129 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5987e097b4748017fe5300373ff450f0.pdf 1e212db9287e064d6ae1abdcf77d7427 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Grammatical orientation: fundamental language differences on learnability Junichi Toyota SOL Centrum, linguistics/Department of Linguistics Lund University, Sweden/University of Belgrade, Serbia Junichi.Toyota@englund.lu.se Abstract: The world languages can be roughly divided into three types based on grammatical orientation, e.g. reality-oriented type (e.g. Russian, Chinese); speaker-oriented (e.g. Japanese, Serbian); hearer-oriented (e.g. English, Swedish). Differences borne out of grammatical orientations are hardly ever taken into consideration in making teaching materials. Each type has its peculiarities in grammatical system (e.g. reality-oriented languages have a description of situation as a basic unit, while speakeroriented languages consider speaker‘s experience as a base). Such differences can create fundamental differences in the language use in learners‘ L2, and this influence cannot be underestimated. In this paper, it is aimed to raise awareness of such differences and point out that crosslinguistic comparison can offer numerous points for improving L2 learning. Key Words: Grammatical orientation, cognition, semiotic difference, learnability Introduction In this paper, an attempt is made to integrate a typological comparison of world languages with a foreign language teaching method. The world languages are divided into three groups, based on grammatical orientation as described in Section 2. According to different orientation types, each language can be considered to possess its own unique semiotic resource, and problems encountered in learning a new language is related to how one can decode tis semiotic resource. It is argued here that language teaching can be organised according to orientation types, and based on a learner‘s first language and a target language, we need to create different teaching materials in order for a learner to achieve the result more efficiently. This paper is organised as follows: the basic distinction concerning grammatical orientation is shown first, immediately followed by some possible problems in this distinction. After establishing these backgrounds, some possible problems in cross-cultural communication are presented. Such problems can be, as proposed in this paper, dealt with in teaching using the basic concept of grammatical orientation. However, there still remain some possible challenges, which are listed at the end. Grammatical orientation It is common that different packaging of expression units exists, but they can be classified into three groups, termed here as orientation (Durst-Andersen 1992. 102-105; 2005; 2008: 9-10). The first type is mainly concerned with a model of situations in reality. This type makes a firm distinction between a state caused by an activity and an activity intending to cause a state. This is normally marked by aspect. In Slavic languages, for instance, this distinction has to be made on each verb. In Serbian imperfective has a suffix -ja (e.g. (1b)), while in Russian perfective is overtly expressed with a prefix po- (e.g. (2a)). It also distinguishes a real world from an imaginative one. This type is termed as realityoriented grammar. In this type, a speaker acts as a reporter, speaks with an objective voice. Serbian (1) a. ubiti ‗kill (PRFV)‘ b. ubi-ja-ti ‗kill (IMPRFV)‘ (2) Russian a. po-spati ‗take a nap (PRFV)‘ b. spati ‗sleep (IMPRFV)‘ 1196 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The second type functions as a symptom of the speaker‘s experience of situations. This type involves aspect, but also a complex modal system in order to express explicitly which part of situation is experienced by a speaker. For instance, some languages have a modal construction known as evidential (see Aikhenvald 2004), which explicitly indicates what and how a speaker experienced a situation. Cherokee examples in (3) and (4) illustrate how evidential actually works. The suffix -ıši in (3) indicates that a speaker has a first-hand (or direct) experience over the event, while -eši in (4) shows that a speaker has to rely on information inferable from outside. This type is called speaker-oriented grammar. A speaker talks about his/her experience as a basic unit with a subjective voice and acts as a commentator. (3) Cherokee (Iroquoian) a. wesa u-tlis-ıši cat it-run-FIRST.PST ‗A cat ran‘ (I saw it running) b. un-atiyohl-ıši they-argue-FIRST.PST ‗They argued.‘ (I heard them arguing) (4) Cherokee (Iroquoian) a. u-wonis-eši he-speak-NON.FIRST.PST ‗He spoke.‘ (someone told me) b. u-gahnan-eši it-rain-NON.FIRST.PST ‗It rained.‘ (I woke up, looked out and saw puddles of water) The third type has an elaborate system of identifying different types of information, such as new and old, referable and non-referable, etc. This is encoded in the simple past tense (as opposed to the perfective aspect) or articles (e.g. definite vs. indefinite). These aid the hearer to decode details of information and identify whether a referent is familiar to him or not. This type is known as heareroriented language. In this type, interlocutors consider information as its basic unit. The speaker is a second-person-oriented speaker, acts as an informer and speaks with an intersubjective voice. These three different grammatical orientation types are summarised in Table 1. Note that these three types are prototypical cases and there are a number of f intermediate stages. This is largely due to historical changes, and we will turn to this point later (cf. Figure 3). Table 1. Grammatical orientation types Reality-oriented Speaker-oriented Hearer-oriented Representatives Russian, Chinese Japanese, Serbian English, Swedish Basic unit Situation Experience Information Speaker orientation Third person First person Second person Speaker function Reporter Communicator Informer Identification mark Aspect prominence Mood prominence Tense prominence Various differences among these types may be more significant than one may expect them to be. For instance, the presence or absence of articles often corresponds to the difference in orientation type. The definite article is an important discourse marker for reference, and it functions as a clear indicator for the hearer that he/she has to be able to trace a referent‘s identity. Such a subtle difference in discourse is not so significant in describing a situation. Reality-oriented languages might have demonstratives which functions quite similarly to the definite articles in hearer-oriented languages, but there is no discourse function in them. With speaker-orientation, it may be useful to have articles, but not necessary, since there is no absolute need for the overt expression of discourse reference as long as the speakers are clear about referents. And the use and importance of the definite article is also shown in its historical development. The common source for the definite article is demonstrative pronouns (Heine and Kuteva 2002: 109-111), e.g. English the is derived from Old English demonstrative se (s.v. OED the dem. a. (def. article) and pron.). However, note that there are some cases where a numeral ‗one‘ turning into a definite article. Irish has a definite article an, as in (5b), but not an indefinite 1197 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo pronoun (e.g. (5a)). Etymologically, an ‗the‘ is derived from a numeral aon ‗one‘ in Old Irish. The numeral ‗one‘ is often turning into an indefinite article (Heine and Kuteva 2002: 220-221), but the definite sense can be derived from a numeral via a restrictive sense of ‗only‘. In such languages, it is often the case that so-called double definiteness is found, e.g. an ‗the‘ and sin ‗that‘ in (5c). This is so, since the numeral origin allows a demonstrative to coexist with the definite article. Nevertheless, the discourse referential system in Irish works in favour of the hearer even without an indefinite article. (5) Irish a. Tá leabhar agam is book at.me ‗I have a book.‘ b. Tá an leabhar agam is the book at.me ‗I have the book.‘ c. Tá an leabhar is the book ‗I have that book. sin that agam at.me Another interesting point concerning the article is that the definite article is often created in contact-intense areas. Consider the map in Figure 1. The darker shades represent the presence of definite articles, and the high concentration can be found in West Africa, Europe, Papua New Guinea and the western coast of North America. In such areas, contacts are often made among mutuallyintelligible languages for trading and speakers may be forced to help hearers identify referents in discourse. This type of communication may raise necessity for grammatical devices such as the definite article. This is also common in Europe and as argued in Toyota (forthcoming), the dialect mixing in the Middle English/Early Modern English periods helped the definite article to grammaticalise fully in English. Such contacts also suggest that the use of definite articles is meant for hearers, not speakers. Figure 1. Presence of definite articles (Dryer 2008) For another case to illustrate how orientation works, we can take a look at possession. English most commonly uses a verb have to express possession, although other verbs, such as belong, hold, own, etc. can also refer to possession. The lexical verb works very well in English since the main expression unit in English is information (i.e. hearer-orientation), and the lexical verb of possession is a simple way of referring to who owns what. This is not the same in languages with reality-orientation. In Russian, for instance, there is a lexical verb imati ‗have‘. It may appear to be identical to the English counterpart, but imati ‗have‘ is not normally used to denote possession. Instead, Russian uses another verb jest‘ ‗exist‘ in a phrase ‗something exists with possessor‘. Those languages with reality orientation are not primarily concerned with experience or information, but an objective description of a situation. With imati ‗have‘, it is obligatory to insert a subject, which can possibly turn a sentence into a structure used for the purpose of showing experience or information. In order to keep an objective viewpoint over situation in reality-oriented languages, the use of locative sense and verbs denoting state is better suited for the expression of possession. 1198 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (6) Russian a. ?Ya imeju zenu I.NOM.SG have.PRS wife.ACC ?‗I have a wife.‘ (it has a sexual connotation) b. U menje jest‘ zena with I.ACC.SG exist.PRS wife.NOM ‗I have a wife.‘ (lit. ‗wife exists with me‘) (7) Russian a. ?Ya imeju I have.PRS ‗I have a book.‘ b. U menja with I.ACC.SG ‗I have a book.‘ knigu book.ACC.SG jest‘ kniga exist.PRS book.NOM (lit. ‗book exists with me‘) The instances exemplified in (6) and (7) illustrate how common phrases or expressions can be a vital clue in identifying the grammatical orientation. Possession has been extensively studied in the past (cf. Lyons 1977: 722; Heine 1997) and several patterns have been identified cross-linguistically. For instance, Heine (1997: 47) identifies eight possible structures expressing possession and ones based on locational sense are shown in (8). These divisions, however, have not been considered from the perspectives of grammatical orientation types. It has been claimed that the most common strategy to express possession is the use of location schema (i.e. (8i)) (see, among others, Benveniste 1966: 200; Lyons 1977: 722). Structures involving the locational sense are very common in possession, including the Russian examples (6) and (7). Locational sense is very useful in describing a situation, and if there is a strong connection between the orientation type and the expression of possession, there is a strong indication found here that the majority of the world languages have the reality orientation. More research has to be done in this area, but one should not overlook such possibilities of connection. (8) i. ii. iii. iv. Y is located at X (the Location Schema) X is with Y (the Companion Schema) Y exists for/to X (the Goal Schema) Y exists from X (the Source Schema) Problems in cross-orientation communication The classification shown in Table 1 is a very rigid, rather optimistic one. In analysing typological data, one soon realises that it is hard to draw a line between different types and making a specific text for a specific orientation type and level can be a highly demanding task to achieve. As already shown in the previous section, the grammatical orientation can show some differences that can be beyond the mere grammatical features. For instance, metaphors and sense of humours can differ according to orientation type, e.g. metaphors and humours used in speaker or hearer orientation are often literary understood in reality orientation. Thus, literary effects do not function as they are meant in speaker and hearer-oriented languages. Likewise, greetings can have various consequences across different types of orientations. Greetings ritual can vary from culture to culture (cf. Lundmark 2009), but phrases such as ‗How are you?‘ can be an indicator of orientation. In hearerorientation, it can be a part of a general greeting, since what matters in the act of greeting is to show that one is greeting and the content is not so significant. In reality-orientation, however, contents of greetings do matter and ‗How are you?‘ is interpreted as a proper question regarding health. These cases clearly show that the use of languages is not purely dependent on grammatical differences. Students may learn basic grammatical rules, but this does not mean that they are fully aware of subtle differences hidden behind surface structures. Thus, some students may consider it polite to ask how his interlocutors are, although this may result in the opposite effect. This type of differences can be also found in narratives. Situation-oriented languages tend to develop background information, such as place and time, in earlier part of discourse, and it may take a while before a speaker/narrator reaches a main point. Type A and B in Figure 2 may schematically represent how narrative works in reality-oriented languages. Speaker-oriented languages may also use these types, but they can reach a main point direct, as shown in Type C in Figure 2. Hear-oriented 1199 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo languages are more likely to use Type C for the ease of hearers‘ retrieving information, and they may add additional information after reaching the main point. Different types of narrative have been known, but they can be also closely connected to grammatical orientation. Type A Type B Type C Figure 2. Different narrative types In this sense, understanding different orientation types can be studied in a semiotic sense of understanding signs, e.g. de Saussure‘s (1916) signifier. Each language is packed with various semiotic resources, arranged slightly differently from language to language and grammar is a self-contained system of communication. However, as in a case of comprehension of signs, sometimes it may not be easy to perceive a right message (i.e. de Saussure‘s signified), and difficulty increases once the border of orientation types is crossed. This is comparable to the historical study of pictograms, since we currently find it difficult to comprehend what these pictorial signs were intended initially. Perhaps this is a part of our cognitive facility, which is somehow adopted to a particular style of cognition and it requires some training to adjust to a new one. It is easy to identify differences in typical grammatical orientation, but they can have additional implications according to each type and some cases may be better considered intermediate, as in the case of narrative in speaker-oriented languages. Our languages are known to have gradient nature of various features (cf. Croft 2001; Givñn 1979; Harris and Campbell 1995), and this can make it practically impossible to classify rigidly every language in the world into three types of orientation that have been presented so far. This is mainly because of the fact that languages are constantly changing and what we see synchronically is just a transition from one phase to another. This is applicable to grammatical orientation. Durst-Andersen (2008) assumes that the direction of change is from situation to speaker orientation at a first stage, and in a second stage, from speaker to hearer orientation, as schematised in Figure 3. He further argues that hearer orientation can return to situation orientation, forming a circular changing pattern. However, as argued in Toyota (2009), the link from hearer to situation orientation has not been identified in recorded historical changes. Thus, this final stage may be hypothetical, but the rest of changes have been documented. Reality (aspect) Hearer (syntactic transitivity) Speaker (semantic transitivity) Notes: straight line = evidence traceable in historical data; dotted line = hypothetical link Figure 3. Diachronic shift in grammatical orientation types (based on Toyota 2009: 55) These intermediate stages may make it rather difficult to identify orientation types clearly, but this is a natural part of human languages. Thus, we need to assume a prototypical case of orientation, but also some intermediate stages. This also entails that some languages have a different mixture of features, depending on varying degrees of historical changes. 1200 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orientation: application to learning In teaching and learning languages, it is obvious that students have to deal with various features of languages. What is normally covered in conventional teaching methods is grammar and pronunciation, but cultural differences are often not integrated into teaching programme. It is possible to argue that each language has its own speaking culture (cf. linguistic relativity), and this point can be extended to dialects. Facing this wide diversity, a task of creating materials accommodating both linguistic features and cultural diversity, it may seem impossible to teach language appropriately. However, this task can be sorted relatively easily once grammatical orientation is taken into consideration. Our working hypothesis is that languages that belong to the same orientation types are easier to acquire, since problems that students have to face are mainly grammatical, not socio-cultural or different world views. We have seen in Section 3 that different orientation types can use certain phrases in a totally different manner. This type of differences is certainly beyond the grammatical level, but manageable as a variation among different languages within the same orientation. It is possible to make a brief guideline for cross-orientation learning to raise awareness of different world view encoded in basic functional aspects of languages. In order to achieve this, learning materials should reflect differences in orientation. Thus, there is no single course book for one language at one level (beginner, intermediate, etc.). This means that at least three different teaching materials are required at each level according to different orientations for a single language, aiming at different background of learners. Let us take an example of student learning English. Swedish learners can simply learn grammatical features without much attention to general world view of English speakers, since they share it through the same orientation. As for Russian speakers, there must be a thorough instruction on differences in the world view and the use of languages, since their world view is supposed to be totally different from that of English speakers. Speakers of Serbian or Japanese are located somewhere in between Russian and Swedish speakers. They certainly require some explanation concerning differences, but not as thorough as the one for Russian speakers. The differences can be summarised in Table 2. This is a simplified version to illustrate a general pattern proposed in this working hypothesis. There are three levels (beginner, intermediate and advanced) in conjunction with three orientation types. They make nice possible text types, marked as Text 1 to Text 9 in Table 2. The number of text indicates that the lesser the number is, the more explanation learners need. Thus, a beginner of Russian speaker needs the most intensive explanation, and an advanced learner of Swedish speaker need the least explanation, a learner of Serbian speaker forming an intermediate stage. Table 2. Different teaching materials for learning English according to grammatical orientation types Beginner Intermediate Advanced Reality orientation Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 (Russian) Speaker orientation Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 (Serbian) Hearer orientation Text 7 Text 8 Text 9 (Swedish) Challenges Classifications such as the one shown in Table 2 are perhaps easier said than done. This is perhaps because it is difficult to identify clearly what language belongs to what orientation type. As indicated earlier in Section 2, there are numerous intermediate stages and there are numerous cases of combinations of various features. For instance, Japanese in principle belongs to a speaker-oriented type, but its greetings are much closer to the one commonly found in situation-oriented languages. Thus, it is hard to draw a line between different types and making a specific text for a specific orientation type and level can be a highly demanding task to achieve. In addition, considerable revision of teaching materials may require according to this method, and teachers may also be required to be familiar with some basic linguistic differences. Language teachers are not necessarily linguists and they may have to learn some basic linguistic differences in order to manage with teaching materials properly. This may involve a considerable amount of training Summary Learning a new language across the border of orientation requires much more effort, i.e. students are required to learn more than grammatical matters, but different world view in a semiotic sense and socio-cultural matters concerning a target language. This point has not been noticed, but this 1201 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo method may solve various problems concerning cross-cultural aspects of language learning. Thus, learners can achieve proficiency of languages at a much wider perspective. Thus, the basic differences based on orientation can be useful in teaching, especially when a learner‘s first language and a target language belong to different orientation types. There are various challenges concerning this approach, but it is hoped that this line of research will bear fruitful results in the near future. References Aikhenvald, A. Y. (2004). Evidentiality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Benveniste, C. (1966). Problèmes de Linguistique Générale [Problems of general linguistics]. Paris: Ballimard. Dryer, M. (2008). Definite articles. In: Haspelmath, M., M. S. Dryer, D. Gil and B. Comrie (eds.). The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 81. Available online at http://wals.info/feature/37. Accessed on <8April 2011> Durst-Andersen, P. (1992). Mental grammar. Russian aspect and related issues. Colombus (OH): Slavica. Durst-Andersen, P. (2005). ObńĦie I specifiĦeskie svojstva grammatiĦeskix sistem. K postroeniju novoj teorii jazyka [The general and the specific features of grammatical systems. Towards a new theory of language]. Moskva: RGGU. Durst-Andersen, P. (2008). Linguistics as Semiotics. Saussure and Bùhler Revisited. Manuscript, University of Copenhagen. Givñn T. (1979). On Understanding Grammar. New York: Academic Press. Harris A. C. and L. Campbell (1995). Historical Syntax in Cross-linguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heine, B. (1997). Possession. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heine, B. & Kuteva, T. (2002). World Lexicon of Grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lundmark, Torbjôrn (2009). Tales of Hi and Bye. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1977) Semantics (two volumes). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F., de (1916). Cours de linguistique générale [Course in General Linguistics]. Paris: Payot. Toyota, J. (2009). Orientation reflected on register: from historical perspectives. Discourse and Interaction, 6, 45-61. Toyota, J. (forthcoming). English Grammar though Time: A typological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1202 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 667 Title A name given to the resource Grammatical orientation: fundamental language differences on learnability Author Author Toyota, Junichi Abstract A summary of the resource. The world languages can be roughly divided into three types based on grammatical orientation, e.g. reality-oriented type (e.g. Russian, Chinese); speaker-oriented (e.g. Japanese, Serbian); hearer-oriented (e.g. English, Swedish). Differences borne out of grammatical orientations are hardly ever taken into consideration in making teaching materials. Each type has its peculiarities in grammatical system (e.g. reality-oriented languages have a description of situation as a basic unit, while speakeroriented languages consider speaker‘s experience as a base). Such differences can create fundamental differences in the language use in learners‘ L2, and this influence cannot be underestimated. In this paper, it is aimed to raise awareness of such differences and point out that crosslinguistic comparison can offer numerous points for improving L2 learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 872 Title A name given to the resource Grammatical/pragmatic Agreement and natural /grammatical Gender - Bosnian as Gender Sensitive Language Author Author Hodzic, Jasmin Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper highlights some issues in the field of syntax, morphology and sociolinguistics, in the case of applying the so-called Gender Sensitive Language on the language in B&H. Furthermore, this paper contains topics about the nature and grammar of gender in the BCS, as well as certain criteria about grammatical or pragmatic agreement, which leads us to the specific conclusions about the possibility of using GSL, especially in the sphere of naming female jobs, professions and titles. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6cea62b19cfbfda075ee7b64411a05d0.pdf 17f2ea7e9ab41770f7b49e86fc09964a PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Great Depression (1929) in İstanbul and a Turkish Style Contribution to the Solution of the Crisis: Sale Coupons Hamdi Genç İstanbul Medeniyet University, İstanbul-Turkey hamdi.genc@medeniyet.edu.tr İdris Sarısoy Bülent Ecevit University, Zonguldak, Turkey sarisoy@karaelmas.edu.tr Great depression was the first global economic crisis of the 20th century. The crisis mostly affected the industrialized countries. Turkey was not an industrialized country, but its capital İstanbul, which was articulated to the world economy, was also affected by the depression. The crises affected the İstanbul city not only economically, but also socially and morally. During the depression years the prices of the basic consumer goods increased and the monopolist and black marketing tendencies among tradesmen strengthened in İstanbul. Local administration was insufficient to solve these problems. The public accused the local auhorities because of the applications of tradesmen. Peoples and institutions advised several solutions for minimizing the negative effects of the crisis in İstanbul. One of them was the İstanbul Chamber of Commerce. The Chamber prepared reports about the solutions and delivered them to the concerned authorities. Besides the Chamber, the Republican Peoples Party, which was the political power of the period, the bureaucrats, who were the implementers of the economic policies, and the academicians prepared reports to make contributions to the solution. The most interesting solution was offered by the “Cumhuriyet” newspaper, described as a Turkish style contribution in this paper. The newspaper offered to its readers in İstanbul daily “sale coupon”s to prevent them from the negative effects of the crises. This paper will discuss the working of the coupons in detail. The Cumhuriyet newspaper made arrangements with shops and stores in different areas in İstanbul to make discounts to its readers. There are a lot of shops on a wide range of branch from basic consumption goods to the stationeries. The consumers in İstanbul benefited from these coupons against the rising prices. Keywords: Crisis, Cupon, 1929 Great Depression, Turkey. 144 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/10485b2254be943fbc63962881174b8e.docx c64b7db77ab528d3f48721e79337198e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5200b78c22b4d67020e175b674822d8b.pdf d4cd40f49a5e54255ee0d35fcd09f6c7 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Great Depression (1929) in Istanbul and a Turkish Style Contribution to the Solution of the Crisis: Sale Coupons Hamdi Genç İstanbul Medeniyet University, İstanbul-Turkey hamdi.genc@medeniyet.edu.tr İdris Sarisoy Bülent Ecevit University, Zonguldak, Turkey idrissarisoy@hotmail.com Abstract Great depression was the first global economic crisis of the 20th century. The crisis mostly affected the industrialized countries. Turkey was not an industrialized country, but its capital İstanbul, which was articulated to the world economy, was also affected by the depression. The crises affected the Istanbul city not only economically, but also socially and morally. During the depression years the prices of the basic consumer goods increased and the monopolist and black marketing tendencies among tradesmen strengthened in Istanbul. Local administration was insufficient to solve these problems. The public accused the local authorities because of the applications of tradesmen. Peoples and institutions advised several solutions for minimizing the negative effects of the crisis in İstanbul. One of them was the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce. The Chamber prepared reports about the solutions and delivered them to the concerned authorities. Besides the Chamber, the Republican Peoples Party, which was the political power of the period, the bureaucrats, who were the implementers of the economic policies, and the academicians prepared reports to make contributions to the solution. The most interesting solution was offered by the “Cumhuriyet” newspaper, described as a Turkish style contribution in this paper. The newspaper offered to its readers in Istanbul daily “sale coupon‟s to prevent them from the negative effects of the crises. This paper will discuss the working of the coupons in detail. The Cumhuriyet newspaper made arrangements with shops and stores in different areas in Istanbul to make discounts to its readers. There are a lot of shops on a wide range of branch from basic consumption goods to the stationeries. The consumers in Istanbul benefited from these coupons against the rising prices. Keywords: Great depression, Istanbul, Turkey Cumhuriyet Newspaper Introduction This study will determine the effects of 1929 economic crisis, which is considered as the most severe economic crises of capitalism, on Istanbul; what methods were used to alleviate the effects of the crises and who called institutions for duty to solve the problem. Like in Ottoman period, the city of Istanbul is still the most important city of Turkey in economic and demographic terms. Furthermore, the study will analyze the causes of price 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo increases in basic consumption goods and what measures were taken to overcome this problem using primary sources of the related period. 1-Prices of Some Consumer Goods in Istanbul and Profiteering Bread Prices Bread prices increased at the time of the crisis. The okka1 increased to 16-17 kurus. Municipality of Istanbul took some measures to prevent the increases in bread prices. The first one of these measures was to open municipal bakery in Nişantaşı. The municipality would supply the flour for the bakery from the mills in Unkapanı. It would prevent profiteering of bakers and provide clean and cheap bread to the people of Istanbul 2. Another resort to decrease bread prices was to import wheat to Istanbul. This resort was immediately put into practice and the municipality began to import wheat from the USA. Milliyet newspaper announced wheat import to its readers as “25 thousand bags of flour arrived from the USA”. The newspaper also heralded that the price of bread would decrease by approximately 10-20 para3 thanks to flour importation. Other newspapers announced the arrival of 15.000 tons of wheat which was brought to Istanbul in three ships. Meat Prices Majority of small ruminants which supplied meat to Istanbul in Ottoman Era used to be brought from the Balkans and Central Anatolia. The principle reason of this was that it was easier to transport animals from these regions than other cities. On the other hand, large ruminants, which were less consumed than small ruminants, used to come from Thrace4. After the exclusion of the Balkans from the boundaries of the new Turkey, the regions which supplied meat to Istanbul changed. During the years of crisis, the animals to supply meat to Istanbul generally came from Erzurum in winter and from Izmir and its vicinity in summer months. In 1929, minimum 2000-2500 small ruminants were necessary on daily basis to meet meat need of Istanbul. In certain periods, this need increased to 3000. However, there were problems in the supply of animals to meet daily meat need of Istanbul. This, in turn, increased meat prices. While the okka of meat was 110 kurus in 1928, it increased to 150 kurus in 1929. The reasons of the increase of meat prices varied according to different circles. The artisans involved in sheep and meat commerce attributed the increase of meat prices to unfavorable weather conditions; transport prices and to the high taxes collected from live animals and on the meats of slaughtered animals under various names. They believed that okka of meat increased by 25-30 kurus due to abovementioned reasons5. 1 1 Okka=1283 gr Milliyet 23 March 1929 3 40 para is equivalent to 1 Kurus; 100 Kurus is equivalent to 1Lira. 4 Robert Mantran, Istanbul in the Second Half of the17.Century, Volume I, Turkish Historical Society Publications, Ankara 1990, 180-181 5 Milliyet 5 Kanunisani 1929 2 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo On the other hand, according to the officials in Municipality of Istanbul, principle reason for increased meat prices was that large numbers of animals were killed due to severe winter conditions and that the animals which were saved were raised with high costs. The municipality didn‟t agree with the opinion that Oktruva (entrance tax collected from the goods from other cities for commercial purposes), which was considered as the cause of high meat prices, was high. The Oktruva tax, which was believed to cause the increase meat prices, remained unchanged for several years and the ratio applied in previous years continued to be applied. A public official who was interviewed by the reporter of Milliyet newspaper in March 1929 attributed increased meat prices in Istanbul to the taxes collected by the municipality and Commodity Exchange rather than to profiteering. As per the practices, Municipality of Istanbul collected 35 kurus and the Commodity Exchange collected 27 kurus tax per okka of meat in the slaughterhouse. It would be possible to buy meat, which was sold to 150 kurus, to 100 kurus if both institutions gave up collecting the taxes. The public official also claimed that Municipality of Istanbul collected 15 kurus barn toll from the people who didn‟t keep their animals in barns, which also increased meat prices6. On the other hand, Cumhuriyet newspaper, which was one of the influential newspapers of the time, attributed high meat prices in Istanbul to “profiteering” practiced by the company of butchers. The newspaper announced that this claim was not based on a rumor, that it had strong evidence. It also declared that it would draw the attention to the municipality and the government on this issue by “proving its claim in its columns”. According to Cumhuriyet newspaper, the company of butchers in Istanbul meat market had an actual monopoly. This monopoly involved a wide area from the purchase of live animals to the sale of meat to consumers. The company of butchers used to buy the animals directly from animal owners. The company sent his men to cities like Erzurum and Bayburt to buy live animals from the producers. Thus, the price of the animals that were sent to Istanbul for slaughter was controlled by the company. Even the people who brought live animals had to sell the animals to the price determined by the company of butchers. Since there was no other buyer in the market, it was impossible for the cattle-dealer to sell the animals unless they accepted the price determined by the company of butchers. In fact, a cattle-dealer which, the company of butchers did not want could never continue its activities in Istanbul. The company of butchers also performed brokering and wholesale business. Cumhuriyet newspaper believed that the increase in meat prices in Istanbul was not caused by natural conditions; it was caused by the monopoly of the company of butchers. To support its opinion, the newspaper also asked for information from the governor of Erzurum about Erzurum market, which mainly supplied meat to Istanbul. According to information obtained from Governor Feyzi Bey, retail price of sheep was 1200 kurus in Erzurum and the wholesale price was much lower. Based on the information obtained from the governor, maximum price of sheep brought to Istanbul from Erzurum should be 2032 6 Milliyet 21 March 1929 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo kurus including all costs. However, an income of approximately 250 kurus was obtained when the sheepskin, intestines and variety meats were sold. When this amount is deducted from the cost of transporting sheep to Istanbul, average cost of reporting sheep to Istanbul would decrease to 1782 kurus. Considering that 20 okka meat is obtained from an average sheep, it was calculated that maximum price of sheep meat in Istanbul should be 89 kurus. However, the people of Istanbul bought meat to 150-180 kurus. The company of butchers sent an explanation to Cumhuriyet newspaper due to its report stating that the company was founded with a capital of 500.000 Turkish Liras and its field of activity included various commercial and industrial works such as leather, variety meats and transport. The company also stated that they didn‟t work as butchers in Istanbul and therefore cannot be held responsible for high meat prices in Istanbul market. According to the company of butchers, the reason for high meat prices was retailer small butchers. Hamdi Bey, one of the chairmen of the Chamber of Commerce, declared that 60 kurus difference between the selling price and cost of meat stemmed from retailer butcher artisans and supported the attitude of the company of butchers7. Profiteering The media in Turkey emphasized that, although it seemed that high price of basic foodstuff was caused by inflation and the difference between gold money and bank notes, the real reason was the profiteering performed by the artisans in the market. They tried to prove their claims by the difference between wholesale and retail prices of goods. For example, soap with a wholesale price of 50 kurus was sold to 80kurus in the market. Pure olive oil which was sold to 85-90 kurus was sold to 120 kurus in the market. It was claimed that even if all costs, office rent and 20% profit is added to these goods from the wholesaler to the stage of retail selling, there would be only a difference of approximately 25% between the wholesale and retail selling price. However, there was a minimum 40-50% price difference between the wholesale and retail price of the goods in the market. This was attributed to the mercilessness of artisans and the situation of people in the market and bazaar was resembled to desperate robbed people. The reason for this situation in the market was attributed to the failure of Municipality of Istanbul to inspect properly. According to the media, the municipality perceived the task of control as stopping cars and changing the places of peddlers. However, the task of control includes inspection of artisans in their workplace; to arrest the profiteers in the act and to punish the perpetrators by law8. The newspapers called Istanbul artisans, whom they believed to increase prices as follows: “you are robbing people by means of this ugly profiteering. The people will be penniless tomorrow, if not today. Who will you sell those goods in your stores then?” The newspapers emphasized the nationality of the artisans using the rhetoric of that time and as 7 8 2 August 1929 Cumhuriyet Coping with high cost of living 1 September 19129 İkdam 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo follows: “Grocer Koço, butcher Yorgo can open a store in Athens ad Kalamata with what they earned. However, you, Turkish artisans, what will you do?” 9. 2-Price Increases in Istanbul in Crisis Period and the Methods to Eliminate Price Increases Opinion of Istanbul Chamber of Commerce on Price Increases In 1929, when the economic crisis broke out, the officials of Istanbul Chamber of Commerce reported as follows: “High cost of living was prevalent all over the world not only in Istanbul. However, price increases in Istanbul were not natural and more severe. The increase ratio was at an unacceptable level.” According to the officials of the Chamber of Commerce, it was possible to reduce high cost of living in Istanbul by15%. The first thing to do was to stop collection of high Oktruva tax by the municipality over basic foodstuff. The second thing to do was to establish cooperation by the Directorate of Economy of the Municipality and to encourage local people to establish district cooperation. The middleman between the cooperation and producers will be eliminated and thus the prices will decrease10. The Chamber of Commerce only criticized the municipality for the high cost of living, while Daily newspapers reported that the Chamber of Commerce had a role in it. According to the newspapers, prices increased since the Chamber of Commerce failed to fulfill its principle duty. İkdam newspaper reported from the headlines as follows: “A city with a municipality, chamber of commerce, other similar institutions. However, these official institutions fail to fulfill their duties. The cost of living would not be so high if the institutions in Istanbul did their jobs properly. For example let‟s think of Chamber of Commerce. The chamber of commerce is the official union of the artisans and tradesmen. This organization should feel honor-bound to prevent profiteering and exclude the profiteers.” The news report declared that in addition to protecting the rights of traders, the profiteers should be eliminated too. Profiteering was the enemy of humanity and nation and it decreased production of goods. İkdam newspaper reported that chambers of commerce in other countries worked in coordination with the government and municipalities and they were the right-man of the state in economic matters. However, these institutions hadn‟t reached that level in Turkey. İkdam newspaper asked what Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, which should have contributed to solve the problems did at the time when these problems were experiences. It also sought to answer whether the Chamber of Commerce had something to do in a period when the prices increased. On the other hand, Istanbul Chamber of Commerce seemed to be an organization which only collected contribution from the artisans as its task and didn‟t solve any of the problems. The newspaper resembled the chamber as a lodge which failed to do its principle duty. However, the duty of the Chamber of Commerce was to warn the 9 Coping with high cost of living 4 September 1929 İkdam 15 Eylül 1912 Cumhuriyet 10 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo artisans about the prices of the goods they sell and to impose sanctions on the artisans which perform profiteering. It was declared that presence of even one profiteer among the members of the chamber would destroy the trust of the artisans to each other and that would be a catastrophe for the artisans. İkdam newspaper compared the chambers of commerce in Turkey with those in Europe. The chambers of commerce in Europe made publications to raise the awareness of the consumers to contribute to decrease the high cost of living. It was claimed that Istanbul Chamber of Commerce didn‟t have a role despite its corporate identity and didn‟t take any action especially to reduce high prices. Therefore, the newspaper reported that Istanbul Chamber of Commerce failed to meet the expectations of the people of Istanbul stating “ The Chamber of Commerce turned into a bedroom. Everyone is fast asleep.” Another reason for criticizing the Chamber of Commerce was that it manipulated the figures in its restricted publications, to show as if the high cost of living wasn‟t high in Istanbul. In a daily newspaper titled “Piyasa Cedveli” (Market Table), the Chamber announced the prices of some goods to the people of Istanbul. However, these prices weren‟t consistent with the prices in the market. Prices of some goods were listed in Piyasa Cedveli as follows: Potatoes 11 kurus Cheese 85 kurus Olive oil 48-50 kurus. However, real market price of these goods were as follows: Potatoes 17 kurus Cheese 110 kurus Olive oil100 kurus In this case, the newspapers decreased the reliability of the Chamber of Commerce. The newspapers implied that the figures announced by the chamber were not true, stating that based on the prices the chamber announces, one should believe that the high cost of living is not high in Istanbul. Furthermore, the newspapers asked the Chamber of Commerce the following question: “We wonder from which cheap market the chamber of commerce takes these cheap prices. How can it give these prices to the authorities as official market prices?” The newspaper claimed that this type of misleading information stemmed from the actions of the directors of the chamber of commerce to protect their interests, instead of protecting the interests of the society11. Newspapers and Price Increases The newspapers in Turkey felt responsibility in struggling with the high cost of living in Istanbul and constantly published articles on this problem. The reason for their attitude was the belief that they cannot remain indifferent to the priority problems of the society. Neither the “Mexican revolution” nor “the exhibitions in Spain” were the most important 11 Cheap life! 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo problems of the readers. The main problem which made 700.000-800.000 people, including the readers, think was what to eat for lunch, how to buy new clothes and how to pay the rent12 While investigating the causes of “high prices” nightmare in Istanbul, which both affected the rich and the poor, İkdam newspaper asked the opinions of various people from the bureaucracy and from the market thinking that they could have a solution for the problem. The reason for this was that it attempted to determine the problem thought and to present a suitable solution for the problem13. İkdam newspaper started a column titled “struggle with high cost of living”. This column included the opinions of the abovementioned people on the reasons for the cost of living in Istanbul and how to deal with this problem. In this framework, Hamdi Bey, General Directorate of Port Company, was one of the people whose opinion was asked. Hamdi Bey believed that the high cost of living appeared in two ways. The first one was the increase in white consumer goods, the second one was “financial hardship”. He believed that the second was more important because subsistence and earning more became very difficult and the opportunity of employment decreased in Turkey. Therefore, when a vacancy was announced for a public servant with a monthly income of 50 liras, 50.000 people applied for the position. Hamdi Bey believed that the problem of cost of living would be solved by increasing employment opportunities. However, neither the public sector nor the private sector had enough capital to establish new industrial plants. Turkey should certainly encourage foreign capital to eliminate the problem of capital. According to Hamdi Bey, if 4-5 million pound foreign capital is provided to Turkey on annual basis, it would be possible to found industrial investments to increase production. Ahmet Hamdi Bey attributed high good prices in Turkey to three reasons. The first one was the high production cost of the goods. The second one was that produced goods didn‟t reach the customers directly, they were offered via the middleman and transport prices were high. For example, the transport cost of one ton of goods from Haydarpaşa to Ankara was sometimes equivalent to the price of that good. Inadequate means of transport and unavailability of roads also increased transport costs. These factors also caused price increases. The third one was that the people didn‟t know how to control their expenses. According to Hamdi Bey, an indication of not knowing how to control their expenses was that the people used to buy goods from the shops instead of directly going to producers. The reason for widespread use of this method was that the men went home at an early hour and left the work at a late hour in that period. However, it was reported that in the past since the men didn‟t have any working hour or time constraints, they used to buy goods they need from cheap sellers. According to Hamdi Bey, the men were excluded from managing the house since they didn‟t have enough time and that the women undertook this responsibility. However, the women couldn‟t do shooing as the men. 12 13 17 May 1929 İkdam 13 May 1929 İkdam 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo It was claimed that the women didn‟t know how to do shopping since they were unaware of trade or perceived it easy and felt it beneath them to go shopping were effective in their inability in shopping. Therefore, instead of buying the goods they need from cheap places, the women preferred to buy them from nearly butchers or shops. This preference caused minimum twenty-thirty percent more expensive prices. Ahmet Hamdi Bey believed that the cooperation established in other countries that experienced high cost of living and like those established by the non-Muslims in Turkey should be founded by Turkish people to solve the problem of high cost of living14. Hakkı Cemil, who was one of the writers in İkdam newspaper dated 29 June 1929, asked Muhittin Bey, the Mayor of Istanbul the reason for high cost of living in Istanbul in his article titled “High prices”. Furthermore, he also asked why the prices in Istanbul showed variations while the consumer goods in cities such as Athens, Sofia and Thessaloniki are the same in all regions of the city. Hakkı Cemil Bey recommended that the municipality should announce the prices of the goods in public placed to prevent price differences. He reported that, instead of solving the priority problems of the people, the Municipality of Istanbul gave priority to public works problems of the city which are of secondary or third importance for the people. The municipality incurred costs and even sent groups to European cities for the public works of the city in the period of crisis. However, Hakkı Cemil Bey believed that instead of these types of things, the Municipality of Istanbul should use all its material and spiritual powers to eliminate high prices15. Vehbi Bey, who was a member of the Economic Council and one of the teachers of the School of Ali Commercial Center, reported that high cost of living can be dealt with in two ways. The first one includes “positive” measures. In this context, there was no shortage of goods that met the basic needs of the consumers. According to Vehbi Bey, the craftsmen, industrialists and tradesmen would achieve this in the market. Vehbi Bey also recommended dealing with profiteering by the municipality by avoiding being radical and taking palliative measures. However, this struggle should not be a factor for pressure on other artisans. Vehbi Bey recommended the consumers to limits the consumption of foodstuff, to prefer low quality products instead of normal ones and to give up jewelry and luxurious goods in the context of “individual” measures16. 14 12 June 1929 İkdam Hakkı Cemi, “Cost of Living” İkdam 29 June 1929 16 13 May 1929 İkdam 15 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 3-Method for Solving Problems: Discount Coupons of Cumhuriyet Newspaper Cumhuriyet newspaper also made attempts to contribute to the problem of high cost of living, about which all people of Istanbul complained about. The newspaper adopted the view that the government and the municipality of Istanbul made enough efforts to deal with high cost of living. The newspaper believed that, if they didn‟t made enough efforts as some people claimed; this would certainly have a positive impact on the people. Since the newspaper didn‟t agree with the opinions of those who claimed that they made attempts to eliminate problems, it made its own contribution. This contribution included discount coupons the newspapers gives its readers “to attack the cost of living which resembles a seven-headed dragon” Cumhuriyet newspaper explained the reason for the discount coupons it gave as follows: “There is a sick person. The doctors surrounding him are making constant debates to make the diagnosis. However, what they do is only wasting time”. The newspaper reported that everyone brought theoretical opinions to solve the cost of living problem, whereas the important thing was to practice them. For this reason, Cumhuriyet newspaper set aside theoretical recommendations and suggested discount coupons as a practical practice17. In his leading article in Cumhuriyet newspaper, Yunus Nadi explained his “new attempts” about “cheap life” and explained how they could benefit from them18. Cumhuriyet newspaper was giving its readers one “discount coupon” on daily basis. The coupon had to be used on the day it was issued. The newspaper signed contracts with various “trade centers and corporations” too meet all kinds of needs. The corporates with whom contracts were signed were announced in the newspaper every day. The places which were announced in the newspaper would make a discount to a ratio it promised to each customer, no matter what the price of the good, if they brought the discount coupon of that day. The newspaper announced the names, neighborhoods and discount ratios of the organizations which would make discounts everyday on the third page. Discount ratios varied between 5-10-15%. The newspaper also explained how the coupons should be used with an example. For example, think that you go to a store which was announced in the newspaper to make a discount and that store announced that it will make 10% discount as per the contract itmade with the newspaper. Like every customer, you entered that store and bargain without stating that you brought a coupon. Think that you agreed to pay 15 liras for a good. Now it‟s time to pay. You give 135 liras instead of 1.5. Before the cashier tells you: - You didn‟t pay the full amount! You take the coupon out of your wallet and put it on the money. Then you will see that the cashier will say “Thank you”. You will keep 1.5 liras, get your good and leave the store contentedly.” 17 18 Cumhuriyet “how we make life cheaper” Yunus Nadi “Ucuz hayat” 14 May 1929 Cumhuriyet ,Yunus Nadi, “Milli Ekonomi” 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo References 12 June 1929 İkdam 13 May 1929 İkdam 13 May 1929 İkdam 15 Eylül 1912 Cumhuriyet 17 May 1929 İkdam 2 August 1929 Cumhuriyet Cumhuriyet “how we make life cheaper” Hakkı Cemi, “Cost of Living” İkdam 29 June 1929 Milliyet 21 March 1929 Milliyet 23 March 1929 Milliyet 5 Kanunisani 1929 Robert Mantran, (1990). Istanbul in the Second Half of the17.Century, Volume I, Turkish Historical Society Publications, Ankara, 180-181 Yunus Nadi (1929). „Ucuz hayat‟ Cumhuriyet ,Yunus Nadi, “Milli Ekonomi” 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1530 Title A name given to the resource Great Depression (1929) in İstanbul and a Turkish Style Contribution to the Solution of the Crisis: Sale Coupons Author Author GENC, Hamdi SARISOY, Idris Abstract A summary of the resource. Great depression was the first global economic crisis of the 20th century. The crisis mostly affected the industrialized countries. Turkey was not an industrialized country, but its capital İstanbul, which was articulated to the world economy, was also affected by the depression. The crises affected the İstanbul city not only economically, but also socially and morally. During the depression years the prices of the basic consumer goods increased and the monopolist and black marketing tendencies among tradesmen strengthened in İstanbul. Local administration was insufficient to solve these problems. The public accused the local auhorities because of the applications of tradesmen. Peoples and institutions advised several solutions for minimizing the negative effects of the crisis in İstanbul. One of them was the İstanbul Chamber of Commerce. The Chamber prepared reports about the solutions and delivered them to the concerned authorities. Besides the Chamber, the Republican Peoples Party, which was the political power of the period, the bureaucrats, who were the implementers of the economic policies, and the academicians prepared reports to make contributions to the solution. The most interesting solution was offered by the “Cumhuriyet” newspaper, described as a Turkish style contribution in this paper. The newspaper offered to its readers in İstanbul daily “sale coupon”s to prevent them from the negative effects of the crises. This paper will discuss the working of the coupons in detail. The Cumhuriyet newspaper made arrangements with shops and stores in different areas in İstanbul to make discounts to its readers. There are a lot of shops on a wide range of branch from basic consumption goods to the stationeries. The consumers in İstanbul benefited from these coupons against the rising prices. Keywords: Crisis, Cupon, 1929 Great Depression, Turkey. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0744af6eaf9b93a40e9d4910e24de1ff.jpeg 1b48c34ae9e6fe703050029d8de3a9ed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90eefc9b2026a3d16e00ad827e5e48dc.pdf 24ae6d6f8dfd27bf38e46734ac1c5d54 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Great Theater Author Author BSc Nermin Maslo Abstract A summary of the resource. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, buying tickets for theaters and cinemas can be difficult because there is no single platform to make the process easy. People often need to visit different websites or buy tickets in person, which can be time-consuming and inconvenient. This makes it harder for people to enjoy cultural events and limits the ability of theaters and cinemas to attract more visitors. The Great Theater project solves this problem by creating a web application where users can quickly find and buy tickets for any theater or cinema in the country. The application shows all important details like the name of the play or movie, the theater, the city, the time, and the price on easy-to-use cards. This helps users book tickets without having to visit multiple websites or locations. The project focuses on building this system using simple and modern web tools. A central database will store all event details, and the design will ensure the application is easy to use. The system will also include secure payment options and be able to handle many users at once. This project aims to create a working application that makes it simple for people to buy tickets and enjoy cultural events. By connecting theaters, cinemas, and their audiences, Great Theater helps improve access to entertainment in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords Keywords. ticket booking, theater, cinema, Bosnia and Herzegovina, web app, cultural events Language A language of the resource English language sdp software engineering web development https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0af753e53276fa95583e3350efabbf8.doc ffc381bad194ef91a3eba42ac9bd4cd4 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4a66dafe17bf3c95f392673412fa8823.pdf d801c391a098c214393ac1175a3c019b PDF Text Text 1st International Annual Student Symposium best way to fight against this omnipresent problem, because only participation and fight is guarantee for development. Anti-corruption policies are important tool in building healthy society and system, but in case of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is long road on a way to complete successfully European integration. Green Economy in the Global World, Green Economy Implementations in the World and Examples of Turkey Fethullah ATAÇ & Recep Yortanlı Yalova University / Yalova, Turkey ABSTRACT The primary purpose of this article is research of the Green Economy in the Global World, Green Economy Implementations in the World and Examples of Turkey. The importance of green economy is improved by various environmental events day by day. According to this case, we have researched many resources which about the effects of green economy and combined the all information that two categorized as world applications and examples of Turkey. Actually, we have defined that what green economy is, with many different words in order to understandable for everybody because, if we would like to talk the importance of green economy we must know that what it is. It is also important for big companies and political forces. A lot of company knows that the green economy will bring a big profit margin, more employment and less damaged nature. But, only a few big companies which placed in the developed country try to do green economic factors in their work life and corporate culture. The developed countries like U.S.A, France, Germany and less developed countries like Egypt, India and China carry out the green economy in order to improve their economy. For example, in the U.S.A, the political forces has over than $900 billion to use controlling country’s economy but they used the 10% of this money for green economy 16 | �BOOK OF ABSTRACTS and they have received a lot of return. In this study, we must recognize that, Turkey needs to use green economy every part of production and economics. We also focused on the weakness of green economy in Turkey. Recent, there is much study to increase using green economy in Turkey. Some politicians and economists want to give information’s to people in order to teaching what green economy is. This is important for Turkey. Islamic Banking in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Relationship between Religion and Islamic Banking Adoption Elvisa Buljubašić International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Keywords: Islamic banking, religion, decisive factors, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT The Islamic banking and finance is the segment of global financial system that has the fastest growth rate. Today, the center of Islamic finance is in the London. UK has the longest experience is Islamic banking, despite the fact that Muslims are not the biggest population there. So what is the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding the use of Islamic banking and its products? The study attempts to analyze the relationship between religion and Islamic banking service adoption in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the level of awareness of BH citizens of Islamic banking. Bosnia and Herzegovina is multiethnic country, in other words, people of different religious groups are represented there. So are the other religious teachings in accordance with the use of Islamic banking, what are their perceptions of it? The questionnaire is used to assess the opinions of BH citizens. It is distributed to the sample of 26 people, mainly to the students. The sample is selected randomly among the users and non-users of Islamic banking. After the data is gathered, it is analyzed in SPSS, using descriptive statistics (frequencies, Chi-Square test). | 17 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1419 Title A name given to the resource Green Economy in the Global World, Green Economy Implementations in the World and Examples of Turkey Author Author ATAC, Fethullah YORTANLI, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. The primary purpose of this article is research of the Green Economy in the Global World, Green Economy Implementations in the World and Examples of Turkey. The importance of green economy is improved by various environmental events day by day. According to this case, we have researched many resources which about the effects of green economy and combined the all information that two categorized as world applications and examples of Turkey. Actually, we have defined that what green economy is, with many different words in order to understandable for everybody because, if we would like to talk the importance of green economy we must know that what it is. It is also important for big companies and political forces. A lot of company knows that the green economy will bring a big profit margin, more employment and less damaged nature. But, only a few big companies which placed in the developed country try to do green economic factors in their work life and corporate culture. The developed countries like U.S.A, France, Germany and less developed countries like Egypt, India and China carry out the green economy in order to improve their economy. For example, in the U.S.A, the political forces has over than $900 billion to use controlling country’s economy but they used the 10% of this money for green economy and they have received a lot of return. In this study, we must recognize that, Turkey needs to use green economy every part of production and economics. We also focused on the weakness of green economy in Turkey. Recent, there is much study to increase using green economy in Turkey. Some politicians and economists want to give information’s to people in order to teaching what green economy is. This is important for Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/952e2d43a594933729c858396e1cf13c.pdf 1e7c324a40b09a10bc793e3b43e3c042 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Nonis, S. A., Philhours, M. J. & Hudson, G. I. (2006). Where Does the Time Go? A Diary Approach to Business and Marketing Students’ Time Use. Journal of Marketing Education, 28, 121-134. Mattila, J. Peter, 1982 “Determinants of Male School Enrollments: A time Series Analysis.” Review of Economics and Statistics. 64, 242, 51. Ministry of Higher Education, 2009.( http://www.mohe.gov.my/educationmsia/index.php? article=mohe ) Green Economy-Green Sustainability-Green Ethics Nilgün Dolmaci, Nurdan Kuşat Süleyman Demirel Üniversity, Isparta, Turkey E-mails: nilgundolmaci@sdu.edu.tr, nurdankusat@sdu.edu.tr Abstract Although the concept ‘environment’ is perceived as a space where people live, it narrates an ecosystem in the broad sense. Ecosystem is described as a raw material store which fulfills the physical and biological needs. However, considering that the resources are scarce and the needs of people are limitless, it is clearly seen that the environmental resources are scarce as well. Within this content, efficient use of environmental resources has a great importance for sustainable development. Green economy approach brings a new perspective for the sustainable development. Since the degeneration in economic, cultural and historical environment led to development problems, green economy is an important instrument achieving sustainability in environmental values. In this study, green economy and green sustainability is handled from the point of decreasing the damage that environment and ecosystem are exposed. When it comes to solve the paradox between economic development and environment, the study touches on the green ethics perception which can be defined as getting and adopting the information, attitude and behavior that will preserve the living space and living quality of human beings both individually and globally. Keywords: Green Economy, Sustainable Development, Green Sustainability, Green Ethics 1. INTRODUCTION The words ‘green’ and ‘sustainability’ are usually used together. While the word ‘green’ represents the environment, ‘sustainability’ refers to convection of current resources to the next generation without any loss. Sustainable development, which is one of the most popular 313 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo development models in the last years, comes to the forefront as an environmental development model. In this regard, sustainable development can be defined as green sustainability. The aim of sustainability is to improve our living standards without harming the resources that we need to survive. By this way, the green economy will enable to develop environment friendly products and processes and environmental problems will be kept in sight to a large extent. Besides the fast growing world population, the increasing level of welfare in the countries and increasing world commerce due to the globalization and many other formations have increased the production and correspondingly the resource consumption. This situation has created great problems about resources which are hard to remediate. According to Otegbulu (2011:240), unless we preserve the natural, physical and chemical system of the world, it will be impossible to meet the needs of human beings. At this point, it is claimed that mankind has less time than hundreds of years to bring the environmental problems under control and abstain from social and ecologic retrogressive situation (Foster, 2008: 12-13). On the other hand, Des Jardin (2006:581) admits that environmental issues must be dealt besides ethic and economic problems while planning and effective social and political future and offers an initiation regarding the issue. After all this initiation will be an important step to determine the direction of future. This study aims to develop a perspective in green economy, green sustainability and green ethics. Most of all this study searches solutions for the paradox between economic development and environment. 2. GREEN SUSTAINABILITY AND GREEN ECONOMY This concept, which has taken its place in economy literature as economic sustainability, has reached to its current value as a significant element of competitive power. WTO (1998:20) defines the sustainable development as a development model which enables to fulfill the needs of current generation without jeopardizing the needs of next generations in the Brundtland report. This report mentions about not only the maximum economic growth through the sustainable development but also activating a fair and equitable economic development (Garrod and Fyall, 1998:200) Starting with the first and second industrial revolution and gained a pace with globalization, the transition period from an agricultural society to an industrial society led to more consumption to be more industrialized. However, the greediness of countries to produce and have a great competitive power triggered environmental crisis. In our day, while the industrialized countries take some precautions to lessen environmental disasters and not to experience environmental problems thanks to their technologic superiority, developing countries are lack of these regulations. The reason of this is generally economic or politic. The low education level of these countries triggers these problems as well. In Brundlant report, where it is emphasized that sustainable development inheres a period of change, one of the aims of sustainable development is stated as integrating environment and economy during the decision-making (TÇSV, 1991:78). In fact, other aims also have some features serving to this aim. The over-capitalist policy implementations leading a mass exploitation of environment have confronted great reaction and criticism. The Deep Ecology approach is acquired currency 314 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo owing to these reactions. According to this approach likewise the sustainable development approach, not only the mankind must be preserved but also the whole ecosystem. According to Meltzner (1994:28), the main idea of deep ecology is to meet the needs of living creatures other than mankind and develop their life quality. As to Luke (2002:180) the equality on the ecosystem is extremely important and all living creature have to have fair and equal opportunities. Therefore, in order to reach the sustainable development to green sustainability, we should pay attention to the main philosophy of deep ecologic approach. Ecosystem represents the whole with living and non-living things. Instead of particularizing the whole and attribute different values to every part, talking about green sustainability and green economy would be more rational. Though the environment is described as the space where we live, it refers to a great ecosystem. This ecosystem offers us many opportunities to meet our physical and biological needs. Economic environment is the main structure providing every kind of resource which is necessary for the production process. It is a raw material store in short. It is the main source of production. Considering that resources are scarce, we can easily say that environmental resources are scarce as well and must be used efficiently. We can say that this is a must for sustainable development. The new economic order displayed that classic economy theories are not enough for the sustainable development. Within this point, ecologic economy approach came into agenda and tried to fill the gap. As to Daly (2007:86), who is acknowledged as one of the trailblazers of ecologic economy, it is not always possible that the production processes are environment friendly and create positive exteriorities. More importantly, the cost of negative exteriorities due to the production process must not be more than the renovation capacity for the consumed ecosystem resources. Cultural and historical environment also play an important role on the sustainable development besides the economic environment. Unfortunately, the degeneration in cultural and historical values of the countries leads to irretrievable development problems. Because reparation of loss of the values conveyed from past to present is impossible. And this will lead that the next generations will not know their past and deal with some problems in future. As to Uslu (1997:43), to provide sustainable development is a must for all economies. However, putting economy into ecologic frames would be more logical rather than assessing the ecologic structure as a component in the economic frame (Uslu, 1997:43). According to Kumar and Kumar (2011:961) ‘Green Economy’ is an instrument to achieve a sustainable environmental development. It defines a structure where a sustainable economic development is achieved without giving any harm to the ecosystem. Kumar and Kumar (2011:961) also states that the success of green economy idea depends on the politic reforms. The politic reforms must provide a sustainable economic richness, must ease the issues and enable optimum usage of natural resources. In short, state policy primarily has to aim developing improved technologies to provide clean and recyclable energy. Barbier (2011:234-236), on the other hand, has a different point of view about green economy. Barbier emphasize that there are two difficulties in front of the green economy. One of them is sustainability and the other is financing. The need for a constant production by consuming resources, which are the components of environment, to provide a sustainable development is a great problem. High costs of precautions that will be taken to preserve the environment are the second dimension of the issue. 315 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In order to remove the deadlock between economic growth and environmental sustainability, the character of the growth must be changed. Therefore, some restrictions must be put into use in order not to use nonrenewable resources and to terminate the use of resource and technologies that lead to environmental pollution (Ertürk, 2011: 161) 3. GREEN ETHICS FOR GREEN SUSTAINABILITY History shows that the societies are in war with environment for long years and treat nature as if it is a waste grave. It is known that the exploitation of nature sometimes led to the collapse of civilizations. Considering these historical facts, it is claimed that mankind has less time than hundreds of years to bring the environmental problems under control and abstain from social and ecologic retrogressive situation (Foster, 2008: 12-13) In order not to run short of environmental resources and not to give harm to the environment during production and consumption process, both the companies and individuals must have a green consciousness. Green consciousness refers to environment ethics and consciousness. Green consciousness means that every individual must feel responsible to create a livable environment and to sustain it (Çepel, 2006: 25). The reasons of environmental problems and environmental pollution are the ignorant ideas and attitudes of societies rose from their social and economic activities to achieve an utmost welfare level (Ertürk, 2011: 244). Though sustainable development idea is put forward due to the future concerns, it has gradually turned into a comprehensive and complete ethical approach (Kılıç, 2008: 217).Ethical principles are really important in terms of identification of environmental issues and the remedy of polluted and damaged environment. (http://www.etik.gov.tr/makaleler/abdulkadir_mahmutoglu.pdf). Green ethics displays the individuals how to relate with nature or in a more comprehensive approach with the outer world. And it emphasizes the moral aspect of human-nature relations. It indicates that mankind must improve responsibility for the natural environment and other living things (http://www.guncelonkal.com/PDF/cevre_etigi_maddesi.pdf). With another expression, green ethics can be defined as the systemic examination of moral relation between mankind and nature (Des Jardins, 2006: 46) and the responsibilities of individuals (Kılıç, 2008: 32). Green ethics and ecological responsibility target is directly related with each other. The main idea is that natural resources must be used without being consumed completely and destructively and the sustainability of these resources for the next generations must be enabled (Mutlu, 2008: 97). In this regard, green ethics is an approach aiming to preserve all the values and aspects of nature. In order to realize the improvement and admission of environment oriented green ethics approach and adopt the organic world understanding, which is based on the idea that the nature is a living organism, the education for environment must be widespread (Ertürk, 2011: 144). Green ethics and sustainability intersects in many points. Environmental dimension of sustainability states that the societies must preserve the natural resources and ecosystems. The self-renewing capacity of ecosystems is limited; therefore, everybody must be conscious about the usage of natural resources such as earth, air and water (Nemli, 2004: 26). In line with this responsibility, the green ethics aims to have mankind adopt the information, attitude and behavior that will preserve the living space and living quality of mankind at individual, social and global level. 316 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4. CONCLUSION Sustainable growth has a great significance for all economies. However, what is more important for the developing countries is sustainable development. Considering that the concept of development has many more aspects than the concept of growth, it can be said that developing countries are in a much more difficult situation. Moreover it can be said that sustainable development is related with environment and green economy and it depends on the implementation of green ethics. Green economy and green sustainability is only possible when the green ethics is properly implemented and adopted by all parts of the society. We can outline what can be done within this concept: Expectations from the State: Green consciousness can be achieved with a comprehensive education system in all parts of the society. Changes in education system must be seen as a direct state policy and never be belonged to a mere government. Otherwise it would not be possible to provide a green sustainability. Expectations from the Companies: It is really important for companies to reach the green ethics consciousness. Especially, environmental friendly resources that are used in the production will decrease negative exteriority after production. In this regard, corporate companies must set a model and support the idea with social responsibility projects to gain positive results. Moreover, these companies must support the innovative operations with R&D projects about green ethics and green sustainability. Expectations from the International Institutions: Implementation of green ethics values at a national level will provide a regional effect. For this reason, green ethics implementations must be spread to the whole world. In this regard, environmentalist institutions and companies shaping the economy and commerce must be in solidarity and international institutions that will work for the green sustainability are needed. However, in order to be more successful, power of sanction of these institutions must also be at the highest level. Last but not least, world trade and world economy under an intense globalization are in need of green production and nature conservation. REFERENCES Barbier, E. (2011) The Policy Challenges for Green Economy and Sustainable Economic Development, Natural Resources Forum 35, pp. 233–245 Çepel, N. (2006), Ekoloji, Doğal Yaşam Dünyaları ve İnsan, Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara. Daly,H.E. (2007) Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development: Selected Essaysof Herman Daly. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Des Jardins, J.R., (2006). Çevre Etiği- Çevre Felsefesine Giriş, İmge Kitabevi, Ankara. Ertürk, Hasan, (2011). Çevre Politikası, Ekin Kitabevi, Bursa. Foster, J.B., (2008). Savunmasız Gezegen: Çevrenin Kısa Ekonomik Tarihi, Epos Yayınları, Ankara. 317 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Garrod,B. Ve Fyall,A. (1998) “Beyond the Rhetoric of Sustainable Tourism?”, Tourism Management, Vol:19, No:3, pp.213-224 Kılıç, S., (2008). Çevre Etiği: Ortaya Çıkışı, Gelişimi ve Sonuçları, Orion Kitabevi, Ankara. Kumar,B. Ve Kumar,P. (2011), Green Economy: Policy Framework for Sustainable Development, Current Science, Vol. 100, No. 7, 10 April 2011, pp.960-962 Luke, T.W. (2002) Deep Ecology: Living As If Nature Mattered, Organization & Environmet, Volume 15, Issue 2, pp. 178-186 Metzner;R. (1994) Ekoloji Çağı, Derleyen Günseli Tamkoç, Derin Ekoloji, Ege Yayıncılık, İzmir Mutlu, A., (2008). Ekoloji ve Yönetim: Toplumsal Ekoloji ve Sürdürülebilir Gelişmenin Karşılaştırılması, Turhan Kitabevi, Ankara. Nemli, E., (2004). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma: Şirketlerin Çevresel ve Sosyal Yaklaşımları, Filiz Kitabevi, İstanbul. Otegbulu, A.C. (2011) Economics of Green Design and Environmental Sustainability, Journal of Sustainable Development Vol. 4, No. 2; April 2011, pp.240-248 Türkiye Çevre Sorunları Vakfı (1991) Ortak Geleceğimiz, TÇSV Yayınları, Ankara Uslu, O. (1997) Ekonomik ve Ekolojik Uygulamalarda Sürüdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Yeri, Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Uygulaması, TÇV, Aralık WTO (1998) Guide for Local Authorities on Developing Sustainable Tourism, World Tourism Organization, Madrid http://www.guncelonkal.com/PDF/cevre_etigi_maddesi.pdf http://www.etik.gov.tr/makaleler/abdulkadir_mahmutoglu.pdf The Effect Of Religion On The Process Of Sustainable Development Economy (In Terms Of Thrift) Mehmet Masum Ocak1, Mehmet Günay2, Gülenaz Selçuk1 1Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Education Lecturer, Manisa. Turkey, 2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Science-Literature, Asst. Prof. Dr , Manisa, Turkey, Emails: masumocak@hotmail.com, mehmetgunay2006@hotmail.com, gselcuk@hotmail.com “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children.” An Indian proverb. Abstract In this study, we have tried to emphasize that from the perspective of sustainable development economy, the factor of religion affects communal incidents in our social life. 318 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1339 Title A name given to the resource Green Economy-Green Sustainability-Green Ethics Author Author Nilgün , Dolmaci Abstract A summary of the resource. Although the concept ‘environment’ is perceived as a space where people live, it narrates an ecosystem in the broad sense. Ecosystem is described as a raw material store which fulfills the physical and biological needs. However, considering that the resources are scarce and the needs of people are limitless, it is clearly seen that the environmental resources are scarce as well. Within this content, efficient use of environmental resources has a great importance for sustainable development. Green economy approach brings a new perspective for the sustainable development. Since the degeneration in economic, cultural and historical environment led to development problems, green economy is an important instrument achieving sustainability in environmental values. In this study, green economy and green sustainability is handled from the point of decreasing the damage that environment and ecosystem are exposed. When it comes to solve the paradox between economic development and environment, the study touches on the green ethics perception which can be defined as getting and adopting the information, attitude and behavior that will preserve the living space and living quality of human beings both individually and globally. Keywords: Green Economy, Sustainable Development, Green Sustainability, Green Ethics Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c520719c6b1da90cae5914d7835384d0.pdf 41ebf851b1a8dc55251f2368ccf44cfd PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Green Marketing Activities Of Green Star Hotels In Concept Of Sustainable Tourism Mustafa Gulmez1, Ismail Karayun2 ,Selcuk Burak Hasiloglu3 1Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, 07058, Konyaalti, Antalya 2Akdeniz University, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, 07192, Yesilbayir, Antalya 3.Pamukkale University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 20070, Kınık, Denizli E-mails: mgulmez@akdeniz.edu.tr, ismailkarayun@akdeniz.edu.tr, hasiloglu@pau.edu.t Abstract Due to increasing of global warming, the activities and studies about environmental consciousness and environmentally awareness are adopted by green star hotels and concept of sustainable tourism is becoming increasingly important in this context. Environmentally-friendly hotels or green star hotels have social responsibility consciousness to protect the environment by creating and developing economical solutions by hotel management for water and energy storing and reducing the solid wastes. Nowadays, both hotel managers and visitors pleasure in doing works environmentally responsible. While the hotel managers are adopting environmentallyfriendly construction, visitors (tourists) are behaving more environmentally-friendly about holiday plans and shopping. It is indicated that, the number of tourists who consider green star criteria while selecting the hotels are increasing and at last decades, environmentally-friendly tourism have enormously increased. The aim of this study is to expose green marketing activities of green star hotels in Turkey. In this context, the activities of green star hotels have been examined and viewpoints of the visitors about green marketing have been retained. In this research, both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used together. Deep - interviews were done with hotel managers also the questionnaires were used to get information about the awareness of visitors about green star hotels and green marketing activities. Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Tourism, Green Star Hotel, Green Marketing, Green Consumer 1.INTRODUCTION Hotel company managers increasingly have to take environmental issues into account. A major number of typical vacation touristic events are directly dependent on the natural resources at a destination. Some planning consequences attempt to achieve higher levels of environmental sustainability at the destination. Tourism planning is to try to attract consumers who are intrinsically interested in protecting the environment and consequently behave in a way that leads 92 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo to a smaller ecological footprint. Several authors have suggested this alternative approach and recommended that it may be suitable to reduce the ecological footprint of tourism at destinations. (Dolnicar and Leisch 2008) 2.GREEN STAR CONCEPT DEFINITION Today in tourism we find different eco-labels. In fact, obtainment of the eco-label exhibits the commitment of tourism suppliers towards sustainable development and environment improvements. There are several eco-labels in hotel sector, such as The Green Key. Similarly, The Green Star is one of the them. Hotel eco-labels create image of caring and friendly tourism organizations and, at the same time, inform tourists about sustainable orientation of tourism product and promote them. Suppliers can also develop guidelines for social responsible development. Green star hotel awards are an environmentally friendly program. A lot of hotel companies can improve their image by being environmentally friendly. They can improve neutral image about social responsibility into a positive one by helping to improve environment. Green star hotel companies might invest in environmentally friendly energy systems. A great number hotels can plant trees to improve the environment. (Rudez 2009). Eco-innovation and green star hotel practices are the new weapons for the progressive companies in tourism. Environmental improvements can enhance marketability and represent a potent source of innovation. Muntean and Stremtan (2008) tried to underline how important is for a hotel to develop sustainable eco-marketing strategy, called green star hotel practices. According to them Romanian hotels should ensure that eco-innovative efforts are communicated in all corporate environmental as well as responses to questionnaires from customers and socially responsible investors. The companies should make a public commitment to develop more eco-innovative products, and should ensure that commitments emanate from the highest level of the company. (Muntean and Stremtan 2008). Rudez (2009) focused on loyalty programs in the hotel management and, further applies corporate social responsibility into loyalty programs. According to Rudez (2009) that joint donation, environmentally friendly practices and programs of care for people are proposed as social responsible loyalty. On the other hand many companies that sell tourism products are environmental unfriendly. Tribe (2005, Rudez 2009) classifies negative impacts of tourism. Environmental impacts are impacts on natural resources, pollution, physical impacts. Song et al. (2012) introduced three environmentally related constructs. These are environmental concerns, perceived customer effectiveness, and environmentally friendly tourism behaviors. They examined the effect of environmentally friendly perceptions on the behavioral intention of visitors at a festival in South Korea. Environmentally friendly consumption behaviors are usually related to people’s belief that their environmentally friendly actions to solving ecological problems. Therefore perceived customer effectiveness is a useful construct to understand 93 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo customer’s environmentally conscious behaviors (Roberts, 1996). Namely, Straughan and Roberts (1999) stated that customers can be effective in resolving environmental problems tend to engage in more intense environmentally friendly behaviors with a high level of concern. (Song et al. 2012) Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) have researched in India where the two examined attitudes and behavior towards green star hotel practices. They’ve used a number of research methodologies. Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) have also used correlation and factor analysis. They’ve found that consumers were not only conscious of green star hotel practices. There were two main symptoms. The first symptom was the consumers’ reluctance to sacrifice quality of service to stay at a green hotel, while the second was a refusal to pay more to stay at hotels which have adopted green star hotel practices. They brought to an end that a hotel could derive a competitive advantage from green practices however the hotel would have to take a longterm vision concerning any financial gains. Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) also suggested that the government should institute rewards for and tax benefits to advance the entrenchment of green practices in the hotel sector in India. In addition, Kasim (2004) conducted a study in Penang Island, Malaysia. The purpose of this research was to examine tourists’ attitudes towards business socio-environmental responsibility. The findings of the research were mixed, similar to Manaktola and Jauhari (2007). Kasim found that tourists practiced more business socio-environmental responsibility activities at home than while on vacation. It’s also, the findings suggested that the tourists were not willing to make their hotel choice based on the business socio-environmental responsibility criteria’s, nor were they willing to pay extra for the same. In each case the researcher found that the subjects had the knowledge and may have even cared about green star hotel practices. (Moreo 2008). 3.GREEN STAR APPLICATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS IN THE WORLD In the world, green star applications are implemented generally and it is mentioned under the concept of eco-friendly hotels. They are giving names to the hotels which protect the environment and respect to natural environment as “green hotels” or “eco-friendly” hotels. There are some organizations and councils about green hotels in the world. Especially about sustainable tourism, there is an organization and it is named as Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC). GSTC is a global initiative dedicated to promoting sustainable tourism practices around the world. Momentum around this movement is growing. The GSTC is currently active in all World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) regions, including Africa, The Americas, East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, Europe and Middle East (http://new.gstcouncil.org/about/learnabout-the-gstc). They have some criteria’s to assess the hotels and tour operators. First criteria’s were published in 2008 and three years later, in 2011, revised criteria’s were published. GSTC has 37 criteria’s, based on environment management system, water management, energy management, waste management, guest information, kitchen (food and beverages), housekeeping, garden and beach area, interior and exterior appearance, organized around four main themes as effective sustainability planning, maximizing social and economic benefits for 94 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo the local community, enhancing cultural heritage and reducing negative impacts to the environment. The criteria’s which are offered by another organizations which inspect hotels about sustainable environment, use these criteria’s to create their own check lists. Besides GSTC, another organizations and programs about sustainable environment and tourism are United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), International Union for Nature (IUCN), International Tourism Partnership (ITP), World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), Rainforest Alliance, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), European Environment Agency (EEA), Network Evolution for Sustainable Tourism (NEST), United Nations Foundation, DestiNet and Travelife. Travelife using 99 criteria’s to assess the environmental operations in hotels and offering bronze, silver or gold awards depend on success of a hotel. There is an association about green hotels and named as “Green Hotels Association” in USA established in 1993. They have more than 50 member hotels all around the world but most of them locate in USA. This association aims to control waste management, protection of the natural environment and energy and water saving activities in hotels and consult them in these fields. There are over 800 different green certifications (http://www.greenhotels.com). Green Hotels Association is not offering “green star hotel certificate” to the hotels, instead of this, they are offering a guideline includes rules about how to protect the environment and the other subjects such as water, energy, waste management and air quality. The hotels have this guideline can have an opportunity to check all subjects mentioned above on-their-own and reduce management costs easily in these fields. There is a program named as “GreenHotelsGlobal” can provide metric-based information for the hotels. Hotels that use the Green Hotels Global program can accurately report to existing and prospective clients the carbon footprint; energy consumption; water usage and waste generation associated with room-night usage and event bookings. Green Hotels Global provides tracking of ongoing environmental progress in a standardized format, thereby establishing consistency, transparency and reportable metrics (http://greenhotelsglobal.com/about.aspx). With this program, hotels can assess the environmental subjects mentioned above and create reports includes the recent results regularly. With these reports, hotels can periodically benchmark them with each other and see the inefficient fields they have. 4.GREEN STAR HOTEL APPLICATIONS IN TURKEY In Turkey, green star hotel applications are operated and inspected by The Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The Ministry have 122 criteria’s based on; “General Management”, “Environmentally Training”, “Arrangements in Rooms”, “Compliance with Environment”, “Energy Management”, “Water Management”, “Sanitizers, Hazardous Chemicals Management”, “Waste Management” and “Other Services” All criteria’s have special score board. If a hotel is being inspected have adequate total score, regarding the type of the hotel (3-star, 4 –star, 5-star), there is a certificate named as “The Certification of Environmentally Friendly Accommodation Establishment” is offered by Ministry since 2008 and it is renewed every two years. About adequate score, if a hotel is a 5-star holiday village, it should have minimum 330 points; or if it is 5-star hotel, it should have minimum 300 points to get this certificate. These total scores necessary for the certificate depend on the type of hotels. The Ministry aims to encourage the hotels to get this certificate. That’s why they have special score table is divided into two groups as Resort Hotels and City Hotels. All hotels from 1-star to 5-star can apply for this certificate to 95 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo the Ministry. After getting Environmentally-Friendly Certificate, the color of the stars on the hotel-plate changes to green. That’s why in Turkey, “Green Hotel” concept converts to “Green Star Hotel” concept. If a hotel is a member of the Ministry, to get this certificate they are not obligated to pay. There is no organization/association for Green Star Hotels in Turkey. Now, only the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is responsible for green star applications formally but the hotels can have certificates about environment or other subjects from other institutions if they have sufficient facilities inspected by them such as Travelife. 5.EVALUATION OF GREEN STAR HOTELS IN TURKEY 5.1The Aim and The Scope of Research The aim of this study is to determine the total amount of green star hotels in Turkey and to see green star hotel applications particularly in Antalya. Only 11 green star hotels locate in Antalya are taken into consideration in these research. Selecting Hotels and Data Collection To evaluate the environmental activities of green star hotels, special questionnaire was prepared by regarding GSTC’s, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s and other organizations’ assessment criteria’s and had face-to-face interviews with hotel managers. Approximately 2 hours were spent at each hotel to get answers for questions and to take photos for some important environmental points. 5.2.Analyzing of Collected Data’s All data’s collected from 11 green star hotels in Antalya were classified as energy management, water management, waste management and recycling; based on lobbies and opened areas, rooms, offices, kitchen and laundry areas and hotel operations. Besides that, environmentally training, certificates related to environment were analyzed. On another hand, questionnaires were prepared for visitors and tried to get answers for their knowledge about green star applications, why they chose the hotel they lodged and whether green star is affective on their decisions or not, the visuals show environmental activities by the hotel enough for the visitors or not, if they would like to participate to these activities or not etc. were analyzed. 6.FINDINGS 6.1.The Total Number of Green Star Hotels In Turkey, with regarding the fact sheet of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, “Calista Luxury Resort Hotel” is the first Green Star Hotel in Turkey and now there are 23 green star hotels have environmentally-friendly certificate (See Table 1). 96 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 1. Dispersion of all Green Star Hotels in Turkey No Hotels n % 11 48 5 22 2 9 Antakya 1 4 Konya 1 4 21 Tuğcan Hotel Gaziantep 1 4 22 DoubleTree by Hilton Avanos Kapadokya Nevşehir 1 4 23 Dedeman Hotel Sanliurfa Şanlıurfa 1 4 TOTAL 23 100 1 Amara Dolce Vita Antalya 2 Calista Luxury Resort Otel Antalya 3 Club Hotel Rixos Tekirova Antalya 4 Concorde De Luxe Resort Antalya 5 Xanadu Resort Hotel Antalya 6 Otium Eco Club Side Antalya 7 Crystal Palace Resort Kemer Otel Antalya 8 Crystal Hotels Flora Beach Antalya 9 Crystal Sunrise Queen Luxury Resort & Spa Antalya 10 Crystal Palace Family Resort Antalya 11 Crystal Paraiso Verde Resort & Spa Antalya 12 Crowne Plaza Istanbul Asia Istanbul 13 Four Seasons Hotel Istanbul 14 The President Hotel Istanbul 15 The Sofa Otel Istanbul 16 Holiday Inn Istanbul City Istanbul 17 Ersan Tatil Koyu Bodrum Muğla 18 Hilton Dalaman Golf Resort & Spa Muğla 19 Antakya Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort 20 Dedeman Hotel Konya 97 City �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo There are 11 green star hotels, %48 of total number of green star hotels in Turkey, locate Antalya as you see on the table above. These hotels are intensively locate in Belek, Beldibi, Tekirova, Lara, Side and Kemer. Belek is the most intensive region for green star hotels as %36 of total hotels in Antalya. Because in Belek, hotels have large green area and also most of these hotels are suitable for golf sports. 6.2.Range the Trends in Green Star Hotels Hotels have being inspected since 2008 by the Ministry. In 2008, no hotels got the certificate because it was the first year of constitution. Since 2009, the total numbers of hotels have being increased (See Figure 1) Figure 1. Range the Trends in Green Star Hotels In 2009 there are 2 hotels applied for green star and in 2010; it increased and 10 hotels applied. In 2011, 12 hotels applied for green star and got the certificate. In 2012, one hotel have got the environmentally friendly certificate but it was not included on the graph. Because of data’s for 2012 are limit to April so if we put on the graph, people can understand that in 2012 trend is going down which is not correct. 6.3.Energy Management Activities in Green Star Hotels Within the scope of 11 green star hotels, all of them are using energy-saving lighting system in their lobbies, rooms, opened areas, offices, kitchens and laundry areas. %45 of them benefit from the sunlight in restaurants and lobbies and they have an opportunity to reduce the lighting expenditures at comparatively crowded these areas. %73 of the hotels are using motion sensor lamps in general toilets. %91 of the hotels have posters about energy savings in rooms and all of them have automatic heating and cooling systems, energy saving refrigerators and other electronically devices and machines in rooms, kitchens and laundry areas. Most of them have 98 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo double-glass windows system in whole hotel and this allow hotel management to control heat abduction. All of them are using integrated office equipments such as printer, scanner, copy and fax, all in one, devices so they do not consume energy separately. 6.4.Water Management Activities in Green Star Hotels All hotels are using water-saving device named as aerator at their taps and showers. Aerator does not allow to much consuming and certain rate of water is being used. Also in all hotels, west-bins are being used also they have small posters for visitors about put the garbage to the west-bin. %9 of hotels are using waterless urinals and the rest of them have photocell urinals in general toilets. Photocell taps are being used in all hotels in general toilets but in rooms, none of them has. Reusable things have highly importance in green star applications. At %45 of examined hotels, there are some small cards on the towels and “will be used again” written on them. So they do not use disposable towels in rooms and after using by the visitor, they are cleaned with high-tech washing technologies and used again for another visitors. If visitors request to change their towels and bed sheets, they should put them on the floor and there is a card explains what visitors should do. Unless they do, nobody can change them and still have to use. This is an important activity in green star hotels to avoid unnecessary water utilization. %64 of the hotels have photocell tap systems also in kitchens. Because kitchens are really important consuming points about water utilization so they could control water using rate easily with this system. In some countries, especially always rainy countries in Europe, hotels are collecting rain waters by special system and using this water for garden. %18 of green star hotels in Antalya is using this system and they are using the collected rain water especially for gardens. The rate is so low because it is normal that Antalya does not get rain so much if you compare with Europe. 6.5.Increasing the Air Quality in Hotels About examined green star hotels in Antalya, the entrance of the hotels are designed specially to leave dusts and other things outside. In some hotels, armchairs, beds and carpets are being cleaned by expert cleaning companies periodically to clean mites and allergens. %64 of the hotels are using environmentally-friendly paints and wallpapers in their rooms and lobbies. Especially about the paints, water-based paints are highly important to protect the environment. Another important subject is to determine smoking areas and rooms certainly. Also in most of the hotels, smoking is not allowed to personnel within the work hours. All of the hotels examined have special applications about smoking such as only at private areas in disco or balconies. In %73 of hotels, “High Efficiency Particulate Absolute System” (HEPA System) is implemented so they can control the air circulation efficiently. Personnel are trained about controlled use of printers in offices. Because the micro particles are unhealthy for human life so it should not be breathed so printers have to be used carefully. 99 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 6.6.Waste Management and Recycling About waste management and recycling subject, in all hotels recycling-bins place in opened areas and visitors can reach them easily. Also it has different colors such as for glasses; blue, for paper; yellow and for plastic; green colors are used in one recycle-bin so people can understand easily which is more appropriate for their garbage. But %37 of all hotels have recycle-bin also in rooms and %55 of them have at offices. Reducing paper usage is one of the most important subject in waste management. %73 of all hotels let visitor to do their check-in and check-out transactions via on-line so they are managing the low rate paper using successfully at the same times. Also identity cards and passports of visitors are being scanned and they don’t have any paper copy to keep at registration. Soaps and foams are being kept in boxes on the wall in general toilets. When they are finished, they can be filled again and boxes reused easily. But in rooms, all hotels are using disposable small bottles for shampoo and soaps. When they are finished, in some of the hotels, they are filled again and reused but most of the hotels, they are not used again. In all hotels, cotton or bamboo curtains, bed sheets and towels are being used also there are small posters on the wall in rooms and lobbies to inform visitors about waste management and reducing the wastes. Also in all hotels, using environmentally-friendly cleaners, big size detergents and other cleaners, using the reusable table clothes, to request authorized companies by municipality to take waste oil for producing bio-diesel are the most important subjects in waste management and all of them are expending energy on these subjects. Housekeeping personnel in all green star hotels is collecting the garbage from the rooms and other areas, regarding the type of items. They have some special equipment to collect the wastes and also have different colors bags regarding to type of garbage. The most important point at waste management is %73 of hotels grant old but working machines, reusable towels and bed-sheets, personnel clothes and uniforms to the charity, municipalities, hospitals, mosques and other places. Also some hotels have their own zoo’s and cat houses within the hotel area and the appropriate waste foods are given to the animals. Hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials are being collected and stored in special depots outside the hotel building to avoid damaging people’s health. 6.7.Environmental Training Programs for Hotel Personnel All 11 green star hotels in Antalya have opportunity for their own personnel to train them about environment with in-house training modules. Especially personnel are being trained about appropriate techniques for waste management, fire and job security management, environmentconscious trainings, collecting and storing waste oils for bio-diesel, information security, perceiving customer expectations effectively, ISO 14001 Environment Management System, good and successful environmental activities etc. 100 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 6.8.Environmental Committee and Certificates All hotels have their own environmental committee within the hotels. Regarding the rules determined by the Ministry, to get environmentally-friendly certificate also hotels should recruit at least one environmental engineer who is responsible for whole green star applications process within the hotel. %82 of hotels have environmental committee with 1-5 people. %9 of hotels have 6-10 people and the rest of; %9 have 11-15 people. Environmental committee is always organizing meeting with the others about activities and green star applications in their hotels and report them annually. These annual reports are taken into account by the Ministry every 2 years for certificate renewal. %91 of hotels have ISO 22000 Food Safety Management System Certificate, %73 of them have ISO 9001 Quality Management System Cert, again %73 of them have ISO 10002 Customer Satisfaction Management Certificate, %64 of hotels have ISO 14001 Environment Management System Certificate, , %36 of them have OHSAS ISO 18001 Occupational Health And Safety Management System Certificate. 6.9.Environment Policy and Visuals Attracting Visitors The 11 hotels interviewed in Antalya have their own “Environment Policy” and %73 of them put the policy in lobby and other areas to attract visitors. Also %64 of the hotels inform the visitors about green star applications they organized and operated with using environment board, environment tree or photos in lobbies, opened areas or in rooms. %73 of hotels are getting comments and suggestions from visitors about green star applications and hotel environment. On the other hand, %64 of hotels request visitors to join them for environmental activities such as replanting, collecting garbage etc. Also some hotels instruct special areas to cultivate organic vegetables, fruits and to protect endemic plants with visitors. 7.THE AWARENESS OF VISITORS ABOUT GREEN STAR APPLICATIONS We prepared another questionnaire for visitors not for hotel management to measure the awareness of visitors about green star applications and environmental activities operated by hotels. Firstly the visitors were classified as gender, nationality, age, education and occupation (See Table 3). Table 3. Demographic Features of Visitors 101 Gender n % Nationality n % Male 37 69 Turkish Rep. 17 32 Female 17 31 UK 16 30 Total 54 100 Germany 11 20 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Occupation n % North Europe 4 7 Independent 22 41 Middle Europe 4 7 Not Written 8 15 Russia 2 4 Retired 6 11 Total 54 100 Teacher 3 6 Age Accountant 3 6 18-25 2 4 Manager 3 6 26-33 5 9 Student 2 4 34-41 11 20 Sales 2 4 42-49 12 22 IT 2 4 50-57 9 17 Bank Empl. 1 2 58 and over 15 28 PC Progr. 1 2 Total 54 100 Secretary 1 2 Education n % Total 54 100 Prim.School 9 17 High School 16 30 Graduated 25 46 Post-Graduated 4 7 Total 54 100 n % Totally 54 visitors answered this questionnaire within 4 green star hotels in Antalya. %59 of all visitors do not have any idea about green star hotels. Related to this, %76 of them did not select the hotel which they are lodging because it has green star. About green star applications in hotels, %69 of them told that green star applications are enough and %67 of them think that visual about green star application are enough within the hotels. %24 of them indicated that Blue Flag is the most important criteria while selecting the hotel. %19 of them equally said green star and other things are important. %74 of the visitors in four green star hotels think that the posters about energy saving, waste management and recycling in lobbies, rooms and open areas are enough and they attract them about protecting the environment. The same rate, %74, of visitors also think that the institutional environmental policy is so clear and they can see easily in lobbies, rooms and open areas. About the participating to environmentally activities by hotel management such as collecting garbage, replanting etc., %56 of visitors would like to participate to these activities. 102 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo %72 of visitors answers our question positively about getting their suggestions and recommendations about environment by hotel management. It is very high rate and %96 of them recommend the green star hotel which they are lodging to anyone but %48 of them indicated that they did not see any differences between other 5-star hotels (which are not green star) and this green star hotel they are lodging. The visitors who thought there was a difference between them, indicated that in green star hotel some applications are being operated more carefully such as there is a environment board which shows endemic plants and wild animals etc., more effective waste management, more service quality, to more respect for endemic plants and animals, to give more importance on cleaning, usage of plastic and paper glasses and to have a card in rooms about towels and bed sheets to put on the floor if visitors request to change. 8.CONCLUSION Green star applications and processes are a bit different from eco-friendly hotel arrangements. Because eco-friendly hotels, only about some subjects important and assessed to protect the environment but not so much care about the hotel building, instruction necessities and some technical fields. Now, in the world the numbers of green hotels are enormously increasing because the fast global warming. All hotels have decided to be more careful about the environment, energy saving, water saving, waste management, recycling and personnel training about environment. Hotels are investing in technology and personnel training more than before and protecting the environment also began to be a strong criterion between hotels about competition circumstances. Green star hotel applications are really important in Turkey especially in Antalya. With these applications, besides the hotels, also people started to be more environment-conscious also individually. In Turkey, the number of green star hotels are increasing and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is working to encourage all types of hotels to get the environmentally-friendly certificate. Now, there are 23 green star hotels in Turkey and the most of them, %48, locate in Antalya because Antalya is the best known city about tourism by foreign visitors even in Turkey. Green star hotel concept will be important about the Scandinavian and developed countries’ preferences for destinations. Now, blue flag is more affective on decisions for hotel selecting and in the future green star will be more affective instead of blue flag. REFERENCES Dolnicar, S. and Leisch, F. (2008). Selective marketing for environmentally sustainable tourism. Tourism Management (29), 672–680. Green Hotels Association. Last Accessed on 4 29, 2012, from http://www.greenhotels.com Green Hotels Global. Last Accessed on 4 29, 2012, from http://greenhotelsglobal.com/about.aspx 103 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo GSTC Global Sustainable Tourism Council. Last Accessed on 4 29, 2012, from http://new.gstcouncil.org/about/learn-about-the-gstc Kasim, A. (2004). Socio-environmentally responsible hotel business: Do tourists to Penang Island, Malaysia care? Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 11(4), 5-28. Manaktola, K. and Jauhari, V. (2007). Exploring consumer attitude and behaviour towards green practices in the lodging industry in India. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(5), 364-377. Moreo, A. (2008) Green Consumption in the Hotel Industry: An Examination of Consumer Attitudes, Master Thesis in Hospitality Information Management, University of Delaware, UMI: 1457177, Newark, USA: ProQuest. Muntean, A. and Stremtan, F. (2008). Green-marketing: a new challenge for romanian organizations. Tourism Management, 14(2), 343-348. Roberts, J.A. (1996). Green consumers in the 1990s: profile and implications for advertising. Journal of Business Research, 36(3), 217-231. Rudez, H.N. (2010). Integration of corporate social responsibility into loyalty programs in the tourism industry. Tourism and Hospitality Management, 16(1), 101-108. Song, H.J., Lee, C., Kang, S.K. and Boo, S. (2012). The effect of environmentally friendly perceptions on festival visitors’ decision-making process using an extended model of goaldirected behavior. Tourism Management, 2012(1-12). Straughan, R.D., and Roberts, J.A. (1999). Environmental segmentation alternatives: a look at green consumer behavior in the new millennium. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(6), 558575. Tribe, J. (2005) The Economics of Recreation, Leisure and Tourism. Amsterdam, Boston: Elsevier. 104 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1368 Title A name given to the resource Green Marketing Activities Of Green Star Hotels In Concept Of Sustainable Tourism Author Author Mustafa, Gulmez Abstract A summary of the resource. Due to increasing of global warming, the activities and studies about environmental consciousness and environmentally awareness are adopted by green star hotels and concept of sustainable tourism is becoming increasingly important in this context. Environmentally-friendly hotels or green star hotels have social responsibility consciousness to protect the environment by creating and developing economical solutions by hotel management for water and energy storing and reducing the solid wastes. Nowadays, both hotel managers and visitors pleasure in doing works environmentally responsible. While the hotel managers are adopting environmentallyfriendly construction, visitors (tourists) are behaving more environmentally-friendly about holiday plans and shopping. It is indicated that, the number of tourists who consider green star criteria while selecting the hotels are increasing and at last decades, environmentally-friendly tourism have enormously increased. The aim of this study is to expose green marketing activities of green star hotels in Turkey. In this context, the activities of green star hotels have been examined and viewpoints of the visitors about green marketing have been retained. In this research, both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used together. Deep - interviews were done with hotel managers also the questionnaires were used to get information about the awareness of visitors about green star hotels and green marketing activities. Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Tourism, Green Star Hotel, Green Marketing, Green Consumer Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a455d14de69ac48d7a5a6938f65e4db7.pdf 2b15cb99a5969744a34d5c039c97b5cd PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Green Technologies And Strategies The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years İbrahim Aydın, Selim Sarper Yılmaz Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme Manisa, Turkey E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, selim.yilmaz@bayar.edu.tr Abstract Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions. In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind speed. 1. INTRODUCTION Renewable energy resources are seen as an important source with an increasing interest all over the world in covering the energy requirement owing to the fact that the environmental problems increase every other day and the fossile energy sources gradually decrease (Özerdem, 2003). Due to the fossil resources decreasing day by day and the environmental problems increasing , renewable energy resources are met with an increasing interest all over the world and seen as significant sources in meeting the need for energy. The wind energy whose usage and technology develop most quickly among these renewable energy resources comes on top of all (Kose and Ozgur, 2004). When that wind energy is both local source and clean and nature-friendly is taken into consideration, that it has an important part in solving the problems of our day can be seen (Kose, 2004). When 1 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo all these factors are taken into account, trying to compensate the needs with renewable energy resources will both reduce the environmental pollution and increase the life span of reserves by limiting the usage amount of fossil resources which have been decreasing every other day. Consequently, research on these matters should continually be strengthened and supported (Aydin, 2008). In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1.Wind Calculations In order to be able to make correct calculations in a measuring station, the locations of the equipments within the measuring stations and the distance between them are crucial (Ozgur, 2006). These equipments consist of measuring poles, sensors and data storage units. In measuring stations, the ideal height of the upper anemometer should be 30 meters above the ground and 20 meters above the lower anemometer. The direction control apparatus should be placed 1.5 meters lower than the upper anemometer (Sen, 2003). In order to design, plan and operate the wind energy systems, it is crucial to know all the characteristics of the winds in detail. Long lasting reliable data are necessitated so as to determine the positioning of turbines and the potential of wind energy (Nogay and Taskin, 2000). Wind velocity calculations are the most significant and crucial measurings for determining the annul energy savings, stabilizing the performance and investing the sources of winds (Ackerman and Soder, 2002). In order to benefit from the wind energy efficiently, the detailed reports of the wind characteristics should be provided in a particular location. In order to determine the wind potential of a specific zone, the calculations of the zone mentioned should be provided at least for a whole year. However, A larger period than a year will provide you with more accurate assessments. 2.2. The Situation of the Wind Energy in the Province of Manisa The distribution of the wind stations among the districts in Manisa is displayed in the figure 1. According to this drawing, the total installed power had reached for 293.80 MW till the October of 2011 in Manisa. In Turkey, since the January of 2011, 15 wind stations have been installed, reaching an overall of 72 in the whole country. Akres-Akhisar wind station in Bekirler village in Manisa-Akhisar formed by the Best-Karesi Energy Company was opened in 11.09.2011. With the joining of 45 MW installed power in Akhisar into the overall cycle, the installed energy of Turkey has reached 1600 megawatts, 2 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo while Turkey’s investment has reached 1.6 billion Euros. Manisa forms almost %18.36 of Turkey with its 293.80 MW. And this is a very high proportion. Fig. 1: The distrıbutıon of the wind stations among the distrıcts in Manisa (Aydin, 2012) 3. RESULTS 3.1. Measuring the Directions of Dominating Winds in Manisa Measuring in which directions the winds are moving predominantly is a crucial matter in determining the locations of turbines. As a result of hourly measurements in Manisa for five years, the moving directions and velocity rates of 8760 winds have been stated. These measure rates obtained with the aid of Manisa Region Directorship of Meteorology have been exhibited in Excel and by using this software, it has been possible to determine how many hours, at what directions and velocity the winds have been blowing for a year. These results have been evaluated in Excel and the wind rose displayed in the drawing ‘Figure 2-3-45’ has been acquired. As a result of the wind measuring results conducted in Manisa, the dominating wind direction has been stated as (NNE) North East North and (ESE) East South East. It has been concluded that during the installation of the system, it would be more appropriate to pay attention to leaving this particular direction through which the wind velocity is predominant open in order to benefit more from the turbine. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. 3 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Fig. 2: Wind Rose(2005) Fig. 3: Wind Rose (2006) Fig. 4: Wind Rose (2007) 4 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Fig. 5: Wind Rose (2008) (Aydin, 2012) 4. CONCLUSION In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. REFERENCES Özerdem, B., The Development and the Future of Wind Energy Practices in Turkey, 9th Energy Congress Turkey, World Energy Council Turkish National Commitee, 65-73 s, Izmir,2003. Köse, R., Özgür, M.A., Research of Wind Energy Potentials in Dumlupınar University Campus, DPU Science Journal, Issue 5, 187-196 s, Kütahya, 2003. Köse, R., An evaluation of wind energy potential as a power generation source in Kütahya, Turkey, Energy Conversion and Management, 45:1631-1641 p,2004. Aydın, İ., Gaining Electricity with A Small Powerful Autonomous Wind Energy Circulation, MA Thesis, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, 2008. Özgür, M.A., Statistical Analysis of Wind Characteristic and Its Feasibility for Electricity Production Kütahya, Dissertation, Osman Gazi University, Eskişehir, 2006. Şen, Ç., Meeting Gokceada’s Need for Electric Energy with Wind Energy, MA Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, 2003. Noğay, S., Taşkın, S., Power Performence on Wind Turbines, Measurements of Noise and Velocity, 3rd National Clean Energy Symposium, Volume I, s385. İstanbul, 2000. 5 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002. AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1997. Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012. Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2 1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery, 45020, Manisa, Turkey 2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, 45040, Manisa, Turkey E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr, ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr Abstract In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated. Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir welding were determined for pure aluminum. Keywords:Friction stir welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties. 1. INTRODUCTION Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance, lightness, ease of production, physical and mechanical properties and corrosion strength. Aluminum is known for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3. Aluminum has an excellent atmosphere, water, salt water, oil 6 corrosion resistance against and many chemicals. the In � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1220 Title A name given to the resource Green Technologies And Strategies The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years Author Author İbrahim , Aydın Abstract A summary of the resource. Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions. In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind speed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/acdefdfdcd7c11cbd984430bd9ed52e0.pdf 1bfb40abc1267b6b949f36aad013b4a5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗GROWN-UP‘ SYNTAX IN CHILDREN‘S STORYBOOKS Tatjana MarjanoviĤ Department of English University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina tatjanam@inecco.net Abstract: The study hopes to challenge the view that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The small-scale research was a text-based analysis of three children‘s stories aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. With a manually handled corpus kept within manageable limits it was possible to determine the presence or absence of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, i.e. those believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception. The main finding to report is that syntax in children‘s stories is little different from what may be informally described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The paper also invites the reader to acknowledge the difficult task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. Key words: syntax, clause, paratactic, hypotactic, embedded, non-finite Introduction To say that storytelling lies at the very root of human communication is to say nothing new and startling. To say that storytelling is a practice deeply ingrained in our linguistic and social behaviour may seem all too familiar to deserve yet another echo. Indeed, Bell (1999, p. 147) reminds us that ‗much of humanity‘s most important experience has been embodied in stories.‘ It is also a practice we are introduced to very early on in our lives. Very young children who may not even be able to speak properly eagerly await their bedtime story and savour the familiar voice of their reader taking them to a safe haven of imagination. But beyond the nostalgic reminiscences of a happy childhood loom many unanswered questions puzzling the adult minds of researchers who resort not to imagination but to empirical tests involving texts and subjects. Experts have strived in their many efforts to find out what a children‘s story does and does not do. The following are some of the frequently asked questions. To what extent is it an aid in enhancing children‘s reading skills? Does and should it contain language within absolute reach of the target age group? Is and should there be a shift of focus from attaining full comprehension to merely creating imagery as a powerful tool for teaching desired or acceptable forms of social behaviour? Owing to an excess of conflicting evidence, research is still very much ongoing in this field, as the lines below suggest. In her study of nonfinite clauses in children‘s literature, Puurtinen (1998) reports that these tightly packed and therefore inevitably less explicit units of meaning affect readability (i.e. ease with which texts are read and understood) more than sentence length does (Role of Children‘s Literature section, para. 2). However, recent trends in children‘s literature reveal greater freedom in the choice of complex syntactic structures, which may be a result of a relatively relaxed attitude towards children's literature in general (Conclusion, para. 1). Some justification for such trends is found in the work of Eisenberg et al. (2008), who report quite encouraging results of a study testing school-aged children‘s production of noun phrases with pre- and postmodification in fictional narratives. Accordingly, descriptive noun phrases were produced by all children at the age of 8, and noun phrases with post-modification by all children at the age of 11 (Abstract). More tentative forecasts are reported in Paris, Carpenter, Paris and Hamilton (2005), who claim that syntactically difficult stories or those containing unfamiliar vocabulary may lead to more gap-filling than texts which are less complex and more accessible to younger readers (p. 136). Verhallen (2009) agrees that the sophisticated language of children‘s books is often riddled with complex sentences and may thus be out of reach for young children with little previous exposure to storybooks (para. 1). To fully understand a narrative may not be of primary importance indeed: a simple act of reading or being read to may help a child grow and develop more creatively. With loyalties lying in that camp, the issue of a child‘s linguistic abilities matching the linguistic complexity of children‘s literature possibly gives less cause for concern. 1175 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The following study hopes to challenge the view, should it still persist amongst linguists, teachers, and story readers and tellers in general, that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Sentence and phrase length put aside, what remains is a number of highly sophisticated syntactic structures and strategies expressing some of the most subtle layers of meaning. This paper is certainly not meant to criticize the syntactic make-up of children‘s storybooks (nor would it be fair in light of so many opposing views prevailing with language acquisition experts in this line of study); instead, it invites all parties concerned to acknowledge the difficult - if not impossible - task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. The aim of the research is not to support one view against the other, but merely to report the finding that syntax in children‘s literature is little different from what may informally be described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Corpus The corpus underlying the study consists of three children‘s storybooks 339 online340 amounting to 3,987 words distributed over 388 lines. The stories are aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. A total of only three stories points to a small-scale research in which a manually handled corpus had to be kept within manageable limits. Method An analysis was performed of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, especially hypotactic and embedded clauses, each realized by both finite and non-finite varieties. Their occurrences were then compared against those syntactic structures that are intuitively considered less demanding, mainly paratactic clauses. A selective list was also created reporting additional syntactic features and strategies - some of them with clearly marked discourse functions - believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception, i.e. cleft sentences, discontinuous modification, extraposition, fronting, inversion, thematic dislocation, along with ellipsis and substitution at clause level. Each of the categories selected was then defined and exemplified with verbatim corpus material. Finally, tabular representations of syntactic structures and features containing percentages and numbers of occurrences were provided in order to visualise the findings rather than present the study as essentially quantitative. The aim was to point to a syntactic wealth and diversity in children‘s stories rather than claim categorical supremacy in numbers. Findings and discussion Following a count of 313 sentences and 690 clauses, the latter were grouped and analysed as belonging to paratactic, hypotactic or embedded varieties. Parataxis is a relationship of independence and equality between clauses, with each clause in the complex preserving its self-sustainability. Two or more clauses can be conjoined in this way both with and without the presence of a coordinating conjunction (when there is no coordinator, a comma is used instead). Hypotaxis, on the other hand, signifies a relationship in which one clause assumes the position of subordination to the other clause or clauses (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 281). We have, however, regarded as hypotactic only those clauses that have adverbial meanings (Carter and McCarthy, 2006, p. 560), along with the odd sentential relative341. Such an approach enabled a separate treatment of embedded clauses, those that act as immediate constituents (i.e. subject, object or complement) of a superordinate clause, or even as constituents of phrases (e.g. relative clauses acting as post-modifiers in noun phrases). 339 The storybooks selected for analysis are McFeeglebee‘s Pond, an illustrated story, The Wumpalump, an illustrated religious parable, and The Littlest Knight, an illustrated fairy tale. The names of the authors are acknowledged in the References below. 340 The reminder that the storybooks appear online is not meant to imply a lower standard of production; on the contrary, www.magickeys.com, the site from which the storybooks were downloaded, is a multiple award-winner, with some of its content distributed to schools all over native Australia. 341 E.g. As big as three houses with breath like a gale, it looked rather hungry, which made Georgie pale. This sentence from McFeeglebee‘s Pond contains a sentential relative, which made Georgie pale, which, as the name suggests, harks back to the entire proposition of the preceding sentence rather than the more usual noun antecedent. 1176 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On a final note, sentence is here understood as an orthographical unit ending in a full stop or, less frequently, in a question or exclamation mark. The following are examples of all three types of clauses: (1a) "I'm gonna lie down with my knees in the air and the pole through my toes and doze like a lazy catfish in summer.["] (1b) The water, seething and boiling, turned bright red then dark as that grisly catfish became a shark. (1c) But little Georgie P. Johnson just wiggled his nose and pretended not to hear, as if he had molasses stuck in his ear. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) In (1a) the coordinator conjoining the two clauses is the semantically universal ‗and‘, while other coordinators found in the texts include but, so, or, nor, for, and then. (1b) features the subordinator ‗as‘, which has been chosen from a long list of subordinators in the texts, e.g. before, when, while, until, where, because, as if, just as, though, so that, now that, etc. Example (1c) is interesting because it brings together all three types of clauses: ‗stuck in his ear‘ is embedded, ‗as if he had molasses stuck in his ear‘ hypotactic, and ‗but little Georgie P. Johnson just wiggled his nose and pretended not to hear‘ comprises two paratactic clauses. The distribution of clauses based on the classification outlined is presented in Table 1 below. Clause Percentage Paratactic 67.5 Hypotactic 14.1 Embedded 18.4 Table 1: The distribution of dependent and independent clauses in the texts It is not surprising that parataxis should represent the dominant syntactic relationship in the stories, but the two dependent categories surely manifest a great deal of complexity and thus make up for what they may lack in numbers. Embedding takes place in all permissible constituent positions – that of subject, object and complement. At phrase level, clauses post-modify nouns, complement adjectives and prepositions, and qualify adverbs342. Even more strikingly, the corpus abounds in sentences with multiple or recursive embedding, i.e. embedded clauses containing other embedded or hypotactic clauses, for example: (2a) The King declared whosoever killed the dragon would be granted half his kingdom. (2b) When he reached the dragon's lair he saw that the cliffs of the ravine were so far across that building a bridge would take a year. (from The Littlest Knight) In (2a) the embedded clause ‗whosoever killed the dragon would be granted half his kingdom‘ acting as direct object introduces yet another embedded clause - ‗whosoever killed the dragon‘ - in subject position. Similarly, in (2b) the nominal clause ‗that the cliffs of the ravine were so far across that building a bridge would take a year‘ accommodates the adverb phrase ‗so far across that building a bridge would take a year‘, with the clause ‗that building a bridge would take a year‘ acting as qualifier, which in turn holds the non-finite clause ‗building a bridge‘ in subject position. As a matter of fact, hypotactic and embedded clauses are realised by a great number of nonfinite structures (e.g. infinitival and participial, along with verbless clauses), as displayed in Table 2 below. Clause Percentage Finite 62.5 Non-finite 37.5 Table 2: Finite versus non-finite hypotactic and embedded clauses Let us briefly consider the following examples: (3a) So now whenever a little lump believes on the Word and knows to give of himself is life... so shall he too feel all love, all joy, all peace. 342 The terminology used is from Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) and Downing and Locke (2003). 1177 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (from The Wumpalump) (3b) Grabbing the pole and holding on tight he used every muscle to fight what was without doubt the biggest of trout. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) (3a) introduces the infinitival clause ‗to give of himself‘, which functions as the subject of the higher-ranking nominal clause ‗to give of himself is life‘, in turn filling the object slot of the main clause. (3b) accommodates the coordinated V-ing adverbial clauses ‗grabbing the pole and holding on tight‘, as well as the infinitival adverbial clause ‗to fight what was without doubt the biggest of trout‘, which additionally holds the wh-nominal clause ‗what was without doubt the biggest of trout‘ in the object slot. Adding further to an already complex syntactic make-up are non-finite clauses containing explicit subjects, for example: (4) It was in misery with its eyes swollen shut and its forked tongue lying on the ground. (from The Littlest Knight) The coordinated non-finite clauses, the first known as the V-en, and the second as the V-ing type, are introduced by the reinforcing preposition ‗with‘ and accompanied by the subjects ‗its eyes‘ and ‗its forked tongue‘ respectively. For an overview of syntactic categories analysed see Table 3 below. Syntactic feature Occurrences Clefting 3 Discontinuity 6 Ellipsis 5 Extraposition 4 Fronting 8 Inversion 11 Preposed theme 3 Postposed theme 1 Substitution 2 Table 3: The number of occurrences reported for advanced syntactic structures and features Greenbaum and Quirk (1990, p. 407) define fronting as ‗the achievement of marked theme by moving into initial position an item which is otherwise unusual there.‘ In a functional grammar framework (cf. Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004, p. 73) subject is theme by default, the most usual point of departure that signals what the clause is going to be about, while adverbials, which are frequently found in clause-initial positions in English, represent the least marked thematic choice. Because objects and complements are exceptionally rare in clause-opening positions, they are regarded as highly marked thematic elements in English (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 42). When fronted, these elements serve specific discourse functions. Baker (2002, p. 134) suggests that their thematic effect is to achieve contrast and highlight the speaker‘s attitude to the message. As shown in the examples below, instances of fronting identified in the corpus assume some of the most marked forms: (5a) … and no one there was to save them from the nothingness. (5b) … for no one there is to share with. (from The Wumpalump) (5c) Of fishing he was very fond, why should he fear McFeeglebee's pond? (from McFeeglebee's Pond) Compare the following unmarked versions with no fronting, leading to a more standard word order: (5d) … and there was no one to save them from the nothingness. (5e) … for there is no one to share with. (5f) He was very fond of fishing, why should he fear McFeeglebee's pond? 1178 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Examples (5a), (5b) and (5c) exhibit another interesting feature - that of discontinuity or postponement. Namely, post-modifiers in noun phrases and complements in adjective phrases can be separated from their respective heads to enable heavy structures to be placed towards the end of the utterance (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 263). This communicative strategy in turn reflects the existence of two complementary principles: end-focus and end-weight. The former suggests that new or most informative content is customarily placed towards the end of the clause, whereas the latter claims the end-position preference for weighty structures, usually long and/or complex ones (Leech and Svartvik, 1993, p. 175). Both in their syntactic and communicative aspects, fronting and discontinuity emerge as two fairly sophisticated expressive tools. Of course, writers may resort to advanced syntax to achieve a rhyming effect, as observed in (5c) above and (6a) below, which contains a discontinuous noun phrase, but without the extra fronting: (6a) And some little lumps arose who were wiser than their fellows. (from The Wumpalump) End-weight principle is clearly at work in (6a), and is justified by the awkwardness of having the whole noun phrase placed before the predicate: (6b) ?And some little lumps who were wiser than their fellows arose. It has not escaped our attention that discontinuity and fronting are almost exclusively associated with The Wumpalump storybook, which may be attributed either to the writer‘s syntactic preferences or even to her conscious attempt to emulate the style of religious writing. When the subject of a clause occurs in post-verbal position, the resulting word order is typically described as inversion. (7a) below qualifies for a textbook example: (7a) Out behind the big red barn at the edge of the walnut grove is a most magnificent pond shaded by an old oak tree. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) The inversion found in (7a) is meant to give greater prominence to the subject (Huddleston, 2000, p. 456), which is achieved by placing a scene-setting adverbial at the beginning of the clause. It is generally acknowledged that clause-opening adverbials denoting place reinforced with verbs of position and motion provide two important conditions in order for a successful subject-predicate switch to take place. As (7b) and (7c) below indicate, there are also adjunctive and conjunctive elements such as ‗not only‘ and ‗nor‘, which typically (or even obligatorily) trigger subject-operator inversion (Huddleston, 2000, p. 456; Thomson and Martinet, 1992, p. 63): (7b) But when he got back to the dragon he discovered that not only had the cup been chipped but it had a crack he had not seen. (7c) One man can't carry 1,000 swords, nor can you cross a bridge which isn't there, and if you fill an empty cup it won't be empty any more. (from The Littlest Knight) On the whole, inversion seems to be a useful tool in creating relevant discourse features such as scene-setting, focus and emphasis, adding the much-needed dramatic touch to storytelling. Since both types of inversion (i.e. subject-predicate and subject-operator switch) are performed in accordance with clearly defined criteria, the structure suggests a substantial degree of productive skill and receptive knowledge on the part of the speaker/writer and listener/reader, respectively. Another discourse-oriented syntactic strategy used for roughly the same communicative purposes and involving a rearrangement of clausal elements is known as extraposition. The notional subject, which is typically a long clause, is postponed or extraposed, and its initial position filled by an anticipatory it (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 35-6). The following sentence offers a textbook example of extraposition, which practically has no alternative in this case: (8) The Princess was the King and Queen's only child and it should come as no surprise that the little blacksmith loved her very much for she was both kind and beautiful.343 343 The notional subject extraposed is ‗that the little blacksmith loved her very much‘, while the ‗it‘ preceding the operator ‗should‘ is the obligatory slot-filling grammatical subject. 1179 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (from The Littlest Knight) Consider the awkwardness of ‗that the little blacksmith loved her very much should come as no surprise‘. Indeed, some clausal subjects are obligatorily extraposed, e.g. when followed by verbs of seeming and happening or the passive of say and hope. Generally, the complementary principles of end-weight and end-focus are the main driving force behind this syntactic transformation too, which once again requires a knowledgeable handler to follow it through. Assigning focus lies at the heart of another syntactic strategy commonly referred to as clefting. Although clefting was extremely rare in the storybooks analysed, both varieties, wh- and it-structure, were nevertheless documented: (9a) What was left were sacks and sacks and sacks of money piled everywhere. (9b) It was shortly after that he found the dragon or rather it found him. (from The Littlest Knight) What may easily escape the attention of an unsuspecting reader is a range of informational and stylistic effects achieved by the two structures. The wh-cleft in (9a), also known as pseudo-cleft, first broadly identifies an element as thematic, i.e. ‗what was left‘, and then returns to it in post-verbal position by revealing that it is ‗sacks and sacks and sacks of money piled everywhere‘. The structure conveys both an idea of implicit contrast as well as a sense of exclusiveness (Baker, 2002, p. 135-6): the finding that what was left were sacks of money is most likely to counter the reader‘s expectations; moreover, the reader is supposed to infer that the sacks of money were the only thing left and that there was nothing else there. The cleft in (9b) above places an element following ‗it‘ and the verb ‗be‘, i.e. ‗shortly after‘, in focus, with an idea of implicit contrast wielding the sentence in the desired direction (e.g. it was shortly after rather than years later that he found the dragon). Clefting in general subsumes several layers of meaning that are not exactly self-explanatory, and may take an expert to develop a full and proper understanding of their fine-grained linguistic properties. Unlike most of the afore-mentioned strategies, pre- and postposed themes are not to be associated with contrast or focus assignment. Instead, what takes place here is essentially thematic dislocation 344 in which pronominal forms serve as repetitions of more substantial nominal or, less frequently, clausal thematic elements, or in which an attenuated pronominal theme is subsequently disambiguated by a fully fledged theme. Non-pronominal themes can occur either in initial or final position in a clause (hence the term dislocation), as illustrated below: (10a) You must think I'm here to fiddle,1,000 men--that's not the riddle.345 (from The Littlest Knight) (10b) For this is the grace of God... that we should know him who in love created us and his son who in love died for us.346 (from The Wumpalump) Their appearance in the corpus is significant as dislocated themes are not commonly found in written English. McCarthy (2005, p. 51) cautions that these structures, which regularly emerge in natural spoken data, are nevertheless often ‗underplayed in language teaching, probably owing to the continued dominance of standards taken from the written code.‘ Pre- and postposed themes reflect the ‗online‘ nature of spontaneous speech styles, and the fact that they are documented in the corpus gives the storybooks a certain advantage over other forms of writing that ignore or find fault with these and similar aspects of grammar. They also add variety to an already diverse list of syntactic categories in the children‘s storybooks. Although probably a universal feature of language, ellipsis and substitution may be structurally realised in considerably different ways in different languages, presenting great difficulties even to the most proficient of learners (McCarthy, 2005, p. 43-4). (11a) below illustrates the omission of the linking verb ‗be‘ in the clause ‗and he but a lowly blacksmith‘, whereas (11b) is an example of clause-level substitution or replacement facilitated by the complex pro-form ‗not to‘: 344 Themes are normally realised by a single notional element occupying the first position in a clause. With preposed themes, however, nominal and pronominal thematic elements with single reference immediately follow each other, e.g. The Browns, they will know what to do. When the result is a postposed theme, the opening pronoun develops into a fullfledged coreferential structure at the end of the clause, e.g. They will know what to do, the Browns. 345 ‗1,000 men‘ is a preposed nominal theme, and ‗that‘ its pronominal reinforcement. 346 The pronominal theme ‗this‘ refers to the postposed clausal theme ‗that we should know him who in love created us and his son who in love died for us‘. 1180 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (11a) But, alas, the little blacksmith could admire the Princess only from afar because she was, after all, a princess and he but a lowly blacksmith--not even that tall. (from The Littlest Knight) (11b) Did you look to the nothingness as I warned you not to?" (from The Wumpalump) It is with ellipsis and substitution347 that we bring to a close our discussion of advanced structural devices found in the children‘s storybooks, posing the question whether there should be any justification for regarding the syntactic make-up of children‘s stories as essentially different from many other forms of writing that do not specifically target younger audiences. Conclusion This small-scale study was designed to challenge the popular belief that syntax in children‘s narratives must have a childlike quality to it. Quite a long list of syntactic structures and features dealt with in the previous section clearly contradicts this belief. The study casts real doubts over an attempt to make a clear dividing line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Any expectations of that kind prove unrealistic against the backdrop of highly sophisticated linguistic and expressive tools in the narratives. (Most of the structures given in Table 3, e.g. clefting and fronting, I teach my 3rd and 4th year students, foreign learners of English who are getting ready to take up teaching positions. My experience tells me that many of them would struggle to derive the right forms and understand their corresponding communicative roles.) The question arises whether it is at all possible to tell an inspiring story using only the most rudimentary of syntactic devices. Even if the answer is affirmative, the very next dilemma to resolve is whether prioritising comprehension offers compelling enough an argument not to present language at its best. On the whole, it seems that syntactic simplicity in children‘s narratives is becoming increasingly rare, but it remains to be seen what results these (un)conscious narrative practises will bring forth and whether they will stand the test of time. 347 Only those cases of ellipsis and substitution operating at verb phrase and clause level were taken into account, and precisely so because they are associated with a high degree of complexity, which explains why some simpler forms of ellipsis (e.g. that of subject in coordinated clauses) were completely disregarded. 1181 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Baker, M. (2002). In Other Words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routledge. Bell, A. (1999). The Language of News Media. Oxford: Blackwell. Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Downing, A. and Locke, P. (2003). A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge. Eisenberg, S. L., Ukrainetz, T. A., Hsu, J. R., Kaderavek, J. N., Justice, L. M., and Gillam, R. B. (2008). Noun phrase elaboration in children's spoken stories. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 145-157. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/014) Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990). A Student‘s Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman. Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold. Huddleston, R. (2000). Introduction to the Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1993). A Communicative Grammar of English. Harlow: Longman. McCarthy, M. (2005). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP. Moore, C. (n.d.). McFeeglebee‘s Pond (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/mcfee/mpp1.html Moore, C. (n.d.). The Littlest Knight (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/lk/index.html Paris, S. G., Carpenter, R. D., Paris, A. H., and Hamilton, E. E. (2005). Spurious and genuine correlates of children‘s reading comprehension. In Scott G. Paris and Steven A. Stahl (Eds.), Children‘s Reading Comprehension and Assessment (pp. 131-160). New Jersey: LEA. Pearson, C. (n.d.). The Wumpalump (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/wumplump/page1.html Puurtinen, T. (1998). Syntax, Readability and Ideology in Children's Literature. Meta: journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, 43(4), 524-533. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/1998/v43/n4/003879ar.pdf Thomson, A. J. and Martinet, A. V. (1992). A Practical English Grammar (4th ed.). Oxford: OUP. Verhallen, M. J. A. J. (2009). Video storybooks as a bridge to literacy (Doctoral dissertation summary, Leiden University). Retrieved from http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/verhallen-summary.pdf 1182 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 557 Title A name given to the resource GROWN-UP‘ SYNTAX IN CHILDREN‘S STORYBOOKS Author Author Marjanovic, Tatjana Abstract A summary of the resource. The study hopes to challenge the view that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The small-scale research was a text-based analysis of three children‘s stories aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. With a manually handled corpus kept within manageable limits it was possible to determine the presence or absence of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, i.e. those believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception. The main finding to report is that syntax in children‘s stories is little different from what may be informally described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The paper also invites the reader to acknowledge the difficult task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9dbfe0163671f29e99d99f5962ad2400.pdf c898bfba8756a8a90186cabaf61fe317 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Rameshwar D S G.A. College Samalkha(Panipat)-(HR)-India sunnygarg333@yahoo.com Sandeep J Bhagwan Parshuram Group of Institution, Gohana- (HR)-India sandybpr26@gmail.com Kewal S Bhagwan Parshuram Group of Institution, Gohana- (HR)- India kelu5feb@gmail.com Abstr ct While motorization rate in India is lower than many developing countries-both in absolute term and relative to size of population, but over the last decade, India is experiencing one of the highest motorization growth rates in the world. This paper examines the influence of population growth, increase in urbanizations and economic development on rapid growth of motor vehicles in India by using secondary data which are correlated by line graph method. Economic development is the major factor affecting the growth rate of motor vehicles. Motor vehicle growths have been largely concentrated in major cities which deteriorate the environmental condition of Urban India. This leads to concern among environmentalists over the further impact on Indian and global environment and considers their implication for future transportation growth in the country. Keywords: Motor vehicles, Growth rate, Population, Economic Development, Urbanization Jel odes: L91, O18 Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 137 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S Introduction The growth rate of vehicles is the backbone of economic development and the Indian automotive Industry is the second fastest growing in the world. About 8 million vehicles are produced annually in the country today. In 2009, the country reported 121.63 million registered motor vehicles, a motorization rate of 22 vehicles per 1000 population (Road Transport Yearbook, 2008). (In comparison, the United States – the world’s most motorization nation - reported 675 vehicles per 1000 population). The motorization rate of India is lower than many developing (Brazil- 222 per 1000 population, South Africa 153 per 1000 population) countries through out the world. But, over the last three decades, motor vehicles numbers have been doubling every ten or fewer years in India as against a 2 % - 5 % annual growth rate in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom & Japan (Badami, 2009). Motor vehicle growth rate has been largely concentrated in the major cities. India has experienced tremendous growth rate in motor vehicles & this lead to interest of environmentalist, business leaders, government officials and researchers for a number of reasons. Already, India’s motor vehicles have had a substantial detrimental impact on the environment. Automobiles are the primary sources of air pollution in India’s major cities. In India, transport sector emits an estimated 261 Tg of CO2, of which 94.5 % was contributed by road transport. In Delhi, the data show that out of total 300 metric tones of pollutants belched out every day, close to two third (66%) is from vehicles. Similarly, the contribution of vehicles to urban Air pollution is 52% in Bombay & close to one third in Calcutta (Vinish, 2008). The transport sector in India consumes about 17 % of total energy & is responsible for 60% of the Green House gas from various activities (Tedoy, 2008). The pollution from vehicles is due to discharge like CO, unburnt HC, Pb, NO2 & suspended particulate matter mainly from tail pipes. Furthermore, India is experiencing second largest growing automobile industry & this rapid growth rate of automobile has raised both excitements among business leader over the potential enormous and largely untapped market for automobile and concern among environmentalist. The potential massive size of the nation’s motor vehicle fleet has raised concern over the addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere & its potential for global change. An examination of the factors that have contributed to rapid growth rate of motor vehicle in India is very important to understand the likely future course that the growth 138 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development might take. This paper presents an analysis of these factors in India and considers their implication for future motor vehicle growth rate in the country. Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India India has experienced tremendous growth rate in motor vehicle in recent years (see Fig. 1). The total number of motor vehicles increased from 52.37 million in 2000 to 121.63 million in 2009-i.e. an average growth rate of 9 % per year in the country. Some analysts predicted that India’s motorization rate will continue to grow to 40 vehicles per 1000 by 2020. Figure 1. Total Motor Vehicle in India, 2000-2009. Source: Road Transport Year Book (Issues of 2007, 2008 and 2009). The largest majority of vehicles in India are found in metro cities. Number of vehicles in Indian cities is 40 millions with a share 30 % of total vehicles in India. Chennai, Bangalore, Kolkatta, Delhi and Mumbai with 15.2 million vehicles constitute 38 % of total vehicles of important cites and 13 % of total vehicles in India (Motor Transport Statistics, 2009). The second tier cities like Coimbtore (12 %), Mudrai (11 %), Nagpur (14.6 %) and Vishakhapatnam (17.2 %) posted a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 11 % or more. Mumbai & Chennai posted a Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 139 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S growth rate of 6.2 % and 13.2 % respectively (Road Transport Year book, 2009.) What are the factors which are responsible for growth rate in motor vehicles? Experience & lesson from other developing countries can give an idea about the process unfolding in India. Many analysist identify these primary factors that influence the growth rate of motor vehicle in many developing countries and they are population growth, increased urbanization and economic development (Riley, 2002). These factors can provide a basis for examination if the change that have taken place in India in last 10 years. Table 1 summarizes these changes. Table 1. Total Population, Urban population, GDP and Motors vehicle, 2000-2009. Year (As on 31st March) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Growth Rate 1016710 1028610 1045547 1067388 1079117 1095722 1112186 1128521 1144734 1160813 Urban Population (Thousands) 281416 285748 294668 301224 307721 314145 321623 329112 336746 371460 GDP (At Constant Price in crores) Base year 1999-2000 1822767 1954276 2137952 2291770 2570644 2923237 3339976 3847477 4399451 4629702 Total Motors Vehicles (Million)1 52.37 54.99 58.92 67.01 72.72 81.5 89.61 100.7 110.52 121.63 1.48 3.16 10.96 9.81 Population (Thousands) Note: 1Include both passenger and commercial vehicles. Source: 1) Road Transport Year Books-2007 and 2009 (Published by Ministry of Surface Transport and highway, India) 2) Indian Demographic Statistics. Data retrieved from www.tradingeconomics.com/statistics 140 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Population Growth Population growth can have a significant influence on the number of motor vehicles in most of the developing countries. As the size of population increases, the consumption level of per person increases in term of goods & services. In modern world, transport is an important service used by peoples, so the size of transportation sector is sensitive to these population changes. It can be argued that population growth largely influences the absolute number of vehicles in the country. If a population growth were the only explanatory factors, the number of motor vehicles would be grew at the same rate as population, then by influencing absolute size of vehicles fleet and not the number of vehicles relative to population size. There is indication in Table 1 that population growth has not contributed substantially to motor vehicle growth rate in India. As seen in Table 1, population growth in the country has been relatively moderate. The population growth fell considerably after 2003-04 and in recent years. According to projected population by Ministry of Home affairs, India population growth rate peaked till 2003, at that time, nation population grew at nearly 1.75 % annually. As a result, 10 million people are added to population each year. But after that the population growth fell sharply. The reasons of slow down in population growth are due to lower fertility in the country. The nation’s fertility rate declined to 2.65 in 2009 as compared to 2.91 in 2003 and 6.2 in 1951. This fertility decline often contributed overall socio economic development and rising cost of child bearing and successful voluntary family planning programme in recent year due to mass awakening (Chaurasia, 2010).The rate of growth of motor vehicles in recent years is much more than that of growth of population. The populations grow at the rate 1.48% annually during last 10 years while motor vehicles grow at 9.82 %. It suggest that population growth has played a very minor role in India’s motor growth rate. Simple arithmetic supports this assertion. If the population growth was the only factor effecting motor vehicle growth rate between 2000-2009, the motorization rate would be remain constant as population growth rate. But motor vehicles grow near about 9 times of the growth rate of population. Clearly, additional factor are influencing the nation motorization rate and driving the nation’s motor growth rate. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 141 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S Urbanization India has been predominantly rural in character throughout the ages, but now many urban centers have flourished from time to time. The country is growing rapidly with 32% population residing in urban areas and this is expected to increase to 40% by 2030 (Annual Report, NIPFP, 2007-08). Urbanization makes more & more people migrate to the town for jobs, education and medical aid. It leads to significance influence on the number of motor vehicles. As the proportion of the population living in urban areas increases, the demand for motor vehicles also rises in proportions. With their higher income & modern western standard of living – private ownership of vehicles (Car, two-wheeler etc.) is often seen as one of the first symbol of success and prosperity. (European Environment Agency Report, 2008). Urbanization promotes growth of trade, commerce and service sector which rely on heavy commercial vehicles (Mondal & Chary, 2006). For job movement taxicabs, passenger vans and buses are appearing in Urban Center for transportation. While growth in dense urban areas like Delhi, NOIDA, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Kolkatta etc., lead to development of public or alternative transport system and effect on demand for personal vehicles especially in nearby non urban areas, where individuals and business rely on motor vehicles to access and participate in their urban areas. India’s currently having some of the world’s large and most densely populated urban areas. India has three mega cities with population over 10 million, Mumbai (16.4 millions), Kolkatta (14 million) and Delhi (13.1 million). In addition, the numbers of cities with population above 1 million were 35 in 2001 and current trends likely to result in the emergence of 60 – 70 such cities by the year 2021 (Annual Report, NIPFP, 2007-08). However there is some indication that urbanization has also not contributed substantially to the number and growth rate of motor vehicles in India. Despite the rapid growth of urbanization, the proportion of the country’s population living in urban area is relatively low. As shown in table, 27 % of total population living in urban areas in 2000 which merely increased to 32 % in 2009. The average growth rate of urban population is 3.16% which is higher than population growth but have been relatively very moderate with growth rate of motor vehicles. The four main components of urban growth- natural increase, migration, boundary change and declassification attributed to urban growth in India. The largest contributor is natural increase (Pathak & Mehta, 2005). 142 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Rural to urban migration has played some role in growth of urban population. The other most affecting the urban population growth in India involves a transition process, by which total urban population is increased by creation of new cities and town and by expansion of existing urban areas. These factors influencing urban growth in India suggest that urbanization alone has a little effect on motor vehicle growth. Economic Development Industrialization and economic development in developing countries can have a strong impact on number and growth rate of motor vehicles. Economic growth and development affects the motorization rate in many ways. First, due to rise in national income, personal income rises, demand for consumer goods tends to increase. The avaibility of more income gives individuals and households the economic opportunity to purchase more luxurious item like automobiles. As more and more persons buy motor vehicles, the motorization rate will increase (Richet & Ruet, 2008) Economic development also significantly influences the demand and supply of motor vehicles in a country. On demand side, due to more demand, economics of scale in vehicle production take place and it reduces the price of vehicles, and operation of law and demand, it added a greater segment of the population and economic development lead to small and nuclear family which increase the number of household and in turn goods and services demanded by them increases and so vehicles. On supply side, growth in business sector can lead to increase in production or import of new vehicles. Economic development means more funds and facilities of infrastructure like road, fuel sources and other services relate to motor vehicles, which also fuelled more production and vehicles (Riley, 2002). Thus, on both side there is a trend of increase motorization in the country. Of the three primary factors identified as affecting motor vehicles in India, Economic development in India is the most substantial influencing factor. Economic development in India occurred at rapid pace in recent years in spite of global slow down. (Annual Gross Income-India, 2008) Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 143 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S The gross domestic production for the nation was 1822761 crores in 2000 and it increase to 4629702 crores in 2009. The GDP grew at annual rate of 9 % in recent years. Economic development in India is largely a result of LPG (Liberalization, Privatization and globalization) policy of 1991 and its second generation reform in last decades. In 1991, Indian government deregularise the economy and began instituting a series of measures to shift the controlled and regulated economy to market oriented economy. This paradigm shifts opened the door of economy to foreign trades and investment. The result of these measures has been tremendous growth in the country that continues in recent year. Economic reform and subsequent increases in income have been associated with changing patterns of spending on goods and services and emergence of consumerism in India. Along with diversification and expansion of economic activities, owing private vehicles (Two wheelers and car) is becoming a practical option for many Indians. Comparison of factors over Time These data suggest that economic development is the most significant factor influencing motor vehicles growth rate in India. It appears to be consistent with similar finding that vehicle grow with income and economic development. (Riley, 2002). The closer examination of data suggest that situation in India is not so simple but quite complex. Figure 2 shows the relative increase in motor vehicle with relative increase in total population, urban population and GDP during 2000-2009. Each of variables is standardized to value 1 in year 2000. Lines of graph show the increase in variable each year relative to base year 2000. As shown in graph, total population growths were moderate during the time period. However, growth of urban population is also moderate but higher than total population. It shows the trend of rising in coming years. The growth of GDP was substantially increasing over time and increase is more than four fold over the last 10 years. Graphically, the relationship between motor vehicles and total population and urban population is as expected, motor vehicles growing at a significantly faster rate than these two demographic variables. But the relationship between motor vehicles and GDP is more complicated. 144 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development During year 2000 to 2005, total motor vehicle and GDP look like to be growing at a relatively similar rate with GDP only slightly ahead of vehicles. But after 2005, Growth and GDP appear to accelerate much more than growth rate in motor vehicles, but trends of rising motor vehicles seen as it catch the GDP trend in coming years Figure 2. Relative increase in Motor Vehicles as compared to total population, Urban Population, GDP, 2000-2009. 3.00 GDP Relative value of variables 2.50 2.00 Total motor vehicles 1.50 Urban Population 1.00 Total Population 0.50 0.00 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Years Source: Based on the data in Table 1. The relationship of motor vehicle and GDP indicate the strong growth of both the variables but more acceleration of motor vehicle growth rate and one might expect that if motor vehicles grow at this rate it may overcome the GDP growth and one has to find out more factors influencing its growth. In fact, the growth rate make an important feature which during the increase in motor vehicles in India i.e. the unique composition of motor vehicle fleet. When the composition is taken into account, the situation look significantly interesting and different (Halcrow group limited, Saxena & Banister, 2008). Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 145 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S Indian Composition of Vehicle Population Motor vehicle fleet in whole country composed of two-wheelers, three wheeler (car, Jeep and taxi), passenger vehicle (Bus and other passenger vehicle) and commercial vehicle. India had 121.63 million vehicles at the end of year 2009. Personalized mode (constituting mainly two wheeler and cars) accounted for more than four-fifth of motor vehicles in the country compared to their share of little three-fifth in 1951. Further breakup of motor vehicle population reflects preponderance of two wheeler with share of more than 73 % in total vehicle population followed by three wheeler (Car and Jeep) at 15 % and passenger vehicles at 10 % (See Table 2). Share of commercial vehicle is very low, near about 5 %. With a rising income and greater need for mobility the personalized mode of transport is likely to grow in importance in coming year. India like many other countries in Asia has experienced high annual growth rate in excess of 10 %. This is equivalent to doubling vehicle fleet in about seven years. The two wheeler population in India is 3856 Crores in 2001 which increase upto 91235 crores in 2009 almost tripled in 9 years. With the rapid pace of urbanization and economic development, more is a rising trends of personal vehicles. Car is most comfortable vehicle and luxurious option for transportation in India. So share of car is rising in India. Share of cars in total vehicles is near about 9 %. The car owner ship in India is 8 per thousand people (Burange & Yamini, 2010). With country’s highway infrastructure improving and business growing, growth of small and heavy commercial vehicles segment outperforming in the growth. The commercial vehicle population doubled of in last ten years. The growth rates of commercial vehicle remain same in all the years and steadily rising. The motorization trends itself is dominated by following preferences in India. • High specification car, including small utility vehicles. • Diesel four wheeler • Motorcycle in two wheelers (Halcrow group limited, Saxena & Banister, 2008). 146 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Table 2. Composition of Indian Motor Vehicle Population, 2000-2009 Y R ( nding on 31st March) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 ( )1 2009 ( ) 1 2 wo Wheelers ( n crores ) 38556 41581 47519 51922 58799 64743 73209 81235 91235 hree Wheelers ( n crores ) 7058 7613 8599 9451 10320 11526 11860 12026 12523 assenger vehicles ( n crores)2 6429 6756 7397 7596 8349 8913 9080 10263 10500 ommercial Vehicles ( n crores) 2948 2973 3492 3749 4031 4436 4985 5401 5967 Provisional Data estimated by using previous year data and net addition. Constitute Taxis, Cab and others public Four- wheelers transport Source: Ministry of Surface Transport of India, Society for Automobile Association of India. Impact of government policy on motorization Government policy can have a significant impact on the size, composition and growth rate of a nation’s motor vehicle fleet. In India, state and national governments directly or indirectly control the supply, demand, the distribution of automobiles, fuel price and fuel supply, the development of road and other component of infrastructure needed to motor vehicles. In India, state also directly involve in the development of public transport system (The Energy Resource Institute, TERI, 2009). Indian transport passed through the phase of tight government control and licensing to liberal economic reform which results higher level of foreign investment in automobile sector and increase vehicle production and its sale. The liberalization steps, such as, relaxation of the foreign exchange and equity regulations, reduction of tariffs on imports, and the banking reforms, initiated by the Government of India, have played an equally important role in enabling the Indian Automotive industry achieve great heights. According to society for automobile manufacturer, India is second largest manufacturer of motorcycle and seventh largest manufacturer Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 147 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S of car in 2009 in the world. Healthy competition benefited the end consumer since cost of service or product come down substantially, added many consumer dreaming of an own vehicle. So number of privately vehicles has grown substantially in last 10 years. Car ownership is growing at a rate of 10-15% per year (Tiwari, 2007). The growth rate of motorcycle is 17.4 % during last 6 year and overall penetration of two-wheeler in India become 28 % of all household (Indicus, 2010). Secondly, large investments have been made for the development of transport infrastructure and facilities. There has also been impressive qualitative development by state government also. Private participation is made for development of highway, service centre and maintenance of road etc. This promotes better quality services to transport and have a positive impact on the growth rate of private vehicle. Private vehicle accounts for 30 % of total transport in India (Tiwari, 2007). India has taken the lead in redesigning the car for buyer who might otherwise be able to afford only a motorcycle. The emergence of “low cost cars” appears to be the single most important trend in growth rate of cars. Now it is easier for two wheeler buyers to migrate car like Nano. The relaxation in import duty, allowing second hand purchasing of vehicles, giving tax holidays and other incentive developed a system of private vehicle ownership. The inadequate public transport and easy availability of financing facilities, institutionalizations of automobile finance for private vehicle have resulted in increase in vehicle ownership level and their usage. Simple vehicle registration process and easy availability of driving license also fuelled to motor vehicle ownership. Recently, some scientists and environmentalists have directly challenged government policy to develop a western style automobile centered transportation system. They pointed that automobile will increase traffic congestion and worsen air pollution. So policy maker should concern about problem associated with development of motorized India (Vinish, 2008). Methodology Research is based on secondary data collection through various agencies and research groups. These data are tabulated to find out coordination between growth and automobiles and various affecting factors using trend line method to find out positive correlation between them. No regression coefficient is discovered to show 148 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development the cause and affect in this study. This study discusses the relation by observing variable trends which may be closely related. The research analysis of many researchers also mentioned to show positive relationship between considered variables. Research Findings This paper finds a positive relation between increases of automobiles and its effecting factors like growth of population, growth of urban population and growth of nation income. After considering the correlation trends of various factors, it finds that it is the change in income which mostly promoting the growth of automobile in India, however, growth of population and urban population also influences the growth rate of vehicles. But it is the economic development in India which support the growth rate of personal vehicles which look the most comfortable and luxury items in Indian Consumer basket. Economic change also promotes urbanization and the process promotes transportation which is called backbone for movement and economic development. But the unregulated and unplanned growth rate of vehicles gives a concern to environmentalists and town planners. Conclusion and Implications The most important trends in India are therefore of rapid population growth, increasing urbanizations, growing per capita incomes and rising motorizations. As Indian cities grow in population, they are also sprawling outwards. The lack of effective urban planning strategy or control is resulting in low density development which is associated with an increase in the number and length of trips. For most Indians this forces an increased reliance on motorized transport. Cars and motorcycles are increasingly necessary to get around. The economic growth, increasing disposable income, and increasing urbanization is creating greater demand for transport and the number of vehicles on India’s road system is growing rapidly. India like many other counties in Asia has experienced high annual growth rate in excess of 10 %. This is equivalent to doubling vehicle fleets in about seven years. Traffic composition in India is of mixed nature. A wide variety of about a dozen type of slow –and fast moving vehicle exists. Personalized mode (constituting mainly two wheeler and cars) accounted more than 80% of the Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 149 �Rameshwar D S & Sandeep J & Kewal S vehicle population in India. The explosion in passenger vehicle due to economic development in recent years suggests that economic demand for motor vehicle existed in country and as infrastructure and institutional framework improved and government liberalized the policy, passenger vehicle particularly personal vehicles – have exhibited tremendous growth and the sale of these vehicles is increasing very fastly. Transport poses a dilemma in that it is necessary for economic and social development, yet it is associated with environmental degradation, especially with regard to atmospheric pollution. Transport activities have a very adverse effects on the environment such as air pollution, noise pollution etc. Transport infrastructure in India is expanding considerably in terms of network and services. Road transport accounts for a major share of air pollution load in major metropolitan cities of India. In most urban areas, air pollution has worsened due to traffic congestion. The environmental effects of fuels like oil and petroleum products are of growing concern owing to increasing consumption levels. The combustion of these fuels in vehicles has been a major source of pollution. With the increasing vehicles in country, the vehicular pollution has also increased and it accounts for a considerable share of vehicular pollution in India. The inevitable urbanization and its growth in India will result in the pressure on urban transport, which is likely to increase substantially in the coming years In addition; it is associated with adverse noise and land use impacts. Rapid motorization in India also has important implications for energy security and climate change. The growth in energy consumption in road transport, which has tripled since 1981 and accounts for 90 percent of energy consumption for all transport modes, has been the most rapid of all sectors. Road transport accounts for 9 percent of all energy consumption, it does so for as much as 30 percent of the consumption of petroleum products; by contrast, the residential sector accounts for only 20 percent. It is important to mention that our research methodology based on graphical correlation which may have the chance of inclusion of many factors affecting the growth rate of motor vehicles which are not in our study but these three factors are more prominent. In conclusion, it is important to prioritize the road transport sector in energy and climate change policy, given the rapid growth in energy in this sector, and its almost exclusive dependence on, and large share of consumption of petroleum fuels. It is certainly desirable to implement technological measures to improve vehicle fuel economy (and shift to less carbon-intensive and cleaner energy sources, where possible). 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Retrieved on Feb, 2011 from http://www.coe.mse.ac.in/dp/vinish. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1073 Title A name given to the resource Growth rate of Motor Vehicles in India - Impact of Demographic and Economic Development Author Author DAYAL SHARMA, Rameshwar JAIN, Sandeep SINGH, Kewal Abstract A summary of the resource. While motorization rate in India is lower than many developing countries-both in absolute term and relative to size of population, but over the last decade, India is experiencing one of the highest motorization growth rates in the world. This paper examines the influence of population growth, increase in urbanizations and economic development on rapid growth of motor vehicles in India by using secondary data which are correlated by line graph method. Economic development is the major factor affecting the growth rate of motor vehicles. Motor vehicle growths have been largely concentrated in major cities which deteriorate the environmental condition of Urban India. This leads to concern among environmentalists over the further impact on Indian and global environment and considers their implication for future transportation growth in the country. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance