120 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5d9178cec6684476abc2089b7594ea99.docx 3f009ba7c88e448423bb0ef6145a5240 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd02ca27cb3dcdab39f9c284b67bb1cd.pdf a91e538b09cb3c5d1860c73aa895cb52 PDF Text Text Formal Unity and Functional Diversity of PP Adverbials in Modern Standard Arabic Amra Mulović University of Sarajevo / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT This paper discusses adverbials in Modern Standard Arabic. Adverbials as the most diverse group of the clause elements are interpreted according to the functional grammar. Adverbial phrases in Arabic are optional elements primarily expressed by PP, NP and AdjP syntactic categorical varieties. The paper focuses on the semantic functions of PP adverbials (time, place, manner, cause and other) and examines the semantic equivalence between PP and NP structural forms of adverbials or their invariant semantic content. Depending on semantic features of the verb and its governing nature within various syntactic structures, a prepositional phrase embraces syntactic function of obligatory adverbial or adverbial complement. In part, the paper touches upon the thematic status of the prepositional phrases functioning as adjuncts of place and time (sometimes cause) that always occur in initial position of the sentence. Also, the paper distinguishes between the prepositional phrases that function as noun phrase modifiers or attribute and those that function as adverbials by indentifying the structural properties that set them apart. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1691 Title A name given to the resource Formal Unity and Functional Diversity of PP Adverbials in Modern Standard Arabic Author Author MULOVIĆ, Amra Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper discusses adverbials in Modern Standard Arabic. Adverbials as the most diverse group of the clause elements are interpreted according to the functional grammar. Adverbial phrases in Arabic are optional elements primarily expressed by PP, NP and AdjP syntactic categorical varieties. The paper focuses on the semantic functions of PP adverbials (time, place, manner, cause and other) and examines the semantic equivalence between PP and NP structural forms of adverbials or their invariant semantic content. Depending on semantic features of the verb and its governing nature within various syntactic structures, a prepositional phrase embraces syntactic function of obligatory adverbial or adverbial complement. In part, the paper touches upon the thematic status of the prepositional phrases functioning as adjuncts of place and time (sometimes cause) that always occur in initial position of the sentence. Also, the paper distinguishes between the prepositional phrases that function as noun phrase modifiers or attribute and those that function as adverbials by indentifying the structural properties that set them apart. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e5648bc2dbc1d9777d9b8f984b44f79.pdf 959ffbd8b1113ffa934e93c6679e5ae0 PDF Text Text FORMATION OF A HIGHER EDUCATION ORGANIZATION IDENTITY BETWEEN IMAGINATIONS AND STANDARDS: THE CASE OF TURKISH UNIVERSITIES SYSTEM Atay Erhan Suleyman Sah University Turkey eatay@ssu.edu.tr Zehra Topal Suleyman Sah University Turkey ztopal@ssu.edu.tr Abstract: Nowadays universities on the one hand try to survive and handle to their managerial system on the other hand cope with constrains from their institutional environment. The constrains are multilateral and including organizational demands, increasing competition in the market, national and international standardization however which are comprise of responding to demands of the students who are grown up in the technological era. Hence, universities are increasingly facing a double-sided pressure: to be innovative with a specific organizational duty while at the same time being an embedded part of a growing, and highly interconnected, internationalized and standardized higher education ‘industry’. This dilemma has both theoretical and practical interest, and is explored in this paper through an empirical study of how one university has dealt with these challenges of innovation and standardization. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. By studying a Turkish foundation university from its establishment in 2007 to present, and by extensive triangulation of more qualitative studies on this university in this period, the paper concludes that higher education institutions may handle this dilemma by relating it to the continuous struggle for organizational identity. As methodologically has done per deep interview with founding members and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Key Words: Higher Education, Organizational Identity, Standardization, Innovative Entrepreneurship, Institutional Isomorphism, Autonomy Introduction In the social life we are living with diverse institutions as in embedded and significant sense the life. Sometimes old institutions weaken by way of loss of legitimacy and meaning although many of their properties of alive. Vice versa is possible; a new social arrangements, agreements and perspectives may be given the outward form of an institution. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 265 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Otherwise, function as one of its member finds little or no inner meaning inside it (Beteille, 1995:563). Institutions have in general a longer life span than people. Even if some institutions by the time they can transform into a new formations. If they do not adapt to recent development they have may conflict. Universities are one of the most extended institutions in the world. On the other hand, the role and character of universities around the world is rapidly changing, with an increasing number of countries witnessing the rise of a market-based model of higher education and a rapid expansion of student enrolments. The world-wide trend in higher education is to push for enhanced student outcomes, accountability and innovation (Shaw et all., 2013:992). In Turkey as our case, this emphasis has been encapsulated in the some formation process. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. Theoretical Framework In the statement of DiMaggio and Powell (1983:150), organizational adaptation as determined by external forces where organizations have to adapt to economic, societal and cultural demands for reasons of legitimacy and survival. A representative theory here is the sociological version of neo-institutionalism, where a central thesis is that due to external political pressure, increased professionalization within a societal sector, or organizational uncertainty, organizations will become increasingly similar. In other words, organizational adaptation is a change towards standardization within a given organizational sector, e.g. higher education. Also, organizations are dependent on external forces, but argues that each organization still has certain discretion left when it comes to how they should respond to external pressures. The concepts of strategic choice or critical decisions are in this perspective important, along with a view that organizations must find their environmental niche in order to successfully compete for customers, students or markets shares, improve financial support or relations with society at large (e.g., Selznick 1957; Clark 1998; Sporn 1999). At this point our question research is arise, how universities cope with the external pressures by making their own shape organizational identities? For clear understanding we should briefly sort out condition of universities in the context of Turkey. Condition of Universities in the Context of Turkey The Council of Higher Education (CoHE) consult, supervise and control to universities in Turkey. The CoHE is an autonomous institution which is responsible for the planning, coordination and governance of higher education system in Turkey. CoHE is established in 1982 and has a constitutional and centralized structure. The number of universities has been increasing by times. Regarding of CoHE’s statistics there are two break point have seen in this duration. One of them is in the year of 1992 and other one is in 2006 and after. The count has increased approximately three times in this process. Especially foundation and private universities have establishes intensively in the term. 266 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation While the number of non government universities was only one before 1982, they were 16 in 1997, 30 in 2007 and 63 in 20111. Recently the update number is 76. Conjunction with this increasing, a competitive market has raised between universities. The rising competition in higher education and the mass demands for education prompt to universities to get seeking differentiation for fixing their strategic situation, and hit them transforming into organizational identity(Sakinc and Bursalioglu, 2012:93). In this case, our question research made out; formation by CoHE and differentiate organization identity of universities has presented a contradiction and how universities cope and deal with between imaginations and standards in their way. Organizational Identity Universities as an organization are dependent on external forces while each one still has specific discretion. They should respnd and manage this dependency with concept of strategic choice or critical decisions. They are in a challenge market and they must find their niche in order to prospering compete for their stakeholders (Stensaker and Norgard, 2001:479). In this case organizational identity should be dynamic concept where identity tags last. Organizational identity in relation to both culture and image in order to understand how external and internal definitions of organizational identity interact and commit. Accordig to Whetten (2006) this commitment the identity claims or referents that signify the organization’s self determined and self defining position in social space. From this perspective organizations are more than a social collectives they are social actors (Gioia et all. 2010:6). However structure of centralized system of higher education in Turkey caused isomorphism (Stensaker and Norgard, 2001:476) and lead to rationalized formal structures (Meyer and Rowan, 1977:342). In this study we investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. We aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. Methodology Our unit of observation is a foundation university which is established in 2007. In the academic meaning, there are two faculties and eight departments. University take position and differentiate itself social science. In the scope of our study we used a qualitative methods find out an embedded meaning of identity and perception of centralized system by employees in the university. Our sample consist of 32, and we did per deep interview each one by recording during one hour. We did discourse analysis to dechipred text and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Our analysis table is still in progress. Refernceces • Gioia, D. A., Price, K. N., Hamilton, A. L., & Thomas, J. B. (2010). Forging an identity: An insider-outsider study of processes involved in the formation of organizational identity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(1), 1-46 • Beteille, A. (1995). Universities as institutions. Economic and Political Weekly, 563568. • Barnett, R. (2011). The idea of the university in the twenty-first century: where’s the imagination?. Yükseköretim Dergisi, 1, 88-94. 1 http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/web/uluslararasi-iliskiler/turkiye-de-yuksekogretim-sistemi ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 267 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) • DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American sociological review, 147-160. • Erdem, A. R. (2012). Küreselleşme: Türk yükseköğretimine etkisi. Yükseköğretim Dergisi, 2(2), 109-117. • Stensaker, B., & Norgård, J. D. (2001). Innovation and isomorphism: A case-study of university identity struggle 1969–1999. Higher Education, 42(4), 473-492. • Gioia, D. A., Patvardhan, S. D., Hamilton, A. L., & Corley, K. G. (2013). Organizational identity formation and change. The Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 123-193 • Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American journal of sociology, 340-363. 268 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3324 Title A name given to the resource FORMATION OF A HIGHER EDUCATION ORGANIZATION IDENTITY BETWEEN IMAGINATIONS AND STANDARDS: THE CASE OF TURKISH UNIVERSITIES SYSTEM Author Author Atay, Erhan Topal, Zehra Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Nowadays universities on the one hand try to survive and handle to their managerial system on the other hand cope with constrains from their institutional environment. The constrains are multilateral and including organizational demands, increasing competition in the market, national and international standardization however which are comprise of responding to demands of the students who are grown up in the technological era. Hence, universities are increasingly facing a double-sided pressure: to be innovative with a specific organizational duty while at the same time being an embedded part of a growing, and highly interconnected, internationalized and standardized higher education ‘industry’. This dilemma has both theoretical and practical interest, and is explored in this paper through an empirical study of how one university has dealt with these challenges of innovation and standardization. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. By studying a Turkish foundation university from its establishment in 2007 to present, and by extensive triangulation of more qualitative studies on this university in this period, the paper concludes that higher education institutions may handle this dilemma by relating it to the continuous struggle for organizational identity. As methodologically has done per deep interview with founding members and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/227f31dc27f602febbf7ab48196abd50.pdf 95632d8c98a0efb90425f8f64ae95266 PDF Text Text IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske Formation of the International Sales Contract under the Vienna Convention and the other Sources of Sales Law of Croatia Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić Pravni fakultet u Splitu, Katedra za trgovačko pravo i pravo društava e-mail: ratko.brnabic@pravst.hr Sažetak: Razvoj međunarodne trgovine dovodi do potrebe izjednačavanja pravnih mehanizama za reguliranje pravnih odnosa, koji nastaju prilikom međunarodnih trgovačkih transakcija. Sve važnija uloga međunarodne trgovine dovodi u pitanje nacionalne trgovačke zakone jer često ne odgovaraju potrebama međunarodne trgovine a problemi naročito nastaju kada dođe do spora s međunarodnim elementom. Kako se potreba trgovine mijenjaju tako se mijenja i trgovačka praksa. Pojačana prekomorska robna trgovina još više naglašava probleme, koji proizlaze iz različitosti nacionalnih zakonodavstava, koja uređuju ovu materiju. Sklapanjem ugovora stranke otkrivaju da su se ravnale po različitim pravnim standardima i običajima. U tom smislu već je bilo pokušaja izjednačavanja spomenutih propisa s ciljem stvaranja pravne sigurnosti i smanjenja nepotrebnih troškova povezanih sa sklapanjem ugovora prema nepoznatom pravu a kruna tih napora je Konvencija Ujedinjenih Naroda o ugovorima o međunarodnoj prodaji robe iz 1980. godine. Ključne riječi: Bečka konvencija, ponuda, prihvat, perfekcija ugovora, trgovački običaji. JEL klasifikacija: K12, K20, K33 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO15214 Historija članka Dostavljen: 02.09.2014. Recenziran: 24.11.2014. Prihvaćen: 23.01.2015. Pisci domaćih zakona, kojima se regulira ova materija imaju niz prednosti u odnosu na pisce konvencija. Naime, oni djeluju u već razvijenom pravnom sustavu, s bogatom sudskom praksom, a ako žele uklopiti nove pravne institute iz stranih zakonodavstava, to mogu lakše učiniti nego kada je riječ o međunarodnom dokumentu. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 83 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić U procesu stvaranja Konvencije bili su neizbježni kompromisi, kako bi se uklopili elementi kontinentalnog prava i common lawa. Pokušalo se "pod zajednički nazivnik" staviti stvarno nespojive pravne koncepte. Međutim, spomenuti sustavi nemaju zajedničku pravnu teoriju, pa neka konvencijska rješenja ostavljaju dvojbe u pogledu njihove primjene u konkretnim okolnostima. Iz tih razloga, potrebno je identificirati probleme, koji u poslovnoj praksi mogu nastati kada trgovci, čija se sjedišta nalaze u državama, koje pripadaju kontinentalnom pravnom sustavu moraju postupati prema pravilima Konvencije. Tu ni Republika Hrvatska nije izuzetak, jer Konvencija ima prednost pred domaćim pravom pa se primjenjuje i prije Zakona o obveznim odnosima i drugih propisa, kojima je uređeno hrvatsko pravo kupoprodaje. To rješenje šire je u pristupu u odnosu na hrvatski Zakon o obveznim odnosima jer razlikuje slučajeve kada je riječ o bitnim ili nebitnim izmjenama sastojaka ugovora. U radu se koristi metoda kompilacije, metoda deskripcije, deduktivna metoda, metoda specijalizacije, te komparativna metoda. Također, u radu se pokazuje da, iako postoje razlike u pravnom uređenju sklapanja ugovora o kupoprodaji, ugovorne strane kvalitetnim ugovaranjem mogu unaprijed otkloniti mogućnost nastanka spora u svezi s pitanjima iz područja sklapanja ugovora. Pretpostavka za to jest da trgovci, koji sudjeluju u međunarodnoj trgovini moraju biti svjesni da se na njihov pravni odnos primjenjuju pravila koja im nisu dostatno poznata pa je stoga nužno da se o tim pitanjima unaprijed usuglase. Ovim radom se posebice želi obraditi osjetljivo područje sklapanja ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji jer trgovci, koji slijede odgovarajuće odredbe Zakona o obveznim odnosima mogu biti iznenađeni načinom na koji je spomenuto područje uređeno Konvencijom. U tom smislu posebice se raspravlja o ponudi, prihvatu i roku za prihvat, trenutku kada se ugovor smatra sklopljenim te pravnim učincima protuponude. Tako primjerice, prema Konvenciji odgovor na ponudu, koji upućuje na prihvat, a sadrži dodatke, ograničenja ili druge izmjene, jest odbijanje ponude i predstavlja protuponudu ali s druge strane, odgovor na ponudu, koji upućuje na prihvat, ali koji sadržava dopunske ili različite sastojke, koji ne mijenjaju bitno sastojke ponude, predstavlja prihvat, osim ako ponuditelj bez nepotrebnog odgađanja usmeno ne stavi prigovor na razlike ili pošalje obavijest u tom smislu. Ako on tako ne postupi, ugovor je sklopljen prema sadržaju ponude s izmjenama koje se nalaze u prihvatu. 84 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske Abstract: The development of international trade led to the necessity of equalizing the legal mechanisms for regulating legal relations, arising from international trade transactions. Increasingly important role of international trade questions national trade laws because they often do not meet the needs of international trade, and the problems particularly arise when a dispute arises with an international element. As the needs of trade are changing, the trade practice changes as well. Increased overseas trade highlights problems arising from the diversity of national legislative even more. By concluding the contract, parties reveal that they were led by different legal standards and practices. In this sense, there have been attempts to equalize mentioned legislation in order to create legal certainty and to reduce unnecessary costs related with the conclusion of contracts by an unknown law and the crown of these efforts is United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods Act 1980. Keywords: Vienna Convention, Offer, Acceptance, Formation of contract , Usages of Trade. JEL Classification: K12, K20, K33 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO15214 Article History Submitted: 02.09.2014. Resubmited: 24.11.2014. Accepted: 23.01.2015. Writers domestic law that regulate this matter have a number of advantages over writers of conventions. Namely, they operate in developed legal system, with a rich jurisprudence, and if they want to integrate new legal institutes from foreign legislation, it may easier to do than when it comes to international document. In the process of creating the Convention compromises were inevitable, all in order to match elements of civil law and common law. There was also an attempt to put under"a common denominator" inconsistent legal concepts. However, these systems do not have a common legal theory, and some convention solutions leave no doubts as to their application in specific circumstances. For these reasons, it is necessary to identify problems that a commercial practice can arise when retailers, which are headquartered in countries belonging to the continental legal system must act according to the rules of the Convention. In this sense, even Croatia is not an exception, because the Convention takes precedence over domestic law and applied before the Civil Obligations Act and other regulations governing the sale of Croatian law. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 85 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić This paper particularly discusses sensitive area of signing the contract about international trade, because traders who follow the relevant provisions of the Law on Obligations may be surprised by the way the mentioned area is regulated by the Convention. In this sense, the offer is specially discussed, as well as an acceptance and time for acceptance of the time when the contract is deemed. For example, according to the Convention, in response to the offer, which is transfered to acceptance, and contains additions, or other changes, is refusing of an offer, and represents counteroffer, but, on the other hand, the response to the offer, which indicates acceptance which contains additional or different ingredients , which do not alter the essential ingredients of the offer constitutes an acceptance, unless the offer-or, without undue delay orally raised any objection to the difference or send a notification to this effect. If he fails to do so, the contract is concluded according to the offer with the modifications contained in the acceptance. The paper uses the method of compilation, description method, deductive method, as well as specialization and comparative method. Also, the paper shows that although there are differences in the legal order when purchasing the contract, agreeing parties can, in advance, eliminate the possibility of a dispute in connection with issues related to the contract. The prerequisite for this is that the dealers who participate in an international trade have to be aware that their legal relationship to the rules that they do not sufficiently know, and it is therefore necessary to take on these issues in advance to agree. If he fails to do so, the contract is concluded according to the offer with the modifications contained in the acceptance. This solution is broader in approach compared to the Croatian Obligations Act because it differentiate cases when having important or less important modifications. This solution is broader in approach compared to the Croatian Obligations Act because different instances when it comes to important or unimportant changes to the ingredients of the contract. It also discusses the role of customs and business practice in the legal relations of buying and selling with an international element. Specifically, it should be stated that the said autonomous sources of law take precedence over the Convention. 86 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske 1. Uvod Razvoj međunarodne trgovine dovodi do potrebe izjednačavanja pravnih mehanizama za reguliranje pravnih odnosa koji nastaju prilikom međunarodnih trgovačkih transakcija. Sve važnija uloga međunarodne trgovine dovodi u pitanje nacionalne trgovačke zakone jer često ne odgovaraju potrebama međunarodne trgovine a problemi naročito nastaju kada dođe do spora s međunarodnim elementom. Kako se potreba trgovine mijenjaju tako se mijenja i trgovačka praksa. Pojačana prekomorska robna trgovina još više naglašava probleme koji proizlaze iz različitosti nacionalnih zakonodavstava koja uređuju ovu materiju. Sklapanjem ugovora stranke otkrivaju da su se ravnale po različitim pravnim standardima i običajima. U tom smislu već je bilo pokušaja izjednačavanja spomenutih propisa s ciljem stvaranja pravne sigurnosti i smanjenja nepotrebnih troškova povezanih sa sklapanjem ugovora prema nepoznatom pravu a kruna tih napora je Konvencija Ujedinjenih Naroda o ugovorima o međunarodnoj prodaji robe iz 1980. godine (u nastavku rada: Konvencija). Kako je članica Konvencije od ranije bila SFRJ, Republika Hrvatska je temeljem izjave o sukcesiji od 8. lipnja 1998. g. pristupila Konvenciji,1 koja se primjenjuje s retroaktivnim učinkom od dana 8. listopada 1991., datuma kada je Republika Hrvatska postala samostalni, međunarodno priznati subjekt ali nije izjavila rezervu u pogledu primjene neke od Konvencijskih odredbi pa se Konvencija primjenjuje u cijelosti. Pisci domaćih zakona kojima se regulira ova materija imaju niz prednosti u odnosu na pisce konvencija. Naime, oni djeluju u već razvijenom pravnom sustavu, s bogatom sudskom praksom, a ako žele uklopiti nove pravne institute iz stranih zakonodavstava, to mogu lakše učiniti nego kada je riječ o međunarodnom dokumentu. Spomenutim donošenjem jedinstvenog teksta Konvencije nastojalo se ostvariti nekoliko važnih ciljeva: ublažiti teškoće koje se javljaju kad je ugovor sklopljen između prodavatelja i kupca stvari sa sjedištima u različitim državama i pružiti suvremena pravila za međunarodnu kupoprodaju, smanjiti potrebu nalaženja prava po kojem će se ugovor prosuđivati te izbjeći primjenu pravila međunarodnog privatnog prava o sukobu zakona. Konvencija ipak nema prednost pred trgovačkim običajima niti pred općim uvjetima poslovanja ugovornih strana a njezine odredbe su općenito dispozitivne prirode.2 1 2 V. Narodne novine, međunarodni ugovori, br. 8/98. Goldštajn, A., Trgovačko ugovorno pravo, Međunarodno i komparativno, Zagreb, 1991, str. 38. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 87 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić U procesu stvaranja Konvencije bili su neizbježni kompromisi kako bi se uklopili elementi kontinentalnog prava i sustava Common law-a. Pokušalo se "pod zajednički nazivnik" staviti stvarno nespojive pravne koncepte. Međutim, spomenuti sustavi nemaju zajedničku pravnu teoriju pa neka konvencijska rješenja ostavljaju dvojbe u pogledu njihove primjene u konkretnim okolnostima. Iz tih razloga, potrebno je identificirati probleme koji u poslovnoj praksi mogu nastati kada trgovci čija se sjedišta nalaze u državama koje pripadaju kontinentalnom pravnom sustavu moraju postupati prema pravilima Konvencije. Tu ni Republika Hrvatska nije izuzetak jer se odredbe Konvencije primjenjuju i prije odredaba hrvatskog Zakona o obveznim odnosima (u tekstu: ZOO RH)3 i drugih propisa kojima je uređeno hrvatsko pravo kupoprodaje. U nastavku rada provodi se raščlamba odredaba Konvencije koje se tiču sklapanja ugovora te se ukazuje na različitost konvencijskih rješenja u odnosu na rješenja sadržana u odredbama spomenutog Zakona. U prvom redu biti će riječi o ponudi za sklapanjem ugovora i prihvatu te ponude što dovodi do nastanka ugovora o kupoprodaji. Konvencija je glede trenutka sklapanja ugovora prihvatila teoriju primitka kao i hrvatsko pravo te većina kontinentalnih prava jer je taj trenutak lako utvrditi. S obzirom na okolnost da se ugovor prema Konvenciji smatra sklopljenim u trenutku prihvata ponude, vidljivo je da je Konvencijom prihvaćeno načelo konsenzualnosti kod sklapanja ugovora o kupoprodaji. 2. Ponuda za sklapanje ugovora Ponuda je svako očitovanje volje jedne osobe iz kojeg je vidljiva želja za sklapanjem ugovora a koje sadrži barem sve objektivno bitne sastojke nužne za nastanak ugovora.4 Ove dvije potrepštine očitovanja nužne su za postojanje ponude zato da ponuđeni može prihvatiti ponudu najjednostavnijom izjavom pa da ugovor bude sklopljen, što podrazumijeva i da su poznati bar objektivno bitni sastojci ugovora bez kojih on ne može valjano nastati.5 Prema Konvenciji, ponuda je 3 Hrvatski Zakon o obveznim odnosima, NN 35/05, 41/08, 125/11. Kada je riječ o odnosima između sudionika obveznih odnosa, potrebno je prije svega naglasiti značenje načela autonomije volje ugovornih strana prema kojemu su one slobodne u uređivanju obveznih odnosa. Detaljnije Barbić, J., Sklapanje ugovora po Zakonu o obveznim odnosima (suglasnost volja), Zagreb, 1980, str. 6. i dalje. 5 Usp. Slakoper, Z. et al., Osnove prava trgovačkih ugovora i vrijednosnih papira, Mikrorad, Zagreb, 2009, str. 111. 4 88 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske prijedlog za sklapanje ugovora upućen jednoj osobi ili više određenih osoba znači ponudu ako je dovoljno određen i ako ukazuje na namjeru ponuditelja da se obveže u slučaju prihvaćanja. Prijedlog je dovoljno određen ako označava robu i izričito ili prešutno utvrđuje količinu i cijenu ili sadrži elemente za njihovo utvrđivanje.6 Nadalje, kad je ugovor valjano sklopljen a cijena robe nije u ugovoru određena ni izričito ni prešutno niti u njemu ima odredaba na temelju kojih bi se mogla utvrditi, smatrat će se ako nije suprotno navedeno da su strane prešutno pristale na cijenu koje se u trenutku sklapanja ugovora redovno naplaćivala u dotičnoj struci za takvu robu prodanu pod sličnim okolnostima.7 Prema ZOO-u RH, cijena je bitan sastojak za sklapanje ugovora u građanskoj kupoprodaji pa u slučaju kada cijena nije određena ili odrediva, ugovor nije valjan. S druge strane, kod trgovačke kupoprodaje ugovor se smatra sklopljenim iako cijena nije određena niti odrediva: kupac tada plaća cijenu koju je prodavatelj redovito naplaćivao u vrijeme sklapanja ugovora. Podredno plaća razumnu cijenu pod kojom se smatra tekuća cijena u vrijeme sklapanja ugovora a ako se ta cijena ne može utvrditi onda cijenu utvrđuje sud prema okolnostima slučaja.8 Konvencija također i uređuje pitanje ponude koja je upućena neodređenom broju osoba: takav prijedlog za sklapanjem ugovora upućen neodređenom broju osoba smatrat će se samo kao poziv da se učine ponude, osim ako osoba koja to predlaže jasno ne ukaže na suprotno.9 Potpuno suprotno načelo vrijedi u ZOO-u RH: prijedlog za sklapanje ugovora upućen neodređenom broju osoba koji sadrži bitne sastojke ugovora čijem je sklapanju namijenjen vrijedi kao ponuda, ako drukčije ne proizlazi iz okolnosti slučaja ili običaja.10 Sve dok se ugovor ne sklopi ponuda se može opozvati, ako opoziv stigne ponuđenome prije nego što je on poslao svoj prihvat. Ipak, ponuda se ne može opozvati ako je u njoj naznačeno, bilo time što je određen rok za prihvaćanje ili na 6 Vidi čl. 14. st. 1. Konvencije. Usp. za hrvatsko pravo čl. 253. ZOO-a RH. Vidi čl. 55. Konvencije. 8 Vidi čl. 384. ZOO-a RH. 9 Vidi čl. 14. st. 2. Konvencije. 10 Vidi čl. 254. ZOO-a RH. Spomenuti Zakon dodatno razrađuje pitanje ponude pa se izlaganje robe s naznakom cijene smatra se ponudom, ako drukčije ne proizlazi iz okolnosti slučaja ili običaja (čl. 255. ZOO-a RH). S druge strane, slanje kataloga, cjenika, tarifa i drugih obavijesti te oglasi dani u tisku, lecima, radiom, televizijom, elektroničkim putem ili na koji drugi način ne smatraju se ponudom za sklapanje ugovora, nego samo pozivom da se učini ponuda pod objavljenim uvjetima, ako drukčije ne proizlazi iz takvih izjava volje (čl. 256. ZOO-a RH). 7 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 89 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić drugi način, da je neopoziva ili ako je ponuđeni razumno vjerovao da je ponuda neopoziva i ponašao se u skladu s tim. Vidljivo je da Konvencija zauzima polazište o obvezujućoj naravi ponude te se predviđaju slučajevi kada opoziv ponude nije moguć. Ovo je jedno od najvećih problema s kojim su se suočili autori Konvencije jer je trebalo premostiti procijep između različitih polazišta. Naime, u kontinentalnim pravnim sustavima vrijedi stav da je ponuditelj vezan ponudom, a u sustavima Common law-a zauzeto je suprotno polazište. Nadalje, razlike postoje i u svezi s mogućnošću da se ponuditelj obveže za točno određeno razdoblje kao i u pogledu odgovornosti za štetu u slučaju opoziva ponude. Već i prethodnik ove odredbe – odredba čl. 5. ULF rezultat je dvojbenog kompromisa pa i odredba o ponudi iz Bečke konvencije rezultat kompromisa zbog kojeg ona nije dostatno precizna. Ipak, sudska praksa pokazuje da je spomenuti problem ipak više teoretske prirode.11 Prema hrvatskom ZOO-u, ponuda je prijedlog za sklapanje ugovora učinjen određenoj osobi koji sadrži sve bitne sastojke ugovora. Stoga ponuda mora izražavati volju ponuditelja na sklapanje ugovora (lat. animus contrahendi) što znači da na njegovoj strani postoji jasna i određena nakana sklopiti ugovor. Ne želi li ponuditelj da ta inicijativa dovede do sklapanja ugovora, mora to urediti posebnom klauzulom npr. „bez obveze“, „nije ponuda već upit“ i sl.12 Iako je ponuda načelno opoziva, spomenuto načelo se ograničava (ne primjenjuje se) u slučaju kada je ugovor već sklopljen ali i onda kada je ponuđeni poslao svoju izjavu o prihvatu ponude. Ponuditelj svoju ponudu može napraviti obvezujućim i bez navođenja roka u kojem je vezan ponudom. Ako ponuditelj navede rok za prihvat ponude stvara se oboriva pretpostavka da je on vezan tom ponudom. Međutim, ponuditelj je vezan ako se iz ponuđenikovog ponašanja može opravdano zaključiti da se pouzdao u okolnost da je ponuda neopoziva te da je to bilo razumno od njega očekivati.13 Prema ZOO-u RH, ponuditelj je vezan ponudom osim ako je svoju obvezu da održi ponudu isključio ili ako to isključenje proizlazi iz okolnosti posla. Opoziv ponude vrijedi samo onda kada je stigao ponuđeniku prije 11 Tako Schlechtriem, P. u: Schlechtriem, P.; Schwenzer, I. (ur.), Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), Oxford University press, New York, 2005, str. 207. – 208. 12 Vidi čl. 253. ZOO RH. Usp. Gorenc, V. et al., Komentar Zakona o obveznim odnosima, RRiF, Zagreb, 2005, str. 352. 13 Vidi čl. 16. st. 2b. Konvencije. 90 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske ponude ili bar istodobno s ponudom.14 Usporedbom odredaba Konvencije i ZOO-a RH, dolazi se do zaključka da postoje razlike u pravnom uređenju jer Konvencija predviđa poviše spomenuta dva slučaja (izuzetka) kada se ponuda uopće ne može opozvati: a) ako je u njoj naznačeno da je neopoziva, te b) ako je ponuđenik razumno vjerovao da je ponuda neopoziva i ponašao se u skladu s tim (npr. pripremao robu za utovar). Ipak, u praksi to neće doći do izražaja jer će jednako rješenje vrijediti i u domaćoj kupoprodaji primjenimo li pravila o tumačenju ugovora te pravila o primjeni običaja i prakse.15 Potrebno je razmotriti i pitanje ostvarenja prava na opoziv ponude prema Konvenciji kao i granice spomenutog prava. Opoziv ponude daje se izjavom koja mora stići drugoj strani. Ponuda, izjava o prihvaćanju ili bilo koje drugo izražavanje namjere “stiglo” je primatelju ako mu je priopćena usmeno ili je na drugi način uručena njemu osobno ili predana njegovu sjedištu ili na njegovu poštansku adresu ili, ako nema sjedišta odnosno poštansku adresu, u njegovom redovnom boravištu.16 Nije dostatno da je ponuđeni primjerice od trećih doznao da ponuditelj namjerava opozvati ponudu. Drugo je pitanje, a koje se uređuje domaćim pravom, tko je ovlašten u ime trgovca izjaviti opoziv te koje se pretpostavke s tim u svezi moraju ispuniti. Teret dokaza je na onoj strani koja tvrdi da je valjano izjavljen opoziv. Ugovorna strana vezana je izjavom o opozivu samo onda dok ta izjava ne stigne drugoj strani. Samo izuzetno, opoziv „izjave o opozivu“ moguć je ako se druga strana nije počela ponašati u skladu s činjenicom da je ponuda opozvana a posebice je to moguće ako druga strana nije ni saznala za prvi opoziv. U svakom slučaju teret dokaza je na strani koja je izjavila opoziv. Nadalje, treba razmotriti i pitanje roka za prihvat ponude. Prema Konvenciji, rok za prihvat, što ga je odredio ponuditelj u telegramu ili pismu, počinje teći od trenutka kad je telegram predan za odašiljanje ili od datuma koji nosi pismo ili, u nedostatku datuma na pismu, od datuma koji se nalazi na kuverti. Rok za prihvaćanje što ga je odredio ponuditelj telefonom, teleksom ili drugim neposrednim sredstvima priopćavanja počinje teći kad ponuda stigne ponuđenome.17 14 Vidi čl. 257. ZOO-a RH. Vidi čl. 319. ZOO-a RH. Primjenu običaja i prakse u obveznim odnosima uređuje čl. 12. ZOO-a RH. 16 Vidi čl. 24. Konvencije. Također vidi i Farnsworth, E.A. u: Galston N.; Smit H. (ur.), International Sales: The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Matthew Bender, 1984, Pog. 3, str. 3-13. 17 Vidi čl. 20. st. 1. i 2. Konvencije. 15 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 91 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić Iz tih odredaba jasno proizlazi da se rok može odrediti tako da se u ponudi navede datum do kojeg se ponuditelj smatra vezanim ponudom ili odrediti primjerice da je rok za prihvat 15 dana od dana kada je ponuda stigla ponuđeniku. Prema ZOO-u RH, treba razlikovati slučajeve kada je rokove u ponudi postavio ponuditelj od slučajeva kada vrijedi zakonski rok. Određivanje rokova za prihvaćanje ponude u pravilu otpada kad su ponuditelj i ponuđeni prostorno nazočni kao i onda ako je ponuda učinjena putem telefona ili na drugi izravan način. Ako je među prisutnim stranama ponuđeniku ostavljen rok za razmišljanje tada je zapravo riječ o ponudi među nenazočnim osobama. Među nenazočnim osobama rok za prihvat ponude trebao bi postaviti sam ponuditelj jer će tako izbjeći situaciju da sudbina njegove ponude ovisi o dispozitivnim zakonskim normama koje za njega mogu biti i nepovoljne u konkretnom slučaju. Pri utvrđivanju rokova obvezatnosti ponude ponuditelj treba biti realan i paziti na primjerenost roka.18 Uputi li ponuditelj ponudu nenazočnom adresatu u kojoj nije određen rok za njezin prihvat, primjenjuje se dispozitivna zakonska odredba prema kojoj ponuda učinjena odsutnoj osobi u kojoj nije određen rok za prihvat obvezuje ponuditelja za vrijeme koje je redovito potrebno da ponuda stigne ponuđeniku, da je on razmotri, o njoj odluči i da odgovor o prihvaćanju stigne ponuditelju.19 Ako jedna strana umre ili izgubi poslovnu sposobnost prije prihvaćanja ponude ponuda ne gubi učinak osim ako suprotno proizlazi iz namjere strana, običaja ili pravne naravi posla.20 Pravo ponuditelja na opoziv prestaje kad je ugovor sklopljen tj. kad je dana valjana izjava o prihvatu jer prihvat ponude proizvodi učinak od trenutka kad izjava o suglasnosti stigne ponuditelju. Prihvat će biti bez učinka ako izjava o suglasnosti ne stigne ponuditelju u roku što ga je on odredio ili, ako nije odredio rok, u razumnom roku, vodeći računa o okolnostima posla i brzini sredstava komunikacije kojim se koristio ponuditelj. S druge strane, usmena ponuda mora biti prihvaćena odmah osim ako okolnosti ne ukazuju na suprotan zaključak.21 18 Tako Gorenc, V. et al., o. c. u bilj. br. 12, str. 360. Vidi čl. 258. st. 4. ZOO-a RH. Tu je zapravo riječ o tri razdoblja roka ponude: rok za putovanje ponude do ponuđenika, rok za razmišljanje i odlučivanje te rok za povratak njegovog odgovora ponuditelju. Sve tri faze predstavljaju jedinstvenu cjelinu. 20 Vidi čl. 267. ZOO-a RH. Prema tome na mjesto ponuditelja i ponuđenika stupit će njihovi pravni sljednici. Ta bi se odredba na odgovarajući način mogla primijeniti i na trgovce – pravne osobe primjerice ako je nakon slanja ponude društvo ponuditelj pripojeno drugom društvu. Usp. Vedriš, M.; Klarić, P., Građansko pravo, Narodne novine, Zagreb, 2014, str. 403. 21 Vidi čl. 18. st. 2. Konvencije. 19 92 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske Kad je ugovor sklopljen, ugovorne strane više ne mogu izmijeniti svoja očitovanja volje jer su one sastavni dio ugovora. Izjava o rezervaciji koju za svrhu ima očuvanje prava ugovorne strane na opoziv po prirodi stvari predstavlja pravo na razvrgnuće sklopljenog ugovora pa ono mora jasno biti predviđeno ugovorom ili to mora proizlaziti iz tumačenja ugovora. Izjava o prihvatu koja ne stigne drugoj strani proizvodi učinke samo ako na temelju ponude, prakse koju su strane između sebe uspostavile ili običaja prihvaćanje ponuđenog može biti izraženo obavljanjem neke radnje, kao što je primjerice slanje robe ili plaćanje cijene. U načelu – ako nije pridržano i šire pravo na opoziv – pravo na opoziv prestaje samo sklapanjem ugovora. Slanjem izjave o pristanku prestaje pravo na opoziv čak i prije trenutka sklapanja ugovora.22 Ako je izjava o opozivu ponude poslana nakon što je poslana izjava o prihvatu, dok prihvat ne stigne ponuditelju ugovor je u stanju pendencije. Ako prihvat uopće ne stigne, ugovor nije niti sklopljen, osim ako nije riječ o jednom od poviše spomenutih slučajeva kod kojih nije niti potrebno da izjava o prihvatu stigne ponuditelju. S druge strane, niti ponuditelj ne može biti neograničeno vezan ponudom. Ako nema roka važenja ponude ona vrijedi u razumnom roku vodeći računa o okolnostima posla i brzini sredstava komunikacije kojim se koristio ponuditelj. Pri tome nije potrebno koristiti odredbe Konvencije o tumačenju izjava ugovornih strana.23 Vidljivo je da to konvencijsko rješenje odgovara poviše spomenutim odredbama ZOO-a RH samo što ih spomenuti Zakon odmah razrađuje dok će tu zadaću kod primjene Konvencije imati sudovi i arbitražna tijela. Nema prepreke da ponuditelj u ponudi stavi klauzulu o tome da ga ponuda ne obvezuje sve do trenutka primitka izjave o prihvatu. Ponuđenik mora dokazati da je prihvat poslao prije nego što mu je stigla izjava o opozivu ponude. Ponuditelj samo mora dokazati da je opoziv stigao ponuđenom u točno određenom trenutku. Ponuditelj može svoju ponudu učiniti neopozivom tako što će jasno istaknuti namjeru da ponuda ima upravo taj učinak pri čemu nije od značaja forma u kojoj se daje ta izjava. U slučaju dvojbe, od pomoći nam mogu biti konvencijska 22 Tako Lookofsky, J. u: Herbots, J.; Blanpain, R (ur.), The 1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, International Encyclopaedia of Laws - Contracts, Suppl. 29, 2000, str. 66. 23 Vidi čl. 8. Konvencije. Usp. Schlechtriem, P., Uniform Sales Law - The UN-Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Manz, Vienna, 1986, str. 53. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 93 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić pravila o tumačenju izjava i ponašanja ugovornih strana.24 I Popratne okolnosti u kojima se ponuda daje mogu ukazivati na namjeru ponuditelja da je učini neopozivom: primjerice, ako ponuditelj prilaže neko sredstvo osiguranja tražbina ili bi zaključak da je ponuda neopoziva proizlazio iz pregovora te prakse između konkretnih ugovaratelja. Namjera da se preuzme obveza posebice je jasna onda kada je u ponudi naveden fiksni rok za prihvat. Okolnost da je određen fiksni rok prihvata predstavlja oborivu pretpostavku o postojanju namjere ponuditelja da se tako obveže.25 Ako sadržaj ponude nedostatno ukazuje na namjeru ponuditelja da se obveže tada nije riječ o neopozivoj ponudi.26 Ako je ponuda neopoziva, ponuditelj je vezan svojom ponudom pa ponuđenik može izjaviti prihvat i time je ugovor sklopljen. Tu nema mjesta primjeni odredaba domaćega prava. Stoga, ako ponuditeljev opoziv ne proizvodi pravne učinke, ponuđenik primjerice nije ovlašten izjaviti da izjavu o opozivu smatra valjanom i ustati s tužbom za naknadu šteta temeljem odgovornosti iz pregovora (lat. culpa in contrahendo). Umjesto toga, ponuđenik treba prihvatiti ponudu, sklopiti ugovor pa će se eventualni opoziv ponude smatrati kvalificiranim oblikom odbijanja ispunjenja. U tom smislu, ako je prije roka za izvršenje ugovora jasno da će jedna strana počiniti bitnu povredu ugovora, druga strana može izjaviti da raskida ugovor.27 Ako ponuditelj nije vezan svojom ponudom, može je povući. Stigne li ta izjava o povlačenju ponuđeniku prije izjave o prihvatu ponude ili čak ako mu stigne nakon prihvata ponude tada nema mjesta primjeni pravila o odgovornosti za štetu po 24 Namjera da ponuda bude neopoziva može se iskazati riječima koje nedvojbeno na to ukazuju: fiksna ponuda, čvrsta ponuda, ponuda neopoziva do …; također, mogu se koristiti i izrazi kojima se u konkretnoj grani gospodarstva uobičajeno iskazuje namjera za obvezivanjem, primjerice izraz otvorena ponuda, opcija itd. Detaljnije o tome vidi kod Schlechtriem, P., o. c. u bilj. br. 11, str. 210. 25 Lookofsky, J., o.c. u bilj. br. 22, str. 67. 26 Ponašanje kojim ponuđeni pokazuje da je ponudu ozbiljno shvatio jest primjerice početak proizvodnje, nabava sirovina ili sklapanje ugovora u tu svrhu, naručivanje skupih studija ili proračuna, nova zapošljavanja. Ta postupanja moraju proizlaziti iz toga da se ponuđenik „razumno“ pouzdao u neopozivost ponude. Ponašanja ne obuhvaćaju samo radnje već i propuštanja. Usp. Del Pilar Perales Viscasillas, M., The Formation of Contracts and the Principles of European Contract Law, Pace International Law Review 13/2001, str. 384. 27 Vidi čl. 72. Konvencije. Usp. Vilus, J., Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and the Buyer, u: Šarčević , P.; Volken, P. (ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana 1986, str. 245. 94 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske odredbama domaćeg prava. Ako je opoziv dopušten prema Konvenciji, nije dopustivo zaobilaženje tog pravila u praksi pozivanjem na odredbe o naknadi štete domaćeg prava. Ne bi bilo dobro da se stavljanjem ponuditelju u izgled tužbe za naknadu štete prema domaćem pravu na njega vrši pritisak da održi svoju ponudu iako je ona opoziva. To načelo ipak ne vrijedi u slučaju kada se ponuditelj ponašao prijevarno. Tada se primjenjuju pravila domaćeg prava o toj mani volje.28 U svakom slučaju ponuda čak i kad je neopoziva više ne proizvodi pravne učinke od trenutka kada odbijanje stigne ponuditelju. Izjava o odbijanju ponude ima takav učinak i onda kad je ponuda neopoziva a odbijanje je stiglo za vrijeme trajanja fiksnog roka za prihvat. Tada postupak sklapanja ugovora može započeti samo slanjem nove ponude. Odbijanje se može očitovati izričitom izjavom ili neizravno, primjerice kad ponuđenik zahtijeva izmjenu uvjeta ponude a takav zahtjev očito ne spada u grupu slučajeva prihvata ponude s izmjenama koje su manjeg značaja.29 Primjenom konvencijskih pravila o tumačenju procjenjuje se predstavlja li izjava ponuđenika odbijanje ponude. Izjava o odbijanju mora stići ponuditelju. Ponuda se može odbiti čak i nakon što se poslan prihvat, ako ta izjava stigne ponuditelju istovremeno s izjavom o prihvatu ili prije prihvata. Ako odbijanje stigne ponuditelju prije prihvata, ugovor nije sklopljen i to se stanje ne može promijeniti niti primjenom konvencijske odredbe prema kojoj zakašnjeli prihvat ipak proizvodi pravne učinke sklapanja ugovora ako ponuditelj o tome bez odgode usmeno obavijesti ponuđenog ili mu pošalje pisanu obavijest u tom smislu.30 Po prirodi stvari, ponuda u kojoj je određen rok u kojem se ona mora prihvatiti redovito prestaje istekom tog roka. Konvencija izričito ne predviđa taj učinak ali taj zaključak proizlazi iz tumačenja odredaba o tome u kojem roku izjava o prihvatu mora stići ponuditelju, pravilima o roku za prihvat ponude te pravilima o učincima zakašnjelog prihvata. Konvencija ne uređuje pitanje utječe li na važenje ponude smrt, gubitak poslovne sposobnosti, otvaranje stečajnog postupka ili sličnog postupka koji utječu 28 Vidi čl. 284. ZOO-a RH. Pravna posljedica prijevare je pobojnost tog ugovora te obveza na naknadu štete. 29 Vidi čl. 19. st. 1. Konvencije. 30 Vidi čl. 21. Konvencije. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 95 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić na ugovornu stranu. Učinci tih događaja (pravnih činjenica) na pravni odnos uređeni su domaćim pravom. 3. Prihvat ponude Prema Konvenciji, ugovor je sklopljen kada se susretnu ponuda i prihvat tj. kada se na ponudu da odgovarajuća izjava o prihvatu. Ponuđenikova izjava mora stići ponuditelju u razumnom roku. Ipak, prihvat se može dati i konkludentnim radnjama. Valja razlikovati tri različita oblika prihvata: a) izričita izjava o prihvatu koja mora stići ponuditelju, b) prihvat izražen implicitno, koji mora stići ponuditelju i c) prihvat izražen implicitno, koji proizvodi učinke poduzimanjem radnje koje znače pristanak. Bez obzira na to mora li prihvat stići ponuditelju te je li prihvat izražen izričitom izjavom ili implicitno, moraju se ispuniti pretpostavke valjanog očitovanja volje koje zahtijeva domaće pravo (poslovna sposobnost, nepostojanje mana volje, ovlast za zastupanje). Ponudu u ime ponuđenika smije prihvatiti i poslovno nesposobna osoba ali u čije ime izjavu daje zakonski zastupnik . Konvencija samo uređuje načine na koje se može izjaviti prihvat te uređuje pitanje od kojeg trenutka prihvat proizvodi pravne učinke: kada izjava o prihvatu stigne ponuditelju ili kada ponašanje ponuđenog (radnje) ukazuju na prihvat. Izjava o prihvatu mora sadržavati izraze iz kojih se nedvojbeno može zaključiti o izričitom slaganju ponuđenika s ponudom tj. volju ponuđenika da se obveže time što je prihvatio uvjete ponude. Obična potvrda o primitku ponude, zahvala na ponudi ili slanje izjave kojom se iskazuje interesa, u pravilu nisu dostatni. Tumačenje tih izjava i volju stranaka uređeno je Konvencijom. U pravilu, ne postoji namjera prihvata ako se izjavi rezervacija o pojedinim pitanjima o kojima još treba pregovarati. Ako navodni prihvat sadrži uvjete koji su različiti od onih iz ponude treba ispitati je li tu možda riječ o odredbama koje bitno ne mijenjaju uvjete ponude. Utvrdi li se ta okolnost ugovor se smatra sklopljenim osim onda ako ponuditelj bez neopravdane odgode usmeno prigovori na različitost prihvata od ponude ili o tome pisani putem obavijesti prihvatitelja - ponuđenika. 96 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske Prihvat ne mora biti izjavljen u nekoj posebnoj formi ili korištenjem točno određenih riječi osim ako taj uvjet nije naznačen u ponudi.31 U komunikaciji budućih ugovornih strana valja razjasniti predstavlja li ponuđenikov odgovor prihvat ponude ili se njime samo potvrđuje primitak ponude. Teret dokaza da je riječ o valjanom i pravovremenom prihvatu je na strani koja tvrdi da je ugovor sklopljen. Prihvat se u načelu može izraziti bilo kojim sredstvom tj. metodom komunikacije. Ponuđenik - prihvatitelj nije obvezan koristiti isto sredstvo komunikacije kao ponuditelj. Pisana ponuda može se prihvatiti usmeno ili slanjem telefaksa. Međutim, moguće je ograničiti tu slobodu izbora metode jer ponuditelj u svojoj ponudi određuje način na koji se može dati izjava o prihvatu. Ako prihvat ne udovoljava dodatnim zahtjevima za valjanost postavljenima u ponudi, tada treba provesti test, tj. procijeniti je li tu riječ o manjim izmjenama kojima se ne mijenja bit ponude. Primjerice, ako se u ponudi zahtjeva da se prihvat daje u pisanoj formi, ugovor se smatra sklopljenim ako je prihvat dan telegramom, telefaksom ili drugim oblikom elektroničke komunikacije koji je moguće printati. Međutim, navođenje sredstva komunikacije u ponudi nema za svrhu samo to, već se time ponekad želi naglasiti da se prihvat mora dati u kratkom, točno određenom (fiksnom) roku pa se može zaključiti da je dopušteno korištenje i drugog, jednako brzog ili čak bržeg sredstva komunikacije. Prihvat dan elektronskim sredstvima komunikacije proizvodi učinke ako je ponuditelj (tj. primatelj, adresat prihvata) izričito ili neizravno pristao na to sredstvo komunikacije te na slanje prihvata na točno određenu elektroničku adresu. Ta se pretpostavka redovito ispunila onda kada je ponuditelj ponudu poslao elektroničkim putem sa svoje elektroničke adrese.32 Ugovorne strane moraju uzeti u obzir običaje ako se njima predviđaju posebna sredstva komuniciranja. Također je dopustiv sporazum strana da se izjava o prihvatu može dati samo istim sredstvom kojim je poslana ponuda (e-mail na e-mail, telegram na telegram itd.). Ipak, u novije doba je komunikacija putem elektroničke 31 Ponuđenik koji prihvaća ponudu može dati jednostavnu izjavu o prihvatu ili može u prihvatu ponoviti cijeli tekst ponude ili samo njegov dio. Riječi potvrđujem ili naručujem ukazuju na to da je riječ o prihvatu ponude. 32 Usp. Sono, K., Formation of International Contracts under the Vienna Convention: A Shift above the Comparative Law, u: Šarčević, P.; Volken, P., (ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana, 1986, Pog. 4, str. 124. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 97 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić pošte istisnula ostala sredstva. Upute koje se nalaze u ponudi služe jednostavnijem priopćavanju volje o prihvatu ponude, međutim u ponudi nije dopustiva naznaka da šutnja ili pasivnost znače prihvat ponude.33 Prihvat ponude se može iskazati i konkludentnim radnjama jer Konvencija navodi da se uz izjavu o prihvatu i drugo ponašanje koje ukazuje na suglasnost s ponudom može smatrati prihvatom.34 Tom odredbom razdvaja se pitanje mogućnosti davanja neizravnog očitovanja volje primjerenom konkludentnom radnjom od pitanja treba li izjava volje stići ponuditelju. Uz izuzetak za slučaj kada se prihvat daje obavljanjem neke radnje, ponašanje koje znači prihvat mora „stići“ ponuditelju.35 To upućuje na zaključak da prodavatelj koji je predao robu na isporuku može povući svoj prihvat zaustavljanjem robe u prijevozu a da pritom nije nastupila povreda ugovora. S druge strane, kupac također još nije dužan na plaćanje ako roba koja mu je isporučena (kao konkludentan izraz prihvata) propadne prije nego što je rizik prešao na njega. Čak i isporuka robe s nedostatkom može predstavljati konkludentnu radnju prihvata. Konvencija govori o slanju robe (eng. dispatch) pa valjanost takve izjave o prihvatu ne ovisi o tome ima li isporučena roba ugovorene značajke. U slučaju kada je poslana potpuno različita roba (koja predstavlja lat. Aliud) postavlja se pitanje je li tu riječ o zabludi (lat. error): ako jest, slanje takve robe predstavlja prihvat; ako je drugačija roba poslana s namjerom da posluži kao „zamjenska roba“, tada je namjera prodavatelja da pruži protuponudu koja mora stići primatelju iako bi se primjenom 33 Vidi Schultz, R., Rolling Contract Formation Under the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Cornell International Law Journal 35/2002, str. 263-289., str. 271. 34 Vidi čl. 18. st. 1. Konvencije. 35 Primjer takvog deklaratornog ponašanja je isporuka robe (barem i djelomična), pakiranje robe za isporuku kupcu, početak proizvodnje serije robe za koju je zaprimljena narudžba, prihvat i uzimanje u proizvodnju naručiteljevih sirovina, plaćanje, otvaranje akreditiva za plaćanje, priprema za ispunjenje (buduće) ugovorne obveze ili početak proizvodnje. Slanje računa ili unovčenje čeka poslanog zajedno s ponudom mogu se također smatrati prihvatom. Ključno je pitanje objektivne mogućnosti da adresat takvo ponašanje smatra prihvatom. Pripremanje izjave o prihvatu još nedostatno izražava volju za prihvatom, čak i u slučaju kada se prihvat daje obavljanjem neke radnje. U tom smislu, uz poduzimanje radnje ugovorna strana može poslati i obavijest o svojim aktivnostima pa bi se i ta obavijest mogla shvatiti kao prihvat pa stoga ako ona stigne ponuditelju prije nego što je saznao za isporuku robe koja radnja se izjednačuje s pristankom, već tada se ugovor smatra sklopljenim. Čak i obavijest trećih (banke koja financira kupca ili obavijest koju pošalje prijevoznik) može biti pokazatelj da je druga strana očitovala prihvat pa se ugovor smatra sklopljenim. Detaljnije o tome Schlechtriem, P. , o.c. u bilj. br. 11, str. 222. i 225. Usp. DiMatteo L., Critical Issues in the Formation of Contracts Under the CISG, Zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet Beograd, 2011, br. 3, str. 77. 98 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske pravila o tumačenju izjava volja i ponašanja ugovornih strana i takva radnja mogla smatrati prihvatom ponude. Šutnja ili nečinjenje ponekad mogu značiti prihvat ponude. Tada se niti ne može ispuniti pretpostavka da izjava o prihvatu „stigne“ ponuditelju. Međutim, da bi takvo držanje predstavljalo prihvat, moraju postojati i dodatni čimbenici. To ipak ne znači da je valjana odredba ponude kojom se predviđa da će se u slučaju šutnje ponuđenika ugovor smatrati sklopljenim. Dodatni čimbenik koji bi to omogućio jest primjerice postojanje trgovačkog običaja ili prakse između samih ugovaratelja.36 S druge strane, ako su ugovorne strane svojim sporazumom odstupile od primjene pojedinih odredaba Konvencije ili su izmijenili pravne učinke pojedinih odredaba tada bi za ponuđenog mogla nastati dužnost da izjavom volje mora ponudu odbiti ako ne želi da dođe do sklapanja ugovora.37 To polazište zauzima i ZOO RH no taj Zakon dodatno pojašnjava spomenutu odredbu navodeći da kad ponuđenik stoji u stalnoj poslovnoj vezi s ponuditeljem glede određene robe, smatra se da je prihvatio ponudu koja se odnosi na takvu robu ako je nije odmah ili u ostavljenom roku odbio. Također osoba koja se ponudila drugom da izvršava njegove naloge za obavljanje određenih poslova, a i osoba u čiju poslovnu djelatnost spada obavljanje takvih naloga koja je u stalnoj poslovnoj vezi s ponuditeljem dužna je izvršiti dobiveni nalog ako ga nije odmah odbila.38 Izjava o prihvatu tj. prihvat, bez obzira na njegovu formu, mora na vrijeme stići ponuditelju. U tom smislu valja razlikovati tri slučaja: kada je određen fiksni rok za prihvat, kada nije određen fiksni rok pa se prihvat mora dati u razumnom roku te slučaj kad se daje prihvat na usmenu ponudu. Ako je određen fiksni rok za prihvat, tada prihvat mora stići do isteka tog roka, ali ako učinci izjave o prihvatu ovise o 36 Murray, J., An Essay on the Formation of Contracts and Related Matters under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Good, Journal of Law and Commerce, 8 (1988), str. 22. 37 Poseban je slučaj kada buduće ugovorne strane izmjenjuju unakrsne ponude. I to može biti odraz volje da se sklopi ugovor pa bi takve ponude imale učinak prihvata. Naime, ugovorne strane svojim sporazumom mogu staviti izvan snage konvencijske odredbe koji uređuju slijed kod sklapanja ugovora. Iz unakrsnih ponuda jednakog sadržaja može se zaključiti da su ugovorne strane izrazile volju da odstupe od uobičajenog redoslijeda izjava kod sklapanja ugovora. Ako ponude nisu jednake i obvezujuće, do sklapanja ugovora dolazi ako jedna strana izjavi prihvat. Posebno treba biti oprezan ako strane koje nisu nikad međusobno poslovale počnu slati unakrsne ponude ali koje nisu naznačena kao obvezujuće: tada se nijedna od ugovornih strana ne može osloniti na to da je ugovor sklopljen osim ako ne izjave prihvat. Izjave li obje strane prihvat, nisu sklopljena dva već samo jedan ugovor. 38 Vidi čl. 265. ZOO-a RH. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 99 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić ispunjenju dodatnih pretpostavki, treba provjeriti spadaju li ta pitanja u polje primjene Konvencije ili ta pitanja uređuje domaće pravo (pitanje tko zastupa trgovca). Rok može biti određen po datumu ili na drugi način (npr. 14 dana od dana primitka ponude). Tako bi se primjerice moglo navesti da se prihvat daje najbržim sredstvom komuniciranja. U svakom slučaju, nadležni sud treba ispitati sve okolnosti slučaja pa će tako uzeti u obzir da je predmet kupoprodaje roba čija vrijednost znatno fluktuira na tržištu. Ako nije određen fiksni rok za prihvat niti se on može odrediti tumačenjem volje strana, tada se prihvat mora dati u razumnom roku.39 Taj rok sastoji se od tri dijela: rok u kojem je ponuda stigla ponuđeniku, razdoblje razmatranja ponude i razdoblje koje je potrebno da prihvat stigne ponuditelju. Tu treba uzeti u obzir sredstva komunikacije koja je utvrdio ponuditelj. Ako se ponuda daje putem e-maila, praktički se prihvat mora dati odmah, kao u slučaju kada je riječ o usmenoj ponudi. Stoga je ključan element u procjeni razumnog roka razdoblje u kojem se ponuda razmatra jer duljina razmatranja ponude ovisi o predmetu ponude, opsegu i pravnoj naravi transakcije tj. o čimbenicima kao što su fluktuirajuće cijene na tržištu, potrebi da se prethodno pribave dodatne informacije, nužnosti vođenja prethodnih pregovora s dobavljačem, podizvođačima i financijskim institucijama. Duljina trajanja perioda razmatranja varira i ovisno o tome je li ponuđenik obrtnik ili veliko dioničko društvo. Tu se mogu primijeniti i običaji.40 Usmena ponuda mora se prihvatiti odmah, osim ako je ponuditelj odredio rok za prihvat te u slučaju kada okolnosti upućuju na drugačiji zaključak. To će primjerice biti slučaj ako sklapanju ugovora prethode pregovori. Komunikacija putem interneta i e-maila ne predstavlja usmeno očitovanje volje ali korištenje tih sredstava komunikacije znatno utječe na duljinu trajanja razumnog roka za prihvat. Kako je već ranije istaknuto, Konvencijom se predviđa i mogućnost da se određenim radnjama iskaže prihvat ponude a da se o tome ponuditelju nije poslala posebna obavijest. Ugovor je sklopljen u trenutku kada je ponuđenik poduzeo 39 čl. 18. st. 2. Konvencije. Detaljnije o shvaćanju pojma običaja prema Konvenciji vidi kod Goldštajn, A., Usages of Trade and Other Autonomous Rules of International Trade According to the UN (1980) Sales Convention, u: Šarčević, P.; Volken, P. (ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana, 1986, str. 96. 99. Usp. Barbić, J., Primjena običaja u hrvatskom trgovačkom pravu, Zbornik radova razreda za društvene znanosti HAZU-a, 43 (2005), str. 76. 40 100 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske radnju koja ukazuje na prihvat. Taj prihvat mora ispuniti zahtjeve za valjanost takvih očitovanja volje prema domaćem pravu (poslovna sposobnost, pravila o zastupanju).41 Dokaz o prihvatu ne mora stići ponuditelju ako je on tako odredio u ponudi.42 Ako između ugovornih strana već postoji praksa postupanja ili su sklopili okvirni ugovor, već tada ponašanje koje je kod njih značilo pristanak proizvodi pravni učinak da se ugovor smatra sklopljenim iako izjava o prihvatu nije nikad poslana ponuditelju. Strane mogu dogovoriti da se šutnja i nečinjenje smatraju pokazateljem prihvata. U tom slučaju ponuđenik mora izjaviti da ne prihvaća ponudu, ako ne želi sklopiti ugovor. Ponekad običaji ili praksa između ugovaratelja ukazuju na zaključak da će se šutnja smatrati pokazateljem prihvata samo po proteku određenog roka od primitka ponude. Međutim, ako ponuđeni šuti a ponuditelj pogrešno zaključi da je ugovor sklopljen, nema mjesta za pravna sredstva domaćeg prava: šutnju i njezin pravni značaj u svezi sa sklapanjem ugovora uređuje isključivo Konvencija. Odgovor na ponudu koji ukazuje na prihvat, a sadrži dodatke, ograničenja ili druge izmjene, jest odbijanje ponude i predstavlja protuponudu. S druge strane odgovor na ponudu koji ukazuje na prihvaćanje ali sadrži dopunske ili različite uvjete a koji bitno ne mijenjaju uvjete ponude, načelno predstavlja prihvat.43 U prvom slučaju prvo treba ispitati je li se kod pregovora raspravljalo i o tim pitanjima ili je već ranije uspostavljena praksa između ugovaratelja. Ako jest, tada i nema sadržajnog odstupanja prihvata u odnosu na ponudu. Međutim, ako se tumačenjem ugovora ne može doći do tog zaključka, svaku izmjenu tj. dodatak ugovora treba provjeriti prema pravilima Konvencije. Tako bi odredba ugovora prema kojoj svaki nedostatak za posljedicu ima raskid ugovora bila suprotna odredbi iz čl. 49. Konvencije prema kojem kupac može izjaviti raskid ugovora samo kada nedostatak predstavlja bitnu povredu ugovora. Ako se ugovorne strane slažu o bitnim sastojcima, tada razlika u izričaju ne predstavlja bitnu izmjenu uvjeta ugovora. 41 Slanje robe ponuditelju – kupcu predstavlja radnju koja je po pravnom učinku izjednačena s prihvatom. 42 Primjerice, ako se u ponudi navede: roba se treba isporučiti odmah ili s naznakom „žurna isporuka“. Vidi Farnsworth, E. A., o. c. u bilj. br. 16, str. 174. 43 Spomenuta odredba izazvala je kontraverzu prilikom usaglašavanja teksta Konvencije. Jedna skupina predstavnika zauzela je polazište da se tom odredbom stvara velika doza nesigurnosti dok je bilo i pobornika suprotnog stajališta prema kojima je upravo u interesu međunarodnog prometa robom da se ta pitanja dodatno razrade. O tome dateljnije vidi kod Vilus, J., Komentar Konvencije UN o međunarodnoj prodaji robe, Informator, Zagreb, 1981, str. 73. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 101 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić Ključno je pitanje koje izmjene ugovora (ponude) utječu na bit, smisao ponude. Bitnim izmjenama smatraju se primjerice: zahtjev za plaćanjem unaprijed, izmjena roka isporuke ili ugovorene cijene, smanjenje količine robe, unošenje arbitražne klauzule, izmjena odredbe o izboru mjerodavnog prava. Međutim, osim kod posljednje spomenute izmjene, dopušten je protudokaz ako zaključak da se ipak ne radi o bitnim izmjenama proizlazi iz okolnosti konkretnog slučaja, prakse između ugovaratelja, pregovora ili običaja. Izmjene ugovora koje idu u korist ponuditelja nije potrebno prihvatiti posebnom izjavom (popust, besplatna dostava, produljenje trajanja). Izmjene koje idu njemu u korist ponuditelj ne treba posebnom izjavom potvrditi da bi one proizvodile pravne učinke. To je primjerice slučaj ako ponuđenik u izjavi o prihvatu ponuditelju bez njegove privole odobri primjenu višeg iznosa popusta, besplatnu isporuku, dulje trajanje jamstvenog roka.44 Bitna izmjena uvjeta ugovora smatra se odbijanjem ponude. Međutim, takvo očitovanje predstavlja protuponudu. Protuponuda se može opozvati samo ako opoziv stigne drugoj strani prije protuponude ili istovremeno s njom.45 Ako izjava koju ponuđenik smatra protuponudom sadrži samo mjestimične izmjene koje su manjeg značaja, vrijedi stav da je strana koja upućuje protuponudu prihvatila sve uvjete izvorne ponude za koje nije predložila izmjene. Ako se u prihvatu navode izmjene koje su manjeg značaja a prema poviše navedenim kriterijima, ugovor je sklopljen. Izmijenjeni uvjeti postaju sastavni dio ugovora. Teret dokaza da tu nije riječ o bitnim izmjenama je na ugovornoj strani koja tvrdi da je ugovor sklopljen. Prigovori li ponuditelj na okolnost da izjava o prihvatu sadržajno odstupa od njegove ponude, ugovor nije sklopljen bez obzira što doista može biti riječ samo o nebitnim izmjenama. Prigovor se mora izjaviti bez odgode o čemu će u slučaju spora odlučivati nadležni sud. Strana koja izjavi prihvat snosi rizik gubitka ili zakašnjelog primitka prigovora koji joj pošalje druga strana jer 44 Bitnom izmjenom ugovora smatra se odredba kojom se isključuje usmena izmjena ili dopuna pisanog ugovora. Nadalje, pozivanje u prihvatu na klauzule i termine uvijek se smatra bitnom izmjenom. S druge strane, prijedlog za izmjenom postupka sklapanja ugovora predstavlja izmjenu ugovora koja je manjeg značaja ali prema okolnostima slučaja može predstavljati i bitnu izmjenu ugovora. Isti zaključak vrijedi za odredbe o pakiranju robe. Schlechtriem, P. , o. c. u bilj. br. 11, str. 240. Usp. Honnold, J., Uniform Law for International Sales under the 1980 United Nations Convention, Kluwer Law International, 1999, str. 187. 45 Vrijedi zapravo isto pravilo kao i kod ponude. Na isti način hrvatski Zakon o obveznim odnosima uređuje tu materiju pa opoziv ponude vrijedi samo onda kada je stigao ponuđeniku prije ponude ili bar istodobno s ponudom. Vedriš, M.; Klarić, P., o. c. u bilj br. 20, str. 402. 102 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske upravo je prihvatitelj (koji je u svoju izjavu o prihvatu uključio izmjene u odnosu na izvornu ponudu) uzrokovao nastanak takvog rizika. Konvencijske odredbe o protuponudi i o značenju izmjena ugovora po svom su opsegu šire od odgovarajuće odredbe ZOO-a RH prema kojoj ako ponuđenik izjavi da prihvaća ponudu i istodobno predloži da se ona u nečemu izmijeni ili dopuni, smatra se da je ponudu odbio i da je sa svoje strane stavio novu ponudu svome prijašnjem ponuditelju.46 Konvencija je pri određivanju značaja protuponude vrlo fleksibilna jer dopušta dvije mogućnosti, tj. razlikuje izjavu o prihvaćanju ponude i izjavu o bitnim i nebitnim promjenama glede sastojaka ugovora. Tek ako je riječ o bitnim promjenama sastojaka ugovora, radi se o protuponudi. Ponudu koja je poslana elektronskim putem Konvencija posebno ne uređuje pa treba uzeti u obzir sve okolnosti slučaja: ne vrijedi uvijek zaključak da je tu riječ o neposrednom (izravnom) sredstvu priopćavanja. Kod e-mail komunikacije uvijek je vidljiv datum slanja pa bi takvo sredstvo komunikacije moglo imati iste učinke kao da je ponuda poslana pismom ili telegramom. Ponuda na web stranici trgovca na kojoj je naznačen rok važenja treba tumačiti kako bi taj rok shvatila razumna osoba istih svojstava u istim okolnostima. Pri tome treba uzeti u obzir sve važne okolnosti konkretnog slučaja uključujući pregovore, poslovnu praksu i običaje. Razumna osoba – ponuđenik opravdano može zaključiti da rok važenja ponude počinje od trenutka kada je on saznao za ponudu. Ako se komunikacija između ponuditelja i ponuđenika održava elektronskim putem ali u stvarnom vremenu tada je riječ o izravnom sredstvu priopćavanja.47 S obzirom na okolnost da je tu riječ o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji, praznici i neradni dani uračunavaju se u rok za prihvat, osim onda kada se obavijest o prihvatu ne može uručiti zbog službenog praznika ili neradnog dana u mjestu ponuditelja. Tada se rok produljuje do prvog slijedećeg radnog dana.48 S posebnom pozornošću valja razmotriti konvencijske odredbe o zakašnjelom prihvatu. Tim odredbama proširuje se i razrađuje osnovno konvencijsko pravilo prema kojem prihvat ne proizvodi učinke ako izjava o prihvatu ne stigne ponuditelju u roku koji je odredio ili u razumnom roku. Razlikuju se dvije različite 46 Vidi čl. 264. ZOO-a RH. Hahnkamper, W., Acceptance of an Offer in Light of Electronic Communications, Journal of Law and Commerce 25 (2006), str. 149. 48 Tako Enderlein, F. ; Maskow, D., International Sales Law: United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods; Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods, Oceana, 1992, str. 103. 47 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 103 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić pretpostavke za zakašnjenje: slučaj kada je izjava o prihvatu poslana sa zakašnjenjem i slučaj kada je izjava o prihvatu poslana na vrijeme ali je ponuditelju stigla sa zakašnjenjem. U oba slučaja ugovor je sklopljen usprkos činjenici da je izjava o prihvatu ponuditelju stigla sa zakašnjenjem.49 Problem nastaje u tumačenju slučaja kada je istekao rok za prihvat: naime, moglo bi se zaključiti da ponuđenik ne može dati valjanu izjavu o prihvatu ponude koja zbog isteka roka više ne postoji. Tada bi prije moglo biti riječi o protuponudi. Ipak i zakašnjeli prihvat biti će prema okolnostima slučaja valjan ako je jasno da je upravo to bila namjera ponuđenika-prihvatitelja. Ako se iz izjave volje ponuđenika koja stigne ponuditelju može zaključiti da je riječ o protuponudi, tada će ugovor biti sklopljen samo kada raniji ponuditelj a sada ponuđenik izjavi prihvat u razumnom roku. Ponuditelj mora bez odgode obavijestiti ponuđenog o tome smatra li ugovor sklopljenim usprkos tome što mu izjava o prihvatu nije stigla u roku. Tim očitovanjem volje ponuditelja otklanjaju se negativni učinci zakašnjenja. U tom slučaju ugovor nije sklopljen u trenutku kada ponuditelj pošalje obavijest da prihvaća i zakašnjeli prihvat, već retroaktivno od trenutka kada je zakašnjela izjava o prihvatu stigla ponuditelju. Ako je prihvat iskazan obavljanjem neke radnje ugovor je sklopljen u trenutku obavljanja te radnje. Prihvati li se zakašnjela izjava o prihvatu, logično je da ponuđenik više nema vremena za opoziv izjave o prihvatu.50 Kada je izjava o prihvatu poslana na vrijeme ali je ponuditelju stigla sa zakašnjenjem Konvencija štiti interes ponuđenika koji je pravovremeno poslao izjavu o prihvatu. Da nije bilo zakašnjenja u prijenosu, ugovor bi bio sklopljen. S druge strane, ponuditelj koji primi zakašnjeli prihvat nije dužan pristati na sklapanje ugovora jer je, s njegovog motrišta, istekao rok za prihvat. Kompromis se nalazi u tome što ponuditelj mora bez odgode obavijestiti ponuđenog da više nije vezan ponudom. U suprotnom će ugovor biti sklopljen. Ipak, ne smije se zaboraviti da su spomenute odredbe dispozitivne naravi pa nema prepreke da ugovorne strane i drugačije urede svoje odnose. U hrvatskom pravu ključno je pitanje je li ponuđenik odgovoran za zakašnjeli prihvat. Ako jest, zakašnjeli prihvat smatra se novom ponudom. Ali ako je izjava o prihvatu koja je učinjena pravodobno stigla ponuditelju nakon isteka roka za prihvat, a ponuditelj je znao ili je mogao znati da je izjava 49 Lookofsky, J., Understanding the CISG: A Compact Guide to the 1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods, Kluwer Law International, 2008, str. 62. 50 Detaljnije o tome Farnsworth, E. A., o. c. u bilj. br. 16, str. 193. 104 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske odaslana pravodobno, ugovor je sklopljen. Ipak ugovor u takvu slučaju nije sklopljen ako ponuditelj odmah, a najkasnije prvog idućeg radnog dana poslije primitka izjave ili i prije primitka izjave, a nakon proteka roka za prihvat ponude, pošalje obavijest ponuđeniku da se zbog zakašnjenja ne smatra vezanim tom ponudom.51 Vidljivo je da se spomenutim odredbama u hrvatskom obveznom pravu uređuju dva instituta: zakašnjeli prihvat ponude i zakašnjelo prispijeće izjave o prihvatu ponude. Kako je sustav obveznog prava usmjeren u korist sklapanja ugovora, zakonodavac se odlučio da i takvom zakašnjelom prihvatu ponude ne oduzme pravne učinke pa je postavio zakonsku pretpostavku da se zakašnjeli prihvat ponude pretvori u novu ponudu ali sada od strane ponuđenika. Prema Konvenciji zakašnjeli prihvat ponude ne obvezuje ponuditelja i ne radi se o novoj ponudi ponuđenika. Iako postoje određene razlike u formulacijama ipak se može zaključiti da zapravo nema bitne razlike između Konvencije i Zakona niti po ovom pitanju. 4. Zaključak Konvencija Ujedinjenih Naroda o ugovorima o međunarodnoj prodaji robe predstavlja značajan doprinos uređenju područja međunarodne trgovačke kupoprodaje. Ona je nastala kao rezultat kompromisa između polazišta razvijenih i nerazvijenih država, država iz različitih pravnih krugova (Civil Law i Common Law). Kod tumačenja Konvencije treba se uzeti u obzir njezin međunarodni karakter i potrebu promicanja ujednačenosti u njezinoj primjeni te poštovanja dobre vjere u međunarodnoj trgovini. Pri tome valja imati na umu da je kod tumačenja neprimjerena izravna primjena UNIDROIT načela, Načela europskog ugovornog prava ili bilo kojih drugih vanjskih izvora. Po svojoj pravnoj snazi ona će u državama koje su je ratificirale uređivati pravo kupoprodaje ispred domaćih propisa iz tog područja. Stoga će ona imati prednost i pred odredbama hrvatskog Zakona o obveznim odnosima. Upravo u tome leži opasnost za subjekte međunarodne kupoprodaje jer će se na njihov pravni odnos primjenjivati pravila koja se ponekad razlikuju od odgovarajućih odredaba domaćeg prava. S obzirom na temu rada, bilo je potrebno ispitati postoje li razlike u odredbama kojima se uređuje sklapanje ugovora između Konvencije i ZOO-a RH. Analiza pokazuje da postoji razlika u pravnim učincima prijedloga za sklapanjem 51 Vidi čl. 266. ZOO-a RH. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 105 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić ugovora koji je upućen neodređenom broju osoba. Prema Konvenciji, prijedlog upućen neodređenom broju osoba smatrat će se samo kao poziv da se učine ponude, osim ako osoba koja to predlaže jasno ne ukaže na suprotno. Prema ZOO-u RH vrijedi upravo suprotno: prijedlog za sklapanje ugovora upućen neodređenom broju osoba koji sadrži bitne sastojke ugovora čijem je sklapanju namijenjen vrijedi kao ponuda, ako drukčije ne proizlazi iz okolnosti slučaja ili običaja. Nadalje, temeljno je načelo i Konvencije i ZOO-a RH da šutnja ponuđenog ne znači prihvat ponude. No ZOO RH dodatno pojašnjava tu odredbu navodeći da kad ponuđenik stoji u stalnoj poslovnoj vezi s ponuditeljem glede određene robe, smatra se da je prihvatio ponudu koja se odnosi na takvu robu ako je nije odmah ili u ostavljenom roku odbio. Također osoba koja se ponudila drugom da izvršava njegove naloge za obavljanje određenih poslova, a i osoba u čiju poslovnu djelatnost spada obavljanje takvih naloga koja je u stalnoj poslovnoj vezi s ponuditeljem dužna je izvršiti dobiveni nalog ako ga nije odmah odbila. Konvencijske odredbe o protuponudi i o značenju izmjena ugovora po svom su opsegu šire od odgovarajuće odredbe ZOO-a RH prema kojoj ako ponuđenik izjavi da prihvaća ponudu i istodobno predloži da se ona u nečemu izmijeni ili dopuni, smatra se da je ponudu odbio i da je sa svoje strane stavio novu ponudu svome prijašnjem ponuditelju. Konvencija je pri određivanju značaja protuponude vrlo fleksibilna jer dopušta dvije mogućnosti, tj. razlikuje izjavu o prihvaćanju ponude i izjavu o bitnim i nebitnim promjenama glede sastojaka ugovora. Tek ako je riječ o bitnim promjenama sastojaka ugovora, radi se o protuponudi. Kod zakašnjelog prihvata u hrvatskom pravu postavlja se pitanje je li ponuđenik odgovoran za zakašnjenje ali se u praksi to pitanje pokazalo manje bitnim dok je puno značajnije da u tom slučaju i Konvencija i ZOO RH uređuju da o volji ponuditelja ovisi da li će i zakašnjeli prihvat ipak proizvesti pravni učinak da je ugovor sklopljen. U svakom slučaju trgovci sa sjedištem u RH moraju voditi računa o spomenutim različitostima pa se preporučuje da svoje ugovore o kupoprodaji na koje bi se primijenila Konvencija detaljno urede kako bi se izbjegla primjena onih konvencijskih odredaba koje mogu izazvati dvojbu. Ne smije se zaboraviti da su te odredbe dispozitivne prirode a nacionalnim sudovima i arbitražama ostavljaju veliki prostor za njihovo tumačenje u konkretnim okolnostima slučaja. Stoga je na 106 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sklapanje ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske praktičarima važna zadaća razrade konvencijskih odredaba što je sredstvo za uspostavu ravnoteže u pravnoj zaštiti ugovornih strana. 5. Literatura              Barbić, J., Primjena običaja u hrvatskom trgovačkom pravu, Zbornik radova razreda za društvene znanosti HAZU-a, 43 (2005), str. 47-87. Barbić, J., Sklapanje ugovora po Zakonu o obveznim odnosima (suglasnost volja), Zagreb, 1980. Bianca, C.M. ; Bonell, M.J. , Commentary on the International Sales Law: The 1980 Vienna Sales Law. Milan, 1987. 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(ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana, 1986, str. 55-110. Gorenc, V. et al., Komentar Zakona o obveznim odnosima, RRiF, Zagreb, 2005. Hahnkamper, W., Acceptance of an Offer in Light of Electronic Communications, Journal of Law and Commerce 25(2006), str. 147-151. Honnold, J., Uniform Law for International Sales under the 1980 United Nations Convention, Kluwer Law International, 1999, str. 182-192. Lookofsky, J., Understanding the CISG: A Compact Guide to the 1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods, Kluwer Law International, 2008. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 107 �Dr. sc. Ratko Brnabić        108 Murray, J., An Essay on the Formation of Contracts and Related Matters under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Good, Journal of Law and Commerce 8/1988, str. 11-51. Schlechtriem, P.; Schwenzer, I., Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), Oxford University press, New York, 2005. Slakoper, Z. et al., Osnove prava trgovačkih ugovora i vrijednosnih papira, Mikrorad, Zagreb, 2009. Sono, K., Formation of International Contracts under the Vienna Convention: A Shift above the Comparative Law, u: Šarčević, P.; Volken, P., (ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana, 1986, Pog. 4, str. 111-131. Vedriš, M.; Klarić, P., Građansko pravo, Narodne novine, Zagreb, 2014. Vilus, J., Komentar Konvencije UN o međunarodnoj prodaji robe, Informator, Zagreb, 1981. Vilus, J., Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and the Buyer, u: Šarčević, P.; Volken, P. (ur.), International Sale of Goods: Dubrovnik Lectures, Oceana 1986, str. 239-264. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2851 Title A name given to the resource Formation of the International Sales Contract under the Vienna Convention and the other Sources of Sales Law of Croatia Author Author Brnabić, Ratko Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The development of international trade led to the necessity of equalizing the legal mechanisms for regulating legal relations, arising from international trade transactions. Increasingly important role of international trade questions national trade laws because they often do not meet the needs of international trade, and the problems particularly arise when a dispute arises with an international element. As the needs of trade are changing, the trade practice changes as well. Increased overseas trade highlights problems arising from the diversity of national legislative even more. By concluding the contract, parties reveal that they were led by different legal standards and practices. In this sense, there have been attempts to equalize mentioned legislation in order to create legal certainty and to reduce unnecessary costs related with the conclusion of contracts by an unknown law and the crown of these efforts is United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods Act 1980. Writers domestic law that regulate this matter have a number of advantages over writers of conventions. Namely, they operate in developed legal system, with a rich jurisprudence, and if they want to integrate new legal institutes from foreign legislation, it may easier to do than when it comes to international document. In the process of creating the Convention compromises were inevitable, all in order to match elements of civil law and common law. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-5706 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46f1c65f2753feee11334a4cab45d901.docx 9d0e70765dc7bf3c09c8b84237eaf57f https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a729a9ae04aa552c95800fcf743ed89a.pdf 8edccd36d52dc311d4e9897f1211d200 PDF Text Text Formative Feedback Tools to Enhance Learning and Teaching Aylin Yurdacan Istanbul Sehir University/ Istanbul, Turkey Key words: formative feedback, self-directed learning ABSTRACT The paper will mainly focus on what formative feedback involves, how learners and teachers can benefit from it and what possible formative feedback tools can be employed. Formative feedback provides hands-on experience for learners to reflect on how their learning process is going on and thus creating an opportunity for teachers to realize how effective their teaching is. Teachers taking action according to the feedback they receive from their students not only creates a positive learning atmosphere but also boosts learners' confidence as they feel they have a say in the learning and teaching process. After a brief introduction to formative feedback, some fundamental principles will be presented. Then the motive, means and timing of formative feedback will be presented. And finally some formative feedback tools will be shared with the audience. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1740 Title A name given to the resource Formative Feedback Tools to Enhance Learning and Teaching Author Author YURDACAN, Aylin Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: formative feedback, self-directed learning ABSTRACT The paper will mainly focus on what formative feedback involves, how learners and teachers can benefit from it and what possible formative feedback tools can be employed. Formative feedback provides hands-on experience for learners to reflect on how their learning process is going on and thus creating an opportunity for teachers to realize how effective their teaching is. Teachers taking action according to the feedback they receive from their students not only creates a positive learning atmosphere but also boosts learners' confidence as they feel they have a say in the learning and teaching process. After a brief introduction to formative feedback, some fundamental principles will be presented. Then the motive, means and timing of formative feedback will be presented. And finally some formative feedback tools will be shared with the audience. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 883 Title A name given to the resource Formulaic Diction in the 16th century Hungarian Epic Author Author Papp, Judit Abstract A summary of the resource. The epic song (históriás ének) is the most prevalent and representative expression of the Hungarian poetry of the 16th century, and it was intended to be recited with musical accompaniment. During the second half of the century these epic songs (rewritings of antique texts, short stories and novels written in verse) were performer at the noble courts where the audience was still inexperienced in literature and well disposed towards the oral communication. These songs were stylistically made according to the expectations of that audience: they contain a remarkable quantity of formulaic iterations and constructions, repeated locutions, etc. even if the rhetorical structure of these texts slowly surpasses the limits of the formulaic style. The corpus of the Hungarian historical songs of the 16th century contains about 185 texts of different length and metrical structure and it is composed by (1) történeti énekek (songs on past historical events) further divided in tudósító énekek (songs on contemporary events) and krónikás énekek (chronicles), (2) vallásos históriák (religious songs, mostly rewritings of Bible stories), and (3) széphistóriák (romances). The aim of my current research on Hungarian historical songs concerns the analysis of all of the poems’ repetitions and formulas and their distribution, and what I’d like to present in occasion of the FLTAL 2012 conference is the first results of my computer-aided analysis of a choice of songs to reveal, analyze and categorize the forms of repetitions in this specific corpus. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1046 Title A name given to the resource Fostering Independent Learning through Fun and Engaging Speaking Activities Author Author Zeydan, Sultan Abstract A summary of the resource. In the communicative model of language teaching, we should help our students develop authentic practice for real-life communication situations. The main objective of this session is to introduce a series of innovative and creative classroom activities increasing students’ motivation and confidence to speak more voluntarily inside and outside class. In this session I will demonstrate various speaking activities to be used all year round. The session starts with a fun ice breaker activity whose purpose is to warm up the conversation both in the session, and later on, in our classes. A picture is drawn on the board and the presenter invites the attendees to ask her some questions about the picture, which is only aim is to get information about the presenter. Afterwards, the attendees do the same activity in pairs, and later share what they have learned from each other to the others. The second activity, Fast and Faster, is a competitive and enjoyable game in which the attendees will have to speak faster at each lap to tell the key topics to their partners, which provides a meaningful communication with the least amount of correction. The next activity called “Mandatory Speaking” (The Practice of English Language Teaching, pg. 347) is based on fluency-based approach. In this activity the attendees will be given a speaking grid on which their names are written. Each box in the speaking grid stands for one minute conversation. Besides, the numbers show the order of the conversation that they need to follow when the presenter gives a topic. Lastly, I will show an activity depending on headline news and interview questions that the attendees will create their own stories (Teaching Unplugged, pg. 38). Half of the class line up with their own front pages, the other half stand in front of a partner to ask him/her questions to learn more about their headline. After a minute or so, the questioners rotate until they have spoken to each headline-holder. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd87379a5b5f9e65e3583177e2f067ee.pdf b3b9c48741ea0823a10b552507f0b863 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Azize BoĢnak Department of American Culture and Literature Fatih University Istanbul, TURKEY abosnak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection . INTRODUCTION The ultimate aim of reading is to develop better thinking skills while acquiring knowledge. Reading in a sense is more than covering the printed material. Francis Bacon warns against the mistake that people tend to make; either reading to dispute and reject, or reading and accepting it uncritically as if printed materials are all undisputable facts. For him the right way is ―weighing and considering‖ what is read. ―To read without reflection is like eating without digesting,‖ says Edmund Burke to emphasize the importance of reasoning (cited in Adams: 1999, 196). Reasoning in reading sets the mind at work; examining, making decisions, interpreting, comparing, collating, questioning, criticizing and similar mental activities. Reasoning enforces reading to be an active and dynamic process. Reading courses in ELT at college level aim at enabling students to acquire reading skills and strategies at cognitive and meta-cognitive levels. At the cognitive level, as Douglas Brown puts it, the reader uses strategies such as repetition, grouping, recombination, deduction, inferring and so forth. The aim is to manipulate the learning material. The meta-cognitive level is gained through planning, thinking about the learning process and evaluating it (Brown: 2000, 115). While developing the cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and strategies students are also supposed to acquire critical reading. Critical readers are also critical thinkers. They carefully evaluate the evidence presented in the written material, analyze the different views, and make sound judgments. Teaching critical literacy means helping students ―see and question dominant power themes (Wolk: 2003, 101).‖ These themes do not only exist in the text, but also in the society and world. Thus, in a broader sense, textual reading is also about reading the life. Students practice in seeing and questioning without being told what to think, but being encouraged to develop unfixed, versatile points of view with an inquisitive mind. Critical reading: Critical reading is an active, intellectually engaged process in which the reader participates in an inner dialogue with the writer. Most people read uncritically and so miss some part of what is expressed while distorting other parts. A critical reader realizes the way in which reading, by its very nature, means entering into a point of view other than our own, the point of view of the writer. A critical reader actively looks for assumptions, key concepts and ideas, reasons and justifications, supporting examples, parallel experiences, implications and consequences, and any other structural features of the written text, to interpret and assess it accurately and fairly. See elements of thought. Teaching reading is about conveying the ardor for reading across students. Similarly, the joy of reasoning both analytical and critical is transferred into the classroom. However, reasoning, or better thinking are 196 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo not one of the concerns of traditional discipline-based teaching. Explicit instruction of thinking is unusual in most higher education institutions. Thinking is multi-dimensional and can be done in different ways and at different levels. Critical thinking as a higher level thinking in which one evaluates the processes and problems are identified and solved. Some colleges and universities offer specific courses in which models of efficient thinking are designed to be taught to students (Halpern: 1998, 449). I believe that Reading courses provide the good grounds for instructing thinking skills engraved into reading skills. Therefore in the following part of this paper, I am going to focus on some models of instruction in the Reading course, which will contribute to creating a syllabus that includes reading skills as well as analytical and critical thinking skills, . To be analytical is a prerequisite in critical reading; therefore analytical skills will be considered as inherent elements in critical reading ABOUT THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION The first and most important insight necessary for the appropriate design of instruction and curriculum is that content is, in the last analysis, nothing more nor less than a mode of thinking. There is no way to learn a body of content without learning the concepts which define and structure it. There is no way to learn a concept without learning how to use it in thinking something through. Hence, to learn the concept of democracy is to learn how to figure out whether some group is functioning democratically or not. To learn the concept of fair play is to learn how to figure out whether someone is being fair in the manner in which they are participating in a game. To learn the concept of a novel is to learn how to distinguish a novel from a play or short story. To learn the concept of a family is to learn how to distinguish a family from a gang or club. To learn anybody of content, therefore, it is necessary to learn to think accurately and reasonably with the concepts that define the content (DasBender: 2010, 38). To this point the majority of teachers and students approach content, not as a mode of thinking, not as a system for thought, or even as a system of thought, but rather as a sequence of stuff to be routinely "covered" and committed to memory. When content is approached in this lower order way, there is no basis for intellectual growth, no deep structures of knowledge formed, no basis for long term grasp and control. Instructional design involves a teacher thinking about instruction in both structural and tactical ways. Overall structural thinking-for example, about the concept for the course-can help free a teacher from the Didactic Model into which we have been conditioned and the ineffective teaching that invariably accompanies it. Simple and complex tactical thinking can provide the means by which we can follow through on our structural decisions in an effective way. Our teaching will not be transformed simply because we philosophically believe in the value of critical thinking. We must find practical ways to bring it into instruction, both structurally and tactically. The following part includes some teaching techniques and subjects that are expected to improve thinking skills of students while improving their reading skills. The importance of thinking and good reasoning is reminded to students through these techniques and subject s throughout the reading process. Teaching Students How to Question Thinking is not driven by answers but by questions. Questions define tasks, express problems and delineate issues. Answers on the other hand, often signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates a further question does thought continue its life as such. It is true that only students who have questions are really thinking and learning. It is possible to give students an examination on any subject by just asking them to list all of the questions that they have about a subject, including all questions generated by their first list of questions. Unfortunately, most students ask virtually none of these thought-stimulating types of questions. They tend to stick to dead questions like "Is this going to be on the test?" The questions that imply the desire not to think. Most teachers in turn are not themselves generators of questions and answers of their own; that is, are not seriously engaged in thinking through or rethinking through their own subjects. Rather, they are purveyors of the questions and answers of others-usually those of a textbook. We must continually remind ourselves that thinking begins with respect to some content only when questions are generated by both teachers and students. If we want thinking we must stimulate it with questions that lead students to further questions. We must overcome what previous schooling has done to the thinking of students. We must reactivate minds that are largely dead when we receive them. We must give our students what might be called "artificial cogitation" (the intellectual equivalent of artificial respiration). 197 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An example of a preliminary technique to teach creating questions: SQR can be taught as a preliminary questioning technique in which students firstly surveys the main title and the sub-titles, and change them into question forms. After forming the questions they look for the answers by reading the text. This creates a sense of focus in the minds of the students. Having Students Evaluate the Organization of the Text All texts are bound to the organizational rules of the genre they belong to. Even if they do not conform perfectly to the rules, they still bear a sense of organization, and coherence. In Reading courses for freshmen in language departments, organizational rules for the paragraph, the essay and the narrative (the short story) are commonly taught. Students read the details of the text at the same time they analyze the cohesive devices that contributes to overall coherence and unity. In this way students learn to switch back and forth from overall structure of the text to the details in the meaning. This technique provides good grounds to trigger the students‘ evaluative faculties. The teacher should encourage them to criticize the organizational shortcomings of the text. They can also compare different texts of the same genre and evaluate their organizational qualities. For instance; while analyzing the way the thesis statement is presented in an essay, and how the supporting ideas match with the thesis, they can also compare the essay with another one that follows a different organizational system of its own. Another example is that when students analyze the elements of the short story, they can also evaluate which elements are stronger than others and how they contribute to the themes better. Thus, teaching the organization of a text, and having students consider the meaning and the organization together can create the opportunity of evaluating the text in a more intricate way, which would lead to more intensive thinking. Teaching Writing / Discourse Patterns Teaching the discourse patterns of a text separately is another technique to contribute to the thinking skills. By examining the way a writer develops the argument, the reader can better penetrate into the reasoning in the argument. To evaluate what the writer is saying by looking into how the writer is saying it whether through: _ using examples, statistics, or anecdotes, _ comparing and contrasting two or more ideas of subjects, _ using definitions, _ showing the effect of some cause or action, _ classifying, _ persuasive argumentation or objective exposition Analysis of the writing / discourse patterns can enable students to think more distinctly about the argumentation style of the writer. It can facilitate better reasoning about the main idea of the text, and also pave the way for building up to more critical evaluation of the style and the meaning. Teaching Further Analysis towards Making Analytic Distinctions When we analyze, we break a whole into parts. We do this because understanding complex wholes requires understanding them through the interplay of their parts. Success in thinking requires developing, first of all, an analytic mind. The structures that define the parts of thinking include goals and purposes, problems and issues, information and data, inferences and conclusions, concepts and theories, assumptions and beliefs, implications and consequences, viewpoints and perspectives. To assess thinking, we apply universal intellectual standards to both parts and whole. These standards are the criteria by which thinking is judged by educated and reasonable persons. Unfortunately, most people are unaware of these standards. These standards include, but are not limited to, clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, and fairness. 198 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Analysis and evaluation are crucial skills for all students to master. They are required in learning any significant body of content in a non-trivial way. Students are commonly asked to analyze poems, chapters in textbooks, concepts and ideas, essays, novels, and articles. Other than these teachers can have their students get aware of some further analytic distinctions that will lead to critical thinking. For instance, the distinction _ between facts and interpretations, which emphasizes that interpretations or opinions should not be taken as facts; _ between matters of taste and matters of judgment, which is to show that opinion, can be based on a taste, or on a judgment. The former while expressing a preference that may not need strong evidence to support, the latter needs sound argumentation with supportive evidence. What if the controversial issues like any sort of discrimination, mercy killings, voting for a candidate, laws concerning different issues and etc. are being discussed as a matter of taste rather than matters of judgment; _between the author‘s ideological stance and her/his ideas, which is to make students aware that people sometimes display rejection towards the writer without knowing what s/he is saying due to some preconceived ideas about the writer, or contrary to this, they may be inclined to accept whatever exposed by a certain writer. _between the quality of the expression and the validity of the meaning, which is to raise the awareness that some pompous eloquent expressions can evoke a great response the validity of the meaning of which can be quite questionable. On the other hand, poorly expressed realities may not take enough attention (Adams: 1999, 197199). These further analytic distinctions teachers make together with students can motivate students to invest more into thinking, changing their position towards the text from being more receptive and submissive to being more evaluative and dominant. Teaching about Authors‘ Attitude, Tone and Bias An author‘s personal way of approaching a subject is the indication of his/her attitude. Sometimes authors sound objective, sometimes quite subjective by letting their personal feelings known by the reader. The author‘s likes, dislikes, agreements, disagreements, and biases are revealed. The tone of an author becomes conspicuous through his/her choices of words, expressions, and the way the author makes up sentences. For instance, the tone of an author about a serious issue like war can be so humorous that the reader cannot help laughing. This does not mean that the author finds wars funny. Quite opposite, s/he might be trying to show the absurdity of the reasons that sometimes cause the war. An author‘s attitude and tone traced in the text reveal whether s/he is biased for or against a subject. Bias is the mental leaning or inclination. We must clearly distinguish two different senses of the word ‘‘bias‘‘. One is neutral, the other negative. In the neutral sense we are referring simply to the fact that, because of one's point of view, one notices some things rather than others, emphasizes some points rather than others, and thinks in one direction rather than others. This is not in itself a criticism because thinking within a point of view is unavoidable. In the negative sense, we are implying blindness or irrational resistance to weaknesses within one's own point of view or to the strength or insight within a point of view one opposes. To be able to spot the biases is a higher level awareness which require critical reading. Introducing this skill to students can improve their critical look at the text. Teaching the Logical Fallacies and Propaganda Commonly used in the text Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look for them in one‘s own and others' writings, one can strengthen his/her ability to evaluate the arguments they make, read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about fallacies: First, fallacious arguments are very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. One can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious. An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. The goal of teaching this subject is not only to teach how to label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free, but to help students look critically at their own arguments. Some of the most common examples of these fallacies are as follows (Hurley: 2008, 149-173): 199 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hasty generalization: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes about people ("librarians are shy and smart," "wealthy people are snobs," etc.) are a common example of the principle underlying hasty generalization. Missing the point: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws. For example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving." The argument actually supports several conclusions—"The punishment for drunk driving should be very serious," in particular—but it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted. In such cases one should ask himself/herself what kind of evidence would be required to support such a conclusion, and then see if you've actually given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or extreme conclusion is being drawn. Post hoc (also called false cause): This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this." Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later—for example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and event. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation. For example, "This government raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. The president is responsible for the rise in crime." The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other. Weak Analogy: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy. For example: "Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous." While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature hammers do not share—it'd be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the argument based on it. If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind between almost any two things in the world: "My paper is like a mud puddle because they both get bigger when it rains (I work more when I'm stuck inside) and they're both kind of murky." So the mere fact that one draws an analogy between two things doesn't prove much, by itself. It is needed to think more analytically to identify what properties are important to the claim one is making, and see whether the two things being compared both share those properties. Appeal to authority: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority. For example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their opposition to it." While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to do with acting, there's no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political opinions—he is probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the person writing the paper . Other than logical fallacies, teaching how to detect the propaganda techniques used in the text provide good means to empowering students thinking skills. The following can be chosen to teach among the most commonly used propaganda techniques (Adams: 1999, 218-220). Name Calling: This technique uses words, or labels that have bad or negative meanings to certain people. A propaganda that uses the negative labels against others call for the biases against those people. ―Sexist‖, ―leftist‖, ―yuppie‖, ―terrorist‖ can be used to sway people to be for or against a person or a group. 200 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Glittering Generalities: This technique is the opposite of name calling. It is used to win the reader / listener over by using words or phrases that are acceptable to most people: ―motherhood,‖ ―faith in God,‖ ―honesty,‖ ―the wisdom of our founding fathers,‖ ―family- man,‖ ―freedom fighters‖. The fallacy is that they are used in vague and meaningless way, in the hope that the nice words will become associated with the person. The words here glitter with nice sounds, but their sparkle is not real because the meaning is empty. Distortion or Twisting: This technique uses only half-truths or part-truths. Rather than telling the whole truth, propagandists and advertisers sometimes only pick what sounds good or bad and ―twist‖ the facts in a way that best suits the purpose. The materials which include distorted or twisted arguments can be a good material while teaching students thinking better. Good reasoning, alert readers will certainly enjoy not falling into the trap easily. Sloagans: The use of catchy words or phrases is another technique of propagandists. During World War II, the slogan ―Remember Pearl Harbor‖ was used to get people to buy war bonds and to make certain sacrifices needed for the war effort. Phrases such as ―In God We Trust‖ and ―United We Stand‖ are all used to influence our thinking and to make us feel we are together and of one mind. This method can be good or bad. As with all propaganda methods, we need to read or think beyond the words and seek the facts. CONCLUSION We now recognize that analytical and critical thinking, by its very nature, requires, for example, the recognition that all reasoning occurs within points of view and frames of reference; that all reasoning proceeds from some goals and objectives, has an informational base; that all data when used in reasoning must be interpreted, that interpretation involves concepts; that concepts entail assumptions, and that all basic inferences in thought have implications. We now recognize that each of these dimensions of thinking need to be monitored and that problems of thinking can occur in any of them. Independent of the subject studied, students need to be able to articulate thinking about thinking that reflects basic command of the intellectual dimensions of thought: "Let‘s see, what is the most fundamental issue here?‖ ―From what point of view should I approach this problem?‖ ―Does it make sense for me to assume this?‖ ―From these data may I infer this?‖ ―What is implied in this graph?‖ ―What is the fundamental concept here?‖ ―Is this consistent with that?‖ ―What makes this question complex?‖ ―How could I check the accuracy of these data?‖ ―If this is so, what else is implied?‖ ―Is this a credible source of information?‖ In teaching and learning that focuses on analytical and critical thinking is the recognition that critical thinking instruction can be explicitly done, and be facilitated including some teaching items into the syllabus such as questioning techniques, organizational inquiries combined with comprehension of content, analysis of writing/ discourse patterns, some certain analytical distinctions that are made in connection to the biases about the writer and his/her ideas, the validity of the quality expressions, facts and interpretations, issues of taste and issues of judgment and so on. Other than teaching to make these distinctions, students can be equipped with the ability of recognizing logical fallacies and propagandist languages hidden in the text. In addition they can be explicitly taught how to question the attitude, and biases of authors that are revealed in between the lines. With intellectual language, students can be taught thinking skills that moves within any subject field. What is more, there is no reason in principle that students cannot take the basic tools of critical thought which they learn in one domain of study and extend it (with appropriate adjustments) to all the other domains and subjects which they study. As for FLT departments, analytical and critical thinking of the students empowered in reading classes will definitely contribute to students‘ intellectual performance in other classes. 201 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adams, W. Royce and Jane Brody, (1999). Reading Beyond Words. 6 th Ed. New York: Harcourt Color Publisher. Brown, Douglas, (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 4th Ed. NY: Longman. Daspender, Gita, (2010). ―Critical Thinking in College Writing: From the Personal to the AcademicLowe.‖ (Eds. In) Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing. Pavel Zemliansky and Charles Lowe. Volume 2. SC: Parlor Press. Hurley, Patrick J, (2008). A Concise Introduction to Logic. New York: Thomson Learning. Lunsford, Andrea and John Ruszkiewicz, (2010). Everything‘s an Argument. 5th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin. Sears, A., and J. Parsons. ―Toward Critical Thinking as an Ethic.‖ Theory and Research In Social Education, 1991, 19, 45–46. Wolk, Steven. ―Teaching for critical literacy in social studies.‖ The Social Studies. May-June 2003 v94 i3 p101(6) 202 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 31 Title A name given to the resource FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Author Author Bosnak, Azize Abstract A summary of the resource. Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05afbe4639515dc5d410b7e9ce4bdf03.pdf 154e9d9b952be758ccce0f70bdcabd4f PDF Text Text Four Effective Ways to Enrich Your Vocabulary Alpaslan Toker International Burch University atoker@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: None other than the teachers of Second Language realizes how important the vocabulary is in learning a new language. With a basic level of vocabulary students will be able to convey their ideas to some extent, but effective communication can be achieved better when the students have obtained vast vocabulary knowledge. This is not something that can ever be completely mastered; it expands and deepens over the course of one’s lifetime. In this article I have focused on four effective ways that could help to enrich students’ vocabulary. Introduction People you get in contact with will get the first impression of you not only through your physical appearance or the way you walk but also judge you with the words that will come out of your mouth. No matter how brilliant and intelligent you are in science subjects like Physics and Chemistry, possessing an insufficient and scarce vocabulary will send a negative message that you are not at all intelligent. Steven Stahl puts forward the importance of vocabulary as “Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world.” Students, while reading this, may feel that they do not care about what other people think of them, there is however, more to this matter than what is apparent on the face value. When you have to give a presentation at a certain event or apply for a vacant position at a company, your vocabulary power will determine whether or not you are successful. Whipple, in 1925, states the vital importance of vocabulary thus: “Growth in reading power means, therefore, continuous enriching and enlarging of the reading vocabulary and increasing the clarity of discrimination in appreciation of word values”(p.76). Imagine you have a million dollar idea, you will not be able to attract any investors because of your poor vocabulary. Being able to improve your vocabulary will open to lots of doors, those normally would remain closed. For many years, the language programs that teachers prepared, gave little attention to the methods for assisting students to learn vocabulary. Even some books appeared to be advising teachers that students could learn all the words they needed without help. In fact, teachers were sometimes advised not to teach many words before their students mastered the grammatical structure and the sound system of the language. Volumes of articles appeared in journals and ELT magazines giving emphasis on pronunciation and grammar, there was often little or no stress on vocabulary teaching. In short, vocabulary teaching has been neglected in programs for teachers during the much of the twentieth century. In order to develop your vocabulary you must have a game plan. The best way to get this plan in action is to come up with strategies that can lead you to success. The importance of vocabulary to reading achievement, more specifically to reading comprehension, has long been established (Davis, 1944; Thorndike, 1917). Knowledge of word meanings and the ability to access that knowledge efficiently are recognized as important factors in reading and listening comprehension, especially as students progress to middle school and beyond (Chall, 1983). There are a variety of ways to improve your vocabulary, most of which are interactive and easy. This article reviews several easy ways to improve your vocabulary and learn new words. Enrich Your Vocabulary While You Read Studies have proven that reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge are strongly correlated.(Stahl, 1999), and researchers have found out that vocabulary knowledge in primary school can predict how well students will be able to comprehend texts they read in high school. (Biemiller,2000).Therefore there is no doubt that one of the most effective ways to build your vocabulary is to read, and read some more. You will want to read everything you can come across to. When you see a word that you're not familiar with, you will want to take the time to look it up. This may be tedious at first, you will have to make a habit of it. Once you get to do it a few times, you will 25 �become used to it, and this will help you enrich your vocabulary. Apart from this, reading also improves the way you speak. You will learn how to structure your sentences properly, and you can say them in a way that makes a lot of sense. However this requires lots of patience. Nothing great can ever be achieved over a night. It definitely will take time for you to build up a powerful and robust vocabulary, and the more you read, the better your vocabulary will become. Therefore, it is also essential to develop an interest in reading. You should not see reading as a chore. If you do, you will not be successful. The people who have the most impressive vocabulary skill are those who look at reading as being fun or recreational, not a chore that needs to be done. Poor readers often read less, because they consider reading to be boring and frustrating. This means that they don’t read enough to improve their vocabulary, which, in return, could help them to understand more. This perpetuating cycle can mean that as students continue through middle school and high school, the gap between the good and poor readers grows wider. Good readers often acquire much of their vocabulary through independent reading. However, explicit instruction can help students learn enough words to become better readers and thus obtain even more words. Direct vocabulary instruction is useful for students at all ability levels, but it is particularly useful for beginning students who have a limited reading vocabulary and little exposure to incidental vocabulary learning outside of school. The importance of wide reading in the growth of students’ vocabulary is critical (Nagy and Anderson, 1984). Reading is extremely important for three reasons: - It exposes you to known words in a repetitive way. This helps to cement the words in your mind. - It shows you the words in context. This is really important as it shows you how the word is used in a real word context. - It exposes you to collocations. I will cover this in more detail at a later point but simply collocations are sets of words that commonly occur together and “sound right” to a native speaker. For example, a quick shower sounds right, whereas a fast shower sounds wrong to a native speaker of English. Looking at the Context Research shows that there are more words to be learned than can be directly taught in even the most ambitious program of vocabulary instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives students tools for independently determining the meanings of unfamiliar words that have not been explicitly introduced in class. Since students encounter so many unfamiliar words in their reading, any help provided by such strategies can be useful. The vocabulary knowledge is indispensible to reading comprehension and one can not grasp the text without knowing the meanings of the majority of the words included. (Nagy,1988). Much of a student's vocabulary is learned incidentally through multiple exposures to words in multiple contexts (Stahl, 2003). Vocabulary development is a major focus in many classrooms because the words students use while speaking, reading, and writing will influence their success in any academic area. In order to understand vocabulary, it is important for the learner to construct meaning from many experiences. We knew that to be effective, vocabulary learning must occur in context (Sternberg, 1987). Looking at the context strategy can help you to become a master at building up your vocabulary. With this strategy, you can learn what a word means by the context of the word in the text. If you read a word that you don't understand, you will often find that the words which surround this word will often tell you what it means. It is important to realize that looking at the context can be further broken down into three additional methods. These methods are synonyms, comparison clues, and the definition. The definition is the easiest to use. The author will tell you what the word means, and it will be done on the same page where the word appears. With the synonym, the author will combine the unknown word with words they are similar to it. This will help the reader better understand what the word means. With the comparison clue, the unknown word will be used in conjunction with a word that is familiar. By comparing the unknown word with the word you know, this can allow you to learn the meaning of the unknown word. While some books may only use one of these methods, other books may use all of them. They are very useful in allowing the reader to increase their vocabulary, and the author takes a vested interest in helping them. When authors write, they often include context clues to the meaning of words they use but think that some of their readers may not know. The context clue is usually presented in the sentence or paragraph in which the word occurs. Sometimes a visual such as a picture is provided. The following figure shows the method for deriving word meanings. 26 �Method for Deriving Word Meanings Carefully look at the word; decide how to pronounce it. Look around the word for context clues. • Look within the sentence. • Reread previous sentences. Look in the word. • Look for prefixes and suffixes. • Look for base words. • Look for root words. • Read ahead for more clues. Carefully look at the word; decide how to pronounce it. If you think you have figured out the meaning of the word or if the word doesn’t seem important, keep on reading. If you don’t have a good idea as to the word’s meaning and if the word seems important, use a dictionary or a glossary. Figure 1 Here are five types of context clues used by authors to help the reader understand the meanings of words. An example is provided for each. In fact, good readers usually “blend” these types. 1. Definition context clue The author includes a definition to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, "tainted" is defined as having a disease. The people of the town were warned not to eat the tainted fish. The local newspaper published a bulletin in which readers were clearly told that eating fish that had a disease could be very dangerous. This was especially true for fish caught in Lake Jean. 2. Synonym context clue The author includes a synonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. A synonym is a word that means the same as or nearly the same as another word. In the following example, the synonym "pity" helps the reader understand the meaning of "compassion." After seeing the picture of the starving children, we all felt compassion or pity for their suffering. 3. Antonym context clue 27 �The author includes an antonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. In the following example, the antonym "eager" helps the reader understand the meaning of "reluctant." Joe was reluctant to take on the position of captain of the basketball team. He was afraid that the time it would take would hurt his grades. On the other hand, Billy was eager for the chance to be captain. He thought that being captain of the team would make him very popular in school. 4. Description context clue The author includes one or more descriptions to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, descriptions of President Kennedy as having charm, enthusiasm, and a magnetic personality help the reader understand the meaning of "charismatic." John Fitzgerald Kennedy, our 35th president, improved human rights and equal rights for all people. He was a very charismatic president. People were attracted to his charm and enthusiasm. His personality was described as magnetic. 5. Summary context clue The author makes a number of statements that help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, statements about being rude, showing no respect, having poor manners, and being impolite help the reader understand the meaning of "impertinent." Andrea was a very impertinent young lady. She was so rude that she talked while her teacher was explaining a lesson. She showed no respect for other students. Her manners were very poor. Even her parents thought that Andrea was impolite. Word Structure Students acquire words they are engaged in word-rich environments where they have opportunities to hear and use language. Reading, listening, speaking and writing to communicate a message all build word knowledge. But it is also important to draw students’ attention to word structure. Awareness of the way letters go together to make words not only helps students pronounce and spell words, but also gives them clues to their meaning. In fact, to acquire vocabulary it’s helpful to many English learners and struggling readers to hear the structure of words. For a learner of a second language it is probably easier to learn reading and writing if he learns to speak it first. Hearing the sounds and structure of words, and saying words, will prepare him for reading and writing. When students can hear, speak, read, and write a word, it fastens their learning of that particular word. We should ask this question then what students need to know about words to make learning them easier for them. There are several concepts about words that every reader should know according to Pinnell and Fountas(1998). Students first need to know that a word means something, it is made up of letters, the letters go from left to right, there is white space on both sides of a word, and words go together to send a message. When a student hears a spoken word and says it, he can also look at the structure of the printed word and begin to realize that: - A word has a special shape or configuration. - Some words have patterns (for example, -ame, ike, -ot) - Most letters in a word stand for sounds but some are silent (for example, “night”) - Some words have “chunks” of letters (for example, “un-happy” and “snow-man”) - One word may help to unlock the meaning of another word (for example, “drama” and “dramatically”) Early research on teaching word-part clues, or morphological analysis, produced mixed findings (Otterman, 1955; Thompson, 1958), but more contemporary studies have indicated that students can be taught various wordparts, most often prefixes and suffixes, to derive the meanings of untaught words (e.g., Graves & Hammond, 1980; Wysocki & Jenkins, 1987). If learners understand how this combining process works, they possess one of the most powerful understandings necessary for vocabulary growth (Anderson and Freebody, 1981). 28 �Through analyzing the structure of a word, students know-a base word, prefix, suffix, or word root-to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Once students understand how multisyllabic words are constructed, and once they master the meanings of common prefixes and suffixes, they can deconstruct the meaning of an unfamiliar word. - Base words are words that are complete by themselves. Words that can be divided are made up of two or more prefixes, suffixes, and word roots. - A prefix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the beginning of a word that has meaning only when attached to a word root. It changes the meaning of a word root. The most common prefixes are un- (not), re(back, again), dis- (away, off, opposing), and in- (not). - A suffix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the end of a word that changes the word's part of speech or tense. Many suffixes do have meanings, but they are more difficult to learn than are prefixes, which should be emphasized. - Root words, mainly Greek and Latin, are the words that carry the main meaning of the word but usually cannot stand alone. When introducing structural analysis, you can write a relatively easy and well-known word such as redo or rewrite on the chalkboard. Ask students how they might determine the meaning of the words if they could not use a dictionary or read them in context. Ask students to come up with several other words that they know that begin with the prefix re-, and have them infer the meaning of the prefix. Guide students to understand that the prefix re- means "back" or "again," and they know what the base words do and write mean. Therefore, they can figure out that rewrite means "write again," and redo means "to do again." Review common prefixes with students, and put five grade-appropriate vocabulary words that contain those prefixes on the board, and then ask students to find the meanings of the words. To help students decode unknown words, you can have them deconstruct compound words. For example, you might start by writing the word birdhouse on the board. Ask students to tell you what bird and house mean, and then guide them to figure out the meaning of the compound word by combining the meanings of the two base words. Group younger students into pairs, and have them find the meanings of several grade-appropriate compound words. There are a sizeable number of unknown words that you can figure out by using the word structure strategy. However, there are many situations where this strategy will not work. Word Mapping Word mapping for students is an effective way of acquiring and retaining knowledge of vocabulary. Word mapping enables students to improve their perception of key words by the means of mapping the words graphically. They help students to expand word meanings and discover relationships between the vocabulary items (Santa, Havens, & Valdes, 2004) They also help students to develop elaborated definitions, rather than simple, one or two word descriptions. Many students have a narrow conception of what the meaning of a word contains. Most of them conceive definitions as simplistic, imperfect statements that lack detail and personal comment. Word maps help students to create an expanded concept of a definition, one that encourages them to integrate their own knowledge (Santa et. al., 2004). By teaching word learning strategies over a period of time, students are provided a way to learn vocabulary independently. Concept of Definition Word Maps provides a structure for organizing conceptual information over the course of defining a word (Schwartz 1988; Schwartz & Raphael 1985). For example, on the map shown on Figure 2, students will map a word's meaning as derived from its context. Then, they will present a figurative meaning for the word by comparing it to a known object. Finally, if you are reading a novel, you will connect the word's meaning to three different characters who illustrate its use in the novel. Some key words to be defined could be family, pride, respect, hope, tenacity, knowledge, and ethics. Whatever you choose to define, connect it to one of the themes of the novel. These activities should be introduced and applied in conjunction with the lesson on context clues and idiomatic expressions. A Sample Word mapping Chart 29 �Figure 2 How to complete this word map! 1. Write the selected word and its meaning inside the box in the center 2. List three antonyms. 3. List three synonyms. 4. Lastly list three main characters who give the explanation of the basic meaning of this word. You can prepare the students for this activity by reviewing how to clarify for meaning when coming across to unfamiliar words within the context of the text. You can model a mapping process before having students map independently. Conclusion In this article, the importance of vocabulary and the strategies to build up vocabulary have been emphasized. It is a grave mistake to underestimate the importance of having a powerful vocabulary, even if you are proficient in areas such as math. Being able to speak and write properly will ensure that people think highly of you, and it can allow you to reach the heights of power and success. Again it will be a grave mistake to overlook one strategy while favoring other. All of these strategies are equally important in vocabulary development. But the reading strategy seems one step ahead of the rest of them. Reading is a foundation of worth building. A foundation that carries the person through all subjects, and all their lives. It is a good investment. Most theorists and researchers in education have assumed that vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are closely related, and numerous studies have shown the strong correlation between the two (Baker, 1995; Nelson-Herber, 1986). Therefore, helping students develop strong vocabularies is essential to their success, both in school and beyond. Students may forget many of the specific facts they learn in school, but the words they learn will serve them as useful tools for a lifetime. Effective vocabulary instruction is an attainable goal. The above-mentioned strategies can be applicable in wide range of fields where a robust vocabulary is essential. References Anderson, R.C., and Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews, 77–117. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 30 �Baker, Scott K., et al (1995). "Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications for Diverse Learners." Technical Report No. 14. Eugene, OR: National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators. [ED 386 861] Biemiller, Andrew. “Teaching Vocabulary: Early, direct, and sequential,” American Educator, Spring 2001, p.24. Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: Harcourt Brace. Davis, F. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9, 185-197. Graves, M. F, & Hammond, H. K. (1980). A validated procedure for teaching prefixes and its effect on students' ability to assign meaning to novel words. In M. L. Kamil & A. J. Moe (Eds.), Perspectives on reading research and instruction (pp.184-188). Washington, DC: National Reading Conference Nagy, W.E., and Anderson, R.C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19. Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Nelson-Herber, Joan (1986). "Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas." Journal of Reading. Otterman, L. M. (1955). The value of teaching prefixes and word-roots. Journal of Educational Research, 48, 611-616. Pinnell Gay Su & Fountas Irene C. Teaching Phonics and Spelling in Reading/Writing Classroom. Heinemann, 1998. Santa, C., Havens, L., & Valdes, B. (2004) Project CRISS: Creating independence through student owned strategies, third edition. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Schwartz, Robert M., & Raphael, Taffy E. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students’ vocabulary. The Reading Teacher. Stahl, Steven A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline Books, 1999, p.3. Stahl, S. (2003). How words are learned incrementally over multiple exposures. American Educator, 27(1), 18-19. Stahl, Steven A, and Nagy, William E Binding. Teaching Word Meanings. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005. Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Thompson, E. (1958). The "master word" approach to vocabulary training. Journal of Developmental Reading, 2, 62-66. Thorndike, E.L. (1917). Reading as reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 8, 323-332. Whipple, G. (Ed.) (1925) The twenty-fourth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Report of the National Committee on Reading. Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co. Wysocki, K., & Jenkins, J. R. (1987). Deriving word meanings through morphological generalization. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 66-81. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 315 Title A name given to the resource Four Effective Ways to Enrich Your Vocabulary Author Author Toker, Alpaslan Abstract A summary of the resource. None other than the teachers of Second Language realizes how important the vocabulary is in learning a new language. With a basic level of vocabulary students will be able to convey their ideas to some extent, but effective communication can be achieved better when the students have obtained vast vocabulary knowledge. This is not something that can ever be completely mastered; it expands and deepens over the course of one’s lifetime. In this article I have focused on four effective ways that could help to enrich students’ vocabulary Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ec0ac41ff0e0b71ab32b474c716b5ce.pdf c6d7c6996b753e2359491dfe742709ae Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource FPGA-based Implementation of IIR Filter for Real-Time Noise Reduction in Signal Author Author Aladin Kapić1, Rijad Sarić1, Slobodan Lubura1, 2, Dejan Jokić Abstract A summary of the resource. Filtering of unwanted frequencies represents the main aspect of digital signal processing (DSP) in any modern communication system. The main role of the filter is to perform attenuation of certain frequencies and pass only frequencies of interest. In a DSP system, sampled or discrete-time signals are processed by digital filters using different mathematical operations. Digital filters are commonly categorized as Finite Impulse Response (FIR) and Infinite Impulse Response (IIR). This research focuses on the full VHDL implementation of digital second-order lowpass IIR filter for reducing the noisy frequencies on the FPGA board. The initial step is to determine, from continuous time domain function, the transfer function in the complex {s} domain, then map transfer function in complex {z} domain and finally calculate the difference equation in discrete-time domain of the system with adequate coefficients. Prior to the FPGA implementation, the IIR filter is tested in MATLAB using a signal with mixed frequencies and signal with randomly generated noise. The digital implementation is completed by using fixed-point binary vectors and clocked processes. Keywords Keywords. digital signal processing; IIR filter; digital design; FPGA; VHDL; Bode diagram Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021316 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f5cf59653ba7f23efcac9019335795f5.pdf 32eba554cff1ffc1da8d18f7dffbeab5 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Fragility of Emerging Stock Markets; a Comparison between B&H, Croatia and Serbia Adnan Duric International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina duric_adnan@hotmail.com Uğur Ergun International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina uergun@ibu.edu.ba This study investigates the how emerging stock markets respond to external and internal shocks. Daily stock market data from three southeast emerging European countries are used. GARCH (1, 1) model is employed. Daily stock markets indices are obtained from the selected stock markets and data stream for the period January 2000 to December 2011. Augmented Dicky Fuller unit root test and co-integration test are used to gauge out linkages between stock markets. The results of the study can be the useful resource for future research. Keywords: Fragility, Emerging Stock Markets in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1460 Title A name given to the resource Fragility of Emerging Stock Markets; a Comparison between B&H, Croatia and Serbia Author Author DURIC, Adnan ERGÜN, Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. This study investigates the how emerging stock markets respond to external and internal shocks. Daily stock market data from three southeast emerging European countries are used. GARCH (1, 1) model is employed. Daily stock markets indices are obtained from the selected stock markets and data stream for the period January 2000 to December 2011. Augmented Dicky Fuller unit root test and co-integration test are used to gauge out linkages between stock markets. The results of the study can be the useful resource for future research. Keywords: Fragility, Emerging Stock Markets in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564