (2007, p. 16). The significance of Zitkala-Ša’s boarding schools experience and mastery of the English language could be paralleled to Diane Glancy’s (Cherokee) chronicle of events at Fort Marion prison titled Fort Marion Prisoners and The Trauma of Native Education (2014). According to Glancy’s study, about seventytwo Plains Indian warriors were captured and imprisoned after the Red River War (1874-1875). A rigorous regime was installed in the prison. The prisoners were stripped off their clothes and their hair was cut. They were also taught English and given ledger books to produce paintings and drawings for profit. Glancy provides a number of these drawings which, surprisingly, portray Native American battles, implying that a new, although unintentional, mode of Native American cultural continuity was created in spite of the epistemological hierarchy that was foisted upon the indigenous population. 30 �Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Adisa Ahmetspahić 3. CONCLUSION The aim of this paper was to investigate the link between education and language and mind colonization on the example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories. The analysis was supported by a number of theories and studies and as such provided an overview of different aspects closely related to education and language in the process of colonization. Although the theories used in the paper are somewhat differing and from different domains, they meet at the point of the same inference: education and language are less aggressive methods of colonization, in a physical sense, yet most dangerous. For example, Foucault’s theories on power/knowledge relations help understand the mindset of the colonizer and ultimately its propensity in transferring that particular mindset onto those who are in a less favorable position. On the other hand, theories of Homi Bhabha reveal the position of the colonized, namely Zitkala-Ša, after they have been immersed into the education and language of the colonizer as well as her ability to speak up. It is plausible that a number of limitations could have influenced the analysis of the paper given that relatively little publications have dealt with the importance of Zitkala-Ša and no publications, to the best of my knowledge, have discussed education and language in this story collection. However, this analysis might be valuable in understanding the methods and outcomes of mind colonization, eventually creating a link between the past, the present, and the future. In addition, Native American literary tradition is rich in narratives that speak of mind (de)colonization and the reinvention of Native American identity in the contemporary world of the United States where they are enrolled as legal citizens yet marginalized. Hence, Zitkala-Ša’s subversion of colonial modes of dominance can be considered a forerunner to such matters. Overall, this study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of the benefits and hindrances of education and language for the indigenous population in the US. Further work needs to be performed to establish the use of religion in mind colonization as well as gender aspects in the same process based on American Indian Stories. 31 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 REFERENCES Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2007). Post-colonial studies: The key concepts, (2nd ed.). Routledge. Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2002). The empire writes back: Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis e-Library. Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge. Coulombe, J. (2001). Reading Native American literature. Routledge. Fisher, D. (1979). Foreword. In American Indian stories (pp. v-xx). University of Nebraska Press. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 19721977 (C. Gordon, Ed.). Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (2005). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. Taylor & Francis e-Library. History and culture: Boarding schools. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2020, from http://www.nativepartnership.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_hist_boar dingschools Irwin L. (2002). Native American spirituality: History. In Deloria, P., & Salisbury, N. (Eds.), A companion to American Indian history (pp. 103–120). Blackwell. JanMohamed, A. (1983). Manichean aesthetics: The politics of literature in colonial Africa. University of Massachusetts Press. Lewandowski, T. (2016). Red bird, red power: The life and legacy of Zitkala-Ša. University of Oklahoma Press. McCarty, T. (2013). Language planning and policy in Native America: History, theory, praxis. Multilingual Matters. McLeod, J. (2000). Beginning Postcolonialism. Manchester University Press. Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Dunbar, R. (2010). Indigenous children’s education as linguistic genocide and a crime against humanity? A global view (Vol. 1). GálduČála – Journal of Indigenous Peoples Rights. https://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/education2/indigenouschildrenseducation .pdf. Stout, Mary A. (2012). Zitkala Ša. In Wiget, P. (Ed.), Native American literature (pp. 303-307). Routledge. Tinker, G. (1993). Missionary conquest: The gospel and Native American cultural genocide. Augsburg Fortress. wa Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature. James Currey Ltd. Zitkala-Ša. (1979). American Indian stories. University of Nebraska Press. For more information see Bob Blaisdell's Great Speeches by Native Americans (2012). should be noted here that it is not my intention to contribute to the stereotyped portrayal of Native Americans. i iiIt 32 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories Author Author Adisa Ahmetspahić Abstract A summary of the resource. Mind colonization has been a burning issue in the last few decades in the fields of science and humanities. It is argued that mind colonization of the indigenous populations has been conducted via education and language in the mission of ‘civilizing’ since education and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world. Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy imposed through mind colonization. Zitkala-Ša’s autobiographical collection of short stories titled American Indian Stories (1921) documents her boarding school experience and the acquisition of the colonizer’s education and language. The present paper seeks to address mind colonization through language and education on the example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories relying on a number of theories and approaches. The paper also reflects on the importance of Zitkala-Ša mastery of the colonizer’s language. Keywords Keywords. Native American, mind colonization, education, language, boarding schools Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2566-4638 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JEH2021322 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b31304c210e3baba1d0973954472b960.pdf 3d85898be93c5d7e4bedfda17b90ded3 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (2), pp. 3-22, Winter 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić, MA Nađa Muhić, BA University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina damir95484@gmail.com muhicnadja13@gmail.com Abstract: The purpose of this article is to shed light on the representation of ‘the Other’ in three Shakespearean dramas: Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. The article describes several Shakespearean characters through the prism of post-colonialism and, therefore, the paper is structured as the postcolonial re-reading of the aforementioned dramatic texts. William Shakespeare portrayed the sad fate of immigrants in Sir Thomas More, but the Bard also tackled the refugee issue which remains relevant for the contemporary period. Additionally, Shakespeare dramatized the position of the Jewish community in Venice through the portrayal of Shylock. The re-reading of The Tempest focuses on the process of colonisation and the Manichaean division within the conquered world. In conclusion, the article portrays experiences of those dramatic individuals stigmatised and subjugated by the colonial forces, thus allowing the readers to better understand the binary division within colonial systems. Keywords: William Shakespeare, Refugee Issue, Stereotyping, Manichaean World Article History Submitted: 28 August 2020 Accepted: 25 November 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 1. INTRODUCTION William Shakespeare is one of the most profoundly important writers to have ever existed. In the contemporary framework, the Bard may be synonymously associated with the very term of drama, as such. His narrative poetry, his sonnet sequence, as well as his dramatic pieces are the body of work which encompasses numerous elements of the social and cultural sphere. Shakespeare thus stands as the just equal to some of the most brilliant minds to have ever worked in the realm of literary achievements, such as Dante, Dostoevsky and Dickens. As some of the most important contributions to the great literary tradition, the Bard’s dramas are an inexhaustible field for various literary theories. The post-colonial literary criticism is especially important for Shakespeare’s dramas, because particular plays superbly depict the process of ‘othering.’ In order to better understand the representation of ‘the Other’ and ‘otherness’ in Shakespearean dramas, it should first be explained why a single minority group of people(s) is subjugated by the community which surrounds them. Brons (2015) elaborates on idea of ‘otherness’ by stating: “Othering often sets up a superior self/in-group in contrast to an inferior other/out-group, it can also create distance between self/in-group and other/out-group by means of a dehumanizing over-inflation of otherness” (72). Edward W. Said’s work Orientalism also explains the Eurocentric opinions of the East and anything which is related to the so-called Orient. Said (1979) explains that the Orient is: “Almost a European invention, and had been since antiquity a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and landscapes, remarkable experiences” (1). However, this rather biased and Eurocentric worldview does not only portray elements of romance, or exoticism, because more often than not, the dwellers of the ‘mysterious East’ are perceived as ‘the Other,’ hence extremely negatively. The basic aim of this paper is to further disseminate the knowledge of the Bard and ‘the Other.’ In other words, this paper will analyse three dramas through the prism of post-colonial literary theory: Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. In the case of Sir Thomas More, the Bard was not the main or the only author, however Shakespeare did add a particularly interesting monologue which describes the rising tension of the people of London, as well as their frustrations. The inserted speech presents the clash between the superior ‘ingroup,’ that is to say, the people of London, and the dangerous and unwanted ‘strangers.’ Moreover, this drama focuses on some of the most vocal protests especially in regards to the refugee issue. Secondly, this paper will focus on The Merchant of Venice, as one of Shakespeare’s greatest and best-recognised tragicomedies. The characters of Shylock the Jew will be analysed in order to portray the negative elements attributed to the Jewish community in Venice during the 16th century. Shylock will be described as the character who is perceived as ‘the Other,’ but with the highest degree of negative connotations. As a Jewish character, Shylock is heavily 4 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić marginalised by the Christian society. Different characters treat him harshly, attributing animal pejoratives to Shylock, and ruthlessly try to expel him from the society since he is perceived as ‘the Alien’ of the Venetian state. The third and therefore the final segment of this paper will focus on the inhabitants of the mysterious island in Shakespeare’s final play The Tempest. The paper will predominantly focus on the analysis of Caliban as the natural native of the aforementioned isle. On the other side of the spectrum there stand Prospero and Miranda who are the newcomers of the island and they epitomise the European conquerors. Thus, Caliban will be presented as the downtrodden and colonised individual, whereas Prospero the Wizard will be analysed as the dominant ruler. Ergo, this paper will focus on the portrayal of implicit/explicit forms of subjugation of ‘the Other,’ but also the response which ‘the Other’ makes in order to survive in the coloniser’s domain. 2. THE CASE FOR STRANGERS: SHAKESPEARE’S CONTRIBUTION TO SIR THOMAS MORE In the world of the 21st century, so heavily marked by censorship and intolerance, one author’s voice was able to transcend all barriers of time and space. William Shakespeare’s literary opus remains, undoubtedly, one of the best-recognised contributions to the realm of theatre, poetry, but also linguistics and modern understanding of various political and social systems. Shakespeare was not an author situated within a single timeframe, rather he was a writer for every day and age, and since he was able to brilliantly understand and depict the sociopolitical difficulties of his own epoch, the Bard’s dramatic pieces remain relevant for the contemporary era. A historic play dubbed Sir Thomas More grants the readers an invaluable opportunity to discover one of the most passionate defences of the refugee policy. The refugee issue was an important element in England’s history, however it is equally if not even more relevant for the contemporary society. The dramatic work is titled after the famous English chancellor Sir Thomas More whose devotion to the Pope cost More his own life. Since the Chancellor refused to accept Henry VIII’s divorce and his political split from the Church of Rome, he was beheaded. Thomas More is even nowadays remembered as a passionate defender of the Catholic faith who stood against the teaching of Martin Lutheri. After the passing of Elizabeth Gloriana, Shakespeare was invited to make adjustments to the text of the play. He and other playwrights revised the text and the Bard of Avon included 147 lines in the middle of the central plotline. Namely, Shakespeare inserted an additional monologue for the character of Sir Thomas More. In this speech, More addresses the violent outbursts of the antiimmigration riot on the streets of London. This speech is intended for the people because they so fervently desire the immigrants to be removed. It was explained that they are baying for the so-called ‘strangers’ to be unequivocally banished (Dickson, 2016). In this case, the superior and self-entitled group of the rioters is 5 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 juxtaposed with the ‘the Other,’ and the term refers to the ‘strangers’ in their unfortunate position. More’s philosophical enquiry about the fate of the outcasts attempts to reignite some degree of empathy among the angry people and More says, “What would you think / To be thus used? this is the strangers case; / And this your mountanish inhumanity” (2.4.121-123). At this instance, More switches the places of the two opposing sides. He hypothetically ‘otherises’ the rioters by placing them into the roles of those whom they deem unworthy. Through More’s mouthpiece, Shakespeare poses the question of what would happen if the downtrodden individuals were to replace their position with the people who want to see them banished. Shakespeare presents a kind approach, prompting both sympathy and empathy among the rioters, whereas the plight of the alienated and dispossessed is viewed with mercy rather than contempt. Dickson (2016) adds that this speech may prefigure the great dramas which would later ensue in Shakespeare’s opus; such dramas being Othello or The Merchant of Venice. The Bard was able to successfully implement his own opinions into the monologue, by portraying a sharp eye for the troubled relationship between the ethnic majorities and minorities. The long speech additionally depicts Thomas More’s own courageous side as he was more than willing to face the rioting mob at St. Martin’s Gate. Thus, Shakespeare can be examined as a transnational traveller, and More as his representative in the dramatic world. More’s albeit unsuccessful attempt to stop the rioters does not only pose urgent ethnical questions, rather the same speech addresses the issue of the responsibility for ‘the Other.’ In his article, Stephen O’Neill (2020) explains that: “These iterations draw Shakespeare, long imagined as a type of transnational traveller, into urgent ethical questions about borders, displaced peoples, and responsibility to the Other, as More's empathetic plea comes to function synecdochally for Shakespeare” (1). In addition to the aforementioned empathy-prompting, More’s speech exemplifies the notion of cultural tensions and mistrusts that still prevails. The cultural mistrust remains ever-so-present even in the contemporary setting, whereas this play emphasises the idea that cross-cultural connection should be bettered by all means necessary. It would appear that the 16th century society of England and the post-modern era of the world do not differ vividly from one another. Globalisation and masscommunication brings together various cultures nowadays more than ever before. However, xenophobic nationalists and those people adhering to the rightist political systems consequently try to drive different ethnic or cultural apart. The Bard was able to inform the audience of his own time about issues which plague their own society, and his words, or rather those of Thomas More as a character, definitely must have tackled many people, giving them additional reason to muse over the anti-immigration crises. The multi-authored play of Sir Thomas More appears to foreshadow not just some of Shakespeare’s own great tragedies and comedies, but also the countless problems which will be described later on in literature, especially in terms of ‘the Other’ and the so-called ‘themus’ division. Bamford’s paper (2018) connects the late Renaissance period to the 21st century in this regard by further perpetuating the notion that the mistrust 6 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić between the cultures and nations is growing: “Sir Thomas More’s speech, attributed to Shakespeare, and found in the little-known and multi-authored play Sir Thomas More, which deals with the responses to Huguenot immigrants to the UK in the 16th century, demonstrates that mistrust of other cultures, and the recognition of the need for cross-cultural communication are nothing new” (1). Furthermore, it should be noted that the Bard used whatever medium he had at his disposal to portray the hard position of ‘the Other,’ or in this case the mistrusted ‘strangers.’ As a playwright, his empathic plea was delivered through the adapted lines of Henry VIII’s Chancellor, while the theatre in itself was profoundly important as an entertainment medium of his own era. Similarly enough, for many decades numerous people have been able to enjoy the medium of television in a similar yet far more modern setting and Bamford (2018) adds: “Shakespeare made his plea through the medium of contemporary entertainment, and in the last hundred years many have used the medium of screen entertainment to make similar pleas” (1). Born in William Shakespeare’s mind, the idea of ‘the Other’ was transmitted through the adaptation of this lessknown play. Although the xenophobic and superior society of England desires to see all strangers exiled from their kingdom, Shakespeare decided to alter the overall focus of the spectators listening to the speech: “Shakespeare shifts the focus of the audience and of the play as a whole from fear of the other to fear for the other” (Lawrence, 2018, p. 2). For the xenophobes, all strangers are the enemy. Moreover, everything or better to say everyone who is not a part of the mainstream English society in this case is considered to be ‘the Other,’ therefore these strangers are posing a serious threat for all those who do not wish them to stay. Shakespeare, or actually More’s empathy-prompting, in this speech addresses the issue of the mob suffering. In fact, More compares and contrasts the pain of the audience present with that of the ‘terrifying strangers.’ More openly asks the people gathered what they would think of their own exile, at least hypothetically. More enquires, “Should so much come to short of your great trespass / As but to banish you, whether would you go? / What country, by the nature of your error, / Should give you harbor?” (2.4.107-110). In this portion of the long speech, More is trying to make the connection between the actual exile of the foreigners and the hypothetical one, and Lawrence (2018) explains that: “Fear for the other precedes and serves as a model of fear for the self” (8). In order to tackle their own compassion, Shakespeare through More inverts the logic of the so-called social contract. He accepts the alleged existence or the myth of the ‘state of nature,’ and moreover, he perceives it as a terrifying primordial phenomenon, an anarchy of some sort. Thus, More accuses the rioters of their inhuman approach to the strangers, arguing the strangers’ case. Lawrence (2018) elaborates on this notion by explaining: “Instead of imagining a state in which everyone would fear for herself or himself, however, More imagines a situation in which everyone would fear for other people” (8). The communal spirit is important. By not being, to phrase it bluntly, selfish to the core, various people are able to open themselves to empathy. The rioters, as well 7 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 as everyone else, should feel this level of genuine human compassion in order to redirect fear from themselves to other individuals, as such. Essentially, the gathered people are called to recognise ‘the Other’ as ‘the stranger’ and vice versa. However, in this particular case, More advises the people to perceive them differently. More explicitly advises the people to recognise ‘the Other’ as the widow, the orphan, and Lawrence (2018) further elaborates on this idea by explaining that: “More’s speech calls for a recognition of the Other as “the stranger, the widow, and the orphan” (8). The migrants carry different stories with them, they can be recognised perhaps as strangers, but also as someone’s child, someone’s mother, father, sister. Their own experiences do not necessarily have to differ greatly from the experiences of the people who want them to be banned from London. William Shakespeare advises, in turn, the fictional characters on the stage, but also his real spectators, to pass through the doors of fiction and reality, but also to transcend the barriers between their own experiences and the experiences of ‘the Other.’ In More’s vision, the rioters are commanded almost to imagine their own position wherein they would be excluded from the society, reduced to a level of bare existence, and denied citizenship, as well as the status of a human being (Lawrence, 2018, pp. 8-9). The inserted speech transmits one very important message for the fictional rioters, but also for the theatre audience, because More openly says: “Nay, any where that not adheres to England,— / Why, you must needs be strangers” (2.4.112-113). Evidently, More tells the people that only England is their home, for anywhere else, they would be discarded and perhaps even treated unfairly. The Londoners are not invited immediately to care for the strangers’ case by comparing their own position to the plight of the newcomers, because this would imply a level of personal agenda or self-interest. Rather, they are first asked to empathise with the tragic fate of the foreigners before their hypothetical exile is described. More asks his addressees to imagine the journeys of the foreigners, or as More calls them ‘the wretched strangers.’ This can be observed when More says: “Imagine that you see the wretched strangers, / Their babies at their backs and their poor luggage, / Plodding tooth ports and costs for transportation” (2.4.57-59). The actual pain of the ‘wretched strangers’ should be also considered, because as Lawrence (2018) moreover explains: “The rioting Londoners are not called to care for the strangers by comparing “the strangers’ case” to their own, which they would first care about in the manner of self-interested agents. Before being asked to imagine themselves becoming exiles, they are asked to imagine the suffering of “the wretched strangers”” (9). The tale of Sir Thomas More remains relevant for the contemporary society, due to the fact that we are able to reinterpret the Bard’s writings in order to better comprehend our own world, and Loomba (2002) emphasises this notion by stating that Shakespeare’s writings: “Form a bridge between the past and us: even as we read in them stories of a bygone world, we also continually reinterpret these stories to make sense of our own worlds” (4-5). The Bard’s contribution to the dramatic realm in terms of post-colonial theory remains a prominent aspect 8 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić because as Popa (2013) explains: “Postcolonial theory attempts to consider the circumstances of marginalized, exploited or subaltern systems and the social groups that become stigmatized and it is a reflection on the difference, on the Other, but more importantly, an address to the colonial Other” (92). Taking into consideration Shakespeare’s entire dramatic opus, numerous dramatis personae which may be described as ‘the Other’ can be found in the Bard’s writings, and as Popa (2013) explains: “Four of Shakespeare‘s plays deal with non-white characters: Titus Andronicus, Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, while in The Merchant of Venice we have non-Christian characters” (93). Moreover, Popa (2013) also adds that: “There are a few other characters who contribute to the general picture of Shakespeare‘s perception of a racial Other” (93). For this reason, it should be noted that Shakespeare’s dramas are a fertile ground for the portrayal of ‘the Other’ while in turn the post-colonial theory can consider and analyse such stigmatised social groups. The plight of various refugees can be detected all around the globe, even in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As countless peoples from Palestine and elsewhere voyage over heavy terrain and dangerous seas. Women, children and elderly immigrants can be seen moving from countries ravished by conflict. By acknowledging such strangers as ‘the Other’ Shakespeare instructs the London rioters, but also everybody else to remember that our own fates and experiences do not have to differ so vividly, due to the fact that the wheel of fortune keeps turning. The Bard presents the case for ‘the Other,’ whereas Shakespeare’s teachings and instructions during the Renaissance period also prevail as something extremely relevant for the contemporary society. Shakespeare’s empathy-prompting refers to the Bosnian society as well as to all other communities. Since the playwright was able to understand the functioning of the human heart and mind so analytically, it is no wonder that Shakespeare successfully managed to contribute to the overall sense of empathy and/or compassion in the real world. THE ‘ALIEN’ OF VENICE Shylock the Jew is the main antagonist of one of Shakespeare’s greatest (tragi)comedies. He is at the same time a comic character, villainous, but also particularly tragic in his own right. The Bard represents Shylock as ‘the Other’ of the play. The Jew stands in contrast to the other Venetian characters due to his Jewish identity, his usury and money-lending occupation. This type of a profession, so to say, was greatly frowned upon during the Elizabethan times. Hence, in post-colonial terms, Shylock is ‘the Other’ in The Merchant of Venice. Huang (2019) elaborates on this notion by explaining that: “Compared with the other characters in The Merchant of Venice, Shylock seems to be totally an outsider and alien of Venice because he is considered to be the “Other” in the eyes of the other Venetians as a result of his identity a Jew as well as his occupation as a usurer, both of which are despised and degraded at the Elizabethan times” (661). Shylock may be presented a villainous individual, however his fate is, indeed, very tragic at the end of the dramatic piece. 9 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Moreover, his entire fictional existence seems to be marked by this constant element of degradation. The Jew stands in contrast to the people of Venice who are predominantly Christian. Thus, it would appear that the superior Christian group has placed itself over the position of ‘the Other’ when it comes to Venice. Taking into account Frantz Fanon’s monumental work The Wretched of the Earth, it becomes evident that the Venetian society may be interpreted as a ‘Manichaean world’ in a nutshell. Primarily, because the Manichaean world is a functioning community divided into different segments. Fanon (1963) rendered the Manichaean setting in the following lines: “The affirmation of the principle “It is them or us” does not constitute a paradox, since colonialism, as we have seen, is in fact the organization of a Manichean world, a world divided up into compartments” (84). Ergo, the Manichaean setting is established as a world where there exist constant binary divisions. In The Merchant of Venice, this division is exemplified through Shylock. He is a part of the world split into compartments, and in his case, Shylock is the less-fortunate compartment of this environment. Fanon’s contribution to post-colonial studies has allowed numerous scholars over the decades to better understand the binary dichotomy when it comes various texts. More often than not, Shylock is undermined by other Venetian characters. This is particularly plausible when Antonio insults him at the Rialto. Shylock reminds Antonio of these insults when the Merchant arrives to ask money from the Jew by citing the following lines: “You call me misbeliever, cutthroat dog, / And spet upon my Jewish gaberdine, / And all for use of that which is mine own” (1.3.121123). From this description, the position of the Jews in the Manichaean environment of Venice is easily recognisable, because Shylock is condemned for both what he is and for what he does. Since the Manichaean world represents a divided environment, it should be noted that the term is derived from the name of Mani and his teachings. Mani’s teachings focused on the duality of the world, or in other words: “As he developed Manichaeism, Mani composed seven writings, including the Shabuhragan. His teachings focused on the origins of evil and taught a “dualistic” view between good and evil” (Reese, 2019). Therefore, Venice can be perceived as a Manichean world divided between the Christian characters on one side and Shylock the Jew on the other. The Jew of Venice and everything relating to him is vividly frowned upon by Antonio and the rest of the characters. In a similar manner to the speech delivered in Sir Thomas More, William Shakespeare yet again invites (or instructs) his audience/readers to cry and sympathise with the fate of the Jew. Undoubtedly, Shylock might have wronged different characters through his shrewd money-lending profession, nonetheless his own existence in Italy has been greatly undermined by the Christian population. In one of Shylock’s most famous monologues, the Bard touches the basic humanity of every individual when Shylock says, “If you / poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall / we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will / resemble you in that?” (3.1.64-67). Shylock wants everybody to recognise that he is a person, just like all other dramatis personae. Primarily, 10 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić the Jew should be perceived as a human individual regardless of his origins, his creed or even his profession. Huang (2019) presents the notion that Shylock actually tries to deny his own position as ‘the Other’: “Shylock denies his status as the “Other” and makes every effort to defend and justify his identity and at the same time attempts to other the Christians” (668). In the previous chapter of this paper, it was explained that More tried to draw the gathering rioters closer to the feeling of empathy by presenting the empathic case for strangers. In this drama, however, Shakespeare through Shylock tried to depict the Jew in a different manner. The usurer should be treated justly like any other Christian individual, because as Shylock himself explains, they are not so vividly different from each other after all. One might examine Shylock of narcissistic or vengeful, yet he is a tragic individual when everything is taken into consideration. Shylock is the ‘alien’ of Venice and is therefore (mis)treated accordingly. The term ‘alien’ in this case is of vital importance, due to the fact that the term denotes a social pariah, an outsider. For this reason, Shylock’s position is not something one would desire. Near the end of the play, the lexeme ‘alien’ is used once to describe Shylock, referring to the laws of Venice. Once the Jew decides that he would get his revenge on Antonio and seize one pound of his flesh, Portia disguised as Balthazar comes to the Merchant’s rescue. Once Shylock is not persuaded to render any mercy to Antonio, and once he is robbed of the opportunity to kill the Merchant, Portia informs Shylock that he cannot yet escape the Venetian justice. To confirm this, Portia recites the following: “It is enacted in the laws of Venice, / If it be proved against an alien / That by direct or indirect attempts / He seek the life of any citizen, / The party ’gainst the which he doth contrive / Shall seize one half his goods” (4.1.363-368). One of the greatest Shakespearean actors Sir Patrick Stewart presented his article describing Shylock as Shakespeare’s ‘alien’ in which he explains Shylock’s sad fate. Namely, Stewart (1981) addresses the issue of Shylock’s greedy personality, and Stewart explains that the Jew’s nature is disordered by avarice. It is Shylock’s bad experience of the world and his endeavour to cope with it which makes Shylock so malicious and cruel at certain instances. Shylock and his kind are the outsiders, they are the strangers of Venice, feared and hated simply for being different than the rest. They are, as the laws of the Venetian state clearly explain, the aliens. The Jews are stamped by the world, thus being always vulnerable (142-143). Just as it was the case with the strangers in Sir Thomas More, Shylock is likewise another Shakespearean alien. In post-colonial terms, he is ‘otherised’ by the Venetian state. Huang (2019) explains the use of the verb ‘othering’ within the context of post-colonialism and other studies by saying that: “The term “Other” together with its other variations such as its noun form “otherness” and verb form othering is often used in psychoanalysis, post-colonialism, and cultural studies” (662). Since ‘the Other’ is a term used in post-colonial studies, and since this paper classifies Shylock as ‘the Other’ of The Merchant of Venice, it is safe to assume that Shylock is the epitome of the post-colonial ‘otherness’ within the Venetian state. Furthermore, Huang (2019) confirms this aspect of Shylock’s ‘otherness’ by explaining that: “He is a stranger and a foreigner as well as an 11 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 outsider and an alien “marginalized and firmly placed on the fringe of society”; he does not “fit the norm” which has been largely determined by the Christian Venetian society. Therefore, it is absolutely safe for us to define Shylock as an “Other” in the play” (662-663). The esteemed Shakespearean thespian also adds that Shylock has found a way to ‘merge’ with his environment. Stewart (1981) adds that Shylock appears as a shabby, unmemorable and eccentric old clown in the eyes of the people around him. Not many would consider him a threat. It is only Antonio, his competitor is business, whose senses are sharpened by commerce, and who is able to detect contempt behind Shylock’s visage (143). Nevertheless, the Jacobean audience of England would be able to recognise and condemn Shylock not only for what he does, but for what he is and the way he looks. Primarily, this becomes evident in the process of stereotyping when Jews are concerned. In post-colonial terms, Mushtaq (2010) defines stereotyping and he explains that: “In post-colonial theory, ‘stereotype’ refers to the highly generalized views of the colonizers about the colonized” (25). In Shakespeare’s play, the image of Shylock the Jew is often presented rather negatively, and this is important to consider, because Mushtaq (2010) adds that: “Stereotyping can be defined as an image, mostly negative, of a person in relation with a group or society” (25). Shylock is the part of the so-called ‘out-group’ mentioned at the beginning of this paper, therefore he is the object of stereotyping. The superior group on the other hand perceives individuals from the ‘out-group’ as: “shirkers, liars, corrupt, weak, inferior, uncivilized, impotent, cruel, lazy, irrational, violent and disorganized” (Mushtaq, 2010, p. 25). Shylock’s outward appearance on the stage would mark him as the Jewish individual, and afterwards many stereotypes would be attributed to the character. Nahvi (2015) elaborates on this notion: “Elizabethan theatergoers would have recognized Shylock as a Jew immediately. His red wig, bulbous nose and huge cape immediately label him as the other and as an outsider. Even though Jews were not living in England (at least not openly), they represented a stereotype evil, cunning, greed and at the very core, heartlessness” (1293). Interestingly enough, in order to undermine Shylock’s positions, other characters, such as Antonio or Bassanio, even Portia/Balthazar refer to him simply as ‘the Jew.’ Nahvi (2015) adds that: “Even before the play begins, the dramatis personae presents Shylock as an archetype, Shylock, the Jew. Throughout the play, the other characters consistently refer to him as simply, the Jew. This characterization dehumanizes and de-personalizes Shylock” (1294). Such a characterisation certainly undermines but also dehumanises Shylock, however this is by no means the only case of Shylock’s dehumanisation, because, for example, Gratiano compares Shylock to a dog by saying, “O, be thou damned, inexecrable dog” (4.1.130). Such references serve one function and that is to replace Shylock’s human soul. Bianchi (2005) explains this element of de-humanisation by stating that: “The images increase in vulgarity as Gratiano dehumanizes Shylock, and the animal references serve to take the place of Shylock's human soul” (14). Other fictional characters and citizens of Venice reduce Shylock from a person to a mere category (Nahvi, 2015, 12 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić p. 1294). Shylock is furthermore moved from a position of ‘the Other,’ to the position of stranger, to his well-known ‘alien status,’ however even more prominently he is treated as an animal occasionally by various dramatis personae. He is attributed bestial terms such as ‘dog’ or ‘wolf.’ He is, also, equated to the devil. Shylock cleverly recalls this remark in the third act of Shakespeare’s drama and Shylock says, “Thou call’dst me dog before thou hadst a cause, / But since I am a dog, beware my fangs” (3.3.7-8). He reminds the Merchant of this epithet, thus the danger behind Shylock’s vindictiveness is portrayed clearly to the readers/spectators. Additionally, Antonio in the play spits on the Jew, while his daughter Jessica runs off with a Christian, symbolically leaving the Jewish family, thus converting to Christianity. Eventually, Shylock is left without his livelihood, and perhaps even figuratively without his own life. Shakespeare’s creation of ‘the Other’ unquestionably mirrored the sentiments, fears and the myths about the Jews commonly visible in the Bard’s own time. Many of such sentiments prevail even in the 21st century (Nahvi, 2015, p. 1296). The Merchant of Venice remains relevant for the contemporary world, because as Nowosad (2017) states: “The play is a good selection for the time we live in right now as we strive to examine the way we look at people who are different from ourselves. Religious and racial prejudice prevail in this play opening our thoughts to what happens in our own modern day society.” The aforementioned prejudice and intolerance can be observed also within the lives of various people today, because Nowosad (2017) likewise explains the notion that: “The desire for wealth, anti-Semitism, prejudice, racial and gender bias, all of these take place in this story as well as in many people’s lives today. How we decide to view them are [sic] influenced by our own places in this life. Being open to examining them allows us to express our thoughts and perhaps overcome what we can.” The pivotal scene of The Merchant of Venice is, by all means, the court scene, when Portia beats Shylock in his revenge and makes him in turn pay for the foul agendas. Portia, or rather Balthazar in disguise, urges the Jew to render some mercy, nevertheless the Jew refuses to do so. It would appear that the ‘crude’ Shylock stands in contrast to the ‘merciful’ Christians of Venice. The basic messages of the Old and the New Testament(s) are juxtaposed through Shylock and the rest of the community. However, it should be noted that the mercy which Portia so adamantly mentions is not extended to the Jewish characters within the drama (Navih, 2015, p. 1296). In his (tragi)comedy, William Shakespeare portrayed the problems of his day and age which linger even in our own sphere of existence. The issue of Shakespeare’s world is almost identical to the issue of the post-modern society. In order to connect the similarities of problems in Shakespeare’s own time and the current era, Bambušková (2019) analysed The Merchant of Venice, especially in regards to the previously-mentioned court scene, and she explained that: “Today’s ‘Christian Europe’ (Christian in name but focused on easy, enjoyable life, much like the Venetians) may profit from recognition of what kind of law and what kind of mercy we may offer those who come into our country, who are our ‘Others’ and whose ‘Others’ we are” (1-2). 13 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Thus, it is less relevant whether Shylock the Jew is a tragic character or a sympathetic villain, because one fact is evident, he is ‘the Other,’ he is the undermined ‘alien’ of this dramatic piece. 3. CALIBAN THE NATIVE Shakespeare’s last (authentic) play, his final ‘farewell’ from the London audience, presents one of the most memorable dramatic pieces ever written. The Tempest perhaps above all other Shakespearean dramas remains most relevant for the post-colonial analysis. Characters such as Caliban, the original dweller of the enchanted island will be presented as the central element for the post-colonial examination of the play. Caliban, and other magic inhabitants such as Ariel, stand is sheer contrast to the European newcomers. The wizard called Prospero arrives from Milan with his daughter to the mysterious isle and it is there that Prospero establishes his hegemony over other beings of the enchanted island. Through his dominance, his alleged magical prowess, Prospero is able to control other island-dwellers, enslave them and ‘otherise’ them to such a degree that they are henceforth treated even worse than the strangers in Sir Thomas More or Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. In order to better understand both the colonised and the coloniser, it should be taken into consideration that the post-colonial (re-)reading of The Tempest was inspired by the process of de-colonisation. Singh (2016) connects The Tempest to the post-colonial interpretation by explaining the following: “Postcolonial readings of The Tempest were inspired by the decolonisation movements of the 1960s and 1970s in Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America.” Initially, Prospero’s craft symbolised the world of civility, as well as learning, rendered in contrast to the ‘natural’ dark spells of Caliban’s mother, whereas the postcolonial re-reading of Shakespeare’s play challenges this rather Eurocentric approach: “If, traditionally, Prospero's art represented the world of civility and learning in contrast to the 'natural' black magic of Caliban's mother Sycorax, anticolonial revisions of the play challenged this rather abstract Eurocentric division between art and nature” (Singh, 2016). In the book Eurocentrism, the Eurocentric perception of the Western colonisers is explained, and in this sense the Westerners view themselves as efficient, rational, democratic, whereas the colonised peoples on the other hand are perceived as underdeveloped and as individuals who have nothing to offer, yet they have to imitate the West in order to progress, albeit slowly and imperfectly (Amin, 2009, p. 180). The post-colonial reading of the play challenges this Eurocentric approach by focusing on postcolonial elements. For example, Goicoechea de Jorge (2016) mentions the postcolonial representation of Prospero as the European coloniser enslaving the indigenous people of a newly-discovered place, but also as a European person who imposes his tradition and language over the natives’ own culture. Caliban tries to resist by rejecting to learn Prospero’s tongue. Therefore, it becomes obvious that this romance play grants a better insight into the world of the 14 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić ‘civilised’ European society, and the naturalised albeit ‘savage’ realm of Caliban and the rest. The Bard gives the voice to ‘the Other’ in this dramatic work and moreover Caliban clearly reminds his colonisers that the isle once belonged to him, and Caliban says: “This island’s mine by Sycorax my mother, / Which thou tak’st from me” (1.2.331). Caliban had inherited his home from Sycorax, yet the colonisers, in this case Prospero and his daughter who had previously escaped from Europe, made the island their home and furthermore they enslaved the creatures encountered there. There exists a clear dichotomy between the two opposing sides of the island. Shylock stood against the Christian characters of Venice, and he was ‘otherised’ because of his Jewish origins, religion, outward appearance, moneylending and other activities. Similarly enough, Caliban is vividly dissimilar from the Wizard or Miranda primarily because Caliban is a non-human being. He is a mysterious creature. As such, the island-dwellers possess a particular form of personality, just like Prospero or Miranda, nonetheless they still differ from one another. Prospero and Miranda are both human characters, with their own sets of unique traits, however on the other hand, the spirit Ariel and Caliban are portrayed as monstrous perhaps on the outside, but they also develop their own personalities. Harold Bloom (1998), as one of the greatest Shakespearean scholars, further perpetuated this idea by stating that: “Caliban and Ariel are personalities, but then Caliban is only half-human, and Ariel is a sprite” (582). Both Caliban and Ariel are ‘otherised’ and by being only semi-human unlike Prospero or Miranda, both island-dwellers can be perceived as ‘the Other’ in the play. The Manichaean world can again be observed in this regard, and Fanon’s own teachings can be applied adequately. The enchanted isle is a divided setting, it is an isolated world conquered and colonised by the Europeans. The island is colonised and inherently Manichaean. Fanon (1963) openly proclaims that: “The colonial world is a Manichean world” (41). It is a world divided into segments, and it is a world where Caliban is constantly undermined. The character of ‘the Other,’ in this case Caliban, appears to be a pun in its own right. In other words, the name ‘Caliban’ actually stands for the term ‘cannibal’: “The name Caliban/Cannibal appears in Shakespeare's play and in colonial history as a cultural stereotype for the natives of the New World” (Singh, 2016). For this reason, Caliban can be observed as one of the natives of the New World, and therefore his own background, his own culture and even language, all play a significant role in post-colonial theory. Prospero uses various methods in order to keep his slave at bay; moreover, the Wizard uses colonial methodology to harm, control, beat and subjugate the ‘savage.’ Prospero even attempts to assert his dominance via linguistic capacities. It is clearly stated in the play that the colonisers, Miranda particularly, tried to teach Caliban their own, European, language. Colonisation, as such, brought with it subjugation not just on the physical level but also in regards to the cognitive sphere of the natives. Singh (2016) elaborates on this notion of Prospero’s dominance by stating that: “His mission assumed that the natives lacked any culture or formal language until the Europeans brought them the 15 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 ‘gifts’ of Western language and culture. If the natives resisted European paternal rule, then they were labelled as ‘savages,’ beyond redemption.” Miranda even insults Caliban by addressing him as ‘the abhorred slave,’ reminding him that is was her who tried to teach Caliban their language: “Abhorred slave, / Which any print of goodness wilt not take, / Being capable of all ill! I pitied thee, / Took pains to make thee speak, taught thee each hour / One thing or other” (1.2.351). It is apparent that Miranda takes up a superior position and she is more than willing to undermine Caliban by any means necessary. However, Caliban does not even remain silent on this remark. Rather he, too, reminds Miranda that he loathes their language and that now he is only able to curse in their European mother-tongue: “You taught me language, and my profit on’t / Is, I know how to curse” (1.2.363). The assertion of language backfires, due to the fact the ‘the Other’ is now able to retort in the language of his new masters. Their imposition of power and superiority is gradually subverted. Miranda and Prospero attempt to de-humanise the native as much as it is possible, nonetheless even in his own speech, Caliban appears more sophisticated than one would perhaps expect. Primarily, it should be noted that Caliban is more of a poetic creature. He is able to utilise verse in order to transmit the message of his speech. Bloom (2008) explains that: “He never falls into the prosaic and low familiarity of his drunken associates, for he is, in his way, a poetical being; he always speaks in verse” (73). However, Miranda is not even swayed by this reply. She constantly attempts to degrade Caliban, going as far as reminding him that he was completely unaware of his own purpose. In other words, Miranda reminds Caliban that only through her education Caliban was able to realise his own existence, his own meaning: “When thou didst not, savage, / Know thine own meaning, but wouldst gabble” (1.2.355). It would appear that Caliban was unable to comprehend his own existence until the moment his new master came and took over. Caliban’s quintessence and merit is constantly annihilated by such claims, and more often than not he is reduced to a particularly inferior level. Bloom (2008) states that such a proclamation made by Miranda would imply that in her own perspective: “Unlike a civilized person, the savage Caliban did not know what his true meaning was as a human” (16). The colonisers use violence in order to subjugate ‘the Other,’ but this violence is both open as well as subtle. Fanon (1963) adds that: “Violence in the colonies does not only have for its aim the keeping of these enslaved men at arm's length; it seeks to dehumanize them. Everything will be done to wipe out their traditions, to substitute our language for theirs and to destroy their culture without giving them ours” (15). Only when the entire heritage of creatures originally living on the island is destroyed, only then will the complete control be established. The implicit, as well as the explicit, forms of violence presented are there to serve one purpose – to make characters such as Caliban or Ariel utterly subservient. Thus, Prospero is able to establish his governance of the isle, and the Wizard becomes the sole sovereign of the enchanted landscape. Caliban is ‘otherised’ in his own house, so to say, on his own island. He was the primary settler of the island, much earlier than Prospero or Miranda, 16 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić however even this right was taken from him. For Caliban, Prospero is the first intruder who betrayed his host’s welcome and conquered with power and might. Caliban recalls Prospero’s arrival: “When thou cam’st first, / Thou strok’st me and madest much of me, wouldst give me / Water with berries in’t, and teach me how / To name the bigger light, and how the less, / That burn by day and night; and then I lov’d thee / And show’d thee all the qualities o’ th’ isle” (1.2.332337). In Caliban’s own rendition of history, it is described that it was Prospero who arrived to the island but later decided to take full control over its beauties. Now, it is the Wizard who holds the utmost power. Singh (2016) focuses on this element of representing history, as such, by adding that: “It is this rendition of history that became the battle cry for the anti-colonial movements in Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America – a rendition that became the staple of many revisions and appropriations of Shakespeare's play in these regions.” The Tempest is considered to be a multi-layered play which contributes greatly to the postcolonial theory, because it should be noted that: “While the play was written in 17th-century England, post-colonial criticism takes the play outwards towards its complicated transactions between European and African and Caribbean cultures in the succeeding centuries” (Singh, 2016). There exists a clear purpose in trying to define the history of the island by observing both sides. The postcolonial approach allows for a better insight when Caliban as the character is examined, because the readers or the spectators are able to fully understand his own experiences. They are able to better understand the perspective of ‘the Other.’ Post-colonialism in this case focuses on history from Caliban’s angle. Thus, the version of ‘the savage Other’ challenges the version presented by Prospero to Miranda. Singh (2016) explains this by stating: “In trying to view the conditions of Caliban's servitude from his perspective, post-colonial criticism gives legitimacy to his claims to the island, based on a reading of history that challenges the version narrated by Prospero to his daughter.” William Shakespeare allowed for the amplification of the seemingly marginalised voices of ‘the Other’ in his dramatic opus. Predominantly, the Bard presented the shifting perspective of the island from both sides, emphasising the idea that even various things or elements should be constantly considered and reconsidered from numerous perspectives, because it should be noted that: “Post-colonial criticism in the West has mined this new archive of the reception history of Shakespeare's The Tempest, questioning, once again, all normative ideas of a ‘common humanity,’ while articulating, as Shakespeare did, the voices of the seemingly marginal characters in Prospero’s grand designs” (Singh, 2016). Caliban the Native in the play is ‘Caliban the Other,’ Caliban’s home was taken from him, Prospero established his dominance and through the Wizard’s ruthless demeanour managed to forcefully command every creature encountered. Caliban’s cry stands for all those who were oppressed and stigmatised by the overwhelming power of the coloniser. Perhaps Prospero and Miranda thought that by teaching their language to Caliban they were bringing civilisation and enlightenment to the savage, however the de-humanisation, the mechanism of slavery applied, simply continue to assert Caliban’s position as ‘the Other. 17 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 CONCLUSION The most important element which is easily recognisable in Shakespearean dramas is the Bard’s universality. The dramatic plots of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest present a fertile ground for post-colonial analyses. In post-colonial terms particularly, representation of ‘the Other’ and ‘otherness’ is of paramount importance, due to the fact that Shakespeare’s message remains crucial for every day and age, surpassing and linguistic, cultural and political boundaries. In Sir Thomas More, Shakespeare added a speech which clearly presents the Bard’s opinions on the idea of the refugee issue, and through More, the Bard of Avon attempted to make his spectators render the deeds of mercy. Furthermore, The Bard endeavoured to show the plight of the immigrants who had to travel abroad in order to find a better life, en route they encounter various forms of stigmatisation. William Shakespeare managed to switch the roles, at least hypothetically, in order to remind the people of London that they could also experience great misfortunes should their own ruler turn on his own subjects. In the second chapter, this paper examined the role of Shylock in Venice. Since Shylock is a Jew, he is the epitome of the marginalised Jewish community. Shakespeare cleverly presented Shylock as ‘the Other’ in order to remind his audience/readers that Shylock had to behave in a negative manner since he was constantly undermined by the predominantly Christian society of the Venetian state. In a sense, Shylock’s stand against Antonio, Portia and the rest formulates a distinct ‘clash’ between the Old and the New Testament. In the final segment of this paper, the character of Caliban was analysed. Since Caliban was the original native of the magical island, he was subjugated by the European colonisers, primarily Prospero the Wizard. In post-colonial re-reading of the text, it became apparent that Prospero and Miranda applied all methods in order to bend the ‘savage native’ to their will. Prospero trapped, threatened and used violence against the poor creature, whereas Miranda even tried to teach him their language, therefore assimilating Caliban further. However, this paper portrayed Caliban as a poetic being, a creature which was able to distinguish things for himself. The paper also reflected on Caliban’s position as ‘the Other,’ as someone whose home had been conquered. Ariel and Caliban might be non-human characters, however it may be presumed that they hold more humanity than Prospero and the rest. In analysing William Shakespeare’s dramas through the prism of postcolonial criticism, the readers were presented with an exciting dialogue formulated between the dramatic universe and the post-colonial portrayal of the world. The post-colonial academic field of research presents the repercussions of imperialism/colonialism as the main by-products of the European rule and exploitations. Hence, Shakespearean plays are the superb replicas of the worlds and societies branded by colonialism, and moreover the Bard’s round characters transmit the suffering and experience of every inhabitant of the East subjugated by the European control. This paper determined the post-colonial ‘Other’ in three 18 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić Shakespearean dramas and it examined the story of colonial systems which exploited characters because they were perceived differently than the rest. It is the identification of the colonised and the oppressed individuals, however this article was also presented as the definition of the colonisers who attempt to assert their hegemony, relaying on all techniques necessary in order to exert utter dominance over ‘the Other.’ 4. CONCLUSION The most important element which is easily recognisable in Shakespearean dramas is the Bard’s universality. The dramatic plots of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest present a fertile ground for post-colonial analyses. In post-colonial terms particularly, representation of ‘the Other’ and ‘otherness’ is of paramount importance, due to the fact that Shakespeare’s message remains crucial for every day and age, surpassing and linguistic, cultural and political boundaries. In Sir Thomas More, Shakespeare added a speech which clearly presents the Bard’s opinions on the idea of the refugee issue, and through More, the Bard of Avon attempted to make his spectators render the deeds of mercy. Furthermore, The Bard endeavoured to show the plight of the immigrants who had to travel abroad in order to find a better life, en route they encounter various forms of stigmatisation. William Shakespeare managed to switch the roles, at least hypothetically, in order to remind the people of London that they could also experience great misfortunes should their own ruler turn on his own subjects. In the second chapter, this paper examined the role of Shylock in Venice. Since Shylock is a Jew, he is the epitome of the marginalised Jewish community. Shakespeare cleverly presented Shylock as ‘the Other’ in order to remind his audience/readers that Shylock had to behave in a negative manner since he was constantly undermined by the predominantly Christian society of the Venetian state. In a sense, Shylock’s stand against Antonio, Portia and the rest formulates a distinct ‘clash’ between the Old and the New Testament. In the final segment of this paper, the character of Caliban was analysed. Since Caliban was the original native of the magical island, he was subjugated by the European colonisers, primarily Prospero the Wizard. In post-colonial re-reading of the text, it became apparent that Prospero and Miranda applied all methods in order to bend the ‘savage native’ to their will. Prospero trapped, threatened and used violence against the poor creature, whereas Miranda even tried to teach him their language, therefore assimilating Caliban further. However, this paper portrayed Caliban as a poetic being, a creature which was able to distinguish things for himself. The paper also reflected on Caliban’s position as ‘the Other,’ as someone whose home had been conquered. Ariel and Caliban might be non-human characters, however it may be presumed that they hold more humanity than Prospero and the rest. 19 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 In analysing William Shakespeare’s dramas through the prism of postcolonial criticism, the readers were presented with an exciting dialogue formulated between the dramatic universe and the post-colonial portrayal of the world. The post-colonial academic field of research presents the repercussions of imperialism/colonialism as the main by-products of the European rule and exploitations. Hence, Shakespearean plays are the superb replicas of the worlds and societies branded by colonialism, and moreover the Bard’s round characters transmit the suffering and experience of every inhabitant of the East subjugated by the European control. This paper determined the post-colonial ‘Other’ in three Shakespearean dramas and it examined the story of colonial systems which exploited characters because they were perceived differently than the rest. It is the identification of the colonised and the oppressed individuals, however this article was also presented as the definition of the colonisers who attempt to assert their hegemony, relaying on all techniques necessary in order to exert utter dominance over ‘the Other.’ 20 �The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić REFERENCES Amin, S. (2009). Eurocentrism (R. Moore and J. Membre, Trans.). New York: Monthly Review Press. (Original work published in 1988). Bambušková, T. (2019). Law and Mercy in The Merchant of Venice and the Present Refugee Crisis. Archive ouverte en Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société, pp. 1-14. Bamford, N. (2018, January). The Strangers’ Case: harnessing the power of screen entertainment to communicate between cultures. Paper presented at Cross-Cultural Communication Conference, Barcelona. Bianchi, Tina J. (2005). Shrews, Jews, and Public Dues: The High Price of Rhetorical Savvy (English Master’s Thesis). Retrieved from Digital Commons @Brockport. Bloom, H. (1998). Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books. Bloom, H. (2008). Bloom’s Shakespeare Through the Ages: The Tempest. New York: Infobase Publishing. Brons, L. (2015). Othering, an Analysis. Transcience, a Journal of Global Studies, 6(1), pp. 69-90. Dickson, A. (2016, March, 1). The Book of Sir Thomas More: Shakespeare's only surviving literary manuscript. Retrieved from https://www.bl.uk/collectionitems/shakespeares-handwriting-in-the-book-of-sir-thomas-more. Frantz, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Weidenfeld: A division of Grove Press, Inc. Goicoechea de Jorge, M. (2016, January, 15). A Post/colonial View. Retrieved from https://thetempestcomplutense.wordpress.com/a-postcolonial-view/. Huang, L. (2019). On the Otherness of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 9(7), pp. 661-668. DOI: 10.17265/21595836/2019.07.001. Lawrence, S. (2018). Fear and the Other in Sir Thomas More. Actes des congrès de la Société française Shakespeare, 36: 1-13. DOI: 10.4000/shakespeare.4123. Loomba, A. (2002). Shakespeare, Race, and Colonialism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Munday, A. et al. (cca. 1591-1593). Sir Thomas More. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/1547/pg1547-images.html. Mushtaq, H. (2010). Othering, Stereotyping and Hybridity in Fiction: A Postcolonial Analysis of Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) and Coetzee's Waiting For The Barbarians (1980). Journal of Language and Literature, 3: 25-30. Nahvi, A. (2015, May, 5). Shakespeare’s Shylock, the Everlasting Character of all Times. Chumhuriyet University Faculty of Science: Science Journal (CSJ), 36(3) Special Issue, pp. 1291-1299. Nowosad, K. (2017, May, 31). ‘The Merchant of Venice’ Still Relevant Today. Retrieved from https://letsgotothetheater.com/merchant-of-venice/. O’Neill, S. (2020). Shakespeare's Hand, or "the strangers' case": Remediating Sir Thomas More in the context of the Refugee Crisis. Borrowers and Lenders: The Journal of Shakespeare and Appropriation, 13(1), pp. 1-23. 21 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Pettinger, T. (2014, August, 3). Biography of Thomas More. Retrieved from https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/thomas-more.html. Popa, A. (2013). Post-colonialism in Shakespearean Work. Annals of the „Constantin Brâncuși” University of Târgu Jiu, Letter and Social Science Series, 4: 9195. Reese, M. R. (2019, October, 17). Manichaeism: The Ancient Religion that Rivaled Christianity. Retrieved from https://www.ancientorigins.net/history/manichaeism-one-most-popular-religions-ancient-world002658. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Random House, Inc. (Original work published in 1978). Shakespeare, W. (Ed. by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine). (1605). The Merchant of Venice. Washington: Folger Shakespeare Library. Shakespeare, W. (1998). The Tempest. St. Paul: Minnesota. (Original work produced in 1611). Singh, J. (2016, March, 15). Post-colonial reading of The Tempest. Retrieved from https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/articles/post-colonial-reading-of-the-tempest. Stewart, P. (Ed. by Marie-Thérèse and Jones-Davies). (1981, November, 1). Shylock, Shakespeare’s Alien (Royal Shakespeare Company). Actes des congrès de la Société française Shakespeare, 3: 137-156. DOI: 10.4000/shakespeare. 444. For more information on Thomas More, please consult the following: Pettinger, T. (2014, August 3). Biography of Thomas More. Retrieved from https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/thomasmore.html. i 22 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest Author Author Damir Kahrić, Nađa Muhić Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this article is to shed light on the representation of ‘the Other’ in three Shakespearean dramas: Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. The article describes several Shakespearean characters through the prism of post-colonialism and, therefore, the paper is structured as the postcolonial re-reading of the aforementioned dramatic texts. William Shakespeare portrayed the sad fate of immigrants in Sir Thomas More, but the Bard also tackled the refugee issue which remains relevant for the contemporary period. Additionally, Shakespeare dramatized the position of the Jewish community in Venice through the portrayal of Shylock. The re-reading of The Tempest focuses on the process of colonisation and the Manichaean division within the conquered world. In conclusion, the article portrays experiences of those dramatic individuals stigmatised and subjugated by the colonial forces, thus allowing the readers to better understand the binary division within colonial systems. Keywords Keywords. William Shakespeare, Refugee Issue, Stereotyping, Manichaean World Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2566-4638 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JEH2021321 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ec0ac41ff0e0b71ab32b474c716b5ce.pdf c6d7c6996b753e2359491dfe742709ae Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource FPGA-based Implementation of IIR Filter for Real-Time Noise Reduction in Signal Author Author Aladin Kapić1, Rijad Sarić1, Slobodan Lubura1, 2, Dejan Jokić Abstract A summary of the resource. Filtering of unwanted frequencies represents the main aspect of digital signal processing (DSP) in any modern communication system. The main role of the filter is to perform attenuation of certain frequencies and pass only frequencies of interest. In a DSP system, sampled or discrete-time signals are processed by digital filters using different mathematical operations. Digital filters are commonly categorized as Finite Impulse Response (FIR) and Infinite Impulse Response (IIR). This research focuses on the full VHDL implementation of digital second-order lowpass IIR filter for reducing the noisy frequencies on the FPGA board. The initial step is to determine, from continuous time domain function, the transfer function in the complex {s} domain, then map transfer function in complex {z} domain and finally calculate the difference equation in discrete-time domain of the system with adequate coefficients. Prior to the FPGA implementation, the IIR filter is tested in MATLAB using a signal with mixed frequencies and signal with randomly generated noise. The digital implementation is completed by using fixed-point binary vectors and clocked processes. Keywords Keywords. digital signal processing; IIR filter; digital design; FPGA; VHDL; Bode diagram Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021316 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c91f0c7eb4c25c44efb93b1215302dc1.pdf 11fd7f01ac78fa3f60095d139353018c PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina nedret.becirovic@stu.ibu.edu.ba ismailbejtovic@hotmail.com jasmin.kevric@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords – cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. 1. Introduction Considering growing electrical energy consumption in the residential sector [1] and Global Warming it is noticeable that energy consumption for cooling will surpass energy consumption for heating in the foreseeable future. Heating and cooling load are two very important parameters in the efficient building design. These two parameters are closely related to the materials that the building is made of, so construction decisions made early on have a great impact on the final result. There has been a considerable body of research [2] on this field and on this dataset but with no focus on the cooling load itself. Various software for simulation of energy consumption has been used over the years often in conjunction with architectural design. Accuracy of the simulation varies often across from one software package to another [3]. Therefore this work is envisaged as an addition to the existing software solutions. It is often the case that building parameters are compared separately with cooling and heating load, and simple correlation has been sought [4]. Multiple regression analysis was very popular for prediction of energy consumption until it was proven that a simple Neural Network is much better than Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with a large database [5]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 For architects it is very important to single out and rank parameters that have the strongest impact since normality assumptions do not hold for very complicated problems. For example, glazing areas will have minimal impact on the cooling load. Surface area and overall height are parameters with strongest impact. This work is done in hope it will help future architects, energy advisors for building smart buildings and generally in the field of energy efficiency. Further studies could help with choosing suitable materials for the construction. 2. Data This study is based on UCI database made, non-gaussian dataset made by a CAD software Ecotect. Dataset represents 12 different building forms, where each form is composed of 18 building blocks of the same volume (3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5), and houses have also the same volume, which is 771.75 m3, but different height and surface area. Materials used in these 18 blocks are all contemporary and with best U-values which are well defined for walls, floors etc with variations in glazing area and orientation [2]. With twelve building forms and three glazing area variations with five glazing area distributions each, and for four orientations, (12x3x5x4) 720 building samples. 12 building types are considered without glazing but with four sides of orientation (4x12). In all it gives 768 different building types. [2] Since parameters are identified which have the strongest impact a new dataset can be constructed where some parameters can be locked in value and others can be varied. Data-mining is the identification of the parameter which has the greatest influence of the result. Statistical tools will be used tools but also inputs from builders, architects, masons etc. will give great value to the study. They can also provide knowledge of feasibility of building parameters. How much a particular building feature costs in the real world. This is a well understood, relatively large dataset with 786 buildings each having 8 parameters. This is not a skewed dataset, so this dataset is not treated as such, meaning that data were not sifted through. Some light pruning, or trimming of data is an essential part of the random and best first search methods. Data are though skewed in another way. Dataset is non-gaussian, and it is of great importance to find any bias that may have influenced the dataset using classical statistical analysis which visually gives an outlying parameter. There were not any parameters which should be given more or less weight in the neural network model. Finding a dataset of real buildings or extracting data from buildings with a great cooling load was �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 also a goal for this work. Glazing area did not have much importance in this data set for finding cooling load. New modern types of materials are changing the paradigm of the builders' philosophy and focus of this work changed back on the study of the virtual buildings i.e. our dataset. It would be best to actively follow the research on the field, particularly if there has been a report on a construction of the buildings based on research using this or a similar dataset. Dataset has been normed, quantified and classified in a very understandable and logical way by Xifara-Tsanas, (see Table 1). Table 1. Mathematical representation of the input and output variables to facilitate the presentation of the subsequent analysis and results. Mathematical Name Number of possible values x1 Relative compactnes 12 x2 Surface area 12 x3 Wall area 7 x4 Roof area 4 x5 Overall height 2 x6 Orientation 4 x7 Glazing area 4 x8 Glazing area distribution 6 y2 Cooling load 636 representation 3. Methods Classical statistical tools like histograms and scatter plots are firstly applied to dataset. Seeing the data on the graph is a great help in understanding the data. It gives the idea in which direction study has to go. Improving a model can take two different directions: make the model simpler or add complexity. Making a simpler model involves feature reduction, pruning branches and removing learners from an ensemble. Adding complexity means fine-tuning involving model-combination or adding more data sources [6]. Out of many software tools, WEKA is chosen because it is easy to use and it is easily accessible. Searching for the best computer intelligence method that is suitable for artificial dataset was the first step. Which algorithm to use is to be based on dataset form and trial and error method. Getting a good result from the start with a random forest method gave indication in which direction to go. For the analysis of the available data set, five different regression algorithms were used: �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 • Linear Regression • Random Forest • REPTree • SMOreg • Multilayer Perceptron These algorithms are recommended for these types of datasets [7]. Regression analysis was helpful to model the relationship between dependent variables (cooling load) and independent variables (8 attributes in our dataset), and because a class from a data set (cooling load) has a large number of different instances. Cross validation was used with ten folds, to get insight of how the model will behave to an unknown dataset. All of the above algorithms are regression algorithms, with the same goal, but working in different ways. Linear regression models are linear predictor functions whose model parameters are estimated from the data. Linear regression models are often fitted using the least square approach, but they may be fitted in many other ways [8]. Random forest is an ensemble method, which creates multitude of decision trees, and gives as output mean prediction of individual trees. This algorithm applies bootstrap aggregating, or bagging, to its tree learners. Compared to decision tree random forest tends to provide more accurate classification of a feature, because of the decreased bias and variance. The more decision trees are chosen the more computational power is required [9]. Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree) is a fast decision tree learner, which creates multiple trees in different iterations and selects the best one from all created trees. REPTree builds regression tree information gain and prunes it using reduced-error pruning. For numeric attributes it sorts values only once [10]. SMOreg uses a support vector machine for regression. RegSMOImproved for SMOreg are used to learn parameters, but many other algorithms can be used, like Platt’s SMO [11]. Multilayer perceptron is a class of feedforward artificial neural networks. It consists of at least three layers of nodes: an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. It is by far the most popular architecture because of its structural flexibility, good representational capabilities, and the availability of a large number of training algorithms [12]. Feature selection is a key part of the applied machine learning process, just as model selection is. Feature selection should be considered as a part of the model selection process. If not, bias can inadvertently be introduced into models and it results in overfitting. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Feature selection must be included within the inner-loop when using accuracy estimation methods such as cross-validation. This means that feature selection is performed on the prepared fold right before the model is trained [7]. Dataset used in this work is small both in number of features and samples and it does not suffer from the “curse of dimensionality” [13] p.4. Feature selection and feature extraction methods are not recommended for this type of datasets with a small number of features [13] but extracting the information about which variables are most important, is important in this type of study. Choosing this particular approach is a type of rudimentary data mining. Four attribute evaluators and two search methods combinations are used: • CfsSubsetEval and BestFirst • ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker • ClassifierSubsetEval and BestFirst • CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker CfsSubsetEval creates subsets of attributes, where predictive ability of each feature and level of redundancy is considered. Features need to be highly correlated with class and low intercorrelation. Best first search method is used with CfsSubsetEval. ClassifierAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by using a user-specified classifier. For example if we use linear regression on our dataset, linear regression needs to be chosen for the classifier attribute evaluator. Ranker search method is used with classifier attribute evaluators. Classifiersubseteval evaluates attribute subsets on training data or a separate hold out testing set. Same as classifier attribute evaluator it uses classifier to estimate how good are subsets. Bestfirst search method is used with ClassifierSubsetEval. CorrelationAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by measuring the correlation between it and the class. Each value of an attribute is treated as an indicator. Ranker method is used with CorrelationAttributeEval. Best-first search method searches the space of attribute subsets by greedy hill-climbing augmented with a backtracking facility. Bestfirst may start with the empty set of attributes and search forward, or start with the full set of attributes and search backward, or start at any point and search in both directions. Ranker search method ranks attributes by their individual evaluations, where it is used with attribute evaluators. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 4. Results and Discussion Classical statistical tools like probability distribution were used firstly in order to get the sense of the data. Table 2 represents the attribute subset evaluator used on random forests. Random forests with Classifier Subset Evaluator and Best First search method gave the best results for all the combinations. Best First search method is a heuristic or informed search; it evaluates the second step before taking the first. Then it chooses which way to go. For this combination of methods only attribute nr.2 (Surface Area), is not considered. Since the volume of the buildings is fixed it is logical that surface area has a little variation and therefore a little impact on the result. Table 2. Results for combination of random forest and search methods Random Forest Attribute Correlation Mean Root Relative Root Relative Selected Evaluator and Coefficient Absolute Mean Absolute Squared Error Attribute Error Squared Error 1.4319 2.2692 16.6687 Search Method CfsSubSetEval 0.9711 and BestFirst Classifier s 23.8241% 3, 5, 6, 7 17.1345% 1, 2, 3, 4, % 0.9582 1.0079 1.6320 AttributeEval and 11.7324 % 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker Classifier 0.959 2.0323 2.6933 AttributeEval and 23.3581 28.2775% 1, 2, 4, 5 17.0046% 1, 3, 4, 5, % Ranker ClassifierSubsetE 0.9854 0.9967 1.6196 val and BestFirst CorrelationAttrib 11.6030 % 0.9852 1.0079 1.6320 uteEval and 11.7324 6, 7, 8 17.1345% % 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker CorrelationAttrib 0.9841 uteEval and 1.0859 1.6904 12.6408 17.7479% 5, 1, 3, 7 % Ranker Relationship between the volume of a built form and the surface area of its enclosure is called compactness. Roundness is a similar feature. R. Buckminster Fuller, engineer and an architect claimed that round houses have best energy efficiency, and an attempt to extract this feature has been made, but with no results. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Surface area, attribute nr.2, directly shows compactness of the building and by similarity, roundness. Classifier attribute evaluators removed this feature and gave the best correlation coefficient meaning that compactness has no impact on cooling load. Usage of geometric compactness for such evaluative purposes is criticized on multiple grounds. It does not capture the specific morphology of the building shape, disregards transparent blocks of the structure and does not correlate with orientation att. nr. 6 [14]. High correlation coefficient with all attributes included, except for surface area finally pointed that compactness does not affect thermal load. Our model gave similar results using the same dataset as Tsanas and Xifara [2] with slightly better correlation coefficient which is shown in Table 3 for classifier attribute evaluator and ranker, in Table 4 for correlation attribute evaluator and ranker. Table 3. Ranking of attributes according to attribute evaluator and ranker ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x1 Relative compactnes 6.8134 x2 Surface area 6.8134 x4 Roof area 5.5105 x5 Overall height 5.2827 x3 Wall area 2.3935 x7 Glazing area 0.1718 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0306 Table 4. Ranking attributes according to correlation attribute evaluator and ranker CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x5 Overall height 0.8958 x1 Relative compactnes 0.6343 x3 Wall area 0.4271 x7 Glazing area 0.2075 �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0505 x6 Orientation 0.0143 x2 Surface area -0.673 x4 Roof area -0.8625 Further study is to be done with different variations of cross folds with above-mentioned algorithms. Results would be standing stronger if another dataset to test our algorithm was available. “K-nearest neighbor” algorithm gave poor results. It is a “data sensitive” algorithm, vulnerable when faced with large amounts of data. Different datasets would be a great boost to this work to test methods against them. Parameter tuning is an iterative process, and Weka makes it easy to use it, without need to understand how parameters work. Especially, when dealing with feature selection, bias can be inadvertently introduced into models as it can give unforeseen consequences, mostly overfitting [7] [15]. Numerical values calculated by software simulations, lies very closely to previous results. Close values as compared to similar studies on the same dataset is a characteristic of the machine learning scientific field and using different methods and coming to the same results is an achievement [16]. 6. Conclusion Results of the previous study were repeated [17], and further work was done with examining cooling load resulting in slightly better correlation coefficient than in article with high scientific impact [2]. Trial and error are at the core of machine learning. Choosing right algorithms is a trade-off between speed, accuracy, and complexity. Starting with simple combinations and then adding complexity is the core of dealing with machine learning while constantly having in mind what type of data is dealt with. Empirical study gives answers to what algorithm to use or what parameters to choose. Knowing beforehand what method will work best is almost impossible. Constantly iterating different combinations of similar methods with systematic workflow and using Weka is a way forward. New and easy accessible software packages makes it easier to spot and exploit new research areas, which previously were inaccessible due to low computing capability. REFERENCES �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 [1] Y-T. Chen, “The Factors Affecting Electricity Consumption and Sector – A Case of Taiwan”, 2017. [2] A. Tsanas, A. Xifara, “Accurate quantitative estimation of energy performance of residential building using statistical machine learning tools”, Science Direct, 2012, p 9. [3] A. Yezioro, “An applied artificial intelligence approach towards assessing building performance simulation tools”, Energy and Buildings, 2007, p 40. [4] T. Catalina, J. Virgone, “Cooling energy demand evaluation by means of regression models”. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference Enhanced Building Operations, New York City 2011, pp 6. [5] D. Datta, S. A. Tassou, D. Marriot, “Application of Neural Networks for the Prediction of the Energy Consumption”, 1997. [6] Mathworks, “Mastering Machine Learning: A Steb-by-Step Guide with MATLAB.” Available at: https://www.mathworks.com/campaigns/offers/mastering-machine-learning-withmatlab.confirmation.html?ab_test=b_version. [7] J. Brownlee, “Machine Learning Mastery With Weka”, Wellington: Jason Brownlee 2019. [8] X. Yan, X. Su, “Linear Regression Analysis: Theory and Computing”, World Scientific, 2009. [9] D. Natingga, “Data Science Algorithms in a Week”, 2017. [10] S. Kalmegh, “Analysis of WEKA Data Mining Algorithm REPTree, Simple Cart and RandomTree for Classification of Indian News.”, IJISET- International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology, 2015, Vol. 2 Issue 2. [11] S. K. Shevade, “Improvements to the SMO Algorithm for SVM Regression”, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 2000, vol. 11, no. 5-6. [12] P. Thomas, M. C. Suhner, “A new Multilayer Perceptron Pruning Algorithm for Classification and Regression Applications”, Neural Processing Letters, Springer Verlag, 2015, p 31. [13] M. S. Raza, U. Qamar, “Understanding and Using Rough Set Based Feature Selection – Concepts, Techniques and Applications”, Springer, 2017. [14] W. Pessenlehner, A. Mahdavi, “Building Morphology, Transparence and Energy Performance”, Eight International IBPSA Conference, Netherlands, Eindhoven, 2003. [15] M. Kosinski, Y. Wang, “Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2018. [16] J. Christian, “Statistician: Machine Learning Is Causing A Crisis in Science”, Available: https://futurism.com/machine-learning-crisis-science. [17] A. Bajek, A. Hasandić, “Energy Efficiency of the buildings.” Sarajevo: International Burch University 2017. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Author Author Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić Abstract A summary of the resource. Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords Keywords. cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021315 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27eac86735340248e4eda9d6b63e242a.pdf dfc7fdc2237adebaad2030ec2e8f4107 PDF Text Text Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura2 1 2 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina dalibor.dumic@stu.ibu.edu.ba slobodan.lubura@ets.ues.rs.ba Abstract – Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords – Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG 1. Introduction In each home network there are always heterogeneous devices that are expected to be connected. All of these devices are different if compared because they can be based on different hardware platforms, the controller services can be of a different nature, and also the software components for enabling the network access can vary [1]. For example, when we compare wearable technology based on the IoT like a smartwatch or wristband with smart home devices such as a washing machine or air conditioner, we will notice different capabilities in terms of memory usage, processing speed, and power consumption [2]. Because of that, the IoT devices can be generally classified based on their key characteristics: ● communication flows in the system, ● memory management, ● data manipulation and processing, ● power control and consumption. For example, a smart coffee machine is not always powered on because it performs certain tasks when required, but only when a user turns on it via a user interface such as a mobile application whenever the user wants to drink a coffee or when the user is on the way to home and wants to have already prepared coffee. These kinds of devices consume less power for communication. There are many actuators in home automation systems that must be managed by systems connected to the Internet via network protocols [3]. �The focus of this paper is on the practical implementation of the methodology proposed in [4] and this methodology was carried out by the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol that will be used as a network protocol for enabling the connection of the gateway with the Internet. The gateway will perform effective management of sensors and devices in a home network and it will be based on the RESTful technologies. The paper is organized into five sections. Section 1 introduces us to the IoT systems and the purpose of this paper. In Section 2, the NETCONF protocol and its features are introduced. The proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol in the IoT is detailed in Section 3. The results of the proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol are noted in Section 4. The benefits of the proposed integration and the main conclusions are discussed in Section 5. 2. The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) and its features A. NETCONF The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol with great features such as installing, manipulating, and deleting the configuration of the devices in the network. Its purpose is managing network devices, retrieving its configuration data, and uploading or manipulating new configuration data of the network devices [5]. That means devices on the network can take different states according to their configuration. To switch between the device’s states, the configuration datastores are used. By definition, a configuration datastore contains a set of information that is needed for the configuration, and thereby that configuration is required to change the state of a device to chosen operational state from its initial default state. NETCONF currently supports event notification features and the following multiple configuration datastores [6]: ● "running" – this configuration is always present and it is used as the currently active configuration ● "startup" – this configuration is used in the next startup ● "candidate” - this configuration that can be used instead of currently running configuration through an explicit commit. By using NETCONF operations, it is possible to manipulate device configuration. The NETCONF operations are invoked as Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) from the client to the server. Some minor operations are [6]: ● “commit” - commits the "candidate" configuration to "running", ● “copy-config” - copy one configuration datastore to another, ● “edit-config” - changes the contents of a configuration database, ● “get-config” - retrieves configuration datastore, ● “lock” - prevent changes to a datastore from another party, and ● “unlock” - releases lock on a datastore. �Configuration data stored on devices and the protocol messages between devices are encoded in Extensible Markup Language (XML) on both client and server side. Any script or application can be the client in order to be runned as part of a network manager. The server is typically a network device. There is a rule that a device on the network must support at least one NETCONF session. The main NETCONF message exchange between client and server in a single NETCONF session [7] is illustrated in Figure 1. At the start, the device and controller create a NETCONF session and share their list of their own capabilities by sending <hello> messages. A capability describes a supported data model. After the session has started,, the NETCONF executes exchanges <rpc> and <rpc-reply> messages. The <rpc> message consists of an enclosed NETCONF command which is sent from the controller to the device. The <get> command in the <rpc> message is used to get the running configuration and state information of the device (3). The <editconfig> request is used to write a specific configuration on the device (5). The <rpc-reply> message is sent from the device to the controller in response to a <rpc> message. The response data for the given method invoked is encoded as one or more child elements enclosed in the <rpc-reply> message. Figure 1. NETCONF messages The information that a client retrieves from the server consists of two parts: configuration data and state data [6]. The purpose of the configuration data is to give a description of actions that will change a system from its previous state into the state described in the configuration data, while the purpose of the state data is to provide information such as read-only status data and collected statistics. For specifying NETCONF data models and operations, the YANG data modeling language is used. A. YANG To perform the NETCONF operations, a YANG module has to be defined as a hierarchy of data such as configuration data, state data, RPCs, and notifications. By defining the YANG module, a description of all data sent between both NETCONF client-side and server-side becomes completed. Each YANG module is consisting of statements and some of the statements are previewed in Table 1 [8]. Table 1. YANG statements Statements augment choice Description Extends existing data hierarchies Defines mutually �container extension feature grouping key exclusive alternatives Defines mutually exclusive alternatives Allows new statements to be added to YANG Indicates parts of the model are optional Groups data definitions into reusable sets Defines the key leafs for lists Defines a leaf node in the data hierarchy A leaf node that can appear multiple times leaf leaf-list list notification rpc typedef uses A hierarchy that can appear multiple times Defines notification Defines input and output parameters for an RPC Defines a new type Incorporates the contents of a "grouping" With the help of XML parsers and XSLT scripts, a translation of the YANG module into an equivalent XML syntact becomes possible. Every YANG module consists of a set of built-in types and has a type mechanism through which additional types may be defined. The modeler of the YANG module can add constraints to the model to prevent impossible or illogical data. The purpose of these constraints is to provide information about the data being sent from the server and help a client to understand the data that the server will accept in order to avoid sending incorrect data from the client to the server. Table 2 briefly describes some other common YANG constraints [9] Table 2. YANG constraints Statements length Description Limits the length of string �mandatory max-elements min-elements Requires the node appear Limits the number of instances in list Limits the number of instances in list must XPath expression must be true pattern range reference unique when Regular expression must be satisfied Value must appear in range Value must appear elsewhere in the data Value must be unique within the data Node is only present when XPath expression is true Generally said, the YANG module is a single data model that contains three types of statements: ● module-header statements – they describe the module and provide the information about the module ● revision statements – they provide information about the history of the module ● definition statements – they are the body of the module where the YANG module is defined. In order to use the YANG module, it firstly has to be defined or modeled to the specific problem domain. After that, the YANG module can be loaded, compiled, or coded into the server. In the end, the NETCONF server may implement any number of the YANG modules [10]. 3. Proposed Methodology After the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol and retrieving its features, an implementation of the proposed integration was divided into two parts: server-side and client-side, as it is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Both client and server sides are communicating over the Internet [4] A. Server-side To implement the proposed integration, the following requirements are defined: �● small physical dimensions, because it has to be hidden in home installation and not visible; ● able to boot Linux Operating System, since the Linux OS is open-source; ● has General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins for interfacing with the sensors and devices, ● has Ethernet port and/or WiFi module, and ● CPU based on ARM for fast computing. A great match for the single board with the following characteristics is Raspberry Pi 3 B+, which is based on a 1.4GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor. The good thing about Raspberry Pi is that it has the GPIO module which can be used through several programming languages such as C, C#, Python, Java, etc. The fact is that the integration will be implemented by using Python programming language and it makes Raspberry Pi a perfect match [11]. A server would be connected via appropriate connection lines to these rooms as it is shown in the Figure 3. Figure 3. Raspberry Pi as server connected to sensors and devices in each room via GPIO line [4] In order to build a server, the Netopeer2, a set of tools implementing network configuration based on the NETCONF protocol, is installed [12][13]. Each room in a home has sensors and relays for controlling devices. For each room, a custom YANG module is created, and each custom YANG module manipulates with data such as temperature, humidity, open or closed status, turned off or turned on status, etc. Thanks to custom YANG modules, the server can easily manage the information related to the sensors and relays in the home. The structure of the simplest custom YANG module for a room is shown in the section “Appendix”. �B. Client-side On the client-side, any device which supports the NETCONF protocol can communicate with the server. However, the challenge is to develop an application by means of RESTful services. It should send the RPC commands such as “edit-config” or “get-config” directly to the NETCONF server in order to retrieve information about rooms in the user’s home. Finally, its interface must be user-friendly and rich with data charts, data graphs, toggle buttons, etc. The very first step is to develop a script that shall “talk” with the NETCONF server. Thanks to the enormous possibilities of the Python programming language, it is possible to communicate with the server via the NETCONF protocol by using ncclient library. The ncclient library enables an easy way of the client-side scripting around the NETCONF protocol, and as well as the possibility of the application development [14]. The next step was to develop a web application and merge it with the script based on ncclient library. There are many high-level Python web frameworks and one of them is Django. Django is specific because it encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design [15]. By combining Django and ncclient, a powerful user-friendly web application is created, and it will fulfill its main purpose – to collect all information about the conditions such as temperature and humidity in the rooms of the user’s home and to control devices in the rooms of the user’s home, all of it over the NETCONF protocol. 4. Results On the client-side we have an application based on both front-end and back-end development in the Django framework and merging its back-end with the ncclient module for interfacing with the server as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Developed client application �On the server-side we have Raspberry Pi computer booting Linux OS which runs Netopeer2 and sysrepo modules for enabling the NETCONF protocol and interfacing the data through YANG modules. The Raspberry Pi is connected to several sensors and actuators, as shown in the Figure 5: Figure 5. Raspberry Pi running as the NETCONF server The URL of the recorded video of the methodology proposed in this paper can be found below in the reference section [16]. A clip from the recorded video is shown in Figure 6 and it can be seen that two processes are running parallely: sysrepo and netopeer2. Figure 6. Testing the proposed methodology An overview of both client and server sides is shown in Figure 7. �Figure 7. Used technologies on both client and server sides The complete overview of the proposed integration is shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Overview of the complete integrated system 4. Conclusion Through the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol, great capabilities of the NETCONF protocol are discovered. The NETCONF protocol allows us to have an unlimited number of YANG modules with different structures of the data. This characteristic of the NETCONF protocol is of crucial importance for using it in the home automation system and similar systems. The proposed integration is not a challenge anymore. Thanks to the powerful Python Web framework and ncclient Python library, it is possible to develop a rich web application that can be outperformed on many devices such as single board computers, desktop computers, notebooks, and even tablets. APPENDIX Implemented module for a room in the YANG language: module room1 { namespace "urn:sysrepo:room1"; prefix r1; description "The room yang module."; revision 2019-09-14 { description "Initial revision."; } container room-data { description "Room 1 info."; leaf temperature { �description "Actual temperature inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..125"; } } leaf humidity { description "Actual humidity inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..100"; } } leaf ac-status { description "Informs whether the AC is switched on or off."; type boolean; } } } ACKNOWLEDGMENT Many thanks to the experts from the RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems in Banja Luka who contributed and influenced so much to the development of this research from the early stages of the project. REFERENCES [1] M. Tooba, A. Muhammad and A. M. Martinez-Enriquez, "Smart Solution for Heterogeneous Device Interoperability in IoT," 2018 Seventeenth Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (MICAI), Guadalajara, Mexico, 2018, pp. 70-75, [2] Van den Abeele, F., Hoebeke, J., Moerman, I., & Demeester, P. (2015). Integration of Heterogeneous Devices and Communication Models via the Cloud in the Constrained Internet of Things. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. [3] Vijay S., Banga M.K. (2018) Management of IoT Devices in Home Network via Intelligent Home Gateway Using NETCONF. In: Kumar N., Thakre A. (eds) Ubiquitous Communications and Network Computing. UBICNET 2017. Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, vol 218. Springer, Cham [4] D. Đumić, S. Došlić, M. Antić, B. Milić, “Integration of the NETCONF Protocol in the Internet of Things by means of RESTful Web Services”, 6th International Conference on Electrical, Electronic and Computing Engineering IcETRAN, pp. 983 - 987, ETRAN Society, June 2019 [5] R. Enns, M. Brojklund, J. Schoenwaelder and A. Bierman, “Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6241 [6] H. Ji, B. Zhang, G. Li, X. Gao and Y. Li, "Challenges to the New Network Management Protocol: NETCONF," 2009 First International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science, Wuhan, Hubei, 2009, pp. 832-836, doi: 10.1109/ETCS.2009.189. �[7] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini and P. Castoldi, "Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG," 2016 International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling (ONDM), Cartagena, 2016, pp. 1-6 [8] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini, P. Castoldi, “Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG”, International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling, pp. 1 – 6, IEEE, May 2016 [9] P. Shafer, “An Architecture for Network Management using NETCONF and YANG”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011, [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-ietf-netmod-arch-07.html [10] M. Brojklund, “YANG – A Data Modeling Language for the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, October 2010. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6020 [11] The Raspberry Pi Foundation. “Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+”, [Online], Available: https://www.raspberrypi.org/products/raspberry-pi-3-model-b-plus/ [12] Czech Educational and Research Network (CESNET), “Netopeer2 – The NETCONF Toolset”, [Online], Available: https://github.com/CESNET/Netopeer2 [13] sysrepo - YANG-based datastore for Unix/Linux application, [Online], Available: http://www.sysrepo.org/static/doc/html/start_page.html [14] S. Bhushan, L. Poulopouls, Python library for NETCONF clients, [Online], Available: http://ncclient.readthedocs.org/ [15] Django Software Foundation, [Online], Available: https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/3.0/ [16] NETCONF Protocol + Raspberry Pi + Django = Home Automation || Yugoscientiz © 2019, [Online], Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoiYGt2NbCA � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Author Author Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura Abstract A summary of the resource. Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords Keywords. Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021314 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/277ccb2bcc1a93885c5603d23beeeaa1.pdf 713fcc8ab28178f5189f971fd2845cb6 PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ibrahim.muzaferija@stu.ibu.edu.ba zerina.masetic@ibu.edu.ba samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba dino.keco@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure. Keywords - Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning 1. Introduction Data mining (DM) is an approach to discover useful information in data. It uses statistical and machine learning (ML) techniques to operate on large volumes of data to discover hidden patterns and relationships that describe the behaviors of systems that produced the data. Relationships and patterns discovered provide helpful insight into decision making, as well as making predictions, thus solving numerous problems. In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of ML techniques in many fields, such as education, economics, business, statistics, medicine, and sport. The main objective of this paper is to apply ML techniques in the educational field to analyze student behaviors and to predict whether the student will attend the class. Traditionally, educational institutions are collecting large volumes of data related to students, classes, faculty members, and educational processes. However, collected data is often not analyzed enough to provide significant results. In general, collected data is used for producing simple reports that are not highly significant in contributing to the decision making process in the institutions. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Currently, educational systems aim to enhance the teaching and learning process by carefully analyzing collected data, and discovering patterns related to student behavior and their final outcome. Reasons are to identify which students will perform well, so that they can be awarded scholarships and more importantly, to identify the students who may fail so that some form of help and assistance may be offered to them. Besides identifying students by their performance, it's also important to discover which aspects of teaching and learning systems facilitate student learning and success. One of the aspects that are closely related to student performance is student attendance, meaning that students who have a higher attendance rate also have a higher success rate in the end [1]. The paper is structured in seven sections: 1. Introduction section; 2. The previous work section describes the previous efforts for the topic; 3. The methods and materials section describes data cleaning and processing steps; 4. The model creation section describes model selection and creation methodology; 5. The results section provides model results and evaluation; 6. In the discussion section, a comparison between this study and previous studies is made; 7. The conclusion section provides recommendations for future work in the area of educational data mining. 2. Previous Work Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] applied machine learning methods from the WEKA tool in order to predict students' performance from the College of Science and Technology – Khan Younis. Thir work was concluded with two classification algorithms, Naive Bayes and J48, which provided an accuracy of 63.59% and 63,53% respectively. C. Anuradha and T. Velmurugan [3] conducted a comparative analysis of the evaluation of classification algorithms in the prediction of students' performance. The dataset was obtained from the college database, containing 19 attributes that describe the student, his family, and the living environment, as well as previous performances. Their goal was to compare algorithms in predicting students’ performance in end semester examinations. The results show that Bayesian classifiers, as well as JRip and J48, had the highest accuracy which is very close to 70%. Abeer Badr El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby [4] describe the importance of Educational Data Mining (EDM) and Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) in achieving the main goal of higher education institutions, that is, providing quality education to students. They used classification algorithms to identify those students who needed special attention in order to reduce the failing ratio and taking appropriate action at the right time, resulting in a decrease of the falling ratio by more than 15%. Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] used a dataset that contains a huge number of features that describe a student, by applying feature selection algorithms like Correlation-Based Feature Selection (CBFS) and Information Gain Attribute Evaluation (IGATE), they reduced the number of features and performed cross �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 modeling with five machine learning algorithms: Decision Trees (DT), Bayesian Networks (BN), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP). Features related to gender, university, time, and family are the ones having the highest information gain, as well as the models created using decision tree algorithms, provide 10-15% more reliable performance in comparison to other classification algorithms. The study conducted by Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] confirms that past performances have indeed got a significant influence over current performances. Further, they used neural network algorithms and confirmed that the accuracy of the algorithms is proportional to dataset size, meaning that with the increase of dataset size, the algorithms generalize the problem better. In this paper, we’ll address the problem with a selection of best-performing machine learning algorithms for EDA, as proposed by Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] and Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2], such as Logistic Regression, Decision Tree, Rule-based, k-NN, etc. Moreover, an increased number of data samples is obtained in order to improve the algorithms generalizing ability, in contrast to the number of data samples used in the previous study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2]. 3. Methods and Materials The research is based on CRISP-DM [7] methodology as it describes common approaches used by data mining experts, while the paper contains a simplified version of the processing model shown below. Figure 1. Data processing workflow A. Data selection Initial data was obtained from International Burch University’s Student Academic System [8] and contains 2nd-year student attendance data from the years 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Although the dataset doesn't contain all the details about the students and their classes (such as day of the week in which the class was held, exact start and end time of classes, professor ID, etc.), it’s enough to extract the patterns of student attendance behavior and create a model that predicts it. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 The data was obtained as an SQL file, and after importing the file to the local database, RapidMiner [9] was used to fetch the tables and store them in CSV format. Every further operation is done using the RapidMiner, as it has the Weka [10] extension. The following table displays whether or not an attribute of the original dataset was copied over to the data mining dataset. All the selected attributes were considered relevant to the task of predicting student attendance to classes. Table 1. Initial dataset attribute selection Table Attribute Accepted Notes student_id x No need for additional IDs student_number x No need for additional IDs student_id ✓ Student ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch x Same values in other tables year x Same values in other tables semester x Same values in other tables student_id ✓ Student ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch ✓ Branch year ✓ Year semester ✓ Semester number course_date ✓ Starting date of the week in which class was held type ✓ Type of the class students student_courses student_attendance course_attendance �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 topic x Not relevant / High cardinality duration ✓ Duration of the class B. Data Cleansing In order to get an insight into data quality, graphical and statistical methods were used to detect anomalies, faults, outliers, missing values, etc. First, the dataset was divided into four parts: 1st semester of 2016, 2nd semester of 2016, 1st semester of 2017, and 2nd semester of 2017. After examination, data related to both semesters of the year 2016 contained no anomalies and were consistent, thus were labeled as clean data. Furthermore, 2nd semester of the year 2017 contained incomplete data due to university system failure (class attendance from the last 2 weeks is missing), and 1st-semester data were not consistent (having a huge number of recorded attendances in the 14th week and almost none in 15th week). The dataset contained automatic attendance values that were irrelevant for creating a model and those samples were removed. Some attendance samples recorded before and after the semester were marked as outliers. Samples related to midterm and final exams showed the decrease of recorded attendances due to the nature of exam weeks, as instead of multiple lectures in those weeks, only one was held - the exam. Those samples were not relevant in predicting the lecture attendance and were discarded. C. Deriving Data From the course_date attribute, containing the date of the week in which the class was held, week attribute was derived, containing week number in the semester. The attribute attended is added to the table student_attendances and contains the value 1, which reflects that the student attended the class. Later when joining tables, this attribute will have missing values which indicate that students didn't attend the class. The dataset contains only the records of students that attended the class and no records of students that didn't attend. In order to populate the attribute attended with reflection did the student attend the class, joining the tables is necessary. First, by performing an inner join of student_courses and course_attendance tables, matching course_code from one table with course_code from another, a new table is created containing a matched list of students per course attendance IDs. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Next, by performing a left join of the previously created table and student_attendance table, matching both attendance_id and student_id from one table with attendance_id and student_id from another table, a new table is created containing attendance values where the student attended the class and missing values where the student was absent. Finally, missing values were replaced with 0, indicating that the student was absent. D. Dataset Creation During the data preparation phase, attributes considered most relevant were selected to shape the model's prediction capabilities. Then, using the RapidMiner tool, all data was cleaned and exported as a CSV dataset that will be used in training and testing the model. The final dataset contains about 58,000 attendance samples from the 2nd semester of the year 2016, and the following table displays qualitative and quantitative aspects of all the attributes present on the final dataset. The goal attribute (or prediction class) is “attended” which indicates did the student attend the class (marked as 1) or not (marked as 0). Table 2 - Final dataset attribute description Attribute Data type Range Missing values Distinct values Unique values Statistics id integer [1,58019] 0 58019 58019 — attended integer 0,1 0 2 0 Least: 1 (21327) Most: 0 (36692) course_code nominal MAN 201, (...) 0 85 0 Least: IRES 305 (5) Most: MAN 201 (6784) branch nominal A,B,C,D,E, F 0 6 0 Least: D (1628) Most: A (37368) type nominal Recitation, lecture, lab 0 3 0 Least: recitation (1954) Most: lecture (46511) duration integer [1,4] 0 4 0 Min: 1 Max: 4 Average: 1.684 week integer [1,15] 0 15 0 Min: 1 Max: 15 Average: 7.861 4. Model Creation This machine learning problem belongs to the classification types [11]. In order to reach the business goal, the complete understanding of data is required to generate the model. Currently, there are several modeling algorithms for classification types of problems, and they are shown in the table below. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 In order to correctly create, evaluate and validate the model, one of the key steps is the separation of the data into training, testing, and validation. Table 3. Machine Learning algorithms Type Name Functions Logistic Regression ID3 (Decision Tree) C4.5 (J48) Trees Random Forest One-Rule Rules PRISM Memory-Based k-NN The most convenient method for training and testing separation is called Cross-Validation [12], as it splits the data into folds, and crosses the results of training and testing with different folds. The cross-validation is conducted using five folds of training data. Validation data will not be used in cross-validation in order to provide reliable testing results at the end. 5. Results All the decision tree algorithms had the minimal gain set to “0.01” in order to prevent premature pruning of the tree branches, and pruning confidence threshold to “0.25”. Other model settings have been kept on the default values because they are preselected for optimal model performance. After applying manifold training and testing methods known as cross-validation [13], building the models with different algorithms yielded promising results, as shown using the metrics such as accuracy, the area under the curve (AUC), precision, recall, fallout, and f-measure [14]. Moreover, models have been evaluated with validation data holdout and the results match with the cross-validation testing results presented below. Table 4. Evaluations of created models Algorithm Accuracy AUC Precision Recall Fallout F-Measure �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Logistic Regression 75.37% 0.803 71.09% 55.63% 13.16% 62.41% ID3 68.38% 0.697 56.20% 63.31% 28.68% 59.54% C4.5 77.41% 0.812 73.04% 61.12% 13.12% 66.55% Random Forest 66.48% 0.700 56.41% 38.73% 17.39% 45.92% One-Rule 74.60% 0.500 69.25% 55.65% 14.39% 61.69% PRISM 64.15% 0.500 71.90% 4.07% 0.93% 7.70% K-NN 70.42% 0.672 58.13% 69.86% 29.25% 63.45% The machine learning algorithm that creates the most accurate model is a decision tree algorithm known as C4.5. The reason is the enhanced method of tree pruning that reduces misclassification errors due to noise and too many details in the training data set, as described in the study conducted by Anuja Priyam et al [15]. The accuracy of the model is fairly satisfying, taking into consideration that previous works provided an accuracy of less than 70%. As opposed to previously mentioned studies, our data set contains more examples thus produces a more accurate prediction model. This process allows the extraction of relevant information from the model and helps draw the lines of action for this business problem. Table 5. Confusion matrix for C4.5 model true 0 true 1 class precision predicted 0 31878 8291 79.36% predicted 1 4814 13036 73.03% class recall 86.88% 61.12% In regards to interpretability, the decision tree generated by the C4.5 algorithm is easy to interpret as the size of the tree generated is 357 and the number of leaves is 230. The most important attribute on the dataset, as taken from the model, is the course code. Furthermore, it's wrong to assume that one student attending classes has the same cost, from a business perspective, as one that never goes to class. That means that students that attend classes are beneficial and students that miss classes have a cost. With that in mind, the model needs to help in finding the solutions that decrease the overall cost. There are four possibilities: 1. We predicted the student would attend class and he did; 2. We predicted the student would not attend class and he did not; 3. We predicted the student would attend class, but he did not; 4. We predicted the student would not attend class, but he did. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Point 1 is the best scenario, so it needs to have a negative cost (to be a benefit). Point 2 is the worst case, so it needs to have the highest cost. Point 3 is also negative, but not as negative as the previous one. Point 4 is positive, but not as good as the first point. With that information, it is possible to build a cost matrix for the class “Attended”: Table 6. Cost matrix for the model Actual T F T -15 15 F -5 5 Prediction Building the cost-matrix doesn’t affect the model’s performance but aids in the final outcome of prediction by introducing the business bias and targeting to increase the business value. 6. Discussion The possible issue with the study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] is the small number of instances (as low as 52) contained in the dataset and used to build the model. In order to make a model more accurate and more prone to generalization, Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] propose using a higher number of instances, which made the model described in this paper more accurate. Moreover, crossvalidation, as one of the extra steps that are taken in model construction, increased the model’s overall ability to generalize and provide higher accuracy than models in previous studies. While conducting the research, it was noticed that the quantity and quality of data plays a crucial role in the final outcome and performance. We highly devise to use a high number of instances in future studies, and continuum stream of attendance data in deployed models to continuously train the model as the trends responsible for student attendance dynamic behavior progresses over time. The feature engineering task in the data preparation step has yielded significant model improvement as compared to the models from previous studies that are built without deriving new attributes. Moreover, the induction of external data has also improved the performance of the model as outliers were removed. 7. Conclusion This study has shown that patterns for student attendance exist and can predict whether the student will attend the class. The importance of student data quantity and quality is presented, as well as the methods for cleaning and transforming the data. The creation of a machine learning model should include cross- �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 validation as one of the key steps, and we devise using multiple algorithms for achieving the best results. When there is a business value to achieve, it’s recommended to use a cost-matrix to further adjust the model and increase the business value. The model for predicting student attendance can be used to improve in the area of causing factors and increase the attendance ratio, which will subsequently increase the passing ratio, i.e., the number of students that graduate. Future works can include an increase in data set examples, as well as dimensionality increase by adding attributes for external factors of students’ attendance, such as a professor who held the lecture and weather information of the day. REFERENCES [1] A. S. N. Kim, S. Shakory, A. Arman, C. Popovic, and L. Park, “Understanding the impact of attendance and participation on academic achievement,” 2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000151. [Accessed: 14-Feb-2020]. [2] “Prediction Of Student Performance Using Weka Tool,” Vidya Publications. [Online]. Available: http://ijoes.vidyapublications.com/paper/Vol17/02-Vol17.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [3] “A Comparative Analysis on the Evaluation of Classification Algorithms in the Prediction of Students Performance.” [Online]. Available: http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/74555/58051. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [4] A. B. El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby, “Data Mining: A prediction for Student’s Performance Using Classification Method,” HR PUB. [Online]. Available: http://www.hrpub.org/download/20140105/WJCAT3-13701793.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018]. [5] “Early Prediction of Students Performance using Machine Learning Techniques,” Semantics Scholar. [Online]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6447/4a9172a97cdf5d39c6fdcc21fc0c61fc7df3.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [6] “Student Performance Prediction using Machine Learning.” [Online]. Available: http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~rexlei86/SPP/otherswork/V4I3-IJERTV4IS030127.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [7] “IBM Knowledge Center.” [Online]. Available: https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS3RA7_15.0.0/com.ibm.spss.crispdm.help/crisp_ove rview.htm. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [8] International Burch University, “Home,” International Burch University. [Online]. Available: https://www.ibu.edu.ba/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [9] “Lightning Fast Data Science Platform for Teams | RapidMiner©,” RapidMiner, 19-Jan-2016. [Online]. Available: https://rapidminer.com/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [10] “Weka 3 - Data Mining with Open Source Machine Learning Software in Java.” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [11] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 [12] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. [13] “3.1. Cross-validation: evaluating estimator performance — scikit-learn 0.21.3 documentation.” [Online]. Available: https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/cross_validation.html. [Accessed: 10-Nov2019]. [14] L. Egghe, “The measures precision, recall, fallout and miss as a function of the number of retrieved documents and their mutual interrelations,” Inf. Process. Manag., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 856–876, Mar. 2008. [15] “Comparative Analysis of Decision Tree Classification Algorithms” [Online]. Available: https://inpressco.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Paper17334-3371.pdf. [Accessed: 05-July-2020]. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Author Author Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure Keywords Keywords. Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021313 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ce3ee80befbef6a1b69b1e7067b0262.pdf 371f86fa32eeedceeb3439bff85b522d PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Overview of Human Lineage Genetic Marker Studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Y chromosome story Aldin Pirić1, Sabahudin Ćordić1, Lejla Smajlović-Skenderagić1, Serkan Dogan1, Damir Marjanović1,2 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia aldin.piric@stu.ibu.edu.ba sabahudin.cordic@stu.ibu.edu.ba l.smajlovic.skenderagic@ibu.edu.ba serkan.dogan@ibu.edu.ba damir.marjanovic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state consisting of multiple ethnicities and regions located in the Western Balkan, with a very complex history. The earliest historical findings show that its area was inhabited since the Paleolithic. From that time, this part of Europe, especially the region of the Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, could be recognized as the crossroad for the different human migration and the meeting point for different cultures, religions and gene pools. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers. Lineage markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. The main intention of this paper is to construct a short overview of the Y chromosome studies performed in Bosnia and Herzegovina within the last two decades. Keywords - Bosnia and Herzegovina, lineage markers, molecular markers, population genetic studies, Y chromosome 1. Introduction Existent archeological artifacts are proving that territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been populated since Neolithic [1]. However, some of the archeological findings imply that the first inhabitants settled here in the Paleolithic era [2]. In the early Bronze Age, Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians settled in the various region of the modern territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. [3] the tribes were governed by the Romans for more than five centuries [4]. During that time, a lot of the residents of the Roman empire, including Roman soldiers settled down in the region [1]. After the fall of the Roman empire, this area remained a borderline between the Eastern and Western empires which encouraged. various tribes, such the Avars, the Slavs, and others, that massively invade this region. Additionally, two important events, along with several other historical episodes, significantly impacted the structure of B&H human population. The first of those are large migration waves from the North-East (which were extremely intensive during the 6th and 7th centuries) which moved different Gothic, Avar and Slavic clans into the area. The second one was the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into this part of the Balkans in the fifteenth century [5]. All these historical episodes left their imprint on the �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 population structure of modern B&H inhabitants and created fascinating genetic diversity within. Therefore, it is not surprising that modern B&H population is one of the most genetically studied regional populations, especially by the use of so-called lineage genetic markers. Unlike autosomal markers, Y-linked and mitochondrial markers do not undergo each generation shuffling, but instead get passed down from one generation to the next, with the only differences being induced by mutations. For these reasons, these markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers [6]. Previously published papers presented a short historical overview of earlier published human population studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, conducted within the last three centuries [7,8]. However, usage of the lineage markers within those papers was just briefly noted. Expansion of human population studies based on these genetic markers, as well as the significance of the obtained results, initiated us to put more attention on this part of BH population genetics. Therefore, this paper will extensively elaborate usage of the Y chromosome DNA markers within analysis of the BH human genetic pool, including the most recent data published after previously mentioned papers. 2. Human Y Chromosome as Genetic Marker Y chromosome has been given many different definitions, some of them being “nonrecombining desert” and “gene-poor chromosome”. Compared to other chromosomes, the Y chromosome has low number of genes with half of its sequence consisting of repeated elements. Moreover, it lacks the recombination ability and is in continuous decay. The Y chromosome is inherited through the patrilineal inheritance pattern, i.e., from father to son, meaning that each male person from the same patrilineal lineage would have an identical profile. The relatively small degree of molecular diversity between markers located on this chromosome comes from the absence of gene recombination in 95% of its length and the mechanism of random mutations as the only possible source of polymorphisms [6]. Denver convention criteria classifies the human Y chromosome as G chromosome, that is, the category of the shortest chromosomes in the human set, consisting also of chromosomes 21 and 22. It contains about 50 million base pairs, which makes out around 1.8% of the total human genome. The Y chromosome contains important information used in determining the parental lineage of a specific male. This is possible because the Y chromosome contains highly polymorphic regions. The human Y chromosome is present in a sole copy in normal males, inherited from the father, and, as already mentioned, 95% of its complex does not undergo recombination. Only 5% of this chromosome has the potential ability to interact with the X chromosome, and the interacting region is called the pseudoautosomal region of the Y chromosome [6]. The Y chromosome has an important role in forensic analyses in cases of rape of women, in particular, those involving more than one man, especially in cases of mixed samples when there is an overwhelming amount of female DNA. Y-STR (Short Tandem Repeat) and Y-SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) markers are useful in cases of parenthood testing or further kinship through the male line, when the children �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 are male, and in the process of identification when only kin from the father’s line is known. In addition, the Y chromosome is more and more being used in human migration studies due to its property of not undergoing recombination throughout the transfer of genetic material between generations [9]. Actually, since the first Y chromosome polymorphism was published [10], an entire decade has passed before the binary, and later STR markers, located on the NRY region found their wider application in phylogenetic studies monitoring human migration patterns, through the construction of phylogenetic trees [11]. The SNP patterns can be used to determine lineages which are referred to as haplogroups. Haplogroups can also be inferred from readily available Y-STR genotyping data. Vast amount of forensic Y-STR data is available for the use in population genetic studies [12]. 3. Overview of the Y Chromosome Population Genetic Studies in Recent B&H Inhabitants The analysis of STR and SNP variation, autosomal, and Y-chromosome markers were studied so that molecular genetic diversity of B&H could get incorporated into regional and European frames, but also to provide necessary reference for statistical calculations used in forensic genetics. In order to ensure the most relevant calculation, the data are still periodically updated. Initial results were obtained by observing 28 Y-chromosome biallelic markers in the B&H population [13]. This study was constructed on the ground of regional data and designed to include 256 male individuals. The results showed extremely close genetic relationship between three populations (three main Bosnian and Herzegovinian ethnic groups) and their close relationship to other populations in the Balkans. Of course, further elaboration of this issue required additional studies with a multidisciplinary approach, application of additional molecular markers, expansion of the sample and structural investigation of each ethnic group, as well as the analysis of ancient genetic material from the archeological skeletal samples. In the same year (2005) very first Y STR population data set for the BH human population was published [14]. Hundred tested males have been voluntary donors. The PowerPlex®Y System has been used in order to amplify 12 Y-STR loci by via PCR. These STR loci are: DYS19, DYS385a, DYS385b, DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438 and DYS439. From eighty-one detected Y-STR haplotypes (from a total number of 100 obtained samples) 69 were unique, 7 appeared two times, 4 appeared three and only 1 five times. Statistical analysis incorporated: gene diversity, major allele frequency, the most frequent haplotypes, allele frequency distribution and observed haplotype diversity [3] for 12 PowerPlex®Y loci. Four years later, with the intent to improve existing database and to obtain more specific results for local populations for a variety of DNA markers, group of authors decided to analyze additional individuals from Canton Sarajevo area. Estimation of genetic diversity at 12 Y-chromosomal STR loci included in the PowerPlex® Y System was used to extend the existing database, and create a more realistic view of the state of the genetic structure within regional Bosnian and Herzegovinian human population, in particular regarding the diversity among the isolated and non-isolated local populations. In addition, the intent of that study was to estimate genetic distinctiveness of the Canton Sarajevo population within the general B&H population as well as with populations of geographically neighboring countries. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Y-STR haplotypes were generated for a sample of 100 unrelated, healthy male individuals living in Canton Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) using PowerPlex®Y System kit [15]. Within this pool, the totals of 81 different haplotypes were detected with 71 of them unique. Absolute frequencies of the remaining 10 haplotypes were two for six haplotypes, three for two haplotypes, five for one haplotype and six for one haplotype. Obtained results suggested that the local population of Canton Sarajevo, with respect to the detected haplotype and gene diversity, may be considered a projection of general B&H population. Since this population represents the largest regional population in Bosnia and Herzegovina with emphasized migration influx this is quite a logical outcome. Four years later, in 2013, Y chromosome diversity of the B&H population was examined again, but with the increased number of STR loci. The sampling was performed using buccal swabs from unrelated, healthy men originating from all regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Total number of samples obtained was 100. DNA samples were typed for 23 Y STR loci, with 6 new loci: DYS481, DYS533, DYS576, DYS549, DYS643, and DYS570, which are included in the new PowerPlex® Y 23 amplification kit. The absolute frequency of generated haplotypes was calculated, and results showed that only two samples shared the identical Y 23 haplotype. DYS418 was identified as the most polymorphic locus, with 14 detected alleles and the minimum polymorphic loci were DYS437, DYS389I, DYS393, and DYS391. Decreasing the number of repeating haplotypes is very important in forensic DNA analysis, and this study showed that it can be achieved by increasing the number of highly polymorphic Y STR markers [16]. Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor was used to determine Y chromosome haplogroup frequencies via Y chromosome marker frequencies from the same 100 individuals [17]. According to those results, the most frequent haplogroup seems to be I2a, with a commonness of 49%, followed by R1a and E1b1b, each accounting for 17% of all haplogroups within the population. Remaining haplogroups encountered in this study are J2a (5%), I1 (4%), R1b (4%), J2b (2%), G2a (1%) and N (1%). Preliminary B&H population data published before 10 years was confirmed by these results. The prediction about B&H population as a part of the Western Balkan area, which served as the Last Maximum refuge for the Paleolithic human European population was also confirmed in this paper. Furthermore, these results corroborated the hypothesis that this region was an important stopping point on the “Middle East-Europe highway” during the Neolithic farmer migrations. Finally, since these results were almost completely in accordance with previously published data on B&H and neighboring populations that were generated by Y chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism (Y-SNP) analysis, it was concluded that in silico analysis of YSTRs is a reliable method for approximation of the Y chromosome haplogroup diversity of an examined population. In the meantime, the same STR set of loci was employed to explore the distribution and polymorphisms of 23 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and to investigate its genetic relationships with the homeland Turkish population and neighboring populations [18]. This study included 100 healthy unrelated male individuals from the Turkish population living in Sarajevo. Amplification was performed using PowerPlex Y 23 amplification kit. The studied population was compared to other populations using pairwise genetic distances, which were represented with a multi-dimensional scaling plot. Haplotype and allele frequencies of the sample population were calculated and the results showed that all 100 samples had unique haplotypes. The most polymorphic locus was DYS458, and the least polymorphic DYS391. The observed haplotype �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 diversity was 1.0000 ± 0.0014, with a discrimination capacity of 1.00 and the match probability of 0.01. Rst values showed that the observed population was closely related in both dimensions to the Lebanese and Iraqi populations, while it was more distant from Bosnian, Croatian, and Macedonian populations. At the end, the conclusion is that Turkish population living in Sarajevo can be observed as a representative Turkish population because results were the same as those published for the population from Turkey. This study showed that populations which are geographically close, were related genetically to each other. The methods for haplogroup prediction were encountered in this study [19]. 23 loci from previously obtained Y-STR haplotypes from 100 unrelated healthy Turkish males, who had recently settled in Sarajevo, were utilized for the purpose of determining the haplogroups via Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor software. In total 90 studied haplotypes had the Bayesian probability greater than 92.2 % and had the range between 51.4% and 84.3% for the 10 haplotypes left. 17 differently distributed haplogroups were found, with Y-haplogroup J2a being the most prevalent one, with abundance percentage of 26% of all samples, while haplogroups R1b, G2a, and R1a were less prevalent, with the range from 10% to 15% of all the samples. These 4 haplogroups together contribute to 63% of all Y-chromosomes. in total 11 haplogroups (E1b1b, G1, I1, I2a, I2b, J1, J2b, L, Q, R2, and T) had a range from 2% to 5%, whereas other haplogroups, namely E1b1a and N were found in only 1% of all samples. Results have shown that a large percentage of the Turkish paternal line is linked with West Asia, Europe Caucasus, Western Europe, Northeast Europe, Middle East, Russia, Anatolia, and Black Sea Y chromosome lineages. Conclusion is that the analyzed Turkish population can serve as a representative sample for the Turkish population residing in Turkey, because results were consistent with those data published earlier in the literature for Turkish population in Turkey. In years 2016 and 2017, similar studies were performed on the human population residing in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Namely, Tuzla Canton is one of the most populated regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, thus its genetic analysis could serve as proof of past demographic events. The first study, which included in total 100 unrelated healthy adult males genotyped using 23-Y STR loci included within PowerPlex Y23 kit [20], employed statistical tests such as haplotype diversity, allele frequencies and Rst-based genetic distances calculated between new dataset and the one from Bosnia and Herzegovina and other places. The distances were afterwards visualized through multidimensional scaling plot and neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree analyses. Discrimination capacity of the PowerPlex Y23 kit appeared to be high, because all 100 individuals had the unique haplotypes, and newly incorporated loci seem very informative. However, no significant difference between the study population and the general population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as between the population of Tuzla and neighboring populations. [20] In the Second study, for the same 100 unrelated male individuals from Tuzla Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) in silico haplogroup assignments were made and it was based on 23-loci Y-STR data using the following four different algorithms [21]. Dominant haplogroups were I, R and E with their sublineages I2a, R1a, and E1b1b. It is in connection with the published Y-SNP data for the B&H population. In general, results which are represented in this study did not only constitute a concordance study on the four haplogroup assignment algorithms which are also most popular, but they also give a deep knowledge about differentiation that can be find within population of B&H based on Y haplogroups for the first time. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Those studies-initiated publication of the few more papers which were including Y STR data from B&H human population. The first one was published in 2015 and it was focused on the clustering of the European human population based on the Y-STR data [22]. Three overall clusters were formed as a result of autosomal STR loci analyses, namely the European, Asian and African. However, Y-STR analyses highlighted formations of new sub-clusters. This is confirmed since the European cluster was easily divided into four distinct groups represented as four branches of the phylogenetic tree, while the Asian population cluster consists of two sub-clusters. Given the aforementioned clustering trends evident in both phylogenetic trees, it was concluded that clusters were indeed formed as a consequence of geographical proximity that triggered a mixing of gene pools, which in turn resulted in the formation of neighboring populations that exhibit strong genetic similarities. Overall, this study effectively highlights that Y-STRs could be a more informative tool in structural population studies as they are more informative than autosomal STRs because they not only enable continental clustering but are also a great tool for additional regional studies as well. Formation of four sub-clusters of European populations is once again proving the great potential of Y-chromosomal markers in the wide spectrum of genetic analyses. The second one was published in 2018 and it was focused on the analysis of the Balkan human population based on the Y-STR data [12]. This study aimed to provide insight into genetics relations in Balkan population using silico analysis of Y-STR haplotypes and predicting haplogroups as well as doing network analysis of the same haplotypes. The population dataset was obtained using 23, 17, 12, 9 and 7 Y-STR loci for 13 populations, including Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Macedonia, Romany (Hungary), Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Romania and Bulgaria. The overall dataset consists of 2179 samples with 1878 different haplotypes. Between thirteen analyzed Balkan populations, in four of them 12a was recognized as the major haplogroup. Each population with 12a as the major haplogroup (B&H, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia) was from the former Yugoslavia republic. The last two major populations from Yugoslavia, Macedonia and Slovenia, had E1b1b and R1a haplogroups as the most prevalent. E1b1b haplogroup was the most prevalent in the population of Macedonia, Romania, as well as Albania and Kosovo. Comparing I2a haplogroup clusters to E1b1b and R1b haplogroup clusters, the former one is more compact, which indicates a larger degree of homogeneity within the haplotypes that belong to that haplogroup. This study indicates that an effective approach for utilization of publicly available Y-STR datasets may lie in combination of haplogroup prediction and network analysis. 4. Conclusion Describing something that lasts for two decades as "a beginning" is quite unusual. However, that is the truth in the case of Y chromosome human population-genetic studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are still many interesting features hidden within the existent diversity of local human populations in this small, but intriguing, country that are still waiting to be discovered and described. Several preliminary hypotheses were completely changed, such us origin of R1b haplogroup within this region, or significantly questioned, such us origin of notably high frequency of I2a haplogroup in Bosnia (as Balkan LGM refugium marker or �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 “Slavic migration marker” increased by founder effect) [23]. Those, and many other Y chromosome stories are just waiting to be told. REFERENCES [1] Malcolm, N. (1996). Bosnia: A short history. NYU Press. [2] Hadžibegović, I., & Imamović, M. (1994). Bosna i Hercegovina od najstarijih vremena do kraja Drugog svjetskog rata. [3] Wilkes, J. (1995). The Illyrians. Wiley-Blackwell. [4] Klaić, V. (1990). Povijest Bosne do propasti kraljevstva. Svjetlost Sarajevo. [5] Marjanovic D., et al. Doc Praehistorica, 23 (2006) 21.-6. [6] Marjanović, D., et al. (2018). Forensic genetics: Theory and application. [7] Marjanović, D., Pojskić, N., Kapur, L., Haverić, S., Durmić-Pašić, A., Bajrović, K., & Hadžiselimović, R. (2008). Overview of human population-genetic studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the last three centuries: history and prospective. Collegium antropologicum, 32(3), 981-987. [8] Lasić, L. (2016). Historical Overview of the Human Population-Genetic Studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Small Country, Great Diversity. Collegium antropologicum, 40(2), 145-149. [9] Semino, O., Passarino, G., Oefner, P. J., Lin, A. A., Arbuzova, S., Beckman, L. E., ... & Marcikiæ, M. (2000). The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: AY chromosome perspective. Science, 290(5494), 1155-1159. [10] Casanova, M., Leroy, P., Boucekkine, C., Weissenbach, J., Bishop, C., Fellous, M., ... & Siniscalco, M. (1985). A human Y-linked DNA polymorphism and its potential for estimating genetic and evolutionary distance. Science, 230(4732), 1403-1406. [11] Underhill, P. A., Myres, N. M., Rootsi, S., Metspalu, M., Zhivotovsky, L. A., King, R. J., ... & Kutuev, I. (2010). Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a. European Journal of Human Genetics, 18(4), 479. [12] Šehović, E., Zieger, M., Spahić, L., Marjanović, D., & Dogan, S. (2018). A glance of genetic relations in the Balkan populations utilizing network analysis based on in silico assigned Y-DNA haplogroups. AnthropologicAl review, 81(3), 252-268. [13] Marjanovic, D., Fornarino, S., Montagna, S., Primorac, D., Hadziselimovic, R., Vidovic, S., ... & Andjelinovic, S. (2005). The peopling of modern Bosnia‐Herzegovina: Y‐chromosome haplogroups in the three main ethnic groups. Annals of Human Genetics, 69(6), 757-763. [14] Marjanovic, D., Bakal, N., Pojskic, N., Kapur, L., Drobnic, K., Primorac, D., ... & Hadziselimovic, R. (2005). Population data for the twelve Y-chromosome short tandem repeat loci from the sample of multinational population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Forensic Science, 50(1), JFS2004289-2. [15] Ćenanović, M., Pojskić, N., Kovačević, L., Džehverović, M., Čakar, J., Musemić, D., & Marjanović, D. (2010). Diversity of Y-short tandem repeats in the representative sample of the population of Canton Sarajevo antropologicum, 34(2), 545-550. residents, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Collegium �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 [16] Kovačević, L., Fatur-Cerić, V., Hadžić, N., Čakar, J., Primorac, D., & Marjanović, D. (2013). Haplotype data for 23 Y-chromosome markers in a reference sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian medical journal, 54(3), 286-290. [17] Doğan, S., Ašić, A., Doğan, G., Besic, L., & Marjanovic, D. (2016). Y-Chromosome Haplogroups in the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Population Based on 23 Y-STR Loci. Human biology, 88(3), 201210. [18] Dogan, S., Primorac, D., & Marjanović, D. (2014). Genetic analysis of haplotype data for 23 Ychromosome short tandem repeat loci in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian medical journal, 55(5), 530. [19] Doğan, S., Doğan, G., Ašić, A., Bešić, L., Klimenta, B., Hukić, M., ... & Marjanović, D. (2016). Prediction of the Y-Chromosome Haplogroups within a recently settled Turkish Population in Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina. Collegium antropologicum, 40(1), 1-7. [20] Babić, N., Dogan, S., Čakar, J., Pilav, A., Marjanović, D., & Hadžiavdić, V. (2017). Molecular diversity of 23 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat loci in the population of Tuzla Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Annals of human biology, 44(5), 419-426. [21] Dogan, S., Babic, N., Gurkan, C., Goksu, A., Marjanovic, D., & Hadziavdic, V. (2016). Ychromosomal haplogroup distribution in the Tuzla Canton of Bosnia and Herzegovina: A concordance study using four different in silico assignment algorithms based on Y-STR data. Homo, 67(6), 471-483. [22] Dogan, S., Ašić, A., Buljubašić, S., Bešić, L., Avdić, M., Ferić, E., ... & Marjanović, D. (2015). Overview of European population clustering based on 23 Y-STR loci. Genetika, 47, 901-908. [23] Primorac, D., Marjanović, D., Rudan, P., Villems, R., & Underhill, P. A. (2011). Croatian genetic heritage: Y-chromosome story. Croatian medical journal, 52(3), 225-234. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Overview of Human Lineage Genetic Marker Studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Y chromosome story Author Author Aldin Pirić1, Sabahudin Ćordić1, Lejla Smajlović-Skenderagić1, Serkan Dogan1, Damir Marjanović1,2 Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract – Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state consisting of multiple ethnicities and regions located in the Western Balkan, with a very complex history. The earliest historical findings show that its area was inhabited since the Paleolithic. From that time, this part of Europe, especially the region of the Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, could be recognized as the crossroad for the different human migration and the meeting point for different cultures, religions and gene pools. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers. Lineage markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. The main intention of this paper is to construct a short overview of the Y chromosome studies performed in Bosnia and Herzegovina within the last two decades. Keywords Keywords. Keywords - Bosnia and Herzegovina, lineage markers, molecular markers, population genetic studies, Y chromosome Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021312 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e51695a244d6e444275de0abb1daba0.pdf 047401ca20f00a9f8f24fea2eb6cc2e4 PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Data using Big Data Obada Almonajed, Samed Jukić 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina almonajed.obada@ibu.edu.ba samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract –With the increasing number of users and data on the Internet, especially social media sites, sentiment analysis topic became one of the important and essential fields for most. Collection of people's feelings and sentiment and classifying the data attracted most businesses and companies. Recently, twitter sentiment analysis has attracted much attention, because of Twitter's growth and popularity. The solution for handling enormous amounts of data from social media is a new term called Big data. Big data is not just for having a large amount of data, but also the importance of processing and the usage of the data. In this paper, we collect live data from Twitter using Apache Spark; and apply machine learning algorithms provided by Apache Spark machine learning library for classification of each Twitter message. Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression are used for testing the model. Naive Bayes algorithm gave better results, where it has an average accuracy around 75%, while the Logistic Regression algorithm was around 69%. Keywords–big data, sentiment analysis, twitter, apache spark, social media, machine learning. 1. Introduction Social media, one of the best things about it is in its name; social. It connects various people across the world by sharing information to them and receiving information from them. The main purpose of social media is to connect people and allow them to share thoughts and opinions. It allows also to read the news, watch videos, read stories, view and share photos. Social media is becoming an integral part of our lives. It is a way of connecting and building a relationship with others. It allows you to hear what people say and to respond. The most popular platforms are Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat. Since social media allows people to connect those days social media are very important for businesses. It takes advantage of social media to increase brand exposure and customer reach. Publishing to social media is very simple. For example, a company can create a page on Facebook, and post new products, sales announcements, market brands, and products as images or text or video. No matter the size of the business, it is important to recognize the value and trend for better understanding and utilizing the platform. People can talk about your business without your knowledge. So, as a company, it is important to know and monitor social media conversations about the brand. Based on reviews, the company can always adjust the present market situation and satisfy customers in a better way. In order to identify the text written by �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 your customers, a sentiment analysis tool is used. Sentiment analysis or opinion mining is used to determine the emotional tone of message or text. The main usage of this tool is to understand how people feel and think about something. The tool is very useful for companies and can affect decision making.Using machine learning, companies can analyze the content on social media to see the meaning behind the messages. An Enormous number of people across the world use social media. In order to gain such data, store, and process, we will use Big data. Big data is not only for storing a large amount of data but the ability to analyze. Big data allows us to get and analyze real-time data from social media. For this paper, one of the fastest big data platforms Apache Spark will be used. Compared with Hadoop, it can be faster up to one hundred times[1]. Apache Spark framework provides native bindings for Java, Python, Scala, Machine Learning, and support SQL. The purpose of the paper is to collect data from Twitter and determine and classify the feeling of the user into positive or negative using machine learning and Apache Spark. 2. Literature Review Pang et al. [2], in the paper, they came out that unigram is a better model over others. Regardless of whether there is no large difference between unigram precision and mix of unigrams and bigrams precision, where the precision using unigrams has 82.9% and precision using the mix of unigrams and biagrams is 82.7%; both predicted with SVM algorithm. However, Dave et al. [3] have inverse results, where bigrams gave preferable precision over unigrams utilizing SVM and Baseline algorithms. SVM brings about 87.2% precision for the first test and 85.8% precision for the second test for bigrams. Pak et al. [4] gathered around 300.000 various tweets for Twitter. The tweet can be classified into three classes, positive, negative, or neutral. They thought about that, the emoji in the message represents the actual sentiment of the text. Thus, if ':(' emoji is included in the message, regardless of what is the content: the message has negative sentiment. Likewise, if a tweet has ':)', the message is considered as negative sentiment. For learning algorithms, they utilized multinomial Naïve Bayes, SVM and Conditional random fields, yet Naïve Bayes indicated the best outcomes. To make the precision of the classifier better, they removed some n-grams, since it isn't showing any sentiment. Authors of the paper [5], have researched the usage of Apache Flume and Apache Hive which is built on top Hadoop for analyzing Twitter data. In the research[6], the authors wrote and discussed a recommendation system that provides a summary of users’ feedback, comments, and reviews about different subjects using the Hadoop framework. Similarly, the authors of the researches [7], built a recommendation system that recommends services. The researchers of the paper[8], build a Hadoop framework for determining and analyzing the customers’ feedback toward a product from social networks, that framework extracts and analyzes the feedback of social user relationship management. Go et al. [9] broke down Twitter suppositions utilizing various machine learning algorithms. The algorithms are Naïve Bayes, Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), and Support Vector Machine (SVM). They remembered �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 emojis for the training data and utilized two classes for tweets' classification, positive and negative classes. In the wake of training data, they infer that emojis have a negative effect on data while applying MaxEnt and SVM algorithms on the data, however don't influence Naive Bayes. What is specific in their study is that, they explore the usage of unigrams, bigrams, combination of unigram and bigram and parts of speech. They conclude with the result the mix of unigrams and bigrams beats every other model, and parts of speech tags were not valuable at all. 3. Methodology A. Sentiment analysis With the usage of sentimental analysis, it can be learned whether the customers are satisfied with some new service or not. Twitter is mainly used for firms to get customer feedback. Simple articles are being written to identify whether people like or dislike something new. Firms are using that information to make a decision so that they can make some service better and improve the firm’s sales. When sentiment analysis is applied on content, it means users are looking for the opinion in the text. Is the product review positive or negative? Are customers satisfied with the product or not? Are positive opinions greater than negative or not? All kinds of questions can be answered with Sentiment Analysis. By sentiment analysis, users can learn how customers' view the company's product or service. Shortly we can say sentiment analysis is being used for agree/disagree, like/dislike, for/against [10]. For example, the sentence ‘I recommend this product to everyone.’, the word ‘recommend’ indicates that the writer is happy, and the sentiment is positive. In this paper, positive and negative words will be collected and used to train the machine to be able to classify the messages. For getting, storing, and classifying such data users will use Big data tools. Big data is data that exceeds the processing capacity of conventional database systems [11]. Big data means that there is a large number of data to collect. If users want to always get data from social sites faster, they should use big data. As data is more and more increased, it is becoming harder to control them, so Big data is the solution. Hadoop for years was the leading open source framework for Big data; recently Apache Spark is the leading and most popular framework. Hadoop and Spark almost perform the same tasks, but Spark is more preferable, especially when it comes to speed; because the way it processes data is faster. B. Data and Findings For the work and experiment, we used one document. The document contains different examples of messages with their outputs (classes) either positive or negative. The document is used to train and test the system because this computer program is going to be supervised learning, which is learning from example. They are using the known dataset for the training system called Stanford Twitter Sentiment Corpus (STS) [12]. Each tweet in this dataset has the following data: ID of the user, timestamp of the tweet, the username �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 of the user who posted the tweet, and the tweet itself. Next to each tweet, there is a class, either positive or negative. The document contains about 1 million samples of positive and negative tweets. In the following Figure, we show example of the dataset: Figure 1. Samples of the Dataset C. Process First of all, we need to install Spark and include it in the Scala project. After that, we need to initialize a Spark Context, which is going to tell Spark how to access a cluster. The Spark Context takes a parameter, which is known as SparkConf or Spark Configuration. SparkConf allows the user to configure some common properties which will be passed to Spark Context, like application name, master URL. memory size, key value-pairs, and other properties. Figure 2. Configuration After configuration of the application, we started with the online collection of tweets. For online and realtime data, Spark streaming is required. Spark streaming receives live data from Twitter and divides them into batches, where the user can later apply actions and process the data. In the next figure, we show implementation of Spark Streaming. Figure 3. Spark Streaming User can get tweets from a specific secondary user, or all tweets that start with special word, or all tweets that contains special hashtag ’#’. In our system, we collect all tweets containing special hashtag, and include that hashtag into the arguments of the system. Now, after all configurations we are able to collect data from Twitter. and save them to a file. In our system, we are saving the data to the text file. In the next figures, we show how to fetch data and how to save data into text files. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Figure 4. Fetching Tweets Figure 5. Save data in text format D. Spark Machine Learning Library The next and most important step is to classify each tweet to positive or negative class. Use Spark machine learning library, which contains different algorithms. Data, in order to be analyzed, it has to be converted to vectors. For that, use a well known and very useful tool called Hashing. Hashing is translating text data to numeric data. In Spark, most common and used hashing is HashingTF.it is important to say that, before analyzing the caught data from Twitter, it is a prerequisite to hash each data, as it is shown in the figure below. Figure 6. Hashing data We used two algorithms for comparing the better one, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression. Logistic Regression is a binary classification, which means it can classify data into one of two groups. While Naive Bayes can be used for multiple groups.First, we have used a 10 cross-validation. Cross-validation is splitting a dataset into more than one pan. It is used to ensure that every data has been used for training and testing data. Training data is always larger in size than testing data. If a user has 1000 samples of data, the user can take 800 for training and 200 for testing. Since he has used 10 cross-validation, it means 9 folds for training and 1 fold for testing. Table 1. Cross validation example 1-fold Training �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 2-fold Training 3-fold Training 4-fold Training 5-fold Ttraining 6-fold Training 7-fold Training 8-fold Training 9-fold Training 10-fold Testing Next, just move the testing data to another place in dataset, and another place in the table, like in table 2 where testing data is now 1-fold and it is at the top and beginning of the dataset. As we can understand testing data has to be moved each fold cross validation to one place and each data will be in testing and training part. Table 2. Cross validation example 2 1-fold Testing 2-fold Training 3-fold Training 4-fold Training 5-fold Ttraining 6-fold Training 7-fold Training 8-fold Training 9-fold Training 10-fold Training For each fold, it is important to calculate the accuracy; so, at the end you will determine its performance and if the classifier and data are good or not.Cross-validation and the accuracy are very important, they indicate to how well the learner will be able to make right and correct prediction for new data. For algorithms of learning, we used two machine learning algorithms as we mentioned before, Naïve Bayes and Logistic Regression. Results showed that Naive Bayes is better at prediction of the text. More details about the results will be described in the next section. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 4. Results To train and test the system use Stanford Twitter Sentiment Corpus (STS) dataset which is available online. It contains more than one million samples. After the completion of testing on our data the results as well as accuracy of each k-fold is shown in the table below: Table 3. 10-fold cross validation k-fold Naive Bayes Logistic Regression 1-fold 77.3 68.8 2-fold 70.4 73.4 3-fold 75.7 74.3 4-fold 77.2 67.7 5-fold 76.4 64.6 6-fold 73.6 66.5 7-fold 69.8 75.3 8-fold 79.1 65.8 9-fold 77.3 67.2 10-fold 74.5 71.05 To calculate the accuracy of the classifier, true positive plus true negative over total number of testing data: Figure 7. Formula to Calculate the Accuracy Code regarding our program: Figure 8. Code to Calculate the Accuracy ‘predictionAndLabel’- this is displaying the actual prediction result and the prediction of the system. Real example from our system is shown in the following figure, where it is shown the prediction of the system and real prediction of the data. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Figure 9. Prediction and Actual Example: One sentence: ‘Good project, I liked it.’, result of classification using Naïve Bayes algorithm was: 1.0 means positive. while the result of LogisticRegression algorithm was: 0.0 which means negative sentiment. Another example: ‘I love it :)’, prediction of Naïve Bayes is 1.0 and the Logistic Regression is also 1.0 which is positive and correct. The total accuracy of both algorithms, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression, after cross-validation is shown in the following table. Table 4. Accuracy Average Accuracy Naive Bayes Logistic Regression 75.13% 69.465% From this table we can see that Naive Bayes average accuracy is somewhere around 75 percent. Logistic Regression accuracy is a bit lower than Naive Bayes and its accuracy is around 69 percent. There is some difference, not so big. That difference is around 6 percent. As a conclusion for those results we take the right to say that Naive Bayes algorithm provides great results. Logistic Regression with a this, bit lower percentage, can be considered as a great algorithm as well. After the users have finished the training of the system, use it for catching the data from Twitter and predict the data using both algorithms,Naïve Bayes or Logistic Regression. To get better results, we should use Naive Bayes rather than Logistic Regression. Finally, the best way is to save data in a text file, so the companies can easily keep track of the users' opinion about the company's products and about the company in general. 5. Discussion In our paper, as you could see, we proved how text classification can be done in a fast and easy way by using Spark. Use Spark as Big data and for applying machine learning algorithms. Use two well-known machine learning algorithms, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression. Using these algorithms we achieved a very high model's accuracy by applying to data sets that contained different types of sentences and emoticons. Also, we have shown how emoticons can help in improving the model's accuracy, if used correctly. Using more data in training and testing sets in our cross-validation method, we would achieve better results. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 In this section of paper, an endeavor was made to compare the various methods and results of algorithms performance.Considering the research papers related to our research, which are already mentioned in Section 2, notice that in any case, the text should always be predicted using different methods and then decide which method is the best for achieving our goal. In the following table notice that, summarize different Supervised Machine Learning approaches for Twitter sentiment analysis. Table 5. Summary of previous work Paper Pak and Methods Supervised Algorithms Multinomial Datasets Tweets Results Multinomial Naive Bayes with Paroubek [4] Machine Naive collected using bigrams Learning Support Vector Twitter API superior Bayes, Machine (SVM), accomplished a performance contrasted with unigrams and and trigrams. Conditional Random Field (CRF) Go et al [9] Supervised Naive Machine Learning Bayes, Tweets The Maximum Entropy Maximum collected using (MaxEnt) with both unigrams Entropy Twitter API and bigrams accomplished a (MaxEnt), and precision of 83% contrasted Suppor Vector with the Naive Bayes with a Machine precision of 82.7%. (SVM) Pang et al [2] Supervised Support IMDb The Machine Vector unigrams Learning Machine accuracy utilizing the mix of (SVM), Naive unigrams and bigrams is 82.7% Bayes, and with Support Vector Machine MaxEnt (SVM). Support accuracy has They utilizing 82.9% proved Vector and that Machine (SVM) is superior to Naive Bayes and Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), where the accuracy utilizing unigrams has 81.0% with Naive Bayes and 80.4% with Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), and the accuracy utilizing both unigrams and bigrams has 80.6% with Naive �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Bayes and 80.8% with Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt). Some earlier research and studies utilized various groups of sentiment, similar to satisfaction, sadness, frustration, dread and shock. While, in our research, we classified the tweets into two groups, positive or negative, no third group. Most researches were about applying ML algorithms on tweets for sentiment analysis, without the use of Big data. While, we used Big data with the machine learning algorithms in our research. From Table 5., see that Go et al got better accuracy using Naive Bayes algorithms. They did an additional procedure, which we neglected, and that is related to emoticons, they deleted any tweet that contains both positive and negative emoticons. This may happen if a tweet contains two subjects. Although we don't know the accuracy of the model in the research of Pak and Paroubel, we can surely say that they did a good research, because they followed the steps necessary to determine if the text is positive or negative. The steps followed included the removal of any URLs and usernames (user-names follow the "@" symbol) and removal of any characters that repeat more than twice turning a phrase such as OOMMMGGG to OOMMGG, which is applied by a regular expression. 6. Conclusion In this paper it was shown how usage of Spark as Big data can help us classify text from tweets to positive and negative in a very simple yet very fast way.By using common algorithms Naïve Bayes and Logistic Regression we have achieved a very high by applying to large data sets that contained a various number of different emoticons and sentences. We determined that Naïve Bayes is much better than Logistic Regression by training and applying cross validation to our dataset, where its highest accuracy was around 79%. That is the most relevant result regarding the usage of Big Data. Also, in our paper we have demonstrated and shown how it is fast and easy to use and understand it, and how it is powerful with large data sets. For that reason, we can conclude that it is the best tool regarding Twitter sentiment analysis. But not only can sentimental analysis be used for Twitter, it can be used for any type of documentation or data. In the near future our plan is to have and use richer data sets for training, Spark Graphs for better data visualization and usage of real-time data rather than offline data. It can be achieved easy; just classification methods have to be applied and used right after getting each tweet from Twitter. We can see from the previous related works that are mentioned in the Chapter 2, sentiment analysis on Twitter data can be used in many different areas. From those papers, we can conclude that the main goal was to determine the products' quality, so we can say that the main goal is to make it easier for companies to check whether the item is good or not for the customers. Also, politicians and companies want to know what people write in real time about them, so they request monitoring tools to know the opinions, feelings and sentiments that their potential customers are publishing. This method can also be used in film production, since we can see that many Twitter users write their opinion about watched films, about the actors, and so on. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 REFERENCES [1] P. P. Chitturi, Apache Spark for Data Science Cookbook, Packt Publishing Ltd, 2016. [2] B. Pang, L. Lee i S. Vaithyanathan, »Thumbs up? Sentiment Classification using Machine Learning,« 2002. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/llee/papers/sentiment.pdf. [3] D. Kushal, S. Lawrence i D. M. Pennock, »Mining the Peanut Gallery: Opinion Extraction and,« 2003. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.kushaldave.com/p451-dave.pdf. [4] A. Pak i P. Paroubek, »Twitter as a Corpus for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining,« 2010. [Mrežno]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6b7f/c158541d5a7be2b2465f7d8a42afa97d7ae9.pdf?_ga=2.1218413 55.1543760336.1572899814-899645452.1571167125. [5] Sanggeta, »Twitter Data Analysis Using FLUME & HIVE on Hadoop,« February 2016. [Mrežno]. Available: http://www.irdindia.in/journal_ijraet/pdf/vol4_iss2/27.pdf. [6] J. P. Verma, B. Patel i A. Patel, »Big Data Analysis: Recommendation System with,« 2015. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jaiprakash_Verma/publication/282686173_Big_Data_Analysis _Recommendation_System_with_Hadoop_Framework/links/57f4afb708ae280dd0b77681.pdf. [7] K. R. Shrote i A. V. Deorankar, »Review based service recommendation for big data,« February 2016. [Mrežno]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7538334. [8] F. Z. Ennaji, A. E. Fazziki, M. Sadgal i D. Benslimane, »Social intelligence framework: Extracting and analyzing opinions for social CRM,« November 2015. [Mrežno]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7507229. [9] A. Go, R. Bhayani i L. Huang, »Twitter Sentiment Classification using Distant Supervision,« 2009. [Mrežno]. Available: https://cs.stanford.edu/people/alecmgo/papers/TwitterDistantSupervision09.pdf. [10] l. Bing, Opinions, Sentiment, and Emotion in Text, Cambridge University Press, 2015. [11] E. Dumbil, Big Data Now, O'Reilly, 2012. [12] Kazanova, »Sentiment140 dataset with 1.6million twwets,« 2017. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.kaggle.com/kazanova/sentiment140. [13] C. t. W. projects, »Twitter,« 2007. [Mrežno]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter. [14] A. Pak i P. Paroubek, »Twitter as a Corpus for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining,« 2010. [Mrežno]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6b7f/c158541d5a7be2b2465f7d8a42afa97d7ae9.pdf?_ga=2.1218413 55.1543760336.1572899814-899645452.1571167125. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Data using Big Data Author Author Obada Almonajed, Samed Jukić Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract –With the increasing number of users and data on the Internet, especially social media sites, sentiment analysis topic became one of the important and essential fields for most. Collection of people's feelings and sentiment and classifying the data attracted most businesses and companies. Recently, twitter sentiment analysis has attracted much attention, because of Twitter's growth and popularity. The solution for handling enormous amounts of data from social media is a new term called Big data. Big data is not just for having a large amount of data, but also the importance of processing and the usage of the data. Keywords Keywords. Keywords–big data, sentiment analysis, twitter, apache spark, social media, machine learning Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021311 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, IBU https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6b6018f23bd59470ae0755fc5fb60b05.pdf aba0c75909829c6fc655bcc1f78aaf47 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 105-119, Summer 2020 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020318 Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč, PhD International Burch University esad.oruc@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Property relations of spouses in Bosnia and Herzegovina are subject to regulation by Family law, but since they contain a large number of reference provisions, they are subject to regulation and many other substantive and procedural laws. As a consequence of the above mentioned, in practice, but also in legal theory, many questions and dilemmas have arisen to which it is necessary to find adequate answers. In this regard, the paper presents the basic elements of marital property, with an emphasis on controversial issues regarding its content. The paper draw attention towards the inadequacies of the regulation related to marital property and make proposals for improvement of current legislation. Keywords: Marital property, co-ownership, marital community Sažetak: Imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera u Bosni i Hercegovini su predmetom regulacije porodičnog zakonodavstva, ali s obzirom da isti sadrže veliki broj upućujućih odredaba, isti su predmetom regulacije i mnogih drugih zakona materijalne i procesne prirode. Kao posljedica navedenog, u praksi, ali i pravnoj teoriji pojavila su se mnoga pitanja i dileme na koje je neophodno pronaći adekvatne odgovore. S tim u vezi, u radu su prezentirane osnovni elementi bračne stečevine, sa akcentom na sporna pitanja u pogledu sadržaja iste. Detaljnom analizom pravnih propisa i relevantne sudske prakse ukazano je na određene propuste u regulaciji ovog instituta, te su predložena i adekvatna zakonska rješenja. Submitted: 15 April 2020 Accepted: 10 July 2020 Ključne riječi: Bračna stečevina, suvlasništvo, bračna zajednica. Article History �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. UVOD Brak je zakonom uređena zajednica života žene i muškarca, u kojoj nastaju različiti lični, ali i imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera. Imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera su predmetom regulacije porodičnog zakonodavstva, ali s obzirom da isti sadrže veliki broj upućujućih odredaba, isti su predmetom regulacije i mnogih drugih zakona. U našem zakonodavstvu, propisano je da bračni partneri mogu imati bračnu stečevinu i posebnu imovinu. U kontekstu ovog rada posebno se zanimljivim i značajnim čini institut bračne stečevine, koji čini poseban modalitet prava suvlasništva, koje opet predstavlja modalitet prava vlasništva sa više subjekata. Upravo činjenica da u vršenju prava vlasništva na jednoj nepodijeljenoj stvari učestvuje više lica, u slučaju bračne stečevine dva, sa vlastitim, ponekad i suprostavljenim interesima, čini bračnu stečevinu zanimljivim, ali i veoma složenim i zahtjevnim pravnim institutom. Zaista je rijetka situacija u kojoj jedan pravni institut potvrđuje takvu povezanost i interdisciplinarnost u regulisanju i primjeni prava kao što je to slučaj sa bračnom stečevinom, odnosno suvlasništvom (Oruč, 2016, p. 16). Ovu tezu potvrđuje činjenica da je institut bračne stečevine, odnosno suvlasništva regulisan kroz nekoliko grana materijalnog i procesnog prava. U tom smislu materijalnim pravom definisana je bračna stečevina, te uređeni odnosi između suvlasnika u istoj. S tim u vezi, u stvarnom pravu se nalaze osnovne odredbe o regulaciji suvlasništva, porodičnom pravu odredbe koje regulišu bračnu stečevinu i imovinu bračnih drugova kao posebne oblike suvlasničke zajednice, obligacionom pravu u kojem se nalaze načelne odredbe o bračnom i predbračnom ugovoru, notarskom pravu u kojem se nalaze odredbe o formi bračnog i predbračnog ugovora. Procesnim pravom regulisan je postupak razvrgnuća suvlasničke zajednice i uređenja prava korištenja, kao i izvršenja na suvlasničkom dijelu, te zaštite prava suvlasništva. Sve pomenuto definiše bračnu stečevinu, kao poseban vid suvlasničke zajednice, kao jedan od najkompleksnijih pravnih instituta sa aspekta njegove regulacije i sudskog tumačenja u primjeni pobrojanih pravnih izvora. Nadalje, konstantne promjene društveno-pravnog karaktera, te provođenje reformskih procesa u kojoj se naša država nalazi ne samo od nezavisnosti, već i ranije, nalaže konstantno preispitivanje i usklađivanje sa navedenim promjenama i novonastalim odnosima. U posljednjoj deceniji, u sferi imovinskog prava, u Bosni i Hercegovini su izvršeni najznačajniji reformski procesi ikada. Usvojeni su novi zakoni o stvarnom pravu, zemljišnoknjižnom pravu, nasljednom pravu, izvršene reforme porodičnog zakonodavstva i procesnih zakona. 106 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč 2. IMOVINSKI ODNOSI BRAČNIH PARTNERA Svakako da u jedno od najznačajnijih pitanja porodičnog, odnosno bračnog prava spadaju imovinskopravni odnosi bračnih partnera. Njima se uređuju odnosi između bračnih partnera, ali i odnosi između bračnih partnera i trećih osoba, i to ne samo u pogledu pitanja bračne stečevine i njene diobe, već i drugih pitanja, poput korištenja porodičnog doma, kao i instituta porodičnopravnog uzdržavanja (Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 399). U svijetu danas postoji nekoliko sistema uređenja imovinskih odnosa bračnih partnera. Svi oni bi se mogli svrstati u grupu zakonskog i ugovornog režima bračne imovine. Kada je u pitanju zakonski režim uređenja pomenutih odnosa, u uporednom pravu su zastupljeni slijedeći sistemi (Draškić, 2009, p. 393.): a) zakonski režim zajednice imovina; b) zakonski režim odložene zajednice imovina i c) zakonski režim odvojenih imovina. Pored zakonskog režima, većina uporednih zakonodavstava dopušta istovremeno ugovorno uređenje odnosa bračnih partnera. Takva je situacija i u našem pravnom sistemu. Na prvi pogled, zakonski i ugovorni režim u našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu načelno je veoma jasan i jednostavan. Međutim, s obzirom na moguće načine, odnosno izvore stjecanja imovine bračnih partnera, sadržaj i implikacije u pravnom prometu, ipak moramo reći da postoje određene teorijske i praktične dileme o prirodi i sadržaju ove imovine. Također, pored preciznosti u definisanju određenih pitanja (o kojima će biti riječi), izvan zakonske regulacije su ostala određena pitanja od velikog praktičnog značaja, a na koja ćemo nastojati dati što potpunije i preciznije odgovore. Zakonski imovinski režim, prema pozitivnim propisima našeg prava, obuhvata dvije kategorije: zajedničku (bračnu stečevinu) i posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera. Na žalost, kao posljedica podjele ustavnih nadležnosti - iako sa dosta sličnim zakonskim rješenjima, u Bosni i Hercegovini ipak postoje tri odvojena pravna režima imovine bračnih drugova uspostavljena porodičnim zakonima,i te će isti biti analizirani kroz prizmu istih. 2.1. POJAM BRAČNE STEČEVINE Najznačajnija reforma imovine bračnih partnera izvršena je Porodičnim zakonom FBiH iz 2005. godine, kada se iz režima zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera prešlo u suvlasničku zajednicu uz zakonsku pretpostavku utvrđenih suvlasničkih dijelova u omjeru ½. Ipak, kao posljedica ustavnog uređenja naše zemlje, ali i sveukupne političke situacije, danas u BiH ne postoji jedinstven imovinski režim bračnih partnera. Tako, kao što je već pomenuto, u FBiH i DB BiH (Čl. 229. PZBDBiH) imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter suvlasničke zajednice, dok u RS-u (Čl. 269-289 PZRS) je zadržan stari model prema kojem imovina bračnih drugova ima karakter zajedničke imovine, gdje se udjeli i dalje 107 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 utvrđuju u sudskim postupcima pokrenutim radi diobe zajedničke imovine. Smatramo neophodnim naglasiti da u skladu s osnovnim načelom pravnog poretka o zaštiti stečenih prava, u slučaju kada novi zakon ta prava različito propisuje u odnosu na raniji zakon, na odnose nastale prije novog zakona da će se primjenjivati novi PZ iz 2005. godine, dok je npr. u R Hrvatskoj navedeno pitanje riješeno na drugačiji način, te se uvijek primjenjuje važeći zakon u vrijeme nastanka konkretnog odnosa (Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 724/08-2 od 10.03.2008. godine). U tom smislu, rješenje našeg zakona smatramo kvalitetnijim, jer isto u konačnici preciznije reguliše navedeno pitanje i ostavlja manje mogućnosti za nove sudske sporove. Navedene izmjene u porodičnom zakonodavstvu BiH zasnovane su primarno na načelu ravnopravnosti, međusobnom pomaganju i poštovanju članova porodice (Čl. 2. PZ FBiH), uz dodatnu namjeru zakonodavca da rastereti sudove dugih postupaka utvrđivanja visine suvlasničkih udjela bračnih partnera. Prema našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu, kao što je već pomenuto, bračni partneri mogu imati bračnu stečevinu i posebnu imovinu (Čl. 250. PZ FBiH). Bračnu stečevinu čini imovina koju su bračni partneri stekli radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, kao i prihodi iz te imovine (Čl. 251. PZ FBiH). Dakle, zakon traži kumulativno postojanje dva uslova: da se radi o imovini koju su bračni partneri stekli radom; i da je imovina stečena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice. Vanbračna zajednica koja traje najmanje tri godine ili kraće ako je u njoj rođeno zajedničko dijete stvara imovinskopravne učinke na koje se na odgovarajući način primjenjuju odredbe o imovinskim odnosima bračnih drugova (Čl. 263. PZFBiH). S tim u vezi, naša sudska praksa zauzela je jedinstven stav da vanbračni drugovi stiču pravo suvlasništva na stvarima, ukoliko se na osnovu izričite ili prećutne volje vanbračnih drugova može zaključiti da su htjeli da pribavljene stvari budu zajedničke, odnosno u suvlasništvu (Medić & Tajić, 2008, p. 74-75). Sporazum vanbračnih drugova ne mora biti ni pismen ni izričit, već se o njegovom postojanju može suditi prema ponašanju stranaka (Vrhovni sud Vojvodine, br. Gž-113/77 od 17.06.1977. godine). Ovdje je bitno naglasiti da ne mogu nastati imovinski odnosi na principima stjecanja bračne imovine na temelju vanbračne veze koja je trajala za vrijeme trajanja braka jednog od vanbračnih parntera (Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 1168/08-2 od 21.10.2008. godine). 2.2. RAD KAO KONSTITUTIVNI ELEMENT BRAČNE STEČEVINE Zakon nije definisao šta se podrazumijeva pod radom, tako da se radi o faktičkom pitanju o kojem će sud donijeti stav u svakom konkretnom slučaju. Međutim, pravna praksa i teorija su izgradili određene standarde u pogledu ovog pitanja te bi se moglo bi se reći da se pod radom podrazumijeva svaki oblik rada: pojedinačni, zajednički, direktni i indirektni (Alinčić & Bakarić, 1989, p. 310). Posebno je bilo zanimljivo pitanje indirektnog-posrednog rada, odnosno 108 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč doprinosa u stjecanju zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera. Radi se o vrsti rada u kojem „bračni partner ne stječe imovinu neposredno svojim radom, već svojim radom omogućava drugom bračnom partneru da nesmetano i čak povećano zarađuje“ (Alinčić & Bakarić, 1989, p. 310). Ovo pitanje je definisano u našoj pravnoj teoriji odmah nakon II svjetskog rata, te je rečeno „da se indirektan, odnosno neizravan doprinos u stjecanju imovine sastoji u potpori koju jedan bračni drug pruža drugome kroz kućanske poslove, brigu o djeci, brigu o prehrani, kućanstvu i dr. Na taj način žene svojim radom u porodici omogućavaju muževima rad izvan kuće, oslobađajući ih pri tom brige o osnovnim obiteljskim životnim potrebama. Jasno je kako je položaj žena koje su ujedno zaposlene jedinstven, s obzirom da nose dvostruki teret u stjecanju zajedničke imovine“ (Prokop, 1959, p. 36/ Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 403). Ovakav stav zauzela je i sudska praksa, te je zauzet stav da: „pojam "rada" kao pretpostavke za sticanje imovine ne treba shvatiti u užem smislu samo kao ekonomsku kategoriju koja bi prolazila od neposrednog rezultata rada, nego i tzv. posredni rad kojim jedan bračni drug pomažući drugome u obavljanju raznih poslova u domaćinstvu ovome omogućava da realno stiče prihode kojima se u pravilu najčešće dolazi do stjecanja imovine“ (Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 98/87, od 25. 12. 1997. godine i Rev. 33/98, od 02.04.1998. godine). S obzirom na navedeno, mogli bi smo reći da se pod radom treba podrazumijevati svaka djelatnost, odnosno aktivnost bračnih partnera kojom se na bilo koji način pridonosi povećanju imovine, uključujući i aktivnosti kojima se podmiruju potrebe bračnih partnera i članova njihove porodice, kao što su npr. briga i odgoj djece (Hrabar, 202, p. 47-48). Ono što je također bitno naglasiti da prema našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu obim, količina ili pak vrijednost rada izražena u novcu ne utječe na propisanu visinu suvlasničkih dijelova u bračnoj stečevini. 2.3. BRAČNA ZAJEDNICA KAO KONSTITUTIVNI ELEMENT BRAČNE STEČEVINE Drugi uslov, imovina stečena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice, također nije u potpunosti jasno definisan. U određivanju suštine ovog pojma neophodno je krenuti od postavke da brak i bračna zajednica nisu sinonimi, te da sklapanjem braka ne mora nužno doći i do nastanka bračne zajednice. S druge strane, bračna zajednica je sastavni dio braka i može trajati samo za trajanja braka. S obzirom da zakonom nije definisana, u određivanju sadržaja iste neophodno je uzeti u obzir motive, odnosno namjeru bračnih partnera, ali i dogovoreni način organizacije zajedničkog života, kao i datih okolnosti i prilika u kojima bračni partneri ostvaruju zajednicu života. U tom kontekstu dolazimo do zaključka, koji je usvojen i u sudskoj praksi (VSRH Rev 361/92 od 12. 3. 1992. godine) i pravnoj teoriji, da postojanje bračne zajednice nije nužno vezano za činjenicu faktičke zajednice života, već ista postoji i u slučaju da bračni partneri ne žive zajedno, ukoliko to stanje predstavlja izraz njihovog sporazuma (Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 4/94, od 28.01.1994. godine). Tako npr. bračna zajednica postoji i u slučaju da je „jedan bračni drug na radu u inostranstvu, a drugi u našoj zemlji u zajedničkom 109 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 stanu i poduzima sve poslove radi održavanja održavanja domaćinstva i eventualno poslove na poljoprivrednom imanju, stara se o zajedničkoj djeci i dr.“ (Zečević, 2005, p. 127.). U suprotnom, bez obzira na postojanje braka, ukoliko dođe do prekida bračne zajednice usljed poremećenosti odnosa, imovina stečena u tom periodu predstavljat će posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera, a ne bračnu stečevinu (Nakić-Momirović, 2006, p. 435). Postojanje bračne zajednice u toku braka se pretpostavlja, te sud treba utvrditi ako postane sporno smatra li se određena imovina bračnom stečevinom ili se radi o vlastitoj imovini, te je sljedom navedenog teret dokazivanja prestanka bračne zajednice je na onom bračnom drugu koji to tvrdi. Ne treba ipak potpasti pod uticaj, kako se to na prvi mah čini, da je sva imovina stečena za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice ujedno i bračna stečevina (VSRH Rev 1719/97 od 17. 5. 2001.), već je za njeno postojanje neophodno kumulativno postojanje prethodno analizirana dva konstitutivna elementa. 2.4. PRAVNA PRIRODA BRAČNE STEČEVINE Kako smo već rekli, novo porodično zakonodavstvo usvojilo je novi princip prema kojem bračna stečevina dobiva status suvlasništva. Tako su bračni partneri u jednakim dijelovima suvlasnici u bračnoj stečevini, ukoliko nisu drugačije ugovorili (Čl. 252. st. 1 PZFBiH). Ovaj novi režim bračne stečevine naišao je na dobro prihvatanje u pravnoj teoriji i praksi (Presuda Vrhovnog suda FBiH br. 58 0 P 000479 12 Rev od 13.03.2013. godine), ali je s druge strane u susjednoj Hrvatskoj dovedeno u pitanje njegovo ustavno utemeljenje. Tako je prema Ustavnom sudu R Hrvatske upućen prijedlog za pokretanje postupka za ocjenu usaglašenosti sa Ustavom članova 248. i 249. stavka 1. Obiteljskog zakona R Hrvatske. Ustavni sud je ocjenio neosnovanim podnešeni prijedlog, te iznio mišljenje da je zakonodavac priznavanjem prava suvlasništva na bračnoj stečevini u jednakim dijelovima (praesumptio iuris et de iure), a bez obzira na mogući različit doprinos bračnih partnera u stjecanju te imovine, izjednačio imovinskopravni položaj bračnih partnera, štiteći na taj način brak kao instituciju i odnose u braku, koji moraju počivati na načelima ravnopravnosti žene i muškarca, uzajamnog poštovanja i pomaganja (Odluka Ustavnog suda R Hrvatske Broj: U-I-1890/2007, od 25.11.2010. godine). Dodatni argument stajalištu Ustavnog suda R Hrvatske je i činjenica da, kako je to zakonom predviđeno, budući bračni partneri, odnosno bračni partneri mogu bračnim ugovorom drukčije urediti svoje odnose vezane za bračnu stečevinu (Čl. 252. st. 2. PZFBiH), pa samim tim i visinu suvlasničkih dijelova. Dakle, naš pravni sistem daje prednost ugovornom nad zakonskim režimom bračne stečevine (Bubić, 2008, p. 92). Nadalje, ukoliko je u zemljišne knjige kao vlasnik stečevine upisan jedan bračni partner, drugi bračni partner može zahtijevati ispravku upisa, u skladu sa odgovarajućim zemljišnoknjižnim propisima (Čl. 252. st. 2. PZFBiH). Ova mogućnost bračnih partnera je donošenjem novog zakona o stvarnim pravima prerasla u obavezu, ukoliko bračni partneri žele da imaju adekvatnu stvarnopravnu zaštitu. Naime kako je to 110 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč već rečeno, novim stvarnim pravom propisana je obaveza svim izvanknjižni nosiocima stvarnih prava da u roku od tri godine od dana stupanja na snagu Zakona o stvarnim pravima pokrenu postupak za upis stvarnih prava glede nekretnina i svih promjena na njima u zemljišnu knjigu (Čl. 361. ZSP FBiH, Čl. 346. ZSP RS). Pored bračnog partnera, pravo na podnošenja zahtjeva za ispravku upisa ili podnošenje tužbe za utvrđenje da su tuženi kao bračni partneri suvlasanici sa po ½ dijela nekretnine pripada i tužitelju kao povjerilocu jednog bračnog partnera (Presuda Vrhovnog suda FBiH broj: 43 0 P 025561 12 Rev od 17.09.2013. godine). S druge strane, u RS-u postoji oboriva pravna pretpostavka da svakom bračnom partneru pripada po jedna polovina zajedničke imovine, uz mogućnost da svaki od njih može zahtijevati od suda da odredi veći dio od pripadajuće mu polovine, ukoliko dokaže da je njegov doprinos u sticanju zajedničke imovine očigledno veći od doprinosa od drugog bračnog supružnika (Čl. 273. st. 1. PZRS). Sud određuje veličinu udjela bračnog supružnika prema njegovom doprinosu u sticanju zajedničke imovine, pri čemu vodi računa ne samo o ličnom dohotku i zaradi svakog bračnog supružnika, već i o pomoći jednog bračnog supružnika drugome, o radu u domaćinstvu i porodici, o brizi oko vaspitanja i podizanju djece, kao i o svakom drugom vidu rada i saradnje u upravljanju, održavanju i povećanju zajedničke imovine (Čl. 273. st. 1. PZRS). 2.5. SADRŽAJ I NEKA SPORNA PITANJA BRAČNE STEČEVINE S obzirom na to da bračna stečevina predstavlja složeniji oblik suvlasničke zajednice, iz njenog sadržaja, prirode, te nedovoljne definisanosti (misleći prevashodno na korištenje pravnih standarda u zakonskoj definiciji iste), razvio se čitav niz „spornih“ pitanja u praksi, primarno u pogledu njenog sadržaja. Pored navedenog, opće poznato je da nekretnine imaju veliki značaj za pravni promet, ali i privredu svake zemlje. Istovremeno, nekretnine, sa aspekta vrijednosti, u pravilu čine pretežiti sadržaj bračne stečevine. Ipak, nisu nisu rijetki slučajevi da je u zemljišnim knjigama kao vlasnik te bračne stečevine upisan samo jedan bračni partner, iako se radi o suvlasništvu bračnih partnera. Navedena situacija generiše brojna pitanja i dileme, kao što su: pitanje upravljanja i raspolaganja, kao i pitanje prava i obveza trećeg savjesnog lica koje je steklo pravo vlasništva na toj nekretnini ili je zasnovalo određeno pravo radi osiguranja svoga potraživanja, a na osnovu pravnog posla samo s jednim bračnim partnerom, ili prava drugog, neupisanog bračnog partnera u konkretnim primjerima. Postavlja se pitanje prioriteta u primjeni pojedinih načela građanskog i stvarnog prava: načela savjesnosti i poštenja, zloupotrebe prava, zaštite povjerenja u zemljišne knjige, načela nemo plus iuris ad alium potest quam ipse habet, načela sigurnosti pravnog prometa i sl. (Mutapčić & Oruč, 2017, p.9). S obzirom na novo stvarno i zemljišnoknjižno pravo, za očekivati je da će sudska praksa, koja je to već djelimično i uradila, dati konačne odgovore na ova pitanja. Svakako, s obzirom na raniju reformu stvarnog prava i ne postojanje naše 111 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 nove sudske prakse, interesantno je konsultovati i određenu sudsku praksu zemalja iz okruženja, prioritetno R Hrvatske, mada je primjetna nekonzistentnost i različiti stavovi Vrhovnog i Ustavnog suda ove zemlje po navedenim pitanjima. Nadalje, značajni problemi nastaju i u slučaju prestanka bračne zajednice. Neka od tih pitanja je svakako i pitanje ulaganja jednog bračnog partnera u vlastitu imovinu drugog, mogućnosti oštećenja vjerovnika, pitanje tzv. bankovnih ugovora bračnih partnera, kao i pitanje značenja otplaćivanja kredita uzetog radi stjecanja bračne stečevine. U nastavku rada ćemo pokušati da izložimo najaktuelnija teorijska, ali i stručna pitanja predmetne materije. Kao što je već pomenuto, bračnu stečevinu čini imovina koju su bračni partneri stekli radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, kao i prihodi iz te imovine. Iako prema definiciji imovine (koja je širi pojam od prava vlasništva) proizilazi kako bračnu stečevinu, pored stvarnih prava, čine prava na potraživanja iz raznih obligacionih odnosa u koje stupaju bračni partneri, u praksi to ipak nije tako (Klarić & Vedrić, 2006, p. 94-97). U pravnim odnosima bračni partneri se ipak ne pojavljuju kao jedinstven pravni subjekt, što u konačnici spriječava bračne partnere da po sili zakona (na što bi ih legitimisala bračna stečevina kao imovina) imao pravo na suvlasnički dio potraživanja koja pripadaju drugom bračnom partneru, a u koje je on stupio tokom trajanja bračne zajednice. Navedeno je u suprotnosti sa osnovnom karakteristikom obligacionopravnog odnosa, tj. njegovom relatinvosti, odnosno djelovanjem inter partes. Tako, „u pravnoj teoriji postoji mišljenje da bračnu stečevinu ne čini sva imovina, nego samo ona koja se odnosi na subjektivna stvarna prava, za razliku od subjektivnih obveznih prava na potraživanja, koja pripadaju isključivo onom bračnom partneru koji je učesnik konkretnog obligacionog odnosa“ (Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 117). S druge strane, postoje i autori koji smatraju da od obligacionih prava u bračnu stečevinu ulaze i sva potraživanja, ali i dugovi koje su bračni partneri stvorili za potrebe zajedničkog domaćinstva, te da o navedenim pravima kao predmetima bračne stečevine u sudskoj praksi nema sporova (Traljić & Bubić, 2007, p. 77). Drugo značajno pitanje je da li, pored osnovnih konstitutivnih elemenata: rada i bračne zajednice, porijeklo imovine ima odlučujući karakter, odnosno uticaj pri odluci da li nešto ulazi u bračnu stečevinu ili ne? Drugim riječima, da li imovina koja je stečena tokom bračne zajednice, ali sredstvima koja čine posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera ulazi u režim bračne stečevine: npr. imovinom od prodaje nasljedstva, posuđenim novcem, imovinom od poklona i sl.? Pitanje je izazvalo različite reakcije u sudskoj praski domaćih, ali i sudova regiona. U Hrvatskoj se povodom ovog pitanja razvila različita sudksa praksa, ali i stanovište pravne teorije. Tako je u ranijim odlukama Vrhovnog suda R Hrvatske zauzet stav da je za primjenu materijalnog prava relevantan trenutak stjecanja sredstava, a ne stvari plaćene tim sredstvima (Kačer, Momčinović & Žuvela, 2009, p. 5569). Navedeni stav Vrhovnog suda R Hrvatske dosljedno je primjenjivan i u drugim slučajevima (Ernst, 2012, p. 1327). Naknadno su Vrhovni (Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev 369/06 od 26. 3. 2008. godine), ali i Ustavni sud R Hrvatske (Odluka Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, U-III/2103/2008) 112 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč odstupili od pomenutog stava dajući prednost porijeklu imovine, što je izazvalo i određene kritike pravne nauke. Naša sudska praksa u ovakvim slučajevima uzima u obzir još jednu činjenicu koja svakako ima težinu prilikom odlučivanja karaktera stečene imovine. Radi se o „volji bračnih partnera da se posebnom imovinom jednog bračnog partnera kupe zajedničku imovinu kao bračnu stečevinu“ (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj: 33 0 P 015117 12 Rev od 11.06.2013. godine). U tom slučaju, prema stavu suda imovina ima karakter bračne stečevine, te nastaje suvlasništvo u zakonom utvrđenim dijelovima. U suprotnom, s obzirom na nedostatak konstitutivnog elementa - da je imovina stečena radom, radilo bi se o posebnoj imovini bračnog druga (Zečević, 2002, p. 329). U ovom slučaju smatramo da bi bilo ispravnije da se imovinsko-pravni odnos između bračnih partnera primarno prosuđuje prema odredbama ZSP o stjecanju vlasništva, odnosno suvlasništva, a ne po pravilima o sticanju bračne imovine stečene radom bračnih partnera za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (VSRH Rev. 966/06 31. 01. 2007. godine). Ovo iz razloga što su odredbe ZSP fleksibilnije u odnosu na dosta restriktivan pristup porodičnih zakona, jer je prema ZSP bitna sama volja sticaoca prava vlasništva pri tom ne ulazeći u njihove međusobne odnose. Pored imovine stečene radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, u bračnu stečevinu ulaze i: prihodi od bračne stečevine (zakupnina, dividenda, kamata i sl.); prihodi od posebne imovine koji su ostvareni radom bračnih partnera (Vrhovni sud RS, broj 118-0-Rev-07-000 871 od 29.05.2009. godine); naknade za oštećenje stvari iz režima bračne stečevine, kao i druge naknade; naknade koje su po raznim osnovama dobijene za rad bračnih partnera, a ne predstavljaju zaradu (otpremnina, stipendije, odlikovanja i sl) (Draškić, 2009, p. 396); imovina stečena na osnovu ugovora o doživotnom izdržavanju (Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.910/12-2, od 4. 02. 2013. godine); pokloni trećih osoba učinjeni za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (u novcu, stvarima, pružanju pomoći radom i sl.), bez obzira na to koji ih je bračni partner primio, ukoliko drukčije ne proizlazi iz namjene poklona ili se iz okolnosti u momentu davanja poklona može zaključiti da je poklonodavalac želio učiniti poklon samo jednom od bračnih partnera (Čl. 251. st. 2. PZFBiH). Tako npr. davanje stana na besplatno korištenje bračnim partnerima predstavlja poklon učinjen za oba bračna partnera (Vrhovni sud BiH, br. Rev 663/86, od 09.07.1987. godine). Također u bračnu stečevinu ulazi i dobitak od igara na sreću, kao i prihodi od intelektualnog vlasništva ostvareni za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (Čl. 251. PZFBiH), nekretnine stečene za vrijeme bračne zajednice, strana sredstva plaćanja bez obzira što ih je kao ličnu zaradu stekao jedan od bračnih partnera (Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 664/86, od 20.11.1987. godine), prihodi stečeni „nedozvoljenom trgovinom“ jednog bračnog partnera u bračnoj zajednici (Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 627/85, od 20.03.1986. godine), pravo na otkup stana (Vrhovni sud FBiH broj 65 0 P 199331 11 Rev od 19.01.2012. godine), ostvarena novčana protivrijednost prodate stvari koja je bila u režimu bračne stečevine (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000143 09 113 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Rev od 25.01.2011. godine), imovina stečena tokom vanbračne zajednice (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000720 10 Rev od 08.09.2011. godine), i dr. Neka od spornih pitanja oko sadržaja bračne stečevine jesu predmeti ugovora zaključenih prije braka sa trećim licima, a njihovo izvršenje nastaje nakon zasnivanja bračne zajednice (npr. stan kupljen kreditom ugovorenim prije stupanja u brak, ali otplaćivan tokom braka) ili s druge strane vlasništvo na određenoj stvari stečeno u toku trajanja bračne zajednice pretežitim sredstvima jednog bračnog paartnera, a samo djelimično sredstvima iz bračne stečevine. U prvom slučaju, sudska praksa stoji na stanovištu da „drugi bračni partner (koji je učestvovao u otplati kredita) ne stiče stvarno pravo na dijelu tog stana, već obveznopravni zahtjev razmjerno uloženim sredstvima u otplati kredita“ (Odluka Vrhovnog suda RH, br. Rev 3024/90-2, od 30.12.1991. godine). Analogno navedenom novčana sredstva koje jedan bračni partner stekne tokom trajanja bračne zajednice po osnovu ugovora o kreditu, koji je utrošen za povećanje zajedničke imovine ili za druge zajedničke potrebe, ne predstavlja njegovu posebnu imovinu, te će u slučaju razvoda braka dug tog bračnog partnera po osnovu navedenog kredita predstavljati dug koji tereti oba bivša bračna partnera (Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.3608/13-3, od 17. 07. 2013. godine). Također, okolnost što nakon eventualnog razvoda, odnosno prekida bračne zajednice, jedan bračni partner vraća kredit namijenjen za izgradnju porodične kuće, ne utiče na povećanje njegovog suvlasničkog dijela već predstavlja pravni osnov za postavljanje obligacionog zahtjeva prema drugom bračnom partneru za novčanu naknadu u vrijednosti njegovog suvlasničkog dijela (Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 683/88, od 04.08.1989. godine). U drugom slučaju, kada je vlasništvo na određenoj stvari stečeno u toku trajanja bračne zajednice pretežitim sredstvima jednog bračnog partnera, a samo djelimično sredstvima iz bračne stečevine, se ne primjenjuju gore utvrđena pravila. Ovdje se ne radi o čistom obligacionopravnom već o stvarnopravnom odnosu, te je u svakom pojedinom slučaju, ukoliko nije postojala izričito izjavljena volja bračnih partnera, neophodno utvrditi koliki je suvlasnički dio drugog bračnog partnera u zajedničkoj imovini za koju nije sporno da je kupljena za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice i dijelom sredstvima stečenim radom bračnih partnera. Suvlasnički udio prvog bračnog partnera bi bio ono što je od vlastite imovine uložio u kupovinu nekretnine (Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske Rev 468/06 od 28. 8. 2007. godine). Isti je slučaj i kada je jedan bračni partner ulagao svoja sredstva u zajedničku nekretninu bračnih partnera nakon prekida bračne zajednice, odnosno razvoda braka. Tada će se eventualno povećanje njegovog suvlasničkog dijela prosuđivati prema odredbama stvarnog prava, a ne po pravilima o stjecanju bračne stečevine tokom braka (Županijski sud u Koprivnici Gž 1186/00 od 01. 03. 2001. godine). Drugo važno pitanje u pogledu sadržaja bračne stečevine je i status imovine, odnosno pravne posljedice radnji usmjerenih na uvečanje imovine koja je u vlasništvu jednog bračnog partnera, odnosno njegova posebna imovina? Ovdje se prije svega misli na investiciona ulaganja, kojima se u većoj ili manjoj 114 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč mjeri povećava vrijednost stvari, kao što je to slučaj sa izgradnjom, adaptacijom, nadziđivanjem i sličnim radnjama na nekretninama. Pitanje je da li novostvorena vrijednost ima karakter bračne stečevine ili i dalje ostaje u statusu posebne imovine bračnih partnera, te da li, i koji sve faktori utiču na određivanje karaktera ove imovine. S obzirom na nepostojanje eksplicitnih zakonskih odredbi kojima se regulišu pomenuti odnosi, potrebno je kao i u prethodnim slučajevima posegnuti za stavovima i rješenjima sudske prakse. U tom kontekstu, naša prijeratna sudska praksa koja je i danas relevantna izgradila je određene stavove po ovom pitanju. Tako je Vrhovni sud BiH zauzeo stav da „ukoliko je stambena zgrada izgrađena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice na zemljištu u vlasništvu jednog bračnog partnera, oba bračna partnera postaju suvlasnici zgrade, ali i zemljišta u sastavu građevinske parcele (ovo posljednje je direktna posljedica obnutog dejstva načela jedinstva nekretnine koji je važio u starom stvarnopravnom režimu)“ (Rješenje Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 179/85, od 16.05.1985. godine). Iz prezentiranog stava proističe da nova stvar, odnosno nekretnina potpada pod režim bračne stečevine, što će uvijek biti slučaj kod potpune izrgadnje, odnosno nastanka nove stvari. Drugo pitanje koje se ovdje nameće je visina suvlasničkih dijelova, da li će u ovom slučaju vrijediti prezumpcija jednakih suvlasničkih dijelova ili je ipak neophodno u obzir uzeti i vrijednost zemljišta (posebne imovine) na kojoj je izgrađena građevina? Prethodno citirana sudska presuda je iz vremena kada je načelo jedinstva nekretnine bilo derogirano, tako da je potrebno postaviti novi standard koji će biti uzet u obzir prilikom odgovora na prethodno iznesenu dilemu. U tom smislu smatramo da bi bilo neophodno prethodno utvrditi kolika vrijednost zemljišta (posebne imovine) sudjeluje u vrijednosti nekretnine u cjelini objekta sa zemljištem (bračne stečevine), a potom i ovisno o odnosu tih vrijednosti, uz uvažavanje zakonske presumpcije o jednakom doprinosu bračnih drugova u stjecanju bračne stečevine, utvrditi suvlasnički omjer na tako stečenoj imovini (Županijski sud u Zagrebu Gž 3215/02 od 1. 4. 2003. godine). Drugačiji je pristup u slučajevima koji su nastali kao rezultat neznatnih ulaganja, kao što je već pomenuti primjer adaptacije. Tako se u jednoj drugoj presudi Vrhovnog suda ističe da „bračni drug koji je svojim radom u toku bračne zajednice učestvovao u adaptaciji građevinskog objekta koji čini posebnu imovinu drugog supružnika ne može steći pravo na suvlasnički dio u tim objektima ako izvedeni adaptacioni radovi nisu bili takvog značaja, obima i vrijednosti da su u potpunosti izmijenili karakteristike ranijih objekata, tako da se adaptirani objekti mogu smatrati novoizgrađenim“ (Presuda Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 85/85, od 21.03.1985. godine). U navedenom slučaju, smatramo da se radi o obligacionopravnom, a ne stvarnopravnom odnosu, te da drugom bračnom partneru pripada pravo na novčanu naknadu u vrijednosti uloženih sredstava (Zečević, 2002, p. 328). Svi pobrojani slučajevi impliciraju složenost bračne stečevine kao suvlasničke zajednice, koji svakako u praksi izazivaju čitav niz nedoumica, ali i otežavaju pravni promet i pravnu sigurnost. 115 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 3. ZAKLJUČAK Reformski procesi privatnog prava u BiH zahvatili su i sferu imovinskopravnih odnosa bračnih partnera. Tako je najznačajnija reforma imovine bračnih partnera izvršena Porodičnim zakonom FBiH iz 2005. godine, kada se iz režima zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera prešlo u suvlasničku zajednicu uz neoborivu zakonsku pretpostavku utvrđenih suvlasničkih dijelova u omjeru ½. Ipak, kao posljedica ustavnog uređenja naše zemlje, ali i sveukupne političke situacije, danas u BiH ne postoji jedinstven imovinski režim bračnih partnera. Tako, kao što je već pomenuto, u FBiH i DB BiH imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter suvlasničke zajednice, dok u RS-u je zadržan stari model prema kojem imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter zajedničke imovine, gdje se udjeli i dalje utvđuju u sudskim postupcima pokrenutim radi diobe zajedničke imovine. Iako, prema našim procjenama, najveći broj suvlasničkih zajednica u našoj državi je u statusu bračne stečevine, analizom zakonskih tekstova utvrdili smo da ni porodični zakon, niti ZSP FBiH/RS ne sadrže detaljnu regulaciju ovog instituta, već upućuju na primjenu općih pravila imovinskog prava. Pored navedenog, u samom definisanju i određivanju sadržaja bračne stečevine korišten je veliki broj pravnih standarda koji su naknadno definisani kroz sudsku praksu i njeno ujednačavanje. Treba istači da se suvlasništvo na bračnoj stečevini stječe se na osnovu zakona, a da pri tom upis u zemljišnu knjigu nema konstitutivno, već deklarativno pravno dejstvo. Stoga se veoma često događa da je kao vlasnik nekretnine u zemljišnu knjigu upisan jedan bračni partner, iz čega proizilazi da zemljišna knjiga ne odražava istinito stanje. Sve navedeno rezultira problemima u pravnom prometu prilikom prenosa vlasništva ili prilikom osnivanju prava osiguranja potraživanja na cijeloj nekretnini od strane upisanog vlasnika, kao i stjecanja prava vlasništva treće osobe povjerenjem u zemljišnu knjigu. Kako bi se u potpunosti uklonile mogući problemi potrebno je de lege ferenda izvršiti izmjene našeg porodičnog zakonodavstva i shodno specifičnostima bračne zajednice predvidjeti veći broj odredbi kojima bi, između ostalih, bila riješena i pitanja koja se odnose na sadržaj bračne stečevine, kao i pitanja raspolaganja imovinom u režimu bračne stečevine. 116 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč LITERATURA KNJIGE I ČLANCI Alinčić, M. & Bakarić, A. (1989). Porodično pravo, Narodne novine Zagreb, Draškić, M. (2009). Porodično pravo i pravo deteta, Pravni fakultet u Beogradu Ernst, H. (2012). Oštećenje vjerovnika i bračna stečevina u novoj ustavnosudskoj analizi, Zbornik PFZ, 62, (5-6) 1323-1362. Hrabar, D. (2002). Status imovine bračnih drugova – neka pitanja i dvojbe , Pravo u gospodarstvu, 41, 43-62 Klarić, P. & Vedriš, M. (2006). Građansko pravo, Narodne novine Krešić, B. (2009), Bračni ugovor u porodičnom zakonodavstvu Bosne i Hercegovine sa osvrtom na uporedno pravo, magistarski rad, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Medić, D & Tajić, H. (2008). Sudska praksa iz stvarnog prava , Privredna štampa Sarajevo Mutapčić, H. Oruč, E. (2017). Applicatoin of the Principle of Trust in the Land Registry in the Context of the Disposition of Marital Assets, Časopis Human, Volume 7, Issue 1, 4-15. DOI: 10.21554/hrr.041701 Nakić – Momirović, S. (2006). Imovinski odnosi supružnika i vanbračnih partnera – vanugovorni režim, Novo porodično zakonodavstvo, Zbornik radova sa savjetovanja, Kragujevac Oruč, E. (2016). Pravo preče kupovine kod suvlasništva na nekretninama u pravu Bosne i Hercegovine, Društveni ogledi-Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu, Centar za društvena istraživanja IBU, Volume 3, Issue 2, 33-55. DOI: 10.14706/DO16322 Prokop, A. (1959). Komentar Osnovnom zakonu o braku I, Školska knjiga Zagreb Rešetar, B. & Kiraly, L. (2012). Razlike i sličnosti mađarskog i hrvatskog uređenja imovinskih odnosa bračnih drugova, u: Suvremeni pravni izazovi: EU - Mađarska – Hrvatska (ur. Župan M, Vinković M), Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Pečuhu, Bubić, S. (2008). Ugovorni bračni imovinski režim u pravu EU i uporednom pravu, Evropsko zakonodavstvo, godina VII, broj 25-26 Traljić, N & Bubić, S. (2007). Bračno pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Josipović, V & Ernst, H. (2009). Uloga zemljišnih knjiga u pravnom prometu bračnom stečevinom, u: Kačer, H.; Momčinović, H.; Žuvela, M. (ur.), Liber amicorum in honorem Jadranko Crnić, Novi Informator, Zagreb, str. 547-592 Zečevi, E. (2005). Porodičnopravni odnosi, „Logos“ Centar za edukaciju i pružanje intelektualnih usluga Zečević, E. (2002). Sudska praksa- zbirka pravnih stanovišta u primjeni pravila građanskog i privrednog prava, Dom štampe Zenica PROPISI Porodični zakon RS, Službeni glasnik br. 54/02 Porodični zakon FBiH, Službene novine br. 35/05 i 31/14 Porodični zakon Brčko Distrikta BiH, Službeni glasnik br. 23/07 117 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 SUDSKA PRAKSA Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 724/08-2 od 10.03.2008. godine Vrhovni sud Hrvatske, br. Gzz – 69/71, od 19.08.1971; Vrhovni sud Hrvatske, br. Gž-2088/60, od 24.12.1960. godine; Vrhovni sud Jugoslavije, br. Gz-8/69 od 22.04.1969. godine Vrhovni sud Vojvodine, br. Gž-113/77 od 17.06.1977. godine Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 1168/08-2 od 21.10.2008. godine Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 98/87, od 25. 12. 1997. godine i Rev. 33/98, od 02.04.1998. godine - Bilten VS RS, broj I/1999, odluka broj 116 8. VSRH Rev 1719/97 od 17. 5. 2001. 9. VSRH Rev 361/92 od 12. 3. 1992. godine 10. Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 4/94, od 28.01.1994. godine - Bilten VS RS, broj I/1999, odluka broj 119 11. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine br. 58 0 P 000479 12 Rev od 13.03.2013. godine 12. Odluka Ustavnog suda R Hrvatske Broj: U-I-1890/2007, od 25.11.2010. godine 13. Presuda Vrhovnog suda FBiH broj: 43 0 P 025561 12 Rev od 17.09.2013. godine 14. Odluka Vrhovnog suda RH, br. Rev 57/2005-2, od 14. 12. 2005. godine 15. Odluka Županijskog suda u Bjelovaru, br. Gž-657/09-2, od 26. 03.2009. godine 16. Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev 171/05 i Rev 57/05 17. Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev 1005/04 od 13. 1. 2005. godine 18. Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev 369/06 od 26. 3. 2008. godine, 19. Odluka Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, U-III/2103/2008 20. Odluka Vrhovnog suda RH, br. Rev 369/06-2, od 26. 03 2008. godine 21. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj: 33 0 P 015117 12 Rev od 11.06.2013. godine 22. Odluka Vrhovnog suda BiH, Rev. 484/90, od 20.09.1991. godine 23. VSRH Rev. 966/06 31. 01. 2007. godine 24. Vrhovni sud RS, broj 118-0-Rev-07-000 871 od 29.05.2009. godine. 25. Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.910/12-2, od 4. 02. 2013. godine 26. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 58 0 P 900294 08 Rev od 09.02.2010. godine 27. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Mekedonije. Rev. 495/84 od 06.12.1984. godine 28. Vrhovni sud BiH, br. Rev 663/86, od 09.07.1987. godine 29. Vrhovni sud BiH, br. Rev 586/85, od 27.02.1986. godine 30. Rješenje Vrhovnog suda BiH, Rev. 664/86, od 20.11.1987. godine 31. Vrhovni sud RS, broj Rev 10/96, od 18.03.1996. godine - Bilten VS RS, broj I/1999, odluka broj 118 32. Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 627/85, od 20.03.1986. godine 33. Rješenje Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 65 0 P 199331 11 Rev od 19.01.2012. godine 34. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj: 70 0 P 000642 10 Rev od 25.10.2011. godine 35. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000143 09 Rev od 25.01.2011. godine 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 118 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč 36. Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000720 10 Rev od 08.09.2011. godine 37. Odluka Vrhovnog suda RH, br. Rev 3024/90-2, od 30.12.1991. godine 38. Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.3608/13-3, od 17. 07. 2013. godine 39. Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 683/88, od 04.08.1989. godine, 40. Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 157/89, od 27.10.1989. godine 41. Županijski sud u Zagrebu Gž 9272/03 od 28. 10. 2003.godine 42. Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske Rev 468/06 od 28. 8. 2007. godine 43. Županijski sud u Koprivnici Gž 1186/00 od 01. 03. 2001. godine 44. Rješenje Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 179/85, od 16.05.1985. godine 45. Presuda Županijskog suda u Zagrebu Gž 3215/02 od 1. 4. 2003. godine 46. Presuda Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 85/85, od 21.03.1985. godine 47. Općinski sud u Zenici, broj 43 0 P 001107 08 P od 12.03.2010. godine 48. Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 173/07-2 od 19.02.2007 49. VSRH, Rev. 745/07-2 od 09.04.2008. godine 50. Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 415/87, od 19.05.1988. godine Porodični zakon RS, Službeni glasnik br. 54/02 (u daljem tekstu: PZRS), Porodični zakon FBiH, Službene novine br. 35/05 i 31/14 (u daljem tekstu: PZFBiH), Porodični zakon Brčko Distrikta BiH, Službeni glasnik br. 23/07 (u daljem tekstu: PZBDBiH) i 119 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine