128 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/29691458d3acf33ad62557735791a029.pdf cb036e1e44b431540eef36ca7dcdf26a PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Globalization and Youth Unemployment Paradox: Turkey Sample Boran Toker1, Çiğdem Demir2 1Akdeniz University, Ayşe Sak School of Applied Sciences, Antalya, 07197, Turkey 2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Antalya, 07058, Turkey E-mails: borantoker@akdeniz.edu.tr,demircigdem@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract Globalization process, which has developed with the application of neo-liberal policies in the world, is the primary and most discussed concept in terms of its positive and negative effects on developing and developed countries. Aforesaid process has caused power imbalance between the developed countries that have completed their industrializations and developing countries that have not completed their industrializations; and with the liberalization of capital and commerce, it has made the capital sovereign on labor. In this context, the most important disadvantage of globalization, which is a knife-edge situation for developing countries, is unemployment. Unemployment for a developing country like Turkey, which has large young population, is a serious problem that globalization causes in economic and social field. The reason that underlies this problem is that globalization causes unemployed growth in Turkey that has a young and dynamic population. The relative height of young unemployed in the rates of unemployment affects the Turkish nationality growing unemployed with its economic, social and psychological dimensions deeply. In this study, it is aimed to determine the dynamic economic effects of globalization process exercising power over Turkey with 1980s onwards on youth unemployment. In this context, the relationship between youth unemployment and globalization was econometrically analyzed with VECM approach by using the annual data of 1980-2011 periods. With Johansen Co-integration Test, long term relationship between youth unemployment and globalization variables was researched and with error correction variable the time to adjust the deviation that may occur in long term balance was determined. Moreover, with the results of Impulse-Response Function and Variance Decomposition, solutions are offered for sustainable economic development and effective employment policy by revealing how youth unemployment reacts to globalization and how it has been affected from globalization. Keywords: Globalization, Youth Unemployment, Sustainable Economic Development, Employment Policy, VECM. 1. INTRODUCTION Globalization is a new world economic system, which prescribes and describes ways in which businesses, concepts and events are organized around the world. It is a phenomenon that has affected people differently in every sphere of life (Ukpere and Slabbert, 2009). Globalization is defined as the free movements of goods, services and capital across borders. It is a contentious process by which the western market economies have effectively spread across the globe 460 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo (Heshmati, 2003). Globalization also has been viewed as; it is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world (Globalisation101.org, 2012). Although it does not constitute a new phenomenon, it is viewed as an inexorable integration of markets, nations and technologies to a degree never witnessed before in a way that is enabling individuals, and corporations to reach around the world further, faster, deeper and more economically than ever before (Heshmati, 2003). Globalization and technological advances have been changing labor markets around the world. Young workers are facing new challenges in making the transition from school to work. While for some the opening of national economies to international competition through trade and investment as well as information and communications has generated income and improved welfare, for others the process of globalization has been a source of persistent inequality and social exclusion (Morris, 2006). Youth employment creation is a critical component of a country’s long-term economic stability and growth. There are difficulties in Turkey in employment generation in general, in youth employment generation in particular (Ercan, 2007). The 15-24 years75 old composed 16% of the Turkish labor force in 2011. The unemployment rate for youth aged 15-24 is 18.4% in 2011 (832.000 unemployed). The unemployment rate among university educated youth is 30% (TURKSTAT Household Labour Force Survey, 2012). Employment remains a problem for this group and oddly enough more so for the educated youth group. Paradoxically, with such low average education levels and the demand by employers for better-qualified workers, educated young people (high school and above) have higher relative unemployment rates in urban Turkey. Turkey has a serious bottleneck in job creation for its young cohorts, especially for the educated portion (Ercan, 2007). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Meidani and Zabihi (2012) investigate the dynamic effect of globalization on unemployment rate in Iran during the period 1971 to 2006 using Johansen-Juselius co-integration test. In the study, the trade intensity index (ratio of total exports and imports to GDP) as a measure of globalization have used. Also in this model, gross domestic product, the consumer price index as well as other variables affecting the unemployment rate have considered. They show that the globalization has a significant and negative effect on unemployment rate. The value of error correction coefficient is equal to -0.46 implying that around 95% of the unemployment rate adjustment occurs after two years. 75 The United Nations defines youth as young women and young men aged 15–24 years. This group includes teenagers aged 15–19 and young adults aged 20–24. National definitions for youth do not necessarily correspond to this age group. These often depend on such factors as voting rights, land rights, the end of compulsory education and eligibility for military service, liability for criminal offences (Morris, 2006). 461 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Ukpere (2011) posits that there is a strong linkage between globalization, unemployment, income inequality and poverty in Africa. He reveals that the current globalization seems to have aggravated the problem of unemployment, the corollary of which is endemic income inequality and mass poverty in Africa. He also maintains that capitalist globalization undeniably, created wealth but also intensified inequality and poverty, particularly in Africa. African countries need to develop comprehensive strategies to create jobs locally. Aremo, et al. (2010) investigated the impact of globalization on labor force utilization in Nigeria was addressed with a view to assessing the extent to which globalization has influenced the structure of development in Nigeria. They showed that globalization practice could generate negative impact on employment in both short and long run periods suggesting that if globalization continues as being practiced, globalization could further worsen the extant decrepit state of unemployment in Nigeria other things being equal. Yusof (2010) investigates the link between globalization and the Malaysian labor market by applying the autoregressive distributed lag approach, a relatively new-time series technique to the analysis. The findings of this study indicate that globalization does not significantly affect the labor variables in the long-run. Dutt, et al. (2009) presents a model of trade and search-induced unemployment, where trade results from Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) and/or Ricardian comparative advantage. Using crosscountry data on trade policy, unemployment, and various controls, and controlling for endogeneity and measurement-error problems, they find fairly strong and robust evidence for the Ricardian prediction that unemployment and trade openness are negatively related. This effect dominates the positive H-O effect of trade openness on unemployment for capital-abundant countries, which turns negative for labor-abundant countries. Using panel data, they find an unemployment-increasing short-run impact of trade liberalization, followed by an unemployment-reducing effect leading to the new steady state. Lee and Vivarelli (2009) use an ex-post measurable definition of globalization, namely increasing trade openness and Foreign Direct Investments (FDI). A general result is that the optimistic Heckscher-Ohlin/Stolper-Samuelson predictions do not apply, that is neither employment creation nor the decrease in within-country inequality are automatically assured by increasing trade and FDI. Jenkins (2006) considers the impact of foreign direct investment on employment in Vietnam, a country that received considerable inflows of foreign capital in the 1990s as part of its increased integration with the global economy. Despite the significant share of foreign firms in industrial output and exports, the direct employment generated has been very limited because of the high labour productivity and low ratio of value added to output of much of this investment. In this study also shows that the indirect employment effects have been minimal and possibly even negative because of the limited linkages which foreign investors create and the possibility of “crowding out” of domestic investment. Harms and Hefeker (2003) demonstrate that international portfolio diversification can help to reduce unemployment. If workers earn a capital income that is negatively correlated with domestic labor demand shocks, the wage set by a monopoly union may be lower and thus expected employment higher than in the case of a positive correlation. 462 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Ghose (2000) reveals that in the case of industrialized economies, growth of manufactured imports from developing countries has had a small adverse effect on manufacturing employment but virtually no effect on wages. Thus unemployment and growing wage inequalities cannot really be attributed to trade. He maintains that in those developing economies which emerged as important exporters of manufactures to industrialized countries, growth of trade had a large positive effect on manufacturing employment and wages. In some of these economies, moreover, growth of trade was also associated with declining wage inequality. Thus, on balance, the global effects of trade liberalization on manufacturing employment and wages appear to have been significantly positive even though there have been job-losers in both industrialized and developing economies. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this section, the VECM approach which has been used to analyze the relationship between globalization in Turkey and young unemployment with 1988-2010 annual data has been introduced and the results have been presented. 2.1. DATA In the model the young unemployment rates in Turkey (YI) are dependent variable and economical globalization (EG), sociological globalization (SG) and political globalization (PG) are explanatory variables. Furthermore, in order to find out the effects of economic instability together with globalization on young unemployment, the inflation rates have also been included. For the data of these variables, World Development Indicators (WDI) of The World Bank and the KOF Index of Globalization tables have been used. 2.2. VECM APPROACH Starting point of this approach is an adequate statistical description of the linear relation between the k nonstationary variables. The usual way is the modelling as a vector autoregressive process of finite order p. where U denotes a normally distributed k-dimensional white noise process, D represents the deterministic terms, and Aj, j = 1, 2, …, p, are kxk dimensional parameter matrices. The reparametrisation as a vector error correction model leads to 463 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The matrix  represents the long-run relations between the variables. Since all components of Yt are I(1) variables, each component of Yt,…, Yt-p+1 is stationary and each component of Yt1 is also integrated of order one. This makes relation (2) unbalanced as long as  has a full rank of k. In this case the inverse matrix exists and we could solve equation (2) for Yt-1 as a linear combination of stationary variables. However, this would be a contradiction. Therefore,  must have a reduced rank of r < k. Then, the following decomposition exists: where all matrices have rank r. B'Yt-1 are r stationary linear combinations which guarantee that the equations of system (2) are balanced. The columns of B contain the r linearly independent cointegration vectors and the matrix Γ contains the so-called loading coefficients which measure the contributions of the r long-run relations in the different equations of the system. The adjustment processes to the equilibria can be derived from these coefficients. (Kirchgässner & Wolters, 2007:219) It can be shown that for a given r, the maximum likelihood estimator of defines the combination of that yields the r largest canonical correlations of with after correcting for lagged differences and deterministic variables when present. Johansen proposes two different likelihood ratio tests of the significance of these canonical correlations and thereby the reduced rank of the matrix: the trace test and maximum eigenvalue test, shown in equations (4) and (5) respectively. (4) (5) 464 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Here T is the sample size and is the i:th largest canonical correlation. The trace test tests the null hypothesis of r cointegrating vectors against the alternative hypothesis of n cointegrating vectors. The maximum eigenvalue test, on the other hand, tests the null hypothesis of r cointegrating vectors against the alternative hypothesis of r +1 cointegrating vectors. Neither of these test statistics follows a chi square distribution in general; asymptotic critical values can be found in Johansen and Juselius (1990) and are also given by most econometric software packages. (Hjalmarsson & Österholm, 2007:4 In the study, in order to analyze the stationary of the variables used, “Augmented Dickey-Fuller” (ADF) developed by Dickey and Fuller (1979) and Phillips-Perron (PP) unit root tests have been used and the obtained results have been presented in Table 1. Table 1. Unit Root Test Results ADF VARIABLES (constant) YI (Lag Lenght) 465 -1.0134 (0) ADF PP PP (constant trend) (constant) (constant trend) -2.2697 -1.0760 -2.2697 (0) (1) (0) SG -2.2656 -5.0074 -1.5182 -2.5918 ( Lag Lenght) (5) (4) (0) (0) PG -2.9232 -2.2288*** -1.3754 -1.8523 ( Lag Lenght) (5) (1) (3) (1) EG -2.0258 -1.3735 -2.0195 -1.0593 ( Lag Lenght) (0) (0) (4) (3)  YI -4.2456*** -4.2343*** -4.2380*** -4.1946*** ( Lag Lenght) (0) (0) (1) (2) �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo  SG -2.9120* -2.9179 -5.5809*** -5.4989*** ( Lag Lenght) (5) (5) (0) (0)  PG -5.1870*** -5.4243*** -5.2272*** -5.5823*** ( Lag Lenght) (0) (0) (1) (1)  EG -4.4412*** -4.8041*** -4.4412*** -4.9752*** ( Lag Lenght) (0) (0) (0) (5) Note: ***, ** and* indicate statistical significance at 1% ,5% and 10% levels, respectively. Lag lengths, determined by AIC, are in parenthesis. Critical values are from MacKinnon (1996). Johansen Cointegration Test results which reveal the long term relationships between the I(1) variables have been shown in Table 2. Table 2. Cointegration Tests based on the Johansen Approach Eigenvalue value % 5 critic value value % 5 critic value 0.874759 99.9679*** 69.8188 43.6277*** 33.8768 0.740981 56.3402*** 47.8561 28.3679** 27.5843 0.576180 27.9723* 29.7970 18.0273 21.1316 Note: ***, ** and* indicate statistical significance at 1% ,5% and 10% levels, respectively. In both trace and the max test results, three cointegration relationships among young unemployment, economical-social-political globalization and the inflation rates have been determined. It has been found that there is a power balance which these variables will move together. (0.099) (0.370) (0.311) (0.022) 3. CONCLUSION In the study, the effects of globalization on young unemployment in Turkey have been modelled with 1988-2012 annual data by using VECM method. Although several studies assessing the relationship between unemployment and globalization in Turkey theoretically are available in the 466 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo literature, an empirical study has not been found. Another difference of this study comes at this point. The paradox between young unemployment and globalization has been presented by using econometric analysis which has been conducted to find out how globalization with its economical, social and political dimensions together with the instability in the country affect young unemployment. It has been found that social globalization and the inflation rate increases young unemployment significantly in the long term, and this result shows consistency with economical expectations. REFERENCES Aremo, A.G., & Adele, A.M. 2010. Empirical analysis of the impact of globalization on labour force utilization: Evidence from Nigeria. African Economic and Business Review, 8 (1), 1-18. Dutt, P., Mitra, D., & Ranjan, P. (2009). International trade and unemployment: Theory and cross-national evidence. Journal of International Economics, 78 (1), 32-44. Ercan, H. (2007). Youth Employment in Turkey. Ankara: International Labour Office. Ghose, A.K. (2000). Trade Liberalization and Manufacturing Employment, ILO Employment Paper, No.3. Geneva: International Labour Office. Harmsa, P., & Hefeker, C. (2003). Globalization and unemployment: the role of international diversification. Economics Letters, 78, 281–286. Heshmati, A. (2003). The relationship between ıncome inequality and globalization. Last Accessed on 4.20.2012, from http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/globalizationoutcomes4.pdf Hjalmarsson, E. and Österholm, P. (2007) Testing for Cointegration Using the Johansen Methodology whenVariables are Near-Integrated, International Finance Discussion Papers, No.915 Jenkins, R. (2006). Globalization, FDI and employment in Viet Nam. Transnational Corporations, 15 (1), 115-142. Kirchgässner, G & Wolters, J. (2007). Introduction to Modern Time Series Analysis. Springer. Lee, E., & Vivarelli, M. (2006). The Social Impact of Globalization in the Developing Countries. Discussion Paper No.1925. Meidani, A.A.N., & Zabihi, M. (2012). The dynamic effect of globalization on unemployment rate in Iran: a co-integration analysis. International Business Research, 5 (1), 120-126. Morris, E. (2006). Globalization and its effects on youth employment trends in Asia. Regional Expert Group Meeting on Development Challenges for Young People. Bangkok. Ukpere, W.I. (2011). Globalisation and the challenges of unemployment, income inequality and poverty in Africa. African Journal of Business Management, 5 (15), 6072-6084. Ukpere, W.I., & Slabbert, A.D. (2009). A Relationship between current globalisation, unemployment, inequality and poverty. International Journal of Social Economics, 36 (1/2), 3746. 467 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Yusof, S.A. (2010). Globalization and the Malaysian labor market: an empirical investigation. Journal of Economic Cooperation and Development, 31 (1), 17-40. Factors Affecting The New Vehicle Registration In The Eu Countries Cumhur Erdem1, Şaban Nazlioğlu2 1Department of Economics ,Gaziosmanpaşa University, Tokat-Turkey 2Department of Econometrics, PamukkaleUniversity, Denizli-Turkey E-mails: Cumhur_erdem@yahoo.com,snazlioglu@pau.edu.tr Abstract Theobjective of this study is to determine whether economic factors (namelyprice, consumer preferences, consumer income, interest rate, fuel prices, industrial production, and trade)have any explanatory power on new vehicle registry in the EU member countries. To meet this objective, a panel cointegration analysis was applied to the panel of thirteen EU countries for the time period spanning from January 1999 to August 2010. This study concludes that while the vehicle sales in the EU are determined by the macroeconomic factors instead of the factors in the demand theory, the consumer preferences are impetuses for passenger car sales in the EU countries. Keywords: newvehicle sales, demand theory, macro economic variables, EU countries, panel cointegration, 1. INTRODUCTION Automotiveindustry has become very dynamic and competitive sectors on a global scale in recent years. Since the industry is considered as a crucial contributor to economic growth, it has been observed that most of the developed countries (such as. the USA, Germany, France, UK, Italy, Spain and South Korea) and many of the less developed ones (such as China, India, Malaysia, Thailand) have policies for becoming major players on world market by improving their own industry. Therefore, prediction of new vehicle registry is of great interest for policy makers, legislators, transport and urban planners, and traffic engineers in nations whose economies highly depend on the vehicle industry because the prediction of future vehicle registry has a vital importance in terms of forecasting national accounts as well as future energy and infrastructure requirements (Abu-Eisheh and Mannering, 2002). Predicting the new vehicle registration and having information about the determinants of the vehicle demand has also crucial importance for the strategic planning of vehicle manufacturers. The industryplays a vital role in the economies of European Union (EU) member countries, the world’s largest vehicle producer and playground for a highly competitive and innovative 468 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1354 Title A name given to the resource Globalization and Youth Unemployment Paradox: Turkey Sample Author Author Boran , Toker Abstract A summary of the resource. Globalization process, which has developed with the application of neo-liberal policies in the world, is the primary and most discussed concept in terms of its positive and negative effects on developing and developed countries. Aforesaid process has caused power imbalance between the developed countries that have completed their industrializations and developing countries that have not completed their industrializations; and with the liberalization of capital and commerce, it has made the capital sovereign on labor. In this context, the most important disadvantage of globalization, which is a knife-edge situation for developing countries, is unemployment. Unemployment for a developing country like Turkey, which has large young population, is a serious problem that globalization causes in economic and social field. The reason that underlies this problem is that globalization causes unemployed growth in Turkey that has a young and dynamic population. The relative height of young unemployed in the rates of unemployment affects the Turkish nationality growing unemployed with its economic, social and psychological dimensions deeply. In this study, it is aimed to determine the dynamic economic effects of globalization process exercising power over Turkey with 1980s onwards on youth unemployment. In this context, the relationship between youth unemployment and globalization was econometrically analyzed with VECM approach by using the annual data of 1980-2011 periods. With Johansen Co-integration Test, long term relationship between youth unemployment and globalization variables was researched and with error correction variable the time to adjust the deviation that may occur in long term balance was determined. Moreover, with the results of Impulse-Response Function and Variance Decomposition, solutions are offered for sustainable economic development and effective employment policy by revealing how youth unemployment reacts to globalization and how it has been affected from globalization. Keywords: Globalization, Youth Unemployment, Sustainable Economic Development, Employment Policy, VECM. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/65db79d591210f164c7b928b4f0779e1.pdf 32fc89b26cbe6321026bd642b4c4a758 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 81-104, Summer 2020 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020317 Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, PhD Adem Olovčić, MA Selma Delalić, PhD International Burch University adis.maksic@ibu.edu.ba adem.olovcic@ibu.edu.ba selma.delalic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: This paper discusses the main structures and processes of globalization in the context of the coronavirus pandemic. It begins by revisiting the historical processes that have led to interstate economic, cultural, political, and security interdependence, and the consequent erosion of the capabilities of nation - states. The paper then proceeds to examine the inability of global institutions to cope with the pandemic, which has demonstrated that the nation – state remain the primary actor at the global political map. Yet, the discussion also shows that there is no viable alternative to global interdependence, and there is the resultant need for a more effective transnational governance. Keywords: Globalization, pandemic, coronavirus, nation – state, global governance, crisis. Article History Submitted: 30 June 2020 Accepted: 15 July 2010 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION It has been said that high expectations produce deep frustration. This phrase has found its empirical instantiation in the recent disappointments with the outcomes of globalization. The past few decades have been characterized by a great enthusiasm for globalization, where the world, in the form of a “global village,” (McLuhan & Powers, 1992) would be able to respond to challenges in ways that had not been seen in the earlier eras of human societies. Yet, the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic has shown that globalization is not a panacea for the world's ills. On the contrary, the pandemic has revealed the unpredictable and often contradictory consequences of global interconnectedness. The discussion that follows argues that the pandemic has indeed demonstrated the ongoing centrality of the nation-states at the level of global politics. Yet, it also concludes that there will be no permanent reversal of the trends of economic integration and cultural exchange. The first task is to provide conceptual clarity and situate the discussion in the historical context by revisiting the emergence of patterns of social interaction that are grouped under the term “globalization”. 2. GLOBALIZATION AND THE EROSION OF THE NATION-STATE Although there are different understandings of the concept of globalization, at the most basic level, it signifies the process of creating new, multiplying and expanding social networks and activities. David Held (1997) thus understands globalization as “the expansion and the deepening of social relations and institutions in space and time that make daily activities increasingly influenced by the events that take place on the other side of the world” (p. 310). Globalization includes two interrelated elements: the openness of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies on national and international level that facilitate or promote such flows. As patterns of human interaction assume transnational forms, they create a new demand for governance, to be addressed with what Ulrich Beck has termed “institutionalized cosmopolitanism” (Beck, 2007, p. 9). This globalized governance signifies the emergence of the various transnational institutional forms, from non – state political actors, to global agencies and judicial structures. Globalization can be disaggregated into “three general aspects” (National Geography Encyclopedia, 2020). The first one is cultural, which speaks of cultural interdependence, and the potential emergence of a global culture. The second one is economic, and deals with trade and financial integration, along with the reduction of the impact of government policies in the economy. Finally, the 82 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić political/legal aspect relates to the role of a state in a globalized world. All three aspects are driven by the development of new technologies, such as the internet, satellite, and high – tech computers. The inevitable and the most significant changes in the globalization process are evident in the field of economics and politics, and to a lesser extent on the cultural plane, therefore the following two sections discuss the economic and political aspects in greater depth. 2.1. ECONOMIC ASPECT OF THE GLOBALIZATION AND EROSION OF THE NATION – STATE Economic globalization refers to strengthening and expanding of economic relations worldwide. International economy, in the era of globalization, has become closely integrated in a system based mainly on global production and global finances aided by the global economic institutions and their agencies. Thus, the end of the Cold War increased the power of the international economic system by emphasizing the role of two main actors of economic globalization: Multinational corporations (MNCs) and international economic institutions. Global economy knows no boundaries and operates as if there are no political barriers. All that is happening in the name and for the benefit of the world community. The roots of globalized economy, according to Baalam and Dillman (2014), can be found “in the early 1980s when U.S. President Ronald Reagan and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher popularized the ideas and policies associated with economic liberalism and free trade” (Baalam & Dillman, pp. 17 – 19), whereupon, in the late 1980’s and through 1990’s many of the newly industrializing countries in East and Southeast Asia integrated themselves into the new global economy. Economic globalization is offered as universal, benevolent, self – understanding, systematic, scientifically legitimate and justified. Still, many dramatic events and the phenomena of the modern world showed how the new management and the new knowledge economy, through sophisticated and coarse practices, is transformed into the dangerous and largely deceptive ideology, which rests on pure commercial interests and consumerism. For this aspect are particularly noteworthy the activities of international economic institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank Group. The establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank as a result of the conference in Bretton Woods in 1944, and after that, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, (GATT) in 1947 are important moments of the economic globalization, especially, considering their main task to “create more peaceful relations between states that traded with one another” (Baalam & Dillman, p. 19) It is widely known that these organizations undoubtedly affect the globalized economy nowadays by involving 95 – 100% of the total number of countries worldwide in their activities. Their main task is to implement and supervise the common global economy rules and policies that all countries are 83 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 expected to follow. For example, WTO has about 160 members today (covers approximately 95% of world trade) and the IMF today has 189 members (same as the World Bank), with its mission to “foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world” (International Monetary Fund, 2020). On the other hand, the main objectives of the World Bank are reduction of poverty and improvement of living standards among its member states. (World Bank, 2020) So how can all this be connected with the nation – state? First and foremost, traditional economic assumptions that the state encompasses a national economy, that international economic activity takes place between such national economies, that international trade takes place between national firms, and that the primary function of international financial transactions was to facilitate trade, in the era of globalized economy, are no longer valid. Globalization has encouraged the development of a global capitalist economic system in which every country has a stake. Capra (1983) claims that this is because world systems are “integrated wholes whose properties cannot be reduced to those of smaller units (such as nation states)” (p. 15). In the book Losing control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (1996) Dutch – American sociologist Saskia Sassen, argues that economic globalization has contributed to a “denationalization of national territory, in a highly specialized and functional way” (Sassen, p. 33), caused mainly by international corporate practices. The author identifies two important moments of influence of the global economy on nation state, both based on practices of MNCs. First, MNCs, although they are multinational (which is opposite to the traditional concept of mono – national corporations) are highly centralized, and, second, despite this, globalized companies are not strengthening countries in which they are established. The first implication is connected with the fact that multinational corporations are relying on themselves and not on the countries where they are situated or have affiliates. In such conditions, they are focused on strengthening their own establishments, hierarchies of control, and degrees of autonomy. Yet, these central functions are disproportionately concentrated in the national territories of the highly developed countries. This means not only that a single state is not able to tackle this, but also the necessity to include all the top – level financial, legal, accounting, managerial, executive, and planning functions of the company, nationally and worldwide, in order to run a corporate organization properly. Involving all these national and international actors, the company is confirming its global position and excludes the possibility of national domination in its central structures and processes. This is creating what the author names a “space economy” (Sassen, p. 10), which affects the state in the way that one has lost its significance on its own companies and their transactions. The second important moment of the space economy is the influence of international institutions; whose influence we have already presented. 84 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić With such a thesis, we can see that Sassen expanded the thesis of the role of MNCs on the erosion of the nation – state, which is the one that most authors agree with. The thesis is summarized by the former Malaysian prime – minister Mahathir Mohamad, who claimed that international economic giants are not only much bigger than developing countries, but also that such giants have an aspiration to enter those countries. Once this is achieved, “local businesses will simply shut down”. Furthermore, although their intention is not to influence the state – policies, “the temptation to interfere with local politics may be too great for these foreign giants to resist” (Mohamad, 2002, p. 134). Raghavan (1996) expresses the significance of MNCs in terms of influence, estimating that MNCs account for around one - third of total world economic output and control around “two - thirds of the world economy” Based on liberal aspirations of the liberation of the economy from the influence of the state and relying on the aforementioned corporate practices and the influence of international organizations, globalization, in economic sense has contributed to the erosion of the nation – state and the strengthening of global interdependence. From this point of view, we need to agree with scholar Thomas Friedman, who was concerned about the extent to which globalization has a homogenizing effect on societies around the world.i Friedman even argues that the basic characteristic of contemporary economic markets is that “no one is in charge” and that “today, more than ever, the traditional boundaries between politics, culture, technology, finance, national security and ecology are disappearing” (Friedman, 1999, p. 15). Albeit the economy plays an essential role in the processes of globalization, and contributes, as we have seen, to erosion of the nation – state, the strengthening of global economic relationships is intertwined in a relationship of mutual reinforcement with a series of political decisions. The next section offers a more targeted analysis of the role of politics in the erosion of the nation – state. 2.2. POLITICAL ASPECT OF THE GLOBALIZATION AND EROSION OF THE NATION– STATE Just as economic globalization has involved the strengthening and expansion of economic relations around the world, political globalization refers to the same processes when it comes to global political relations. Political processes raise an important set of policy issues, pertaining to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing influence of NGOs and the prospect of potential global leadership. It is evident that these outgrow frames of nation-state, thus promoting nation-state erosion. Political globalization refers to the transfer of decision – making places from national to international organizations and institutions. This is achieved through interstate integration (e. g. European Union)ii and by ordering the world as a global civil society that promotes the achievements of democratic citizenship, i.e. universal human rights and the rule of law. With this said, and with our purpose in mind, we will take into consideration the most significant political structures and processes of the globalized world. 85 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Contemporary manifestations of globalization led to permeation of the nation state boundaries founded during the previous several centuries, dating back to rise of the concept of state sovereignty in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia iii. Author David Held in his work Global Transformations (1999) describes the impact of the Peace of Westphalia on creating a modern nation-state, emphasizing that with this agreement the world is made up, and divided into sovereign territorial states that do not recognize any higher authority. Creating long lasting relations between countries is a goal, but only in order to meet national goals. Furthermore, the common priority of every nation state should be minimizing the interference of the state freedom(s). In the centuries following the Peace of Westphalia, there was a centralization of political power, the expansion of state administration, and the development of professional diplomacy. Although trade ties between the states strengthened (and with that the emergence of capitalism as an economic system), they were controlled and conducted by the states themselves. The nation – state system got its full swing at the end of the First World War in the so – called Fourteen Points declaration, given by the former U.S. president Thomas Woodrow Wilson, based on the principle of national self – determination, and with aim to propose a postwar peace settlement. Relying on liberal values, Wilson advocated that civic and political rights in all countries of the international community should be as equal as possible, which would serve as the basis not only for faster development of universal international legal norms, but also for the liberalization of economic systems in the international community. Wilson’s presumption that all forms of national identity should get their territorial expression in a sovereign national state led him, however to the idea of establishing global system of collective security known as The League of Nations. This international organization aimed to ensure collective security as global regime based on agreement between the states that would join forces to check any potential violator of international order. The basic idea of The League of Nations was to reject war as a legitimate instrument of national policy and to insist on collective security, which would find ways to prevent war by threatening based on collective action. Yet, the League of Nations had quickly shown its impotence, and was utterly unable to respond to the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany, and militarism in Japan. Wilson’s idea to give international cooperation a new institutional expression was eventually realized through the founding of the United Nations in 1945. Although deeply rooted in a political order based on a modern nation – state system, the UN also served as a catalyst for the gradual expansion of political action across state borders. While this mission in theory weakened the principle of state sovereignty, in practice the next 45 years were shaped by power politics between two super states – the USA and the Soviet Union. The decisions on major political issues could be undertaken only with the approval of the UN Security Council, which served as a club of powerful states, 86 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Thus, UN decisions could be made and implemented only if they also overlapped with these national interests. When it came to specialized agencies whose activities were not as central for the Cold War power competition, the picture was somewhat different. The agencies such are World Health Organization (WHO) and International Labor Organization (ILO), and funds and programs like United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) were able to provide humanitarian relief in many parts of the world, thus manifesting the principle that international organizations were genuinely global, and that their subjects were human beings regardless of their various subdivisions. With the end of the Cold War, this role has become even more pronounced, and humanitarian interventions, sometimes without the immediate agreement of the host government, have become more frequent. In this context, Paul Taylor (2001) observed that „The United Nations had become involved in a multilayered system of governance sometimes working with the states, sometimes alongside them and sometimes apart from them”. (p. 340) Basically, the UN’s involvement in states does not necessarily depend on actual government approval, but rather, once present, it could act independently of governments. With such impact, the matters of state became the matter of international order, where states are no longer homogeneous entities and they must be understood as open systems, having many channels for governmental, non – governmental and transnational connections to international systems. Another significant moment was the institution of international law. As a historical artefact and product of revolutions, international law has emerged as the expression of the mutual will of nations, undermining the traditional concept of a legitimate hegemon derived from natural law. Designed to facilitate international order, and first and foremost, to regulate the inter – state relations, international law, with its multilateral form of legislation and its discourse of institutional autonomy, in the age of globalization, is increasingly affecting domestic legal regimes and practices. ivAs a mutual will of nations and based on presumption that there’s no international legislature, executive and/or judiciary, international law emerges as a normative force “generally accepted by states as rules of conduct, with expectations that states will follow suit” (Joyner, 2005, p. 6) Although, states were the primary agents of international law, being the only actors empowered to formulate, enact, and enforce international law, as, Rosalyn Higgins emphasizes, “that international law applies only to states”, (Higgins, 1995, p. 40) rules of international law, nowadays, are no longer confined to issues of establishing and maintaining order only among states. Events of the modern world have contributed that individuals, groups, and organizations are increasingly becoming recognized subjects of international law. In this sense, Saskia Sassen emphasizes that in the age of globalization international law “emerges as a site for regulatory competition among essentially national approaches, whatever the issues – environmental protection, 87 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 competition policy, or human rights” (Sassen, 2007, pp. 222 – 223). As a consequence of this, a new and expansive body of international humanitarian law was ushered in, supported by a mechanism of enforcement. This in turn has given individuals, as well as some wider groups, such as various minorities, clear rights under international law, effectively turning international law into supranational law in that aspect. Finally, it is not only the UN and international law that shape the contemporary world. On the contrary, globalization has important political functions in the context of maintaining peace, bringing peoples and their cultures and civilizations closer together, thus fulfilling its cosmopolitan significance. For that purpose, thousands of voluntary and non – governmental organizations represent millions of ordinary citizens who are willing to oppose the economic and political nation – states. Over the past fifty years, NGOs have increased rapidly in number. The spread of their influence shows that the nation – state is finding it increasingly difficult to manage these widespread networks of social interdependence. The aim of this part of the paper was to briefly mark contemporary structures and processes that, as we have seen, from a political point of view have contributed to the erosion of nation – states. However, globalization grounded in this way has its risks, which will be discussed below, and will ultimately lead us to the answer to our central question. 2.3. GLOBALIZATION AND THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF SECURITY In the hierarchy of physical and emotional needs of human beings, security ranks high second place immediately after meeting the basic psychological impulses for survival. Human perception of security is extremely complex. Man, by nature, has had the primordial urge to achieve safety and security against myriad threats such as conflict, war, and violence. Apart from that, a constant drive to attain economic security, job security, access to health and education, undisturbed retirement revenue, guaranteed human rights, and equality, i.e. security against any kind of social discrimination, has been ubiquitous (Manning & Curtis, 2014). In other words, people, throughout their lives, aspire to protect whatever they value and hold dear. With the evolution of human race, values have changed, but the aspirations remained consistent. “Feeling secure and well protected is one of humankind’s most cherished goals” (Hough et al., 2015, p. 21). Yet insecurity, violence, and conflicts are as old as social communities and omnipresent in human life. If we rise above the individual level, nation-states on the same matrix strive to achieve security, economic, first of all, through the accumulation of wealth, which is consistent with the Mercantilist theory, but also the military security through the accumulation of weapons, as the Realism theory teaches us. According to Realists, we live in an anarchic world with no supreme authority that would bring order and protect states from the pervading violence, wars, and conflicts (Brown & Ainley, 2005). Viewed from a historical perspective, different economic, cultural, political, and social changes and developments have 88 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić influenced the occurrence and spread of violence and conflict. In this context, globalization has brought about revolutionary changes in all spheres of social, economic, political and cultural life, especially in the field of information and communication, which in terms of volume cannot be measured with any period in the development of human societies. The pace of changes taking place in the modern globalized world is perhaps best illustrated by the words of Bill Gates: “The pace of technological change is so fast that sometimes it seems the world will be completely different from one day to the next.” (Gates, 2019, p. 16). In this regard, Sorokin (1937, p. 430) in his classic work on social relations and war emphasizes that globalization is "inherently disruptive and that an increasing incidence of conflict is an inevitable bi-product of it." During the last decade of the twentieth century, as the world suddenly entered a new era of unipolar world order, which was created following the collapse of the Soviet Union as one of the two Cold War superpowers, ideological competition, arms race and fear of nuclear war were replaced by geo-economics and plethora of non-traditional, unconventional and non-military risks and threats. Liberal ideas have flooded the world, becoming generally accepted guidelines even in the orthodox communist countries. As Oliver Ramsbotham et al. (2011) argue “the dissolution of the Soviet Union brought to close the long period in which a single international conflict dominated the international system.” (p. 5) The processes of political and economic globalization were given full swing, conferring, at the same time, a strong impetus to security aspect of globalization, which gained its full momentum after 9/11 with George W. Bush declaring a global war on terrorism. Interstate conflicts have been replaced by intra-state, extra-state, religious and ethnic conflicts, and secessionist movements. The traditional concept advocated by Realists, which focuses on the teachings of sovereign nation-states, established by the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia that face almost exclusively military threats, has long been outlived and deficient (Buzan & Hansen, 2012). In contrast, “neoliberals suggest that military force is declining as a tool of foreign policy as states seek the greater economic interaction necessary to prosper in a globalized world.” (Keohane & Nye, 2001, p. 98). Although nation-states are still the backbone of the international system, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, particularly following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the system have come to be dominated by myriad non-state actors, both in political and economic, as well as in the sphere of security. The most notable are multinational corporations, regional and international organizations, non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations, but also international organized criminal groups and terrorist organizations. Hence, the concept of security in a globalized world is not limited exclusively to the state, but to the individual, state, and non-state, and apart from military aspects (wars, ethnic and religious conflicts, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, terrorism), it comprises manifold nonmilitary facets such as organized crime, environmental, disasters, food, health, economic, and political 89 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 security. In addition to the extended scope, the concept of security has different meanings and interpretations in different parts of the world. Some people spend almost their entire lives fearing earthquakes, floods and other natural disasters, some have daily fears that they will have nothing to feed their families the next day, while some fear terrorist attacks and violence from mafia or other criminal groups (Booth, 2012). Therefore, for man to be truly safe and secure, it is necessary to live in a society free of direct violence (war and conflict), as well as indirect structural violence in the form of economic and political insecurity, inequality, segregation, vulnerable human rights, etc. In this regard, Johan Galtung, one of the most remarkable scholars and founders of modern peace and security studies coined the terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative peace. In his view, "thinking solely in terms of a negative conception is insufficient because this fails to take into account the deep-rooted causes of conflict, as well as less obvious forms of violence" (Galtung, 1990, p. 104). Globalization has dramatically affected the increase of free trade, free and fast flow of information, ideas, knowledge, but also the movement of people, goods and services, especially those in the field of banking and insurance. These developments have influenced economic, political, cultural, but also security interdependence of countries unprecedented in human history. In the context of security, the post-Cold War globalization favored the emergence and spread of the influence of plentiful terrorist organizations, organized criminal and insurgent groups, as well as mercenaries and warlords. “Such groups begin to compete with one another for the resources of the failing states and this competition has often taken a violent turn” (Kaldor, 2006, p. 92). These groups began to behave and act in the same way as economic entities ignoring national borders. Like multinational corporations, transnational organized criminal and terrorist groups have their 'headquarters' in one country in which they plan operations; the same operations are carried out in countries around the world; they use some of them as transit countries, i.e. to transport 'goods' across the territory to the final destination; and deposit their criminal proceeds in those countries that have favorable banking and financial regulations (Godson & Williams, 2002). In other words, we are witnessing the globalization of crime, to the same extent as is the case with the economic and all other aspects of modern life. With this in mind, and the fact that today countries and societies around the world are faced with a number of unconventional security challenges, significantly different from those of the past, nation-states have found themselves in a situation no longer able to make their own respond to these threats. “Whereas in the past states were able to maintain internal order within their territories, in large part as a result of globalization this ability has been severely energized”. (Hough et al., 2015, p. 109) Therefore, states seek to eliminate security threats and establish order, security and the rule of law in their territory, through bilateral and multilateral agreements and association in various regional organizations like the League of Nations, NATO, OSCE, EU, Europol, SELEC, 90 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić and global agencies such as the United Nations, as a collective security system, whose mission, in addition to conflict prevention, consists of peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peacekeeping. The core UN mission is carried out with the support of different programs and agencies such as: − UN International Drug Control Program – UNDCP − UN Centre for International Crime Prevention – CICP − UN Office for Drugs and Crime – UNODC − UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division – CCPCJ (Hough et al., p. 252) − World Health Organization – WHO – an organization that has a leading role in combating the coronavirus pandemic. − Interpol − World Customs Organization Due to the current moment in which we live, constantly in fear for our lives endangered by the invisible enemy COVID-19, we will finally pay special attention to this serious security threat. Good connoisseurs of history are familiar with the fact that infectious diseases since the Middle Ages onwards have claimed more human lives than all wars combined. "Today, AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is the second biggest killer in history." (Hough et al., p. 271) From the Second World War onwards, international relations were dominated by military threats - organized crime, weapons of mass destruction proliferation and terrorism. The outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic re-emphasized importance of non-military, health threats to the security of people, but also the national and economic security of states, and showed the extent to which we are vulnerable to events occurring thousands of kilometers away from our home. It only took a few months for the coronavirus to spread, affecting almost every part of the planet. And all this took place precisely 'thanks' to the immense mobility of people made possible by globalization. (Chen & Wilson, 2008) The seriousness of the situation regarding the COVID-19 pandemic will undoubtedly push us to rethink and prioritize security threats. “The health of all peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security” (Preamble to the WHO Constitution) By making individual efforts or by joining various regional and international security organizations to combat a myriad security threats, states seek to preserve peace and order in society, as a precondition for prosperity and economic well-being, and to provide security to their citizens, which is the primary function of every state. 91 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 3. THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC RISKS OF GLOBALIZATION AND COVID-19 Uncertainty, as an inherent condition of globalization, is themed by various authors such as Giddens (1991, 2009) and Beck (2001). Globalization has its risks, and our goal in this part of paper is to understand them and related them to the current pandemic. 3.1. GLOBALIZATION AND RISK Throughout history, human societies were exposed to “external risks” (Giddens, 2009, p. 193), whose appearance wasn’t caused by human action. By this we primarily mean the dangers from natural phenomena, such as droughts and earthquakes. With globalization, however, we are increasingly confronted with different types of “manufactured risks” (Giddens, p. 193), or those risks created by the impact of our own knowledge and technology on the natural world. These kinds of risks are outcomes of human interventions. What is unique in the era of globalization is the creation of a space in which responsibility for addressing the risks cannot be allocated to any single actor. As in The Consequences of Modernity, Giddens observes, that the global spread of modernity tends to produce a “runaway world” (Giddens, 1991, p. 137) in which it appears that no one and no government is in overall control. In a world of rapid change, traditional forms of trust are dissolved. While in the years past humans engaged in social activities and shared responsibilities for their excesses through tight-knit local communities, nowadays people influence one another in numerous distinct ways and across large distances. Such impersonal relations mean that humans are pushed to “trust” or have confidence in “abstract systems”, as in environmental regulation agencies, multinational corporations or international systems. Furthermore, people also rely on different policies and laws (e.g. international law) that are closely related with quality of their lives, believing that these structures will protect them in a certain way. Based on this, trust and risks are closely bound together. For Ulrich Beck (2001) German – born American sociologist, globalization implies the processes that result from activities of transnational actors, while identity and networks undermine nation – states and their sovereignty and interconnectedness (p. 28). Events in different corners of the world produce global shockwaves a phenomenon that Beck names “reflexive modernity”. This reflexive modernity is a paradigm shift of the “industrial modernity” and appears as “a multidimensional, polycentric, contingent and political” risk – based society (Risikogesellschaft) (Beck, p. 25). The notion of a risk society means that the past is losing its determining power for the present. In a nutshell, we’re not able to learn from the past anymore. Beck argues that this situation should be changed by reorganizing our lives, behaviors, and processes on the “local – global” basis (Beck, p. 30). One area of this reorganization is global health. Along with the people, diseases travel to all corners of the globe at an increasingly fast rate, creating a 92 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić need for global health governance. No case has made this as evident as the 2020 rapid spread of the coronavirus from a market in the Chinese city of Wuhan to nearly every country in the globe in a span of a couple of months. The case has demonstrated a global threat on the one hand, and the absence of a global institution equipped with staff, finances and policy enforcement capacities to effectively address it on the other. In response to the crisis, the most relevant international organization, the World Health Organization (WHO), has been forced to take a back seat. It was the nation-states that quarantine citizens, closed borders, and created social distancing practices, in some cases in disregard of the WHO analyses and recommendations. The most powerful of these and the primary WHO funder, the United States, has accused the WHO of mishandling the crisis and threatened to hold back the funds. COVID – 19 pandemics has undoubtedly shown that neither international organizations with their agencies, nor national governments were ready for an immediate and effective response in the face of a deadly global pandemic. Therefore, our main task, in the following rows, is to understand the impact of the coronavirus on the main structures and processes of the globalized world. 3.2. THE EMERGENCE OF CORONAVIRUS AND ITS IMPACT ON GLOBALIZATION Based on Giddens’ theory of “external” and “manufactured” risks of globalization, we can say that the emergence of coronavirus is, undoubtedly a manufactured risk based on human activity, and/or human influence on nature. The emergence and spread of the coronavirus (an animal virus) arose as a result of the meat consumption of certain animal species in China, in the Wuhan region, where the virus first appeared. If we take into consideration Beck's understanding that globalized risk society is multidimensional, polycentric and political, we can see that coronavirus has affected several dimensions of global society at the same time – mainly the processes and structures that we’ve discussed in the first part of this paper. Now all these processes and structures are in question, and their order is on the brink of survival. The coronavirus pandemic has undoubtedly had a devastating effect on the global economy. OECD identifies this crisis as the largest economic crisis of the 21st century, even bigger than the crisis that followed after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the 2008 financial crisis (OECD, 2020). The following chart shows the impact of the pandemic on national economies, based on the decline of annual GDP. 93 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Figure 1. Decline of annual GDP as a sign of a recession (Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52089127) However, the first real indicator of this crisis is the rapid decline in world oil prices, bringing the price of a barrel of oil below 30 USD/barrel. The price of crude oil fell even below 20 USD/barrel, which is the lowest price recorded in the last 18 years, and OPEC and other countries have now agreed to cut production. Besides this, the world still has more crude oil than it can use, so, the predictions are that the Gulf states, dependent on oil exports, will feel the brunt of the crisis. On the chart below, we can see the fall of oil prices on the world market at the time of the pandemic. 94 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Figure 2. Oil Prices from 2000 to 2020 (Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52089127 ) On the other hand, all world stock markets recorded a large slump. Many investors fear that the spread of the coronavirus will destroy economic growth. In response, central banks in many countries reduced their interest rates. In order to boost the economy, this process should make borrowing much cheaper and affordable and therefore encourage spending rate. Still, the fact is that the poor countries will, due to their inability to answer properly, encounter the greatest effects of the crisis. On the following chart, we can see the impact of coronavirus on stock markets since the beginning of the pandemic. Figure 3. The impact of coronavirus on stock markets (Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/business51706225?intlink_from_url=&) 95 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 However, despite the efforts of governments, the global economy cannot survive without the influence of international economic actors. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on the reaction of international economic institutions, the roles and capacities of MNCs and the global supply chains they’re involved in. Firstly, we will summarize the response of the World Bank Group, which represents a prime example of a global institution in charge of helping countries deal with economic shocks. It is directly involved with the most vulnerable countries in the world, and as such has the most important role in helping countries deal with this crisis of all international institutions. In that context it has already reached out to 100 developing countries with some sort of aid. For that purpose, the World Bank Group has delivered record amounts of aid and has pledged 160 billion USD in the next fifteen months, for developing countries – to help deal with health, social and economic issues which emerged as a consequence of the pandemic. Regarding this, the potential issue for the World Bank Group is the threat that this institution has reduced funding from member countries due to their reduced fiscal capacities and small budgets, which are direct consequences of diminished economic activity in the countries. Secondly, the World Trade Organization, is nowadays concerned about the impact of the pandemic on global trade. According to a statement given by Roberto Azevedo, in the recent meeting in Geneva, the pandemic will incur significant consequences on world trade. Regarding this, their efforts are directed towards reaching an agreement on subsidies in food production, online trade and fishing industry. (World Trade Organization, 2020) The full extent of repercussions on global trade by this crisis remains to be seen. Thirdly, like all other global economic institutions, the International Monetary Fund, is faced with the duration and uncertainty that the global crisis caused by the coronavirus brings. The emergence of coronavirus has changed the expectations of the IMF on the projected growth of per capita income in different countries. The managing director of the IMF, Kristalina Georgieva says that this institution projects that more than 170 countries will experience negative per capita income growth this year (International Monetary Fund, 2020). In order to face such a crisis, the IMF created a so - called 4-Point Plan (Georgieva, 2020), which summarizes the four main priorities of IMF action in the coming period. The activities of the IMF will be aimed at: first, prioritizing health spending for testing and medical equipment, in order to defeat the virus and defend people’s health; second, providing timely financial and fiscal support to households and businesses; third, reducing financial stress while monitoring global economic stability; and, fourth, planning recovery by minimizing the potential scarring effects of the crisis through policy. For these purposes, the IMF has a lending capacity of about 1 trillion USD, which is already placed at the service for the member countries. It is important to keep in mind that the activities of the IMF are short - term, and that this institution will adapt to the new situation(s). 96 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić The pandemic brings with itself a damage for multinational corporations as well, and that situation can be understood in two ways: first, halting production in the affected countries, mostly semi - periphery and periphery countries, where MNCs have their branches and with that, hitting supply chains around the world; and, second, steep drop in consumption together with collapse in confidence, which results in giving priority to domestic products and turn to smaller domestic producers. Not just with pandemic, many companies are now seeking alternative suppliers in countries that appear less vulnerable to disruption, but also, the confidence of producers and consumers is now oriented toward its own markets. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 42 of the 100 largest multinational companies in the world said they were facing the problem of profitable business (UNCTAD, 2020). his means that they have to reduce allocations for investments, which will have a negative impact on the operations of banks, and then on the rest of the economy. The situation is made worse by the dramatic increase of private sector debt which was ushered by FED’s expansive monetary policy in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis. According to the Washington Institute of International Finance, non – financial private sector debt was on level 56.25 percent higher in 2019, than it was in 2009. Now, the bill might come due by increasing economic damage and further shaking the financial markets. It is not clear yet what the final economic outcome of the coronavirus pandemic will be. Yet, we can say with certainty that the rigorous measures applied by international economic actors, albeit necessary to combat the virus, are putting most of economies “on life support — into some sort of deep freeze” (Oxenford, 2020), with the prediction that they will come out of in the period of the next six months. Although some economic analysts have gone so far as to state that the coronavirus has dealt a final blow to globalization and the global economy, the future is, in our opinion, much less certain. In political terms, coronavirus has, undoubtedly, led to a crisis of globalization. Such a crisis is anticipated through many major or minor events in the recent past, like Britain’s exit from the European Union (Brexit), closing the boundaries for migrants in western states, and awakening of nationalism in many countries worldwide. Still, no one could have predicted that the aforementioned crisis would rapidly escalate amid the intensifying health crisis, which prompted countries around the globe to effectively shut down and turn to themselves. Although globalization, with its features, has brought the possibility of local, regional and global spread of diseases, as a consequence of interregional movement of people, goods and ideas, where a health problem in any part of the world can rapidly become a health threat to many or all (Lee, 2004) there was no concerted, coordinated international effort at tackling it. In this context, we will discuss the role of the World Health Organization as a main global institution for health – related issues On international level, global health has become a concern since the early 1990s, (with emergence of HIV/AIDS), and interest for this issue has been 97 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 expressed significantly during the 2000s. This concern produced Resolution 1308, the first health - related UN Security Council resolution (Cf. Lee, 2004). Likewise, health has begun to play an increasingly prominent role in Group of Seven (G7) and Group of Eight (G8), during their summits in the early 2000s. These summits produced the Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria at the G8 Summit in Genoa in June 2001 and was accompanied by commitments by the wealthiest countries to dimidiate the infectious disease burden by 50% by 2010. Similar discussions have been held at the World Economic Forum, attended by government leaders, corporate executives and other prominent individuals, held annually in Davos, Switzerland. All of these initiatives have been related to “health security” (Cf. Lee, 2004). With these developments, and together with the support of the health community, the WHO certainly began to play a prominent role. Yet, the WHO’s position, as the main global actor on health issues was conditioned with different epidemiological trends, the emergence of new actors, paradigmatic shifts in ideology and values, and pressures on resources (Godlee, 1994; Lucas et al., 1997; Vaughan et al., 1995). States, as financiers, still had the upper hand, and WHO over the past decades has “faced criticism for being overly bureaucratic, politicized, and dependent on a few major donors”. (King, 2020) These criticisms have become even more prominent in the case of the coronavirus pandemic. There is widespread belief among governments and public across the globe that the World Health Organization, as an umbrella institution in this area, failed to adequately respond to the crisis. Due to pressure from financier countries, especially after Trump's statement about reducing donations that the U.S., as a main donor (see the chart below), gives to WHO, this organization is now concerned, not just with the pandemic, but also, with the aspiration not to anger its main donors. Namely, Trump's concept envisions reducing US contributions to 10 percent of what they used to be. Measured by the U.S. contribution for 2018 and 2019, that would mean a reduction to approximately 44.7 million USD per year, from the previous number of 115.8 million. The crisis has thus fully illuminated that the influence of WHO in the area of health governance pales in comparison with that of nation-states in general, and with those of its powerful donors in particular. Indeed, the growth of global governance over the last several decades has not elevated the primary international health organization above its dependence on the will of national governments. 98 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Figure 4. The main financial contributors to the WHO (Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/chart/21372/assessed-contributions-tothe-world-health-organization) The chart above shows that the main donors of the WHO are U.S., China, and Germany, countries among those most affected by the pandemic. It is important to note that by April 30th, 2020, neither China nor the United States had paid their 2020 membership fees, although this was supposed to be done on January 1st (WHO, 2020). Germany, for example, has so far paid only half of its membership fee. WHO thus remains dependent on the help of its donors, unable to answer properly and autonomously to a genuinely global crisis. In addition to shaking the importance of the WHO, the pandemic has also shown that nations – states have become aware of their own power. While the coronavirus crisis will not put an end to globalization, it is this newfound confidence of national governments that will carry over into the post-pandemic age, slowing the speed, density and breath of future flows of people, goods and information across state borders. Most importantly, it will encourage states to resist delegating parts of their sovereignty to transnational actors. The world we live in is, as Thomas Friedman emphasized, “more easily prone to shocks and extreme behaviors”, and these are showing that such a world “is not flat, but fragile” (Friedman, 2020). When it comes to globalization, we have gone too far and from this point, our return to other, old systems is highly improbable. Yet, the shock of COVID-19 and its lessons will strengthen tendencies of states to resist the spill over of the ongoing sociological 99 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 transformations that globalization brings about into the realm of political governance. 4. CONCLUSION This paper has discussed several phenomena connected, with the concept of globalization in general, and the influence of the coronavirus pandemic on its main structures and processes in particular. For that purpose, we explored the extent to which globalization contributed to the erosion of a nation – state by examining the political and economic structures and processes that affect global governance. Globalization, as we could see, has transformed and firmly integrated the global community, creating rapid flows of goods, people, technology, information and ideas across national and transnational borders. Reflected in the expansion and the strengthening of social relations and activities, the phenomenon of globalization affected economic, security, and political structures of nation-states, thus leading to internationalization and erosion of state sovereignty. With its economic and political, and to a lesser extent cultural aspect, globalization has created a global governance system in which many decisions are made by international institutions and transnational corporations (TNCs). Parallel to this shift in political actors, we have seen the development and a growing importance of international law. As a result of an increasingly globalized world, states lost power and authority to control policy making in several areas, the most pronounced of which is in the economic realm. On the other hand, globalization has created new risks, which can cause unpredictable and very often long – term consequences. Indeed, the outbreak of coronavirus, primarily in China and then all over the world, has shown that the risks carry the seeds of globalization’s own reversal. While the pandemic will not bring global integration to a screeching halt in any permanent sense, the quarantine measures, the curfews, economic stimulus packages and other responses have largely followed nation-state lines, bringing to full visibility those same lines that many observers have speculated were on the path of disappearance. At the same time the WHO, as an umbrella international institution for these issues-pressured by the member countries with debts and conditionings – found itself unable to react properly on the lasting health crisis. In the end, we could say that coronavirus has slowed down and called into question globalization as we know it. States have found new confidence, and in the post-corona world will be more daring in resisting political transformations that come at the expense of their power. Yet, the coronavirus has also reminded us that people everywhere belong to one single humanity. Nations were united in their vulnerability, while the success of measures against the threat depended on responsibilities of people to one another. Moreover, as state responses varied, they produced divergent results. Many states depended on outside advice and assistance. The less developed ones emulated measures from those with greater expertise and a better health system. 100 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Thus, COVID-19 has also confirmed that the world in which we live in is genuinely global. 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The visible consequence of these processes and decisions is erosion of nation – states. iii The formulation of sovereignty (the term coined by French philosopher Jean Bodin in the 16th century), as a core concept in contemporary international relations, was one of the most important intellectual developments leading to the Westphalian revolution. For Bodin, sovereignty is understood as a „absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth“. (Bodin, 1967, p. 25) iv International law consists of a body of both rules and norms, regulating interactions among states, between states and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and in more limited cases, among IGOs, states and individuals. In the era of globalization, the third moment is particularly prominent. i 104 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92c2050e5fe097c8cf0f360022d9379b.pdf dad43125d4fbe76ca10aa6c647640414 PDF Text Text Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Gabriela DIRLOMAN „Nicolae Kretzulescu” Commercial High School Bucharest, Romania gabriela.dirloman@gmail.com Sorina PIRVU „Ion Mares” Secondary School Vulcana, Romania sosoliciul@yahoo.com Manuela GHEORGHE Vulcana School, Romania manu28g@yahoo.com Abstract: The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Introduction In a century of technology and information, all the societies of the world face rapid changes which make them become more conscious of their future. To adapt to such complex changes, human beings realize that they have to be prepared and well informed. The key to this evolution is education, which has to change itself the scale of viewing, from local to global scale. Nowadays, Education for Sustainable Development seems to be the right answer to create a global community. What becomes clearly in many countries, irrespective their social-economical development is that it is necessary to change something in the educational systems, and to act more responsible in reducing the problems humankind faces, such as: environmental degradation, urbanization or discrimination among gender and nations. At global level, different countries cooperate in the field of education, developing and disseminating formal and non-formal education, which nurture the development of youths in the fields of international exchange and mutual understanding, environmental preservation with a special emphasis on cultural properties. That is why the present study “Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System” tries to underline the main aims of two educational systems which seem to be totally different, but which in fact promote similar values and morals. The answer to differences and similarities of Japanese education and the Romanian education, shows that each system is unique, and both countries are looking for the best alternatives to face the tendencies of the present times. The objective of education should be “learning how to think” and “learning the process of understanding the changes and constantly building the solutions to the new and several problems that it outlines the society”. For that reason, people must be more capable to confront a changing world and to look for new solutions for their problems instead of making it thinking of the solutions of the past. 202 �Concepts and Principles of the Romanian Educational System and of the Japanese Educational System After the fall of the totalitarian regime in Romania, reform of education began and aimed initially at eliminating courses that had become obsolete in view of the new option and during a second more extensive phase, building a coherent legal frame that could ensure a more effective higher education. The Constitution of Romania, adopted in 1991 is the foundation of the entire legislation in the field. It is currently under debate by Parliament in order to make it better adapted to the new evolutions at national, European and world level. The Romanian education aims to develop human personality through: assimilation of scientific knowledge and of national and world culture; training of intellectual skills, of the emotional availabilities and practical abilities by assimilation of human, scientific and esthetical knowledge; assimilation of techniques for intellectual work which are necessary for self-training during all life; education in the spirit of respecting human rights, tolerance and dignity; development of sensitivity for human problems, for moral and civic values and for respecting nature and environment; harmonious development of individuals by sports and by health education; training the new generation to act properly in society. According to the Constitution of Romania, all the citizens of Romania have equal rights to attend school at all levels irrespective social and material state, irrespective sex, race, nationality, political or religious beliefs. The concepts and principles of education in Japan are formulated in the Fundamental Law of Education enacted in 1947. In the preamble of this Law, the desire of the Japanese people is expressed as follows: having established the constitution of Japan, we have shown our resolution to contribute to the peace of the world and welfare of humanity by building a democratic and cultural state. The realization of this ideal shall depend fundamentally on the power of education: we shall esteem individual dignity and endeavour to bring up the people to love truth and peace, while education which aims at the creation of culture rich in the individuality shall be spread far and wide. The ideal toward which education in Japan strives is to mould a person who aspires to truth and peace. This has been created from the experience of the Japanese people in World War II. The significance of the phrase “No more Hiroshima!” is deeply rooted in the hearts and minds of the people. In present - day Japan, 50 years after the end of World War II, the outer conditions of life have greatly changed as a result of the rapid progress of industrialization, whereas the inner spirit of the people has hardly changed. In order to achieve the above educational aim, the Fundamental Law of Education provides for equality of opportunity of education, free compulsory education, coeducation etc. Every Japanese is equally entitled to receive education in accordance with his ability whatever his race, creed, sex, social status, economic standing or family origin. For those who have ability but find difficulty in continuing education for financial reasons, the state and local public corporations are obliged to find a method to allow them to continuing schooling. Compulsory education is for 9 years according to the Constitution and is offered free of charge at schools run by the state and local public entities. Coeducation is one of the principles that have been observed almost completely in postwar Japanese education. Some people are still opposed to the coeducational system, but a majority of people are convinced of its benefits. Among other principles, secularism in education should also be mentioned. School System During the 24-th year reign of Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania’s educational system remained under strict state control. Curricula strongly emphasized Marxist-Leninist ideology, and universities, in particular, came under the direct influence of Ceausescu and his wife, Elena. As a result of the government’s isolationist policies, higher education was virtually cut off from the rest of the world. Since the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime in 1989 and the country’s transition to a market-based economy, many educational reforms have been implemented. Under communist rule, all Romanians were required to attend primary school. But starting 1989, mandatory primary school was abolished, and as a result, illiteracy has increased throughout the country, especially in rural areas. The country’s successive post-communist governments have attempted to reverse this trend by offering educational programs to young people who abandoned compulsory schooling. These programs have been targeted especially towards children living in rural areas, urban slums and geographically remote communities in addition to ethnic minorities. So far, progress has been slow. In 2000, the educational system underwent additional changes and got an open character. 203 �According to the Law 151/1999, compulsory education lasts 9 years instead 8; the first generation concluding 9 years began lower secondary education (the 5-th grade) in 1998/1999. The leaving examination of lower secondary education, for this generation was held in the summer of 2004. The Romanian school system (Table 1) is similar to the Japanese one (Table 2), except the duration for each level of education. The statistical values of the year 2003 show that the number of kindergartens and schools achieved 23,519, while in 2005 was of 21, 419. Comparing to the previous years – at national level in 2005, there may be noticed a decrease of number of kindergartens (Table 3). AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-21 Junior College Higher education 17-19 High school Secondary high education 15-17 School of arts and Secondary low education 23-24 or 23-28 or over 28 vocational school 11-15 Middle school Secondary low education 7-11 Elementary school 3-6 Kindergarten Elementary education - Table 1: The School System in Romania AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION 23-24 or 23-28 Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-20 Junior college Higher education 12-14 Special school Secondary education 15-17 High school Secondary education 12-14 Middle school Elementary education 6-11 Elementary school Elementary education 3-5 Kindergarten - Table 2: The School System in Japan The reduction of kindergartens is caused by the administrative fusion and by the attachment of kindergartens to schools – the most affected being the kindergartens in rural area, where the decrease was with 375 204 �kindergartens. In 2003, a compensation to this situation was given by opening new 32 kindergartens. The geographical distribution of kindergartens is favourable to rural areas, where there are 6,734 independent kindergartens comparing to 2,813 kindergartens in urban areas. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 9,547 14,396 629,703 644,911 12,456 7,023 2,171,147 Secondary Low School 1,388 1413 740,404 Secondary High School 207 6370 41,313 Vocational Colleges 89 77 61,855 289,494 Universities 133 136 600,122 600,350 Kindergartens 1,996,604 Primary School 773,843 35,510 Table 3: Educational institutions in Romania (Source: Ministry of Education and Innovation, Bucharest, 2008) The same phenomena can be noticed at the level of schools in 2003. One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Romania (10,5 births/1000 population starting 2003) - the same phenomena can be noticed in Japan too (Table 4). In Romania, the highest number of elementary and secondary schools are national, same as in Japan where the highest number is hold by public and then private schools. In 2003, the number of private schools in Romania has increased to 20. In the case of high schools, there were 1,388,000 independent high schools. The distribution of high schools is asymmetrical, the highest number being registered in urban areas, 85% of the total number. Similar to elementary and secondary schools, the highest number of high schools are national, the rest being private. The number of students enrolled at high schools was of 41,313 in 2003, while in 2005 became 35,510. The distribution of students in high schools is high in urban areas – 93,4%. Even if the number of high school students has increased, there can be noticed that 48,6% enrolled in theoretical high schools, 44,7% enrolled in technological high schools and only 7,3% enrolled in vocational high schools. Thus, the orientation to a career is in balance with the theoretical one. Taking into account the form of education, 89% students have attended day-courses, while 7,5% students attended evening-courses and 3,5% students attended part-time courses. In Romania, higher education includes university colleges (for 3 years) and universities (which can last from 3 years – the case of Socio-Humanistic, Economic, Artistic and Sportive Universities till 6 years – the case of University of Medicine and Architecture). Recent changes that have occurred in the Romanian and European higher education system is grounded on the options of continental countries, expressed in the Bologna Declaration, to achieve a unique space in this field by the year 2010. The creation of a pro-Bologna attitude at the level of education institutions, through debates, workshops, the inclusion of universities is an experimental network, that began with the MATRA Programme, financed by the Dutch Government. Changes that have occurred globally in the educational system have been strongly influenced by the increasing number of public and private higher education institutions. In 2003, there were 133 civil universities and 8 military institutions in the higher education institutions network in Romania, compared to 30 higher institutions existing in 1989. Out of the 133 civil higher education institutions, 49 (not counting the military ones) belong to public higher education, while the other 84 are private. As shown in Table 4, the basic pattern of the school system in Japan is that of a unitary system. This was established after 1947 by reforming the previous dual system. As an addition to the institutions of the unitary system, higher technical schools were created in 1962 with the aim of training middle - grade engineering specialists, but the number of schools of this type is still rather small. These technical schools specialize both in vocational and liberal 205 �arts fields. The educational system in Japan consists of 6 - years for elementary school, 3 years for junior high school, 3 years for high school and 4 or 6 years for universities. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 Kindergartens 14,174 13,949 1,760,494 1,738,766 Primary Schools 23,633 23,123 7,2226,910 7,197,458 Secondary Schools 11,134 11,035 3,748,319 3,626,415 High Schools 5,450 5,418 3,809,827 3,605,242 Special Schools (For Pupils With Disabilities) 995 825 96,473 91,164 Vocational Colleges 63 63 57,875 59,160 Universities 702 726 2,803,980 2,865,051 Table 4: Educational institutions in Japan (Source: MEXT, Tokyo, 2008) Even if the kindergartens are fairly expensive, many children go to them for 1, 2 or sometimes 3 years before primary school. All children start primary school at 6 years old and junior high school at the age of 12. Primary school lasts for 6 years and the junior high school for 3 years. Primary schools and junior high schools as well are compulsory and most of the students complete junior high schools. More than 95% of junior high school students go on to senior high schools for 3 years at the age of 15, although senior high schools are not free. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. In order to improve the education, 36,4% of students from 1-st grade to 9-th grade go to extra schools called Juku, while 59,5% of junior high school students from 7-th grade to 9-th grade go to Juku. In case of students who failed the entrance examination to universities, about 10% of university candidates spend 1 more year for preparation. Junior colleges generally operate on the basis of 2-year courses. There are some junior colleges offering 3year courses, but the number is small. One of the characteristics of junior colleges in Japan is that a large number of them are for women. In 2003, the number of female which attended these colleges was of 220,090 persons. In case of universities (which last for 4 years) and technical schools, more then half of the senior high school graduates go to these, when they are 18 years old. Comparing to 2003, at national level, in 2005, one may notice a decrease of number of kindergartens, elementary, secondary and high schools and of students as well (Table 4). One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Japan (9,61 births/1000 population starting 2003). Because of the rapid population growth after World War II, the number of students in a typical elementary or junior high school class once exceeded 50. But starting 1980’s and with fewer classes per grade and unfilled classrooms, the number of students decreased. For example, in some villages there are school classes with only 20 or 25 students. In the case of universities, there is an opposite situation, in 2005 it may be noticed a slow increase of numbers (24) and of students (6171 more students than 2003) (Table 4). This could be explained as a more careful attention is paid to study sciences and technology, especially in national universities comparing to private universities which are concentrated on the teaching of humanities and social science. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. 206 �The School Year The duration of school year in Romania may differ from year to year, but usually it lasts for 36 weeks (178 school days). The school year is divided in two semesters, the longest one being the first one. For all elementary, secondary and high schools, school starts on September 15-th and lasts till December, when there is the winter holiday for 2 weeks (when is celebrated Christmas). The second semester starts in January and lasts till June (with a spring holiday of 2 weeks when is celebrated Easter). The structure of school year can be modified for the schools which are affected by difficult weather conditions, especially in winter (heavy snow, strong wind etc.). One the main changes in the Japanese school year was the reduction of school days from 240 days to 200 days. This is the result of cutting with 30% of the educational contents in the national curriculum. The gradual transition from a 6-day school week to a 5-day school week was completed in 2002. For most elementary, junior high and high schools, the school year in Japan begins on April 1-st and is divided in 3 terms: April to July, September to December and January to March. Some schools follow a two-term schedule. The Japanese elementary and secondary school year is reported as being 240 days long, including Saturdays. Monbusho requires a minimum of 210 days of instruction, including a half day on Saturday. No formal instruction is given on Saturday afternoon. The School Time Table The school time table in Romania is different from school to school according to the number of pupils and the space. There are schools which work in 1 shift, but there are schools which work in 3 shifts, depending on the number of school classrooms. Usually, school starts at 8 a.m. and 1 class lasts for 50 minutes, comparing to the Japanese system where a class lasts for 40 minutes. There is a longer break for pupils in order to have a sandwich, but comparing to Japan there are a few schools which have an eating hall (usually, just the private schools). As it shown in Table 5, in Japan, school begins at 8.30 am and last till 3 p.m. for 1-st graders, while 2-nd graders go back home at 1 pm or 2 p.m. Educational Reform In the context of global changes, educational reforms constitute a demand for mankind in order to live in harmony and develop solid societies based on moral principles and values. Training children to become part of their society is an integral part of the formation of society itself. TIME 8.25-8.35 8.35-8.45 8.45-9.35 9.45-10.35 10.45-11.35 11.45-12.35 12.35-13.20 13.20-14.10 14.20-15.10 15.15-15.25 15.30-15.40 15.40-17.00 MONDAY-FRIDAY Teacher’s morning assembly Home room The first period The second period The third period The fourth period Cleaning time The fifth period The sixth period Cleaning time Home room Extracurricular activities Table 5: School Time Table in Japan The debate about education for peace, stability and democracy has increased tremendously since the collapse of the communism system in Romania. The world of two opposing sides was replaced by a world facing the problems of transition, a concept which encompasses an entire spectrum of social, economic, cultural and political 207 �aspects. To establish priorities is in itself a great problem. But considering transition as a long-term change which deals fundamentally with people, education has to be a significant field of action for local, European and international factors. The elements taken into account are the following: 1) the most complete term which can be used is “education for democratic citizenship”. It implies the learning of citizen rights and obligations, the respect for human rights, the fostering of a democratic culture; 2) it is a global approach and, therefore, has to be present in school curricula and in permanent education; 3) education for democratic citizenship; 4) civic education. During the communism regime, formal education had, apart from the ideological framework of all subjects, at least three clear-cut instances of ideological education: the subject matters called “Constitution” (7-th grade) and “Social-political Education” (10-th grade) and the classes for “political education”) one hour fortnightly, lectures and debates over articles in party publications, grades 5-th to 12-th). It is important to focus on another aspect. During the communist regime, voluntary work was seen as a paramount feature. It showed not only the solidarity of the society as a whole, but also the approval of the party’s politics. As far as the civil society is concerned, it was practically non-existent. The lack of straightforward and open communication between individuals and groups, was almost total. In 1997, a comprehensive reform was drawn up and called for the following: modify teaching methodology; academic programs and textbooks; make the national curriculum more compatible with the rest of Europe; shift from rote learning to “problem solving”; establish links between secondary and postsecondary schools and their economic, administrative and cultural environment; undertake infrastructural improvements, particularly with regard to the World Wide Web and other forms of electronic communication within the classroom; decentralize secondary and postsecondary schools and grant autonomy to various institutions of higher education; enhance cooperation at the international level. In Agenda 2000, elaborated by European Union and based on the analysis of years 1996 and 1997, it was stipulated: “The big difficulty in the way to reform is the low level of funds allocated by Romanian Govern in order to maintain and improve the educational infrastructure, to buy new equipments and pay in an attractive way the teachers. Other major risks which may affect the success of reform are the low capacity of Ministry of Education and Innovation to implement reforms and the resistance to change which has been noticed at national and local level”. In 2000, it could be noticed that strong efforts to end the transition reform in the Romanian educational system were made. It became a necessity to change mentality - from that organized on passive waiting, generated by state to the mentality which encourages initiative, elaboration of projects and competition on the qualification market and on that of technical and scientific innovations. Thus, the situation of schools, high schools and universities is very diverse and depends more on school management. There are also schools or high schools which still depend on the “state mentalities” and with no programs and interest in innovation. It has also been underlined that the agents of educational reform are the teachers, the students, the specialists in the administrative sector, the researchers – in fact everybody involved in the educational process. Following the end of World War II, education in Japan realized the concept of equal opportunity and elevated national educational standards to become the driving force for the development of economic society. However, turning toward the current state of education in Japan reveals various problems significantly unbalancing the confidence of the public and society in education. Firstly, against the backdrop of the advance in declining birthrates and urbanization, and the notable fall in educational functions in the home and society, Japan faces serious education issues, including bullying, nonattendance at school or violence in school. Secondly, through the standardization of education resulting from excessive equality to the cramming of immoderate levels of knowledge, education oriented toward the individuality and competence of the children has been given to neglect. Thirdly, traditional educational systems are being marginalized by the progress of the era and society amid society’s transformation on a grand scale, evidenced by the rapid progress of science and technology, socioeconomic globalization and computerization. The main aims of the Japanese educational reform are: to implement a class system based on 20 pupils/class in order to improve the efficiency of education; to encourage the youth to become open minded and generous by taking part to different services and activities of the community; to improve the environment for learning, an environment with no worries and fearless; to build reliable schools for parents and local community; to establish a new educational psychology adapted to the new century. Globalization of Education 208 �A closer international relationship existing nowadays among nations has been a main debate at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. At this conference, Sustainable Development was recognized as a common goal for humanity. Thus, the period 2009-2014 has been declared “The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development”. None of the issues over Sustainable Development can be solved separately and it requires an interdisciplinary and integrated approach. In this sense, education can function as a catalyst to unite the various components which constitute Sustainable Development. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors in the end to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Therefore, Education for Sustainable Development should include not only the teaching of a notion and a concrete image of what Sustainable Development is, but also the provision of norms of behaviour in favour of Sustainable Development. Education for Sustainable Development urges people to transform their minds in terms of their knowledge, skills, values, behaviour and life styles in compliance with Sustainable Development. The role of teachers at all stages of education, based on this new idea, becomes critical as well. The content of Education for Sustainable Development differs between Japan - a developed country and Romania - a developing country. It is desirable for Romania to envision a sustainable future on its own and set a plan of action towards achieving the goal. As Education for Sustainable Development also aims to transform a social system, people in Romania need to take into account issues such as to build a local community, how to promote respect for traditional cultures and how to alleviate problems caused by population growth in addition to the activities of the Education for All. Therefore, it is necessary to be creative in developing curricula, contents of educational materials and methods of education. Although the financial and human resources of developed countries - such as Japan – are crucial to developing various educational programmes and building educational infrastructure in developing countries such as Romania, the one way flow of knowledge, data and technology which is currently moving into developing countries has to be reconsidered. To reduce the knowledge and information gap, it is also necessary to enhance the capacity of educators, researchers and related organizations in Romania as well as to promote cooperation with developed countries like Japan by building a network in order to cooperate, to create meaningful ideas and knowledge. Education in Japan is an important agenda for Sustainable Development as well. As a developed country, Japan needs to reconsider its own patterns of production and consumption from the perspective of sustainability. Furthermore, Japan needs to raise awareness in the areas of creating new social norms, reducing and preventing environmental degradation. By promoting Education for Sustainable Development, it is needed to improve the situation of “poverty of the rich” found in the other developed countries as well, where bonds and solidarity are becoming scarce. Environmental Education – A Goal of Education for Sustainable Development Environmental Education in Romania, as a part of Education for Sustainable Development aims to understand the relation between humans and nature, to increase the consciousness for the environmental problems and to understand the personal values of the pupils by “discovering” their own attitude, helping them to evaluate and clarify their feelings for the environment they live in. The Environmental Education can be found in the curricula of Geography, Biology, Physics, Chemistry and History. It can be taught using trans-disciplinarily, which means to find new methods of learning, centered on the problems of real life so that the pupils may become good citizens in the future. Furthermore, Environmental Education can be taught through extracurricular activities and by financial support offered by the local authorities, by parents or by European Programs: Comenius, Leonardo etc.) or by ONG-s. The “Eco-schools” Programme, which is managed internationally by Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) was initiated in 1994 by European Commission as a pilot-programme, and nowadays is being implemented in 24 European countries, counting 7000 schools and 2360 Eco-schools. In Romania, Eco – schools Programme is under the coordination of the Carpato-Danubian Center of Geo-ecology; it has started in 1999 with 5 pilot schools; around 600 school have carried out the project, 403 being active now and 57 schools have been awarded the Green Flag and the title of Eco - school. 209 �The goals of Environmental Education in Romania are: to increase the level of conscience for environmental problems to the children; to develop a civic spirit and the capacity of taking decisions to the children; to create connections with schools in Romania and in the world; to recycle the wastes (Figure 1); to arrange the green space around the school. Figure 1: Collecting the plastics (Eco – school, Romania) Figure 2: The activity of planting a cherry tree at Vulcana Bai Environmental Education can give the pupils the possibility to develop their thinking in a creative and critical way. A method which can be applied is that of partnership projects with schools from other spaces: towns, villages or other countries. An example of good practice is the project called “Bridges between town and village: Together, we are equal” made in partnership by the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” in Bucharest and Secondary School “Ion Mares” from Vulcana Bai, during the school year 2008 – 2009. The project’s goal was to increase Environmental Education to the children in rural areas by activities like: “Let’s plant a tree!”(Figure 2), “What we know about forests?” (identifying species of trees and plants) or contest among children from the two schools concerning Education for Natural Disasters Reduction. Environmental Education in Japan is the 2nd subject taught in Japanese schools (after the culture and language subjects). It aims: to cultivate the conscience for environmental problems; to respect the environment; to train the capacity of solving the environmental problems; to take part of activities of environmental protection (1 day/week). Basic Environmental Education is taught starting kindergartens, and then at schools during so called “comprehensive studies”. Environmental activities range from those integrated within the curriculum, to extracurricular activities, such as clubs and associations. Activities are also initiated at the school level by local and national governments, by the private sector, and by NGOs. There are three trends in teaching Environmental Education in Japan: increasing and unintended pollution of the environment from the high industrial growth periods of the 60’s and 70’s; urban lifestyles and resource consumption patterns that were essentially unsustainable and placed a heavy burden on the local environment – both in production and in disposal of wastes; awareness on global environmental trends as a result of United Nations and other international events and Japan’s own growing presence on the global arena. Environmental Education, as part of Globalization of Education constitutes a strong goal for the Associated Exchange UNESCO Programme in Japan. This programme aims to build a new regional network of ASP schools in Asia-Pacific region for a Flagship Programme of the future. Associated Schools Project activities in Japan started at 4 lower secondary schools and 2 upper secondary schools in 1953. 30 schools joined into this project in 1975, but 210 �now the number is only 20. The most famous Associated UNESCO Schools are Ikeda (Figure 3), Hagoromo and Kitazodo. Figure 3: Japanese pupils collecting the plastics (Ikeda School, Osaka) Environmental Education has to be learned by each pupil through their own experience, having a strong foundation in their families and being based on moral and values inherited from the past. Sharing the experience about their own values and traditions, about the way they understand and respect the environment with people all over the world can be a model to apply the principles of GLOBAL EDUCATION. Based on such principles, the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” has settled a partnership called “Sharing the Globe!” with the Bucharest Japanese Language School, developing different activities such as: “Knowing Japan”, “Origami”, “Small Japanese Gardens” (Figure 4) or “Wearing Yukata” (Figure 5). Figure 4: Small Japanese Garden Project Figure 5: Wearing Yukata by a pupil from the Commercial High School „Nicolae Kretzulescu”, Bucharest Conclusions 211 �As both Japan and Romania experience an era of rapid changes, “Globalization of Education” should emphasize the promotion of mutual understanding between peoples of nations through education. The importance of international understanding can be seen also by promoting non-formal education, as well by taking into account the importance of cooperation and the respective roles of schools, communities and families in education and in the creation of lifelong learning societies. In order to cooperate more effectively and efficiently, Japan and Romania should conduct more programmes, domestically and internationally in order to exchange ideas such as: common values and cultural diversities, Ethics in Science and Technology, globalization and social transformation or establishment of knowledge societies. In conclusion, both Japanese educational system and Romanian educational system have good and weak points, which make them be different not only from socio-economical point of view, but also from cultural and mental level. Irrespective time and space, Japan and Romania have to improve education so that the new generations should adapt to the evolution of world, a world which becomes more global. References Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Fukuzawa, Rebecca, Erwin, Gerald, K. L. (2000). Intense Years: How Japanese Adolescents balance School, Family and Friends, New York: Rutledge Falmer Khan, Yoshimitsu (1997). Japanese Moral Education. Past and Present, Cranbury, Associated University Press Lewis, Catherine, C. (1997). The Roots of Japanese Educational Achievement: Helping Children develop Bonds to School, Educational Policy 9, (pp. 121-151), EJ 506 494 ***, (2005). Talking about Japan Updated Q&A, Tokyo, Kondansha International Ltd. Press www.ceser.hyogo-u.ac.jp www.cnr-unesco.ro www.cnrop.ise.ro www.eco-schools.org www.edu.ro www.ics-inc.co.jp/eos2e www.isei.or.jp/books www.web-japan.org/factsheet/education www.mext.go.jp www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/unesco www.mofa.go.jp www.portal.unesco.org/education 212 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 398 Title A name given to the resource Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Author Author DIRLOMAN, Gabriela PIRVU, Sorina GHEORGHE, Manuela Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af3cb5c7c491c10be9cf468e3b2f49ee.pdf a1b04e6ccdd0b74a6348620fb6cf9cf8 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Globalization, Welfare State and Turkey Ayhan Gencler,Aytul Colak Trakya University Abstract Globalization entails challenges, opportunities and realities. The multiplying flows of goods and capital are grounded in the global extension of the free market and fostered by the neoliberal doctrine of economic liberalization and rationalization. Global economic forces limit States in their ability to independently determine economic and social policies. One of the defining ideals of the European Union has been its social support system, often referred to as the European welfare state. But the European welfare system is under pressure. In the other hand, both the national public institutions’ searching for new solutions and Turkey’s legal reform efforts on its way to European Union membership have an important role. Like other welfare regimes, Turkey’s welfare regime displays new tendencies signaling a new period. This article is aimed at analyzing of the recent social policy reforms and dynamics in Turkey in the framework of the welfare state transformation. Keywords: globalization, welfare state, social policy,Turkey 1.Welfare State Regimes in Advanced Democracies Welfare state today is challenged by the globalization and a major subject of debate in important academic, political and economic circles has been the impact of the globalisation of economic activities on the ability of the world's developed capitalist countries to sustain their welfare states. During the last 50 years, European welfare states have gone through very significant transformations. The term “welfare state“ describes those institutionalized forms of social protection that secure its citizens from the risks of modern society on the basis of social rights. Furthermore, these rights granted on the basis of citizenship shape and determine the individual’s position within society. In cross-national comparisons, the activities of the welfa re state, the policies embraced, its level of protection, as well as its linkage to the market’s and the family’s role in social provision vary significantly (Esping-Andersen, 1990). 299 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo A welfare state is a state in which organized power deliberately used in an effort to modify the play of the market forces in at three directions (Brigss, 2006:18); -by guarenteeing individuals and families a minimum income irrespective, -by narrowing the extent of insecurity by enabling individuals and families to meet curtain social contingencies like as sickness, old age; unemployment, which lead otherwise to individual and family crises, -by ensuring that all citiziens without distinction of status or class are offered the best standards avaible in relation a certain agreed range of social services. In relation to this definition of the term “welfare state”, the term “welfare regime” denotes the fact that legal and organizational features of the welfare state, the family, and the economy are systematically interwoven. As a result, the term “welfare regime” stresses that cross-national clusters in welfare arrangements unveil not only regarding social policies but a variety of social structures (Esping-Andersen,1990). With some simplification, we can distinguish three distinct regimes. This section draws heavily on Esping-Andersen (1990; 1999). His typology is an attempt to classify contemporary western welfare states as belonging to one of “three worlds of welfare capitalism”. It is shown that the idea of ordering welfare states according to ideal-typical models dates back to the late 1950s and was elaborated substantially during the early 1970s, though rather unnoticed. The publication of Esping-Andersen's The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism in 1990 is identified as the starting point for what has now become a whole academic industry, here entitled the Welfare Modelling Business (Abrahamson:1999:394). Esping-Andersen (1990;1999) makes a distinction between three different clusters of welfare states, characterised by specific institutional arrangements and imprinted by the main political ideology behind their development; Anglo-Saxon welfare states together as liberal regimes; the universal welfare states in Scandinavia (Nordic countries) are translated into Social Democratic regimes, Continental Europe as Conservative regimes. The Anglo-Saxon countries represent the ‘liberal’ regime; the liberal welfare state, in which means-tested assistance, modest universal transfers, or modest social insurance plans predominate. These cater mainly to a clientele of low income, usually working class, state dependents. (Esping-Andersen,1990:26). Entitlement rules are therefore strict and often associated with stigma; benefits are typically modest. In turn, the state encourages the market, either passively by guaranteeing only a minimum, or actively by subsidizing private welfare schemes. The archetypical examples of this model are the United States, Canada, and Australia. Nations that approximate the model are Denmark, Switzerland, and Great Britain (Esping- Andersen,1998:25). 300 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The Nordic countries represent a second, ‘social-democratic’, regime that is, above all, characterized by its emphasis on universal inclusion and its comprehensive definition of social entitlements. These welfare states are committed to universal coverage of citizens and egalitarianism (Esping-Andersen, 1999: 78). The social democratic regime is furthermore distinct for expanded provision of public services as day-care, kindergarten, health, and education. Not least in respect to welfare service have Nordic countries struggled to close off the market (Esping-Andersen, 1999: 78-79). Esping-Andersen labels the welfare states in continental Europe as conservative regimes. The third, and somewhat more heterogeneous, regime embraces the majority of Continental European countries, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. These welfare states all have conservative origins. Conservative regimes are characteristic for their blend of status segmentation, and the role of the family and church for promoting welfare (Esping-Andersen, 1999: 81) Yet, at a closer look particularly the conservative regime type proves to be a highly problematic category. Table 1: Goals and policy instruments in Esping-Andersen’s three welfare regimes typology Conservative-corporatist Main goal Workers’ income Social-democratic Liberal egalitarian redistribution poverty alleviation citizenship / residence economic need flat-rate means-tested general taxation general taxation state administration state administration maintenance Claiming principle employment Benefit structure earnings- or / and contributions-related Financing employment-related contributions Actors tripartite administration Source:Bertozzo;2004 ;transferred from Palier (2000; 2001) and Ploug and Kvist (1996: 53). In these ‘corporatist’welfare states, the liberal obsession with market efficiency and commodification was never pre-eminent and, as such, the granting of social rights was hardly ever a seriously contested issue. What predominated was the preservation of status differentials; rights, therefore, were attached to class and status. The state’s emphasis on upholding status differences means that its redistributive effects are negligible. The corporativist regimes are also typically shaped by the Church, and therefore influenced by a strong commitment to the preservation of traditional family patterns. Social insurance typically excludes non-working wives, and family benefits encourage motherhood. Day care, and similar family services, are conspiciously underdeveloped, and the ‘subsidiarity principle’ serves to emphasize that the state will only interfere when the family’s capacity to service its memnbers is exhausted.(Esping- Andersen,1989:25). This welfare state have been strongly characterized by the principle of social insurance and social isndurance schemes have been 301 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo generally based on labour market participation and performance. Social rights have been linked generally to class and status and the capacity reduce income inequality has been small(Esping-Anderson,1990:60). This regime has been the commitment to the defence and the maintenance of the tradational family and its fonctions. Social insurance has protected the family against the distruptive impact of the market (Bussemaker, Kersnergen,1999:18). The foundations were built around social insurance, often along narrowly defined occupational distinctions. This implies that entitlements depend primarily on life-long employment which has, historically, helped cement the male-breadwinner logic of social protection. With the partial exception of Belgium and France, this regime is strongly familialistic, assuming that primary welfare responsibilities lie with family members. Policies that help reconcile motherhood and careers are relatively undeveloped. Hence, these welfare states are transferheavy and service-lean (Esping-Andersen and Myles). According to Abraham, in his ThreeWorlds of Welfare Capitalism Esping-Andersen renames Titmuss's models into the Liberal (residual) the Conservative/Corporatist (performance achievement) and the Social Democratic (institutional-redistributive) regime by using the names for the ideologies supporting the three distinctly different social policy models. This exercise has proven exceptionally popular, and whether in agreement or disagreement, every scholar writing on the contemporary welfare state has made a reference to Esping-Andersen's tripolar scheme since then. Here the usual reference is Esping-Andersen’s welfare regimes typology (liberal, conservative-corporatist and social-democratic welfare regime) to which is often added a fourth regime, i.e. the southern European model of welfare (Ferrera 1996). Ferrera found the following to be characteristic of the ``Southern model'': 1. a highly fragmented and ``corporatist'' income maintenance system,displaying a marked internal polarization: peaks of generosity (e.g. as regards pensions) accompanied by macroscopic gaps in protection; 2. the departure from corporatist traditions in the field of health care and the establishment (at least partially) of national health services based on universalistic principles; 3. a low degree of state penetration of the welfare sphere and a highly collusive mix between public and non-public actors and institutions; 4. the persistence of clientelism and the formation in some cases of fairly elaborated ``patronage machines'' for the selective distribution of cash subsidies (1996: 17). The southern welfare states do not only share similar characteristics and a similar genesis, but also are currently confronted by similar developmental challenges of both external and internal nature (Ferrera 1996: 31). It is possible to meet in the narrow sense of the social welfare state applications in all countries. On the other hand, the wide sense of the social 302 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo welfare state applications signifie a system which is more comprehensive and extensive resources have been transferred to. 2.Globalization and Welfare States Globalization is the process where the economies of various countries in the world become more and more connected to one another. During the last 50 years, European welfare states have gone through very significant transformations. Usually, this time frame is analytically divided into two main distinct phases. In the first period, what has been labelled the golden age and that has last up to the mid 1970s, national welfare states have experienced significant expansion. The context of continuous and robust economic growth, full employment and ideological support has sustained this trend. The first oil crisis and its socio-economic consequences as well as the move from a Keynesian mode of economic policymaking to a monetarist one have created a new context for social policy, which has led to the second period. This phase has been often described as the age of retrenchment29(Bertozzi,2004). The hyperglobalization or neoliberal convergence thesis postulates that the pressures of economic competition will or should drive governments to adopt neoliberal best practices and thus reduce social expenditures along with government intervention in general (Ohmae ,1995). There are two cases of radical cuts of welfare state entitlements, which were ideologically driven and occurred in Britain under Thatcher and Major and in New Zealand under the National (conservative) government. In both of these cases one can speak of a real regime transformation, from welfare state regimes that provided basic income security to welfare state regimes that are truly liberal in the sense of being residualist, providing a large proportion of means-tested benefits. Both countries share a peculiar set of political institutions, where power is highly concentrated in the executive (unicameral or very weakly bicameral parliamentary governments in unitary political systems) and it is possible to rule without majority popular support (single member districts and plurality elections that favor the largest party). One could argue that the transition from a heavily protected to an open economy in New Zealand was the decisive factor, but the comparison to Australia where the same economic change occurred but the welfare state was adapted and the essential programs were protected underlines the importance of ideology in New Zealand. The third case of 29 Taylor-Gooby (2002) suggests the term silver age to refer to this period. He avoids the term retrenchment since he argues that in this time frame we are mainly confronted to resilience of the welfare states, and not to retrenchment 303 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo ideologically driven cuts, the United States under Reagan, entailed cuts in benefits to the poor and did not change the regime that was already residualist ( Huber and Stephens;2003:5-6). Particularly, the effect of globalization on welfare states or policies has been the popular subjects since 1970s, the so-called “welfare crisis” had begun to be discussed. Among welfare policies, socail security programs were discussed to be influenced by globalization. This era has witnessed a changing understanding of social welfare and a restructuring of state responsibilities. Modern welfare states developed primarily to meet the ‘old social risks’ that confront the mass of the population during a standard industrial life course – retirement pensions, health care services, sickness and disability provision. Most analysis of the current wave of reforms focusses on these areas, and tends to emphasise retrenchment, restructuring, and decommodification(Taylor-Gooby:2004). The debt crisis of the 1980s gave strong leverage to IFIs, particularly the IMF and the World Bank, and those institutions pushed strongly in a neoliberal direction in both economic and social policies. These are pressures that advanced industrial countries simply did not have to deal with.Social policy underwent dramatic changes over the last two to three decades of the twentieth century as well. At the aggregate level, social expenditures dropped steeply in the 1980s, along with government expenditures in general, in the wake of the debt crisis, both as a percentage of GDP and even more so in absolute terms. In the 1990s, they recovered again and by 1999 reached a level slightly above that of 1980. At the same time, however, social policy reforms took place that reduced general social insurance schemes and increased the role of the private sector in the provision of pensions and health care and emphasized targeting of social policies on the poorest groups. In part, such targeting was effective in channeling scarce resources to the most needy, but in part it was abused for political purposes and served to hide an overall reduction of state commitments ( Huber and Stephens;2003:56). It concludes that welfare state regime and policy‐making structure makes an important difference to the emergence and development of new social risk policies. Scandinavian social democratic regimes have the best developed policies, liberal regimes develop policies rapidly but are handicapped by reliance on market solutions; corporatist countries develop new social risk provision slowly, typically through compromise with a range of entrenched policy actors; and Mediterranean countries also move relatively slowly, in the context of an expanding welfare state and great reliance on family systems. Existing old social risk policies are also influential, both through the resources that they take up and the interest groups of political actors they create, who are likely to resist reform. New social risk policy‐making is highly important at the EU level for two reasons: the relatively undeveloped national policies in this area mean that cross‐national agencies can offer new policy directions; the policies are congruent with the open market ‘pragmatic monetarist’ approach of EU economic policy. The 304 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo politics of new social risks differs from that of old social risks. Employers’ groups and modernising parties and unions play an important role and progress is often slow and dependent on compromise. By focussing on areas where reforms are urgent, to meet new needs, but also feasible, because they fit with the context of more globalized and competitive economies, the new social risks approach offers a new perspective on welfare state reform in Europe (Taylor-Gooby:2004) The most important current developments, however, are in the area of ‘soft law’ through the Open Method of Co‐ordination and the National Action Plans in relation to employment, social exclusion, pensions, health and social care. The European Employment Strategy, with its stress on ‘flexicurity’, is the most advanced of these. It is at present unclear to what extent this process will achieve substantial changes in comparison with the importance of the economic pressures from the Single European Market (Larsen, Gooby:2004). On the other hand, The EU’s ability to excel under globalisation is challenged with the problem of an ageing population. The current social protection mechanism in the face of ageing populations needs to change. Pension age needs to be re-examined, over generous pensions need to be cut and assets need to be correctly allocated. In 1999, Sweden introduced NDC (national defined contribution). This kind of pension reform has been successfully applied in other countries such as Latvia and Poland and Italy as opposed to PAYG (pay as you go schemes). It has been proven as a common choice for reform. Furthermore the World Bank has endorsed this form of pension scheme. The drastic changes in demographics affect health care and pensions system in-turn has an effect on economic performance. The European commission carried out a project called DEMWEL (Demographic Uncertainty and the Sustainability of Social Welfare system), which sought to "focus on the sustainability of welfare systems in EU countries in the face of ageing and demographic uncertainty (Centre of European Policy Studies 2003) . Trade integration and the consequent loss of export competitiveness in countries with generous welfare states are the reasons for cuts in welfare state entitlements. The increase in trade flows in advanced industrial countries over this period has been modest the most generous welfare states were built up in highly open economies and had proven their compatibility with export competitiveness. The export sectors of countries such as Germany and Sweden continued their very strong performance in the 1990s, a period when these governments introduced welfare state cuts (Huber and Stephens 1998; Pierson 2000). Globalization is often credited with the expansion of the welfare state and increased spending on social insurance programs. The two key drivers of increases in social spending period have been increased support for the (growing) retired population and health expenditure; population projections suggest further spending increases in these two areas in future (Adema and Ladaique, 2009). On average across OECD countries, public spending on old age increased from 5.1% of GDP in 1980 to 6.4% in 2007. Similarly, public expenditure on health increased from 4.5% of GDP in 1980 to 5.8% in 2007. On average across the OECD (and the 305 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo same holds for EU-21), spending on family benefits has increased by half a percentage point of GDP since 1990 (there was no significant change in the 1980s) (Adema and et al,2011). A major subject of debate into the new century has been the impact of the globalisation of economic activities on the ability of the world's developed capitalist countries to sustain their welfare states. A prevalent position in these circles is that the deregulation of international capital flows and trade has considerably narrowed the scope of governments to pursue expansionist and redistributive policies, forcing all governments to cut social public expenditures and deregulate labour markets in order to make their countries more competitive. Accordingly, the political colour of governing parties loses its importance, since left- and right-wing parties, once in government, are compelled to follow the same or similar policies, moving towards a more diminished welfare state (Navarro and et al ,2004 ) Since the early 1980s the welfare state has been restructured in an age of neoliberalism. 3.Welfare State and Restructuring the Social Security System in Turkey Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, established the Republic of Turkey on 29 October1923. In the 21th century, Turkey is a democratic secular, social and legal state, it is a republic with unconditional and unrestricted sovereignty. The literature review focuses mainly on Esping-Andersen’s welfare regime typology and its critics to categorize the current welfare regime of Turkey. Esping-Andersen didn’t categorize the welfare regime of Turkey. The classification of the Turkish welfare regime shows that Turkey matches the characteristics of the so-called Southern European Model of welfare and falls within one group with Spain, Greece, Italy and Portugal. The cross-national comparison unveiled only a few deviations from the Southern European Model. Besides, the similarities are remarkable. its welfare regime, simply understood as the division of social responsibilities among the state, market and the family. In this regime family has got the most important role as main institution of welfare.The other hand one of the characteristics of the Southern European Model is a social state governed by the rule of law according constitution but there are problems into practice. Turkey is the social state governed by the rule of law according to 1961 and 1982 constitutions and there are problems about coverage, quantity, quantify. The three insurance institutions together cover around 81% of the population in 2008 (see table 3). Such states can be called as state of promises (Koray,2003). On the other hand, in terms of assessment criteria such as level of protection, covered population, risks and condition of benefiting, the existing welfare system in Turkey is 306 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo "minimal and indirect” (Arın, 2003:72). The socio-economic inequalities we live can not be accounted only in the context of economy, of growth and even of welfare state that the necessity to analyze all these problems on the basis of democracy problem should not be forgotten (Koray,2005:27). The Turkish social security system strongly protects an occupational core, the level of state penetration in the social realm is extremely low and a safety net in form of a social assistance scheme is absent [inadequate]. The most significant common trait of the welfare regimes in Turkey and the rest of Southern Europe is the importance of the family as a main institution of welfare. For a significant part of the Turkish population the family is the main and often the only safety net and provider of social services. Focusing on the impact of the recent social policy reforms it becomes obvious that Turkey on the one hand follows the path of Southern European Welfare (Grutjen,2008). According to the level of social expenditures, we can consider three groups of countries in Europe: high (Iskandinav Countries), middle (Continental Europe ), low (Mediterranean countries) (Koray,2005:27). In terms of assessment criteria such as level of social expenditure, Turkey is in low group so Mediterranean group. Turkey’s public social spending was 11.6 percent of the GDP in 2003. For 2004, the share of public social spending in GDP is 12.5 percent in Turkey. This figure is 27.6 for EU-15, 26 for Greece, 24.9 for Portugal and 20 for Spain. Turkey lags behind Europe when the categories “old age”, and especially “health” and the category “other” are considered separately. In Turkey, the share in GDP of public spending on old age is 6.0 percent in 2004. The comparable figure is 10.9 for EU- 15, 11.9 for Greece, 9.3 for Portugal and 7.9 in Spain. Public health expenditures in Turkey, equal to 4.9 percent of the GDP in 2004, compare with 7.5 percent in EU-15, 6.7 percent in Greece, 7.1 percent in Portugal and 6.0 percent in Spain. As far as the category “other” is concerned, public spending in Turkey is very low in comparative terms, 1.3 percent compared with 7.2 percent for EU-15, 6.6 percent for Greece, 6.8 percent for Portugal and 5.6 for Spain in 2004. This category includes benefits for disability, survivors, unemployment, housing and social assistance. As such, it is not limited to but significantly includes means-tested social assistance and is an important aspect of combating poverty. EUROSTAT provides data that disaggregates non-means tested and means-tested expenditures for European countries. We compare this EUROSTAT data with our estimations on Turkey. This comparison clearly shows how insignificant the means-tested social expenditures are in Turkey. The share of such expenditures in GDP is 0.5 in Turkey while the comparable figure is 2.8 for EU- 15, 2 for Greece, 2.5 each for Portugal and Spain (Buğra,Adar, 2007:24). 307 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In social policy literature, means-tested benefits are seen part of a “residualist” approach and often regarded as being incompatible with social citizenship rights that should be realized through benefits that are in line with “universalist” approaches. It is indeed true that universal old age and health benefits and non-means tested basic income schemes are more in line with equal citizenship rights than means-tested schemes. However, in socioeconomic contexts where poverty is a serious problem and resources are scarce, means-tested benefits could be the only way to prevent social exclusion due to the inability of certain segments of the population to have access to basic minimum means of social integration. This is undoubtedly the case of Turkey where the incidence of poverty is higher that in any European country (Buğra,Adar, 2007:25). In the historical process, since 1980 Turkey has taken important steps toward liberalizing and opening up her economy. On the other hand the social security system of Turkey has been restructured particularly since early 1990s in line with the neo-liberal paradigm. The IMF, the WB and the EU policies were (are) main guidance in this transformation process (Şahin and et al.:116). The EU accession period and Turkey’s efforts to comply with the EU regulations will also make positive contributions to the reform program (invest.gov.tr) Before the reform, Turkey social security system was highly complicated and composed of different social security institutions. Three main institutions which provide social security services in Turkey ; The Social Insurance Institution (SSK), The Retirement Fund (ES), and The Social Security Institution of Craftsmen, Tradesmen and other Self-Employed (Bağ-Kur). The Social Insurance Institution was set up in 1946 for blue-collar workers employed in the public sector and all workers in the private sector. The Government Employees Retirement Fund was set up in 1950 and provides social benefits within a retirement system for government employees and military personnel. Social Security Organization of Craftsmen, Tradesmen and other Self-Employed was established in 1971 to cover the self-employed outside the coverage of the Social Insurance Law30. In ”Social Security Reform: Problems and Proposals for Solutions”, which is called the ”white book, to legitimize the reform, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security referred to the aging of population, the inadequacy of the current system in covering and taking all population under protection, hence, to inadequacy of protecting the population against poverty and finally to the financial deficits of the system.”. It is asserted that the current system is inefficient and the aim of the reform is to decrease the deficit of the system to the 1 percent of the GNP with ensuring the norm unity of the system. Turkey faces two simultaneous fiscal 30 such as craftsmen, artisans and small businessmen, technical and professional people who are registered to achamber or professional association and shareholders of companies other than cooperatives and joint stock companies and some farmers 308 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo challenges maintaining fiscal discipline, while creating the fiscal space needed to meet pressing development challenges an sustain a fast pace of medium-term growth (World Bank, 2006). Pension reforms can be very powerfull method of adjustment; because they not only reduce spending directly, but can also be designed to extend the age of retirement and boost labour supply, hence contributing to raise growth and and fiscal revenues. In order to establish a more sustainable system, fiscal targets have been set in line with IMF recommendations. Hence, Turkey is in the process of desining a comprehensive reform of its social security system (Verbeken, 2007:4). Two major reforms (in 1999 and 2006) were proposed to solve these problems. The 1999 reform covered only the pension system and beside an increase in the retirement ages, an extension of the minimum contributory periods was intended. The aim of the reform is gradual increasing of the retirement age to 65 for both men and women bye the year 2048. Ministery of Labour and Social Security has anticipated a new model including to introduce a rooted change in the system with the aim of finding proper solutions for actual problems of social security system. This new model which is named as “the model of single roof” aims to establish a single social security institution by removing all different institutions of social security system exist today (Guzel, 2005:62). After the 2006 reform, all three were collected under one institution: Social Security Institution (SSI). Parallel to this reform the General Health Insurance (GHI) system was established. The main objective is to integrate all health insurance benefits and cover all citizens. This scheme is financed by obligatory premiums, which will be paid by all citizens. The health insurance of the poor will be provided by the state. Turkey has reformed her social security system as well and introduced a privately managed individual pension scheme, namely the Individual Pension System (IPS) in 200331. The social security system of Turkey has been restructured particularly since early 1990s in line with the neo-liberal paradigm. Turkey, adopted a two pillar system, where the private pension scheme, namely the Individual Pension System, has been introduced as the second pillar that is complementary to the traditional pay-as-you-go (PAYG) system. The public pension in Turkey is PAYG defined benefit scheme which is the consist of a minimum pension (a flat rate basic pension plus a means tested special suplement) and a non31 The Turkish private pension law was drafted in 1999 and approved by parliament in October 2001. However the legal and institutional framework of the Turkish Private Pension System was completed in 2002. 309 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo actuarial earnings-based supplementery pension all integrated in the state budget. The old age pension scheme has its historical roots in tradational for redistributive minimum protection in old age (Verbeken, 2007:4). The Individual Pension Savings and Investment, which opened the Turkish market to private providers of pension funds. On the other hand, The most signicant resemblance is the importance of the family as a main institution of welfare (Grutjen, 2012:119). Since its rise to power, the AKP government has systematically promoted non-state actors, the private sector and voluntary initiatives, especially charity mobilized through nongovernmental organizations and municipalities, as leading actors for poverty alleviation and the provision of social services. For the provision of social care, the AKP has turne, to "the family" as the best agent to alleviate "social burdens" on the state (Yazici, 2012). Moreover, it is an informal security regime, in which informal networks play an important role in provision and redistribution of welfare. In addition to the state, other institutional mechanisms have been playing an important role in contributing to the well-being of individuals, families, communities and societies. They are informal sector because half of the population in rural and urban informal sector are excluded32. In Turkey, the presence of large informal sectors is one of the most important problem. Accordıng to TUIK (2007), ın 1990 ,% 56 of total nonagricultural employment is not registered in the institution of a social security, this rate in agricalture sector is % 25. In 2006 these rates are respectively % 49 and % 33. Social expenditures as a percentage of GDP are a measure of the extent to which governments assume responsibility for supporting the standard of living of disadvantaged or vulnerable groups. Public social expenditure comprises cash benefits, direct “in-kind” provision of goods and services, and tax breaks with social purposes. To be considered “social”, benefits have to address one or more social goals. Benefits may be targeted at low-income households, but they may also be for the elderly, disabled, sick, unemployed, or young persons. Programmes regulating the provision of social benefits have to involve: a) redistribution of resources across households, or b) compulsory participation. Social benefits are regarded as public when general government (that is central, state, and local governments, including social security funds) controls relevant financial flows (OECD, 2007). In 2003, on average, public social expenditure amounted to 21% of GDP and 20% in 2005 although there are significant cross-country variations. In Sweden, public social spending is about 29% while it is 6-7 % in Mexico and Korea and its 13,7 % in Turkey in 2005. 32 Restating the welfare regime frame work we thus conceptually distinguash three broad groups of welfare regimes: welfare state regimes, informal security regimes, insecurity regimes (Gough, Wood, 2004:9,33) 310 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 2. Public and private social expenditure As a percentage of GDP, 2005 Source: OECD, 2010:201 According to the latest develepmonts the number of participants of the private pension system has 2 million 694 thousand and private pension fund has reached 15,6 billion TL in Turkey (Milliyet,2012). Private pension and health insurance schemes still play a negligible role. On the other hand, While the AKP government tries to back out of the pension system and delegates more responsibilities to the market, the Mediterranean EU-member states have shown a remarkable performance in increasing their social expenditures towards European average. Without a doubt, some of the recent changes in Turkey, i.e. the fact that the state pays for the health contributions of all citizens under the age of 18 years, are of fundamental importance. Nevertheless, if a contribution based health system has the capacity to protect the Turkish citizens from health risks appears questionable. In a modern society, welfare cannot be left to the realm of the family and private actors only, but has to be based on citizenship and guaranteed by social right( Grutjen, 2008). Tablo 3.Labour Force, Social Security in Turkey, 2008-2010 (Thousand TL) 311 2008 2009 2010 Total polulation 69.724 70.542 71.343 -Urban population 48.349 48.747 49.170 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo -Rural population 21.375 21.795 22.172 Labour force 23.805 24.748 25.641 Employed 21.194 21.177 22.594 Labour force participation rate ( %) 46,9 47,9 48,8 -male 70,1 70,5 70,8 -famele 24,5 26,0 27,6 21.194 21.277 22.594 Employment status (%) - - 100,0 -Paid workers - - 60,9 -Self Employed and Employers - - 25,4 -Unpaid family workers - - 13,6 11,0 14,0 11,9 16.177 16.037 16.911 29,8 30,1 29,1 4.814 4.825 4.915 43,5 43,8 43,3 15.259 - - 9.534 - - 2.464 - - 3.261 - - 95 - - 1.330 - - 483 - - 72,0 - - 8.046 - - 33.198 - - 1,90 - - 2,70 - - 57.203 - - Employment Unemployment rate (%) Nonagricultural employment Nonagricultural informal employment (%) Nonagricultural informal employment Informel employment (%) Social security (1) Active insureds Social Insurances Institution Puclic Servants Pension Fund Social security Ins.for the Self Employment Private funds(2) Actived insured in agricultural sector Voluntary active insureds Active insured/ employment(%) Pensioners (3) Dependents Active insured/ pensioners Dependency Rate Total ınsured populatıon Insured populatıon/total populatıon(%) 312 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Deficit of Social Security Instituon(4) 81,0 - - -25.901.978 -28.702.655 -26.724.118 Notes: (1)TISK,2009, (2).2008 estimates, (3).Number of folders (4).TUIK,2011:157 Source: Bicerli,2011,TUIK,2011,TISK;2009 In 2008, Insurance Institution covers more than 9 million workers, The Pension Fund covers more than 2 million white-collar workers and Finally, the Social Security Institution for the Self-Employed provides compulsory insurance for 3 million self-employed and artisans. The three insurance funds, namely SSK, Emekli Sandığı and Bag-Kur, were merged under a sole body called the Social Security Institution (SSI) in 2007. The three insurance funds together cover around 81% of the population as of 2008. The system started to be fully operational at the beginning of 2008(see table 3). Since 2003, workers insured with the Social Insurance Institution are also covered by an unemployment insurance organized by the Turkish Labor Agency (Is-Kur). Furthermore, a number of services are offered outside the social insurance system. However; although the main aim of social security reforms in Turkey is a more sustainable system, deficit of social security Institution is still high. 4.CONCLUSION The welfare regimes has been facilitated by the ongoing discussions of globalization and Europeanization. So Turkey welfare regime politics is challenged by globalization and EU. In the last years the Turkish Government has established some lines of changes to harmonize Turkish law with the European Union Legislation. In line with the neo-liberal paradigm, many countries have “restructured” their social security systems toward a more market-oriented structure. Before the reform, Turkey social security system was highly complicated and composed of different social security institutions. Populist politics such as early-retirement strategy of the 1980s-1990s overburdened the system. The current system is inefficient and the aim of the reform is to decrease the deficit of the system. Two major reforms in 1999 and 2006 were proposed to solve these problems. After the 2006 reform, all three were collected under one institution: Social Security Institution(SSI). Turkey, adopted a two pillar system, where the private pension scheme, namely the Individual Pension System, has been introduced as the second pillar that is complementary to the traditional pay-as-you-go (PAYG) system. Parallel to this reform the General Health Insurance (GHI) system was established. The implementation of the GHI legislation also constitutes one of the important aspects of the adoption of the legislation in the field of EU Social Policy. The 1999 reform covered only the pension system and beside an increase in the retirement ages. the Ministry of Labour and Social Security referred to the aging of population, the inadequacy of the current system in covering and taking all population under protection, hence, to inadequacy of protecting the population against poverty and finally to the financial deficits of the system. While the AKP government tries to back out of the pension system and delegates more responsibilities to the market and, the AKP has turne, to "the family" as the best agent to 313 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo alleviate "social burdens" on the state for the provision of social care, the Mediterranean EUmember states have shown a remarkable performance in increasing their social expenditures towards. Private pension and health insurance schemes still play a negligible role. Turkey is included in the Southern European model which has common features in welfare regime. For example, the Turkish social security system strongly protects an occupational core. The family has assumed the function of social welfare because the public social welfare system does not cover everyone as a whole or offers inadequate service and because of the lack of economic power taken market . In Turkey, is still dominated by patriarchal family structure, althouhg in urban areas is a bit dissapointed. According to Emre Kongar, in contrast to patriarchal structure in the cities it is developed the family extending of mother's descendants, because of inadequate nursery service, child care and the cost of these services if you buy . The family has to solve that own problem itself; especially if woman works and woman calls own mother for child care and hence they start to live together until to growing child, because of the inadequacy of the current system. According to Esping AndersenMyles, welfare states provide resources to citizens that affect their earnings potential. These derive primarily from services, such as education, health care, training programmes or support to working mothers. Moreover , the presence of large informal sectors is one of the most important problem in Turkey. Turkey is a social law state in the Constitution but there are problems in practice. Also the existing welfare system in Turkey can be called such as minimal and indirect, state of promises, informal security regime or Southern European Model or low group (Mediterranean group) according to social expending. The perception that the state is the main responsible for the social security should be differentiated. In line with reforms, The Ministry of Labour and Social Security has referred to the aging of population, inadequacy of the current system in covering and taking all population under protection, hence, to inadequacy of protecting the population against poverty and finally to the financial deficits of the system. Leaving aside the inadequacies of the system, the main aim of social security reforms in Turkey is a more sustainable system like another countries and reforms has focused on pension and health. We think that the main problem in the 21th century in line with globalization is sustainable and will be. 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Peter Taylor-Gooby, Oxford published Verbeken,Dirk (2008), “The Pension Reform Challenge In Turkey”,ECFIN Country Focus, Vol.4 World Bank(2006), Turkey Public Expenditure Review, Report No. 36764-TR 317 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo World Bank Pension Reform Primer (n.d.), Notional Accounts: Notional Defined Contribution Plans as a Pension Reform Strategy. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPENSIONS/Resources/3954431121194657824/PRPNoteNotionalAccts.pdf (11.12.2011) www.invest.gov.tr, “Turkish Social Security System” (01.02.12) Yazici,Berna, “The Return to the Family: Welfare, State, and Politics of the Family in Turkey”,http://readperiodicals.com/201201/2592689941.html#ixzz1swIsiFRFhttp://readperio dicals.com/201201/2592689941.html#ixzz1svtHJz7Y (01.02.2012) TISK,Turkey in Figures,July 2009 TUIK,Turkiye Istatistik Yıllıgı,2011 A Critique On The Consistency Ratios Of Some Selected Articles Regarding Fuzzy Ahp And Sustainability Bülent Başaran Affiliation: Bilecik University, the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Bilecik, Turkey Abstract Consistency ratio (CR) is a very important indicator for achieving the reliability of an individual’s pairwise comparisons in Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Although the applications of fuzzy AHP need this kind of CR results as well, only a few of studies include these results. The most accepted method to calculate CR for fuzzy pairwise comparison matrices (PCMs) is to transform fuzzy numbers to crisp versions and to proceed as in the ordinary CR calculations of AHP. Triangular fuzzy numbers (TFNs) are usually used to present linguistic terms of an individual’s pairwise comparisons. In this research, CRs of 242 PCMs presented with TFNs, found in 39 articles, have been calculated based on four widely used defuzzification methods. The aim of this research is to find out if the PCMs of some available articles regarding sustainability issues in literature are reliable. After CR calculations of those PCMs, it has been found that some of them are reliable while many others are not. After reviewing these findings, researchers in fuzzy AHP field are expected to give much attention to those CR issues and try to obtain PCMs that are more reliable. 318 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1127 Title A name given to the resource Globalization, Welfare State and Turkey Author Author Ayhan, Gencler Abstract A summary of the resource. Globalization entails challenges, opportunities and realities. The multiplying flows of goods and capital are grounded in the global extension of the free market and fostered by the neoliberal doctrine of economic liberalization and rationalization. Global economic forces limit States in their ability to independently determine economic and social policies. One of the defining ideals of the European Union has been its social support system, often referred to as the European welfare state. But the European welfare system is under pressure. In the other hand, both the national public institutions’ searching for new solutions and Turkey’s legal reform efforts on its way to European Union membership have an important role. Like other welfare regimes, Turkey’s welfare regime displays new tendencies signaling a new period. This article is aimed at analyzing of the recent social policy reforms and dynamics in Turkey in the framework of the welfare state transformation. Keywords: globalization, welfare state, social policy,Turkey Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7847d94dba4ed4173402bbb321656f8f.docx 5d465ae6fe6690436190f2a5c5a6fb2e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dcf955ed0de9db4bdf153864b43ae140.pdf fdf92cda4ca0958183415ad17b2d49b2 PDF Text Text ���    �Broj državnih službenika UKUPNO Republika Srpska Federacija BIH BIH Federacija 2013 3372 6788 Republika Srpska 3523 2012 3333 6715 3683 13731 2011 3281 6579 3629 13489 UKUPNO 13683 Iznos godišnjeg budžeta za potrebe obuke (BAM) Republika Srpska BIH BIH Federacija 2013 117,412 30,479 Republika Srpska 37,197 2012 75,127 30,323 12935 118385 2011 117,717 17,954 19,412 155083 UKUPNO 185088 ��      12 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3156 Title A name given to the resource Globalni procesi i razvoj kapaciteta državnih službenika u Bosni i Hercegovini Author Author LJUCA, Samra Abstract A summary of the resource. Countries in transition are facing the challange of adapting their public service to a new environment, which has emerged as a result of changes in the political and economic system, new expectations and demands of citizens and requirements to comply with European and global standards. Global changes call for not only new structures and institutions for public administrations but also major changes in public management, including human resources management. To meet these challenges, it is crucial for the public workforce to acquire as quickly as possible new skills and qualifications, including changes towards the public. A wide range of initial and in-service training is offered by a variety of providers in transition countries to improve professionalism of the civil service staff and to obtain new skills and qualifications. It is important issue for all countris in transition to dispose of an effective and efficient civil service training system, which will enable staff to carry out their new tasks and support economic development. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b251e033b5dfc036ba813f7b3be6fe6b.pdf fbdb9b5c6e38045dd5ff146be55b1c44 PDF Text Text BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 veya sözcükler dizisi ile belirtilip, ANL. kısaltmasıyla gösterilmiştir. Seçilen öykü metninin çoğulluğu ise anlambirimciklerin çeşitli şekillerde yorumlanmasına olanak sağlamıştır. Anlam derinliği olan bu öykülerde, herkesin kendinden bir şeyler bulması mümkündür. Bu makalede, yaşam mücadelesi içinde, ait olmadığı bir ortamdan çıkmaya çalışan bir aydının, içsel mücadelesi açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Toplum yaşamından aile yaşamına doğru perspektif bir yapıda aktarılan bu öykü çalışması, toplumsallıktan bireyselliğe uzanan bir yolculuk niteliğindedir. GÖSTERGEBİLİMSEL YÖNTEMLE BİR MASAL ÇÖZÜMLEMESİ: "ALTIN ARABA" MASALI ÖRNEĞİ Esra KÜLAH Mersin Üniversitesi, Mersin / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Göstergebilimsel Çözümleme, Eyleyenler Modeli, Masal, Anlam. ÖZET Dil ve edebiyat alanında olduğu kadar resimden sinemaya, mimariden antropolojiye kadar birçok farklı alanda da uygulama alanı genişleyen göstergebilim, kuramsal yaklaşımlar ve dilbilimin yöntemleriyle metin çözümlemelerinde farklı bakış açıları ortaya koyar. Yazın eleştirisi ve metin incelemelerine işlevsel açıdan yaklaşan göstergebilim, anlamın metin içinde nasıl oluştuğu ve nasıl iletildiği ile ilgilenir. Göstergebilimsel yaklaşımla ele alınan metin çözümlemelerinde birtakım araçlardan yararlanılır. Algirdas Julien Greimas tarafından geliştirilen Eyleyenler Modeli de bunlardan biridir. Bu çözümleme yönteminde, metindeki anlam evreninin oluşumunu ortaya koymak amacıyla aşamalı bir süreç izlenir. Bu yazıda Greimas’ın geliştirdiği Eyleyenler Modeli’nden yararlanılarak Naki Tezel’in Türk Masalları adlı eserindeki “Altın Araba” adlı masalı çözümlenmiştir. Çözümleme sürecinde öncelikle metin belirli ölçütlerle kesitlere ayrılmış; sonrasında bu kesitler söylemsel, anlatısal ve mantıksal-anlamsal düzeylerde çözümlenerek metnin derin yapısına ulaşmak amaçlanmıştır. 139 �BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 AN ANALYSIS OF A TALE WITH SEMIOLOGICAL METHOD: AN EXAMPLE OF A TALE “ALTIN ARABA” Key Words: Semiological Analysis, Actantial Model, Tale, Meaning. ABSTRACT Semiotics, which has expanding field of application in such different areas as cinema, art, architecture and anthropology as well as language and literature, suggests different point of view for textual analysis by using theoretical approaches and methods of linguistics. Semiotics, which approach literary criticism and textual analysis as functional, deals with how meaning is formed and conveyed in the text. There are some tools for textual analysis which is examined by semiotic approach. The Actantial Model, developed by Algirdas Julien Greimas, is one of them. In this analysis method, in order to reveal the formation of universe of meaning, a gradual process is followed. In this article, the tale called “Altın Araba”, which is in the book of Naki Tezel called “Türk Masalları”, is analyzed. In the process of analysis first, the text is divided into sections with specific criteria, then it is aimed to reach the deep structure of the text by analysing these sections at the levels of discursive, narrative and logical-semantic. 140 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2732 Title A name given to the resource GÖSTERGEBİLİMSEL YÖNTEMLE BİR MASAL ÇÖZÜMLEMESİ: "ALTIN ARABA" MASALI ÖRNEĞİ Author Author KÜLAH, Esra Abstract A summary of the resource. Dil ve edebiyat alanında olduğu kadar resimden sinemaya, mimariden antropolojiye kadar birçok farklı alanda da uygulama alanı genişleyen göstergebilim, kuramsal yaklaşımlar ve dilbilimin yöntemleriyle metin çözümlemelerinde farklı bakış açıları ortaya koyar. Yazın eleştirisi ve metin incelemelerine işlevsel açıdan yaklaşan göstergebilim, anlamın metin içinde nasıl oluştuğu ve nasıl iletildiği ile ilgilenir. Göstergebilimsel yaklaşımla ele alınan metin çözümlemelerinde birtakım araçlardan yararlanılır. Algirdas Julien Greimas tarafından geliştirilen Eyleyenler Modeli de bunlardan biridir. Bu çözümleme yönteminde, metindeki anlam evreninin oluşumunu ortaya koymak amacıyla aşamalı bir süreç izlenir. Bu yazıda Greimas’ın geliştirdiği Eyleyenler Modeli’nden yararlanılarak Naki Tezel’in Türk Masalları adlı eserindeki “Altın Araba” adlı masalı çözümlenmiştir. Çözümleme sürecinde öncelikle metin belirli ölçütlerle kesitlere ayrılmış; sonrasında bu kesitler söylemsel, anlatısal ve mantıksal-anlamsal düzeylerde çözümlenerek metnin derin yapısına ulaşmak amaçlanmıştır. AN ANALYSIS OF A TALE WITH SEMIOLOGICAL METHOD: AN EXAMPLE OF A TALE “ALTIN ARABA” Key Words: Semiological Analysis, Actantial Model, Tale, Meaning. ABSTRACT Semiotics, which has expanding field of application in such different areas as cinema, art, architecture and anthropology as well as language and literature, suggests different point of view for textual analysis by using theoretical approaches and methods of linguistics. Semiotics, which approach literary criticism and textual analysis as functional, deals with how meaning is formed and conveyed in the text. There are some tools for textual analysis which is examined by semiotic approach. The Actantial Model, developed by Algirdas Julien Greimas, is one of them. In this analysis method, in order to reveal the formation of universe of meaning, a gradual process is followed. In this article, the tale called “Altın Araba”, which is in the book of Naki Tezel called “Türk Masalları”, is analyzed. In the process of analysis first, the text is divided into sections with specific criteria, then it is aimed to reach the deep structure of the text by analysing these sections at the levels of discursive, narrative and logical-semantic. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-23 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-582X P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d9a1c7fedecd287382101fa9e192c487.pdf 957c195bc158bc6f373d75c7864af0fc PDF Text Text Khalid Zaman / Iqtidar Ali Shah / Muhammad Mushtaq Khan / Mehboob Ahmad Levin, A. & Lin, C. F. (1992). Unit root tests in panel data: asymptotic and finite-sample properties, mimeo, University of California, San Diego. Levin, Andrew; Chien-Fu Lin and Chia-Shang James Chu, (2002). Unit root tests in panel data: asymptotic and finite sample properties, Journal of conometrics, 108(1): 1-24. Linden, M. (1992). Military expenditure, government size and economic growth in the Middle East in the period 1973-1985, Journal of Peace esearch, 29(3): 265-270. MacNair, E.S.; James C. Murdoch; Chung-Ron Pi & Todd Sandler, (1995). Growth and defense: pooled estimates for the NATO Alliance, 1951-1988, outhern conomic Journal, 61(3): 846-860. Maddala G, Wu, S. (1999). A comparative study of unit root tests with panel data and a new simple test. xford Bulletin of conomics and tatistics 61: 631–652. Mueller, Michael J. & Atesoglu, H.S. (1993). Defense spending, technological change and economic growth in the United States, efence conomics, 4: 259-269. Pedroni, P. (2004). Panel cointegration: asymptotic and finite sample properties of pooled time series tests with an application to the PPP hypothesis. conometric Theory 20: 597–625. Pedroni, P. (1999). Critical values for cointegration tests in heterogeneous panels with multiple regressors, xford Bulletin of conomics and tatistics, pecial issue, ovember, 61, pp. 653-70. Pedroni, P. (2000). Fully modified OLS for heterogeneous cointegrated Panels, Advances in conometrics, 15: 93-130. Phillips P. and Perron, P. (1988); Testing for a unit root in time series regression, Biometrica, Vol. 75, o. 3, pp.335-346. Sezgin, S. (1999a). A causal analysis of Turkish defense growth relationships: 1924-1996, Ankara niversity Journal of Political ciences, 55(2): 113-123. Sezgin, S. (1999b). Defence expenditure and economic growth in Turkey and Greece: a disaggregated analysis, Paper Presented at a The Arms Trade, Security, and Conflict conference at Middlesex University Business School, London, 11-12 June. Sezgin, S. (2000). An empirical analysis of Turkey’s defence-growth relationships with a multi-equation model (1956-1994), efence and Peace conomics, 11(1): 63-80. SHRDC (2008). SAARC Human Resource Development Centre, 2008, Database Profile on Macroeconomic and HRD Indicators in the SAARC Region (1990-2006). Online available at: www. shrdc-isb.org.pk accessed on May 2, 2010. SIPRI (2008). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Smyth, R and Narayan, K, P. (2009). A panel data analysis of the military expenditure-external debt nexus: evidence from six Middle Eastern countries. Journal of Peace esearch, Vol. 46, o. 2, 235-250.. Stock, J. and Watson, M.W. (1993). A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher Order integrated systems, conometrica , 61(4) :783-820. UNDP (2008); Human Development Report 2007-2008, Washington D.C Human Development Report (2007-2008). United Nation Development Program. Available online at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ accessed on May 5, 2010. World Bank (2008). World Development Indicators 2008. Washington D. C. Yildirim, J. and Sezgin, S. (2002). Defense, education and health expenditures in Turkey, 1924-1996, Journal of Peace esearch, 39(5): 569-580. Yildirim, J., Sezgin, S. & Ocal, N. (2005). Military expenditure and economic growth in Middle Eastern countries: a dynamic panel data analysis, efence and Peace conomics, 16(4): 283-295. Journal of Economic and Social Studies Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals AKIGHIR David Terfa Department of Economics, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria. akighirdavidterfa@ yahoo.com OKPE. I Department of Economics, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria. A A The paper examines government expenditure on nomadic education in KEYWO D igeria and the implications for achieving the M Gs. econdary data ducation, Government were used and the data were analyzed with the aid of descriptive statistics. xpenditure, Millennium The study revealed that government expenditure on nomadic education evelopment Goals, omads, in igeria over time has been on the increase which has necessitated the igeria. increase in the number of nomadic schools and teachers in the country. The study further found out that there is a wide gap between male and A I LE HI O Y female enrolments in nomadic schools in igeria; factors such as early ubmitted: 20 ctober 2011 marriages and teenage pregnancies, cultural and religious biases as well esubmitted: 10 ebruary 2012 as economic issues were believed to be responsible for the gap. Also, it esubmitted: 12 March 2012 was discovered that the total increase in nomads’ enrolments in nomadic esubmitted: 24 April 2012 schools in the country is not proportionate with the increase in government Accepted: 21 May 2012 expenditure on nomadic education. The study attributed this low school attendance by the nomads to the problems of under-funding, dearth of teachers, constant migration of nomads, the involvement of the children of nomads in the productive system, corruption, among others. The study concluded that the present form of implementation of the nomadic education would make it difficult for it to be a panacea for achieving the M Gs in the country. ecommendations were made on how to improve on the nomadic education system in the country. JEL odes: H5, 015 146 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 147 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Introduction Education is the spring board for social and economic change. It plays a major role in the socio-economic development of a nation. Education occupies an important place in most plans for economic and social development. It is important in the human development as a supplier of the trained man power as well as a requisite for the accomplishment of other development goals (Adebiye,2004). These roles played by the educational sector stimulate economic growth and development of a country. This explains why countries of the world expend so much on this vital sector in order to enhance the level of literacy of their citizenry. Inequality of access to education and educational marginalization have deleterious effects on the national development of a country. In Nigeria, however, available records have shown that expenditure on education is below the internationally acceptable standard. According to the UNDP Human Development Report (2008), Nigeria spends almost an insignificant proportion of its financial resources on education, the expenditure on education in Nigeria as a proportion of GDP averaged 5.84 percent, which falls below the UNESCO’s benchmark of 26 percent of the budgets of developing countries. This accounts for the sluggish educational growth rate of 0.59 in the country. The poor funding of education in Nigeria has over time deprived a lot of Nigerians access to education. According to Nafisatu and Abdu (2010), out of the estimated population of 9.4 million nomads in Nigeria,3.3 million are children of school age, but the participation of the nomads in the existing formal and non-formal education programs is abysmally low, with a literacy rate ranging between 0.2% and 2.9%. The Nigerian nomadic pastoralists are made up of the Fulani (5.3m), Shuwa (1.01m), Koyam (32,000), Badai (20,000), Dark Buzzu (15,000) and the Buduma (10,000). The Fulani are found in 31 out of the 36 states of Nigeria, while others reside mainly on the Borno plains and shores of Lake Chad. The migrant fishing groups account for about 2.8 million, comprising numerous tribes. They are found in the Atlantic coastline, the riverside areas and river basins of the country. These groups of people amongst others do not have access to functional education in the country over time. In the quest to remove the chronic illiteracy among this mobile population of Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria introduced Nomadic Education Program (NEP) in 1986. NEP was designed to provide the nomads with the relevant and fundamental basic education that would improve their survival skills. This was expected to provide them with the knowledge and the skills that would enable them raise their productivity and income; as well as empower them to participate effectively in the socio-economic and political affairs of the country. In a bid to achieving these goals, 148 Journal of Economic and Social Studies the National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) was established in 1989 with the mandate to: a) formulate policies and guidelines on all matters relating to nomadic education in Nigeria; b) provide funds for research and personnel development for the improvement of nomadic education; and develop programs on nomadic education and provide equipment, instructional materials, construction of classrooms and other facilities for nomadic education (Nafisatu and Bashir,2010). Over the years, the government has been spending money on the nomadic education program so as to provide an unfettered access to quality basic education for the nomads. The aim is to equip them with the skills and competencies that will enhance their wellbeing and participation in the nation-building process. The Nigerian government considers nomadic education as a veritable measure for the development of the universal basic education with a view to achieving the Education for All (EFA) goals and the Millennium Development Goals ( National Commission for Nomadic Education,2002 ). An assessment of the results of the program against its objectives thus far is imperative. Government expenditure on education in Nigeria has been widely studied. However, attention has not been paid specifically on assessing the impact of government expenditure on nomadic education as a measure aimed at achieving the MDGs of universal basic education in Nigeria. At best, available literature presents partial analyses of this issue. Thus, to be area specific, this paper seeks to evaluate the impact of government expenditure on nomadic education in Nigeria with a view to ascertaining whether or not, it will be the key for achieving the universal basic education of MDGs in Nigeria. Following the introduction, the paper is structured as follows: Section two deals with the review of government expenditure on education in Nigeria and the outline of the MDGs. Section three considers the evolution and strategies of nomadic in Nigeria; while section four presents the problems of nomadic education in Nigeria. Section five is the method of the study; section six presents and analyses the data. Section seven uncovers the findings of the study; and section eight contains the recommendations and conclusion of the paper. Government Expenditure on Education in Nigeria Government funding of education in Nigeria comes from different sources. The major one for all levels of government is the public revenue from taxation and oil (Saavedrea, 2003). Education funds are reported to be distributed among the primary, secondary and tertiary education levels in the proportion of 30%, 30% and 40%, respectively ( Balami ,2003). According to Hinclifte (2003) (as cited in Adewale, Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 149 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Ajaji and Enikanoselu, 2005), Government expenditure on education includes direct government expenditure ( for teachers’ salaries and instructional materials) as well as indirect expenditure in the form of subsidies to households such as tax reductions, scholarships, loans and grants. It also includes payment from Education Tax Fund (ETF), mainly for capital expenditure. The main sources of funds that the Nigerian government has are federal taxes and duties on petroleum, profits, imports and exports, which form the revenue of the Federation Account, and the centrally collected Value Added Tax (VAT) introduced in 1996. The federal government allocations to the educational sector from 1995 to 2011 is presented in Table 1. Table1. Federal Government Allocation to Education between1995-2011 Years 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2008 2009 2010 2011 Capital (N) 3,017,900,000 3,215,800,000 3,807,900,000 9,739,600,000 8,291,800,000 35,000,000,000 35,183,789,000 22,100,000,000 15,723,260,401 21,550,000,000 50,540,287,898 40,005,096,425 53,667,933,553 304,670,538,799 Recurrent (N) 9,798,600,000 12,135,900,000 13,033,200,000 13,828,300,000 19,421,700,000 29,514,932,711 37,676,055,443 59,994,441,815 63,228,742,652 72,217,886,839 145,219,839,130 196,218,973,905 192,594,871,801 518,251,289,348 Total ( N) 12,816,400,000 15,351,700,000 16,841,200,000 23,666,100,000 27,713,500,000 64,514,932,711 72,950,836,443 82,094,441,815 78,952,003,053 93,767,886,839 195,760,127,029 236,224,070,330 246,262,805,354 356,495,828,145 Source: Budget Office of the Federation, Federal Ministry of Finance, 2011. The table above shows that government expenditure on education consists of recurrent and capital expenditure. In nominal terms, it can be seen from the table that the budgetary allocations to the education sector are on the increase but the growth rate is not impressive. For instance, in 2008 the allocation to the capital expenditure on education was 6.4% of the total budget and it was 3.9% in 2009, and 3.9% in 2010 representing 0.0% increase between 2009 and 2010; while the educational allocation to the recurrent expenditure was 15.1% in 2008,15.0% in 2009, and 14.4% of the total budget in 2010. This represents a decline of -0.6% in the allocations between 2009 and 2010. These allocations have grossly failed to meet the UNESCO’s 150 Journal of Economic and Social Studies conventional benchmark of 26% for the budgets of developing countries. Given the importance of this sector to human and economic development, it would be important to push the education allocations up to at least half of the international benchmark requirement so as to attain the universal basic education as described in the goal two of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Outline of the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) At the Millennium Summit held in September 2000, in New York, United States of America, members of the United Nations (UN) made the following declaration: We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are currently subjected to”. This led to the acceptance and the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals which are expected to be fully achievable in the year 2015. These goals are: Goal 1: Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger by half in 2015; Goal 2: Achievement of the universal primary education by 2015; Goal 3: Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women by 2015; Goal 4: Reduction of child mortality rate especially the under 5 by two-third in 2015, Goal 5: Improvement of the maternal health; Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability; and Goal 8: Development of a global partnership for development (National Planning Commission,2004). The quest to achieve the universal basic education as described by goal two of the MDGs, the Nigerian government gave a rekindling interest to the Nomadic Education Program as one of the measures of achieving the MDGs in the country by 2015. Evolution and Strategies of Nomadic Education in Nigeria. The Nomadic Education program (NEP) started officially in November 1986, after The Yola National Workshop on Nomadic Education. The workshop resolved that : “… The nomads needed a fair deal through the provision of education and other social amenities to reciprocate their contribution to the nation-building ….” (Ismail, 2000). Consequently, the Federal Government promulgated the Decree No. 41 of Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 151 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals December 1989 (now CAP 243 LFN), which established the National commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) with the responsibility to implement the National Nomadic Education Program. The NCNE was mandated to formulate policy and issue guidelines in all matters relating to nomadic education in Nigeria. These mandates include: providing funds for research and personnel development of nomadic education in Nigeria; the development of programs on nomadic education; the provision of equipment and other instructional materials, construction of classrooms and other facilities relating to nomadic education. Secondly, to establish, manage and maintain primary schools in the settlements and grazing reserves carved out for nomadic people. Thirdly, to determine standard of skills to be attained in the nomadic schools. Also, to arrange for effective monitoring and evaluation of activities of agencies concerned with nomadic education. It was mandated to liaise and cooperate with other relevant ministries and agencies. Furthermore, NCNE was to receive block grants and funds from the Federal Government or any agency authorized and allocate same to the nomadic schools based on any format approved by the Federal Executive Council; act as agency for channeling all external aid to the nomadic schools in Nigeria; ensure effective inspection of nomadic education activities in Nigeria through the sections in the Federal and State Ministries of Education performing duties relating to nomadic education. Finally, it was mandated to collate, analyze and publish information relating to nomadic education in Nigeria; and undertake any other action desirable for the promotion of nomadic education in Nigeria (National Commission for Nomadic Education, 1989). The commission has four departments, namely, Program Development and Extension; Monitoring, Evaluation and Statistics; Administration and Supplies and Finance and Accounts. It has six Zonal offices located in Bauchi for the North-East, Kano for the North-West, Minna for the North-Central, Ibadan for South-West, Enugu of the South-East and Benin for the South-South. Furthermore, it has four university-based nomadic education centers located in the University of Port Harcourt for migrant fishermen education, University of Maiduguri for teacher-training, University of Sokoto for curriculum development, and University of Jos for research and evaluation to cater for pastoral nomads (National Commission Nomadic Education, 2000). The Organogram of the Commission is shown in Appendix I. tation of the nomadic education program. The programs briefly highlighted are: Provision of primary education – this program is implemented in collaboration with States and Local governments, as well as local communities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Collaborative Body Organizations (CBOs). So far, all the 36 States and Abuja are participating in the program. However, their level of commitments to the program varies. Provision of academic support services through the University based centers. The centre at Jos is responsible for research and evaluation, the University of Maiduguri for teachers training and outreach programs, Usmanu Dan Fodiyo University for the development of curricula and textual materials and the University of Port Harcourt for research, curricula development and teachers training for the education of migrant fishing communities. The Commission has been working closely with the Centers for the development of curricula materials and pupils’ texts, conduct of research projects and the organization of teachers training workshops; Provision of infrastructural facilities – faced with the problem of inadequate infrastructure that has necessitated teaching and learning under trees, the Commission has adopted the following strategies for addressing the peculiar needs of all the groups: provision of permanent and semi-permanent structures, provision of mobile collapsible classroom structures, provision of boat schools and dug-out canoes. Provision of extension services: Actual intervention by the Commission in the provision of educational extension services to the nomads only began in 1996/97. The major driving force behind the NCNE’s intervention in this aspect of education was the realization that, the adoption of an integrated approach to education provision engender nomads participation in support for the program. However, the mandate of the Commission specifically restricted its operation to the provision of primary education to the children of the nomads. The dilemma necessitated the convening of an Experts Meeting on viable strategies for implementing Nomadic Education in Nigeria in 1995. Having examined the condition of nomadic education in Nigeria, the meeting came out with recommendations to further strengthen, expand and sustain the program. Some of the recommendations were that, the provision of education should be for the children as well as the adults, and that tremendous efforts be made to positively alter the behaviour of nomads towards modern education. Nomadic Education Program Strategies Current Program Implementation In pursuance of its functions, the National Commission for Nomadic Education has between 1990 and 2006 evolved four distinct programs for the effective implemen- 152 Journal of Economic and Social Studies To support effective teaching and learning, the Commission also collaborates with Nomadic communities, CBOs, NGOs, at all levels, development partners and other Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 153 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals international support organizations. Over the years, the Commission has embarked on a number of activities and recorded modest achievements in the following areas, namely: Broadening access to basic education – providing access to basic education, the NEP has facilitated 2,354 schools in 36 States and FCT for pastoralist children (432,411), 451 for fisher folk children (88,288) in 9 states, 260 schools for migrant farmers in 8 states with 33,164 pupils; The Commission has facilitated the increase in the number of nomadic schools. The number of Nomadic schools increased from 2,094 in 2005 to 2,294 in 2006 and to 2,526 in 2007. There was progressive teachers recruitment and retention in nomadic schools, there was an increase in the number of nomadic schools teachers from 6,918 in 2005, to 7,989 in 2006 and 8,665 by 2007; there was an increase in Nomadic girl-child education initiative of the Commission which has increased female enrolment, progression, and transition in Nomadic schools. The female enrolment has increased from 153,489 in 2006 to 164,769 in 2007 representing 28% increase rate (Nafisatu and Abdu, 2010). Problems of Nomadic Education in Nigeria According to Nafisatu and Abdu (2010), the following are the problems militating against the smooth operation of the NEP in Nigeria: constant migration of the nomads, the involvement of children in the productive systems, unsuitability of the formal school curriculum, physical isolation and restriction of the nomads from social interaction with the larger society, unfavorable land tenure system, underfunding of nomadic education and late release of approved funds, unwillingness of State and Local Governments to make budgetary allocations for Nomadic Education Program, indiscriminate transfers of the teachers by LGEAs from the Nomadic primary schools to conventional primary schools without replacements, the dearth of teachers in terms of quantity and quality, relatively low level of enrolments in Nomadic schools, general lack of supervision and monitoring of nomadic schools by the local and state governments, relative exclusion of Nomadic schools from UBE and other intervention funds accruing to the States, Non-provision of funds for the Commission’s extension service programs, constant clashes and conflicts between farmers and herders and amongst fisher folks over fishing rights resulting in displacements. According to Ismail (2000), the under-funding of nomadic education is partly blamed on inaccurate demographic data. Lack of reliable statistics on the nomads leads to planning based on guessing; there was much confusion as to the actual number of the nomadic schools, types of school facilities and the 154 Journal of Economic and Social Studies number of teachers in various locations. Lack of authentic data in these areas has made planning for nomadic education very difficult. Schools are stationed inappropriately; few in densely populated areas, and many in sparsely populated areas. Malinga (2009), observed that, the major hindrances to school attendance are the daily grazing movements and the lack of labor substitutes. Unlike farmers who use child labor marginally, the Fulani rely heavily and continuously on the children for labor. A Fulani man will not send his child to school even if an adult is available to attend to the animals because the child needs to learn the herding skills. The reliance on juveniles for shepherding task, explains the poor participation of the pastoralists in formal education. From the foregoing, it is apparent that Nafisatu and Abdu, Ismail, and Malinga have identified various problems of nomadic education in Nigeria. However, in this study, the problem of underfunding of nomadic education, dearth of teachers in terms of quantity and quality, corruption, constant migration of the nomads, and active involvement of the school-going age children of the nomads in the productive system were ranked as the most important problems. Thus, these problems were critically engaged in the section of data analysis. Method of the Study The study used mainly secondary data that were obtained from the National Commission on Nomadic Education (NCNE) and the Federal Ministry of Finance as well as journals. The data collected were on the number of pupils enrolment, number of nomadic primary schools, number of teachers in nomadic schools and government expenditure on nomadic education in Nigeria from 1990 to 2008 as well as the corruption perceptions indices in Nigeria. The data were analyzed using tables, percentages, trend graphs, bar charts and rates. Data presentation and Analysis In order to evaluate the impact of government expenditure on nomadic education in Nigeria, data were collected on the number of schools, teachers and the pupils’ enrolments in nomadic schools from 1990 to 2008 as presented in table 2. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 155 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Table 2. Distribution of the of nomadic schools, Teachers and Pupils enrolment from 1990 to 2008 Years 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 No of schools 329 473 626 656 754 860 940 1,103 1,022 1,068 1,494 1,574 1,680 1,820 1,981 2,034 2,354 2,354 2,526 Source: NCNE, 2008 No of teachers 878 1,489 2,491 2,365 2,822 2,788 2,915 3,265 3,265 3,365 4,748 4,907 5,290 6,306 6,861 6,918 7,989 7,989 8,665 Pupils enrolment Male 13,763 25,942 33,463 38,335 42,738 56,759 63,638 71,695 69,578 75,601 112,958 118,905 134,930 175,962 211,931 222,061 224,304 224,304 235,064 Female 5,068 10,559 16,689 15,253 19,094 35,751 40,938 47,081 47,366 46,934 80,291 84,939 92,014 127,556 151,622 153,489 164,769 164,769 197,347 Total 18,831 65,019 50,152 53,588 61,832 92,510 104,576 118,776 116,944 122,535 193,243 203,844 226,944 303,518 363,553 375,550 389,073 389,073 432,411 The table reveals that the number of nomadic schools in the country has increased from 329 in 1990 to 2,526 in 2008 representing a cumulative increase of 87% in the number of nomadic schools. It further shows that, the number of teachers employed to handle teaching and learning in the nomadic schools has increased from 878 in 1990 to 8,665 in 2008 representing 90% increment in the number of teachers employed during the period. The table also depicts that the number of pupils’ enrolment in nomadic schools rose from 18,831 in 1990 to 432,411 in 2008, representing a cumulative increase of 96% in the total pupils’ enrolment over the period. To show clearly these increasing trends, data from table 2 were used to construct trend graphs as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The trends show clearly that both the number of nomadic schools and teachers have increased over time in Nigeria. The main reason for the trend may be the government’s continued grant-in-aid to the nomadic education. 156 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Figure 1 Trends of the number of Nomadic schools and the number of Teachers employed over time The chart in Figure 2 further shows that the number of pupils’ enrolment by gender in nomadic education in Nigeria is on the increase. Source: Constructed from the data in table 2 Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 157 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Figure 2. Pupils’ enrolments in Nomadic school by gender A close examination of the chart reveals that there is a wide gap between male and female enrolments over the years. In a bid to explain the gender gap in nomadic education in Nigeria, we considered the general causes of low female school enrollments in Nigeria. Some of the factors are early marriages and teenage pregnancies. These are common experiences in the country, especially in the northern part of the country where the nomads are dominant. In that part of the country, many school-age girls often drop out of school because of pregnancies to marry. Secondly, cultural and religious biases adversely affect girl-child education in Nigeria. Many Nigerian parents, especially in large families with limited resources, tend to enroll boys in school instead or before girls. Some parents also keep their daughters out of schools due to misinterpretation of the tenets of the Islamic religion. This practice is typical of illiterate Muslims of which the nomads are part of. They generally believe that their female children will face sexual harassment in schools. Nonetheless, poverty and economic issues are equally contributory factors to this gap. Given the high level of poverty in Nigeria, many parents, including the nomads, often send their daughters to sell wares in the market or on the street in order to generate additional incomes for the families. For the Fulani nomads, their school-age daughters are commonly involved in the hawking of extracted cow milk. These factors are responsible for the disproportionate male-female enrolments in Nigerian schools, especially at the primary school level. Thus, it may be said that nomadic education in the country also faces these general problems. This male-female gap in school enrolments has a very serious implication for attaining the two educational Millennium Development Goals of Universal Primary Education(UPE) and the elimination of gender disparities in the primary and secondary schools in 2015. This is so because, the EFA goals and MDGs in Nigeria aimed at raising the gender parity rate to 80% in primary 1-6 and 50% in JS1-3 by 2015, using nomadic education as a potent tool. Furthermore, the growth rate of government expenditure on nomadic education in Nigeria was compared with that of pupils’ enrolments in nomadic schools. The results are presented in table 3. Table 3. Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education and Pupils Enrollment in Nigeria YEAR EXP(N) 1990 4227139.00 1991 5284802.00 25.02 65019.00 245.28 1992 2958582.00 -44.02 50152.00 -22.87 1993 11225544.00 279.42 53588.00 6.85 1994 6930438.00 -38.26 61832.00 15.38 1995 3153896.00 -54.49 92510.00 49.62 1996 8929536.00 183.13 104576.00 13.04 1997 8876172.00 -0.60 118776.00 13.58 1998 6613698.00 -25.49 116944.00 -1.54 1999 15676272.00 137.03 122535.00 4.78 2000 17382572.00 10.88 193243.00 57.70 2001 81352364.00 368.01 203844.00 5.49 2002 87872301.13 8.01 226944.00 11.33 2003 50000000.00 -43.10 303518.00 33.74 2004 51163143.22 2.33 363553.00 19.78 2005 59890663.01 17.06 375550.00 3.30 2006 70162576.31 17.15 389073.00 3.60 2007 70373063.00 0.30 389073.00 0.00 2008 70584183.00 0.30 432411.00 11.14 % D in EXP ENROLLMENT % D in Enrollment 18831.00 Source :NCNE, Annual Report,2000. The table shows that government expenditure on nomadic education has been on the increase over the years, even though the increase has not been consistent. As it can be seen from the table, in nominal terms, the expenditure has increased over time from N4,227,139.00 in 1990 to N70,548,183.00 in 2008. However, in terms of the growth rate, the trend of the expenditure on nomadic education has not demonstrated any definite trend. For instance, in 1991, the expenditure increased by 158 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 159 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals 25.05% and declined by 44.02% in 1992, it then rose tremendously by 279.42% in 1993 and thereafter, decreased by 38.26% in 1994. The declining trend continued and again, appreciated by 183.13% in 1996 and peaked in 2001 by 368.01% . The Expenditure dropped by 43% in 2003 and afterwards, increased moderately. Pupils’ enrolments as depicted in the table increased continuously during the review period except in 1992 and 1998 when a decline was recorded. The enrolments increased from 18,831 pupils in 1990 to 43,244 pupils in 2008 representing a cumulative increase of 56.45% in the number of pupils enrolled. In order to clearly see whether the increases in the government expenditure are commensurate with the changes in the enrolments, percentage rates for the expenditure and enrolments over time as contained in the table 3 were used to construct a trend graph as shown in Figure 3. Source: Constructed from the data in Table 3. Figure 3. Trends in Percentage change in Expenditure on Nomadic Education and School Enrollment in Nomadic school in Nigeria A close examination of the trends reveals that the percentage increases in school enrolments by the nomads are not proportionate with the increases in government expenditure on nomadic education over time. Having discovered this, we tried to ascertain the possible causes for the disproportionate relationship between government expenditure on nomadic education and nomadic school enrolment in Nigeria. In doing this, we have engaged some variables critically to see whether they are 160 Journal of Economic and Social Studies responsible for this relationship . First, we considered the problem of underfunding of nomadic education in the country. We used the ratio of government allocations to nomadic education as the proportion of the total education allocations in the country over the years as a proxy for underfunding problem as shown in the table 5. Table 5. The ratio of Government Allocations to nomadic Education as a proportion of the total allocation to the Education sector in Nigeria. Year Government allocation to Education (N) Government allocation to Nomadic Education (N) Ratio of Government allocation to Nomadic Education as a percentage of Total allocation to Education (%) 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 12,816,400,000 15,351,900,000 16,841,200,000 23,666,100,000 27,713,500,000 64,514,932,711 72,950,836,443 82,094,441,815 78,952,003,053 93,767,886,839 195,760,127,029 236,224,070,330 246,262,805,535 356,495,828,145 3,153,896.00 8,929,536.00 8,876,172.00 6,613,698.00 15,678,272.00 17,382,572.00 81,352,364.00 87,872,301.13 50,000,000.00 51,163,145.22 59,890,663.01 70,162,576.31 70,373,063.00 70,584,183.00 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 Source: Computed from Tables 1 and 4 The table shows that government expenditure on nomadic education as a percentage of the total allocations to the education sector averaged 0.05%. This proportion is indeed ,too meager to exert any meaningful impact on nomadic education as per increased enrolment rates. Secondly, we considered the teacher-student ratio as a proxy for the problem of inadequacy of teachers in nomadic schools over the years as shown in the table 6. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 161 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Table 6. Teacher-Student Ratio in nomadic Education Schools in Nigeria Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Number of Teachers 875 1489 2491 2365 2822 2788 2915 3265 3265 3365 4748 4907 5290 6306 6861 6918 7989 7989 8665 Number of Pupils 18,831 65,019 50,152 53,588 61,832 92,510 104,576 118,776 116,944 122,535 193,243 203,844 226,944 303,518 363,553 375,550 389,073 389,073 432,411 Teacher-Student ratio 25 44 20 23 22 33 36 37 36 36 41 42 42 48 53 55 49 49 50 Source: Computed from Table 2 By taking the average of the teacher-student ratio over the years as contained in the table 6, it was discovered that the ratio is 1:40, implying that there are 40 students to a teacher. These number of students to a teacher is relatively high since such a teacher may find it difficult to discharge responsibilities effectively as required. The net effect may be abstentism by the students due to ineffective control over them which could degenerate into subsequent drop- out of many nomads of school-age from school. Furthermore, we examined the menace of corruption, where we used the Corruption Perceptions Indices with a view to demonstrating how corrupt practices affect public funds in Nigeria, of which nomadic education is no exception. Transparency International introduced the corruption perceptions Index in 1995 to measure the level of corruption in countries. The CPI scores relate to the perceptions of degree of corruption as seen by business people and country analysts. The scores range between 10( highly clean) and 0 (highly corrupt). The CPI scores for Nigeria from 2003 to 2010 are shown in the table 7. Table 7. The Corruption Perception Indices for Nigeria Year CPI 2003 1.6 2004 1.4 2005 1.6 2006 1.9 2007 2.2 2008 2.2 2009 2.7 2010 2.8 Source: Transparency International, 2011 162 Journal of Economic and Social Studies From the above table, Nigeria has an average of 2.0. This implies that Nigeria is hypercorrupt. The implication is that, even with the meager allocations to nomadic education, corrupt practices may have weakened the supposedly positive impact. Thirdly, we looked at the constant migration of the nomads as a factor that may have caused low school attendance of the nomads. The nomads are typically people that travel from one place to another due to the nature of their occupations. These constant migrations have deleterious impact on school attendance of their children. Once they relocate from a given place, they abandon the schools their children were attending. Thus, it normally takes the children some time to settle down and start school in the new settlement. Lastly, we took cognizance of the factor of active involvement of the children of the nomads in the productive system. The mentality of nomads is such that they believe in training their young ones who are of school-age in their trades. This practice has made them to place more preference for their productive system than the education of their children. Consequent upon these analyzed factors, we submit that low school attendance of the nomads may be as a result of the synergy of these factors. Generally, the growth rates in school enrolments of the nomads in Nigeria is not encouraging because, of the estimated 3.3 million nomads of school going age, the available statistics show that only 432,411 nomads were enrolled for nomadic education as at 2008. This implies that, about 2,867,589 nomads representing 86.9% of the school-age nomads were not going to school. The implication is that, with all the efforts made by the government over time to ensure equal access to education among the various groups in the country with a view to achieving the MDGs in the country by 2015; only 13.1% of the total nomads of school-age were going to nomadic school as at 2008. This school enrolment rate of the nomads is too low to make any meaningful contribution to the overall achievement of the universal basic education as described in the Millennium Development Goal two. In Nigeria generally, the Millennium Development Goals are influenced by some of these socio-economic and political factors: First, there is a disconnection between the tiers of government in the implementation of the MDGs. However, the constitutional responsibility for the implementation of almost all the goals rest with the States and Local governments in Nigeria’s Federal structure; but in spite of remarkable strides at Federal level, appreciation of the requirements for meeting these goals, as well as institutional capacity remain relatively low at these levels of government. Poor governance and integration of the MDGs into national development strategies have also been a challenge. This is aggravated by policy inconsistencies, for instance, Obansanjo regime introduced NEEDS I and II, Yar’adua’s administration instituted Seven-point Agenda and Vision 20:20:20 and President Goodluck has now introduced Transformation Agenda. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 163 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals All these policies are at variance in principle but targeted at achieving the MDGs in the country. Other challenges include, lack of transparency and accountability in ministries, lack of the political will; a weak monitoring mechanism for the MDGs and low stakeholders involvement( private sector and civil society organizations ). Lastly is the unavailability of up to date data on most of the indicators. This is compounded by the limited funding available for data generation and management in the country. Findings of the Study Emergent from the above discussion, it was found out that the government over the years has demonstrated concern to ensure equality in the literacy level among the various groups in the country by initiating nomadic education in order to boost the literacy rate among the nomads who are educationally disadvantaged. This concern can be seen from the perspective of continued and sustained expenditure on nomadic education over the years. It was discovered that increases in government expenditure on nomadic education have precipitated increases in the number of nomadic schools in the country across the states vis-à-vis the number of teachers employed by the government to ensure smooth teaching and learning in nomadic schools in the country. The study revealed that enrolments by the nomads in the schools have also increased over time but not proportionate with the increases in the government expenditure. Factors such as underfunding, dearth of teachers, corruption, constant migration of the nomads and active involvement of the children in the productive system by the nomads may have been responsible for this gap. It was also found out that, there is wide gap between male and female enrollments in nomadic schools over the years. Factors such as early marriages and teenage pregnancies, cultural and religious biases as well as poverty and economic issues may have been responsible for gender gap in the enrolments in nomadic schools in the country. foundation. Consequent upon the foregoing, the following recommendations are submitted: First, there should be continuous mobilization and sensitization of the nomads to send their children to these schools especially the female children so as to bridge the gap between the male- female enrolments in nomadic schools. Second, the states and local governments should be made to supplement the federal government funding of the nomadic education, as this will go along way boosting the achievements in nomadic education in the country. Third, nomadic educational development initiatives should be planned and aligned with other community improvement and development programs such as agricultural extension, rural development and social welfare services. This approach will attract the interest and involvement of more stakeholders as this will encourage the stakeholders to support the program. Fourthly, there should be selection of more individuals from nomadic communities for training as teachers, this is because they are more acquainted with the cultural values of the nomads. Thus, they will be better placed to inculcate the necessary knowledge in the targeted nomads. Fifthly, the government should provide support to animal health issues especially on major diseases and vaccines as well as provision of support in the area of water development for improvement of livestock production and reduction of incident of conflicts between the nomads and the hosting communities. This practice will make the nomads more stable in a place to receive nomadic education. Sixthly, government should seek more new partnerships and greater collaboration with development partners and other stakeholders in other to boost the financing of nomadic education for higher results. Seventhly, NCNE should adopt a flexible timetable that adjusts itself to seasons favorable to nomads, as this would enhance their enrollments. Finally, the government should actively consider the issue of language barrier to communication, and find contextually appropriate language policies. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the above findings, it is concluded that the present implementation of the nomadic education in the country may make it difficult for it to be a panacea for achieving Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) in terms of universal basic education attainment by 2015. This is so because, the growth focus of the Millennium Development Goals( MDGs) is more concentrated at the importance of achieving clear and real progress in human capital development measured through educational 164 Journal of Economic and Social Studies References Adebiyi, M.A. (2004). Public Expenditure and human capital in Nigeria: An Autoregressive Model. International Journal of Economics, 1(3), 86-77. Volume 3 Number 2 Fall 2013 165 �AKIGHIR David Terfa / OKPE. I Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Adewale, T.M, Ajayi, K.O & Enikanoselu,O.A. (2005). Trends in the Federal Government Financing Education in Nigeria. Journal of ducation Management, 1(1), 35-41. Association for the development of Education in Africa (1999). Ensuring Access and Equity in Basic Education for Nomads in Nigeria. www.adeanet.org/adeaportal/adea/program/.../pstr99-nigeria. pdf on 28th August,2001. Balami, D. (2002). Finance of Education in Nigeria. Paper Presented at the orum on ost and inance of ducation in igeria at Women evelopment entre, Abuja,12th-14th May, Abuja. Fashima, D. (2005). Reforms in Nigeria University system: What Direction? ational reedom, 1 (6), 30-36. Ismail ,I. (2000). Nomadic Education and Education for Nomadic Fulani. Retrieved from www. gamji.com/fulani7.htm. on 15th August, 2011. Federal Ministry of Finance (2011). ederal Government of Ministry of Finance, Abuja, Nigeria. igeria Annual Budgets. A publication of Hinchcliffe, K. (2003). Public xpenditure on ducation in igeria: Issues, stimates and some Implications, Abuja, World Bank Publication. Malinga, M. F. (2009). lexible education eaching nomadic children in Africa. Retrieved from www. cedol.org/cgi-bin/items.cgi on 15th August, 2011. Nafisatu, P. & Abdul, B. (2010). Enhancing Livestock Development and Means of Existence for the Vulnerable Populations through Education and Training. A case of NEP in Nigeria. A Paper presented at the I , P A and forum on ivestock breeding and food ecurity in Accra, Ghana. ecember 14th – 16th, 2010. ( ) Policy ocument, Published by NPC, Abuja, Nigeria. Saavedrea, M.A. (2003). Debt service- Education Expenditure Nexus: The Nigerian Experience. elected Papers for the year 2002 Annual onference, The igerian conomic ociety( ) PP,243-267. Tahir, G. (1996). Vision and Mission of Nomadic Education in Nigeria: paper delivered during the , ational conference on Vision and Mission of igerian ducation; at the I 22nd -25th July 1996 , Kaduna. Tahir, G., Nafisatu, D.M & Ahmed, M.M (2005). Improving the quality of Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Going Beyond Access and Equity. A study conducted by the ederal Ministry of ducation of igeria, 2005 in collaboration with Association for the evelopment of ducation in Africa (A A). Retrieved at www.adea net.org. on 15th August 2011. Tahir,G. (1998). “ Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Issues, problems and prospects”. Journal of omadic studies,(1)1, 10-26. Transparency International (2011). Corruption Perception Index for Nigeria. Retrieved from www. nigerianmuse.com/2011201145701zg/nigeria-watch. 28th January,2012. UNDP(2008). Human Development Report on Nigeria, New York Appendix I Figure1. An Organogram showing the organizational Chart of National Commission for Nomadic Education ORGANISATIONAL CHART OF NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR NOMADIC EDUCATION MINISTER OF EDUCATION National Commission for Nomadic Education (1989). “ Federal Government intervention in the Education of Nomads in Nigeria, 1996 – 1999”. Memorandum submitted to the panel on streamlining/ ationalization of poverty Alleviation institutions/Agencies by the ational ommission for omadic. A publication of NCNE, Abuja, Nigeria. National Commission for Nomadic Education (1989). Abuja, Nigeria. ecree BOARD EXECUTIVE SECRETARY National Commission for Nomadic Education (2000). Action plan 2000-2005,NCNE Publication, Abuja, Nigeria. National Commission for Nomadic Education (2002). ducation inancial ecord 1990-2002, NCNE publication, Abuja, Nigeria. National Commission for Nomadic Education ( 2002). Monitoring eport 2002, NCNE publication, Abuja, Nigeria. National Commission for Nomadic Education (2009). ducation inancial ecord 2003-2008, NCNE publication, Abuja, Nigeria. National Planning Commission (2004). ational conomic mpowerment and evelopment trategy Finance & Accounts Administration o.14 of 1989, NCNE publication General Admin. Establishment Transport Supply Monitoring Budget & Funds North West Zone North Central Zone North East Zone Academic Planning Computer Unit Documentation Unit Evaluation Statistics South South Zone Animal Husbandry & Extension Legal Services Unit Information Unit North East Zone Special Services Section Mobilization & Public Enlightenment University Centers Graphics Unit Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Source: NCNE, 2000 Field Operation Final Accts. South West Zone Physical Planning & Maintenance Programme Development & Extension Monitoring Evaluation & Statistics University Of Jos University Of Maiduguri University Of Port-Harcourt Audit Unit � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2392 Title A name given to the resource Government Expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Implications for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Author Author Akighir, David Terfa Okpe, I. Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper examines government expenditure on nomadic education in igeria and the implications for achieving the M Gs. econdary data were used and the data were analyzed with the aid of descriptive statistics. The study revealed that government expenditure on nomadic education in igeria over time has been on the increase which has necessitated the increase in the number of nomadic schools and teachers in the country. The study further found out that there is a wide gap between male and female enrolments in nomadic schools in igeria; factors such as early marriages and teenage pregnancies, cultural and religious biases as well as economic issues were believed to be responsible for the gap. Also, it was discovered that the total increase in nomads’ enrolments in nomadic schools in the country is not proportionate with the increase in government expenditure on nomadic education. The study attributed this low school attendance by the nomads to the problems of under-funding, dearth of teachers, constant migration of nomads, the involvement of the children of nomads in the productive system, corruption, among others. The study concluded that the present form of implementation of the nomadic education would make it difficult for it to be a panacea for achieving the M Gs in the country. ecommendations were made on how to improve on the nomadic education system in the country. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-12-19 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/18301904d05208ea20ce6e12ebeb76a4.docx 02d0026fb9cfecd017d0be6e4709fca5 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2095d3613871ef901d6f7a27b2a90cc0.pdf 3678f75c39918df3e914097c27aaec19 PDF Text Text ���������� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3161 Title A name given to the resource Građanska percepcija integracije Bosne i Hercegovine u Evropsku uniju Author Author DEDIĆ, Hoda Abstract A summary of the resource. Proces evropskih integracija nije samo oblik udruživanja i saradnje država članica, već jedan kompleksan proces političkog razvoja u kome se političke i ekonomske karakteristike potencijalnih država članica EU nastoje uskladiti sa specifičnim geopolitičkim interesima Evropske unije. Za Bosnu i Hercegovinu je proces integracije u EU značajan iz više aspekata. Radi se o tome da proces integracije u EU, uslijed složene političke konstitucije Bosne i Hercegovine kao multietničke, ali istovremeno i policentrične, u znatnoj mjeri etnički podijeljene države i društva, bitno uslovljava njen stabilan politički, ekonomski i društveni razvitak. Odvijanjem procesa integracije BiH u Evropsku uniju, generira se provedba funkcionalnih društvenih reformi i doprinosi prevazilaženju etničke-kolektivističke osnove u političkom i socijalnom razvitku države BiH i bosanskohercegovačkog društva.Uporedo sa političkom pluralizacijom u BiH početkom 90-ih godina XX stoljeća izvedenoj na etničkoj osnovi, dolazi do reafirmacije rada organizacija s nacionalnim predznakom. Etnička određenost političke pluralizacije u Bosni i Hercegovini uslovila je društvenu i kulturnu etnicizaciju kreirajući svojevrstan grupni kodeks ponašanja koji bitno određuje politički i socijalni razvitak BiH. Unatoč prevladavajućim entičkim podjelama unutar bosanskohercegovačkog društva, članstvo Bosne i Hercegovine u EU nailazi na većinsku podršku građana BiH. Prema svim provedenim istraživanjima u postdejtonskom periodu, apsolutna većina ispitanika je za ulazak Bosne i Hercegovine u Evropsku uniju. Prema istraživanju javnog mnijenja provedenom u 2013.godini, 80 procenata građana BiH podržava pristupanje Bosne i Hercegovine Evropskoj uniji. Međutim, volja građana za integracijom BiH u EU se zbog nedovoljno razvijene uloge civilnog sekora u BiH i marginalizacije građanina kao pojedinca, ne uspijeva autentično artikulisati. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d96117c46c0fa15e0595087fa7fc82d7.docx ab56729c1283f2363c4c246760f572ee https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1c8eb67ce46b36b677d1d027986264ee.pdf 7d926482ef0482a791634d3c0ad50634 PDF Text Text Autor: (1) Dr. sc. Maja Proso, docentica; (2) Dr. sc. Lucija Sokanović, viša asistentica Institucija: Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Splitu E-mail: maja.proso@gmail.com; lucija.sokanovic@pravst.hr GRAĐANSKOPRAVNI I KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZAKONODAVSTVA O OZNAČAVANJU HRANE (HRVATSKA I EUROPSKA PERSPEKTIVA) Sažetak Europska politika sigurnosti hrane ima dvostruki cilj: zaštititi ljudsko zdravlje i interese potrošača te stimulirati neometano funkcioniranje jedinstvenog europskog tržišta. EU njome jamči da se na području higijene hrane i hrane za životinje i prehrambenih proizvoda, zdravlja životinja i bilja te sprečavanja kontaminacije hrane vanjskim tvarima uspostavljaju i poštuju kontrolni standardi. Nova Uredba (EU/1169/2011), obvezuje sve subjekte koji posluju s hranom, trgovce, ugostitelje, slastičare, pekare i druge na obvezno označavanje hrane, kako bi kupci odnosno potrošači bili dobro informirani o njezinoj kakvoći, trajnosti, podrijetlu, sastavu i postupku proizvodnje. Odgovornost za pravilno označavanje, reklamiranje i točnost prezentiranih podataka je kako na proizvođaču tako i na trgovcu odnosno drugom subjektu koji stavlja hranu na tržište, sa sjedištem u na području EU. U radu autorice opisuju hrvatska iskustva u prilagođavanju i usklađivanju nacionalnog zakonodavstva s područja sigurnosti hrane europskom acquis-u, te analiziraju pozitivnopravne aspekte građanskopravne i kaznenopravne regulacije zaštite interesa, ali ujedno i zdravlja potrošača u svezi označavanja hrane. Ključne riječi: sigurnost hrane, potrošač, označavanje hrane, građanskopravna odgovornost, kaznenopravna odgovornost, acquis. �1. Uvod Sigurnost hrane pojam je koji podrazumijeva sigurnu i zdravstveno ispravnu hranu duž cijelog lanca prehrane - "od polja do stola" koji uključuje proizvodnju, preradu i skladištenje hrane, te transport i stavljanje hrane na tržište kako bi u konačnici stigla do konzumenata tj. potrošača. Pravna regulacija sigurnosti hrane koju jedemo jedan je od temelja brzostvarajućeg pravnog područja - prehrambenog prava.1 Premda po svome sadržaju sigurnost hrane predstavlja predmet interesa i izučavanja drugih znanstvenih područja ona se, poglavito radi pravne regulacije zaštite zdravlja ljudi i okoliša, ali i zaštite interesa ljudi kao potrošača, profilirala kao zasebno pravno područje i predmet regulative europskih institucija kao i država članica EU-a. Pravnu osnovu zaštite sigurnosti hrane nalazimo u odredbama Ugovora o funkcioniranju Europske unije2, i to člancima 433., 1144., 1685., stavak 4. i članku 1696. Kao jedna od posljedica kriza povezanih s hranom i hranom za životinje (npr. epidemije kravljeg ludila i afere s dioksinom7), početkom 2000-ih provedena je temeljita reforma politike sigurnosti hrane EUa. Opća načela s područja sigurnosti hrane stupila su na snagu 2002 g. Uredbom (EZ) br. 178/20028. Tom Meulen, B. (ed.) (2011). Private food law; governing food chains through contract law, self-regulations, private standards, audits, and certification schemes. Wageningen Academic Publishers. The Netherlands, str. 33. 2 Službeni pročišćeni tekstovi Ugovora o EU i Ugovora o funkcioniranju EU objavljeni su u Službenom listu EU, C 115 , od 9.5.2008. te potom u Službenom listu EU, C 83 od 30. 3. 2010. Dostupno na : http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/ALL/?uri=OJ:C:2008:115:TOC 3 Članak 43. (bivši članak 37. UEZ-a); 1. Komisija podnosi prijedloge za razradu i provedbu zajedničke poljoprivredne politike, uključujući i prijedloge za zamjenu nacionalnih organizacija jednim od oblika zajedničke organizacije predviđenih u članku 40. stavku 1., kao i prijedloge za provedbu mjera pobliže određenih ovom glavom. U tim se prijedlozima vodi računa o menuovisnosti poljoprivrednih pitanja navedenih u ovoj glavi.2. Europski parlament i Vijeće, odlučujući u skladu s redovnim zakonodavnim postupkom i nakon savjetovanja s Gospodarskim i socijalnim odborom, uspostavljaju zajedničku organizaciju poljoprivrednih tržišta predviđenu u članku 40. stavku 1. te utvrđuju ostale odredbe potrebne za provođenje ciljeva zajedničke poljoprivredne politike i zajedničke ribarstvene politike.3. Vijeće na prijedlog Komisije usvaja mjere o utvrđivanju cijena, nameta, potpora i količinskih ograničenja te o utvrđivanju i raspodjeli mogućnosti ribolova.4. U skladu sa stavkom 2., nacionalne organizacije tržišta mogu se zamijeniti zajedničkom organizacijom predviđenom u članku 40. stavku 1. ako: (a) zajednička organizacija državama članicama koje se protive ovoj mjeri i koje imaju vlastitu organizaciju za dotičnu proizvodnju nudi jednaku zaštitu zapošljavanja i životnog standarda dotičnih proizvođača, vodeći računa o mogućim prilagodbama, kao i o specijalizaciji koja će s vremenom biti potrebna; (b) takva organizacija osigurava uvjete za trgovinu unutar Unije slične onima koji postoje na nacionalnom tržištu. 5. Ako se zajednička organizacija za određene sirovine uspostavi prije postojanja zajedničke organizacije za odgovarajuće preranene proizvode, one sirovine koje se koriste za preranene proizvode namijenjene izvozu u treće zemlje mogu se uvoziti iz zemalja izvan Unije. 4 Članak 114. (bivši članak 95. UEZ-a) “Usklađivanje zakonodavstva” 5 Članak 168. (bivši članak 152. UEZ-a) st.4.; 4. Odstupajući od članka 2. stavka 5. i članka 6. točke (a) i u skladu s člankom 4. stavkom 2. točkom (k), Europski parlament i Vijeće, odlučujući u skladu s redovnim zakonodavnim postupkom i nakon savjetovanja s Gospodarskim i socijalnim odborom te Odborom regija, doprinose ostvarivanju ciljeva iz ovog članka u svrhu rješavanja zajedničkih sigurnosnih problema usvajanjem: (a) mjera kojima se utvrnuju visoki standardi kvalitete i sigurnosti organa i tvari ljudskog podrijetla, krvi i proizvoda od krvi; navedene mjere ne sprečavaju nijednu državu članicu da zadrži ili uvede strože zaštitne mjere (b) mjera u veterinarskom i fitosanitarnom području, kojima je neposredni cilj zaštita javnog zdravlja; (c) mjera kojima se utvrnuju visoki standardi kvalitete i sigurnosti uporabe lijekova i medicinskih proizvoda. 6 Članak 169. (bivši članak 153. UEZ-a) “Zaštita potrošača”;1. Radi promicanja interesa potrošača i osiguranja visokog stupnja zaštite potrošača, Unija doprinosi zaštiti zdravlja, sigurnosti i ekonomskih interesa potrošača, kao i promicanju njihova prava na obaviještenost, obrazovanje i organiziranje u svrhu zaštite njihovih interesa.2. Unija doprinosi ostvarivanju ciljeva iz stavka 1.:(a) mjerama usvojenima na temelju članka 114. u kontekstu ostvarenja unutarnjeg tržišta; (b) mjerama kojima se podupire, dopunjuje i nadzire politika koju vode države članice.3. Europski parlament i Vijeće, odlučujući u skladu redovnim zakonodavnim postupkom i nakon savjetovanja s Gospodarskim i socijalnim odborom, usvajaju mjere iz stavka 2. točke (b). 4. Mjere usvojene na temelju stavka 3. ne sprečavaju ni jednu državu članicu da zadrži ili uvede strože zaštitne mjere. Te mjere moraju biti u skladu s Ugovorima. O tim se mjerama obavješćuje Komisiju. 7 Velthuis, A.G.J. (ed.) (2003). New approaches to food- safety economics, Kluwer Academic Publishers, str. 98. Istraga o pojavi dioksina u hrani za životinje otkrila je da su visoku razinu te kemikalije izazvali neispravni filteri korišteni u kemijskoj industriji. Neispravni filteri kontaminirali su solnu kiselinu koje je pak isporučena u PB Gelatins koja proizvodi želatinu iz svinjske kože i kostiju, pri čemu je nus-proizvod svinjska masnoća. Masnoća je prodana tvrtkama u Nizozemskoj i Belgiji koje proizvode hranu za životinje. Slijedom toga, zatvoreno je 650 farmi u Belgiji, Nizozemskoj i Njemačkoj. Vidi više na : http://www.hah.hr/arhiva/arhiva_vijesti.php?id=188 8 Uredba (EZ) br. 178/2002 Europskog parlamenta i Vijeća od 28. siječnja 2002., SL L 31, 1. 2. 2002. 1 �je Okvirnom uredbom osnovana i Europska agencija za sigurnost hrane (EFSA), tijelo čiji je zadatak izvršiti procjenu svih rizika povezanih s prehrambenim lancem i o njima obavještavati javnost.9 Pravni okvir kojim se uređuje označivanje hrane takav je da potrošačima prvenstveno jamči pristup potpunim informacijama o sadržaju i sastavu proizvoda, čime se štiti njihovo zdravlje i interesi, i na način da im omogućuje uspoređivanje proizvoda međusobno i mogućnost izbora onog proizvoda koji određenom potrošaču najviše odgovara.10 Novom Uredbom (EU/1169/2011)11 koja je stupila na snagu 13. prosinca 2014. sjedinjuju se dvije direktive: Direktiva Vijeća 2000/13/EZ12 o označivanju, prezentiranju i oglašavanju hrane te Direktiva Vijeća 90/496/EZ o označivanju hranjive vrijednosti hrane u skladu s izmjenom iz Direktive Komisije 2003/120/EZ 13 . Jedna od novina je odredba u skladu s kojom su proizvođači dužni navesti prisutnost alergena u nezapakiranoj hrani, npr. u restoranima i kantinama, podrijetlo neprerađenog mesa i prisutnost imitacija hrane, poput proizvoda od povrća koji zamjenjuju sir ili meso. Nadalje, poboljšana je čitljivost informacija (minimalne veličine fonta za obvezne podatke) uspostavljaju se isti kriteriji za označavanje hrane za prodaju putem interneta, prodaju drugim sredstvima komunikacije na daljinu ili kod kupnje hrane u trgovini, specificiraju informacije o biljnom podrijetlu rafiniranih ulja i masti. Velika je novost i obvezatnost navođenja hranjivih vrijednosti prehrambenih proizvoda, odredbe glede čega će stupiti na snagu 2016. Nova pravila primjenjuju se od 1. travnja 2015. godine. Uredbom se propisuje svim subjektima koji posluju s hranom, trgovcima, ugostiteljima, slastičarima, pekarima i drugima, obvezno označavanje hrane kako bi kupci odnosno potrošači bili dobro informirani o njezinoj kakvoći, trajnosti, podrijetlu, sastavu i postupku proizvodnje. Odgovornost za pravilno označavanje, reklamiranje i točnost prezentiranih podataka je kako na proizvođaču tako i na trgovcu odnosno drugom subjektu koji stavlja hranu na tržište, sa sjedištem u na području EU. Nacionalni propisi koji uređuju ovo pravno područje su Zakon o hrani14 i Zakon o informiranju potrošača o hrani15 kao i podzakonski akti (Pravilnik o oznakama ili znakovima koji određuju seriju ili lot kojem hrana pripada 16 te Pravilnik o informiranju potrošača o nepretpakiranoj hrani 17 ). Za davanje službenih tumačenja propisa iz ove oblasti nadležna je Uprava kvalitete hrane i fitosanitarne politike, pri Ministarstvu poljoprivrede RH18. Zakonom o hrani, člankom 25. ustrojena je Hrvatska agencija za hranu EFSA-ine ovlasti uključuju i monitoring nad hranom, sigurnost hrane, prehranu stanovništva, zdravljem i dobrobiti životinja, zaštitom i zdravljem bilja. U obavljanju svojih dužnosti, EFSA također razmatra mogući utjecaj hranidbenog lanca na biološke raznolikosti biljnih i životinjskih staništa. Također obavlja procjene ekoloških rizika genetski modificiranih usjeva, pesticida, dodataka prehrani i štetnika. U svim tim područjima EFSA-ine djelatnosti možda se najvažnijom čini obveza pružiti neovisne znanstveno utemeljene savjete te ostvariti jasnu komunikaciju utemeljenu na najnovijim znanstvenim informacijama i znanjima. Više na: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/aboutefsa 10 Berryman, P. (ed.) (2015). Advances in food and beverage labeling – informations and regulations. Woodhead Publishing, str. 43. 11 Uredba EU/1169/2011, 25 October 2011, OJ L 304, 22.11.2011, Dostupno na : http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169 12 Direktiva Vijeća 2000/13/EZ 26.5.2000., OJ L 109 of 6.5.2000. Dostupno na: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:l21090 13 Commission Directive 2003/120/EC of 5 December 2003 amending Directive 90/496/EEC, Official Journal L 333 , 20/12/2003. Dostupno na: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2003/120/oj 14 Narodne novine br. 81/13., 14/14., 30/15. 15 Narodne novine br. 56/13., 14/14. 16 Narodne novine br. 26/13. 17 Narodne novine br. 144/2014. 18 Osnovana Uredbom o unutarnjem ustrostvu Ministarstva poljoprivrede RH, Narodne novine br. 80/13., 16/14., 50/14., 46/15. i 63/15. Djelokrug je određen čl. 99. ;”Uprava sigurnosti hrane i fitosanitarne politike planira, izrađuje i usklađuje zakonodavstvo iz područja sigurnosti i kakvoće hrane posebice opće propise o hrani, propise o hitnim mjerama, higijeni, mikrobiološkim kriterijima, službenim kontrolama, općem označavanju, reklamiranju i prezentiranju te nutritivnom označavanju svih kategorija hrane, kakvoći za određene kategorije hrane, prirodnim mineralnim i izvorskim vodama, propise vezano uz aktivnosti Hrvatske agencije za hranu te propise o organizaciji nacionalnog sustava za brzo uzbunjivanje za hranu i hranu za životinje. Sudjeluje u izradi propisa o registraciji i odobravanju objekata za hranu. U Upravi se izrađuju vodiči i drugi dokumenti koji detaljnije pojašnjavaju primjenu pojedinih propisa u okviru djelokruga. Uprava obavlja poslove koordinacije i komunikacije u području sigurnosti i kakvoće hrane, a naročito u odnosu na službene kontrole između pojedinih upravnih organizacija unutar Ministarstva, kao i ostalih tijela državne uprave (Ministarstva zdravlja, Državnog inspektorata) i drugih institucija u Republici Hrvatskoj uključenih u sustav sigurnosti i kakvoće hrane. U Upravi se izrađuje Višegodišnji nacionalni plan službenih kontrola za područje hrane i hrane za životinje, zdravlja i zaštite životinja i biljnog zdravstva; koordinira izrada godišnjih planova službene 9 �(skraćeno HAH) sa sjedištem u Osjeku, u čiji djelokrug poslova, između ostalog, spadaju i izrada znanstvenih studija u području sigurnosti hrane i hrane za životinje, kao i znanstvena procjena rizika u svezi sigurnosti hrane i hrane za životinje.19 U radu autorice opisuju hrvatska iskustva u prilagođavanju i usklađivanju nacionalnog zakonodavstva s područja sigurnosti hrane europskom acquis-u, analiziraju “ de lege lata “ kao i “de lege ferenda” pozitivnopravne aspekte građanske i kaznene regulacije zaštite interesa, ali ujedno i zdravlja potrošača u svezi postupaka označavanja hrane. 2. Označavanje hrane kao aspekt europske i nacionalne politike sigurnosti hrane 2.1.Usklađivanje hrvatskog zakonodavstva o sigurnosti hrane s europskim acquisom Pripreme za punopravno članstvo Republike Hrvatske u EU zahtijevale su usklađivanje hrvatskog pravnog sustava s pravnim sustavom Europske unije u brojnim područjima. Usklađivanje nacionalnoga pravnog sustava s europskim nije značilo tek recepciju velike količine pravnih normi, odnosno prevođenje ili prepisivanje komunitarnih propisa, već se radilo o potpunoj integraciji nacionalnog i nadnacionalnog pravnog poretka. Od sklapanja Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju 2001.g. Republika Hrvatska je preuzela i postepeno ispunjavala obvezu prihvatiti i još važnije - stvoriti uvjete za potpuno i dosljedno primjenjivanje cjelokupnog prava Zajednice, uključujući i judikaturu Europskog suda - komunitarnu stečevinu (acquis communautaire). Prihvat europskih standarda u području zaštite potrošača, sigurnosti i kvalitete proizvoda, posebice sigurnosti prehrambenih proizvoda te odgovornosti za štetu prouzročenu neispravnošću proizvoda bio je jedan od važnijih koraka u procesu uključivanja Hrvatske u europske integracije. kontrole i izvješća vezano uz provođenje službenih kontrola, koordinira izrada procedura za provođenje službenih kontrola; izrađuje opći plan za upravljanje krizom na području sigurnosti hrane i hrane za životinje; uspostavlja i upravlja nacionalnim sustavom brzog uzbunjivanja za hranu i hranu za životinje (RASFF); izrađuje komunikacijska strategija za informiranje potrošača i drugih zainteresiranih strana o pitanjima sigurnosti i kakvoće hrane; radi na poslovima ovlaštenja službenih i referentnih laboratorija za hranu i hranu za životinje. Uprava obavlja upravne i druge poslove u okviru fitosanitarnog područja, uređuje poslove zdravstvene zaštite bilja i biljnih proizvoda u tijeku proizvodnje i prometa; proizvodnju, stavljanje na tržište i uvoz poljoprivrednoga reprodukcijskog materijala, priznavanje sorti poljoprivrednog bilja, upis sorti poljoprivrednog bilja u sortne liste i održavanje sorti poljoprivrednog bilja; promet, registraciju, primjenu sredstava za zaštitu bilja i poslove praćenja ostataka pesticida u hrani i hrani za životinje; Uprava utvrđuje ciljeve fitosanitarne politike; predlaže, priprema i upućuje na usvajanje strategije u području fitosanitarne politike; predlaže, priprema i upućuje na usvajanje nacrte propisa koji uređuju područje fitosanitarne politike; planira, priprema i koordinira višegodišnje i godišnje programe, monitoringe u fitosanitarnom području; koordinira pripremu i provedbu svih aktivnosti u kojoj sudjeluju druge institucije čije se djelatnosti odnose na fitosanitarno područje; predlaže odgovarajuće fitosanitarne mjere s ciljem unaprjeđenja struke; planira i nadzire aktivnosti vezane uz održavanje i razvoj Fitosanitarnog informacijskog sustava (FIS). Uprava obavlja inspekcijski nadzor nad provedbom zakona, drugih propisa i općih akata kojima je uređeno područje zdravstvene zaštite bilja, biljnih proizvoda i drugih nadziranih predmeta u prometu preko državne granice i pri njihovu premještanju na teritoriju Republike Hrvatske, uvoza sredstava za zaštitu bilja, uvoza poljoprivrednog i šumskog reprodukcijskog materijala te proizvodnje i trgovine poljoprivrednim sadnim materijalom; tržišnih standarda kvalitete za voće i povrće koje se uvozi; obavlja fitosanitarni nadzor bilja, biljnih proizvoda i drugih nadziranih predmeta u svezi s premještanjem; rješava o upravnom stvarima iz područja svoga djelokruga u prvom stupnju i vodi postupke do donošenja drugostupanjskih rješenja iz područja djelokruga; priprema i izrađuje godišnje planove rada fitosanitarne inspekcije; prikuplja podatke i izrađuje izvješća u okviru djelokruga fitosanitarne inspekcije; daje stručna mišljenja u vezi s primjenom propisa iz djelokruga fitosanitarne inspekcije; sudjeluje u pripremanju propisa iz djelokruga fitosanitarne inspekcije; sudjeluje u pripremi i provedbi projekata iz djelokruga fitosanitarne inspekcije; koordinira i nadzire provedbu odobrenih projekata iz djelokruga fitosanitarne inspekcije; sudjeluje u planiranju, pripremi i provedbi programa posebnoga nadzora i praćenja štetnih organizama; prati i nadzire stanje u područjima koja su zaražena karantenskim i drugim štetnim organizmima bilja; provodi nadzor nad radom fitosanitarnih inspektora s ciljem utvrđivanja kvalitete obavljenih poslova te ujednačavanja i unaprjeđenja rada; planira i koordinira uspostavu i razvoj informacijsko komunikacijskog sustava fitosanitarne inspekcije; sudjeluje u provedbi Strategije integriranog upravljanja granicom. Uprava surađuje s nadležnim tijelima za sigurnost i kakvoću hrane u zemljama EU i ostalim zemljama te posebnim tijelima međunarodnih organizacija (Svjetske organizacije za hranu i poljoprivredu, Svjetske zdravstvene organizacije); surađuje s Europskom upravom za sigurnost hrane; predstavlja nacionalnu kontakt točku za suradnju s Europskom komisijom u području sigurnosti hrane; vodi bilateralnu i multilateralnu suradnju iz svojega djelokruga; razmjenjuje informacije sa nacionalnim službama drugih država nadležnim za fitosanitarna pitanja te Europskom komisijom. Uprava sudjeluje u aktivnostima vezano uz članstvo u Europskoj uniji. Uprava sudjeluje u organizaciji i provođenju edukacija i stručnih skupova iz područja djelokruga; sudjeluje u planiranju, pripremi i provedbi projekata iz područja djelokruga; vodi upravne postupke i izdaje rješenja u okviru svoga djelokruga; sudjeluje u pripremi i izradi prijedloga državnoga proračuna u okviru djelokruga te obavlja i druge poslove u okviru svoga djelokruga određene zakonima.” 19 Čl. 26. Zakon o hrani. �Hranu svakodnevno unosimo u organizam, pa kao kupci i konzumenti očekujemo kako su prehrambeni proizvodi koji se nalaze na tržištu sigurni. Kako bi se omogućila sigurnost hrane kroz cijeli lanac hrane “od polja do stola”, svaki od subjekata u širokom lancu prehrane (koji danas, u suvremenom “globalnom” društvu uključuje veliki broj subjekata kao npr. poljoprivrednike, prerađivače, skladištare, distributere, trgovce pa sve do krajnjih potrošača) mora imati osigurana precizna pravila odgovornosti za hranu pod njegovom kontrolom, od prijema do isporuke hrane slijedećem u lancu. 2.2. Novi europski trendovi označavanja i općenito sigurnosti hrane Početkom milenija, na europskoj je razini odlučeno promijenti pristup pitanju sigurnosti hrane. U taj je, kako se kolokvijalno naziva “ higijenski paket”, koji sadrži nova pravila iz uredbi, zakona i pravilnika ugrađeno načelo prema kojemu prvenstvenu odgovornost za sigurnost hrane i hrane za životinje imaju subjekti u poslovanju s hranom, svaki na svome području. To znači da svi subjekti koji se bave svim fazama proizvodnje, prerade i distribucije hrane koja je pod njihovom kontrolom, moraju osigurati da hrana ili hrana za životinje udovoljava zahtjevima važećih propisa te ujedno moraju dokazati da je udovoljeno propisanim zahtjevima. Osim toga, subjekti u poslovanju s hranom odgovorni su i za osiguranje tzv. „sljedivosti“, odnosno moraju znati i moći prikazati podrijetlo biljaka, životinja, mesa i svih drugih sastojaka koji će se naći u ljudskoj ili životinjskoj hrani ili će s njima doći u dodir u svim fazama proizvodnje, prerade i distribucije. 20 Drugo najvažnije načelo ugrađeno u europsko i hrvatsko zakonodavstvo vezano uz sigurnost hrane jest uvođenje sustava samokontrole utemeljene na načelima sustava analize opasnosti i kritičnih kontrolnih točaka za sve objekte u poslovanju s hranom.21 Umjesto različitosti procedura u procjeni zdravstvenih rizika, neujednačenoga zakonodavstva u pojedinim državama na zajedničkome tržištu i nejasnoća u pogledu odgovornosti u dugome lancu proizvodnje, prerade i distribucije hrane, EU je u to područje unijela jedinstveno zakonodavstvo koje se primjenjuje u svim državama članicama. Jedno od najznačajnijih postignuća u provedbi europske politike sigurnosti hrane i ujedno zaštite potrošača, tiče se pitanja označavanja hrane. 22 Potrošači imaju pravo na informaciju, koja obuhvaća podatke što sadrži hrana koju kupuju na tržištu, odakle ona potječe, kako ju sigurno čuvati i pripremati te do kada ju mogu upotrijebiti. EU je to pravo pretočila u svoje zakonodavstvo o pravilima na području označavanja hrane na deklaracijama i/ili prodajnim mjestima. Primjerice, dok za ostale proizvode na tržištu u pogledu označavanja i dalje vrijedi općenita odredba prema kojoj podaci na proizvodima moraju biti „jasni, vidljivi i čitljivi“23, koja je u pogledu primjene nailazila na brojne nedoumice i mogućnosti zloporabe, za označavanje hrane precizno su, primjerice, propisani i smještaj deklaracije (glavno vidno polje), kao i veličina slova (visina od najmanje 1,2 mm)24. Informacije o hrani su sve informacije koje se odnose ISO - dobrovoljni internacionalni standard za proizvode i usluge definira sljedivost kao "sposobnost praćenja povijesti, primjene ili mjesta onoga što se razmatra", op.a. 21 Što se, između ostalog, osigurava i ustrojstvom tijela koja su zadužena i za osiguranje analize opasnosti za hranu ili hrane za životinje, na europskom planu EFSA, u Hrvatskoj HAH, op.a.. 22 “Označivanje” su sve riječi, podaci, trgovački nazivi, nazivi robnih marki, slikovni prikazi ili simboli koji se odnose na hranu, a nalaze se na ambalaži, dokumentu, obavijesti, etiketi, obruču ili privjesnici, koji prate ili se odnose na tu hranu. Članak 2., st..2., toč. (j) Uredbe EU/1169/2011. 23 Čl.6., st. 2. Zakona o zaštiti potrošača, Narodne novine br. 41/14, 110/15. 24 Čl.13 Uredbe EU/1169/2011., “Prezentiranje obveznih podataka; Ne dovodeći u pitanje nacionalne mjere koje se donose u skladu s člankom 44. stavkom 2., obvezne informacije o hrani moraju biti označene na vidljivom mjestu tako da budu lako uočljive, jasno čitljive i, prema potrebi, neizbrisive. Ni u kojem slučaju te informacije ne smiju biti skrivene, prekrivene ili prekinute drugim pisanim ili slikovnim prikazima, ili drugim materijalom. Ne dovodeći u pitanje posebne odredbe Unije koje se primjenjuju na određenu hranu, u slučaju kada su obvezni podaci iz članka 9. stavka 1. prikazani na ambalaži ili na etiketi koja je na nju pričvršćena, oni moraju biti otisnuti na ambalaži ili na etiketi tako da budu jasno čitljivi, i to slovima čija je visina x, kako je utvrđeno Prilogom IV., jednaka ili veća od 1,2 mm. U slučaju ambalaže ili spremnika čija je najveća površina manja od 80 cm2, visina x slova iz stavka 2. mora biti jednaka ili veća od 0,9 mm. Radi postizanja ciljeva ove Uredbe, Komisija mora delegiranim aktima u skladu s člankom 51. utvrditi pravila o čitljivosti. Radi postizanja istoga cilja koji je naveden u prvome podstavku, Komisija delegiranim aktima u skladu s člankom 51. može proširiti primjenu zahtjeva iz stavka 5. ovog članka na dodatne obvezne podatke na posebne vrste ili kategorije hrane. Podaci iz članka 9. stavka 1. točaka (a), (e) i (k) moraju se nalaziti u istome vidnom polju. Stavak 5. ovog članka ne primjenjuje se na slučajeve iz članka 16. stavaka 1. i 2. 20 �na hranu, a dostupne su krajnjem potrošaču putem etiketa, drugog popratnog materijala ili na bilo koji drugi način, uključujući sredstva moderne tehnologije ili verbalne komunikacije.25 Uredba EU/1169/2011. utvrđuje osnovu za postizanje visoke razine zaštite potrošača u vezi s informacijama o hrani, vodeći računa o razlikama u percepciji potrošača i njihovim potrebama za informacijama, istodobno osiguravajući nesmetano funkcioniranje unutarnjega tržišta. Također, Uredbom se utvrđuju opća načela, zahtjevi i odgovornosti u vezi s informacijama o hrani, a posebno u vezi s označivanjem hrane. Utvrđuju se, između ostalog i načini kojima se potrošačima jamči pravo na informacije i procedure za informiranje o hrani, uzimajući u obzir potrebu za omogućavanjem dovoljne fleksibilnosti radi reagiranja na budući razvoj događaja i nove zahtjeve za informacijama. Odredbe Uredbe primjenjuju se na subjekte u poslovanju hranom u svim fazama prehrambenog lanca ako njihove djelatnosti uključuju pružanje informacija o hrani potrošačima. Primjenjuje se na svu hranu namijenjenu krajnjem potrošaču, uključujući hranu koju nude objekti javne prehrane i hranu namijenjenu opskrbi objekata javne prehrane, kao i na ugostiteljske usluge koje pružaju prijevoznička poduzeća u slučaju polaska s državnih područja država članica na koje se primjenjuju Ugovori.26 Pružanjem informacija o hrani trebalo bi se postići visoka razina zaštite zdravlja i interesa potrošača uspostavom temelja pomoću kojih će krajnji potrošači biti informirani pri odabiru hrane i pomoću kojih će upotrebljavati i koristiti hranu na siguran način, s posebnim naglaskom na zdravstvene, gospodarske, okolišne, socijalne i etičke okolnosti.27 Osnovni zahtjev određen Uredbom je da svu hranu koja je namijenjena krajnjem potrošaču ili objektima javne prehrane moraju pratiti informacije o hrani na način kako to određuje Uredba 28 posebno vodeći računa da se poštuje praksa poštenog informiranja iz čl. 7. Uredbe.29 Informacije o hrani, također, moraju biti točne, jasne i lako razumljive potrošaču, te se ujedno odnose i na oglašivanje hrane kao i na prezentiranje iste. Građanskopravna odgovornost subjekata u poslovanju s hranom odredbom čl. 8. Uredbe obuhvaća odgovornost za informacije o hrani subjekata pod čijim se imenom ili nazivom tvrtke hrana stavlja na tržište ili, ako taj subjekt nema sjedište u Uniji, uvoznik za tržište Unije. Subjekt u poslovanju hranom odgovoran za informacije o hrani mora osigurati prisutnost i točnost informacija o hrani u skladu s primjenjivim propisima o informacijama o hrani i zahtjevima odgovarajućih nacionalnih propisa. Subjekti u poslovanju hranom koji nemaju utjecaj na informacije o hrani ne smiju dobavljati hranu za koju, na temelju informacija koje imaju kao stručnjaci, znaju ili pretpostavljaju da ne udovoljava primjenjivim propisima o informacijama o hrani i zahtjevima odgovarajućih nacionalnih propisa. U okviru svog poslovanja, subjekti u poslovanju hranom ne smiju mijenjati informacije o hrani ako bi te informacije mogle dovesti krajnjega potrošača u zabludu ili na ikoji drugi način smanjiti razinu zaštite potrošača i mogućnost krajnjega potrošača da bude informiran pri odabiru. Subjekti u poslovanju hranom odgovorni su za sve promjene informacija koje prate hranu. U okviru svog poslovanja, subjekti u poslovanju hranom moraju osigurati da se informacije o nepretpakiranoj hrani namijenjenoj krajnjem potrošaču ili objektima javne prehrane prenesu subjektu u poslovanju hranom koji zaprima hranu kako bi, prema potrebi, krajnjem potrošaču osigurali dostupnost obveznih informacija o hrani, a sadržaj kojih je uređen odredbama čl. 9. i 10. Uredbe. Članak 2., st..2., toč. (a) Uredbe EU/1169/2011. Čl. 1. Uredbe EU/1169/2011 27 Čl.3. Uredbe EU/1169/2011 28 Čl.6. Uredbe EU/1169/2011 29 Tako čl. 7. Uredbe nalaže kako Informacije o hrani ne smiju biti obmanjujuće, a posebno: glede karakteristika hrane, posebno njezine prirode, identiteta, svojstava, sastava, količine, roka trajanja, zemlje ili mjesta podrijetla, načina proizvodnje, pripisivanjem hrani učinaka ili svojstava koje ta hrana nema; ukazivanjem na posebne karakteristike hrane kada u stvarnosti sva slična hrana posjeduje te karakteristike, posebno posebnim isticanjem prisutnosti ili odsutnosti određenih sastojaka i/ili hranjivih tvari; ukazujući izgledom, opisom ili slikovnim prikazom prisutnosti određene hrane ili sastojka, kada je u stvarnosti sastojak koji je inače prirodno prisutan ili korišten u toj hrani, zamijenjen drugim sastavnim dijelom ili drugim sastojkom. Informacije o hrani moraju biti točne, jasne i lako razumljive potrošaču. Uz odstupanja koja su predviđena zakonodavstvom Unije koje se primjenjuje na prirodne mineralne vode i hranu za posebne prehrambene potrebe, informacije o hrani ne smiju propisivati svojstva sprječavanja ili liječenja bolesti ljudi niti se tim informacijama smije upućivati na takva svojstva. Stavci 1., 2. i 3. primjenjuju se i na oglašavanje i prezentiranje hrane, posebno njezin oblik, izgled ili ambalažu, upotrijebljene ambalažne materijale, način na koji je raspoređena i okruženje u kojemu je izložena. 25 26 �3. Građanskopravni aspekt označivanja hrane u hrvatskom zakonodavstvu Odredbe iz Uredbe EU/1169/2011. inkorporirane su u pozitivno građanskopravno uređenje RH i putem novog Zakona o informiranju potrošača o hrani. Novim se pravilima, tako između ostalog, osigurava da potrošaču na svakom prehrambenom proizvodu budu jasno predstavljene i one informacije koje se tiču njegovih životnih navika ili posebnih potreba kao što su primjerice nutritivna vrijednosti ili prisutnost alergena poput glutena, navođenje eventualne prisutnosti sastojaka iz GMO-a, aditiva, ali i da na tim proizvodima ne bude tvrdnji koje bi kod njega mogle proizvesti lažna očekivanja kao što su nedokazane tvrdnje o ljekovitosti ili pozitivnim učincima na zdravlje 30 . Označavanje, reklamiranje i prezentiranje hrane najvažniji su oblici komunikacije subjekta u poslovanju s hranom, što u praksi može biti proizvođač, trgovac, ugostitelj i svaki drugi subjekt u poslovanju s hranom koji na tržište stavlja hranu, s potrošačem. Postavlja se pitanje odštetne odgovornosti u svezi hrane koja nije označena sukladno novouvedenim pravilima. Tko odgovara potrošaču za štetu koja mu je nastala u svezi nepravilno označenog proizvoda, a koja je negativno utjecala na njegovo zdravlje? Koja pravila, koju vrstu odgovornosti za štetu primjeniti? Pravni subjekt (fizička ili pravna osoba) koji je vlasnik robne marke (dakle i trgovačka kuća može biti odgovorni subjekt ukoliko ima svoju marku proizvoda) na području EU ili uvoznik za područje Unije ako taj subjekt nema sjedište u Uniji, sukladno čl.8. Uredbe odgovoran je za točno deklariranje proizvoda i držanje dokumentacije vezane uz sastav proizvoda sukladno s Uredbom, i odgovarati će za sljedivost. Odgovornost za označavanje, reklamiranje i prezentiranje zapakirane ili pretpakirane hrane, znači, prileži proizvođaču ili onome koji hranu pakira ili stavlja na tržište, a koji ima sjedište u Europskoj uniji. Uredba (EZ) br. 178/2002 od 28. siječnja 2002.g. o utvrđivanju općih načela i uvjeta zakona o hrani, osnivanju Europske agencije za sigurnost hrane te utvrđivanju postupaka u područjima sigurnosti hrane, hranu definira kao prehrambeni proizvod koji je svaka tvar ili proizvod, prerađen, djelomično prerađen ili neprerađen, a namijenjen je prehrani ljudi ili se može očekivati da će ga ljudi konzumirati. „Hrana” uključuje piće, žvakaću gumu i svaku drugu tvar, uključujući vodu koja se namjerno ugrađuje u hranu tijekom njezine proizvodnje, pripreme ili prerade. Pojam hrane uključuje i vodu nakon točke sukladnosti određene u članku 6. Direktive 98/83/EZ i ne dovodeći u pitanje zahtjeve iz direktiva 80/778/EEZ i 98/83/EZ.31 S obzirom da se Zakonom o zaštiti potrošača uređuje zaštita osnovnih prava potrošača32 pri kupnji proizvoda33 i usluga, kao i pri drugim načinima stjecanja proizvoda i usluga na tržištu, između ostalog i pravo na zaštitu od opasnosti za život, zdravlje i imovinu34, a da odredba članka 4., st. 2. Zakona o zaštiti potrošača, sukladno pravilu “lex specialis derogat legi generali” određuje kako se na obveznopravne odnose potrošača i trgovca primjenjuju opća pravila obveznog prava (sadržana u Zakonu o obveznim odnosima35, dalje u tekstu: ZOO 05), zaključujemo kako se na takve i slične situacije, gdje bi potrošaču neispravnim (a to podrazumijeva i nesipravno označenim) proizvodom bila nanesena šteta primjenjuju pravila objektivne odgovornosti za štetu. Članak 2. stavak 2. podst. (a) Uredbe1169/2011; "...informacije koje se odnose na hranu, a dostupne su krajnjem potrošaču putem etiketa, drugog popratnog materijala ili na bilo koji drugi način, uključujući sredstva moderne tehnologije ili verbalne komunikacije" 31 Čl.2. Uredba (EZ) br. 178/2002 od 28. siječnja 2002, L31/I . Hrana” ne uključuje: (a) hranu za životinje; (b) žive životinje, osim ako su pripremljene za stavljanje na tržište za prehranu ljudi; (c) biljke prije ubiranja; (d) lijekove u smislu Direktive Vijeća 65/65/EEZ (1) i 92/73/EEZ (2); (e) kozmetičke proizvode u smislu Direktive Vijeća 76/768/EEZ (3);(f) duhan i duhanske proizvode u smislu Direktive Vijeća 89/622/EEZ (4); (g) narkotike ili psihotropne tvari u smislu Jedinstvene konvencije Ujedinjenih naroda o narkoticima iz 1961. i Konvencije Ujedinjenih naroda o psihotropnim tvarima iz 1971.; (h) ostatke i zagađivače. 32 “Potrošač” je, prema pojmovnom određenju čl.5. Zakona o zaštiti potrošača svaka fizička osoba koja sklapa pravni posao ili djeluje na tržištu izvan svoje trgovačke, poslovne, obrtničke ili poslovne djelatnosti. 33 “Proizvod” je sukladno čl.5. Zakona o zaštiti potrošača svaka roba ili usluga, uključujući prava, obveze i nekretnine. 34 Čl.1. Zakona o zaštiti potrošača. 35 Narodne novine br. 35/05., 41/08., 125/11., 78/15. 30 �U hrvatskom pravu odgovornost za štetu izazvanu neispravnim proizvodom predstavlja posebnu podvrstu objektivne izvanugovorne odgovornosti za štetu36, uređenu odredbama ZOO-a. Proizvođač koji stavi u promet neki proizvod odgovara za štetu prouzročenu neispravnošću toga proizvoda bez obzira na krivnju.37 Prema tome, krivnja nije uvjet odgovornosti, niti je nužno da je proizvođač u ugovornom odnosu s oštećenikom. Bez obzira radilo se o širem ili pak užem lancu distribucije proizvoda (proizvođač-potrošač), praktično svi sudionici potencijalno su odgovorni za štetu prouzročenu neispravnošću proizvoda. ZOO 05 ne navodi koje su vrste neispravnosti obuhvaćene pojmom “neispravan proizvod”. Međutim, zakon izričito navodi kriterije prema kojima će se ocjenjivati je li određeni proizvod neispravan ili nije. Tako sukladno odredbi čl. 1075 ., st. 1. ZOO 05 proizvod nije ispravan ako, uzimajući u obzir sve okolnosti slučaja, a poglavito način na koji je proizvod predstavljen, svrhe u koje, prema razumnom očekivanju, proizvod može biti uporabljen te vrijeme kad je proizvod stavljen u promet, ne pruža sigurnost koja se od takva proizvoda opravdano očekuje. Proizvod se neće smatrati neispravnim samo zbog toga što je naknadno bolji proizvod stavljen u promet, izričito navodi odredba članka 1075 ., stavka 2. ZOO 05. Kao glavnu odgovornu osobu ZOO RH predviđa proizvođača.38 Pojam proizvođača određen je dosta široko i obuhvaća osobu koja je izradila gotov proizvod, osobu koja je proizvela sirovinu, samostalni ili nesamostalni dio ugrađen u gotov proizvod, kao i osobu koja se, obilježavanjem proizvoda svojim imenom, žigom ili kakvim drugim znakom raspoznavanja predstavlja kao proizvođač. Ako je proizvod uvezen, uzima se da je proizvođač osoba koja je uvezla proizvod radi prodaje, davanja u zakup ili bilo kojega drugog oblika stavljanja proizvoda u promet i odgovara solidarno s ranije navedenim osobama. Ako nije moguće utvrditi tko je proizvođač, proizvođačem se smatra svaka osoba koja proizvod stavlja u promet, osim ako ta osoba u razumnom roku ne obavijesti oštećenika o osobi od koje je nabavila proizvod. Isto vrijedi i kad se ne može utvrditi tko je uvezao proizvod, pa i onda ako su ime, tvrtka ili naziv proizvođača navedeni na proizvodu. Sukladno odredbi čl. 1076. ZOO RH u obzir dolazi i odgovornost distributera proizvoda, ali samo ukoliko oštećenik ne može utvrditi tko je proizvođač, odnosno tko je uvoznik proizvoda.39 Podredno odgovornog distributera ZOO RH definira “osobu koja proizvod stavlja u promet”, a to nije proizvođač gotovog proizvoda niti je osoba koja se kao takva predstavlja, kao ni uvoznik. Distributer se može osloboditi odgovornosti ukoliko u razumnom roku obavijesti oštećenika o proizvođaču ili uvozniku, odnosno osobi od koje je nabavila proizvod. Distributer može nabaviti proizvod od bilo koga u distributivnom lancu, tj. od proizvođača, uvoznika, trgovca na veliko itd. Sukladno odredbi čl. 1077 . ZOO 05, ako više osoba odgovara za štetu prouzročenu neispravnošću proizvoda, njihova je odgovornost solidarna. Oštećenik je određen prema kriteriju pretrpljene štete, tako da se u obzir uzima pretrpljena imovinska šteta nastala smrću ili tjelesnom ozljedom, šteta prouzročena uništenjem ili oštećenjem oštećenikove stvari koja je uobičajeno namijenjena za osobnu uporabu, te koju je oštećenik uglavnom rabio u tu svrhu. Naknadu neimovinske štete prouzročene neispravnošću proizvoda, može se zahtijevati samo prema općim pravilima odgovornosti za štetu, odnosno prema odredbama čl. 19. u vezi s čl. 1046., 1100. i 1101. ZOO 05. 40 Na obujam naknade imovinske štete prouzročene smrću ili tjelesnom ozljedom na odgovarajući način primjenjuju se posebne odredbe ZOO 05 o naknadi (popravljanju) imovinske štete u slučaju smrti, tjelesne ozljede i oštećenja zdravlja.41 Štetnu radnju umislu odgovornosti za štetu izazvanu Odštetna odgovornost proizvođača stvari s takvim nedostatkom jest izvanugovorna i ne zavisi o njegovoj krivnji. Prema tome, da li je tuženik znao ili ne da su jaja kojima je proizveo kremšnite, a koje je kupio od K. V. bila zdravstveno i higijenski neispravna u kojima je bio uzročnik salmonele, nije od odlučnog značenja, pa se tuženik neosnovano poziva na odredbu čl. 177. st. 2. ZOO radi otklanjanja svoje odgovornosti., Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev-1089/00-2, 18. 11. 2003. , http://sudskapraksa.vsrh.hr/SuPra/ 37 Čl. 1073, st. 1. ZOO 05. 38 Čl. 1076. ZOO 05. 39 Opširnije u : Baretić, M. (2005). Građanskopravna odgovornost za neispravan proizvod, doktorska disertacija, Zagreb, str. 232. – 240. 40 Čl. 1073, st. 4. ZOO 05. 41 Čl. 1073, st. 5. ZOO RH glasi: Obujam naknade imovinske štete prouzročene smrću ilitjelesnom ozljedom na odgovarajući se način primjenjuju posebne odredbe ovoga Zakona onaknadi imovinske štete u slučaju smrti, tjelesne ozljede i oštećenja zdravlja. Odredba čl. 1093. ZOO 05 kaže: (1) Tko prouzroči nečiju smrt, dužan je naknaditi uobičajene troškove njegovapogreba. (2) On je 36 �neispravnim proizvodom predstavljalobi stavljanje u promet neispravnog proizvoda, za koju proizvođač odgovara kao i za svaki drugi civilni delikt, ako su ispunjene zakonom određene pretpostavke.42 Iako pojam “stavljanje u promet” nije zakonski definiran, smatra se da je proizvod stavljen u promet kada je dobrovoljnostupljen drugoj osobi zbog prodaje ili distribucije u ekonomske svrhe. Također, ističe se da proizvod može biti samo jednom pušten u promet, i to u trenutku napuštanja tvorničkih vrata.43 Odredba članka 1073 ., stavka 8. ZOO 05 uređuje teret dokaza, koji je na oštećeniku. Da bi oštećenik stekao pravo naknade prouzročene štete dužan je tako dokazati neispravnost proizvoda, štetu i uzročnu vezu između neispravnosti proizvoda i štete. Sukladno odredbama članka 1078. ZOO 05 odgovorna osoba može se osloboditi od odgovornosti ako dokaže da nije stavila proizvod u promet; da iz okolnosti slučaja proizlazi da neispravnost, a ni njezin uzrok, nisu postojali u vrijeme kad je stavio proizvod u promet; da proizvod nije proizveden za prodaju, davanje u zakup ili bilo koju drugu poslovnu svrhu, kao niti da je proizveden ili stavljen u promet u okviru njegova poslovanja; da je neispravnost posljedica pridržavanja prisilnih propisa koji su bili na snazi u trenutku kad je stavio proizvod u promet; da stanje znanosti ili tehničkog znanja u vrijeme stavljanja proizvoda u promet nije omogućavalo otkrivanje neispravnosti; da je šteta prouzročena isključivo radnjom oštećenika ili osobe za koju on odgovara, odnosno radnjom treće osobe koju proizvođač nije mogao predvidjeti i čije posljedice nije mogao izbjeći ili otkloniti. Proizvođač dijela proizvoda oslobađa se odgovornosti i ako dokaže da je neispravnost prouzročena konstrukcijom glavnog proizvoda ili uputama dobivenim od proizvođača glavnog proizvoda. Proizvođač se djelomično oslobađa odgovornosti ako je nastanku štete djelomično pridonio oštećenik ili osoba za koju on odgovara. Ako je nastanku štete djelomično pridonijela treća osoba, ona odgovara solidarno s proizvođačem. Sukladno članku 1079. ZOO 05, odgovornost proizvođača nije dopušteno ugovorom s oštećenikom unaprijed isključiti ili ograničiti, a ugovorna odredba suprotna tom pravilu bit će ništetna. Prema odredbi članka 1080, stavka 1. ZOO 05, subjektivni zastarni rok iznosi tri godine. Taj rok započinje teći od trenutka kad je oštećenik saznao ili morao saznati za tri elementa koja moraju kumulativno postojati, a to su šteta, neispravnost proizvoda i osoba proizvođača. Prekluzivni rok u kojemu oštećenik može tražiti naknadu prouzročene štete, nakon proteka kojeg mu se to pravo gasi iznosi deset godina od dana njegova stavljanja u promet, osim ako je u tom roku protiv proizvođača pokrenut postupak pred sudom ili drugim nadležnim tijelom radi utvrđivanja ili ostvarivanja tražbine na popravljanje štete. ZOO 05 predviđa i kvantitativno ograničenje odgovornosti za štete prouzročenu neispravnim proizvodom. Tako, oštećenik ima pravo nanaknadu štete prouzročene uništenjem ili štećenjem stvari samo za dio štete koji prelazi kunsku protuvrijednost iznosa od 500 eura.44 Ovo kvantitativno ograničenje služi zaštiti štetnika od potencijalno mnogobrojnih tužbi zbog bagatelnih šteta, a ne smijemo zanemariti ni rasterećujući učinak na sudove. S obzirom da iznesena pravila ZOO 05 o odgovornosti za štetu izazvanu neispravnim proizvodom ne mogu u cijelosti zadovoljiti potrebe oštećenika, budući ne omogućuju potpunu naknadu dužan naknaditi i troškove njegova liječenja od zadobivenih ozljeda I druge potrebne troškove u vezi s liječenjem, te zaradu izgubljenu zbog nesposobnosti za rad.Čl. 1094. (1) Osoba koju je poginuli uzdržavao ili redovito pomagao, kao i ona osoba kojaje po zakonu imala pravo zahtijevati uzdržavanje od poginulog, ima pravo na naknadu štete koju trpi gubitkom uzdržavanja, odnosno pomaganja. (2) Ta se šteta naknađuje plaćanjem novčane rente čiji se iznos odmjerava s obzirom na sve okolnosti slučaja, a koji ne može biti viši onoga koji bi oštećenik dobivao od poginulog da je ostao u životu. Čl. 1095.ZOO 05: (1) Tko drugome nanese tjelesnu ozljedu ili mu naruši zdravlje, dužan je naknaditi mu troškove liječenja i druge potrebne troškove s tim u vezi, a i zaradu izgubljenu zbog nesposobnosti za rad za vrijeme liječenja. (2) Ako ozlijeđeni zbog potpune ili djelomične nesposobnosti za rad gubi zaradu, ili su mu potrebe trajno povećane, ili su mogućnosti njegova daljnjeg razvijanja i napredovanja uništene ili umanjene, odgovorna osoba dužna je plaćati ozljeđenomu određenu novčanu rentu,kao naknadu za štetu. 42 Petrić, S. (2001). Odgovornost proizvođača za štete od nedostatka na proizvodu u hrvatskompravu i pravu Europske unije. Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, br. 4., str. 376. 43 Although the term is not defined in the directive it is submitted that a product is “putinto circulation” when it has been delivered to another person in the course of business. An alternative view is that this occurs the moment the goods have left the factory gates. Whichever is correct, it is clear that it is not essential that the goods should have been put into circulation as the result of any contract or even that any payment should be involved. So for example promotional gifts and free samples would be included within that definition. Vidi u: Geddes, A. (1992). Product and Service Liability in the EEC. London, str. 31. 44 Čl. 1073, st. 3. ZOO 05. �štete prouzročene neispravnošću proizvoda, oštećenik koji je želi ostvariti može se koristiti nekim od ostalih pravnih osnova.45 4. Kaznenopravni aspekti U prethodnom poglavlju navedeno je kako je sklapanjem Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju 2001. Republika Hrvatska preuzela obvezu uskladiti svoje zakonodavstvo s acquis communautaire.46 Međutim, već sredinom 2002. izbila je tzv. šećerna afera koja ne samo da je ugrozila ugled Hrvatske i njezine odnose s Europskom unijom i pojedinim državama članicama, već je dovela u pitanje trgovinsku bilancu zemlje s obzirom da je u to vrijeme šećer bio najvažniji hrvatski proizvod na koji je otpadalo 30% ukupnog izvoza.47 Naime, nakon što je Hrvatskoj 2000. dozvoljen količinski neograničen bescarinski uvoz šećera u Europsku uniju, pod uvjetom da je hrvatskog podrijetla ili da su sirovine uvezene iz EU i dostatno prerađene u Hrvatskoj, u Hrvatskoj je naglo porastao ne samo izvoz već i uvoz šećera.48 Zbog toga je Komisija počela sumnjati u hrvatsko podrijetlo cjelokupnog izvezenog šećera držeći da bi se moglo raditi o uvozu visoko subvencioniranog šećera iz Europske unije i njegovom ponovnom uvozu u Europsku uniju bez carina, pa su izvršene detaljne kontrole izvezenog hrvatskog šećera koje su otkrile da su zaista određene količine izvezenog šećera bile lažno deklarirane.49 Jedan od najznačajnih mehanizama utjecaja europskog prava na nacionalno kazneno pravo – načelo asimilacije, utemeljeno u presudi Europskog suda od 21. rujna 1989. potječe upravo iz predmeta u kojem se činjenični supstrat sastoji u lažnom podatku o porijeklu hrane (kukuruza). Predmet Komisija v. Grčka, poznat kao slučaj Grčkog kukuruza pokrenula je Komisija pred Europskim sudom 7. ožujka 1988. temeljem čl. 226. UEZ zbog povrede ugovora.50 Naime, u svibnju 1986. poduzeće ITCO je iz Grčke preko luka Soluna i Kevale s dva broda uvezla u Belgiju kukuruz koji je od strane grčkih vlasti bio službeno deklariran kao kukuruz grčkog podrijetla, no zapravo se radilo o kukuruzu koji je Grčka uvezla iz tadašnje Jugoslavije i na koji zbog lažnog podatka o podrijetlu nije bila plaćena carina. 51 Sud je osudio Grčku prema svim točkama tužbe te ukazao da je propuštanjem pokretanja kaznenopravnog i stegovnog postupka protiv počinitelja prijevare i svih koji su surađivali u počinjenju i prikrivanju, Grčka propustila ispuniti obveze iz odredbe čl. 5. Ugovora o EEZ da kazni svakoga tko povrijedi pravo Zajednice na isti način kao za povredu nacionalnog prava. 52 Dakle, ako države članice inkriminiraju određeno ponašanje kojim se ugrožava ili povređuje neko pravno dobro unutarnjeg poretka, onda se istovrsno ponašanje protiv sličnog dobra Zajednice također mora smatrati kaznenim djelom i mora biti zapriječeno istom kaznom, a protiv počinitelja se mora pokrenuti i voditi kazneni postupak s istom učinkovitošću kao i kada je u pitanju nacionalno pravno dobro.53 Sukladno točki 24. Presude, dok izbor To su pravila o odgovornosti za štetu prouzročenu opasnom stvari ili opasnom djelatnošću,( čl. 1063. – 1067. ZOO 05), pravila o odgovornosti za materijalne nedostatke ispunjenja (čl. 357., u svezi s čl. 400. – 422. ZOO 05) te pravila o ugovornoj (čl. 342. – 349. ZOO 05) i izvanugovornoj odgovornosti za štetu (čl. 1045. – 1067. ZOO 05). 46 Sporazum o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju između Europskih zajednica i njihovih država članca i Republike Hrvatske od 29. listopada 2001., Narodne novine MU 14/01. 47 Đurđević, Z. (2003). Kaznenopravna zaštita financijskih interesa Europske unije, doktorska disertacija, Pravni fakultet Zagreb, str. 279., 280. 48 Ibid. V. i Novoselec, P. (2009). Uvod u gospodarsko kazneno pravo. Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu, Zagreb, str. 124. i 125. 49 Kemijska analiza šećera uvezenog u Grčku iz Tvornice šećera u Osijeku pokazala je postojanje primjesa šećera iz šećerne trske, dok je u deklaraciji bilo navedeno da se radi o šećeru iz šećerne repe, sirovine iz koje se u Hrvatskoj proizvodi šećer. Utvrđeno je da se radilo o neznatnim količinama ukupno izvezenog hrvatskog šećera, oko 3% te se promptno reagiralo suspendiranjem odgovornih osoba i podnošenjem kaznenih prijava. Idem. 50 Case 68/88 Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (1989) ECR I-2965. 51 Đurđević, Z. (2004). Mehanizmi utjecaja prava Europskih zajednica na kaznenopravne sustave država članica. Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, 2, str. 287.-326. Nakon što je dobila informacije o mogućoj prijevari, Komisija je pokrenula temeljitu istragu koja je potvrdila da je počinjena prijevara na štetu EZ proračuna u kojoj su sudjelovali grčki službenici a naknadno je nekoliko viših grčkih službenika pokušalo zatajiti počinjenje prijevare krivotvorenjem isprava i davanjem lažnih izjava. Idem. V. i Đurđević, Z. (2006). Prijevara na štetu proračuna Europske unije: pojavni oblici, metode i uzroci. Financijska teorija i praksa 30 (3), str. 258.-263. 52 Točka 22. Presude. Odredbom čl. 5. propisano je da države članice poduzimaju sve odgovarajuće mjere, opće ili posebne, kako bi osigurale ispunjenje obveza koje proizlaze iz Ugovora o EEZ-u ili iz radnji koje su poduzele institucije Zajednice. One olakšavaju ostvarenje zadaća Zajednice i suzdržavaju se od svih mjera koje bi mogle ugroziti ostvarivanje ciljeva Ugovora. 53 Đurđević, Z. (2004)., str. 293. 45 �kazne ostaje unutar diskrecije Države članice, one moraju osigurati da se povrede prava Zajednice kažnjavaju pod procesnim i matrijalnim uvjetima koji su jednaki povredama nacionalnog prava slične prirode i važnosti i koji u svakom slučaju čine kaznu učinkovitom, razmjernom i odvraćajućom. 4.1. Prekršajna odgovornost prema Zakonu o hrani i Zakonu o informiranju potrošača o hrani Zakon o hrani, kao i Zakon o informiranju potrošača o hrani sadržava niz prekršajnih odredbi. Tako je prekršajna odgovornost s obzirom na počinitelja odredbom čl. 34. Zakona o hrani propisana u odnosu na pravnu osobu, odgovornu osobu u pravnoj osobi i fizičku osobu, u skladu sa čl. 11. Prekršajnog zakona.54 Dio prekršaja može počiniti činjenjem; npr. uvoz hrane ili hrane za životinje protivno čl. 11. Uredbe (EZ) br. 178/2002, izvoz ili ponovni izvoz hrane ili hrane za životinje protivno čl. 12. Uredbe (EZ) br. 178/2002, stavljanje na tržište hrane koja nije sigurna, označavanje, reklamiranje i prezentiranje hrane protivno čl. 16. Uredbe (EZ) br. 178/2002, dok se pretežiti dio prekršaja može počiniti nečinjenjem poput: propuštanja osiguravanja sljedivosti hrane, hrane za životinje, životinja za proizvodnju hrane ili svake druge tvari koja je namijenjena ugradnji ili se može očekivati da će se ugraditi u hranu ili hranu za životinje u svim fazama proizvodnje, prerade i distribucije, propuštanja uspostave sustava i postupaka sljedivosti hrane ili hrane za životinje na način da je u mogućnosti identificirati svaku pravnu ili fizičku osobu koja pravnu osobu opskrbljuje ili ju je opskrbljivala hranom, hranom za životinje, životinjama za proizvodnju hrane ili svakom drugom tvari koja je namijenjena ugradnji ili se može očekivati da će se ugraditi u hranu ili hranu za životinje. Zakon o informiranju potrošača o hrani propisuje tri grupe prekršaja s obzirom na visinu novčane kazne. Najblaža kazna, od 10.000,00 do 30.000,00 kuna za pravnu osobu predviđena je u slučajevima kada popis sastojaka hrane nije naveden padajućim redoslijedom s obzirom na masu koja je utvrđena u vrijeme njihove uporabe u proizvodnji hrane te kod korištenja istoznačnica umjesto izraza točno propisanih Uredbom (EU) br. 1169/2011. 55 Novčana kazna od 30.000,00 do 70.000,00 kuna propisana je za slučaj kada hrana nije označena sukladno posebnom propisu, kada su navedene informacije o hrani kojima se potrošače dovodi u zabludu, kada nije naveden naziv hrane ili nedostaje količina određenih sastojaka ili kategorije sastojaka te najteža kazna u iznosu od 70.000,00 do 100.000,00 kuna za pravnu osobu kada npr. informacije nisu navedene na hrvatskom jeziku ili latiničnom pismu ili se hrani pripisuje svojstvo sprječavanja bolesti, liječenja ili izlječenja, odnosno upućuje na takva svojstva ili nedostaje popis sastojaka ili nisu navedeni sastojci koji uzrokuju alergije ili intolerancije.56 Osim novčane kazne, nije propisana nikakva druga sankcija, međutim, ukoliko subjekt u poslovanju s hranom tijekom nadzora ili u rješenjem određenom roku otkloni utvrđene nesukladnosti za koje je utvrđeno da ih je počinio prvi put, osoba ovlaštena za provedbu službenih kontrola sukladno odredbi čl. 11. neće podnositi optužni prijedlog ili donositi prekršajni nalog za prekršaje iz čl. 7. st. 1. i 2. Iako sada Prekršajni zakon izravno propisuje da u slučaju ako je protiv počinitelja prekršaja započeo kazneni postupak zbog kaznenog djela kojim je obuhvaćen i prekršaj, ne može se za taj prekršaj pokrenuti prekršajni postupak, a ako je postupak pokrenut, ne može se dalje voditi, potrebno jasno razgraničiti u svakom konkretnom slučaju je li nekim ponašanjem ostvaren prekršaj ili kazneno djelo.57 Naime, u presudi Europskog suda za ljudska prava u predmetu Maresti v. Hrvatske, 58 Sud je utvrdio da u slučajevima kada su činjenice koje predstavljaju prekršaj obuhvaćene i kaznenim djelom, kazneno suđenje nakon prekršajnog postupka predstavlja povredu čl. 4. Protokola 7 uz Europsku konvenciju za zaštitu ljudskih prava i temeljnih sloboda.59 Prekršajni zakon, Narodne novine br. 107/07, 39/13, 157/13, 110/15. Novčana kazna od 50.000,00 do 100.000,00 kuna propisana je za pravnu osobu, dok je za odgovornu osobu u pravnoj osobi i fizičku osobu propisana novčana kazna od 5.000,00 do 10.000,00 kuna (čl. 34. st. 1., 2. i 3.). Mjere upozorenja, kao i ni zaštitne mjere počiniteljima ovih prekršaja nisu posebno propisane. 55 Čl. 8., novčana kazna od 2.000,00 do 5.000,00 kuna propisana je za odgovornu osobu u pravnoj osobi i fizičku osobu. 56 Ponovnu je blaža novčana kazna u ovim slučajevima propisana za odgovorne osobe u pravnoj osobi i fizičke osobe. 57 V. čl. 10. Isključenje primjene prekršajnog zakonodavstva u posebnim slučajevima. O načelu ne bis in idem u svijetlu presude ESLJP u predmetu Maresti protiv Hrvatske i subvencijske prijevare, v. Sokanović, L. (2014). Prijevare u kaznenom pravu, Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu, Zagreb, str. 194. – 196. 58 Maresti protiv Hrvatske, presuda od 25. lipnja 2009., Zahtjev br. 55759/07. 59 Više o Presudi v. Ivičević Karas, E., Kos, D. (2012). Primjena načela ne bis in idem u hrvatskom kaznenom pravu. HLJKPP, Zagreb, vol. 19, broj 2, str. 555. – 584. Isti stav zauzeo je Sud i u presudi Tomasović protiv Hrvatske od 18. listopada 2011. V. Derenčinović, D., Gulišija, M., Dragičević Prtenjača, M. (2013). Novosti u materijalnopravnim odredbama Prekršajnog zakona. HLJKPP, Zagreb, vol. 20, 2, str. 768. 54 �4.2. Što je s kaznenopravnom odgovornošću u odnosu na označavanje hrane? Hrvatsko kazneno zakonodavstvo doživjelo je 2011. velike izmjene. Novi Kazneni zakon donesen je 21. listopada 2011., stupio je na snagu 1. siječnja 2013. te je već više puta izmijenjen.60 Ovim zakonom hrvatsko kazneno pravo uvelike je osuvremenjeno, a ujedno je i završen dugotrajan proces tranzicije hrvatskoga materijalnog kaznenog prava iz bivšeg jugoslavenskog u suvremeni europski pravni sustav.61 U predgovoru Komentara Kaznenog zakona voditeljica Radne skupine za izradu Kaznenog zakona Ministarstva pravosuđa Republike Hrvatske, prof. dr. sc. Ksenija Turković navela je kako je u izradi novog Kaznenog zakona važnu ulogu imala okolnost da je Hrvatska pred ulaskom u Europsku uniju te da je bilo potrebno uskladiti kazneno zakonodavstvo s 22 propisa Europske unije. 62 Naglasila je kako je upravo usklađivanje bio jedan od najtežih zadataka Radne skupine jer se pojedine odredbe pravnih dokumenata Europske unije, koje čine tzv. acquis communautaire nisu mogle doslovno prepisati u hrvatsko zakonodavstvo, već je bilo potrebno, vodeći računa o koherentnosti hrvatskog kaznenopravnog sustava, na najbolji mogući način uklopiti određenu pravnu normu u novi Kazneni zakon.63 U pogledu kaznenopravne zaštite označavanja hrane, pojedini aspekti zastupljeni su među kaznenim djelima protiv zdravlja ljudi, okoliša, imovine, gospodarstva, krivotvorenja ili intelektualnog vlasništva. U glavi 27., odnosno kaznenim djelima protiv intelektualnog vlasništva posebno je kazneno djelo s blanketnom dispozicijom: povreda registrirane oznake podrijetla. Radnja počinjenja se sastoji u protupravnom korištenju jedne od triju oznaka: izvornosti, zemljopisnog podrijetla proizvoda i usluga ili tradicionalnog ugleda poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda.64 Oznaka izvornosti je naziv područja, određenog mjesta ili, u posebnim slučajevima, zemlje koji se rabi za označavanje proizvoda ili usluga koji potječu iz tog područja, određenog mjesta ili te zemlje i čija je kakvoća ili čija su svojstva bitno ili isključivo nastala pod utjecajem posebnih prirodnih i ljudskih čimbenika određene zemljopisne sredine i njezina se proizvodnja, prerada i priprema u cijelosti odvija u tom zemljopisnom području.65 Jednako tako, oznakom izvornosti smatra se i naziv koji nije administrativni zemljopisni naziv određene zemlje, regije ili mjesta, a koji je dugotrajnom uporabom u gospodarskom prometu postao općepoznat kao naziv proizvoda koji potječe iz tog područja.66 Oznaka zemljopisnog podrijetla je naziv regije, određenog mjesta ili, u posebnim slučajevima, zemlje koja se rabi za označavanje proizvoda ili usluga koje potječu iz te regije, mjesta ili zemlje te koje imaju određenu kakvoću, ugled ili drugo svojstvo što se pripisuje tom zemljopisnom podrijetlu i čija se proizvodnja i/ili obrada i/ili priprema odvija u određenom zemljopisnom području.67 Tradicionalni zemljopisni ili nezemljopisni nazivi koji se rabe za označavanje proizvoda ili usluge koji potječu iz neke regije ili nekog određenog mjesta mogu se registrirati sukladno odredbi čl. 4. Zakona o oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama izvornosti proizvoda i usluga kao oznake izvornosti, ako taj proizvod ili usluga udovoljava uvjetima iz čl. 3. i 5. istoga Zakona.68 Zaštitom oznaka izvornosti, oznaka zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama tradicionalnog ugleda poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda bavi se Zakon o oznakama izvornosti, oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama tradicionalnog ugleda poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda. 69 Posebnim odredbama regulira se zaštita oznaka na razini Europske unije (čl. 44.- 48.) kojoj je moguće pristupiti tek nakon registracije u Republici Hrvatskoj. Do 18. Kazneni zakon, Narodne novine br. 125/11., 144/12., 56/15. i 61/15.- ispr. Turković, K. u Turković, K. et al. (2013). Komentar Kaznenog zakona. Narodne novine, Zagreb, str. XXV. 62 Idem. Str. XXVI. 63 Ibid. Autorica nastavlja kako su priotom često kao model poslužila rješenja iz kaznenih zakona pojedinih zemalja Europske unije koje pripadaju našem pravnom okruženju, a to su prije svega njemački, austrijski i slovenski Kazneni zakon. 64 Pavlović, Š. (2015). Kazneni zakon - zakonski tekst – komentari – sudska praksa – pravna teorija. Libertin naklada, Rijeka, str. 1221. 65 Čl. 3. Zakona o oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama izvornosti proizvoda i usluga, Narodne novine br. 173/03., 76/07., 49/11. 66 Idem. Čl. 3. st. 2., ako ispunjava uvjete iz st.1. 67 Čl. 2. st. 1. Zakona o oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama izvornosti proizvoda i usluga. Oznaka zemljopisnog podrijetla je prema st. 2. i neka druga oznaka kojom se označava proizvod ili usluga koji potječe s određenog zemljopisnog područja, ako ispunjava uvjete iz st. 1. 68 Sukladno odredbi čl. 5. proizvod se iznimno može štititi oznakom izvornosti ako oznaka ima dokazano tradicionalno obilježje, iznimnu reputaciju i dobro je poznata i kada sirovine za proizvodnju tog proizvoda potječu s područja šireg ili različitog od područja prerade, pod uvjetom da je područje proizvodnje sirovina ograničeno, da postoje posebni uvjeti za proizvodnju sirovina te da postoji sustav inspekcijske kontrole kojim se osigurava nadzor ispunjenja posebnih uvjeta. 69 Zakon o oznakama izvornosti, oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i oznakama tradicionalnog ugleda poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda, Narodne novine br. 50/12. 60 61 �svibnja 2015. na snazi je bio Zakon o zaštićenim oznakama izvornosti, zaštićenim oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i zajamčeno tradicionalnim specijalitetima poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda70 kojeg je potom zamijenio Zakon o poljoprivredi.71 Kazna propisana za kazneno djelo povrede registrirane oznake podrijetla je kazna zatvora do tri godine, a posebno je propisano oduzimanje predmeta koji su bili namijenjeni ili uporabljeni za njegovo počinjenje te njihovo uništenje, kao i predmeta nastalih počinjenjem ovog kaznenog djela. Alternativno propisana mogućnost koja inače nije imanentna postupanju sa producta sceleris uporaba je u humanitarne svrhe ako sud odluči da će se uporabljena oznaka učiniti neraspoznatljivom. 72 Kod gospodarskih kaznenih djela problematično može biti razgraničenje zavaravajućeg oglašavanja od povrede registrirane oznake porijekla. Počinitelj zavaravajućeg oglašavanja iz odredbe čl. 255. KZ-a je onaj tko u ponudi robe ili usluga upućenoj širem krugu osoba navede neistinite ili nepotpune podatke koji su bitni za sklapanje ugovora i mogu razumnog potrošača dovesti u zabludu. I ovo kazneno djelo ima blanketnu dispoziciju jer bez poznavanja pojmova iz Zakona o nedopuštenom oglašavanju, Zakona o zaštiti potošača pa i Zakona o trgovinu nije moguće pravilno tumačiti njegova obilježja. 73 Zavaravajuće oglašavanje je kazneno djelo apstraktnog ugrožavanja, za njegovo počinjenje dovoljno je postojanje opasnosti dovođenja u zabludu razumnog potrošača, ne traži se nastupanje štete, niti dokazivanje štete, dok je povreda registrirane oznake podrijetla materijalno kaznenodjelo, odnosno kazneno djelo povrede jer u svome biću zahtijeva pribavljanje znatne imovinske koristi ili prouzročenje znatne štete. Podaci koji su objekt zavaravajućeg oglašavanja su svi neistiniti i nepotpuni podaci koji su bitni za sklapanje ugovora i mogu razmnog potrošača dovesti u zabludu, dok su objekt registrirane oznake podrijetla oznaka izvornosti, oznaka zemljopisnog podrijetla ili tradicionalnog ugleda. Konačno, propisana kazna za zavaravajuće oglašavanje je kazna zatvora do dvije godine, a povredu registrirane oznake podrijetla do tri godine. Upravo zbog okolnosti što se neistinitim ili nepotpunim podacima može obmanuti vrlo širok krug osoba, pa time broj žrtava ovog kaznenog djela može biti uistinu velik, zaštiti poštenog tržišnog natjecanja posvećuje se u Europskoj uniji velika pažnja. Unutar kaznenih djela krivotvorenja, posebnu pažnju u kontekstu zaštite označavanja hrane potrebno je obratiti na krivotvorenje znakova za obilježavanje robe, mjera i utega iz čl. 277. koje se sastoji u izradi lažnih znakova za obilježavanje robe, kao što su pečati, žigovi ili marke kojima se žigoše zlato, srebro, stoka, drvo ili kakva druga roba ili u preinaci takvih pravih znakova ili uporabi lažnih znakova kao pravih. Veliki je značaj i kaznenog djela subvencijske prijevare iz čl. 258. KZ-a jer se netočni ili nepotpuni podaci iz bića ovog kaznenog djela vrlo često odnose na pogrešno označavanje hrane.74 Naime, počinitelj ovog kaznenog djela je onaj tko s ciljem da za sebe ili drugoga ostvari državnu potporu davatelju državne potpore da netočne ili nepotpune podatke o činjenicama o kojima ovisi donošenje odluke o državnoj potpori, ili propusti obavijestiti davatelja državne potpore o promjenama važnim za donošenje odluke o državnoj potpori, ili propusti obavijestiti davatelja državne potpore o promjenama važnim za donošenje odluke o državnoj potpori te tko sredstva iz odobrene državne potpore koristi suprotno njihovoj namjeni. Pritom su s državnim potporama izjednačene subvencije i pomoći odobrene iz sredstava Europske unije. I ovo kazneno djelo je djelo apstraktnog ugrožavanja jer šteta nije njegovo zakonsko obilježje. Prema Izvješću Komisije Europskom parlamentu i Vijeću za 2014. povećanje u broju neprijavljenih nepravilnosti koje se smatraju prijevarama odnosi se na Fond za ruralni razvoj, a u slučaju Europskog fonda za jamstva u poljoprivredi uočeno je znatno smanjenje.75 Nepravilnosti koje se smatraju prijevarama i koje se najčešće pojavljuju su upotreba nepravilnih isprava, gospodarski subjekti koji nemaju odgovarajuće sposobnosti te izvedba zabranjenih radnji za vrijeme trajanja predmetne mjere, dok je drugi najčešće otkriveni način počinjenja prijevara uporaba lažnih ili krivotvorenih isprava ili izjava.76 Zakon o zaštićenim oznakama izvornosti, zaštićenim oznakama zemljopisnog podrijetla i zajamčeno tradicionalnim specijalitetima poljoprivrednih i prehrambenih proizvoda, Narodne novine br. 80/13., 14/14. i 30/15. 71 Zakon o poljoprivredi, Narodne novine br. 30/15. 72 Iznimke su predviđene u pravilu kod kaznenih djela protiv intelektualnog vlasništva. 73 Zakon o nedopuštenom oglašavanju, Narodne novine br. 43/09., Zakon o zaštiti potrošača, Narodne novine br. 41/14., Zakon o trgovini, Narodne novine br. 87/08., 116/08., 76/09., 114/11., 68/13. i 30/14. 74 Jedanko tako i temeljnog oblika prijevare kao kaznenog djela protiv imovine iz čl. 236. KZ-a ili prijevare u gospodarskom poslovanju iz čl. 247. KZ-a. 75 Izvješće Komisije Europskom parlamentu i Vijeću, Zaštita financijskih interesa Europske unije – Borba protiv prijevara, Godišnje izvješće za 2014., Bruxelles, 31.7.2015. COM(2015) 386 final, str. 24. 76 Ibid. 70 �Ukoliko se proizvodnjom ili prodajom zdravstveno neispravne hrane ili drugih proizvoda izazove opasnost za zdravlje druge osobe, postoji odgovornost za kazneno djelo proizvodnje i stavljanja u promet proizvoda štetnih za ljudsko zdravlje iz čl. 188. KZ-a. Jedanko tako, ukoliko veterinarski inspektor ili druga osoba ovlaštena za pregled životinja za klanje, mesa ili životinjskih proizvoda namijenjenih za prehranu ljudi koja protivno propisima ili pravilima struke, pregleda životinje za klanje, meso ili životinjske proizvode namijenjene za prehranu ljudi ili uopće ne obavi pregled koji je dužna obaviti i time omogući stavljanje u promet životinja za klanje, mesa ili životinjskih proizvoda namijenjenih za prehranu ljudi koji su štetni za zdravlje ljudi, pa time izazove opasnost za zdravlje druge osobe može biti riječi o odgovornosti za kazneno djelo nesavjesnog pregleda mesa za prehranu iz čl. 189. KZ-a.77 Također se kod ovih kaznenih djela mora voditi računa o nizu specifičnosti u odnosu na počinitelja. Naime, u najvećem broju slučajeva, biti će riječ o kaznenoj odgovornosti pravnih osoba78 te kako je po prirodi stvari riječ o sudjelovanju više osoba u počinjenju kaznenog djela dogovoru za počinjenje kaznenog djela iz čl. 327. KZ-a ili čak o zločinačkom udruženju sukladno odredbi čl. 328. KZa.79 O važnosti ove problematike za Europsku uniju ukazuje Rezolucija Europskog parlamenta od 14. siječnja 2014. o prehrambenoj krizi, prijevari u prehrambenom lancu i njegovoj kontroli podsjećajući na nedavne slučajeve prijevara koje uključuju stavljanje na tržište konjskog mesa kao govedine i mesa konja liječenih fenilbutazonom kao jestivog konjskog mesa, običnog brašna kao organskog brašna, jaja iz tradicionalne proizvodnje u kavezima kao jaja iz ekološke proizvodnje, soli za ceste kao prehrambene soli, uporabu alkohola kontaminiranom metanolom u alkoholnim pićima, uporabu masnoća zagađenih dioksinom u proizvodnji hrane za životinje i pogrešno označavanje ribljih vrsta i plodova mora. 80 Rezolucijom je upozoreno na potrebu razmjene informacija između Država članica o poslovnim subjektima osuđenima za prijevaru budući da nakon ozbiljenih incidenata s prijevarama s hranom nadležna nacionalna tijela ponekad zatvaraju poslovne subjekte u prehrambenoj industriji koji su osuđeni za prijevare, no isti se ponovno registriraju negdje drugdje i nastavljaju trgovinsku praksu kao i ranije. 81 Jednako tako i Europol iskazuje rast broja slučajeva prijevare, očekuje nastavak tog trenda, zajedno sa sve većom uključenosti zločinačkih organizacija u prijevari s hranom.82 5. Zaključak Hrana nije samo proizvod, podložan pravnoj regulaciji, nego i elementarna ljudska potreba. Stoga, kvaliteta hrane koju konzumiramo, njen veliki utjecaj na sveukupno zdravlje čovjeka postaje sve važnije pitanje suvremenog društva. S obzirom na zagađivanje okoliša i stupnja zagađujućih tvari koje pronalazimo u okolišu, kao i sve veći rizik od bolesti izazvanih suvremenim tehnikama u proizvodnji hrane, prisutna je razumljiva osjetljivost javnosti na pitanje sigurnosti i kvalitete hrane. Glavni ciljevi nove pravne regulacije sigurnosti hrane, a unutar tog područja prava potrošača na informiranost o hrani putem novih pravila označivanja hrane su postizanje visoke razine zaštite zdravlja i interesa potrošača, omogućiti pružanje jasnih i neobmanjujućih informacija potrošaču, pojednostaviti postojeće propise o označivanju hrane radi osiguranja jedinstvenosti primjene na prodručju EU. Isto tako cilj je i učiniti dostupnijima podatke koji povezuju prehranu sa zdravljem i ujedno omogućiti veći i širi izbor hrane koja u najvećoj mjeri odgovara potrebama konkretnog konzumenta. Autorice smatraju kako je samo putem interdisciplinarnosti pristupa, putem bolje povezanosti svih relevantnih tijela koje se bave brigom o okolišu, poljoprivredom, zaštitom zdravlja ljudi, i drugih srodnih pravnih i nepravnih područja moguće postići veću kvalitetu i sigurnost hrane koju kao potrošači konzumiramo. Označivanje hrane i pravna Ako je riječ o štetnim proizvodima za liječenje, usp. čl. 186.: proizvodnja i stavljanje u promet štetnih proizvoda za liječenje. Zakon o odgovornosti pravnih osoba za kaznena djela, Narodne novine br. 151/03., 110/07., 45/11., 143/12. 79 Dogovor za počinjenje kaznenog djela ograničen je za kaznena djela za koja se po zakonu može izreći kazna zatvora u trajanju duljem od tri godine. Zločinačko udruženje čine najmanje tri osobe koje su se udružile sa zajedničkim ciljem počinjenja jednog ili više kaznenih djela, za koja se može izreći kazna zatvora od tri godine ili teža, a koje ne uključuje udruženje koje čine osobe slučajno povezane za nepsredno počinjenje jednog kaznenog djela. 80 Rezolucija Europskog parlamenta od 14. siječnja 2014. o prehrambenoj krizi, prijevari u prehrambenom lancu i njegovoj kontroli (2013/2091(INI)). 81 Ibid. Str. 3. 82 Idem. 77 78 �regulacija tog aspekta sigurnosti hrane, važan je čimbenik u osiguranju navedenih ciljeva, budući je označivanje hrane osnovni način komunikacije svih subjekata u prehrambenom lancu s krajnjim konzumentom – potrošačem. Odgovornost za informacije o hrani prileži onom subjektu pod čijim se imenom ili tvrtkom hrana stavlja na tržište, ili ako taj subjekt nema sjedište u EU, uvoznik za tržište Unije. Subjekt koji je odgovoran za informacije o hrani koju stavlja na tržište također mora osigurati prisutnost i točnost informacija o hranu u skladu s primjenjivim propisima i u skaldu sa primjenjivim nacionalnim propisima. Subjekti u poslovanju s hranom odgovaraju za sve promjene informacija koje prate hranu. Označavanje hrane mora biti takvo da ne obmanjuje potrošača glede sastava, količine, trajnosti, podrijetla, postupka proizvodnje. Složenost lanca u kojem sudjeluje niz subjekata u poslovanju s hranom, težina posljedica koje potrošaču mogu nastupiti na tako važnom zaštićenom dobru kao što su zdravlje ili sam život radi propusta bilo koje “karike” u lancu sigurnosti hrane “od polja do stola” glede pravilnog označavanja prehrambenih proizvoda, samo su neki od brojnih razloga pravnog interesa za područje građanskopravne odgovornosti subjekta u poslovanju s hranom, preciznije odštetne odgovornosti za slučaj da potrošaču nastane šteta koja se može dovesti u uzročno posljedičnu vezu sa nepravilnostima u označavanju prehrambenih proizvoda. Svi navedeni razlozi, mišljenja su autorice, navode na zaključak kako je na nacionalnom hrvatskom nivou od velike važnosti razvijati svijest svih subjekata poslovanja s hranom o potrebi zaštite pravnih i ekonomskih interesa subjekata koji se bave prometom prehrambenim proizvodima putem sklapanja ugovora o osiguranju proizvođačeve odgovornosti (product liability policy). Taj oblik osiguranja odštetne odgovornosti proizvođača uobičajena je stvar u zemljama zapadne Europe. 83 Osiguranje proizvođačeve odgovornosti za proizvode sve je zanimljivije za prehrambenu, farmaceutsku i automobilsku industriju, kod kojih se najviše i javlja potreba za ovakvim vidom osiguranja financijskih troškova nastalih u svezi odštetnih zahtjeva zbog šteta nastalih zbog neispravnog proizvoda (tzv. rizične industrije). Predmet osiguranja je izvanugovorna odgovornost osiguranika za štetu zbog smrti, ozljede tijela ili zdravlja te oštećenja ili uništenja stvari treće osobe, a koja je proizašla iz uporabe neispravnog proizvoda kojeg je osiguranik isporučio, odnosno stavio u promet. Ovaj oblik osiguranja pogodan je proizvođačima (osiguranicima) zbog zaštite koju pruža u slučaju nastalog osiguranog slučaja, tj. odštetnih zahtjeva oštećenika - kupaca neispravnih proizvoda, no podredno osiguranje “de facto” zaštićuje i same oštećenike tj. potrošače. U pogledu kaznenopravne odgovornosti, osobita pažnja će se u budućnosti morati obratiti na edukaciju državnih odvjetnika, sudaca i svih u pravosudnom sustavu zbog interdisciplinarnosti ovog područja te potrebu razgraničenja prekršajne od kaznenopravne odgovornosti, odnosno sadržajnog usklađivanja brojnih propisa zbog izbjegavanja višestruke kažnjivosti. 6. Literatura Baretić, M. (2005). Građanskopravna odgovornost za neispravan proizvod, doktorska disertacija, Zagreb Berryman, P. (ed.) (2015). Advances in food and beverage labeling – informations and regulations. Woodhead Publishing Derenčinović, D., Gulišija, M., Dragičević Prtenjača, M. (2013). Novosti u materijalnopravnim odredbama Prekršajnog zakona. HLJKPP, Zagreb, vol. 20, 2 Đurđević, Z. (2003). Kaznenopravna zaštita financijskih interesa Europske unije, doktorska disertacija, Pravni fakultet Zagreb Đurđević, Z. (2004). Mehanizmi utjecaja prava Europskih zajednica na kaznenopravne sustave država članica. Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, 2 Primjer susjedne nam Slovenije je dobar pokazatelj; “Broj osiguranja u Sloveniji udvostručio se nakon ulaska u EU, a premija osiguranja porasla je sedam puta. U Sloveniji danas ima deset puta više polica nego u Hrvatskoj.” Vidi u. “U zapadnoj Europi ćete teško naći proizvođača koji nema product liability policy”, Svijet osiguranja –časopis za pravo, ekonomiku i praksu osiguranja i reosiguranja, br.8., god. 2014. Dostupno na : http://www.svijetosiguranja.eu/hr/clanak/2014/9/u-zapadnoj-europi-cete-teskonaci-proizvodaca-koji-nema-product-liability-policu,411,13664.html 83 �Đurđević, Z. (2006). Prijevara na štetu proračuna Europske unije: pojavni oblici, metode i uzroci. Financijska teorija i praksa 30 (3) Geddes, A. (1992). Product and Service Liability in the EEC. London Ivičević Karas, E., Kos, D. (2012). Primjena načela ne bis in idem u hrvatskom kaznenom pravu. HLJKPP, Zagreb, vol. 19, broj 2 Meulen, B. (ed.) (2011). Private food law; governing food chains through contract law, self-regulations, private standards, audits, and certification schemes. Wageningen Academic Publishers. The Netherlands Novoselec, P. (2009). Uvod u gospodarsko kazneno pravo. Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu, Zagreb Pavlović, Š. (2015). Kazneni zakon - zakonski tekst – komentari – sudska praksa – pravna teorija. Libertin naklada, Rijeka Petrić, S. (2001). Odgovornost proizvođača za štete od nedostatka na proizvodu u hrvatskompravu i pravu Europske unije. Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, br. 4. Sokanović, L. (2014). Prijevare u kaznenom pravu, Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu, Zagreb Turković, K. et al. (2013). Komentar Kaznenog zakona. Narodne novine, Zagreb Velthuis, A.G.J. (ed.) (2003). New approaches to food- safety economics, Kluwer Academic Publishers �Authors: Maja Proso. PhD; Lucija Sokanović, PhD Institution: Faculty of Law, University of Split E-mail: maja.proso@gmail.com; lucija.sokanovic@pravst.hr CIVIL LAW AND CRIMINAL LAW ASPECTS OF THE LEGISLATION ON THE LABELLING OF FOODS (CROATIA AND EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE) Abstract The European food safety policy has a twofold objective: to protect human health and the interests of consumers and stimulate the smooth functioning of the single European market. The legal framework regulating the labelling of the food is made so that it guarantees consumers access to complete information about the content and composition of the product, which protects their health and interests. The new Regulation (EU/1169/2011) covers all subjects who deal with food, retailers, caterers, candy makers, bakers and others, mandatory labelling of food to customers or consumers were well informed about its quality, durability, origin, composition and production process. The responsibility for the proper labelling, advertising, and the accuracy of the data presented is how the manufacturer and the dealer or another entity that puts food on the market, based in the EU. In this paper the authors by applying and comparative method describes the Croatian experience in adapting and harmonising national legislation in the area of food safety of the European acquis, and analyze and present their conclusions about the positive legal aspects of the current Croatian civil law and criminal law regulation of the protection of the interests and health of consumers regarding the labelling of food. Keywords: food safety, food labelling, consumers, civil liability, criminal liability, the acquis. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3162 Title A name given to the resource GRAĐANSKOPRAVNI I KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZAKONODAVSTVA O OZNAČAVANJU HRANE (HRVATSKA I EUROPSKA PERSPEKTIVA) Author Author PROSO, Maja SOKANOVIĆ, Lucija Abstract A summary of the resource. Europska politika sigurnosti hrane ima dvostruki cilj: zaštititi ljudsko zdravlje i interese potrošača te stimulirati neometano funkcioniranje jedinstvenog europskog tržišta. EU njome jamči da se na području higijene hrane i hrane za životinje i prehrambenih proizvoda, zdravlja životinja i bilja te sprečavanja kontaminacije hrane vanjskim tvarima uspostavljaju i poštuju kontrolni standardi. Nova Uredba (EU/1169/2011), obvezuje sve subjekte koji posluju s hranom, trgovce, ugostitelje, slastičare, pekare i druge na obvezno označavanje hrane, kako bi kupci odnosno potrošači bili dobro informirani o njezinoj kakvoći, trajnosti, podrijetlu, sastavu i postupku proizvodnje. Odgovornost za pravilno označavanje, reklamiranje i točnost prezentiranih podataka je kako na proizvođaču tako i na trgovcu odnosno drugom subjektu koji stavlja hranu na tržište, sa sjedištem u na području EU. U radu autorice opisuju hrvatska iskustva u prilagođavanju i usklađivanju nacionalnog zakonodavstva s područja sigurnosti hrane europskom acquis-u, te analiziraju pozitivnopravne aspekte građanskopravne i kaznenopravne regulacije zaštite interesa, ali ujedno i zdravlja potrošača u svezi označavanja hrane. Ključne riječi: sigurnost hrane, potrošač, označavanje hrane, građanskopravna odgovornost, kaznenopravna odgovornost, acquis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-50-9 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7728146f64ec5c457e5e6846bf1b0771.docx 76773253ce09a514d28231fd04c81854 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8a1d65c5772b407108d839ca3bc1db18.pdf c304eef5ca4c31caa68be962f4476652 PDF Text Text Grammar Teaching by Task-Based Approaches Saeedeh Mansouri Islamic Azad University/ Iran Key words: task, task-based approaches, grammar, grammar teaching ABSTRACT There are numerous theories and approaches for teaching a second language, some exotic some mundane but all have one thing in common – a desire to make the acquisition of a foreign or second language as efficient and effective as possible. Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an approach which offers students material which they have to actively engage in the processing of in order to achieve a goal or complete a task. Much like regular tasks that we perform everyday such as making the coffee or tea, writing an essay, talking to someone on the phone, TBLT seeks to develop students’ interlanguage through providing a task and then using language to solve it. The advantage of the task-based approach, according to its advocates, is that during the task the learners are allowed to use whatever language they want, freeing them to focus entirely on the meaning of their message. This makes it closer to a real-life communicative situation. In task-based approaches, therefore, language development is prompted by language use, with the study of language form playing a secondary role. Teachers can consider the approach for teaching different skills in the class. One of the skills that can be taught by using tasks is grammar. This paper refers to TBA for teaching Grammar and has suggestions for ESL/EFL teachers. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1922 Title A name given to the resource Grammar Teaching by Task-Based Approaches Author Author MANSOURI, Saeedeh Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: task, task-based approaches, grammar, grammar teaching ABSTRACT There are numerous theories and approaches for teaching a second language, some exotic some mundane but all have one thing in common – a desire to make the acquisition of a foreign or second language as efficient and effective as possible. Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an approach which offers students material which they have to actively engage in the processing of in order to achieve a goal or complete a task. Much like regular tasks that we perform everyday such as making the coffee or tea, writing an essay, talking to someone on the phone, TBLT seeks to develop students’ interlanguage through providing a task and then using language to solve it. The advantage of the task-based approach, according to its advocates, is that during the task the learners are allowed to use whatever language they want, freeing them to focus entirely on the meaning of their message. This makes it closer to a real-life communicative situation. In task-based approaches, therefore, language development is prompted by language use, with the study of language form playing a secondary role. Teachers can consider the approach for teaching different skills in the class. One of the skills that can be taught by using tasks is grammar. This paper refers to TBA for teaching Grammar and has suggestions for ESL/EFL teachers Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed