136 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3543 Title A name given to the resource HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH? - THE TREATMENT OF ANGLICISMS IN THE CONTEXT OF CROATIAN AND GERMAN Author Author Babić, Snježana Gradečak-Erdeljić, Tanja Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among the university students of English and German at the University of Osijek construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among the non-native users of English of how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and which are the strategies of coping with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students acquire rather slowly the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students in order to elicit responses which will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/df375b2eb4f4b2d6c641ca40a327573c.pdf 0eec75207b0409271a7d90d7d1d180a4 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German Snježana Babić Tanja Gradečak-Erdeljić Josip Juraj Strossmayer University, Croatia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 02.11.2014. Abstract The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among university students of English and German at the University of Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German Introduction The process of language change is an essential and natural part of the development of every language and in this sense it abides by the principles of a descriptive approach to the study of (a) language. By its very nature, the process of describing the changing and fluctuating characteristics of language must rely on describing the external factors of change, namely, its speakers and their linguistic production such as it is. Approaching the language as it is spoken by its users follows the �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German tenets of the usage-based model of language (Langacker, 1987), which seeks to ground language structure in the actual instances of language – the usage event. Following the approach to language change as a natural process that spreads from the domain of historical linguistics into the area of sociolinguistics, pragmatics, linguistic anthropology and cognitive sciences in general (Aitchinson, 2004), linguistic changes can be studied at their micro and macro levels. Relevant in that sense are the length of the research period, which is usually labelled as a diachronic (longitudinal) approach, as opposed to the synchronic approach within a shorter period and at several sociolinguistic levels. In the case of the research conducted in the classes of German and English as a second language, we adopted the synchronic approach of testing the current state of affairs with reference to a particular sociolinguistic group of young people, students at the Department of English and the Department of German at the University of Osijek, Croatia. Our aim was to establish how the most up-to-date lexical units from the field of IT technology, in our case lexemes, abbreviations and acronyms used in texting, chatting, emailing and social networking break the barrier of English as a source language and enter students' Croatian and German as mother tongue and other second language, respectively. We wanted to establish the degree of their awareness of potential equivalents to English terms and abbreviations and thus suggest some preliminary guidelines for the treatment of anglicisms in both Croatian and German language classes. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms were researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. Their responses will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a ‘language of identification’ or a ‘language of communication’ (House, 2003). As a ‘language of communication’ English has established its firm leading position as a useful instrument for communicating in international encounters with others who do not speak one’s own native language. Croatian has been recognized as a ‘language of identification’ by the participants in the survey and the elicited results in the use of English terms and their Croatian equivalents clearly point in that direction. The affective stance of Croatian students toward their mother tongue defines it as a ‘language of identification’, possessing the necessary affective-emotive quality necessary for the identification of an individual with a larger linguistic-cultural community. In our research German straddles a fine line between those two types because it is neither the students’ mother tongue, nor the imposing lingua franca, but a second language taught at a tertiary level. Precisely thus, the results from the research conducted among the students of German as L2 show the most interesting results, pointing to a current battle between anglicisms, German �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics counterparts and Croatian equivalents as a potential buffer zone between the two camps. Due to the limitation of space, the affective element in the process of deciding between the counterparts has been left out and will probably be part of some further analysis. English as a global language and a lingua franca As Crystal observed (1997:2): ”A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country.” The ways in which it may achieve its special status is either for it to become ‘a second language’, an official language of government and media and where the speakers learn it form an early age along with their mother tongue, or when it achieves priority status in foreign-language teaching in schools. English long ago acquired its status as the global language, mostly due to the phenomenon described by Crystal as the closest of links between language dominance and cultural power. The British political and industrial imperialism of the 19th century gave way to the American economic supremacy of the 20th century, which is now extending into the third millennium. Suffice it to say that the brunt of both types of power types produced a strong cultural revolution, mostly based on the ever-present entertainment industry and technological advancements. The means of communication involving the keyboard-to-screen (KTS) channel (Jucker & Dürscheid, 2012) indeed put a spin on the famous description of English as ‘the language on which the sun never sets’ (Crystal, 1997: 67) since the virtual space of electronically powered devices enables its users to communicate day and night, spanning the reach of English both in space and time. Every consideration about the extent to which English influences other languages and other cultures must keep in mind the limitations of its linguistic system, or, rather, lack thereof, because, as House (2003:557) points out, some of the major characteristics of today’s global English are its functional flexibility and its spread across many different domains. The typological mixture of English and its relative morphological simplicity is a basis on its own for the internal adaptability to new concepts to be linguistically encoded. Native speakers of English are themselves continuously producing innumerable examples of new, inventive lexical and idiomatic structures adjusting their vocabulary to the given linguistic system of English, but, at the same time, slightly shifting the boundaries of the already existing system in haphazard, but persistent processes of lexicalization and grammaticalisation. English has thus earned its role as a legitimate lingua franca of the modern world and more recently a strand of EFL research suggested a new term of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). According to House (ibid.), ELF can't be treated as either a pidgin or a language for specific purposes, or as a form of interlanguage in Selinker's terms, but as a type of a contact language for speakers �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German sharing neither a native tongue or national culture, who use English as their chosen language of communication. The position of the English language as a potential threat for native languages is thus defied by a free-willing approach to its use by a heterogeneous group of speakers from all strands of life and all around the globe. Rather than acting as a killer language, ELF can also give rise to the following paradoxical situation: using ELF as a language for communication often strengthens the use of native languages for identification purposes and as a vehicle of protest against ELF dominance. We therefore witness today strong and healthy counter-currents, not only in particular language policies by different state authorities trying to promote vocabulary of a national language, but even among different generations of speakers of national languages, i.e. even among the members of the young generation who treat their national language as a first line of defence in the struggle for their personal identification. The treatment of jargon and slang in SLA As noted by Birdsong (2004: 86) the conceptualization of the mature state in the process of L1 or L2 acquisition presupposes incremental progress, and thus no absolute finality, in learning. This lack of finality subsumes all the aspects of language change mentioned above, particularly additions of novel lexical items (along with idioms, slang, dialectal variants, technical jargon, etc.) and occasional changes in surface morphological or phonetic forms, but not re-representation of the underlying grammar. The classroom treatment of jargon (business jargon, medical jargon etc.) is, of course, a necessary element for any studiously created curriculum of English for Specific Purposes course, but in the cases of more general SLA class, when the use of terminology includes elements of a particular professional jargon (in our case IT terminology or KTS communication jargon), and the fluctuating basis of slang expressions, the teaching attitude should be approached from a more tentative angle and the advantages and disadvantages. Methodology The corpus consists of 20 electronic RAs in the field of general psychology consisting of 105 307 running words selected from two online journals available in PsychInfo base: Motivaton and Emotion (IF=1,339) and Cognition and Emotion (IF=1,901)2. The RAs were selected according to the following criteria. They were all original research reports of correlational studies published between 2008 and �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 2009. Additionally, they followed a standard IMRD framework and were approximately of the same length, ranging from 4,000-6,000 words. As for the data analysis procedure, the corpus was divided into four sub-corpora, each consisting of one of the four obligatory sections of RAs3. The text analysis was done by means of the lexical analysis software WordSmith Tools 5.0 (Scott, 1996), in particular its analytical tool Concordancer. The raw frequency counts were normed to a basis per 1,000 words, using the following method: raw frequency count/a total length of a text x 1,000 words= normed frequency count4. Results Fig.1. presents the distribution of three categories of epistemic modality markers selected for frequency analysis across IMRD structure of RAs. As can be seen, the Method section shows the lowest incidence of epistemic markers, unlike the Discussion section with the highest frequency of epistemic modality markers. The most frequent type of epistemic markers used in Introductions includes epistemic modals, followed by epistemic lexical verbs, whereas in Discussions these two categories seem to be quite evenly distributed. The overall use of epistemic adverbs, adjectives, and nouns is the lowest in frequency although they show rather even distribution across Introductions and Discussions. Relative frequency of most commonly used epistemic markers across IMRD structure is given in Fig.2. Discussion As can be seen in Fig.1. the distribution of epistemic modality markers seem to match well with the rhetorical functions of each RA section. According to Nwogu's (1997) schemata of RA moves in medical RA, the Method section deals with the conventionalized descriptions of data collection and data-analysis procedures. This implies that writers generally do not need to qualify their claims in this section, which is reflected in low frequency of epistemic occurrences. The Result section is rhetorically different in that it generally refers to the presentation of the results of statistical analysis. The higher frequency of evaluative language in this section indicates that while presenting the research results, writers seem to simultaneously comment on them and to some extent qualify their claims tentatively, implying that there might be alternative explanations for the results obtained. (e.g. It is possible that co-variation among the variables may account for this result.). As is evident in Fig. 1, epistemic lexical verbs were used most frequently compared to the other two categories under study. Their overall use across IMRD tends to be largely conventionalized in academic discourse (see Fig.2), especially as constituents of frequently occurring lexical bundles such as: Results suggest. However, due to their polysemous nature, the pragmatic interpretation of their epistemic status demands a larger-scale study and is therefore beyond the scope of this paper. �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German The second highest epistemically modalized section is Introduction, which is also in accordance with its rhetorical purpose. In this section writers primarily present the current state of knowledge taking positions towards them where relevant. Also they offer interpretations of the previous research in an attempt to establish a niche for their own (Swales, 1990). Unlike the Discussion section, where writers are more often the sources of epistemic judgments that make them more subjective in their evaluations, the epistemic judgments presented in Introductions are more descriptive (Nuyts, 2000), i.e. they are frequently reports of other people's evaluations. (e.g. Ickes et al. (2000) proposed that women’s typical advantage on tests of interpersonal sensitivity might be due to motivational differences stemming from the stereotypically female nature of such tasks.). The results suggest the highest incidence of epistemic modal verbs, although the use of other categories does not seem to be significantly lower. Among the modal verbs, the findings indicate the predominant use of the modal verb may, which matches its chief semantic role as a hedging device (Coates, 1983), followed by might, indicating an even higher degree of tentativeness and indirectness. Finally, the densest section regarding epistemic qualifications is the Discussion with the highest overall incidence of epistemic markers, which is motivated by its information structure. It is in this section that writers interpret their results, draw tentative conclusions, admit limitations of their research that might have contributed to the nature of their findings, and suggest possible implications of their research, which are some of the chief reasons why greater caution is required when presenting claims. The distribution of modal verbs (f/1000=5.61) and epistemic lexical verbs (f/1000=5.92) seems to be relatively close, which suggests their conventional use by psychology writers when making epistemic judgments. (e.g. Indeed, it may be that self-discrepancies predict emotional distress predominantly among those individuals who believe that one’s discrepancies are unlikely to change./This seems to indicate that dispositional pessimists neither plan nor prepare the task to be undertaken, which suggests they are in a state of helplessness.) Based on the research findings, the most salient pragmatic aspects of epistemic markers in the corpus indicate their hedging function. Authors hedge the strong, assertive claims, admitting, among others, that their findings can be considered plausible given the limited nature of the research conducted (Hyland, 1998). The reliability and plausibility of the research findings are to be viewed as the logical inferences of the research rather than as individual speculations. To sum up, the results of the corpus-based analysis point to some of the most salient aspects regarding the distribution and use of selected epistemic modality markers. However, this picture is far from complete and might be considered as the first step in �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics exploring the complexity of epistemic modality and its pragmatics in the field of psychology. Figure.1. Distribution of anglicisms and their Croatian and German equivalents 100 80 60 English 40 Croatian 20 0 Input 1 Input 2 Input 3 Input 4 Input 5 Input 6 Figure 2. Relative percentage of most commonly used Croatian and German equivalents English Croatian favorites 2.05 71 1.35 47 0.37 13 0.80 28 0.66 23 0.28 10 download password attachment update paste file refresh edit German 0.04 1 0.24 6 0.40 10 0.08 2 0.04 1 0.25 5 0.60 12 1.80 36 0.10 2 0.45 9 0.35 7 3.03 79 2.57 67 1.19 31 1.69 44 0.96 25 0.65 17 1.48 156 1.25 132 0.85 90 0.72 76 0.54 57 0.33 35 �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German record Implications for classroom teaching The second section of the paper outlines the classroom tasks designed to acquire some information about the extent to which the undergraduates understand the concept of epistemic modality and use of epistemic markers in their field of study. It should be noted that the students were made familiar with the basic aspects of this linguistic category prior to the completion of tasks. The undergraduates are first-year students of psychology at the Faculty of Philosophy in Osijek. Given the length of the paper, the task instructions and only one example per task are outlined followed by a summarized discussion of students' responses. Conclusion Overall, the responses suggest that the majority of first-year students understand the concept of epistemic modality and can recognize its typical exponents in the authentic sentences extracted from a specialized RA corpus. We find that the inclusion of epistemic modality should be an integral component of EAP courses, due to the complexity of the concept which, however, has been proved to be one of the most characteristic elements of written academic discourse. At this level of language learning the students should be guided by being exposed to the highly frequent epistemic markers through awareness-raising tasks. These tasks should be based on authentic material, bringing students’ attention to the actual language in use. Still, the production should be guided in the manner of providing prompts in the form of hedging devices (see Discussion point 3). Only at the higher level of language learning could we expect a greater degree of independent use of structures containing epistemic markers leading to the development of more advanced academic writing skills. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics References Birdsong, D. (2004). Second Language Acquisition and Ultimate Attainment. In Davies, Alan and Catherine Elder (Eds.). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. (pp. 82-105). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jucker, A. H.& C. Dürscheid. (2012). The Linguistics of Keyboard-to-screen Communication. A New Terminological Framework. Linguistik online 56, 6/2012 Langacker, R.W. (1987). The Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1. Stanford: Stanford University Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2825 Title A name given to the resource How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German Author Author Babić, Snežana Gradečak-Erdeljić, Tanja Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among university students of English and German at the University of Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PD Germanic languages,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PT Germanic literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ef39d110f6ec50070e8e1002a933009c.pdf 37c4cc90e3e63e90dc40e023b67ebf4c PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo How Organizational Culture Affects the Motivational Antecedents of Job Outcomes: a Conceptual Model Aziz Bakay Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey aziz.bakay@gediz.edu.tr Jun Huang Texas A&M International University, United States junhuang@dusty.tamiu.edu This paper investigates into the relationship between motivation and job outcomes in work environment. The motivational antecedents of organizational outcomes are differentiated into extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. The influences of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the job outcome variables, that are job satisfaction and job performance, are typified in our conceptual model. Therefore, this study looks into the moderating effect of organizational culture on the relationship between motivational variables and organizational outcomes. We identified four organizational cultures from the extant literature to be included in our conceptual model; competitive, bureaucratic, entrepreneurial, and consensual. Propositions are given regarding the moderating effect of organizational culture on the motivational antecedents of job outcomes. Future research directions are discussed. Keywords: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Organizational Culture, Job Outcomes, Job Performance, Job Satisfaction. 49 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1494 Title A name given to the resource How Organizational Culture Affects the Motivational Antecedents of Job Outcomes: a Conceptual Model Author Author BAKAY, Aziz HUANG, Jun Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper investigates into the relationship between motivation and job outcomes in work environment. The motivational antecedents of organizational outcomes are differentiated into extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. The influences of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the job outcome variables, that are job satisfaction and job performance, are typified in our conceptual model. Therefore, this study looks into the moderating effect of organizational culture on the relationship between motivational variables and organizational outcomes. We identified four organizational cultures from the extant literature to be included in our conceptual model; competitive, bureaucratic, entrepreneurial, and consensual. Propositions are given regarding the moderating effect of organizational culture on the motivational antecedents of job outcomes. Future research directions are discussed. Keywords: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Organizational Culture, Job Outcomes, Job Performance, Job Satisfaction. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c5badcc0941a85218c0c7b644c627af3.pdf 6134b520e3ea1392a5bf73006d10781a PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo How Outsourcing Can Help the Organizations for Capturing Sustainable Development? Şermin ŞENTURAN International University of Sarajevo Faculty of Economics and Business Administration (FEBA) Bosnia and Herzegovina ssenturan@ius.edu.ba Ramo PALALIĆ International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina ramopal@gmail.com Abstract: Outsourcing in its essence is a very dynamic and diverse topic and there are many different outsourcing options. In this paper, we would try to discuss basics on outsourcing aimed for a client and an outsourcing provider. It is argued that outsourcing has its benefits and disadvantages. It is on a company to do due diligence of itself prior to undertake outsourcing process. However, statistical data shown that outsourcing is rapidly growing and it has more its benefits over downsides. As globalization spreading out in untouched areas of the world, outsourcing does so. In this article we try to give the definitions, types and benefits of outsourcing for the organizations in order to give a broad understanding of its effects on sustainable development. Key Words: outsourcing, contracting, core-components, globalization Introduction Globalization is rapidly linking the world’s major economies. Today’s standard of excellence is not just best in class, in fact, it is best in world. In this global economy every company must compete against customer choices coming from everywhere and anywhere. Barriers to the marketplace are dropping quickly, with new competitors just a mouse-click away from any customer. Core competencies are the crown jewels of a company and, therefore, should be carefully nurtured and developed. Companies can determine their future business directions based on the strengths of competencies. However, because generalized terms such as resource, asset, capability, and competence are not clearly explained in connection with competence theory, these posing difficulties in understanding many contemporary management concepts (Hafeez, K. YanBing Zhang Malak, N. 2002). The phenomenon of outsourcing has become a global issue in this modern world. Seems that is a new trend for some countries, but in fact it had started in early fifteen centuries. There are many books written on this topic. However, although authors suggest outsourcing as a future perspective following up newest technology, they also argue that there are downsides of outsourcing. They say that failures in outsourcing should be expected if proper analysis and preparation were not undertaken. Others argue that is better to in-source than outsource. Accordingly, this paper tends to discuss some current issues in outsourcing, its benefits, and disadvantages and how it helps the development of the organizations in terms of sustainability. Definitions of Outsourcing There can many definitions of outsourcing be derived although its essence is the same, so we would provide a few definitions that best describes in brief almost all parts of outsourcing process. Outsourcing at its simplest is when a company or individual delegate some of its specific tasks to another individual who is not their direct employee, or another company. The individual or the company receives monetary compensation in exchange for the services rendered. In other words, outsourcing takes place when a company has recruited another company or an individual to perform agreed business activities for them and that company or individual receive financial benefits (in most cases they get paid). This way, we can see that 243 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo outsourcing does not necessarily mean only situations where large corporations are involved. In fact, it can also apply to small companies and entrepreneurs who get some of their work done by people who are not their employees. Outsourcing is finding areas and responsibilities within an organization that are not core competencies and finding someone else to do the work for the company. It involves transferring or sharing management control and/or decision-making of a business function to an outside supplier, which involves a degree of twoway information exchange, coordination and trust between the outsourcer and its client. So, outsourcing is contracting with another company or person to do a particular function. Usually a function being outsourced is considered as non-core to the company’s business. Graphically these definitions can be summarized as Figure 2: Services COMPANY CLIENT OLA and SLA Monetary Compensation OUTSOURCING PROVIDER OLA – Organization Level Agreement SLA – Service Level Agreement Figure 2 - Definitions of outsourcing Types of Outsourcing The most common types of outsourcing being implemented are the following: BPO – business process outsourcing ITO – information technology outsourcing 1. In short, BPO refers to the process of hiring another company to handle business activities for a company. A formal definition of BPO is set out as “the delegation of one or more IT-intensive business processes to an external provider who, in turn, administrates and manages the selected processes based upon defined and measurable performance metrics (Havley J.K, B.M.Melby, 2007, pg.21). BPO encompasses call center outsourcing, human resources outsourcing (HRO), finance and accounting outsourcing, and claims processing outsourcing. When BPO is concerned we can say that the BPO has its own sub-business processes such as KPO – knowledge process outsourcing and BTO – business transformation outsourcing. KPO includes those activities that require greater skill, knowledge, education and expertise to handle. The current definition of KPO encompasses R&D, product development and legal e-discovery, as well as a number of other business functions. Similarly, BTO refers to the idea of having service providers contribute to the effort of transforming a business into a leaner, more dynamic, agile and flexible operation. 2. ITO focuses on IT-related activities, such as application management and application development, data center operations, or testing and quality assurance. As a remark, we must bear in our mind that any kind of outsourcing would not be successful without IT technology. Rather it is an integrated part of every BPO. Also, the outsourcing could be distinguished according to the region or area where outsourcing is being performed as On-shore/Near-shore and offshore outsourcing. On- shore or near-shore outsourcing is outsourcing within nearby region or the same country. Offshore outsourcing is outsourcing beyond a country borders. Traditionally, organizations have a home base of operations-a region or country, where they began and where their first customers are located. In going offshore, the company has the opportunity to change its business in two primary ways: its net costs and its net capabilities. Net costs refer to all of the aspects of its costs that might be impacted by the change, such as labor, support, technology, communications, infrastructure, legal, insurance, and taxes. The resulting cost differential can be positive (it can produce a lower net cost for the organization) or negative (it can produce a higher net cost). At the same time, offshoring will also affect the organization’s net capabilities. Capability means all of the operating characteristics of the business, including the volume of work that can be processed, its quality, speed, and flexibility It is known that among the cheapest labor in the world are labors in India and China so today most business are offshored to these countries. - 244 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3 – Outsourcing around the world (http://www.ulb.ac.be/ 15 December 2008) To note: since the outsourcing is in fact BPO, and all main functions are actually BPO functions, we will use it as outsourcing term in further discussion. So it is important to extent this discussion to BPO categories. BPO Categories Business processes that have come under close examination as potential candidates for outsourcing typically fall within one of seven categories: 1. Finance and accounting 2. Investment and asset management 3. Human resources 4. Procurement 5. Logistics 6. Real estate management 7. Miscellaneous (energy services, customer service, mailroom, food processing), [Halvey K. John, Melby M. Barbara, 2007, pg.134,] These categories have been established to facilitate the discussion of the general types of business processes that are the subject of consideration for outsourcing. Because in many cases a business process touches different areas within an organization, customers and vendors may categorize certain business processes under different headings depending on the organization’s internal structure. For example, in some companies, payroll is considered a human resource function, while in others it is considered a finance function. As the BPO market evolves, customers and vendors will undoubtedly identify more business processes than can and will be outsourced. The potential reach of BPO is evidenced by the scope of what is even now being considered for outsourcing. Business processes targeted for outsourcing are expanding beyond the traditional corporate support functions into the supply chain. Reasons for Outsourcing Over 90% of all companies around the world outsource certain business activities, whether it is HR benefits administration, payroll, technical support or many other services. Each of these areas is specialized and 245 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo resource intensive. Working with a knowledgeable vendor ensures that the tasks will be done well, and most importantly allows your organization to stay focused on its core business. For the past five years, vendors have been marketing BPO as an alternative to the typical IT outsourcing deal, encouraging customers to identify noncore processes that are inefficient, too costly, or difficult to manage. The entire process (except, in most cases, a high-level management position or positions) is then turned over to the vendor, who, in turn, typically agrees to productivity, customer satisfaction, and cost savings commitments. As the IT outsourcing marketplace becomes more standardized, BPO customers are looking for innovative ways to increase the efficiency and quality of an entire business process through value-added services, customer satisfaction, and, ideally, a direct, quantifiable impact on cost. Some of the key business drivers for customers considering BPO include: • Transferring the entire function (not just the IT component) to a qualified supplier • Enhancing/improving methodologies • Benefiting from industry knowledge or experience • Streamlining or standardizing processes across the organization • Sharing resources or technologies • Committing less up-front investment to new methodologies or technologies • Obtaining flexibility with respect to the roll-out of methodologies or technologies • Increasing productivity • Quantifying savings or benefits • Tracking customer satisfaction • Enhancing shareholder value Obviously, objectives for outsourcing one or more business processes will vary on a deal-to-deal basis. The objectives are typically shaped by management’s overarching goal in outsourcing (e.g., transition to new methodology or technology, reduction in costs or expenses). In addition, the Table 1 shows other benefits of outsourcing which best describe why a company tends to outsource its non-core business activities. Table1: It indicates what activities are reduced when a company is outsourcing its business activities Outsourcing Client Service Provider No need for a new infrastructure No extra staff needed Perceived needs Existing infrastructure Existing staff After a client describes their specific needs, a group of people, whose job it is to do those things, does them Already possesses necessary equipment Hires staff Trains and supports staff Fire people in case of not working out Track the learning curve No new equipment needed Does not hire new people Provides no support or training No need to fire people No need for learning for outsourced activities Better service quality No effort needed for extra project analysis and investment The client is guaranteed a certain quality level of service They see better results, in less time, with very little ongoing investment of time and effort The following figure summarizes already introduced reasons for outsourcing business competencies. 246 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Source (Corbett F. Michael, 2004, pg 31) Analysis, Preparation and Stages of Outsourcing Prior to outsource, a company needs to define its internal SWOT Analysis. It should determine points where sustainable advantage lies and could those weaknesses be eliminated if company find outsourcing vendor in order to follow and continue its competitiveness. This should be made at Business process and IT level. If the company perceives the following, it should go for outsourcing. Business concerns: • Perceived low availability of services • Perceived a low level of service quality (accessibility, turn-around time etc.) • No clear service reporting and service management • Roles & Responsibilities not clear. • Processes unclear, too slow, too many hand-offs • Slow and error-prone service introduction • Unsatisfactory support of remote sites & subsidiaries • No service culture • Cost allocation & charges unclear and cannot be influenced by business decisions, etc. IT concerns: • Unreasonable service level expectations from business • No cost & resource awareness • Large number of non-standard work requests • Overlarge project portfolio, paired with spaghetti development infrastructure • High-level of business applications • Inefficient-underutilized server platform, • Aging central technology platforms and complex networks • Large and diverse skill pool required to support infrastructure Similarly, a company should take into account its other internal constraints prior to outsource, namely: • Availability of Seed Money – a company needs to reduce cost, this requires efficiency gains, and efficiency gains require investment • Structural Inflexibility – company’s current business and application architecture may not allow for simple and low cost ICT changes • Time to Benefit – Most “quick-wins” have already been explored over recent years. Major initiatives have pay-backs seldom shorter than 24 – 36 months 247 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • Business vs. IT Projects – Most projects are invisible to the normal business users and do not directly contribute to business revenue generation Capacity and Know-How – Are there sufficient internal resources available to drive the change in a timely fashion? Will heavy external resource usage kill the business case? Change Capacity – Can the internal organization absorb this change now (ex. Overall moral, unions, etc.) Sustainability – Can initiatives be maintained in light of business development? Statistics Facts Since globalization took place, outsourcing has increased enormously. It is a fact that every year outsourcing getting its part in every business. Another factor that fosters its growth is rapid development of IT technologies. Outsourcing statistics show that the largest percentage of jobs being outsourced is in Information Technology, by around 28%. The next largest field is human resources taking 15% of the outsourcing market, followed closely by sales and marketing outsourcing with 14% and financial services outsourcing at 11%. The remaining 32% is made up of other different processes such as administrative outsourcing. (http://www.manpower.com, 12 December 2008) Figure 5 - Outsourcing statistics on IT, HRM, financial services, marketing and the rest of services Most of the outsourcing is done by multinational companies and the most popular destinations are India, China and the Philippines. Of course these figures slightly differ depending on the study and the point of view, but this division gives an idea of the outsourcing market. (http://www.manpower.com, 12 December 2008) Forrester Research estimates that 3.3 million U.S. jobs and $136 billion in wages could be moved to such countries as India, China, and Russia by 2015. (http://www.manpower.com, 12 December 2008) Nasscom, a lobby form for Indian software and service companies, has reported that India could earn $60 billion a year by 2010 from information technology and outsourcing. Most of the new business is expected to be outsourced by insurance, retail, banking and travel companies. (http://www.manpower.com, 12 December 2008) The McKinsey Global Institute estimates that the volume of offshore outsourcing will increase by 30 to 40 percent a year for the next 5 years. (http://www.manpower.com, 12 December 2008) According to an article in Business Week magazine, the most commonly outsourced functions in terms of global spending include the following (listed in order of global spending): 1. Logistics and procurement—$179 billion 2. Manufacturing—$170 billion 3. InfoTech—$90 billion 4. Customer care—$41 billion 5. Engineering—$27 billion 248 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. Finance & accounting—$14 billion 7. Human resources—$13 billion 8. Analytics—$14 billion (http://hosteddocs.toolbox.com/ceo-succession-management-consultants.pdf, 12 December 2008) Figure 6 – Commonly Outsourced Functions and Processes Problems and Barriers in Outsourcing Although outsourcing’s ability to create these benefits for companies and their customers and shareholders is well documented, challenges and problems do exist. These are highly complex, sophisticated relationships that require care in their planning, execution, and management. There are also a number of barriers inside the organization that must be brought down if outsourcing is to work well. For example, managers fear a loss of control. They often believe that although an activity may not be core, it may still be too critical to be outsourced. Also, they are concerned about losing flexibility by getting locked into a long-term contract with a service provider. In addition, managers are concerned about how their customers may react and they are concerned about employee, and especially union, reactions. Also, managers are worried, particularly when it comes to offshore outsourcing, about community and political reaction over lost jobs. Concerning problems and barriers, the following should not be neglected: • Longer for vendor to setup than expected • Outsourcing vendor unable to hire and train staff fast enough • Outsourcing vendor can't handle volume of activities • Unable to obtain and maintain telecommunications equipment • Different work ethics between organization and outsourcing vendor • Outsourcing vendor unable to perform on a timely basis • Outsourcing vendor unable to produce contractual results • Contract performance measures and penalties poorly written • Contract exit language inadequate • Failure to consider time necessary to major outsourcing vendor Conclusion No organization can stay competitive in today’s rapidly changing global economy by relying solely on its own resources. Outsourcing is a necessary response to today’s rapidly-competitive environment. In this environment, no organization can afford the level investment required to be best-in-world across its entire operation, yet none can afford to be anything less. Through outsourcing, organizations solve this dilemma by focusing their internal resources on the activities that provide them a unique competitive advantage. At the same time, each outsourcing transaction adds to the organization’s overall performance and competitiveness. It saves money, redirects resources to more valuable activities, achieves a more variable cost 249 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo structure, gains access to much needed skills, reduces the internal competition for capital, becomes faster and more responsive, and even increases its level of innovation. Managers and executives themselves are able to better focus their energies externally, on customers, as opposed to internally, on day-to-day operations. On the contrary, outsourcing has its barriers and problems such as loss of control, to critical to be outsourced, loss of flexibility, negative customer reaction, employee, lack o clarity in costs, lower service quality and similar. Therefore, we can conclude that if a company perceives such that functions are non-core and/or not a competitive niche, significant cost advantages from outsourcing, limited/no opportunity for learning transfer, skill competencies not available in organization, cost of monitoring/administering outsourcing partner is low, comparable or better service levels from outsourcing, the company should go for outsourcing. On the other hand if the company sees issues that are: critical to the business, no cost advantages from outsourcing, potential competitive advantages through knowledge transfer, skill capabilities readily available in organization, high cost of monitoring/administering outsourcing partner and service levels better within organization, the company should insource its business processes. Finally, concerning Bosnian business environment, we can fairly argue that this region lacks of many kinds of outsourcing (although there are some companies involved in outsourcing activities) and there should be a leveraging instrument or factor that could foster this new era business activity. Yet, outsourcing business activities would definitely boost the economy of Bosnia towards its prosperity and its faster integration into European Union. Outsourcing would be one of many steps to implement the country mission as a future EU member. References Burkholder Nicholas C. (2006), Outsourcing: The definitive View, Applications and Implications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey Corbett F. Michael (2004) The Outsourcing Revolution: Why it makes sense and how to do it right, Dearborn Trade Publishing, US. Diaz-Mora, Carmen (2008), What factors determine the outsourcing intensity? A dynamic panel data approach for manufacturing industries’, Applied Economics,40:19,2509 — 2521 Erik B., Pieter R. and Jan R. (2006), Managing IT Outsourcing Governance in Global Partnerships, Rutledge USA Hafeez, K. YanBing Zhang Malak, N. (2002), Core competence for sustainable competitive advantage: a structured methodology for identifying core competence, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management Halvey K. John, Melby M. Barbara (2007), Business Process Outsourcing, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. http://hosteddocs.toolbox.com/ceo-succession-management-consultants.pdf (15 December 2008) http://www.manpower.com (15 December 2008) http://www.ulb.ac.be/ (15 December 2008) Jane C. Linder (2004), Outsourcing for Radical Change: A Bold Approach to Enterprise Transformation, AMACOM R. Marjit S. and Mukherjee A. (2008), Review of International Economics, 16(5), 1010–1022, DOI:10.1111/j.14679396.2008.00764.x (International Outsourcing and R&D: Long-Run Implications for Consumers)] McIvor (2005), the Outsourcing Process: Strategies for Evaluation and Management, Cambridge University Press, UK Rick L. Click Thomas N. Duening (2005), Business Process Outsourcing: The Competitive Advantage, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Hoboken, New Jersey. Schendel D. (1996), Management Journal, Vol.17, Special Issue: Knowledge and the Firm, winter, 1-4 Sugata Marjit and Arijit Mukherjee. (2008), Review of International Economics, 16(5), 1010–1022, International Outsourcing and R&D: Long-Run Implications for Consumers 250 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 209 Title A name given to the resource How Outsourcing Can Help the Organizations for Capturing Sustainable Development? Author Author SENTURAN, Sermin PALALIĆ, Ramo Abstract A summary of the resource. Outsourcing in its essence is a very dynamic and diverse topic and there are many different outsourcing options. In this paper, we would try to discuss basics on outsourcing aimed for a client and an outsourcing provider. It is argued that outsourcing has its benefits and disadvantages. It is on a company to do due diligence of itself prior to undertake outsourcing process. However, statistical data shown that outsourcing is rapidly growing and it has more its benefits over downsides. As globalization spreading out in untouched areas of the world, outsourcing does so. In this article we try to give the definitions, types and benefits of outsourcing for the organizations in order to give a broad understanding of its effects on sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d6b18036e1ba6e25cdec7b1ce7b69b54.pdf c0913cb5c28fce0669c35bb0aec4801b PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo How sustainability orientation makes market-oriented firms more market-oriented Satyendra Singh Director, Centre for Emerging Markets Professor, Marketing and International Business Editor-in-Chief, International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets University of Winnipeg, 515 Portage Avenue, Winnipeg R3B 2E9, CANADA T: 204.786.9424, F: 204.774.8057, E-mails: s.singh@uwinnipeg.ca, I: www.uwinnipeg.ca/~ssingh5 Abstract Globalization and competition have forced most firms to develop competitive advantage in order to compete and survive. In this regard, market orientation and sustainability orientation can play a crucial role in rendering firms a competitive advantage. Market orientation relates to satisfying current and future customers’ needs. Literature indicates that market orientation contributes positively to business performance, and that market-oriented firms outperform non market-oriented firms. As a result, firms are forced to be market oriented even though becoming or increasing or maintaining a market orientation is costly, complex, and timeconsuming. Therefore, the costs of becoming market oriented must at least be offset by additional revenue. One of the sources of such additional revenue can be obtained by adhering to the principles of sustainability orientation (e.g., triple bottom line), which captures the whole set of values, issues and processes that firms must address in order to minimize any harm resulting from their activities and to create environmental, social and economical value. Thus, it is expected that firms that follow sustainability principles in addition to being market oriented should outperform firms that are market-oriented only. The premise for such expectation is that customers are more attracted to firms that care also about social and environmental aspects of society (and not just financial) than firms that are marketoriented only (i.e., care about customers’ needs just for financial reasons). The purpose of this study is to explore relative contribution of market-oriented firms, and market-oriented firms with a sustainability orientation. To assess relative contributions of both the orientations, we speculate a trade-off between them, and recommend that any additional revenue generated from sustainability initiatives should be redeployed to enhance market orientation that contributes further to enhancing business performance. Keywords: Market Orientation, Sustainability, Business Performance, 3BL 1.INTRODUCTION The premise for this study is that market orientation and sustainability are positively related, leading to a superior business performance. Market orientation is defined as the extend to 1 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo which a firm engages in generating and disseminating market intelligence pertaining to current and future customer needs and wants, competitor strategies and actions, and broad business environment (He and Wei, 2011). Market orientation is an important source of achieving competitive advantage, as all members of the firm commit to continuously creating superior value for customers. The purpose of the study is to examine how a firm’s orientation affects its long-term viability; i.e. sustainability. Firms with a higher level of market orientation tend to perform better than their counterparts with less market orientation (Liu et al., 2003); however, the hierarchical structure of a firm can hinder its ability to disseminate information within a firm, and thus decreasing accountability of each employee (Adhikari and Gill, 2011). This negatively effects the firm’s market orientation, as firms become less responsive to customer needs, which is required by the firm to be market oriented. Considerable research supports the positive relationship between market orientation and business performance (Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; Narver and Slater, 1990). The majority of the research is conducted in developed nations, but emerging markets are radically different from the traditional industrialized countries in that they require us to rethink the core assumption of marketing such as market orientation (Sheth, 2011). For example, emerging markets are more customer-based and markets within these nations are created by shaping customer expectations, and not assessing them. Firms with higher market orientation perform better and are characterized by their intentions to continuous delivery of superior value to their customers (Slater and Narver, 1998). Business sustainability is defined as adopting business strategies and activities that meet the needs of the enterprise and its stakeholders today while protecting, sustaining and enhancing the human and natural resources that will be needed in the future (Labuschagne et al., 2005). A firm’s strategic use of information technology facilitates competitiveness in both the shortand long-term for sustainability. Firms that cannot sustain their competitiveness have only transient value or offer negative value (Kettinger et al., 1994). Indeed, firm’s capabilities, resources and technologies contribute to achieving strategic competitive advantage that shape a firm’s market orientation, and thus ensures its future sustainability. In the following sections, we discuss the environment, social and economical impacts of sustainability on market orientation and provide their implications for business managers. 2.Environment The emerging field of sustainable business has its root in both science and economics, particularly in the field of environmental science (Guest, 2010). Firms need to develop a deep-seated understanding of how to create a lasting enterprise based on the concept of internal decision-making and practices pertaining to knowledge and attitudes toward a business’ sustainability via environmental science (Sa de Abreau, 2011). The decisionmaking and practices fall in two categories of firms: firms with developed environmental conduct and those without. The former firms have set procedures, legal requirements, controls and standards and are aware of the negative effects on the environment; the later is likely to lack management representation in the field of environmental issues. 2 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Government policies also influence firm’s level of activities relating to environment. A measurable, clear and concise policy expedites innovation and decision-making process. Firms need to compete with businesses in countries where clear policies have sharpened the corporate focus on waste and inefficiency and spurred innovation (Adeoti, 2008). Firms can develop a progressive strategy if they learn to find alternatives rather than to ignore current environment conditions. Firms particularly in emerging markets remain inert due to the assumption that the cost of implementation diminishes the level of priority as far as environment is concerned. In fact, responding to climate change should be seen not only as a means of managing risks but also an opportunity for growth, capitalizing on the growing demand for products and services that address environmental concerns. For example, a South African utility firm shifted its energy generation mix to renewable energy. Clearly, it responded to the pressure brought by climate change and the future resource constraints that threaten its long-term growth and sustainability (Etsy, 2012). 3.Social When considering the impact of the economic and environmental values in relation to market orientation and sustainability, it is necessary to address the social aspect of sustainability. A firm’s social stake in its market orientation suggests that multinational firms increasingly need to consider local values and the social consequences of their activities. Such consideration is required for them to gain legitimacy for their business activities, expressing the notion that, among local stakeholders, the presence of the firm is desirable and deserves acceptance and support (Reimann et al., 2012). Corporate social responsibility has proven to be the most effective strategy for multinational to capture the attention and gain support in local markets. In fact, multinational firms should also evaluate their corporate social performance to enhance their sustainability. Indeed, firms have an incentive to invest in corporate social activities in order to augment their reputation, and encourage primary stakeholders to get involved in firms’ business activities (Brammer et al., 2009). For a long-term sustainability of market orientation, social orientation may be a key factor in determining multinational firms’ success, particularly in emerging markets, where attitudes and practices differ from those of Western multinational firms. To compete, the capabilities and resources of a firm should be rare, valuable, and difficult to imitate (Adhikari and Gill, 2011). Previous studies have identified human capital resources and physical capital resources as the resources satisfying the above criteria, and thus capable of delivering superior customer value. However, firms wishing to be sustainable, it is crucial that firms consider investing in local communities and solidifying ties with locals. Without capable local employees, local operations cannot be established. In fact, rapid economic development in many emerging markets has already led to a shortage of skilled labour. Employees are more likely to be productive and loyal to a firm which they trust and respect. Reimann et al. (2012) found support for the notion that employee performance is positively related to both working condition and firm’s community development efforts. This leads to the fact that 3 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo firms that provide better working conditions for their employees in emerging markets will be more sustainable in foreign market and enjoy continued long-term success. Firms that are the first or early to develop a market orientation gain more in sales and profit than firms that are late to develop a market orientation (Kumar et al., 2011). When a firm is first in market, using resources to enhance social initiatives can be the deciding factor in obtaining employee loyalty and loyalty from the consumers in that community. Whether it is through donating time, money or simply ensuring above average working conditions, compared to local standards, firms need to consider as to how to develop their market orientation to ensure sustainability. 4.Economic Innovation determines sustainability of an organization, as it stimulates research and development to come up with new or improved products or services (Getz and Robinson, 2003). The degree of innovation determines the economic performance of a firm’s market orientation (Gatignon and Xuered, 1997). Successful firms develop superior products that are attuned to customer wants and needs. It is mainly due to the fact that firms’ products are more successful because market oriented firms would conduct market research to discover customers’ needs. As a result, customers’ preferences match firms’ products, resulting in less product failures, leading to superior business performance as determined by profitability, return on investment, and market share, among others. Often firms develop market oriented strategies to be profitable and combat entry of new firms by adjusting their marketing mix (Robinson, 1988). 5.Conclusion and Implication for Managers Firms need to examine how their actions affect the physical environment in which they operate and how these actions will affect their sustainability (Wackernagel and Ress, 1997). A firm’s ecological footprint impacts environmental consciousness. Ecological footprint is a useful yardstick for sustainability that firms can create based on level of their activities that will be necessary to facilitate growth and sustainability. With sustainability as the goal and intent behind the emergence of a firm, it is necessary for managers that they examine the external environment and adapt strategies accordingly. Clear policy and regulation should be the framework within which a firm should develop methods and strategies as well as how it manages daily operations and long-term actions. It is the general value toward sustainability that needs to be engrained in a firm. However, without access to and use of natural resources, a firm would no longer require these values because they would eventually cease to exist. Implication for managers is that they need to value natural resource supply and put system in place to strengthen themselves in other areas if or when the supply of resources diminishes. Indeed, due to increasingly stringent constraint imposed by the natural environment, the firm’s ability to deal with these constraints will 4 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo depend upon organisational capabilities, leading to economic and social outcome (Chan, 2005). Some of the challenges in developing market orientation in emerging markets is a lack of systematic ongoing attention to acquiring and utilizing market intelligence, improper investing in product and service development that create competitive differentiation, and reluctance to fostering an organisational culture that internalizes this philosophy and expresses it in all its actions (Adhikari and Gill, 2011). REFERENCES Adeoti, J.O. (2008). Environmental policy and industrial response in Nigeria. International Journal of Technology Management and Sustainable Development, 7(2), 119-136. Adhikari, A. and Gill, M.S. (2011). Impact of resources, capabilities and technology on market orientation of Indian B2B firms. Journal of Services Research, 11(2), 75-98. Brammer, S., Pavelin, S. and Porter, L.A. (2009). Corporate charitable giving, multinational companies and countries of concern. Journal of Management Studies, 46(4), 575-596. Chan, R. (2005). Does the natural-resource-based view of the firm apply in an emerging economy? A survey of foreign invested enterprises in China. Journal of Management Studies, 42(3), 625-672. Etsy, D. (2012). Green rule to drive innovation. Harvard Business Review, 1, 120-123. Gatignon, H. and Xuered, J.M. (1997), Strategic orientation of the firm and new product performance, Journal of Marketing Research, 34, 77-90. Getz, I. and Robinson, A. G. (2003). Innovate or die: Is that a fact? Creativity and Innovation Management, 12(3), 130-36. Guest, R. (2010). The economics of sustainability in the context of climate change: An overview. Journal of World Business, 45(4), 326-335. He, X. and Wei, Y (2011). Linking market orientation to international market selection and international performance. International Business Review, 20(5), 535-546. Jaworski, B.J. and Kohli, A.K. (1993). Market orientation: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Marketing, 57(July), 53-70. Kettinger, W.J., Grover, V., Guha, S. and Segars, A.H. (1994). Strategic information systems revisted: A study in sustainability and performance. MIS Quarterly, 18(1), 31-58. Kumar, V., Jones, E., Venkatesan, R. and Leone R.P. (2011). Is market orientation a source of sustainable competitive advantage or simply the cost of competing. Journal of Marketing. 75, 16-30. Labuschagne, C., Brent, A.C. and van Erck, R.P.G. (2005). Assessing the sustainability performances of industries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13(4), 373-385. 5 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Liu, S.S., Luo, X. and Shi, Y. (2003). Market oriented organizations in an emerging economy: A study of missing links. Journal of Business Research, 56(6), 481-491. Narver, J.C. and Slater, S.F. (1990). The effects of a market orientation on business profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54(4), 20-35. Reimann, F., Ehrgott, M., Kaufmann, L. and Carter, C.R. (2012). Local stakeholders and local legitimacy: MNEs; social strategies in emerging economies. Journal of International Management, 18(1), 1-17. Robinson, W.T. (1988), Marketing mix reactions to entry. Marketing Science, 7(4), 368-85. Sa de Abreu, M.C. (2011). Effects of environmental pressures on company sustainability strategies: An interview study among Brazalian manufacturing firms. International Journal of Management, 28(3), 909-925. Sheth, J.N (2011). Impact of emerging markets on marketing: Rethinking existing perspectives and practices. Journal of Marketing, 75(4), 166-182. Slater, S.F. and Narver, J.C. (1998). Customer-led and market-oriented: Let’s not confuse the two. Strategic Management Journal, 19(10), 1001-1006. Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W. (1997). Perceptual and structural barriers to investing in natural capital: Economics from an ecological footprint perspective. Ecological Economics, 20(1), 3-24. Menu Planning With Fuzzy 0-1 Integer Programming Kenan Oğuzhan Oruç1, Ibrahim Güngör2, Sezgin Irmak2, Semih Şenol1 1Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey 2Alanya Faculty of Business, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey E-mails: kenanoruc@sdu.edu.tr, igungor@akdeniz.edu.tr,sezgin@akdeniz.edu.tr semihh_senol@hotmail.com Abstract For the sustainability of development, effective usage of sources and the determination of their optimal usage levels are very important. Healthiness, as one of the main components of sustainable development, is under influences of many factors one of which is nutrition, and the number of people who benefit from public nutrition services are increasing every day. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1094 Title A name given to the resource How sustainability orientation makes market-oriented firms more market-oriented Author Author Satyendra, Singh Abstract A summary of the resource. Globalization and competition have forced most firms to develop competitive advantage in order to compete and survive. In this regard, market orientation and sustainability orientation can play a crucial role in rendering firms a competitive advantage. Market orientation relates to satisfying current and future customers’ needs. Literature indicates that market orientation contributes positively to business performance, and that market-oriented firms outperform non market-oriented firms. As a result, firms are forced to be market oriented even though becoming or increasing or maintaining a market orientation is costly, complex, and timeconsuming. Therefore, the costs of becoming market oriented must at least be offset by additional revenue. One of the sources of such additional revenue can be obtained by adhering to the principles of sustainability orientation (e.g., triple bottom line), which captures the whole set of values, issues and processes that firms must address in order to minimize any harm resulting from their activities and to create environmental, social and economical value. Thus, it is expected that firms that follow sustainability principles in addition to being market oriented should outperform firms that are market-oriented only. The premise for such expectation is that customers are more attracted to firms that care also about social and environmental aspects of society (and not just financial) than firms that are marketoriented only (i.e., care about customers’ needs just for financial reasons). The purpose of this study is to explore relative contribution of market-oriented firms, and market-oriented firms with a sustainability orientation. To assess relative contributions of both the orientations, we speculate a trade-off between them, and recommend that any additional revenue generated from sustainability initiatives should be redeployed to enhance market orientation that contributes further to enhancing business performance. Keywords: Market Orientation, Sustainability, Business Performance, 3BL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3547 Title A name given to the resource HOW SYSTEMATIC AND RANDOM ARE ERRORS AND MISTAKES IN TEXTS WRITTEN BY LANGUAGE LEARNERS OF FRENCH? Author Author Thouësny, Sylvie Abstract A summary of the resource. In his epoch-making article entitled “The significance of learners’ errors”, Corder (1967) argues that the analysis of errors is central to investigating the learners’ acquisition process. One of his key points addresses the idea that competence-dependent errors should be differentiated from performance-related mistakes. Errors, he says, are evidence of the learner’s use of an underlying system during the learning process. As well as revealing the learner’s interlanguage competence, errors are systematic. By contrast, mistakes are mainly the result of accidental slips of the tongue, physical or psychological conditions, such as tiredness or specific emotional states. They are incorrect forms whose systematicity cannot be explicitly described. To give some nuances to Corder’s distinction, other researchers, such as Ellis (1997), have pointed out that the differentiation between both errors and mistakes could also be made by asking learners to self-edit their own performance. If learners are capable of correcting themselves, their incorrect forms are regarded as mistakes. Conversely, if they are unable to self-edit their own performance, their incorrect forms are considered as errors. Following a brief discussion on the different methods in use to distinguish between both errors and mistakes, this short paper explores the extent to which systematicity in L2 learners’ incorrect written performance may help identify learners’ lack of knowledge. More specifically, it analyses an interlanguage corpus of texts written by learners of French and compares the systematicity of their incorrect forms with their ability to correct themselves. Keywords: error, mistake, systematicity, randomness, zone of proximal development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/98402a7d5e6f3ce851371d13b75a3592.docx bc1f28d9122b151e8200942e1786af35 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cfd9344e3897d732c2977cd6c8582a5c.pdf 4f0341e248c2f32a0e7b849e2fc49e9c PDF Text Text How The Level Of Emotional Intelligence Affects Opportunity Identification? Seda Tüysüz Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey sedatuysuz@hotmail.com Ülke Hilal Ağırman Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey ulkecelik@hotmail.com Ömer Faruk İşcan Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey oiscan@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Opportunity identification is emerging as a critical component of the entrepreneurial process representing the ‘most distinctive and fundamental entrepreneurial behavior’ (Hayton et. al. 2011; 15). Opportunity recognition has long been accepted as a key aspect of the entrepreneurial process (Ozgenve Baron, 2007:174). The issue why some individuals take advantage of opportunities and some cannot is usually studied. While some studies found that personality traits, psychological variables and demographic factors may affect on entrepreneurial activity, other researchers have looked to the importance of social capital and network ties to new venture creation. In this study, we focus on the effects of emotional intelligence on opportunity identification. We attempt to explain these effects by creating a theoretical framework that considers the interaction between emotional intelligence levels and opportunity identification. To test research hypotheses, data will be gathered from students at the Business Program of The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in a university in Turkey. The resulting data will be analyzed by appropriate statistical methods. In accordance with this analysis, it will be determined whether individuals' emotional intelligence level has an impact on opportunity identification skills. Keywords: Opportunity identification, emotional intelligence, entrepreneurial process. 155 �155 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2616 Title A name given to the resource How The Level Of Emotional Intelligence Affects Opportunity Identification? Author Author TUYSUZ, Seda AGIRMAN, Ulke Hilal ISCAN, Omer Faruk Abstract A summary of the resource. Opportunity identification is emerging as a critical component of the entrepreneurial process representing the ‘most distinctive and fundamental entrepreneurial behavior’ (Hayton et. al. 2011; 15). Opportunity recognition has long been accepted as a key aspect of the entrepreneurial process (Ozgenve Baron, 2007:174). The issue why some individuals take advantage of opportunities and some cannot is usually studied. While some studies found that personality traits, psychological variables and demographic factors may affect on entrepreneurial activity, other researchers have looked to the importance of social capital and network ties to new venture creation. In this study, we focus on the effects of emotional intelligence on opportunity identification. We attempt to explain these effects by creating a theoretical framework that considers the interaction between emotional intelligence levels and opportunity identification. To test research hypotheses, data will be gathered from students at the Business Program of The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in a university in Turkey. The resulting data will be analyzed by appropriate statistical methods. In accordance with this analysis, it will be determined whether individuals' emotional intelligence level has an impact on opportunity identification skills. Keywords: Opportunity identification, emotional intelligence, entrepreneurial process. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 997 Title A name given to the resource How to accelerate communicative competence in secondary schools Author Author Vasić, Nebojša Abstract A summary of the resource. Having in mind that average person utters around 15 000 words a day we must treat our speaking skill as the most significant cognitive activity which encapsulates the quality of pronunciation, grammar (accuracy), lexical power (expression diversity), listening comprehension, public skills, non-verbal communication, creativity, spontaneity etc. Furthermore, learning a foreign language should not be reduced to sheer memorizing bunch of words or language definitions but much more to the intensive usage and massive exposure which leads to advanced language competence performed in a real time. Unfortunately, the development of speaking skill is tantalizingly slow in our traditional education due to the predominant focus on language forms. Secondary school teachers are preoccupied with the correctness and “deadly accuracy”, in other words, they underestimate the value of speaking skill activities in their daily lessons. Although research in this area has proven that both teachers and students appreciate speaking skill as the most needful of all language skills, English teachers rarely teach or assess speaking skill in their classrooms. Moreover, one of prevailing misconceptions is that speaking skill will spontaneously come out as the result of scrupulous language instructions, which is not the case. Some teachers claim that speaking skill is retelling or answering the questions, namely they don’t differentiate between controlled language practice and the spontaneous usage of language in a real time. Consequently, the development of speaking skill is unjustifiably delayed and it remains mainly marginal - sporadic activity instead of being the hub of language learning. My research comprised over 400 students and 45 English teachers who all (almost unanimously) agree that speaking skill is the most desirable language goal, but high percentage of students are not satisfied with the level of their communicative competence when compared to their grammar and lexical knowledge. Thorough research in the field of applied linguistics offers solutions to this (rather embarrassing) problem, and one of intentions of my paper is to elaborate the modern and achievable concept of accelerating communicative competence. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/66c478be0c1a83494b767d03a24026af.pdf 753215c6a683d0839d9f6a962e55db9f PDF Text Text 1 HOW TO BUILD AN ENGLISH CLAUSE Ronald W. Langacker University of California, San Diego �2 1. Introduction I will be examining central aspects of English clause structure from the standpoint of Cognitive Grammar (CG). Though well known and extensively studied, these phenomena have eluded definitive treatment; they still have much to tell us. Indeed, working out their theoretical basis has contributed to further development of the CG framework (Langacker 1991, 2008a, 2012). Especially relevant are two general notions: the organization of structure in terms of baseline and elaboration; and grammar as the implementation of semantic functions. The elaboration of a baseline, which I refer to as B/E organization, is a kind of asymmetry pervasive in conceptual and linguistic structure. In one way or another, the baseline has a certain priority, being more fundamental and providing the basis for the elaborated structure: (B) > ((B)E). The baseline is generally simpler than ((B)E), tends to be more substantive than E (the elaborating element), and presupposes fewer and more basic capacities. Well-known examples of B/E organization include the centrality of a prototype in a complex category, the stem/affix asymmetry in morphology, as well as privative oppositions, such as [a] vs. [ã], where the unmarked member “lacks” an elaborating feature. Importantly, baseline status is only relative, since an elaborated structure functions as baseline for higher-level purposes: (B) > ((B)E)B > (((B)E)B E)B > ((((B)E)B E)B E)B ... To some extent structure is therefore organized in strata, each a substrate for the next, which draws on additional resources and affords a wider range of options. A second general notion is that grammar exists for the implementation of semantic functions (Croft 2007; Harder 2010), which are more fundamental and more consistent than any particular structural manifestation. As a case in point, nominals exhibit very different structures (e.g. Ellen, big dogs, the teacher, those with children, that she likes him) reflecting alternate strategies for fulfilling their referential function. We can note a broad (and permeable) division between descriptive vs. discursive functions. The former involve the conceptual content representing the objective scene (OS), i.e. the “onstage” situation being jointly apprehended by the offstage interlocutors. The latter concern the negotiation and effective presentation of descriptive content in a coherent discourse. Grammar is shaped by the interplay of descriptive and discursive functions. As viewed in CG, lexicon and grammar form a continuum consisting in flexible assemblies of symbolic structures (form-meaning pairings). �3 2. Descriptive Organization 2.1 Baseline A clause expresses a proposition. That is, it describes an occurrence—an event or situation—in enough detail to be significant and potentially assessed for validity. The function of describing an occurrence is often referred to as predication, a term that needs explication. In the CG analysis, a key notion is profiling: within the content invoked, an expression selects a particular substructure as its conceptual referent and thus a focus of attention. Its profile is either a thing or a relationship (under abstract definitions of those terms). As a special case of the latter, it is claimed that a clause profiles a process, characterized as a relationship followed in its evolution through time (Langacker 1991: Part II, 2008a: ch. 11, 2008b). The baseline for predication is a simple lexical verb (V), such as run, break, see, or admire. It functions as the clausal head, in the sense of providing the essential conceptual content serving to characterize the profiled relationship. We will not be greatly concerned with alternative means of forming the clausal head. It can be non-lexical, representing either a nonce verb or the extended use of a non-verbal element (e.g. The delivery boy porched the newspaper). Many heads are morphologically complex, obtained by derivation (solidify) or compounding (counterattack). There is also a productive pattern for deriving phrasal verbs (look up, turn off, back down), as well as a serial verb construction with come and go (You should come see our new house). Another alternative to a lexical verb is a clausal head consisting of be plus an adjective or a prepositional phrase: She is tall; It is on your desk. The construction is sketched in Figure 1, where the relation profiled by the adjective or prepositional phrase is labeled r. Though it typically endures, the profiled relation does not require a span of time for its manifestation: it obtains at a single moment (and can thus be observed in a photograph). This holistic nature makes it suitable to modify a noun (the tall girl; the picture on your desk), but not to head a clause (*The girl talls; *The picture ons your desk), since a clause profiles a process—a relationship tracked through time. For clausal use, English invokes the schematic verb be, which profiles the continuation through time of a relationship that is wholly non-specific; the arrow drawn in bold indicates this scanning through time. The result of their integration is a derived �4 process (labeled p) which tracks through time the specific relation profiled by the adjective or prepositional phrase. Note that this construction overtly reflects the conceptual characterization proposed for verbs and clauses in CG: that they profile a relationship scanned through time. Be extends through time the relationship specified by its complement. be + ADJ/PP p r r be ADJ/PP Figure 1 By itself, a lexical verb (or other clausal head) fails to express a usable proposition, as it merely describes a type of occurrence. Starting from this baseline, we build a clause through various dimensions of elaboration. The minimal elaboration—producing what I call a baseline clause—involves just two dimensions. There is first the specification of clausal participants. A verb makes schematic reference to its participants: a trajector (primary focal participant) and often a landmark (secondary focal participant). Nominals that specify these schematic elements thereby function as clausal subject and object. The resulting expressions—e.g. the boy break a cup or Alice admire Bill—describe an elaborated process type specific enough to be worth expressing. A proposition whose validity can be assessed represents a particular instance of this type, where the profiled occurrence is accorded some status in relation to the interlocutors and their conception of reality. This dimension of elaboration is known as grounding, the ground (G) being the interlocutors and their immediate circumstances. In English, minimal grounding is done by means of tense. An elaborated process type grounded by tense constitutes a baseline clause: The boy broke a cup; Alice admires Bill. Baseline clauses are a fundamental way of fulfilling the clausal function of expressing a proposition, i.e. describing an occurrence in sufficient detail to be useful and assessed for �5 validity. This global semantic function decomposes into three subfunctions—type specification, type elaboration, and grounding—representing one strategy for its structural implementation. Each subfunction is implemented by a particular structural element: type specification by the lexical verb, type elaboration by the subject and object nominals, and grounding by tense. Though minimal in terms of overt structure, a baseline clause is hardly self-contained. Every linguistic structure presupposes a conceptual substrate of indefinite extent, comprising mental capacities, background knowledge, and apprehension of the context. The substrate allows the structure to emerge, provides its coherence, and is thus an inherent aspect of its meaning. For baseline clauses—representing what is plausibly regarded as the minimal and canonical linguistic interaction based on propositions—the substrate includes the baseline viewing arrangement, shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 In the baseline arrangement, both the ground and the profiled occurrence are real. The interlocutors are together in a fixed location, engaged in observing and describing actual phenomena in the world around them. They are offstage conceptualizers, whose interaction establishes the profiled occurrence (p) as the shared focus of attention within the objective scene (OS), i.e. the “onstage” situation being described. The baseline speech act is a simple statement, where the speaker describes an occurrence for the benefit of the hearer, who is expected to listen, understand what is said, and accept it. A single statement of this sort constitutes a baseline discourse. �6 Given this substrate, a baseline clause contains the minimum needed to fulfill the clausal function: a lexical verb to describe an occurrence, nominals to specify its participants, and tense to ground it. When restricted to the baseline, there is no need for various elements that appear in more elaborate expressions representing higher strata. The substrate specifies the description of actual occurrences, so there is no need for elements like negation or modals, which exclude the profiled occurrence from reality. There is no indication of speech act, since the substrate incorporates the baseline act of statement. And as a stand-alone description, a baseline clause ignores discursive factors such as topic, informational focus, and connections with other clauses. So if you want to build an English clause, the elements of a baseline clause represent the simplest, most straightforward way to fulfill the essential semantic functions. These are summarized in Figure 3. Together, the lexical verb and its participants specify an elaborated process type (p), which functions as the grounded structure. Grounding by tense yields a proposition (P), which profiles an instance of that type situated with respect to the ground. Hence the clause both describes an occurrence and offers a rudimentary assessment of its epistemic status vis-à-vis the interlocutors. Figure 3 2.2 Perspective From a baseline clause, further elaboration produces expressions of greater complexity that I will refer to as basic clauses. There are two dimensions of elaboration. The first, pertaining to the grounded structure, consists in a range of alternatives for perspective. �7 A lexical verb embodies a particular way of apprehending the profiled occurrence (p). The verb being a conventional linguistic unit, this way of viewing it constitutes the neutral or baseline perspective. English clauses have three grammaticized means of effecting a perspectival adjustment: the familiar trio of passive, progressive, and perfect. Since these require additional conceptual capacities and afford a wider array of options, the resulting expressions represent a higher stratum. This is shown in Figure 4(a), where the dashed arrow indicates perspectival elaboration. At the lower stratum, S1, p is the process profiled by the lexical head, e.g. wash. At the higher stratum, S2, p' is the one profiled by a composite expression: be washed, be washing, or have washed. Figure 4 The passive, progressive, and perfect constructions form a cohesive system of perspectival elaboration. They are mutually exclusive—a set of opposing options—as only one �8 can appear on the lexical verb. They are also parallel in formation, each residing in a complex construction involving a participial element (-ed or -ing) and a schematic verb (be or have). These constructions all follow the pattern shown abstractly in Figure 4(b). The structure at the left is the process (p) profiled by the lexical verb; it profiles a relationship (r) scanned through time (thick solid arrow). From this, the participial morpheme derives a structure in which the verbal process is viewed holistically (thin solid arrow) from an altered perspective, indicated by using r' (instead of r) for the profiled relationship. This holistic view implies that the participle is not itself a verb, so it cannot itself function as clausal head. For clausal use, it combines with the schematic verb be or have in much the same way that be combines with an adjective or prepositional phrase (Figure 1). The composite verbal expression that results designates a process, p', in which r' (not r) is the relationship tracked through time. Each perspectival option affects the lexical process in a different way: the passive elevates the processual landmark to the status of trajector (primary focal participant); the progressive “zooms in” on p, taking an internal perspective that excludes its endpoints; while the perfect views the verbal process from a temporally posterior vantage point defining a sphere of interest (“current relevance”). The details are not essential here (see Langacker 1991: §5.2), but for sake of concreteness let us briefly consider the progressive. In 4(c), the complex relationship (r) profiled by the lexical verb (V) is decomposed into the series of component relationships, r1...ri...rn, manifested at successive points in time. The participial morpheme -ing views this holistically, imposing a limited temporal scope—or locus of attention—that excludes r1 and rn. As the specific focus of attention, the profiled relation is confined to this scope and is further construed as being internally homogeneous: the same relation (ri) obtains throughout. Being a relationship viewed holistically, Ving is actually adjectival, so it can modify a noun (e.g. the girl washing her dog). But clausal use requires a verbal head. So at the second level of composition, the verb be effects the scanning through time of the profiled relation ri to form a higher-level process, p'. The essential point is that p' embodies a perspective which makes it distinct from the baseline process p. If these perspectival adjustments are mutually exclusive, as in 4(a), how can they cooccur in complex expressions like be being washed, have been washed, and have been being washed? The answer is that they are mutually exclusive with respect to any one verbal process, p, but since the result of perspectivalization is a higher-level process, p', that in turn is subject to �9 perspectivalization. The maximal sequence is exemplified in 4(d): wash ---> be washed ---> be being washed ---> have been being washed. The permissible combinations represent wellentrenched conventional patterns, which are largely determined by semantic compatibility (Langacker 1991: §5.3.2). The system comprising perspectival adjustments and their combinations provide a substantial range of options for viewing the occurrence profiled by the lexical verb. As shown in 4(d), this ability to iterate adjustments produces progressively more complex structures representing successively higher strata. At each stratum, a verb is introduced—the lexical verb, be, or have—which functions as the constructional head: this verb (marked in bold) imposes its profile on the whole, designating the same process (p, p', p'', or p''') as the composite expression formed at that level. The structure produced at the highest stratum is the grounded structure. Its constructional head is the grounded verb. (a) ((((V) PASSIVE) PROGRESSIVE) PERFECT) -ed be -ing be -ed have (b) V+ ACTIVE Ø PASSIVE -ed be (c) + NON-PROGRESSIVE Ø PROGRESSIVE + NON-PERFECT Ø -ing be PERFECT -ed have wash = wash + [Ø] + [Ø] + [Ø] be washing = wash + [Ø] + [-ing be ] + [Ø] have washed = wash + [Ø] + [Ø] + [ -ed have] Figure 5 A conceivable alternative to B/E organization, with successively more complex structures at multiple strata, would be to posit a zero-morpheme counterpart to each perspectival construction. So instead of the layered structure in Figure 5(a), where wash is simply wash, a clause would always include the four-term structure in 5(b). Wash would thus be analyzed as wash + [Ø] + [Ø] + [Ø], be washing as [wash] + [Ø] + [-ing be] + [Ø], and so on. I doubt that anyone would seriously propose this account (which amounts to treating privative oppositions as �10 equipollent). Among its drawbacks is the infelicity of viewing a simple form as being analogous to a complex one that is clearly based on it. Though just a straw man, the analysis serves to illustrate the dubious consequences of allowing zero elements. These are avoided in CG, B/E organization being a means of doing so. 2.3 Grounding Perspectival adjustment elaborates the grounded structure of a baseline clause. A second dimension of elaboration pertains to grounding. I have often described English grounding (e.g. in Langacker 2011, 2012) in terms of two sets of opposing elements, each with a zero member, as in Figure 6(a). Within the tense system, present is marked by zero or -s, and past by -d (or some variant). In the modal system, zero contrasts with the other options by indicating that the profiled occurrence is real. Omitting third singular -s (which marks person as well as tense), these parameters define the paradigm in 6(b). Instead of PRESENT and PAST, I use the more general labels IMMEDIATE and NON-IMMEDIATE. The non-immediate modals (lacking in the case of must) are of course less than fully analyzable in both form and meaning. Figure 6 The description in 6(a) is reasonable if Ø is taken as merely indicating the absence of explicit tense or a modal. It is less so if Ø is interpreted as an actual structural element (a zero morpheme), as suggested by 6(b). I am proposing a B/E alternative to such an account. In this alternative, the present-tense form of a lexical verb (V) is just V, not V+ Ø (analogous to V + -d). �11 Likewise, the absence of a modal is just that—not the presence of a zero modal. So in the baseline clause We admire her, the verbal element is just admire (rather than Ø admire + Ø). Except for third-person singular (where -s preempts the general pattern), English does not mark present tense. Can we then speak of tense or grounding in such clauses? Can we characterize We admire her as a grounded clause in the present tense? We can if tense and grounding are regarded as semantic functions as opposed to specific structural elements. A clause serves the intersubjective function of coordinated mental reference, whereby the interlocutors direct attention to what is taken to be the same occurrence. This global function incorporates grounding as a subfunction: that of the interlocutors situating the profiled occurrence with respect to time and their conception of reality. This can be accomplished in different ways. It can be done by means of an explicit grounding element, like a modal or a tense marker. Alternatively, it may simply be inherent in the conceptual substrate presupposed by the clause as the basis for its form and meaning. If the substrate ascribes a certain status to the profiled occurrence, that alone fulfills the clausal grounding function. For English clauses, the baseline substrate includes the supposition that the interlocutors are engaged in describing real occurrences (Figure 2). Although the linguistically relevant notion of reality is quite complex (involving dimensions and levels of elaboration), we need only consider the baseline version. Out of all conceivable occurrences, only some are realized. Through time there is thus established a history of realized occurrences, which is continually being augmented. For a given conceptualizer, at a given moment, the established history of occurrences constitutes reality. Note that future occurrences are precluded, as they have not (yet) been realized. Reality (R) can thus be visualized as a cylinder which “grows” through time with new occurrences, as shown in Figure 7(a). The face of this cylinder—where the growth takes place in the form of new events and continuing situations—constitutes immediate reality (IR). In the baseline viewing arrangement, R includes both the ground (G) and the profiled occurrence (p). G is specifically in IR (defining the temporal deictic center), but p can be anywhere in R, as shown in 7(b). �12 (a) (b) G p t R IR R G (d) (c) p p p p G R IR DIST R S1 G IR S0 Figure 7 With 7(b) as part of the supporting conceptual substrate, a language might forgo explicit grounding in baseline clauses. One such language is Hopi, where a bare verb describes either a completed event or a stable situation: Taaqa wari ‘The man ran’; Taaqa qatɨ ‘The man is sitting’. These usually correlate with past vs. present, since a realized event is only describable as such upon completion whereas a stable situation is fully instantiated at the time of speaking (Langacker 2009: ch. 7). English, on the other hand, differentiates 7(b)—where p is simply in R—into the alternate configurations shown in 7(c); baseline clauses are conceptually more elaborate by virtue of indicating whether p is in IR or in its complement. A stable situation can thus be specified as either present or past: I love her; I loved her. Third-singular -s departs from the basic English pattern by preemptively marking person as well as tense. If we limit our attention to tense per se, baseline grounding can itself be seen as exhibiting the B/E organization in 7(d). Present occurrences, fundamental in the sense of being immediately accessible to the interlocutors, represent a lower stratum, S0. Describing past occurrences involves both formal elaboration, by -d, and conceptual elaboration based on an additional mental capacity, namely recall. The dashed arrow indicates elaboration as well as the distancing (DIST) whereby p is non-immediate to G. �13 Baseline grounding is further elaborated by the grammaticized modals. They represent a higher stratum characterized by additional conceptual resources, notably the ability to project the growth of reality to encompass occurrences not yet accepted as having been realized. So as a departure from the baseline substrate, modals situate p outside of R. This is true of both root and epistemic modals, as shown in Figure 8. In an abstract sense both are force dynamic (Talmy 1988; Sweetser 1990; Langacker To appear). The difference is that root modals are primarily interactive, intended to have some effect on the course of events: You may go to the party; They should be more polite; You must tell her the truth. By contrast, epistemic modals are primarily individual, the modal force consisting in the speaker’s own assessment of the prospects for p being realized: She will refuse the offer; They may not be home; We could fail. Figure 8 Elaboration by modals (M) defines the higher strata shown in Figure 9(a). The basic modals—may, can, will, shall, must—distance p from the ground by placing it outside of R (S2). Relative to this, the elaborated modals—might, could, would, should—consistently imply a longer “epistemic path” from G to p than their counterparts. An example is She will do it because she can vs. She would do it if she could, where will and can are matters of future potential while would and could are counterfactual. They represent a higher stratum (S3), since compared to their basic counterparts they are morphologically and conceptually more complex: ((M) DIST)M. �14 (a) S1 S3 S2 S0 p p DIST M G D IST IR R p G' M p IR' (b) [If he were not so poor] she would marry him. [he be poor] G [he not be poor] [she marry him] DIST G' will p Figure 9 Their conceptual complexity reflects an additional mental capacity: that of imagining a situation (G')—distinct from G—from which a basic modal projection could be made. It is exemplified in 9(b), where would effects the grounding of she marry him. The actual situation (immediate to G) is that he is poor. The imagined situation (at G') is that he is not poor. It is from the latter that the basic modal projection can be made: p is predictable (will) given the counterfactual situation of his not being poor (as part of IR'). So with modals the import of the non-immediate form is that the basis for prediction is distant (DIST) from G in the sense of not being real. In contrast to the basic modals, there is thus a two-step epistemic path from G to p. 2.4 Basic Clauses In Figure 10 I give an interim summary. In a baseline clause, grounding is effected by tense, with the grounded structure comprising the lexical verb and its participants. Each can be elaborated to form a basic clause; for grounding this is done by modals, and for the grounded structure through perspectival adjustment. These elaborations are primarily descriptive, serving to refine the characterization of the occurrence and its status. Either a baseline or a basic clause �15 expresses a negotiable proposition (P). By definition, a baseline clause represents the default option—when unelaborated, it stands alone as a basic clause with this function. Figure 10 The general grounding construction, exemplified by the baseline clause We liked her, is sketched in Figure 11(a). An overt grounding element—be it -d, -s, or a modal—profiles a fully schematic process, putting it onstage as the focus of attention within the objective scene (OS). This schematic process is identified with the specific one (p) profiled by the grounded structure (an elaborated process type). The clause thus designates an instance of p and indicates its epistemic status vis-à-vis the ground. �16 Figure 11 Grounding remains implicit in present-tense expressions such as We like her, represented in 11(b). Their formal simplicity reflects the baseline situation of the profiled occurrence being immediate to the ground. In terms of a path from G to p, this is the limiting, degenerate case: there is no path, since both are in IR. This pattern is conventional in English, hence an established linguistic unit. It simply specifies that the description of p itself—equivalent to the grounded structure in 11(a)—qualifies as a clause when its epistemic status is that of immediacy to G. �17 Figure 12 Thus a minimal clause consists of just a lexical verb and its participants, with grounding effected by the substrate: p is immediate to G and neutral in perspective. Other clauses have multiple strata reflecting elaborated grounding and/or perspectival adjustment. Various cases are �18 shown in Figure 12. In 12(a), overt grounding by the distal (past-tense) marker yields what is still a baseline clause (e.g. She washed it), while in 12(b) a modal results in a basic clause (She may wash it). The other examples combine explicit grounding with one or more perspectival adjustments. Each elaboration produces a structure representing a higher stratum by virtue of being formally and semantically more complex. The end result—at the highest level—is a full clause that profiles a grounded occurrence (p, p', p'', or p''') and expresses a negotiable proposition (P): She was washing it, It had been washed, It might have been being washed. At each stratum I have used bold type to indicate the verb word which first appears there. This word is always initial in the verb group at that level, where it is also the constructional head, profiling the same process as the composite expression. The initial word at the highest level is what is traditionally known as the finite verb, defined as the verb bearing tense. In CG terms, the finite verb can be characterized as the locus of grounding: the verb which registers the epistemic status of the profiled occurrence with respect to immediacy and reality. Included as a special case is the pattern in 11(b), where an uninflected verb registers the baseline status of immediate reality. Observe in this respect that a modal has all the properties of the finite verb. Being a grounding element, it is introduced at the highest stratum. It is also a verb, since grounding elements profile the grounded process, represented schematically as the onstage focus of attention. Clearly, a modal registers the epistemic status of this process in regard to both reality (by excluding p from R) and immediacy (indicating whether the basis for modal projection is G or G'). And in the generalized form of immediacy, it is the verb that bears tense. Finally, a modal (immediate or non-immediate) is a word. When present, therefore, a modal is itself the finite verb (hence excluded from non-finite complements). Otherwise the grounded verb functions in that capacity. In baseline clauses, the lexical verb is also the grounded verb as well as the finite verb. Perspectival adjustment creates a discrepancy between the lexical verb and the grounded verb, which is either be or have. Likewise, modals create a discrepancy between grounded verb and finite verb by assuming the latter role. As is common with B/E organization, conceptual and formal elaboration of the baseline results in differentiation of these three semantic functions. They can all be represented by different verbs in a basic clause. In 12(e), for example, wash functions as the lexical verb, have as the grounded verb, and might as the finite verb. �19 3. Discursive Organization 3.1 Factors A basic clause expresses a negotiable proposition (P), which describes an occurrence (p) from a certain perspective and indicates its epistemic status in regard to time and the speaker’s conception of reality (R). It still reflects a central feature of the baseline viewing arrangement: that the speaker merely describes, with the hearer just accepting what is said. Usually, though, the interlocutors engage in a longer discourse where certain propositions are negotiated by way of establishing a “common ground”. Employed for this purpose are interactive clauses, representing a higher stratum with a wider array of interactive and discursive options (cf. the “interpersonal metafunction” of Systemic-Functional Grammar [Halliday and Matthiessen 2004; Heyvaert 2001]). An interactive clause expresses an elaborated proposition, P', in which the validity of P is being negotiated. As noted in Figure 13 (an expansion of Figure 10), an interactive clause augments basic grounding (by tense and modals) with another sort of grounding characteristic of negotiation. Whereas basic clauses are limited to positive statements, interactive grounding provides additional options in regard to polarity and speech act. Basic and interactive grounding both pertain to epistemic status, but at different levels: the former concerns the status of p, as part of a proposition (P); the latter concerns the validity of P as a whole. Hence a basic clause functions as the grounded structure at this higher stratum. �20 Figure 13 The negotiation of P’s validity occurs through discourse (Verhagen 2005). There is no sharp distinction between descriptive and discursive functions, nor any precise correlation with strata or implementing structures. At most we can say that certain structures and functions are primarily descriptive or discursive. Factors that I regard as primarily discursive include speech management, interclausal connections, information structure, order of presentation, and the packaging of content. Speech management includes such matters as turn taking, holding or yielding the floor, and offstage indications of assent or disagreement. Elements specifying interclausal connections range from having substantial descriptive content (after, because, then) to being purely discursive (moreover, furthermore, and so). Information structure (e.g. notions like topic and informational focus) pertains to the discourse status of entities with respect to their intersubjective availability. The order of presentation is a central aspect of discursive organization. It always contributes to linguistic meaning, since processing time is one dimension of semantic structure (just as it is for phonological structure). Finally, semantic and phonological content is packaged into “chunks” of manageable size. Lexical items offer prepackaged chunks �21 of conceptual content. At a higher level, exemplified in (1), packaging consists in allocating content to grammatical structures, like sentences and clauses, as well as to prosodically delimited processing windows—notably, what Chafe calls intonation units and I refer to as attentional frames (Chafe 1994, 1998; Langacker 2001a). (1)(a) //I came//↓ //I saw//↓ //I conquered//↓ [3 clauses, 3 intonation units, 3 pitch contours] (b) //I came // I saw // and I conquered//↓ [3 clauses, 3 intonation units, 1 pitch contour] (c) //I came / I saw / and I conquered//↓ [3 clauses, 1 intonation unit, 1 pitch contour] (d) //I came / saw / and conquered//↓ [1 clause, 1 intonation unit, 1 pitch contour] Discursive structures have little content of their own, consisting instead in ways of organizing and presenting descriptive content for interactive purposes as a discourse unfolds. An example is the informational focus, where unreduced stress symbolizes new or significant information. This symbolic unit per se is too insubstantial to occur independently; it can only be manifested via the semantic and phonological content of the focused elements, e.g. may and work in She MAY have been WORKing. Grammar accommodates descriptive and discursive structures as co-existing facets of symbolic assemblies. In Figure 14 I show the basic functional groupings for the clause She have been WORKing. MAY The ones at the top reflect the descriptive organization already discussed; those at the bottom are primarily discursive. The latter include: (i) the order of presentation (>); (ii) the packaging of content into words (w); (iii) packaging of the clause in a single processing window (W); (iv) the informational focus; (v) organization into subject and predicate (cf. Kuroda 1972); and (vi) a functional grouping I call the existential core (to be considered shortly). �22 Descriptive Functions P CLAUSE p'' GROUNDING GROUNDED STRUCTURE PERSP' MAY W HAVE she > W MAY p' -EN > W PERSP BE -ING have > SUBJECT p ELABORATED TYPE BASIC TYPE PARTICIPANT WORK W be-en SHE > WORK-ing W PREDICATE EXISTENTIAL CORE FOCUS ATTENTIONAL FRAME / PROCESSING WINDOW W Discursive Functions Figure 14 It is hardly surprising that structures reflecting different functions are often in conflict with one another. These cross-cutting groupings are unproblematic in CG: since grammar consists in assemblies of structures (as opposed to rigid hierarchies), the same elements can perfectly well be organized simultaneously in non-congruent ways. In Figure 14, for instance, the informational focus MAY WORK—symbolized by unreduced stress—does not coincide with any other semantic or phonological grouping (Langacker 1997). The need to accommodate both descriptive and discursive functions has the consequence that not every grouping is symbolized individually. As a composite whole, for example, the elaborated process type SHE WORK does not correspond to any independently observable phonological grouping (being discontinuous in the clause). Despite such discrepancies, descriptive and discursive structures are readily apprehended on the basis of the overall assemblies and the constructions employed. 3.2 Negotiation �23 The negotiation defining an interactive clause pertains to polarity and speech act. For polarity, the baseline status is POSITIVE, with NEGATIVE and AFFIRMATIVE as additional options at a higher stratum. Negative is marked by not (often contracted), and affirmative by unreduced stress. Affirmative differs from positive by specifically viewing P in relation to the negative alternative: He IS smart suggests that the possibility of his not being smart is somehow within the realm of consideration (e.g. He may not be a genius, but he we will limit our attention to STATEMENT IS (the baseline) and smart). In the case of speech act, QUESTIONING. The latter is clearly more elaborate because the question scenario includes a statement (the expected response). The starting point for negotiation is thus a positive statement, i.e. a basic clause expressing a negotiable proposition (P). From this baseline, elaborations in regard to polarity or speech act produce an interactive clause representing a negotiated proposition (P'), as shown in Figure 15. The two dimensions of elaboration can also be combined, resulting in an affirmative or negative question (IS he smart?; Isn’t he smart?). P' Q P S1 AFF P' NEG P' Q Q P'' P'' S2 S3 S4 Figure 15 The various options in Figure 15 are all indicated by the subject and finite verb. In a positive statement, they simply occur in that sequence: He is trying. Non-baseline polarity is marked on the finite verb, by either unreduced stress or incorporation of not/n’t: He IS trying; He isn’t trying. And questioning is signaled by the finite verb preceding the subject: Is he trying?. As the manifestation of interactive grounding, the subject and finite verb—along with these basic indications of polarity and speech act—constitute a functional grouping with an important role in the grammar of English clauses. Underlined for ease of identification, I refer to this grouping as �24 the existential core. C∃ is adopted as an abbreviatory notation (∃ being the logical symbol for the existential quantifier). The term alludes to a basic claim concerning the semantic function of a clause: that it serves to predicate—and if need be, to negotiate—the existence of a relationship. In standard usage, of course, we do not speak of relationships as existing. But that is just a lexical idiosyncrasy of English. There is in fact good motivation for speaking this way, based on the wide-ranging parallelism between nominal and clausal structure (Langacker 2009: ch. 6). Consider just their prototypes, namely objects and events. We say that objects exist, while events occur (or happen), but these locutions obscure a fundamental similarity. An object consists of substance that occupies a continuous region in space; it exists by virtue of having spatial extension and a spatial location. Analogously, an event is an evolving relationship [given as r1...ri...rn in Figure 4(c)] that occupies a continuous region in time; it exists (or occurs) by virtue of having temporal extension and a temporal location. In the case of nominals, existence is generally taken for granted; the primary epistemic issue, reflected in nominal grounding, is identification. But for clauses the primary epistemic issue is existence: whether the profiled relationship actually occurs. A relationship that occurs is referred to in CG as a process—or more perspicuously, as an occurrence. Since a verb or a clause profiles a process, by definition it makes an existential predication, describing an occurrence. In the form of interactive grounding, negotiation concerning the validity of this predication is registered in the existential core. The core functions discursively by providing a compact, clause-initial presentation of the existential negotiation. It is optimal when (as very often happens) the subject is pronominal and the finite verb non-lexical; the core is then schematic, and in the absence of specific conceptual content negotiation comes to the fore. As non-lexical options, the finite verb is either be, have, do, or a modal—the so-called “auxiliary verbs”. These are better described as existential verbs: the profiled relationship being wholly schematic, their conceptual import centers on the very notion of its occurrence. Relevant here is the cross-linguistic prevalence of using be- and havetype verbs to predicate existence in the case of things. And despite some basic differences, an existential predication is clearly pivotal for both do and the modals. Do and the modals are alike in that they profile the same process as their complement but describe it only schematically. In terms of their onstage content, therefore, the combinations do + �25 V and M + V are non-distinct from V itself. One difference is that modals are grounding elements, whereas do augments the grounded structure. As grounding elements, modals profile the onstage process, even though their essential content resides in the offstage grounding relationship (Langacker 2002). They contribute semantically by indicating, through their offstage assessment of its potentiality, that the profiled occurrence is as yet unrealized. Unlike modals, do combines only with the lexical verb, which it elaborates for discursive reasons. This elaboration is not a matter of additional conceptual content, since do is schematic for the class of verbs. Its semantic contribution is rather to reinforce the notion of existence by expressing it individually. Observe that it occurs just when existence is being negotiated: in cases of negation, affirmation, and questioning (not in positive statements). Do + V can thus be characterized as a discursively motivated elaboration of V. Defined most narrowly, the existential core is a closely integrated system that lends itself to paradigmatic representation, as shown in the following table. The one apparent anomaly is in the upper left-hand corner, where the finite verb is lexical rather than existential. But this is not at all anomalous when analyzed in terms of B/E organization: the expressions involved are baseline clauses, which occur by default if nothing dictates otherwise. It is only at a higher stratum, through descriptive or discursive elaboration, that an existential verb is introduced to impose its profile and function as the tense-bearing element. With descriptive elaboration, that verb is be, have, or a modal. If there is only discursive elaboration, the lexical verb (V) gives way to the periphrastic alternative do + V. Existential status can then be indicated by the subject and a schematic finite verb (He didn’t; He DID; Did he?), in accordance with the general pattern. POS NEG AFF Q v/do He tried. He didn’t try. He DID try. Did he try? be He is trying. He isn’t trying. He IS trying. Is he trying? have He has tried. He hasn’t tried. He HAS tried. Has he tried? M He will try. He won’t try. He WILL try. Will he try? BASELINE ELABORATION (descriptive) �26 POS BASELINE NEG ELABORATION AFF Q (interactive/discursive) A brief summary will be useful. In all cases, existential status is indicated by the subject and the finite verb, the main elements of the existential core (C∃). As a succinct representation of the clause and its status, the core is optimal when the subject and finite verb are both schematic. Baseline clauses, where the verb is lexical and the subject may be as well, diverge from this general pattern but should not be thought of as exceptional—it is rather that they are more fundamental, for in the baseline substrate existential status is not at issue. At this lowest stratum, where negotiation is not a factor, core and clause are as yet undifferentiated. An important point is that the core is not a fixed, distinct, or discretely bounded structure but a functional grouping, variable in extent and membership depending on the function served. The finite verb, being the locus of existential negotiation and the pivotal element of the existential core (C∃), will also be referred to as the existential verb (V∃). To be sure, every verb is existential in the sense that it predicates the existence of a relationship. And being schematic in regard to that relationship, auxiliary verbs are existential in the further sense that their conceptual import centers on the very notion of its occurrence. The finite verb of a clause is existential in yet another sense pertaining to discursive function: the process it profiles is the one whose existence is being negotiated and whose epistemic status is registered by the core. 3.3 Anchoring The order of presentation has intrinsic conceptual import just by virtue of invoking semantic structures in a certain sequence. Order alone ensures that X > Y is never precisely equivalent to Y > X: they constitute distinct mental experiences, hence subtly different meanings, even if the difference is negligible for most purposes. Nor is it just a matter of sequencing, as what goes before unavoidably influences the processing of what follows. The manifestation of Y is at least minimally different in the sequence X > Y, where X is part of the supporting substrate, from when it occurs alone. (To some extent the influence is bidirectional, the anticipation of Y being part of the substrate for X.) �27 A variety of experimental evidence indicates that the initial element in a sequence has special status in this regard. It serves as a “starting point” to which other content is attached (MacWhinney 1977). Though demanding more cognitive capacity, it lays a “foundation” for “structure building”; it “gains a privileged status in the comprehenders’ minds”, being more accessible in subsequent processing tasks (Gernsbacher and Hargreaves 1992). The initial element in a sequence will be referred to as the anchor. Defined in this general fashion, an anchor can be a structure of any size or at any level of organization. Our concern here is with the anchor in a clause, so the elements involved are major clausal components, such as nominals, adverbials, and the existential core. The default in English is for the subject to function as anchor, whether it be a single word or a longer expression. The correlation of anchor and subject is natural from the standpoint of CG: the subject is the nominal expressing the clausal trajector (primary focal participant), characterized as initial reference point accessed in building up to a full conception of the profiled process (Langacker 1998, 1999; cf. Chafe 1994: ch. 7). A key point is that the extent and specific nature of their correlation differ at successive strata. In baseline clauses, there is only one option: the subject is always initial (hence the anchor) and expresses the trajector of the lexical verb. Things are slightly more elaborate in basic clauses owing to perspectival adjustment. In particular, the passive construction introduces a discrepancy between the trajector of the lexical verb and that of the clause as a whole. The anchor of a basic clause is still the subject—its primary focal participant (Tomlin 1995; Ibbotson, Lieven, and Tomasello 2013)—but in passives this coincides with the landmark of the lexical verb rather than its trajector. Interactive clauses, where discursive factors come into play, present a considerably more complex picture. They are structurally more elaborate both by containing additional components (such as adverbs) and also by letting word order vary for discursive purposes. Most relevant here is a particular construction in which the subject is preceded by another element, e.g. the object nominal: Dishonesty she can’t tolerate. By definition the preceding element functions as clauselevel anchor. This construction therefore differentiates the anchor and subject roles, just as the passive differentiates the roles of subject and verbal trajector. �28 The element preceding the subject will be called the discursive anchor (labeled A'). A wide array of elements function in this capacity, including non-subject nominals, prepositional phrases, and adverbial expressions. They have varied functional motivations, exemplified in (2). (2)(a) Obama he would never vote for. (b) In parts of Hawaii it rains almost every day. (c) From Houston he will drive to Dallas. (d) ??To Dallas he will drive from Houston. (e) Therefore you shouldn’t take the job. (f) On the counter it goes! (g) Carefully she unwrapped the present. One basic function is to provide a mental address for interpreting the clausal content, by directing attention to a certain portion of our conceptual universe. This is often a clausal participant, as in (a), in which case the anchor is said to be a clause-internal topic. But it can also be a location or a global setting (Langacker 1991: §8.1.3), as in (b). The discursive anchor has iconic motivation when it specifies the origin of a natural path, e.g. a path of motion, as in (c); note the relative infelicity of the counter-iconic order in (d). Another function is to indicate the connection of a clause with the previous one, as in (e). An alternative motivation is urgency: the anchor demands immediate attention. If I see you staggering under a heavy load, which you need to put down right away, I will probably state the location first, as in (f). The default order, It goes on the counter!, delays the essential information. A clearly discernible motivation is not always evident. It may just be that the speaker chooses to favor a certain component with the intrinsic salience of initial elements. In (2)(g), for example, coming first makes the manner specification a bit more salient than it would be otherwise. Whatever its motivation, the discursive anchor has at least this minimal conceptual import. Moreover, it frames the clause in the sense of providing an initial point of access to its content. Because it is already active when subsequent elements are activated, it has the potential to influence their interpretation. Discursive anchoring represents a dimension of B/E organization at the level of interactive clauses. The baseline—the most neutral order of presentation—is for the subject to be �29 initial as part of the existential core, as in Figure 16(a): I may not finish this paper on time. By definition the subject is then the clausal anchor (A), but as the default configuration this does not per se have any special discursive import. It is noteworthy that a clause of this sort displays a kind of functional optimality in having not just one but two natural starting points. The subject anchors the clause, as well as the existential core (C∃). But since an anchor can be of any size, the core itself can be thought of as a clausal anchor. It is a natural point of access which facilitates processing by offering a schematic preview of the profiled occurrence and its existential status. Whether taken to be the subject or the core, the anchor still frames the clause in the sense of being the initial point of access. Representing the baseline situation, this constitutes neutral framing, as distinct from the special framing giving rise to discursive alternatives at a higher stratum. Figure 16 Special framing implies a more elaborate conceptual structure based on discursive factors like those in (2). As shown in Figure 16(b), it creates a discrepancy between the discursive anchor (A') and the subject: This paper I may not finish on time. Note, however, that the subject still anchors the core as well as the sequence that follows A'. Indeed, except for the “gap” corresponding to A', that sequence still constitutes a clause which the subject frames in the same way as at lower strata. This construction can thus be seen as elaborating an interactive clause by introducing an additional level of structural and functional organization. It partially differentiates what would otherwise be a single clause, resulting in two layers of clausal structure, each with its own anchor: [A' [A ...]CL ]CL. The two anchors have slightly different framing functions, which are not yet differentiated at lower strata. The function of A is primarily descriptive: an active clause describes what the agent does, while a passive describes what happens to the patient. The choice �30 of subject—a matter of perspective on the lexical process—emerges at a lower level. By contrast, the function of A' is primarily discursive, pertaining to discourse factors at a higher level of organization. This is not to deny, of course, that passives are used for various discourse purposes. The point is rather that special framing constitutes a discursive overlay on a more basic descriptive structure. It can thus apply to either actives or passives, as in (3). (3)(a) Termites destroyed the house in just six months. [A = SUBJ = AG] (b) The house was destroyed by termites in just six months. (c) In just six months termites destroyed the house. [A = SUBJ = PAT] [A' ≠ A = SUBJ = AG] (d) In just six months the house was destroyed by termites. [A' ≠ A = SUBJ = PAT] Since A' and A represent semantic functions, rather than fixed or separate structures, different elements can assume either role. Nor does anything prevent the same element from functioning in both capacities. In (4)(a), we observe that a clause-internal topic, especially when contrastive, is fully stressed and prosodically salient in addition to being initial. When that element happens to be the subject, as in (4)(b), the neutral framing effected by a clause-initial subject is reinforced by the special framing of a discursive topic. In this case the subject functions as both A' (by virtue of being the topic) and as A (by virtue of being initial). The functions are conflated in a single element. (4)(a) STUPIDITY [A'] she [A/SUBJ] can tolerate. DISHONESTY [A'] she [A/SUBJ] can’t. (b) SHE [A'/A/SUBJ] can tolerate stupidity. HE [A'/A/SUBJ] cannot. 4. Inversion 4.1 Existential Core In Figure 16(b), and again in 17(b) Zelda he will never understand, we observe a parallelism between the core of an interactive clause and the clause as a whole. It is captured by the formula A > ∃ > R: an anchor (A), followed by an existential element (∃), followed by the remainder (R). Within the existential core, A is the subject, ∃ is the existential verb (V∃), and R �31 is any remaining core element (e.g. never). At the clause level, the corresponding elements are a discursive anchor (A'), the full existential core (C∃), and everything which follows it (R'). Representing a kind of fractal organization, this pattern repeats itself at multiple levels. We can recognize the same elements in a baseline clause, such as 17(a) Floyd broke the glass: A is the subject, ∃ the lexical verb, and R the object. It is also evident in the higher-level elaboration of an interactive clause, as in 17(c): Your son, at home he has always been pleasant, hasn’t he?. In this case A is a clause-external topic, ∃ is a basic interactive clause, and R is a question tag. Figure 17 Our main concern is with an interactive clause and its existential core. Let us first consider the motivation for recognizing the core as being linguistically significant. Recall that C∃ was characterized as a functional grouping comprising the subject, the finite (or existential) verb, and basic indications of polarity and speech act. One indication of its significance is the fractal organization noted in Figure 17: the core is a particular manifestation of a pattern that recurs at multiple levels. Also, within an interactive clause the core serves the important function of registering the existential status of the profiled occurrence. And with a baseline interactive clause, as in 16(a) I may not finish this paper on time, the core is a natural point of access �32 providing a schematic representation of the clausal occurrence, its existential status, and its main participant. These are indications that the core has functional significance. It also has structural significance. First, the division between C∃ and R' is a favored location for the interruptive occurrence of adverbs and other expressions pertaining to existential status, as in (5). Moreover, because C∃ satisfies the abstract definition of a finite clause—namely, it profiles a grounded process—it has the potential to stand alone as such. We see in (6) that it does so both as a question tag (e.g. will it?) and also as part of an elliptic response (No, it won’t). (5)(a) You should, I think, pass this test quite easily. (b) He did not, apparently, tell his wife about his affair. (c) She has, it seems, been complaining to her boss. (d) Are they, perhaps, being criticized unfairly? (6)(a) A: Our plan won’t be affected, will it? B: No, it won’t. (b) A: The boys have been quiet, haven’t they? (c) A: You’re cleaning your room, are you? (d) A: He DID vote for Romney, didn’t he? B: Yes, they have for the most part. B: Yes, I am. B: No, he didn’t, actually. Despite its structural significance, the existential core is not a rigid structure with clearcut boundaries. There is no definitive list of core elements, as they differ in degree of centrality and membership varies for different functions. The core is minimal, consisting of just the most central elements, in the case of question tags. There it is limited to the subject and existential verb—both of which have to be schematic—as well as baseline negation (not/n’t) and indication of speech act. We see in (7) that a tag is infelicitous with a lexical subject or verb. Nor does it tolerate ever, which occurs in the core of either a full clause or an elliptic response. (7)(a) Floyd broke the glass, {did he? / *did Floyd? / *broke he?}. (b) He has {never / not ever} broken one, has he (*ever)? (c) A: He didn’t break a glass. B: Has he ever (done so)? �33 At the other extreme, the core is maximally inclusive in the case of interruptive adverbials, as in (8)(a). It allows both lexical subjects and a substantial array of elements with epistemic import. The core also figures in the phenomenon known as “subject-auxiliary inversion”—here just inversion—where the subject follows the existential verb instead of preceding it. This represents an intermediate case, as only a subset of the elements preceding interruptive adverbials function as core elements for this purpose. And as noted in (8)(b), the judgments are not always clear, suggesting that their status as core elements is a matter of degree. (8)(a) Floyd has {never / seldom / often / always / even / certainly / clearly / in fact / indeed}, according to the evidence, been guilty of glass breaking. (b) {Never / Seldom / ?Often / ??Always / *Even / *Certainly / *Clearly / *In fact / *Indeed} has Floyd been guilty of glass breaking. I am proposing, then, that elements which induce inversion—like never and seldom in (8) (b)—belong to the existential core. Two issues must therefore be addressed. First, what is the basis for claiming that these “inversion triggers” are core elements? And second, why do they have this effect? How, exactly, does inversion come about? The analysis of inversion has been a point of theoretical contention. In the generative tradition, it is treated (following Chomsky 1957) as a “purely formal generalization”, thus supporting the autonomy of syntax (Borseley and Newmeyer 2009). In the cognitive-functional tradition, an alternative is naturally sought in which all the structures involved have semantic or discourse motivation. Goldberg (2006, 2009) describes inversion as a polysemous family of constructions which share the property of departing significantly from a prototypical sentence, characterized by the features positive, predicate focus, assertive, independent, and declarative. In my own analysis—which has much in common with one proposed by Chen (2013)—inversion is not a construction per se, but results from the interaction of discursive factors. 4.2 The Basic Analysis �34 Simply stated, inversion is just a consequence of special discursive framing by a core element other than the subject. Notions already introduced make it apparent why this is so. Special framing implies that there is indeed a discursive anchor, A'. When A' is a core element, it frames the clause in terms of some facet of the existential negotiation by the interlocutors. Since A' is then initial as well as being a core element, it is initial in the core, making it the core-level anchor, A; the functions A' and A are thus conflated. Now the existential core in English consistently follows the pattern A > ∃ > R, where ∃ is the existential verb (V∃). And only one core element can be initial. So when something other than the subject functions as both A' and A, the subject cannot, but has to follow V∃ as part of the remainder (R). Even if the basic outline is clear, the analysis requires more extensive discussion. Let us start with the observation that not every interactive clause has a discursive anchor. There is none in the case of neutral framing (the baseline in this respect), corresponding to the default word order of English clauses. As shown in Figure 18(a), the core is then initial, with the subject initial in the core. The subject thus functions as descriptive anchor (A) for both the core and the clause, but there is no discursive anchor (A'). �35 Figure 18 Moreover, most cases of A' do not trigger inversion. For instance, it does not occur with a clause-internal topic, as in 18(b). Nor does it occur in the examples given previously [in (2)] to illustrate the varied functional motivations of discursive anchors: (9)(a) *Obama would he never vote for. (b) *In parts of Hawaii does it rain every day. (c) *From Houston will he drive to Dallas. (d) *Therefore shouldn’t you take the job. (e) *On the counter does it go! (f) *Carefully did she unwrap the present. �36 In the spirit of Chen 2013, I am claiming that discursive anchors which do trigger inversion belong to the existential core. The basic rationale for this claim is that inversion triggers pertain directly to the clause’s existential negotiation, which is localized in the core. The strongest triggers embody the central core functions of negation and questioning. Thus in 18(c), A' is a negative adverb (never = not ever). In 18(d), it is a question word. By occurring initially, these elements frame the clause in terms of the existential negotiation. In such expressions the initial negative or question word is clearly a discursive anchor (A'): it is an anchor just by virtue of being initial; and it serves a discursive function, the interlocutors engaging in an existential negotiation which pivots on this element. And being pivotal to the existential negotiation, it belongs to the existential core (C∃). This is so even if it corresponds to an element that normally does not. In 18(d), the question word what functions as the clausal object, which is not per se a core element. What brings it into the core is not its status as an object, but its role in the existential negotiation. Obviously, when A' belongs to the core it does not precede it, as in 18(b), but is rather included within it, as in 18(c)-(d). And being initial in the clause, ipso facto it is initial in the core, hence the core-level anchor (A). The two anchoring functions, A' and A, are thus conflated in a single element. Moreover, since only one element precedes the existential verb, the core conforms to the general pattern A > ∃ > R. To state it another way, the A-slot in the pattern A > ∃ > R can be occupied by a single element with multiple functions (e.g. A'/A), or one that is internally complex (like a multiword subject). But it cannot be occupied simultaneously by distinct structures functioning individually in that capacity. Expressions like (10)(a)-(c), with two core elements preceding the existential verb, are thus precluded. So when a non-subject functions as discursive anchor, occurring directly before V∃ with the dual role A'/A, it fills the slot normally occupied by the subject. English resolves the conflict by having the subject follow V∃ instead of preceding it; though still a core element, it is relegated to the remainder (R). This alternative construction, providing another way of implementing some of the same semantic functions, is what we call inversion. (10)(a) *Never she can tolerate stupidity. (b) *What she can not tolerate? (c) *Never what can she tolerate? �37 Of course, the subject may itself take on the function of discursive anchor, as either a negative element, a question word, or a clause-internal topic. This has no effect on word order: as discursive anchor (A'), the subject must be initial; but as the default-case descriptive anchor (A), it is already initial in both the core and the clause. So instead of displacing the subject, this additional discursive function reinforces its claim to initial position. Merely the descriptive anchor (A) in 18(a), the subject has a dual anchoring role (A'/A) in 18(e)-(g). A classic problem—the absence of inversion in questions formed on the subject—is thereby resolved. The solution just falls out in the context of a more comprehensive analysis. Inversion is thus a matter of a non-subject core element preceding V∃ as discursive anchor, so that it preempts the A-slot in the pattern A > ∃ > R. How, then, do we account for polarity questions (those answerable by yes or no), where nothing precedes V∃? The analysis handles them straightforwardly. As seen in 18(h), polarity questions represent the special case where the existential verb is itself the discursive anchor. In Can she tolerate stupidity?, the core sequence can she conforms to the pattern A > ∃ > R with the minor qualification that the A- and ∃-slots are conflated in a single element (can). That element therefore has three semantic functions: A', A, and V∃. This is not just a formal solution, but directly reflects the meaning of polarity questions. The discursive anchor in a question assumes that role by virtue of being the question focus (Lambrecht and Michaelis 1998), i.e. it represents the information being sought. This, of course, is just what a question word does in content questions—in 18(f), who indicates that the question pertains to the identity of the human subject. In polarity questions, the information being sought is whether or not the profiled occurrence is real: existence per se is being negotiated. The existential verb is thus the question focus and discursive anchor. 4.3 Extensions A variety of constructions show the inversion of subject and existential verb. A standard inventory comprises those exemplified in (11). The issue, then, is whether this is simply an arbitrary list, or whether a unified characterization can be found. Goldberg (2006) is certainly correct that these constructions amount to a prototype category with central and more peripheral members, the latter exhibiting degrees of acceptability. There being no precise boundary, �38 inclusion is based on motivation rather than strict predictability, so unification consists in mappping out natural paths of extension from the central cases. Let me briefly sketch what such an account might look like. (11)(a) Have they been complaining? [questions] (b) May you have a happy marriage. [wishes] (c) Is Yao ever tall! [exclamations] (d) Were he rich I might marry him. [non-factual conditionals] (e) Never did they suspect the truth. [negative adverbials] (f) Only with pizza will she drink beer. [only] (g) The groom was more nervous than was the bride. [comparatives] (h) They should relax, and so should we. [certain conjunctions] (i) Truly are we lucky to have survived. [certain positive elements] At the center, being fundamental to the existential negotiation, are questioning and negation. In (12) I list some elements that consistently induce inversion. Among these robust inversion triggers are the basic question words as well as any complex expressions containing them. Also included are basic negative words and an open-ended set of complex expressions incorporating no. (12)(a) who, what, which, when, where, why, how, to whom, for what purpose, with whose wife ... (b) nobody, nothing, never, nowhere, neither, nor, at no time, in no way, to no avail ... Questioning and negation are primary interactive means of establishing joint epistemic control, i.e. building up a shared conception of reality. They embody different strategies for doing so. A content question, such as What was she eating?, is aimed at eliciting a response allowing a specific occurrence to be included in reality: She was eating a banana. It is a strategy of specific inclusion. By contrast, negation embodies the indirect strategy of universal exclusion: Nothing was she eating excludes all propositions of the form She was eating X. The baseline in either case—implemented by polarity questions and basic negation with not—is a global assessment pertaining to the grounded process as an undifferentiated whole. �39 But in either case we also have the option of more nuanced assessments in which status vis-à-vis reality depends on a particular element. That element—the question or negative focus—is specified by the expressions in (12). These are core elements because they are pivotal to the existential negotiation. And as core elements, they function as inversion triggers. These are core elements even if they correspond to non-core elements in positive statements. In (13)(a), for example, C∃ does not include the direct object nominal a banana. But in (13)(b)-(c), what and nothing belong to the core—a functional grouping, it will be recalled— even though it is discontinuous. Their pivotal role in the existential negotiation also makes them prime candidates to be the discursive anchor (A'), as in (13)(d)-(e), in which case they trigger inversion. However, we do have the option of leaving them in place, since focus and special framing are distinct functions despite their natural affinity. (13)(a) She was eating a banana. [OBJ is not in C∃] (b) She was eating what? [OBJ is in C∃, does not function as A or A'] (c) She was eating nothing. [OBJ is in C∃, does not function as A or A'] (d) What was she eating? [OBJ is in C∃, functions as both A and A'] (e) Nothing was she eating. [OBJ is in C∃, functions as both A and A'] In lists of inversion constructions, polarity questions are usually at the top. They represent a basic and obvious form of existential negotiation, being explicitly interactive and concerned with existence per se. The existential verb is therefore pivotal, whether we describe it as the default-case focus or say (from the standpoint of B/E organization) that there is no question focus. Either way, it is natural for V∃ to function as discursive anchor, framing the question in terms of existential status. Of course we also have the option of relying on intonation alone, with no special framing: She was eating a banana?. This alternative construction downplays the negotiation—it is not so much a request for information as a matter of seeking confirmation. But when V∃ does function as discursive anchor (A'/A), inversion is an automatic consequence: Was she eating a banana?. Other inversion constructions with V∃ as discursive anchor represent extensions from this prototype. Included are “wishes”, exclamations, and non-factual conditionals. They differ from polarity questions in regard to either the nature or the extent of the existential negotiation. �40 The first construction uses may as a root modal, being aimed at having some effect on the course of events. The sentence can be interpreted either positively, as a kind of wish (May there be peace on earth), or negatively, as a kind of curse (May you burn in hell!). In a departure from the prototype, the speaker is not negotiating with a human interlocutor, but is rather appealing to some higher power in the hope of inducing the profiled occurrence. Exclamations are emphatic, so they often incorporate reinforcing elements: Is he ever tall!; Man, is he tall!. Moreover, they focus on degree: Did he complain! does not relate to the fact of complaining but to its vehemence. The expressive function of exclamations thus rivals or surpasses their descriptive function. They are also interactive, as the hearer is invited to share and confirm the speaker’s reaction. Existence is still at issue with exclamations, but in a way that reflects their expressive and interactive function: what the interlocutors are negotiating is the degree of existence, i.e. its exceptionality. In non-factual conditionals, like those in (14)(a), the existential verb appears in its nonimmediate form, indicating distance from the ground in the sense of removal from reality. Being both initial and marked for distance, V∃ frames the clause in terms of non-reality. To be sure, non-factuality is simply presented, rather than being negotiated in any strong or narrow sense. But existence is nonetheless the pivotal issue, and the epistemic assessment—effected via grounding—inheres in the interlocutors’ apprehension of the scene. By contrast, in clauses introduced by if, as in (14)(b), non-factuality is directly symbolized and put onstage as an object of conception. (14)(a)(i) Were he rich, I might marry him. (b)(i) If he were rich, I might marry him. (ii) Had he won, he would have gloated. (ii) If he had won, he would have gloated. (iii) Should you see her, say hello. (iii) If you should see her, say hello. Finally, we need to consider inversion constructions in which the discursive anchor is something other than V∃. Exemplified in (15), these all represent extensions (or chains of extensions) from the more typical situation where the inversion trigger (A'/A) is a question word or an overtly negative expression. (15)(a) {Seldom / Rarely / Hardly ever} does he have any fun. Barely could he lift it. �41 (b) Little do they know. On few occasions would he complain. (c) ?{Many times / Often} have I asked myself that question. (d) Only at parties does he tell dirty jokes. (e) Thus did she learn the truth. In that way did he manage to survive. (f) Truly are we fortunate. (g) Jack fell, {and so / as} did Jill. Jack didn’t fall, {and neither / nor} did Jill. (h) Jack was more nervous than was Jill. The most obvious cases are quasi-negative expressions like seldom, rarely, hardly, and barely, which sanction negative polarity items such as any (Klima 1964). These constitute a natural extension—a simple matter of attenuation—from the negative strategy of universal exclusion to one of near universal exclusion. Further attenuation brings in the minimizing quantifiers little and few (Langacker 2009: ch. 3). These provide a bridge to positive expressions of quantity such as many and often, whose status as inversion triggers is rather marginal. Only is also a case of near universal exclusion, but since it limits the range of options to just one, it blends this with the question strategy of specific inclusion. The latter provides the basis for the relatively small number of positive inversion triggers, among them demonstratives, as in (15)(e). Note that demonstrative TH is closely related to the WH of question words (Langacker 2001b), often occurring in the answers to content questions. Another positive trigger, the non-deictic truly, is assimilated to the existential core because inclusion in reality is essentially what it means. Moreover, it is emphatic in this regard, making it similar to exclamations. Other positive triggers are so and as when they act as conjunctions, as in (15)(g). These, of course, are the counterparts of the negative triggers neither and nor. Their status as conjunctions is itself a motivating factor, as one function of discursive anchors is to specify a connection with the previous clause. The same is true for comparatives, as in (15)(h). And because it indicates non-identity of values, than is also quasi-negative. Much more can and needs to be said about inversion constructions. This brief discussion may at least indicate that, instead of being an arbitrary list, they represent motivated extensions from central cases. �42 5. Conclusion I have touched on many issues, both descriptive and theoretical, that are all deserving of far more extensive treatment. My main excuse for brevity is that they must all be considered together for an in-depth understanding of how to build an English clause. With even more egregious brevity, let me now conclude by reviewing some basic points. The analysis illustrates the pervasive organization of conceptual and linguistic structure in terms of baseline and elaboration. Although I discussed various strata as if they were discrete, that is at best a convenient simplification. The boundaries are often permeable. Moreover, successive strata may arise through multiple dimensions of elaboration that do not occur in lockstep but are basically independent. Another general notion is that grammar is the implementation of semantic functions. It consists in assemblies of symbolic structures, representing functional groupings whose emergence as fixed, discrete structures is a matter of degree. Grammatical structure reflects the interplay of discursive and descriptive functions. Finally, these notions are essential for understanding the structure of English clauses, especially in regard to verbal elements. The clausal function of predicating and negotiating the existence of a relationship is represented schematically in a functional grouping—the existential core—with a basic role in English grammar. In particular, it is crucial for inversion, which is not a “purely formal generalization” but has a unified characterization in terms of meaning and discursive function. �43 References Borseley, Robert D. and Frederick J. Newmeyer. 2009. On Subject-Auxiliary Inversion and the Notion “Purely Formal Generalization”. Cognitive Linguistics 20.135-143. Chafe, Wallace. 1994. 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Typological Studies in Language 22. Goldberg, Adele E. 2006. Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalizations in Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goldberg, Adele E. 2009. The Nature of Generalization in Language. Cognitive Linguistics 20.93-127. Halliday, M. A. K. and Christian Matthiessen. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Third edition. London: Hodder Arnold. Harder, Peter. 2010. Meaning in Mind and Society: A Functional Contribution to the Social Turn in Cognitive Linguistics. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter Mouton. Cognitive Linguistics Research 41. Heyvaert, Liesbet. 2001. Nominalization as an “Interpersonally-Driven” System. Functions of Language 8.287-329. �44 Ibbotson, Paul, Elena V. M. Lieven, and Michael Tomasello. 2013. The Attention-Grammar Interface: Eye-Gaze Cues Structural Choice in Children and Adults. Cognitive Linguistics 24.457-481. Klima, Edward S. 1964. Negation in English. In Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz (eds.), The Structure of Language: Readings in the Philosophy of Language, 246-323. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kuroda, S.-Y. 1972. The Categorical and the Thetic Judgment. Foundations of Language 9.153185. Lambrecht, Knud and Laura A. Michaelis. 1998. Sentence Accent in Information Questions: Default and Projection. Linguistics and Philosophy 21.477-544. Langacker, Ronald W. 1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, vol. 2, Descriptive Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Langacker, Ronald W. 1997. Constituency, Dependency, and Conceptual Grouping. Cognitive Linguistics 8.1-32. Langacker, Ronald W. 1998. Conceptualization, Symbolization, and Grammar. In Michael Tomasello (ed.), The New Psychology of Language: Cognitive and Functional Approaches to Language Structure, 1-39. Mahwah, NJ and London: Erlbaum. Langacker, Ronald W. 1999. Assessing the Cognitive Linguistic Enterprise. In Theo Janssen and Gisela Redeker (eds.), Cognitive Linguistics: Foundations, Scope, and Methodology, 1359. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cognitive Linguistics Research 15. Langacker, Ronald W. 2001a. Discourse in Cognitive Grammar. Cognitive Linguistics 12.143188. Langacker, Ronald W. 2001b. What WH Means. In Alan Cienki, Barbara J. Luka, and Michael B. Smith (eds.), Conceptual and Discourse Factors in Linguistic Structure, 137-152. Stanford: CSLI Publications. Langacker, Ronald W. 2002. Deixis and Subjectivity. In Frank Brisard (ed.), Grounding: The Epistemic Footing of Deixis and Reference, 1-28. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cognitive Linguistics Research 21. Langacker, Ronald W. 2008a. Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. �45 Langacker, Ronald W. 2008b. Sequential and Summary Scanning: A Reply. Cognitive Linguistics 19.571-584. Langacker, Ronald W. 2009. Investigations in Cognitive Grammar. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cognitive Linguistics Research 42. Langacker, Ronald W. 2011. Semantic Motivation of the English Auxiliary. In Klaus-Uwe Panther and Günter Radden (eds.), Motivation in Grammar and the Lexicon, 29-47. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Human Cognitive Processing 27. Langacker, Ronald W. 2012. Substrate, System, and Expression: Aspects of the Functional Organization of English Finite Clauses. In Mario Brdar, Ida Raffaelli, and Milena Žic Fuchs (eds.), Cognitive Linguistics between Universality and Variation, 3-52. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Langacker, Ronald W. To appear. Modals: Striving for Control. MacWhinney, Brian. 1977. Starting Points. Language 53.152-168. Sweetser, Eve E. 1990. From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 54. Talmy, Leonard. 1988. Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition. Cognitive Science 12.49100. Tomlin, Russell S. 1995. Focal Attention, Voice, and Word Order. In Pamela Downing and Michael Noonan (eds.), Word Order in Discourse, 517-554. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Typological Studies in Language 30. Verhagen, Arie. 2005. Constructions of Intersubjectivity: Discourse, Syntax, and Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2904 Title A name given to the resource HOW TO BUILD AN ENGLISH CLAUSE Author Author Langacker W., Ronald Abstract A summary of the resource. I will be examining central aspects of English clause structure from the standpoint of Cognitive Grammar (CG). Though well known and extensively studied, these phenomena have eluded definitive treatment; they still have much to tell us. Indeed, working out their theoretical basis has contributed to further development of the CG framework (Langacker 1991, 2008a, 2012). Especially relevant are two general notions: the organization of structure in terms of baseline and elaboration; and grammar as the implementation of semantic functions. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed BC Logic,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1ee61fd37af88b1c2240d87083832f.pdf 31d17047411f990eaed18725ed607e9f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Doc.dr. Amel Alic University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sedin Habibovic, psychologist-therapist al-amel@bih.net.ba Abstract: Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Key words: cultural shock, enculturation, acculturation, Bosnian immigrants The experience of culture shock The process by which we come to know that there is a "proper" way of thinking, expressing, acting, etc, or, in other words, the process through which we learn our culture, is called socialization. It is a process through which individuals learn what is required of them to be successful members of certain groups, regardless of which group is concerned. The socialization process is unique in that it is simultaneously directed to the future and the past. It is directed forward in the sense of a man as he should be compared to expectations of a socio-cultural community, and backwards in terms of determining what are the important behaviours, values, and beliefs which we should continue to preserve. The socialization process is so powerful that people socialized in a particular socio-cultural context, are hardly aware that there are different realities. This results in culturocentrizam, a tendency to evaluate other people from the perspective of their own culture, believing in the fact that it is the only right and proper way of perceiving the world. This has also resulted in, among other things, occurrence of culture shock in situations when an individual comes into contact with new and unfamiliar cultural patterns. In the process of socialization, or enculturation, there is a greater variety of various influences that formatively affect the behaviour and thinking patterns of individuals (for example, their sexuality, nationality, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religious beliefs, etc). Cultural shock in the recent literature is most often defined as a process of adjustment to a foreign and unfamiliar culture and environment. Psychological and sociological understanding of culture shock is used to describe the process of emotional, cognitive and physiological impact on the individual. In a multicultural context, the cultural shock is a kind of immersion in the non-specific conditions under which an individual is unsure of the expectations of others around him, but the uncertainty also 115 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo applies to his / her own actions. The term culture shock was introduced by Oberg Klaver (1960, according to Pedersen, 1995) to describe the distress caused by ignorance about a new culture and behaviour patterns of the same. In this state, the individual becomes aware of the fact that previously enacted symbols become invalid or acquire new meanings, resulting in a wide range of reactions, from the foggy and vague discomfort to profound disorientation. More recent literature suggests that understanding the process of culture shock is applied in every new situation in which a person can find himself/herself, such as changing jobs, establishing new relationships with others, or taking adequate social and emotional positions, as well as taking roles in each new environment. So over the past several decades, from Oberg to date, elucidating the process of cultural shock, spread from a mere encounter with a new culture on every situation where an individual is forced to adapt to an unfamiliar social system in which previously learned patterns of behaviour are no longer of any use. Experiencing culture shock is too often unpleasant (and unexpected) experience in which the individual simultaneously re-evaluate the old - a domestic, but also a new - a visiting culture. Until recently, researches have suggested that cultural shock involves only negative experiences. Thus, the Oberg originally cited only the negative aspects of this process:  the tension and pressure caused by psychological adjustment,  a sense of loss and deprivation increased by the loss of previously close people, friends, roles, etc.,  rejection of newcomers by a new culture and new society, confusion in terms of defining new roles, expectations, feelings, self-concept and self-determination,  unexpected nervousness, indignation towards new cultural forms, and  a sense of helplessness and discouragement after possible failures in the new environment. Educational model as opposed to medical, describes cultural shock as a process that takes place in several stages, which are developed and through which an individual passes - from the lower, more painful and more loaded with adaptive problems, to the higher stages, where the individual finally exceeds the initial problems and at the same time benefits psychologically, emotionally and socially. Each person in the new culture is going through at least five stages of culture shock (Pedersen, 1995): 1. Stage "honeymoon" or the first contact. On this stage differences intrigue, person research and inspect, select; emotional extent is desrcibed as excitement, stimulation, euphoria, everything is a game; on interpretation level person and groups noticing the difference, differences and similarities still work together, rationalization. 2. On stage of disintegration in person‘s perception of the environment differences collide and begin to bother, while common emotional reactions are confusion, disorientation, loss of empathy, isolation, loneliness. Besides depression and withdrawal, differences begin to bother crisis of confidence, seeking support and cultural ties. 3. Stage of reintegration is stage where differences are discarded, person‘s emotions fulfilled by anger, fury (conflict?), nervousness, and frustrations. As a result, some might behave rebelliousness, suspicion, hostility, opposition, and afterwards, this is the stage of the birth of the concept of "I like-i do not like", and rebellion as a way of searching for the confidence. 4. Stage of autonomy is the stage when differences and similarities are starting to legitimize. Person feels presumption, relaxation, re-occurring of empathy, and behaves safer, controlled, autonomous, and confident. On this stage the individual is negotiating with other cultures, and feel confidence that one can survive there. 5. Interdependent stage is the final stage on which differences and similarities are evaluated, and given the significance, person feels trust, humour, elements of the initial emotional response, expressiveness, creativity, updating, and starting to enjoy in some differences through discovering the benefits of new experiences. Experience and research of this problem points to the fact that the social frame of reference, specific cultural traditions, but also specific (idiosyncratic) learned patterns and strategies to cope with the phenomenon of culture shock, may lead to different outputs, particularly important in the understanding of cultural sensitivity. As previous findings suggest, strategies and stereotyped patterns of confrontation with the diversity also belong to common uniform strategies of raising children, which with the next generation can cause, not just a lack of sensitivity toward a new culture, but also distancing from the culture of origin. This phenomenon could be called the "boomerang effect" in which the younger generation often opts for a new culture in which they socialize on their own, while also standing up against the culture of origin of their parents. Comparing the social, emotional and intellectual resources and capital offered by a new society, children recognize inferiority of the culture of origin of their parents and are rebelling against the inefficiency of solving everyday problems suggested by 116 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo parents. This rebellion is often manifested in the refusal to communicate in their native language, in order to send a symbolic message of abolition of attachment to the culture of origin. If one adds the fact that circles in which the immigrant parents move, mostly belong to lower socio-economic strata of the new society (often the consequence of a lower educational culture), the impression of inferiority of the parents‘ culture gains in intensity. Research methods and results In this study, we combined qualitative and quantitative methods, with the obtained results derived from the semi structured interviews with members of two generations, the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, using the scale of intercultural sensitivity and scale of family relations in a sample of 40 children aged between 12 and 15, gathered in the Bosnian Cultural Centre in Phoenix, Arizona. We felt that the degree to overcome the culture shock towards other cultures can be established by examining the dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, and thus determine the relationships between the generations that represent the culture "in itself". This is especially important due to the fact that to the second generation in the Diaspora cultural shock is actually meeting with the culture of origin. To make that connection possible it is of great importance to take into account factors such as environmental background of parents, current family situation, family composition, parents' personal characteristics and personal characteristics of the child. This means that the issues on which it was possible to understand the context of the family treated the level of parental education levels and different socio-economic factors, family life, socio-psychological characteristics of family relations and communication between parents-children, and that would help to identify specificity of such influences on the level of intercultural sensitivity and overcome the culture shock, arose from the characteristics of families that are directed to the parent function: strategy for disciplining children, pedagogical logic on which parents insist, and perceptions of family circumstances and characteristics of relations parents - children. Application of intercultural sensitivity scale enabled us to connect information about family circumstances with scores of five factors of IC: cultural integration, behaviour scale, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others and the empathy scale. As we said before, it is noticeable that the first generation (today's parents) encountered a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the society in which they had to integrate, while for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment when the process of getting acquainted with the culture of origin, the culture of their ancestors began. The logical consequence of such strategies of coping with a new culture, especially because of the lack of a sense of emotional and intellectual capital, seeks to compensate for the increased activities in the field of creating social capital on the level of the generation of parents, and that capital is most easily achieved through forms of associating in jams, cultural clubs or similar. Unfortunately, the social capital that does not follow the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, in a number of immigrants has as a result placing the position of assimilation on one or conflict on other side, as exits in situations of intercultural meeting. Communication between generations of Bosnian immigrants in USA is overloaded with doubts whether to assimilate or to acculturate into, so called, American culture. Adopting of value system is rather difficult psychological state in which immigrants have to choose appropriate strategy how to be the part of American society, but still preserve basic and core cultural elements of their own tradition. In that sense, members of two different generations within families prefer opposite strategies: generation of parents keeps fresh memories, attitudes, and values adopted in culture of origin, and try to adjust life dynamic to traditional beliefs; on the other side, younger generations experience culture shock while being introduced with their parents culture, and feel themselves much more comfortable if choose opposite way of acculturation – the process of enculturation they associate to American culture, which means that they acculturate with parents culture. Children of immigrants are in some case in a better position to see strengths and weaknesses both of American and Bosnian culture than the origin Americans and Bosnians can do – they still have another culture (at home or at school, etc.) with which they compare. Being somehow in-between seems to be for most of Bosnian immigrants an advantage, since they have opportunity to pick the better sides of living in American society. In list bellow, we offer both advantages and disadvantages of Bosnian families, as members of minority groups in American society: STRENTGHS CHALLENGES Strong work orientation Dealing with the opposite system of values and beliefs 117 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strong motivation to achieve Being judged and as financially risk Religious orientation Building self-esteem Caring parenting Remaining family centred Shift to concept of egalitarian marriages Maintaining tradition Familism Overcoming the language barrier both between family, society, and generations High family cohesion and adaptation Extended – family system Acculturating and enculturation across generations Traditional beliefs Bilingual language skills Adaptability into WASP culture Table 1. Strengths and challenges of Bosnian families in USA For those who come from functional families, who take an advantage of adaptability of family system, it is much easier to adapt to society. It is obvious that being the part of majority provides speaking English language, to achieve higher educational achievement, mobility in job market, avoid discrimination, to prefer life style of majority having in mind that life style reflect the taste and values of social status. Yet, in the same time the younger generations of Bosnian immigrants, at the contrary to their American peers, still experience the advantages of extended families, collectivism, and emotional kinship bands etc. As already indicated in the introduction, in this paper we describe our experiences and results of research methods. The following are basic observations with no intention of entering into the deeper nature thereof. We believe that the listed observations can be a good basis for future researches or future programmes work with communities in the Diaspora. Analysis of the subscales revealed that the observed groups within the subscales of the cultural integration showed with the scores that the arithmetic mean is 42 compared to a maximum of 63, which represents a moderately high rank of the achieved scores of culture integration. On the subscale of intercultural behaviour we also obtained moderately high scores. On the subscale of intellectual interaction the observed group achieved scores slightly above average. On a scale of empathy results may assess high. On a scale of attitudes toward others they achieve scores below average, and it could be used as a possible interpretation the earlier observations of parents who belong to immigrant cultures in which the transmission of distance to children was observed as a reaction to fears of a potential interruption of communication with the culture of origin. The total score on all five subscales showed a slightly above average score, as the arithmetic mean is 132.66. We were interested in whether gender can be considered a significant criterion variable, and in this sense we have observed different styles of upbringing in conjunction with the five factors of intercultural sensitivity. For all observed subscales, the total score revealed no statistically significant differences in gender. This indicates that there is approximately a similar style of bringing up the boys and the girls in this immigrant culture. Analysis of all five subscales of intercultural sensitivity in relation to domination of pedagogical logic that parents use showed no statistically significant difference in the observed sample. The only, but insignificant difference was noticed within the subscales of cultural integration, where it was shown that those children whose parents more often use praises and encouragements to raise their children achieve higher scores compared to children whose parents use more bans and punishments. Next interesting fact, worth of additional consideration, lies in the fact that unlike the previous, children whose parents use the bans and punishments achieve a bit higher scores on a scale of attitudes towards others in relation to children whose parents used more praise and encouragements. From this data we could draw the conclusion that a bit more authoritarian parental behaviour may, to some extent, result in the eventual escape from the culture of origin (the family milieu) in a new culture (especially in cases of immigrant cultures). Here it is important to remind you of the fact that the authoritarian behaviour in the domestic culture would probably have as a consequence conflicting results: 118 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo xenophobia, authoritarian submission, ethnocentrism ... This data suggests that identical behaviour in different cultural and socializing circumstances may result in different outcomes. Comparing with the assessment of family relationships within the scale we find that respondents who believe their family is a source of comfort and satisfaction showed higher scores on all subscales of intercultural sensitivity. From this it can be concluded that a greater degree of openness towards others is based largely on coordinated and well-ordered family relationships. Analysis of the item "When I grow up and I have a family it will be in many ways similar to my current family" shows that 37% disagreed with this statement, while 38% were not sure, which makes a total of 75% sample of those who do not identify with their family in terms of living in a foreign culture. This points to the fact that the Bosnian families in the U.S. (at least within the sample), do not represent an adequate working model of identification and intercultural integration into the culture of the United States. Evidence for this claim is found in data obtained by observation within family relationship, where it was noticed that the children of immigrants refuse to communicate with their parents in the Bosnian language as a symbolic act to break the culture of origin. Poorer language skills can be attributed to time spent together in everyday interactions because of the parents being too busy but also some other important criteria variables such as parental level of language production, socio-economic status, educational level, the development of receptive-expressive language, greater participation of lower auto and congrate language in relation to a higher literal and abstract language, etc. At the level of understanding within the family, analysis of the item ―In my family no one understands me" shows that the family itself has the potential to overcome the gap between generations and considering different circumstances of socialization. In this part, the recommendation to parents would be related to overcoming these kinds of problems by adopting a more suitable strategy for the overall pedagogical culture of parental behaviour. Analysis of the items "I am proud of my family" and "Members of my family are good to each other," showed that there are still emotional attachments between parents and children, indicating a significant potential for the family as a place that is a source of emotional energy and the subsequent potential for intercultural sensitivity. These items showed that most respondents pointed to their family as a place to develop safe relations and adequate interaction which is reflected in high scores across all subscales. It is interesting that the analysis of beliefs and following religious practices proved to be a very important criterion variable. Specifically, respondents who claim that their families believe in religious values, and regularly practice religious customs, achieve higher scores across all five factors of intercultural sensitivity. Conclusion We see that most immigrants consistently idealize their own culture, the culture of origin, or subjective culture. This phenomenon is also evident when observing the emigrants during their stay in their own culture, but the process of idealizing is then reversed, i.e. during a visit to their homeland immigrants tend to idealize the culture of the country where they are currently living. Because of this contrary emotional reactions depending on the current physical positions, this could be marked as a notion of two-way idealization, with positive emotions obviously directed to the own, but also to the new, current culture. Just for the reason of super saturation with the phenomenon of two-way idealization in every conversation we find it appropriate to call this phenomenon the phenomenon of binoculars. Persistence in such a perception of reality shows that most members of these communities are certainly at the stage of autonomy, explaining the degree of their integration and overcoming the cultural shock of the previously elaborated model. We observed that when introducing guests with the symbols of culture in which they reside expatriates express pride and satisfaction. They are very satisfied with showing the progress of culture, achievements, ordering, natural beauty, which could be considered as indicators of successful adaptation of most immigrants. This opinion clearly points to the fact that a number of immigrants are in a state of disintegration. It would be very important in future studies to examine the relationship between the length of residence in a new culture and the stage at which the subjects are, and what other variables significantly affect, within the branching of the observed sample, the inversely proportional idealization. It is evident that the stages in which are some respondents have a powerful impact on the cohesion within the immigrants organization. Belonging to a certain stage also produces attitudes towards community organizations. People who are on a level of disintegration propose greater community cohesion and a kind of prudence and closeness to the members of the new culture. People on a level of autonomy alleviate such proposals and explain the benefits of cooperation. It would therefore be very important to continue with strengthening the position of the people on the level of autonomy and the work of the subgroups in the community following the model of overcoming culture shock. In this regard we consider that it would be necessary to develop programmes for each stage of adjustment. Significant influence on overcoming culture shock is related to the functionality of the family system. Families that have 119 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo managed to balance the dimensions of adaptation and internal cohesion, but also change and stability, with its structurality and flexibility have much more successful encounter with another culture. In this way, they more effectively respond to situations to reconcile differences between the system of family values (culture of origin) and wider social circles of a new culture that imposes a different value system. This is confirmed by the results of the analysis of the perception scales of family relations and all five dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, where it turned out that functional family relationships highly correlated with cultural integration, scale of behaviour, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others, and scale of empathy. Total family relationships have proved to be, ultimately, the essential and with the ability to cope with cultural shock on both relations: family - new culture, but also generations of parents - generations of children. The functionality of family relationships is definitely a key criterion variable to reach the stage of reintegration and autonomy. REFERENCE Furnham, A., Bochner, S. (1986). Culture Shock – Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments. London: Methuen & Co. Hofstede, G.H. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Olson, D.H., DeFrain, J. (2003). Marriages and Families: Intimacy, Diversity and Strengths. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Sue, D.W., Sue, d. (2008). Counseling the Culturally Diverse. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Pedersen, P. (1995). The Five Stages of Culture Shock. Greenwood Press. Ward, C., Bochner, S., Furnham, A. (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. Routledge. 120 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 21 Title A name given to the resource HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Author Author Doc.dr. Alic, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics