111 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f44d13ae972ff3551fdf30472f138d8c.docx 8afa3e6aef2a78309e3334c5be0ff115 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9b028d4ac425a441dc11bdaa5971eec1.pdf 89d5e1a2195e35c3228b20713845de48 PDF Text Text Executive Issues in Service Businesses ZehraGül Kahramanmaras University Turkey z.gul@ksu.edu.tr Abdullah Soysal Kahramanmaras University Turkey asoysal2005@hotmail.com Abstract: This study aims to contribute to the academic literature by investigating the perceptions of senior hotel managers on the managerial problems in their businesses in South and Southeast regions of Turkey, which are important for Turkish tourism industry. Survey technique was utilized in the study for data collection. And, the questionnaire was applied to the study population that consists of managers of five-star hotels in South and Southeast region of Turkey. The resulting data were analyzed and interpreted using SPSS 12.0 software, and the results of the study were presented in accordance with this analysis. In the study, the independent variables were limited to the managerial issues. On the other hand, the gender, education level, management training status, promotions and term of offices of the managers were analyzed within the scope of dependent variables. Keywords: Service Business, Managerial Problems, Tourism Sector. 179 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2667 Title A name given to the resource Executive Issues in Service Businesses Author Author GUL, Zehra Soysal, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to contribute to the academic literature by investigating the perceptions of senior hotel managers on the managerial problems in their businesses in South and Southeast regions of Turkey, which are important for Turkish tourism industry. Survey technique was utilized in the study for data collection. And, the questionnaire was applied to the study population that consists of managers of five-star hotels in South and Southeast region of Turkey. The resulting data were analyzed and interpreted using SPSS 12.0 software, and the results of the study were presented in accordance with this analysis. In the study, the independent variables were limited to the managerial issues. On the other hand, the gender, education level, management training status, promotions and term of offices of the managers were analyzed within the scope of dependent variables. Keywords: Service Business, Managerial Problems, Tourism Sector. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b35ae5e6d163dbd6415cbc75a14b5ef2.pdf ea74c509186659052937fd1812cda53a PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Experimental Analysis of Organizational Commitment within the Scope of Downsizing Threat and Empowerment Opportunity Celal Cahit Ağar Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey celalcahitagar@selcuk.edu.tr Aykut Beduk Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey abeduk@hotmail.com Murat Sezgin Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey msezgin@selcuk.edu.tr The main aim of this study is to analyze the impact of downsizing threat and empowerment opportunity on organizational commitment at the beginning phase of the implementation process. This aim occurs because of lack of knowledge in related literature, which only concentrates on during/after phases and situations of downsizing and empowerment implementations. In this research, the field experiment and survey method were selected in order to collect the data of study, and applied in two experimental stages on 126 (n=252) subjects in an international textile company. The results demonstrate that organizational commitment is increased at the beginning of both downsizing and empowerment processes. This finding contains a significant distinction from the existing literature, especially which asserts a negative relation between downsizing and organizational commitment. Practical implications and directions for the future research are also discussed in this paper. Keywords: Organizational Commitment, Downsizing, Empowerment 74 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1527 Title A name given to the resource Experimental Analysis of Organizational Commitment within the Scope of Downsizing Threat and Empowerment Opportunity Author Author CAHIT AGAR, Celal BEDUK, Aykut SEZGIN, Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. The main aim of this study is to analyze the impact of downsizing threat and empowerment opportunity on organizational commitment at the beginning phase of the implementation process. This aim occurs because of lack of knowledge in related literature, which only concentrates on during/after phases and situations of downsizing and empowerment implementations. In this research, the field experiment and survey method were selected in order to collect the data of study, and applied in two experimental stages on 126 (n=252) subjects in an international textile company. The results demonstrate that organizational commitment is increased at the beginning of both downsizing and empowerment processes. This finding contains a significant distinction from the existing literature, especially which asserts a negative relation between downsizing and organizational commitment. Practical implications and directions for the future research are also discussed in this paper. Keywords: Organizational Commitment, Downsizing, Empowerment Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3523 Title A name given to the resource EXPLICIT TEACHING OF STRATEGIC COMPETENCES Author Author Selin, Per Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper it will be argued that strategic competences (Bachman, 1990) can be explicitly taught and that it is also important that it is taught. Pupils will not acquire it naturally, at least not as effectively as they will learn it by means of an explicit teaching. The empirical data for this paper come from two learning studies (Marton et al, 2004) informed by variation theory (Marton & Booth, 1997, Lo, 2012). Learning study is a research approach, as well as an approach to school development, where a specific piece of learning, an object of learning, is chosen by a research group consisting of teachers sharing subject and pupils (teaching the same age levels) and a researcher. The object of learning should be something that is considered particularly troublesome and/or important for the pupils to learn. It is an iterative research design where action research is fused with design experiment. The learning studies have been carried out in school year 8 and school year 10 in two different Swedish schools. The pupils have been doing various kinds of interaction exercises and pre- and post-tests have been used to decide whether any learning among the pupils can be detected and if so to what extent. The results in this paper show that through the explicit teaching of the crucial parts, the critical aspects, of the strategic competence of adapting oral language, learners of English as a foreign language in Sweden improved their ability to interact orally. This result is in line with the discussion in Kasper and Rose (2002) where it is also argued that the developing of strategic competence is enhanced through explicit teaching. The result from this paper additionally shows that learning study is a possibility to improve foreign language learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d03ac4c351476f29a18692609437a05.pdf 3c6843bd7b29e93a2005de2bd9884057 PDF Text Text Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction M. Naci KAYAOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Ali Şükrü ÖZBAY School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey ozbay@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Introduction The fact that the ability to understand others through listening plays a very important role in the lives of people is an old consensus by now. Among the four major areas of communication skills and language development-listening, speaking, reading, and writing--the one that is the most basic is listening. Particularly in a language classroom, listening ability plays a significant role in the development of other language skills. The first thing students do in order to learn a language is that they generally have to listen to the words several times before they are able to recognize and pronounce those words. Listening in this respect gains priority among other language skills since it also helps students build vocabulary, develop language proficiency, and improve language usage. Unfortunately, it was not accepted as an active skill in the development of language and that is why, until recently the skill of listening comprehension was ignored in language teaching and learning methodology. Fortunately, the ideas about language learning and teaching during the last two decades changed considerably and it is only then, listening comprehension was considered as an active process through which listeners focus on selected aspects of aural input and creates meaning from what they hear. There are not many studies made so far and those that have been made show that listeners use some mental processes while they are listening. Those who use these mental processes called as listening comprehension strategies easily and fully comprehend the aural input. Some researchers also claimed that teaching such strategies can help learners facilitate better comprehension and their studies indicated that training in the use of learning strategies helps students to become more effective learners. Based on these research findings, it can be said that there is a relationship between strategy use and language learning proficiency and ability, and learning strategies training can effectively contribute to learners’ language learning improvement when done properly. In the last 20 years or so, there have been fundamental changes in the ways language learning and language teaching are perceived. Since 1970s-1980s there have, indeed, been significant paradigm shifts in learning theory, linguistic theory, and instructional models, with an important movement from a primary focus on teaching and a teacher-centered classroom to an increasing concern with learning and a learner-centered classroom. At the same time there has been a shift from a major emphasis on structure to an emphasis that includes attention to language function and communication. (Morley, 2001). Parallel with these changes in language learning and language teaching, in particular there has been a growing interest in defining how learners can manage their own learning and become more autonomous. Thus, there is now a substantial body of research outlining learner behaviors and describing the thought processes they follow while learning a foreign language. The mental and communicative 94 �processes that directly contribute to learning are called learning strategies. Learning strategies are broadly defined as a set of operations used by learners that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (Chamot, 1987). Brown and Yule (1983) categorized learning strategies into two groups, these being Cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of inference, guessing from the context, and elaboration, or relating new information to other concepts in memory, and Meta-cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of knowledge about cognition or applying thoughts about the cognitive operations of oneself or others, and the regulation of cognition, or planning, monitoring and evaluating learning or problem solving. In addition to these learning strategy categories, Chamot (1982) added Social-affective Learning Strategies such as cooperation and questioning for clarification. Working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pooling information, modeling a language activity as well as asking a teacher or a native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation or examples are all Social-affective Learning Strategies. Studies in learning strategies have mostly focused on reading, writing, and speaking strategies of EFL / ESL learners. Learning strategies in listening skills have been widely ignored by researchers. However, the skill of listening comprehension has been thought to be the core of learning a language. There are a number of possible reasons for this insufficient importance that was attributed to listening comprehension. Reasons for this may lie in the lack of emphasis on teaching listening comprehension in language textbooks in general, as well as in the lack of available material specifically developed for and focused on the teaching of listening skills. Brown (1990) states that students are taught to speak slowly and clearly, and the teachers generally uses a public style language in the classroom which is also clear and slow. This speech style contrasts with the speech style of native speakers who do not speak slowly or clearly. So, it can be said that students who are from environments where English is not the language of the country have very few opportunities to hear the real language; these students therefore are not accustomed to hearing the language as it is produced by native speakers for native speakers. For that reason, students from the countries in which English is taught as a foreign language frequently have great difficulty understanding English spoken to them when they come into contact with native speakers of the language. According to the Herschenhom (1989), the fact that a student can speak a lot of sentences in a foreign language does not necessarily mean that he will understand them from a native speaker. There is a virtual chasm between the performance of native speakers engaged in a conversation and what a students expects a conversation to sound like (Herschenhorn, 1989). Another problematic point is that students are usually exposed to one accent of English, that spoken by the teacher and they have troubles when they are exposed to different accents. Belasco (1971, cited in Morley, 2001) expressed his concerns in that issue very clearly: “I was rudely jolted by the realization that it is possible to develop so-called ‘speaking ability’ and yet be virtually incompetent in understanding the spoken language... students were learning to audio comprehend certain specific dialogues and drills but could not understand the language out of the mouths of native speakers”(Belasco, 1971, cited in Morley, 2001). If these are correct and comprehension of the spoken language is not seen as a natural process, then it seems reasonable to claim that this ability should be taught in classroom environments. And since the early 1970s courses on listening comprehension have begun to be covered into curricula. Teaching listening comprehension has become a significant part of every language teaching program and teachers have started to help learners become better listeners. The Study The significant role of listening comprehension in language teaching has been accepted by researchers in the last few decades; however, little research has been given on what listeners actually do while listening to oral texts and to what extent learners’ listening comprehension proficiency can be improved. Hence, the major emphasis of this study will be on the comprehension strategies that are used by high and low ability intermediate level EFL students in the department of Western Languages and Literature, English Language and Literature , K.T.U with a focus on the effect of explicit strategy instruction. Teachers and researchers have all observed that some students approach the language learning task in more successful ways than others. That is, all other things being equal, for example, the same learning environment, the same target language, the same age group, the same native tongue, some students are more successful than others in learning a second or foreign language. Any students, for instance, may be good at speaking than writing or vice versa, or at reading comprehension than listening. This difference in the distribution of general success in the particular skills suggests that learning strategies in listening comprehension in Turkish setting need to be investigated. As stated before, high ability language learners use a variety of strategies to assist them in gaining command of new language skills and with successful training, low ability learners can apply these strategies to various language tasks. And teachers have an important role in this training by conveying strategy applications to students and thereby supporting student efforts to learn the new language (Rubin, 1987). In this paper, the following questions were asked and their answers were sought by investigating the learning strategies that students use in 95 �listening comprehension. These questions are “What are the different types of comprehension strategies employed by high & low ability listeners (EFL) in a Turkish setting?” and “Does explicit instruction in effective listening strategies help learners become better listeners?”. According to Cohen (1987), once the leaning strategies of good language learners are identified, they can be made available, and where necessary, used by less successful learners to enable them to learn a foreign language more effectively. As effective listeners use strategies more successfully than those nominated as less effective listeners, the less successful students may need assistance in becoming more strategic learners. Therefore, this study aims at investigating the effect of explicit strategy instruction in listening comprehension by identifying the listening strategies used by a group of high & low ability EFL listeners. One implication is that language teachers certainly play a crucial role in teaching and learning arena as they are supposed to create opportunities to help learners gain independent control over the learning process. With this idea, for the educationalists, the present study gains significance as the results may probably shed more light on the value of explicit listening strategy training through awareness raising tasks. Methodology In this paper, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used and quantitative data was obtained from learners’ self-reports through the procedures of small group interviews and immediate retrospective verbalizations. This was to allow us to understand the types of listening strategies used by high and low ability listeners. Between a pretest and a posttest, five principal strategies were taught explicitly for listening comprehension and a qualitative data was obtained through the comparison of participants’ pretest and posttest results. Also a quantitative analysis has been done through these results about the effectiveness of direct strategy instruction. The Findings In the analysis of protocols, both cognitive and meta-cognitive listening strategies of high and low ability listeners were examined. For both groups, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were identified. Cognitive strategies include inference, elaboration, recombination, imagery, contextualization, resourcing, translation, notetaking, grouping, key word and repetition and meta-cognitive strategies include self-management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, and directed attention (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). The data was subsequently grouped under 16 representative strategies. Table 1 on the next page shows the high ability listeners’ retrospective protocols, and Table 2 shows the low ability listeners’ protocols. They also show the lists of generic strategy classifications-cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies- and their respective strategies. Cognitive strategies were used to process utterances directly by transforming them into mental representations that could be stored and recalled. Eleven such strategies were identified. Through cognitive strategies, many informants made associations between new and old information. Some of these strategies had clear benefits. When informants used ‘contextualization’, they were less preoccupied with getting the exact meanings of words. Instead they were more interested in constructing meaning in terms of the text itself and the information outside the text. The success of some strategies, however, was dependent on other factors. Elaboration strategy, though generally is helpful, was counter-productive when the wrong kind of knowledge was drawn upon. Translation actually slowed down processing and often took the informants’ attention away from clues that might have assisted their comprehension. Recombination tactics were not useful when the informants did not hear or note down a sufficient number of key words for recreating the original message. Sometimes even when many comprehended words were noted, some informants were still unable to arrive at an understanding because they lacked the relevant background knowledge to complete the gaps. Key word strategy refers to the various ways in which the informants focused all their attention on a small part of the message. Because many informants experienced poor sound-script recognition, they tried to spell familiar sounding words in the hope that they could match them with something they already knew. Some informants also stopped listening to think about the meaning of one part of the input. Other strategy included repeating and grouping words and sounds of an unfamiliar word or a phrase. The informants hoped that this would facilitate recalling and processing at the next available opportunity, such as by using a dictionary or asking someone about the meaning. Although rehearsal or repetition may strengthen an item in short-term memory, language learners generally have limited capacity in their short-term memory to retain information in the target language. 96 �Meta-cognitive tactics were used to manage complex cognitive processes before, during and after processing the information. Five meta-cognitive strategies were identified, these were self–management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, directed attention. Like cognitive tactics, some meta-cognitive tactics were more useful than others. On the whole, pre-listening preparation strategies prepared informants both, cognitively and actively. By anticipating contents, content words and rehearsing their sounds, informants avoided word recognition problems and processed the input more quickly. By actively encouraging themselves to relax during listening, they also lowered their anxiety in what many learners would agree to be a stressful activity. Another strategy used was selective attention. Informants decided in advance those aspects of the input they wanted to pay attention to. Directed attention, which helped to monitor attention, ensured that the informants perceptual processing was not interrupted. Nevertheless, some informants found the strategy of maintaining concentration to be stressful because they had not learned to vary the intensity of their concentration. To check and confirm understanding during listening, self-monitoring strategy were used. Some informants used monitoring to assess whether or not the problematic part would affect the comprehension of the input. As one noted: ‘‘In fact I know all the words specifically but one word that I couldn’t catch cause me not to comprehend the meaning’’. Self monitoring strategies gave informants the option to actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. High Ability Retrospective Protocols Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Class. INFERENCE COGNITIVE ELABORATION COGNITIVE DIRECTED- ATTENTION META-COGN. …‘ At first I listened to the each words and I tried to catch the words that I understood easily such as evolution, sea life, marine shelf..get the meaning.’ RECOMBINATION COGNITIVE …‘I could not figure out the words uttered by the first speaker but the second speaker’s talked clearly and I think this part is much easier than the first one. I can understand it.’ SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE …‘I could understand this sentence because when the woman takes the papers, something falls down so there should be put something behind the drawer to prevent this. I create such a scene in my mind to catch the correct answer.’ IMAGERY COGNITIVE …‘In the first part, the women talks about something…I nearly understood but the structure ‘I wish I could’ made me confused and I couldn’t decide whether she has gone or not, I think I have to learn more about ‘wish clauses. RESOURCING COGNITIVE … ‘ I tried to understand the meaning the words around the word ‘ashame’ but I couldn’ t and I paid particularattention to the following sentence …’ SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE SELF REINFORCEMENT META-COGNITIVE ‘… in the speech, the woman clearly refuses the invitation of the man. So I think the expression ‘I wish I could…’ helped me comprehend the talk..’ …‘About Washington. I think it is a nice place and there are many places to visit so the woman states that hot weather can’t prevent her to go there.. by this way I marked the…’ … ‘Marine shells’. I tried to concentrate on this phrase and I think I don’ t know the exact meaning of ‘marine shelf’ so I let it pass and I tried to catch the following part but…’ … ‘It was so easy because I caught all the words and I tried to concentrate like this in the following ques.. 97 �… ‘I tried to remember the words I got and then I comprehended the message.. CONTEXTUALIZATION COGNITIVE … ‘ the speech was so fast and I'm so tired, if not I am sure I can easily understand the questions..’ SELF MANAGEMENT META-COGNITIVE Table 1. Retrospective Protocols of High Ability Listeners For example, when they considered a part to be important, some informants would listen out for repetitions, for rephrasing of the same idea, or for a summary at the end. Finally, use of such strategies allowed the informants to vary the intensity of their attention, thus making listening less stressful for them. Both groups’ protocols revealed an interaction of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. There were, however, some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the whole passage in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand. They not only used familiar words to infer the meaning of the passages, they also kept their attention on the input. They also used this recombination strategy again by creating an interpretation from the words they know. This time it was acceptable because they had the relevant knowledge to support their reconstruction. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding of other parts of the segment. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Whereas those high ability listeners actively monitored their comprehension and attention, low ability listeners mostly dealt the passage itself. When they noticed an unfamiliar word, they paid special attention to those words and at the same time they paid special attention to familiar ones. They tried to use these words to catch the idea but generally they had to ignore the unfamiliar words as they couldn’t understand and so their comprehension could not improve. There was also no evidence of them trying to use their prior knowledge to assist comprehension. This could be because the words they recognized were insufficient for schema activation. Low ability listeners also frequently used the repetition strategy. They repeated the words they got several times and even stopped listening to think about their meanings. Low Ability Retrospective Protocols … ‘If I listened the dialogue once, I couldn’t understand… but I listened twice and I concentrate on the word ‘distance’ and I heard it twice and this helped to fined the correct ..” … ‘I tried to translate word by word then I got confused…’ … ‘during the woman’ speech I couldn’ t catch the words but in the secon part of the dialogue I tried to write down the words of the man that I could catch..’ … ‘ I tried to combine the words that I catch easily to understand what the woman implied....’ … ‘ at the beginning of the speech, there was a word I was not sure …’ … ‘ the woman said ‘ohh!’ and I shaped the face of woman in my mind..the food was probably disgusting and she doesn’ t want to eat it … but I was not sure….’ …‘ As the words ‘museum and restaurant’ have nearly the same pronunciations in Turkish.. and I thought that these are the places probably that should be seen in Washington.. so whatever happens the woman wanted to go there…’ 98 Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Classification REPETITION COGNITIVE TRANSLATION COGNITIVE NOTE-TAKING COGNITIVE GROUPING COGNITIVE SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE IMAGERY COGNITIVE KEY WORD COGNITIVE �… ‘I heard somewhere ‘community activities’ and I decided that these activities were something related to ‘projects’ and then I choose the answer… ’ … “I didn’t hear all words clearly, I just guesses the meaning…” SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE INFERENCE COGNITIVE Table 2. Retrospective Protocols of Low Ability Listeners Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In short, both groups combined several comprehension strategies to process each listening segment. There was evidence of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies working together, as well as top down and bottom-up processes interacting to achieve comprehension. High ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. They used prior knowledge, linguistic knowledge and contextual information, three important comprehension resources, to process input and manage the processing. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. However, the two groups of listeners shared some similarities. Although it was different in quantity and quality, both of the groups engaged in top-down processing wherever possible, as evidenced in their use of strategies for inference, elaboration, recombination, and contextualization, which relied heavily on prior knowledge. Both also gave attention on problematic parts but were also ready to ignore difficulties and continue listening. A possible explanation for this is that when they found a word vaguely familiar they would try to think of its meaning. If, however, they knew the word was completely new, they would ignore it and keep their attention on the input. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension Eleven types of cognitive strategies and five types of meta-cognitive strategies which were used by high and low ability listeners were identified. These strategies were used by both groups in different quality and quantity. After this identification, subjects were asked some questions to get more clear information about their strategy usage, especially about the strategies ‘imagery, self-monitoring, elaboration, contextualization. First question was a general question and was about subjects’ listening subject matter preference. They were asked what kind of subject matter they would prefer to listen to, and high ability listeners said that they would like to listen to the subjects which reflect real life communication. They have reported that when the authentic listening materials are used in listening classes, they would easily and voluntarily engage in the listening tasks. The second question was about whether they use and learn the new language items by putting in context or not. High ability listeners reported that they always put the new language items in context and learn them in this way. However, low ability listeners mostly prefer to memorize these items separately or with the corresponding meanings in their native language. Another question was about whether it becomes easy for them to comprehend any listening passage if they are given any visual material related to the passage. High ability listeners said that it becomes easy because the meaning in their mind becomes more clear by the help of the picture or any scene. For this reason, they said that they find BBC or CNN news more understandable than TOEFL listening comprehension tests. On the other hand low ability listeners reported that in such situations they also comprehend the listening passages better but again not completely. The fourth question that was asked to the subjects was about whether they relate new information to the other concepts in memory. It was used more by high ability listeners than low ability listeners. And the last question was about whether they follow their comprehension level; that is, whether they monitor themselves during a listening task or not. High ability listeners reported that they monitor their comprehension and when they face with any problem, they actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. And low ability listeners also sometimes monitor their comprehension but they can’t use this monitoring in an effective way. The pretest / post-test which was designed to see the effectiveness of explicit listening strategy instruction showed that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. 99 �Conclusions This study sought to better understand how a group of EFL listeners processed and managed information through specific strategies. The analysis of the informants’ retrospective protocols and interviews records showed that both groups of high and low ability listeners use cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, however, with some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the listening task in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand; on the other hand, low ability listeners couldn’ t manage to create different strategies when they faced with problems. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In general, high ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension. The results of the pretest and post-test documentation indicated that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. There were indications that the difficulty of the task and the explicitness of directions to perform the strategies may both be important determinants of subsequent performance References Brown, G. (1990). Listening to spoken English (2nd Ed.). London: Longman Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language: An Approach Based on the New York: Cambridge University Press. Analysis of Spoken English. Chamot, A.U. (1987) The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall. 71-84. Cohen, A. D. (1987). Studying Language Learning Strategies: How do we get the Information? In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 31-40). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Morley, J. (2001). Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, (pp.69-85). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Listening Comprehension Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418-437 Herschenhorn, S. (1989). Teaching Listening Comprehension Using Live Llanguage. In Teaching English as a second for foreign language. Eds. M. Celce-Murcia, USA: Heinle and Heinle: 65-73 Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History and Typology. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp.15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 100 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 347 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci ÖZBAY, Ali Şükrü Abstract A summary of the resource. While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ece2f7f654f40d64918ac9a2550c0782.docx 5f58795d97d4c96dd7163dcc37dd4a42 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/530592258c86b256343154e3049a02d1.pdf c337ae939e058e9f2749ca466458b132 PDF Text Text Exploring our Linguistic Intuition or Implicit Knowledge with Sentence Recasting and Repair Duncan Wotley Kitakyushu University/ Kitakyushu, Japan Key words: tacit knowledge, gut-feeling, judgment ABSTRACT Language teachers use their own intuition to guide them in respect to of their own tacit, impicit, procedural knowledge of the target language in their daily proffesional life . Although much research is directed towards the goal of turning the conscious into the unconscious, or how explicit or declarative knowledge can become automatic or implicit knowledge for language learners, relatively little research focuses on how knowledge moves the other way - in other words, how teachers are expected to make explanations from raw intuitive insights about language that emerge during classes, in preparation and evaluation of materials, in oral assessment, proofreading, interpretation of corpus or of non-standard forms and in many other ways. This workshop focusses on ways in which language teachers could build a framework to help them understand how we tend to respond linguistically, to the unexpected jalts and bumps that inevitably occur in the exchange of knowledge in and around the language classroom. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2057 Title A name given to the resource Exploring our Linguistic Intuition or Implicit Knowledge with Sentence Recasting and Repair Author Author WOTLEY, Duncan Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: tacit knowledge, gut-feeling, judgment ABSTRACT Language teachers use their own intuition to guide them in respect to of their own tacit, impicit, procedural knowledge of the target language in their daily proffesional life . Although much research is directed towards the goal of turning the conscious into the unconscious, or how explicit or declarative knowledge can become automatic or implicit knowledge for language learners, relatively little research focuses on how knowledge moves the other way - in other words, how teachers are expected to make explanations from raw intuitive insights about language that emerge during classes, in preparation and evaluation of materials, in oral assessment, proofreading, interpretation of corpus or of non-standard forms and in many other ways. This workshop focusses on ways in which language teachers could build a framework to help them understand how we tend to respond linguistically, to the unexpected jalts and bumps that inevitably occur in the exchange of knowledge in and around the language classroom. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1027 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Some Aspects of Foreign Language Learners’ Discourse Competence Author Author Pavičić Takač , Višnja Abstract A summary of the resource. Many theoretical models of second language communicative competence (Canale 1983; Van Ek 1986; Bachman 1990; CEFR 2001) seem to include discourse competence as one of its component, albeit differently labelled or encompassing different characteristics. There, however, seems to be an agreement that discourse competence is largely determined by coherence and cohesion. In the field of second language acquisition and language testing, the issue of significance of cohesion and coherence and their influence on overall quality of written production has been addressed (cf. Palmer 1999; Chiang 2003; Dastjerdi & Talebinezhad 2006). The present study sets out to explore the manner in which learners of English as a foreign language use cohesion and coherence as two essential elements of discourse competence in their written production. The sample includes 90 assignments written by learners of English as a foreign language as part of state school-leaving exam. The analysis will target the number and type of cohesive devices, as well as the appropriateness of their usage. The analysis of coherence will be carried out by examining the internal topical structure of paragraph (cf. Lautamatii 1987). This will include the analysis of progression types (i.e. parallel progression, sequential progression, extended parallel progression and extended sequential progression) used by learners in connecting ideas and thoughts within the paragraph. Finally, a potential role that these elements may play in overall quality of learners’ written compositions will be assessed. The results will be presented and interpreted. In conclusion, theoretical and pedagogical implications will be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d9064b0bacd8c35e672a29e27c38e086.docx 1f83a9de6587b591f359eba0e15ab0c7 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d5f4e14155edc3cff44808288d2c76bb.pdf 883c3dbe42193cc721143055fb3afcb7 PDF Text Text Exploring Task-Based Pbl in an Elective Chinese Language Beginner Course in a Danish Context Youjin Ruan, Xiangyun DU ABSTRACT Chinese as an Asian language is still very new to most institutions in Denmark, it is facing both opportunities and challenges in a Danish context. Department of Culture and Global Studies at Aalborg University (AAU) has been offering different elective language courses, such as English, French, German and Spanish, and started to include Chinese language course which is taught by the Chinese teachers from Confucius Institute for Innovation and Learning at Aalborg University’s (CI) from 2011. In autumn semester 2012, the number of students in Chinese classes broke record, 174 students chose to study Chinese, which made Chinese the biggest language program at the university. And the students are from different studies, such as health, engineering, computer science, humanities and others. However, most of foreign language courses in Department of Culture and Global Studies are still facing a high rate of drop-out problem. We agree with Gardner R. C. that students’ motivation plays an important role in the teaching and learning process. What may affect Danish student’s motivation in the foreign language learning? How to meet Danish student’s expectation in a foreign language course? How to motivate them to learn a new foreign language, such as Chinese, by using alternative teaching methods? How to motivate them by integrating language and cultural elements in the language teaching and learning? How to maintain the quality of foreign language teaching and learning with a big amount of participants? To develop and sustain the Chinese language and culture teaching in AAU, the researchers and teachers from CI have been developing a student-centred teaching and learning method Task-based PBL (Xiangyun DU & Mads Jakob Kirkebæk, 2012) in this course, by means of a qualitative research approach weare investigatingthis course and try to find the answers to the questions mentioned above. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1818 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Task-Based Pbl in an Elective Chinese Language Beginner Course in a Danish Context Author Author XIANGYUN DU, Youjin Ruan Abstract A summary of the resource. Chinese as an Asian language is still very new to most institutions in Denmark, it is facing both opportunities and challenges in a Danish context. Department of Culture and Global Studies at Aalborg University (AAU) has been offering different elective language courses, such as English, French, German and Spanish, and started to include Chinese language course which is taught by the Chinese teachers from Confucius Institute for Innovation and Learning at Aalborg University’s (CI) from 2011. In autumn semester 2012, the number of students in Chinese classes broke record, 174 students chose to study Chinese, which made Chinese the biggest language program at the university. And the students are from different studies, such as health, engineering, computer science, humanities and others. However, most of foreign language courses in Department of Culture and Global Studies are still facing a high rate of drop-out problem. We agree with Gardner R. C. that students’ motivation plays an important role in the teaching and learning process. What may affect Danish student’s motivation in the foreign language learning? How to meet Danish student’s expectation in a foreign language course? How to motivate them to learn a new foreign language, such as Chinese, by using alternative teaching methods? How to motivate them by integrating language and cultural elements in the language teaching and learning? How to maintain the quality of foreign language teaching and learning with a big amount of participants? To develop and sustain the Chinese language and culture teaching in AAU, the researchers and teachers from CI have been developing a student-centred teaching and learning method Task-based PBL (Xiangyun DU & Mads Jakob Kirkebæk, 2012) in this course, by means of a qualitative research approach weare investigatingthis course and try to find the answers to the questions mentioned above. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e56b18729b596e356370beafa55a0941.pdf f453825d39e95040bc2420b3aa50a256 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Exploring the Potential Contribution of B&H Diaspora to Economic Lejla Kamenjas Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina lejla.kamenjas@gmail.com Bosnia and Herzegovina has recently experienced a period of violent conflict that caused mass emigration of around one fourth of its population. In the period following the conflict, we have seen a process of establishment of a strong transnational community of B&H Diaspora. This thesis aims to explore possible solutions for increased involvement of B&H Diaspora in enhancing its economic development. Overview of the current contributions of B&H Diaspora is first provided. It includes remittances, skills transfer, investment, tourism, and other areas of contribution. Then, the results of the survey originally conducted for this thesis, providing information about potential available for exploiting it for, and willingness of B&H Diaspora to use it for, economic development of B&H. Based on the survey analysis, alternative solutions for engagement of diasporas in economic development of a country, available in literature, were reviewed and their appropriateness, effectiveness and means of implementation were discussed. The results of the thesis reveal large potential of B&H Diaspora that still remain unexploited and provides a range policy recommendation for B&H institutions dealing with the economic development of the country, offering solutions for enhancing large contribution of B&H Diaspora. Keywords: Migrations, Diaspora, B&H, Potential, Diaspora Survey. 188 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ebe85386f62d5e776a2478333ba5fcf.docx 8c3259ab13bd40b4e5b3b4fa954e7f1b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99a297d6f9beb882335236646ceb24ed.pdf 5e49cc5d1cfefb22e6bbd01520dbbac9 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Exploring the potential contribution of B&H diaspora to economic development of B&H1 LejlaKamenjaš Centre for Economic Development and Research, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, kamenjas@cedar.ba Abstract Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) was subjected to a period of violent conflict that caused mass emigration of around one fourth of its population. In the period following the conflict, we have seen a process of establishment of a strong transnational community of B&H Diaspora. This paper investigates how the Diaspora enhances the economic development of B&H on a unique survey conducted in 2012; it then investigates if additional forms of economic support are in place. Based on the survey analysis, alternative solutions for engagement of Diasporas in economic development of a country, available in literature, were reviewed and their appropriateness, effectiveness and means of implementation were discussed. The results of the article reveal large economic and investment potential of B&H Diaspora that still remains unexploited and provides a range policy recommendation for B&H institutions dealing with the economic development of the country, offering solutions for enhancing large contribution of B&H Diaspora. Keywords: migrations, diaspora, Bosnia and Herzegovina, potential, diaspora survey Introduction Migration and development are no longer been considered separate, but rather interlinked and complementary issues. The focus of the debate has shifted from the negative effects of migration to the potential benefits migrants can offer as agents of development for both their home and host countries. Many developing countries rely on diaspora businesses, investments and knowledge as main drivers of their economic development. Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) well illustrates ongoing trends towards diaspora engagement and showing the complexity of this topic. The potential of Diaspora is recognized and some efforts are made both from government and international institutions to mobilize B&H diaspora for development. However, the issue is still very challenging task, since there is no consensus within B&H institutions about the issue, institutional capacities are rather weak, and diaspora is divided along ethnic lines, where ethnic Serbs and ethnic Croats are more interested in contributing to the development of Serbia and Croatia, respectively. Consequently, this paper aims at investigating the potential for contribution, willingness for contribution, and possible means of contribution of B&H Diaspora to the economic development of the country. Bosnia and Herzegovina‘s historical situation and wars that have occurred on this area contributed to higher level of migrations, so nowadays BIH is placed among the top ten 1 This research is a part of the project named:„Linking Rural Entrepreneurs and Diaspora in Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina―, under the RRPP Western Balkans. 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo countries with the largest diaspora as a share of population, according to the estimates by the Ministry of Human Rights and Refugees (MHRR) reported in the BIH Migration Profile for 2011. International organization for Migration (IOM) and Migration and Development Department, recognize the link between migration and development as increasing. Migrants make considerable progress and contribution worldwide, through their involvement in capacity building projects in their origin country, remittances they send back home, knowledge, education and connections they established in migrant country. Generally, migrant contribution can be distinguished as: human capital and financial advantages. All of the above contributes to technological development, economic activities and cultural enrichment. The purpose of the paper is to determine willingness and opportunities of BH Diaspora to invest their assets in origin country. We will determine economic potential of B&H diaspora due to increase of economic activity in BIH. We set the research question as follows: What is the current potential of BH Diaspora and what are the possible solutions for improving possible economic engagement in Bosnia and Herzegovina? Paper is further organized in three main sections. Section 1. Problem description focuses on BIH Diaspora and its current engagement, Section 2. Data and Methodology describes the sampling scheme, descriptive and inferential methodology and gives the results of the analysis, Section 3. Conclusion sets the concluding remark and the policy recommendations. Problem Description Territorial status and historical events in Bosnia and Herzegovina created such an environment suitable for migrations so BIH have a long migration history which started in early 60‘s when first wave of migrants left BIH for work opportunities abroad, so called ―guest workers‖ (Germ. Gasterbeiters). Germany was traditionally destination country of labor migrants from ex-Yugoslavia in the first wave, but also many migrants left to Austria and other Western Europe countries. Second period which matches with the war 1992-95, was marked by mass population displacement of about half of the entire population. UNHCR data estimates the total number of refugees at the end of 1992 was around 1.8 million, and the most interesting countries for our migrants were neighboring countries as Croatia (714.000 migrants), Serbia and Montenegro (495.000 migrants) and around 537.000 migrants outside exYugoslavia. (Tabeau & Bijak, 2005). In that first wave there was another large outflow, in a time when Srebrenica massacre happened. ―This is in line with generally observed patterns of forced migration, when people flee to neighboring countries first, and then chose more distant destination attracted by economic opportunities (acting as push factors) or lack of prospects in the neighboring countries (acting as pull factors).‖ (Kačapor-Džihić & Oruč, 2012). Based on BIH Migration Profile for 2010 the leading destination country of Bosnian migrants were again neighboring countries where 40% of them left to Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro or Slovenia, while around 28% left to Germany, Austria (7%), Sweden (5%), Slovenia (3,5%), Switzerland, Turkey and USA (app. 2% each). Finally second period is mainly characterized by great outflows and post-war return of emigrants to BIH. 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Third period, started from the beginning of the new century until now. Main characteristic is voluntary migration of workers, students and migrant family members. Literature shows that emigration to United States of America (USA) decreased and emigration to Slovenia increased. Unfortunately, data on emigration to other countries are not available, but some authors interviewed agree that the emigration to other already mentioned countries also increased (Kačapor-Džihić & Oruč, 2012). OECD database shows that between 15.000 and 20.000 Bosnians on average emigrates every year to the EU since 2000. Also, there is significant migration of workers to neighboring countries (ex-Yugoslavia). Again, the most interesting destination is Slovenia, but also a large proportion on workers leaves to Croatia and Montenegro. ―According to the experts‘ estimates, the figures for migration to Croatia and Montenegro are somewhat larger, particularly in terms of circular migration, as a large number of temporary workers in construction and tourism sector work in these two countries over the summer season, and return to BiH. They are not recorded in the work permits figures, as both countries have large informal sector and many workers from BiH are employed without a contract. ― (Kačapor-Džihić & Oruč, 2012). BIH Migration Profile for 2011 showed that 43,4 % of total Bosnian and Herzegovina population reside outside their origin country. These data for most states do not include the second and third generation emigrants BiH who were born in the receiving state2. Table 1: Stock of emigrants from BiH by country of destination Country USA Croatia Germany Serbia Austria Slovenia Sweden Switzerland Australia Canada Italy Denmark Norway Estimates 350.000 300.000 240.000 150.000 150.000 150.000 80.000 60.000 60.000 Official data 120.655 262.620 240.000 131.108 133.585 97.142 56.127 59.222 37.898 Source of official data US Census Bureau Agency of Statistics of Croatia Agency of Statistics of Germany Agency of Statistics of Serbia EUROSTAT Agency of Statistics of Slovenia Agency of Statistics of Sweden Agency of Statistics of Switzerland Ministry of Immigration and Citizenship of Australia 50.000 28.735 Agency of Statistics of Canada 40.000 29.066 Agency of Statistics of Italy 23.000 22.338 Agency of Statistics of Denmark 16.000 15.918 Agency of Statistics of Norway Source: BiH Ministry of Security, BiH Migration Profile 2011 The first five countries are considered to be ―traditionally destination countries of emigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina‖. Many of the literature states these countries with strong diaspora communities and associations because of the long migration history of BIH citizens related to these countries. According to DIOC-E 2000 Database (release 2.0) 51,4% of Bosnian migrants are women, 11,9% young people age 15-24 and 11,2% is tertiary educated. A study performed by Uvalic (2005) indicates a high percentage of 80 % of PhD graduates which emigrated from BIH, showing enormous ―brain drain‖ from BIH. Unfortunately, there are no studies which show structure of this ―brain drain‖ divided by professions and effects on labor market in Bosnia and Herzegovina. De Zwager and Gressmann (2010) conducted a survey on 1.216 migrants from Bosnia who visited BIH during the holiday season and discovered that our migrant population involves 2 Migration Profile for 2010 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo mostly entire families and are mostly a great part of economically active population, and that average age in EU countries of BIH migrants is 41 year while in neighboring countries 37 years. These findings lead to the conclusion that BIH will have huge problems with ageing population and will have to import labor force. This survey showed that BIH migrants in the vast majority work in the formal sector, and do not have intention of returning home before the retirement. Observing frequency of home visits, they concluded that BIH migrants still have strong ties with Bosnia and Herzegovina. Current Engagement of BH Diaspora BH Diaspora is currently engaged in BIH trough several channels which are respectively remittances, investments and skills transfer. Bosnia and Herzegovina ranks 12th on the list of Top Emigration Countries as a percentage of population (2010) with a score of 38,9%3 of emigrants from 3,752 million of estimated population in 20114, meaning that almost 1/3 of total population lives abroad, mostly in Western Europe. These facts place BIH's Diaspora as one of the most numerous Diasporas in the world. Data taken from the World Bank shows that Workers‘ remittances as a percentage of GDP represent a valuable amount in that relation every year, which can be seen in the following table5: Table 2: Remittances as a percentage of GDP in BIH Country name Bosnia and Herzegovina 2003 20,9 2004 20,67 2005 18,66 2006 17,39 2007 17,67 2008 14,75 2009 12,49 2010 11,44 Source: World Bank data The World Network of Bosnian Diaspora estimates remittances on at least 3 billion KM in 2011, saying that most of these amounts is sent through informal channels. Based on BIH Central Bank, remittances to BIH represent 40 % of total inflow and De Zwager and Gressmann (2010, p.13) assert that only 22,5 % of those remittances is sent through formal channels. There are two types of investments that can be provided by diaspora, direct investments and households‘ investments. There are no exact data about the extent of contribution of BiH Diaspora through any of the two investments channels. However, sporadic evidence suggests that BiH Diaspora is investing in starting new businesses, purchase of land and houses, which is mainly households‘ investment. As the inflows of direct investments to BiH are generally very low, consequently the Diaspora‘s involvement through this channel cannot be expected to be significant. Transfer of skills from diaspora to their homeland can be performed in two ways, return and ―virtual return‖, where the skills are transferred by using new means of communication 3 Development Prospects Group - The World Bank. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011. The World Bank. 4 The World Bank Data about Bosnia and Herzegovina, from: http://data.worldbank.org/country/bosnia-andherzegovina. We emphasize the estimated values because the last official census was performed before the war in 1991. 5 Data from the World Bank on Bosnia and Herzegovina. 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo without the need for change of place of living. Also, it can be either permanent or temporary return. Unfortunately, the data about return by education and/skills of returnees are not available, so the only solution for providing insight about current level of contribution of BiH diaspora through skills transfer can be by providing information about the return, regardless of their skills, which can at least suggest the approximate level of the skills transfers flows. Regarding the programs that would attract return of highly skilled members of BiH Diaspora, no such activity has been conducted by BiH government. Only two programs were conducted, Brain Gain Plus (BG+) by World University Service (WUS) from Austria and another by IOM, called Temporary Return of Qualified Nationals (TRQN). Brain Gain Plus program was focused on temporary placement of academics from BiH Diaspora at public universities in BiH. Also, they have created a database of academics from diaspora who are interested in temporary placements in BiH. More effective was the TRQN program, supported by the government of Netherlands, which managed to attract more than 800 BiH nationals from abroad and provide them temporary placement, mainly in industry (26%), self-employment (21%), education (20%) and health (15%). Data and Methodology The empirical strategy aiming at measuring latent resources available within the BiH diaspora community (such as savings, skills, and social capital) and their willingness to engage it in activities that would increase economic development of the country is based on the survey of BiH diaspora, using a questionnaire that contains a mix of mutually reinforcing qualitative and quantitative questions. The survey attempted to research the following: Interest (willingness) and potential capacity (availability) of the Bosnian Diaspora have to invest in their home country and to identify the potential channels through which they can contribute to BIH economy. The questionnaire used in the survey is designed based on the literature review on diaspora potential an previous empirical research on this topic. It was available in Bosnian language and was developed using SurveyMonkey, an online survey software and questionnaire tool. Survey started in August 2012 and finished in November 2012. All people from Bosnia and Herzegovina living abroad were invited to participate in the survey. Potential respondents were contacted through e-mail invitations, personally and through different Diaspora associations and unions (Congress of North American Bosnians, Federation of Balkan American Associations, and World Alliance of Diaspora) so as through Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees of BIH. Given that we did not have sufficient answers at the beginning, calls were repeated several times. The questionnaire consists from 62 closed-ended (yes/no, multiple-choice, rating scale, etc.) and open-ended (comments) questions divided in 7 modules. The modules reveal information as regards to education level, job and income, entrepreneurship ability, financial capital (savings and remittances) and social capital (links with home country and affiliation to Diaspora association). Although not in an ordinary sense, we devote the last module to demographic information in order to gather background information on migrants in Diaspora. Also, questions are constructed in the way as to be as much as clear to the respondents while answers in percentages are avoided for the same reason. 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The questions were analyzed primarily by using descriptive statistics, in order to transform data collected through the survey into information that will serve as inputs into further discussion of possible solutions for enhancing engagement of diaspora by each of possible channels, such as remittances, investments, transfer of skills, tourism, another contribution. Then, inferential statistical analysis is provided, where we analyzed significance of means for considerable variables. Ethnicity is very sensitive question for our Diaspora so when it comes to ethnicity we used Identity points, based on Taeku Lee which extended analysis on identity points to measuring ethno racial self-identification in surveys as one potentially fruitful means of bridging this gap. (Lee 2009) We have found that 26,7 % of respondents own a business, and 96,7 % of them located their business in a country of current living, while 3,3 % have business located in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Those who have a business outside of BIH, still have some but also very weak connections with BIH through: importing products from BIH, employment of seasonal workers from BIH, branching/manufacturing facilities in BIH, financial support and investments in BIH. Table 3: Business connections with BIH Yes No Import products from BIH Employment of seasonal workers from BIH 5,30% 5,60% 71,10% 77,80% No, but I am interested 23,70% 16,70% Branche / manufacturing facility in BIH 5,60% 86,10% 8,30% Provide financial support and investment in BIH 20,00% 68,60% 11,40% 31,80% Source: Own calculation based on survey 54,50% 13,60% Other The results also suggest that 49,3 % of respondents have never invested in BIH, while 50,8 % did. More than a half of them invested in urban areas, and the rest in rural or both areas. Respondents mostly invested in buying apartments/houses (58%), business start-ups (26%), government bonds (8%), land (5%) and company shares (3%). 42,2 % of the sample is interested to invest more in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 20 % is not and 37,5 % do not know. Main reasons for the lack of interest indicate what is already stated in literature as a main problem in Bosnia and Herzegovina, investment uncertainty (39%). Other reasons are: lack of savings (19%), no investment ideas (22%), complicated start-up procedures (11%) and respectively great investment demands, lack of local government support and high taxes (3%). Those interested in investing want to start up a business (66,7 %), buy a land (9,8 %) or a house/apartment (21,6 %). Only 2 % want to invest in company shares. Urban and rural areas are interested to 45,3 % of the sample, while urban area exclusively to 30,2 %, and rural area to 3,8 % of the sample. In the framework of inferential statistics we conducted two types of tests in order to determine statistical significance in means: t-test and one-way ANOVA. T-test was used for variables with two categories and one-way ANOVA for variables with 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo more than two categories within. Finally, for interpretation of the results in this paper we will use only those variables with significant p-values. The research has shown there are significant differences when it comes to gender and willingness to offer skilled in BIH. Female respondents are more prone to offer their skills in BIH than their male counterparts (Mean: male=1,243243; female=1.652174). These variables are taken as statistically significant with the p-value of 0.0490 within 95% Confidentiality Interval. Finally, interest for investing in BIH is more noticeable with those respondents who hold the BIH citizenship based on Barlett's test for equal variances performed under the one-way ANOVA, where p-value of 0,0509 shows statistical significance. Ethnicity is very sensitive question for our Diaspora so when it comes to ethnicity we used Identity points, based on Taeku Lee6 which extended analysis on identity points to measuring ethno racial self-identification in surveys as one potentially fruitful means of bridging this gap. (Lee 2009) Limitations The main limitation of any online survey, including this one, is the difficulty in achieving a satisfactory representation of the desired demographic. Thus, we can expect three main types of biases as part of this survey. First, there is the sample selection problem of online surveys, i.e. that only those individuals who use the internet are potential interviewees. Second, the sample is usually biased towards more educated individuals. Third, the supposition is that willingness to participate in such surveys is proportional to the degree to which the individual maintains ties with her or his home country. Therefore, results may be slightly biased towards a greater potential and/or willingness to contribute than is typical. However, a survey such as this, where a country‘s Diaspora lives in numerous destination countries, cannot be conducted practically in any other way. Therefore the drawbacks of such a method must be accepted if we wish to study this target population. Another problem we faced during this survey is a lack of interest so the 112 is the final number of the respondents, making sample slightly biased but statistically acceptable. Conclusion Diaspora is generally recognized as valuable economic potential for its origin country. Current Engagement of Diaspora in BiH is seen through remittances, investments, skills transfer and philanthropic contribution. Literature on this issue states on great financial pools which were created during time in Diaspora, which could be invested in BIH and create benefits for both individual investor and BIH economy. Studies have shown a great percentage of highly educated young migrants with skills and willingness to contribute its home country through different channels, even though temporary or permanent return. This paper has provided empirical evidence and solutions for further engagement of BiH diaspora for economic development of the country. Individuals living and working in diaspora earn relatively higher income than individuals in a origin country. Increased incomes increase investment and entrepreneurial activity 6 Lee, T. (2009) Between Social Theory and Social Science Practice: Toward a New Approach to the Survey Measurement of 'Race'. Cambridge University Press. 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo among diaspora population because of greater amount of disposable income available for investment activity. „On balance, the amount of net savings retained by Bosnian migrant HHs abroad remains substantial at EUR 8,508 on average per annum. And, due to the high number of BiH households in long-term migration (conservatively estimated at between 480,000–536,000), the total estimated pool of annual ―retained savings‖ for 2009 is EUR 4,660 million. By means of simple extrapolation over BiH‘s near 20-year overall mass migration experience (since the Balkan wars), it can be imagined that this accumulated capital pool now stands at many billions of euro. ― Money sent to Bosnia and Herzegovina through remittances is often used shortly for daily consumption and basic needs. According to the literature remittances are largely spent (in order of importance) on: food and clothing, education, home repair, savings, property purchase, medical expenses, business investments and durables as well as on ―special events‖. A very small part of these amounts were left aside for savings and investments. USAID predicts that with the right incentives for savings and investment, these remittances hold a potential to contribute to poverty reduction and spur long‐term economic development. As the evidence provided in the paper suggest, BiH diaspora is already contributing greatly to the economy of their homeland. However, its potential is considerably larger, and there is a great opportunity for BiH government to increase diaspora's contribution through well designed programs that would benefit both BiH economy and diaspora. Alternative policies used in other countries are discussed above and, based on the potential and willingness of diaspora identified through empirical research, as well as consideration of specific context of BiH, selected areas of engagement and programs were proposed. Knowing the financial potential of BIH diaspora, Diaspora Handbook suggest several options for increasing investment opportunities in general, such as: Provide access to information, Share information on how to invest or obtain business loans, Create a onestop shop for investment information, Provide access to networks, Organize business events for diaspora members, Match local entrepreneurs, business owners, and government leaders with their diaspora counterparts, Create exclusive international networks of top business leaders, Provide access to business training programs, Supply training directly, Support training programs provided by the private sector and international organizations, Provide entrepreneurs access to funds, Set up matching funds, Provide loans, Channel private funds to finance private businesses or public infrastructure. Gillespie et al. (2001) argues that rather than financial deals which are costly, diaspora entrepreneurs may need more brokering assistance to establish businesses even in a homeland they believe they know. Main conclusion is that Diaspora needs to be introduced to people with whom they can work. In BIH, a possible good solution would be a Foreign Trade Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which could potentially be a link between Diasporas and Bosnian Entrepreneurs. Education, trainings, seminars, roundtables, newsletters and other promotional materials should be provided to potential investors which a clear presentation on potential for investments, gaps and oversights and an extensive overview of BIHs market. Riddle (2008) gives interesting solutions for diaspora utilization. Inter alia, diaspora entrepreneurs can serve as ―reputational intermediaries‖ for domestic companies in foreign market, while domestic firms can utilize connections they have with diaspora investors/entrepreneurs‘ to use transnational networks to identify business leads, opportunities and financing markets abroad. Then, financial organizations 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo could be established like international organization Investors without Borders. The main purpose of such organization is intermediary between Diaspora investors who would lend money to Bosnian firms below the marker rates of interest. This is an example of diaspora investments without ever leaving country of residence and very much time-saving. Finally, there is existing and urgent need to BIH Government more serious approach these issues, because of the maturity of BIH Diaspora, meaning they are still linked to BIH through family members, investments they have in BIH and emotionally, but verily Diaspora structure is changing and will not eventually have strong ties to BIH. Considering such a high position BIH occupies in world statistics due to its Diaspora, it is truly amazing we still do not have inimitable institution in charge for all related questions. References Acosta, P., Calderon C., Fajnzylber, P. & Lopez, H. (2007) The Impact of Remittances on Poverty and Human Capital: Evidence from Latin American Household Surveys. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4247. Acosta, P., Calderon C., Fajnzylber, P. & Lopez, H. (2008) What is the Impact of International Remittances on Poverty and Inequality in Latin America?. World Development, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 89–114. Adams, R. & John Page (2005) Do International Migration and Remittances Reduce Poverty in Developing Countries?. World Development, Vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 1645–1669. Altai Consulting (2009), Evaluation of Reintegration Activities in Afghanistan: IOM, DFID/FCO, by Altai Consulting.. Amuedo-Dorantes, C. & Pozo, S. (2006) Migration, Remittances, and Male and Female Employment Patterns. American Economic Review, Vol. 96 No. 2, pp. 222-226. Amuedo-Dorantes, C. & Pozo, S. (2010) Accounting for Remittance and Migration Effects on Children‘s Schooling. Mimeo Arellano, M. & Bover, O. (1995) Another Look at the Instrumental-Variable Estimation of Error-Components Models. Journal of Econometrics, No. 68, pp. 29–51. Bagatellas, W.T. & Sergi, B.S. (2003) The Balkan‘s ‗brain drain‘: it‘s meaning and implications. South-East Europe Review, No. 4, pp.7-12. Bakewell, O. (2008) ‘Keeping Them in Their Place’: the ambivalent relationship between development and migration in Africa. Third World Quaterly, special issue: Globalization and Migration: new issues, new politics? Chacko, E. & Gebre, P.H. (2012) Leveraging the diaspora for development: lessons from Ethiopia. GeoJournal. 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Cohen, R. (2008) Global diasporas (second edition). Taylor & Francis e-Library. De Vasconcelos, P. (2009) Remittances: Sending money home. International Fund for Agricultural Development. De Zwager, N. & Gressmann, W. (2010) Maximising the Developement Impact of Migration-related Financial Flows and Investment to Bosnia and Herzegovina. IASCI and IOM Report prepared for BiH Ministry of Human Rights and Refugees. De Zwager, N. & Gressmann, W. (2009) Maximising the Developement Impact of Migration-related Financial Flows and Investment from Austria to Bosnia and Herzegovina. IASCI and IOM Report, prepared for OeEB. Development Prospects Group - The World Bank. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011. The World Bank. Dustmann, C. & Kirchkamp, O. (2002) The optimal migration duration and activity choice after remigration. Journal of Development Economics, 67, 2: 351-72. Dustmann, C. & Weiss, Y. (2008) Return Migration: Theory and Empirical Evidence from the UK. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 45:2, pp. 236–256. Dustmann, C., Bentolila & Faini, R. (1996) Return Migration: the European experience. Economic Policy. Dustmann, C., Itzhak, F. & Yoram, W. (2008) Return Migration and Human Capital Accumulation. Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 95, No. 1. Forum 2015. 2007. ―Diaspora www.forumi2015.org and Migration Policies, Prishtina, Kosovo.‖ Funkhouser, E. (1995) Remittances from International Migration: A Comparison of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 77(1), pp. 13746. Head, K. & Ries, J. (1998) Immigration and trade creation: econometric evidence from Canada. Canadian journal of economics. Horvat, V. (2004) Brain Drain, Threat to Successful Transition in South East Europe. Southeast European Politics, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 76-93. Illahi, N. & Jafarey, S. (1999) Guestworker migration, remittances and the extended family: evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 58, pp. 485-512 Kačapor-Džihić, Z. & Oruč, N. (2012) Social Impact of Emigration and Rural-Urban Migration in Central and Eastern Europe-BIH, Report prepared for European Commission. 10 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Katseli, L., Lucas, R. & Xenogiani, T. (2005) Effects of migration on sending countries: What do we know?. OECD Development Centre Working Paper, No.250. Kilic, T., Carletto, G., Davis, B., & Zezza, A. (2007) Investing Back Home: Return Migration and Business Ownership in Albania. ESA Working Paper, No. 07-08. Lee, T. (2009) Between Social Theory and Social Science Practice: Toward a New Approach to the Survey Measurement of 'Race'. Cambridge University Press. Lucas, R. & Stark, O. (1985) Motivations to Remit: Evidence from Botswana. Journal of Political Economy, 93 (5): 901-918. Maximizing the Development Impact of Migration-related Financial Flows and Investment from Austria to Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009) Prepared for OeEB by International Agency for Source Country Information (IASCI) and International Organization for Migration (IOM), Vienna Mission. Maximizing the Development Impact of Migration-related Financial Flows and Investment to Bosnia and Herzegovina (2010) Prepared for OeEB by International Agency for Source Country Information (IASCI) and International Organization for Migration (IOM). Migration & Development Department, IOM the Hague (2010) Migrant Stories. International Organisation of Migration. Ministry of Security of BIH, Immigration Sector (2011) Bosnia and Herzegovina Migration Profile for the year 2010. Ministry of Security of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Newland, K., Taylor, C. (2010) Heritage Tourism and Nostalgia Trade: A Diaspora Niche in Development Landscape. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Newland, K., Terrazas, A. & Munster, R. (2010) Diaspora Philanthropy: Private Giving and Public Policy. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Riddle, L. (2008) Introduction to Part II, in J. Brinkerhoff (ed.), Diasporas and Development: Exploring the Potential. Lynne Reinner Publisher, Boulder, CO. Stark, O. (2005) The new economics of the brain drain. World Economics , Vol. 6, No. 2 (2005): pp. 137-140. Tabeau, E. & Bijak, J. (2005) War-related deaths in the 1992–1995 armed conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina: a critique of previous estimates and recent results. European Journal of Population, Vol 21, Issue 2-3, pp 187-215. Uvalic, M. (2005) Science, Technology and Economic Development in South Eastern Europe. UNESCO, Regional Bureau for Science in Europe. UNCHR (2010) Global trends, 2010 in review. [Internet], Available http://www.unhcr.org/4dfa11499.html [Accessed 1st December 2012]. 11 from: �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Van Houte, M. & De Koning, M. (2008) Towards a better embeddedness? Monitoring assistance to involuntary returning migrants from Western countries. Center for Intenational Development Issues Nijmegen. Wahba, J. & Zenou, Y. (2011) Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Migration, Entrepreneurship and Social Capital. CREAM WP 30/09 Woodruff, C. & Zenteno, R., (2007) Migration networks and microenterprises in Mexico. Journal of Development Economics , No.82, pp. 509—528. World Economic Forum (2010) Country/Economy Profile [Internet], World Economic Forum. Available from: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR201112/CountryProfiles/BosniaandHerzegovina.pdf [Accessed 1st December 2012]. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1608 Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Potential Contribution of B&H Diaspora to Economic Author Author KAMENJAS, Lejla Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina has recently experienced a period of violent conflict that caused mass emigration of around one fourth of its population. In the period following the conflict, we have seen a process of establishment of a strong transnational community of B&H Diaspora. This thesis aims to explore possible solutions for increased involvement of B&H Diaspora in enhancing its economic development. Overview of the current contributions of B&H Diaspora is first provided. It includes remittances, skills transfer, investment, tourism, and other areas of contribution. Then, the results of the survey originally conducted for this thesis, providing information about potential available for exploiting it for, and willingness of B&H Diaspora to use it for, economic development of B&H. Based on the survey analysis, alternative solutions for engagement of diasporas in economic development of a country, available in literature, were reviewed and their appropriateness, effectiveness and means of implementation were discussed. The results of the thesis reveal large potential of B&H Diaspora that still remain unexploited and provides a range policy recommendation for B&H institutions dealing with the economic development of the country, offering solutions for enhancing large contribution of B&H Diaspora. Keywords: Migrations, Diaspora, B&H, Potential, Diaspora Survey. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 835 Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Relationship between Critical Thinking, Reading Comprehension, and Reading Strategies of Iranian EFL Readers Author Author Hamid Reza , Dowlatabadi Fatemeh , Bakhshipour Effat , Hosseini Shahrzad , Sarfallah Abstract A summary of the resource. Active learning takes place in a context in which freedom of action is dominant and opportunities for the realization of integrative critical thinking and language skills are provided. Critical thinking is that sort of higher order thinking that helps learners act critically through using problem-solving strategies (Gheith, 2007). In the same vein, reading as a problem solving activity (Pressley et al., 1992) necessitates a good command of thinking on the part of learners. This study investigated the relationship of critical thinking ability, reading comprehension ability, and reading strategy use among 70 male and female Iranian university students majoring English Translation and English Literature. The data was collected through the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) reading comprehension test, a critical thinking ability test (the California Critical Thinking Skill Tests (CCTST), Fachione, P. A & Fachione, N. C., 1990), and Reading Strategy Inventory (adapted from Oxford, 1990, and Waxman and Pardon, 1987). The findings revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) readers’ critical thinking ability and reading strategy use, in general, and metacognitive and cognitive reading strategy use, in particular. Moreover, a significant positive relationship was observed between critical thinking and reading compensation. The results also revealed that cognitive and affective strategies along with critical thinking ability act as the best predictors of learners’ reading comprehension ability. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a4f333220957971e7a951915ec22c791.pdf 38873a709f2ed0fe6be0edbfb50b606d PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Exploring the Sustainable Development Model within the European Union Mustafa FĐŞNE Assist. Prof., Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey fisne@aku.edu.tr Abstract: The existence of close relationship between ecology and economics was rediscovered in last quarter of the 20th Century. Consequently, calls for the implementation of a sustainable development model have increased both at the international and European levels, especially after mid-1990s. Taking these calls into account, the European Commission has prepared many documents that have started a new phase in environmental protection, during which more importance is being given to the implementation, and in this connection, to the achievement of the sustainable development model within the European Union (EU). This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected with the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Before doing so, it will focus briefly on the meaning, importance, and emergence of sustainable development approach within the EU context. Sustainable Development at a Glance The fact that the terms “ecology” and “economy” derives from the same Greek word “oikos”, which means “home”, shows the long-rooted awareness of human being on the close connection between the two terms (Marshall, 2001, 26). However, following the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century, this awareness was replaced by the idea that human being was superior and could master the nature. Giving the priority to economic growth, this perspective ignored ecological or environmental problems emerged as result of the established economic system (Andersson et al, 1995, 7). It was only in the last quarter of the 20th Century that the significance of such problems for national and global economy was recognised commonly. This introduced the term “sustainable development” to human being (Han & Kaya, 2006, 257; Minibaş, 1998, 49). Being used for the first time in 1987 in a report prepared by the UN Commission on Environment and Development under the chairmanship of Brundtland and titled as “Our Common Future”, the term sustainable development envisages a development model that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Thirlwall 1994, 212). It was also the main theme of the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, at the end of which participating world leaders listed several principles on sustainable development through a declaration. The sustainable development, in essence, reflects an understanding that notices the close connection, interdependency, and interactions between the environment and economy. Therefore, it considers these terms as complimentary to each other, seeing no contradiction or conflict between the environmental protection and economic development (European Parliament, 2001, 15). For this reason, sustainable development gives importance to the use of market and price mechanisms in environmental protection. Indeed, the so-called economic instruments, which affect the attitudes and behaviours of economic actors by affecting the costs of alternative options for them, are of great importance for sustainable development model to reach its goals (Dündar, 1997, 185-190). Following World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, sustainable development has become a model that needs to be implemented urgently. As the most active and leading actor in the field of environmental protection, the EU has involved in this issue to a great extent. This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected to the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Early Attempts towards Sustainable Development within the European Union Protection of the environment within the EU has, on the one hand, been shaped by six environment action programmes implemented since 1973, and on the other hand, gained a status of policy based on explicit legal provisions brought by the amendments in the Founding Treaties in the course of time. In this early phase of environmental policy, measures and practices connected with sustainable development were at a low level. 477 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Fifth Environment Action Programme, prepared in parallel with the principles of Rio Declaration and came into effect in 1992, set sustainable development as a goal to be matched by the EU with an encouraging vision. However, advances towards the achievement of this goal were slow in practice, making most of the targets set by the Fifth Programme unattained at the end of its term in 1999 (Commission of the European Communities, 1999, 5-6 and 22). On the other hand, particularly since the mid-1990s onwards, calls for a stronger commitment to sustainable development at the EU level increased in parallel with the increasing international efforts. Consequently, sustainable development was incorporated into the Amsterdam Treaty among the basic goals of the Union in 1997. The Treaty also underlines the need for the integration of the environmental protection with the main EU policies in other fields (Cebeci et al, 1998, 73-177). The Six Environment Action Programme sets environmental objectives and targets to be reached at the EU level by 2010, together with necessary actions expected to contribute to the achievement of them. Depending basically on the Fifth Programme, this Programme, in addition to the principle of sustainable development, contains many new aspects such as its emphasis on the integration of environmental concerns into other policies, development of environmental headline indicators as well as those of integration, establishment of a Union liability regime and that of an environmental data-base system, new principles of “substitution” and “burden of proof”, and examination of possible impacts derived from many new issues, like GMOs, on the environment (Dündar & Fişne, 2001, 1). Upon the request of Helsinki European Council in 1999 to prepare a long-term strategy that considers all together the environmental, social, and economical dimensions related to sustainable development, European Commission developed the first sustainable development strategy for the EU in 2001. In the same year, the Göteborg European Council discussed this strategy, specifically titled as "A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A European Strategy for Sustainable Development". This Strategy started a new phase for the efforts towards sustainable development within the EU context, giving more importance to implementation and practices. It reflected an understanding that noticed the effectiveness of the economical instruments compared to adopting legislation in attaining the determined targets connected to sustainable development. The Strategy focused particularly on the issues of climate change, poverty, and emerging health threats and proposed a number of measures to deal with them (European Commission, 2001, ). It can be said that this first Strategy is successful in bringing good results and some progress in many areas towards sustainable development across the EU. The Present Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union To achieve further progress towards long-term sustainable development, the Council adopted some guiding principles in 2005. In addition, the Commission reviewed the first strategy, assessing the progress made and the tasks remained. Developed on the basis of this assessment, the Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy was adopted by the European Council in June 2006. It is a complex strategy that covers all EU policies connected to sustainable development. Like its predecessor, the present Strategy deals with economic, environmental and social issues in an integrated way. However, the Strategy differs from the previous one in including some additional key challenges that are listed as climate change and clean energy; sustainable transport; sustainable consumption and production; conservation and management of natural resources; public health; social inclusion, demography and migration; and finally global poverty. The present Strategy also has a stronger stress on the need to change the behaviors and attitudes of European citizens in order to reverse the unsustainable trends. For this purpose, it makes several suggestions to them to follow in their daily life to make a difference towards sustainable development in each of the listed areas. The basic targets set out by the Strategy related to the determined challenges are examined in the following pages together with the main suggestions to the citizens to make a difference towards sustainable development. Before this examination, it should be noted that the Strategy envisages the use of the following means to achieve the listed goals: education and training; research and development; economical instruments; communication; and finally follow-up work (European Commission, 2007, 9-10). Climate Change and Clean Energy The EU has been tackling with the challenge of climate change since mid-1990s when it was discovered as a potential threat. In this connection, it committed to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 8%, from 1990 levels, by 2012 under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. In addition, in 2007, the Council agreed to establish a new integrated climate change and energy policy, adopting a comprehensive package of measures. To contribute sustainable development, the new targets to be matched by the EU in this area by 2020 are as follows: • Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20% and if agreed internationally by 30%, • Improving energy efficiency by 20%, 478 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • Raising the share of renewable energy to 20%, Increasing the level of bio-fuels in transport fuel to 10%. In attaining these targets, besides a wide range of programmes and laws, the Strategy suggests to the European citizens to use a carbon-dioxide footprint calculator; opt for a cleaner mode of transport, unplug electrical appliances when not in use; choose higher energy efficient products; and install home insulation (European Commission, 2007, 16-21). Sustainable Transport In order to provide European citizens with the cleanest and most efficient modes of transport, the EU has involved in coordinating actions in several related areas. The targets to be met by the EU through these coordinated actions include: • Reducing pollutant emissions to minimize effects on human health and the environment, • Achieving a balance in the frequency of use between different modes of transport, • Cutting vehicle CO2 emissions, targeting 140g/km by 2009 and 120g/km by 2012, • Halving the number of road deaths occurred in 2000 by 2010. For the given targets to be met, in addition to a number of legislative and economic measures, the Strategy invites people to make a difference through sharing their cars; using public transport as much as possible; traveling by bike; and considering safety by wearing a seat belt, smart driving, listening to music at a lower tempo, choosing lighter colors for car as well as fitting safety devices for children (European Commission, 2007, 25-27). Sustainable Consumption and Production Today, the average product lines in a supermarket in Europe have risen to over 15,000 compared to those in a grocery in the 1960. This can be seen as a simple sign of the changed consumption and production patterns in Europe. In order to make these patterns less harmful, the present Strategy underlines the need to change how Europeans produce, buy and throw away. For this purpose, it identifies the following main targets: • Terminating the destructive link between economic growth and damage to the environment, • Increasing the use of objects that have been produced responsibly, • Urging the public authorities in all member states to buy environmentally-friendly products and services by 2010, • Extending the market for environmentally-friendly technologies and innovations, • Improving the welfare of animals both at EU and international level. In addition to a variety of measures and schemes, the Strategy asks Europeans to add the following practices among their shopping habits and attitudes to make a difference towards sustainable consumption and production: collecting information about sustainable practices at potential destinations for them in traveling and tourism; looking for energy efficient household appliances; buying in local farmers’ markets; purchasing FairTrade products that are produced responsibly; trying to be avoided from being manipulated by clever advertising by thinking carefully about their needs; giving the things that they no longer need to a charity; and following the instructions for recycling of an unwanted object (European Commission, 2007, 31-35). Conservation and Management of Natural Resources The overall objective of the EU Strategy in this field is to improve the management of natural resources and to prevent their overexploitation in such a way that ensures regeneration. In accordance with this objective, it sets these goals: • Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss across the world by 2010 and beyond, • Restoring degraded marine environments by 2015 and protecting fish stocks from being over-exploited, • Meeting the targets on forest protection set by the United Nations by 2015, • Improving the efficiency of using natural resources, • Encouraging recycling and reducing the generation of waste. Besides a variety of measures for attaining these aims, the Strategy invites people to grow native plants in their garden; use eco-friendly products; visit nature reserves; educating children about the nature (European Commission, 2007, 40-42). 479 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Public Health It is a legal duty deriving from the Founding Treaties for the EU to ensure a high level of health protection to its citizens through preventing illness and diseases and reducing the dangers to human health. In fulfill this duty , the EU has involved in a number of actions. The particular aims listed by the present Strategy include the followings: • Ensuring safety in relation to chemicals by 2020, • Halting lifestyle-related diseases, including alcoholism and obesity, • Trying to reduce the inequalities in life expectancy, • Ensuring health threats to be dealt with quickly and efficiently, • Reducing suicide rates and improving mental health, • Increasing the safety of food both for people and animals, particularly through hygiene and labeling, • Providing high welfare standards to animals. In addition to several legislative and coordinating measures, the Strategy ask European people to move more; balance their diet by cutting fat; stop smoking; reduce their stress levels; wear their seat belt in cars; avoid excessive drinking as well as pollution (European Commission, 2007, 48-50). Social Inclusion, Demography and Migration In order develop a safe, dynamic, and democratic society throughout Europe, which provides protection and jobs to its members with a special care for the vulnerable ones among them, the Strategy outlines the following basic goals: • Reducing risk of poverty and social exclusion by 2010, • Ensuring territorial and social cohesion, • Support the member states in modernizing their social protection systems that are under the pressure of falling birth rates and longer life spans, • Promoting employment, particularly for women, older workers and migrants by 2010, • Ensuring better integration of migrants into European society, • Making young people more employable via vocational education, apprenticeship, training or some experience or qualification, • Helping disabled people to find job. Besides a range of funds, programmes, and laws, the Strategy makes many suggestions to Europeans to make a difference in this area. They include attending to evening classes; learning another language, voluntary teaching and running a conversation class; starting up their own business as well as starting up a club or a team (European Commission, 2007, 56-60). Global Poverty The EU also works for sustainable development on a global level. In this connection, it declared its commitment to “the Millennium Development Goals” set by the UN Millennium Summit in 2000. Having a deadline of 2015, these goals include: • Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, • Achieving universal primary education, • Strengthening gender equality, • Reducing child mortality, • Improving maternal health, • Combating HIV /AIDS, malaria and other diseases, • Ensuring environmental sustainability, • Developing a global partnership for development. Particularly in accordance with the last goal, the EU adopted in 2002 a document titled as “Towards a Global Partnership for Sustainable Development”. Since then, it has involved in many initiatives and actions to achieve progress towards sustainable development on the global level. As regards the first goal, that is eradicating global poverty and hunger, the Strategy considers development cooperation with major international and regional actors as an effective means. While the former include United Nations, World Trade Organization, and international financial organizations, the latter consists of African, Latin American, Caribbean and Pacific countries. In cooperation with these partners, the EU aims to supply water and energy to the poors in the world, which are two essential components for the reduction of their poverty. More precisely, the Strategy aims to ensure a 50 % reduction in the number of people without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2015. As regards providing energy, it aims to attract capital, 480 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo technology and human resources to the needy parts of the world. Trade, aid, and debt relief are seen as the supporting means to overcome global poverty. In supporting these policies, the Strategy asks European citizens to be involved in so-called cause marketing; buy FairTrade products; donate in various ways; or sponsor a specific child (European Commission, 2007, 64-66). Conclusions In the light of the above given examination, it is obvious that sustainable development is no longer a theoretical model for the EU. On the contrary, it has become a deep-seated value that guides not only the EU official policies, programs, and practices but also European people’s way of life. This is particularly valid since the early 2000s following the adoption of the Six Environment Action Programme and the first European Strategy for Sustainable Development. Compared to their predecessor, these documents have been more effective in making progress or difference towards sustainable development given that they are prepared in a more integrated and comprehensive way that covers all major EU policies. Prepared basically with the same qualities, the present Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy deals with some additional key challenges to ensure the sustainable development. They are listed as climate change and clean energy; sustainable transport; sustainable consumption and production; conservation and management of natural resources; public health; social inclusion, demography and migration; and finally global poverty. Establishing certain goals or targets to be met usually in ten years time in relation to each challenge, the present Strategy also has a stronger stress on the need to change the behaviors and attitudes of European citizens in order to reverse the unsustainable trends. For this purpose, it makes several suggestions to be followed in the daily life of the European citizens. Finally, the EU is also eager to work for sustainable development on a global level. In this connection, it has involved in many initiatives and actions to achieve progress towards sustainable development on the global level in cooperation with all leading international and regional players. References Andersson , T., Folke, C., & Nyström, S. (1995). Trading with the environment. London: Earthscan Publications. Cebeci, M. (1998). The Amsterdam treaty: the european union on the eve of 21st century. Marmara Journal of European Studies, 6 (2) , 73-177. Commission of the European Communities. (1999). Communication from the commission on the global assessment of the ec programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development, ‘towards sustainability’. Brussels: Publications Office. Dündar, Y. (1997). Sürdürülebilir yaşam koşullu sürdürülebilir kalkınma, Sürdürülebilir kalkınmanın uygulanması. Ankara: Türkiye Çevre Vakfı Yayını. Dündar, Y., & Fişne, M. (2001). Avrupa topluluğu çevre politikaları ve altıncı çevre eylem programı. AKÜ Đ.Đ.B.F Dergisi, 3 (1), 137-153. European Commission. (2001). A sustainable europe for a better world: a european union strategy for sustainable development. COM(2001) 264. European Commission. (2007). A sustainable future in our hands – a guide to the eu’s sustainable development strategy. Brussels: Publications Office. European Parliament. (2001). Report on environment policy and sustainable development: preparing for the gothenburg european council. Final A5-0171/2001, 15 May. Han, E., & Kaya, A.A. (2006). Kalkınma ekonomisi – teori ve politika. Ankara: Nobel Yayın ve Dağıtım. Marshall, P. (2001). Liberation ecology. Resurgence, 205 (March-April), 26-36. Minibaş, T. (1998). Çevre ekonomisi ve politikası. S.O.S Yayınları. Thirlwall, A.P. (1994). Growth and development. London: Macmillan. 481 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 296 Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Sustainable Development Model within the European Union Author Author FiSNE, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The existence of close relationship between ecology and economics was rediscovered in last quarter of the 20th Century. Consequently, calls for the implementation of a sustainable development model have increased both at the international and European levels, especially after mid-1990s. Taking these calls into account, the European Commission has prepared many documents that have started a new phase in environmental protection, during which more importance is being given to the implementation, and in this connection, to the achievement of the sustainable development model within the European Union (EU). This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected with the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Before doing so, it will focus briefly on the meaning, importance, and emergence of sustainable development approach within the EU context. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory