11 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90df7f1149c763e4be97a2da3ec773af.pdf 46465edb21b013a889171da69a82d3f9 PDF Text Text Designing teaching materials – necessity or luxury? Dragana Gak & Dubravka Pleše University of Novi Sad, Serbia and University of Zagreb, Croatia Abstract: This paper examines designing language teaching materials as an integral segment of language courses taught at tertiary level. Firstly, it defines teaching materials and considers them both as anything that can be used to facilitate the language learning and as authentic materials specially designed for development of specific skills. Secondly, it discusses reasons for designing materials as supplement to the materials teachers are provided with. Thirdly, the authors attempt to present the advantages of the process of producing materials. Material designing enables teachers to have a control over selection of topic, situations, functions and skills to be developed. Moreover, it takes into account particular learning environment, students’ learning needs and their learning experiences, cross-cultural issues and their influence on development of students’ communication competence. This is followed by a comparison of experiences in material designing at two faculties, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, and Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad. The language teaching material development starts at both faculties with identification of the main requirements set by the departments and the detailed needs analysis of students’ needs which is the foundation of all language courses preparing students for using language in working environment. This initial stage helps teachers to select the textbooks and decide on additional material they need. Although material designing contributes greatly to the relevancy and productivity of language courses, it goes together with numerous obstacles ranging from technological to financial ones. To conclude the authors will elaborate on actual examples of materials produced for the courses they teach. Keywords: language teaching, materials, design, textbooks, development. 1. Introduction As the globalization of trade and economy intensifies, English for Specific Purposes is becoming ever more popular the world over. However, this increase in awarenss regarding the importance of ESP is set against another tradition, that of the ‘Use of English’ type courses. Also, as ESP teachers, we are all faced with students with different knowledge levels and we are expected to cater to their needs as well. Therefore, contents of a tertiary level English Language course are the subject of some contention. 2. ESP Since ESP has been around for quite a long time (from the early 1960's), one would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP actually should be. But, that isn’t so. �Some describe ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, describe it more precisely as the teaching of English used in academic studies, or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes. According to Dudley-Evans (1998), ESP can be described as having some absolute and some variable characteristics: Absolute Characteristics: 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners, 2. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, 3. ESP uses the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. Variable Characteristics: 1. ESP is usually designed for adult learners, 2. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students, 3. ESP may use a different methodology from that of General English, 4. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems, 5. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines. From this, a logical question arises: 'What is the difference between the ESP and 'General English' approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer the question: "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". At the end of the 20th century, this statement was true and 'General English' teachers recognized that students had a specific purpose for studying English. Still, only rarely would a needs analysis be conducted to find out what was necessary to actually achieve their goals. Today, however, teachers are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis. Also, the quality and content of teaching materials improved dramatically, allowing the teacher to select materials which will best satisfy the needs of the students. Teaching langages at tertiary level is no simple task for a general English teacher. A great majority of ESP teachers are in no way professionally related to the discipline they teach, so they are first obliged to familiarize themselves with a whole new set of phrases, terms and vocabulary. Many ESP teachers readily accept the available textbooks, which might not suit their purpose fully. If there are no textbooks available for a particular discipline, some ESP teachers decide to use textbooks, which may be unsuitable for their students. Dudley-Evans describes the roles a true ESP teacher (Swales, 1998) needs to perform. These are: 1) ESP Teacher, 2) Collaborator, 3) Course designer and materials provider, 4) Researcher and 5) Evaluator. The first role as 'ESP teacher' is synonymous with that of the 'General English' teacher. In order to meet the specific needs of the learners, the ESP teacher must work closely with field specialists. This collaboration, however, does not have to end at the development stage and can extend as far as team teaching (Johns et al. (1988)). Both 'General English' and ESP teachers are often required to design courses and provide materials. Hutchinson et al. (1987) support materials that cover a wide range of fields, �arguing that the grammatical structures and strategies of different disciplines are identical. More recent research, however, has shown that this is not so. Many ESP practitioners are therefore left with no alternative than to develop original materials. The process of materials’ design enables teachers to have control over topics selection, functions and skills to be developed. It also takes into account students’ learning needs and learning experiences and addresses cross-cultural issues and communication compentence. As far as the disadvantages are concerned, the whole process is time-consuming, mentally and physically taxing and the results are quite uncertain. The materials designing teacher is also at mercy of his/her colleagues and frequently left to his/her own devices. 3. Authentic teaching materials Most language teachers recognize the value of using authentic materials. There are two major applications of authentic materials: developing learners' language skills and helping learners apply these skills in various activities in the outside world. Since ESP is finaly differentiated from the general English teaching, new resources, discipline specific texts and other teaching materials have become neccessary. Thus, teachers today are expected to design and develop their own in-house materials that can cater to the specific needs of the students. This is a complicated and complex task although it is, at the same time, interesting, creative and very satisfying. Teachers are expected to handle many different tasks in the process of creating materials: conduct needs analysis, formulate goals and objectives, find input materials, or create activities. There are different methods of developing new teaching resources. Tomlinson (2003) reports that many of them describe processes which are ad hoc and spontaneous and rely on an intuitive feel for activities which are likely to “work”. The process of the development of any EAP course usually starts with the needs analysis, defined by Hyland (2006, p. 73) as “the techniques for collecting and assessing information relevant to course design: it is the means of establishing the how and what of a course”. These techniques can involve surveying students about their goals and backgrounds; consulting faculty about course requirements and academic tasks; collecting and analysing students’ assignments as well as authentic target texts and so on (Hyland, 2006, p. 78). Learning needs should also be considered when creating materials. The emphasis, to use Hutchinson and Waters’s (1987) words, should be on “what the learner needs to do in order to learn”. In other words, it is essential that materials writers consider the findings of learning research, decide which of its findings are most relevant and applicable to particular contexts, and then develop a set of criteria and use them as a basis for developing context-specific materials. This, according to Tomlinson (2003), can help materials designers clarify their own principles of language learning and teaching and create more effective and efficient materials. 4. Authentic materials in English for specific purposes Authentic texts have been defined as “…real-life texts, not written for pedagogic purposes” (Wallace, 1992). They were written for native speakers and contain “real” language. The sources of authentic materials used in the classroom are infinite, but the most common are newspapers, magazines, movies, songs and literature. One of the most useful is the Internet. Newspapers and any other printed material date very quickly, but the Internet is �continuously updated, more visually stimulating, interactive and promotes a more active approach to reading. One of the main ideas of using authentic materials in the classroom is to “expose” the learner to as much real language as possible. It has been said that by taking a text out of its original context, it loses it authenticity: “As soon as texts, whatever their original purpose, are brought into classrooms for pedagogic purposes they have, arguably, lost authenticity.” (Wallace, 1992) Even if this is true, the learner is still exposed to real discourse and not the artificial language of course textbooks, which tend not to contain any incidental or improper examples. They also produce a sense of achievement. Extracting real information from a real text in a new/different language can be extremely motivating, therefore increasing students' motivation for learning by exposing them to 'real' language (Guariento and Morley, 2001). Such texts also reflect the changes in language use, as well as giving the learner the proof that the language is real and not only studied in the classroom: “Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for reallife purposes by real people.” (Nuttall 1996:172) One of the aims of authentic materials is to help the student react in the same way L1 speakers react in their first language (L1). The main advantages of using authentic materials in the classroom therefore include: - having a positive effect on student motivation; - giving authentic cultural information; - exposing students to real language; - relating more closely to students’ needs; - supporting a more creative approach to teaching. The negative aspects of authentic materials are that they can be too culturally biased, often a good knowledge of cultural background is required. Also, many structures are mixed, causing lower levels problems when decoding the texts (Martinez 2002). The use of authentic materials is recommended at advanced levels and with students dealing with materials from their subject areas (Day & Bamford, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Singhal, 2006). This is because authentic materials relate more closely to students’ specific needs, exposing them to “the target language as it is used by the community, which speaks it” (Guariento & Morley, 2001, p. 347). 5. Needs analysis – central for teaching material designing According to Brindley (1989), needs do not have of themselves an objective reality rather, what is finally established as a “need” is a matter of agreement and judgment not discovery (Lawson, 1979). The needs established for a particular group of students will be an outcome of a needs analysis project and the perspective of the definition of needs. In order to conduct a reliable needs analysis, ‘a triangulation of questionnaires, informal discussions with learners and other lecturers, interviews with ex-students and lecturers, and observation of former students‘ actual workplace experiences is conducted before the course‘ (Gao, 2007). Learner performance and assignments are appraised during the course and tests results are analyzed after the course. This amalgamation of pre-course, mid-course and post-course analyses helps the teacher understand what the students are like at the start, middle and end of �the course. The combined feedback then serves to inform the teacher as to how the course should be improved or revised. 6. Comparison of experiences 1. Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering Coming to the Faculty some13 years ago, the only textbook that was available to me was from 1972, and although interesting and good at giving basic information about the three professions, it was completely outdated regarding new methods and techniques. In the beginning, I made do with texts I downloaded from the Internet, adapted or paraphrased from various other textbooks, professional articles and other sources. I conducted a sort of needs analysis, going from one teacher to another and interviewing them about the topics they viewed as necessary to be covered by my English class. Getting the materials, which could help in the writing of the textbook, was the next difficult step. Most publishers of professional and scientific papers, which were supposed to form the basis of the textbook, do not allow free access to their databases but charge for the downloading of the papers they publish. Luckily, some of my colleagues were very forthcoming and allowed me to use the materials they themselves purchased. The writing itself lasted for almost a year and when the textbooks were finally completed, I asked several colleagues, experts in their fields, to take a close look at the books and provide feedback. Then the books were tested on two generations of students who provided additional and invaluable feedback. Only then were the books presented to the Faculty’s scientific committee for evaluation. The whole process lasted for more than four years. 2. Faculty of Technical Sciences The Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad consists of 13 different departments, each deciding individually on the type of the English courses and the number of classes per week. Depending on the department, students may have one to nine semesters of English during their academic studies, which, in itself presents a foreign language teacher with a huge problem when deciding on the amount and content of materials his/her students are going to deal with per semester. Also, the Faculty caters to various scientific fields (power engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, traffic engineering, architecture), all demanding different kinds of topics and materials. Such diversity poses quite a challenge for the teachers of English at the Faculty. However, one of the main challenges is the question of appropriate textbooks and teaching materials. This is the issue, which has been left to individual teachers to resolve. Different teachers tackle the problem differently - some use what materals are available or what they inherited from the previous teachers, others try to design their own courses and write their own teaching materials and textbooks. Still, the majority combine parts of the existing ESP textbooks with the teaching materials designed for specific groups of students in accordance with the future jobs for which the students are preparing. 7. Conclusion The design of teaching materials is quite a rewarding, satisfying and enlightening experience but, at the same time a difficult and long-lasting task, demanding in-depth �knowledge of both the English language and the scientific field for which the materals are beign designed. It also presupposes the familiarity with basic pedagogical and methodical principles as well as a good deal of patience and interpersonal and “people skills”, since collaboration with colleagues is the key to obtaining valid needs analysis results and materials needed for the writing of the materials. The process itself should follow several predetermined steps and take into accout numerous variables. The materials produced should be examined and checked by experts in the ESP field for which they were designed before they are tested on students to avoid possible mistakes. The next step is to try them out on several generations of students and geet their feedback because only such feedback provides the opportunity to make necessary changes and adjustments, leading to better and more appropriate teaching materials. References: [1] Brindley, G. P. (1989). The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programme design. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2] Day, R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [3] Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. [4] Gao, J. (2007). Designing an ESP course for Chinese University Students of Business. The Asian ESP Journal, 3(1), 97-106. [5] Guariento, W. & Morley, J. (2001) Text and Task Authenticity in the EFL Classroom in ELT Journal 55(4), pp 347-353 [6] Hutchison, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press. [7] Hutchison, T., Waters, A., & Breen, M. P. (1979). An English language curriculum for technical students. Unpublished manuscript, Lancaster. [8] Hyland, K. (2006). English for academic purposes: An advanced resource book. London and New York: Routledge. [9] Johns, T. F. & Dudley-Evans, T. (1988). An experiment in team teaching overseas postgraduate students of transportation and plant biology. In J. Swales (Ed.), Episodes in ESP. Prentice Hall. [10] Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [11] Lawson, K. H. (1979). Philosophical Concepts and Values in Adult Education. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. [12] Martinez, A.G. (2002) Authentic Materials: An Overview on Karen's Linguistic Issues, Retrieved from: http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html [13] Nuttall, C. (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language (New Edition) Oxford, Heinemann �[14] Singhal, M. (2006). Teaching reading to adult second language learners: Theoretical foundations, pedagogical applications, and current issues. SA: The Reading Matrix. [15] Swales, J. (1988). Episodes in ESP. Prentice Hall. [16] Swales, J. (1998). Other floors, other voices: A textography of a small university building. Mahwah, NL: Erlbaum. [17] Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing materials for language teaching. London: Continuum. [18] Wallace, C. (1992) Reading Oxford, O.U.P. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3257 Title A name given to the resource Designing teaching materials – necessity or luxury? Author Author Gak, Dragana Pleše, Dubravka Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper examines designing language teaching materials as an integral segment of language courses taught at tertiary level. Firstly, it defines teaching materials and considers them both as anything that can be used to facilitate the language learning and as authentic materials specially designed for development of specific skills. Secondly, it discusses reasons for designing materials as supplement to the materials teachers are provided with. Thirdly, the authors attempt to present the advantages of the process of producing materials. Material designing enables teachers to have a control over selection of topic, situations, functions and skills to be developed. Moreover, it takes into account particular learning environment, students’ learning needs and their learning experiences, cross-cultural issues and their influence on development of students’ communication competence. This is followed by a comparison of experiences in material designing at two faculties, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, and Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad. The language teaching material development starts at both faculties with identification of the main requirements set by the departments and the detailed needs analysis of students’ needs which is the foundation of all language courses preparing students for using language in working environment. This initial stage helps teachers to select the textbooks and decide on additional material they need. Although material designing contributes greatly to the relevancy and productivity of language courses, it goes together with numerous obstacles ranging from technological to financial ones. To conclude the authors will elaborate on actual examples of materials produced for the courses they teach. Keywords: language teaching, materials, design, textbooks, development. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7321b333cc9b37665b05c4df8b752d1b.pdf b4235ee18240c4be4d99ee2214fe921a PDF Text Text Pre- service teacher training: motivation, objectives and teaching strategies Daniela CecicMladinic Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain Abstract: Trinity College Diploma in TESOL offers a compulsory part of the course titled Unknown Language Learning Experience. It is an assessed part of the course and it accounts for 20% of the final mark. Trainees have to write a language journal guided by a semi- structured questionnaire after observing and participating in four lessons taught in an unknown language. The main objective of this experience is to introduce teaching methodologies and activities suitable for total beginners and to show how to write up a lesson plans and do a contrastive analysis. In 2003 we have organized a course on the island of Gran Canaria training 24 students from the UK, Australia and Spain. Eleven/twelve years after the experience, in 2015, we have asked them the very same questions they had to answer back in 2003 in their journals. This action research procedure has proven the validity of the unknown language experience. The questions we have analysed deal with feeling, motivation, teaching strategies, objectives and techniques. 100% of them valued the experience as a positive one and 40% of them stated that they could follow the lesson precisely because only L2 was used. 100% of the trainees said that they have used the same unknown language teaching strategies since they have considered them as a very useful in language teaching methodology. Due to the success of the experiment we have done trial experiments from 2011- 2013 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria with the main aim to implement the Unknown Language Experience in the core curriculum at the Teacher Training Faculty. Keywords: L2, TESOL, journal, motivation, ULE 1. Introduction The current manuscript focuses on the on-going search for an appropriate and eclectic methodology for the teaching and learning of foreign languages, and, more specifically, on the practice of reflective teaching and learning as a pedagogical tool for teachers as learners, in this case for pre-service teachers. Recent investigation projects in the field of foreign language pedagogy within the research area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) have focused on the search for more effective, communicative, student-centred and purposeful approaches in language learning contexts, as well as greater reflection on the second language teaching and learning process itself, which has, in consequence, triggered a renewed interest in teacher and learner beliefs about learning and teaching (e.g. Weimar, 2013; Wright, 2011; Pollard and Collins, 2005; Stronge, 2002). There is little doubt that a learner’s interpretations and conceptualizations influence their learning achievements, and this is a premise that will form the basis of the current study revolving around the pedagogical practice of reflecting on learning and teaching. Sometimes students’ beliefs do not coincide with those of their teachers, creating dissatisfaction and lack of interest on both sides and, frequently, these ideas �are very difficult to change, since these predetermined conceptions as well as misconceptions mostly consist of both good and bad previous language learning experiences. Therefore, initial teacher training in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Methodology might be the perfect opportunity to start developing critical reflection upon successful or ineffective teaching practice, and it might even be more effective if pre-service teachers could participate in a foreign language learning context as reflective and critical learners themselves, in which they can experience those processes or feelings their own future students might undergo in their own future teaching contexts. In consequence, we propose that teacher trainees should begin to master their reflective and critical skills during their initial training in order to further support their on-going professional learning and development. 2. Literature review A great number of us have experienced the mismatches highlighted by Van Manen (1995) as novice instructors and this feeling can, in fact, hamper pre-service teachers because of their lack of the awareness of the crucial role of reflection in combination with their limited knowledge about the learning/teaching process. As a response to this, this manuscript aims to prove the value for trainee teachers of understanding the way Foreign Language (FL) students learn, those methodologies that help these students learn and how we can enable them to feel at ease when in a formal learning context. Moreover, we consider that guided reflection during and after pre-service teaching training should form a compulsory part of official programmes as a means to further enable trainees to become more effective future language teachers. SLA research findings have furthered our comprehension of learning and teaching processes, and consequently we are aware that that there are certain methods and techniques that might seem to encourage learning, but more is needed to help teachers to be more successful in their daily teaching practice. Motivation can be said to be a factor of great importance in language learning and teaching contexts as well as SLA research, and “[...] provides the primary impetus to initiate L2 learning and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process” (Dörnyei, 2002:65). From the multitude of published research into this complex concept which affects the learning process, we can confirm that motivation is one of the strongest pillars when learning a second language. Moreover, Dörnyei also states that “factors underlying motivation can override the aptitude effect on the individual variability in language learning achievement“(cited in Öz et al.,2015:3). It would seem logical that the essential aim of SLA research should be to assist teachers in their daily practice in the classroom by exploring the role of factors affecting learning such as these. Unfortunately, we might suggest that some SLA investigation does not contribute much towards teaching practice unless it includes the multiple cognitive and affective factors affecting learning. 3. Methodology Croatian was chosen as the unknown language in our ULE research project, and this is due to the fact that it is so different from Spanish and English. It is an Indio-European language and therefore it shares some minor similarities in grammar and lexis, but none of these elements (such as words of Greek or Latin origin) were used by the researcher, on purpose, to show �that you can understand and participate totally in a foreign language classroom if the context and methodology are the right one. Content analysis is a research method that uses a set of procedures to make valid inferences from a text. (Weber:1990) “Two of those procedures are part of our research: code openended question and identify the intention of the communicator.” (1990:9) Our students by participating in answering questions and by writing a diary about the experience have offered us a sound material to be analysed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. We have calculated the percentages of most frequent answers and examined in detail both diary entries and openquestion answers. We have classified the data into fewer categories by taking into account common traits among answers. According to Weber, these categories or classifications have to be reliable, consistent and they have to generate variables that are valid above all. Since our aim was to prove the validity and usefulness of ULE in teacher training programmes, we have decided that our research design had to be three-fold: qualitative, quantitative and mixed. Regarding the qualitative data, we have analyzed the diary entries by means of content analysis procedures, for the collection of quantitative data we have the adapted Trinity College London Diploma questions, and with regard to the mixed aspect, triangulation is present since we have addressed the same research questions by means of both quantitative and qualitative data. We consider that only one type of research design would have been insufficient and inadequate, for it would have failed to give a full insight into the learning/teaching processes and the role of reflection. For us, the problem or the issue was and is mainly qualitative, since it provided richer data in this case and there seems to be insufficient research about the inclusion of ULE in teacher training, and we have wanted to show its validity in order to offer a solid grounding for its implementation within Spanish teacher training programmes, both in graduate and in postgraduate programmes. In our case, one of the main objectives was to obtain insights into motivation when teaching or learning a foreign language and the only approach we could use to investigate this phenomenon was a qualitative one accompanied by a small scale quantitative design for triangulation purposes. The nature of the design itself belongs to the social research analysis tradition: “Social research is the systematic analysis of research questions by using empirical methods (e.g. of asking, observing, analyzing data.) Its aim is to make empirically grounded statements that can be generalized or to test such statements” (Flick,2015:10.). 4. Data analysis Our data are going to be presented in the form of graphs and tables. We have used the ‘Microsoft Excel’, spread sheet software to display and analyse the data. In our case, we have coded the data and used ‘Excel’ spread sheets to create the graphs and tables that are presented in this study. We have also used content analysis procedures to analyse our diary data, which is a method used in qualitative research to illustrate the meaning of analysed texts. Although at the beginning it concentrated mainly on the frequency of certain words within the given information. This research period comprises a span of eleven/ twelve years. The first research experiment was in 2003 and was carried out for the Trinity College of London students with 23 students in total. They have participated in an absolute-beginner-level lesson of an unknown language �(Croatian) and apart from that, they took notes, as well as observed themselves and their peers in a unique experience of witnessing how we learn foreign languages. Thanks to the social media we have found ten of them who still kept the original diaries and were willing to answer the very same questions after more than a decade of the original experiment. 5. Results Question 1: How have you felt? ( 2003 and 2015 respectively) For these subjects who were participants in the Trinity College of London D¡ploma training course from the 2003 research period, only positive feelings such as ‘relaxed’, ‘interested’, and ‘entertained’ can be perceived in their questionnaire responses. It shows us that positive feelings correspond to the most frequent in both cases, accounting for almost 50%, and ‘amazement’ and ‘fun’, with approximately 12%, were the same given answers. Once again in the responses to the same questions obtained from the same subjects in 2015, we have only positive feelings expressed in the following terms: ‘best part of the course’, ‘very useful’ and ‘memorable’. �Question 2 :What methods, strategies, activities and teaching techniques were used by the teacher to help you to make sense? Here, we can encounter surprising positive responses to this question: the most popular was ‘because you have used only L2 (40%), which was followed by visual aids (35%). The same responses were offered eleven or twelve years after the original ULE: ‘visual aspects’ (35%) and ‘body language’ and ‘mime’ represent approximately 20%. In 2015, 40% answered ‘use of L2’ and the other 60% account for ‘visuals’ and ‘concept checking’. Question 3: Will you be able to apply any strategies to your own teaching? In this case, the results are exactly the same as the ones obtained in 2015 as 100% of the subjects answered ‘yes’ to this question. Question 4:What do you remember now/ what did you learn? ‘Communication’ and ‘vocabulary’ account for 68% of the given answers in 2003 and it shows that ‘vocabulary’ and ‘expressions to communicate’ were the most common answers (between 26% and 42%) in 2014/15. Moreover, 91% state ‘basic vocabulary’ and ‘expressions’. �With regard to the qualitative data obtained for this research period, we shall present here a selection of diary entries that match each question asked and the quantitative data described above. Content analysis of these above-mentioned contributions has revealed semantic groups and key words. For example, for the first area of feelings as we have mentioned before, only positive feelings were felt by the subjects: ‘confidence’, ‘excited’, ‘keen’, ‘positive reinforcement’, ‘feeling good’ and empathy. For the second questions, we have found the following categories: ‘pair work’, ‘scaffolding’, encouraging students to talk’, ‘creating a friendly atmosphere’, ‘the power of gestures and ‘visuals’, VAK’, ‘interaction patterns’ (teacher- student, student- student), ‘paralinguistics’ and ‘multiple intelligences’. Some of these former diploma students remember more what they learnt, and other remember more why they have learnt it. One of them mentions Vygogtsky and his ZPD. The concept of ZDP is crucial in any learning process and it is related to scaffolding, mainly as it shows how to be effective teachers. It involves encouragement provided by the teacher, who gradually lets their students perform more independently. 6. Discussion We have found out that some students felt uncomfortable at the beginning of the ULE process, but thanks to encouragement and appropriate teaching strategies they have overcome those initial negative feelings, as their own future learners might be able to do. Moreover, being in your learners’ shoes is an unparalleled experience that cannot be replaced by reading or listening about strategies or techniques that really work. They have reflected upon the learning process itself on a metacognitive level, and offered some very valid answers to the questions posed. In addition, they believe that the Communicative Approach is an appropriate method for learning languages, since it caters for the innate human need to communicate and to be a member of a group or community. It promotes real contexts and interpersonal or discoursal features, so it is not surprising that students prefer or benefit most from this kind of teaching. The sample diary contributions and open- ended questionnaire answers we have selected once again confirm the importance of triangulation between quantitative and qualitative data since when analysing quantitative data; we cannot obtain a full insight into the complex process of learning languages. In this case, these students mention scaffolding (keep it simple and get the basics taught first.), learning styles (VAK), and a highly important strategy that any teacher should use with their students since it ensures solid and sequential progress from using simple words to complex sentences. This phenomenon is connected to the way we learn our L1. Additionally, knowing our own learning styles can be beneficial, not only for language learning but for learning in general. Nowadays, we cannot imagine any lesson preparation or discussion of competences if we do not mention Gardner. His Multiple Intelligences theory shows us that all of us are different in the way we approach tasks and learning, so in class we should cater for all these different kinds of intelligences, ensuring that our students do learn and, even more importantly, learn to learn more effectively. 7. Conclusions �The Unknown Language Experience (ULE) seems to be a unique opportunity to develop reflective criticism towards ones’ own learning and teaching processes. If future teachers become accustomed to using reflection thanks to the inclusion of reflective practice offered by participating in a ULE as part of their training, then it is highly probable that they are going to continue doing it in the future. This experiment should enable them to construct their own meanings and to determine their level of reflective engagement, and these findings are going to influence their future teaching and pedagogical abilities. Moreover, this experience should help them to make appropriate decisions in the classroom and to develop the practice of critical thinking as well as the active, on-going habit of reflection. According to Ellis, teacher´s cognition influences highly the way they act, since they hold their own theories about how to learn languages, but sometimes these beliefs come into conflict with something that Woods (cited in Ellis, 2012: 12) has called ‘hotspots´. Due to their participation in the unknown language learning experiment, future teachers have the opportunity to train their own abilities to assess concepts and (mis)conceptions about learning and teaching. Reflective thinking is essential for any teacher, no matter the level of their experience, because if teachers reflect upon the foreign language learning and teaching process, then they can take control and make decisions which will affect the success of their own teaching practice. As a result, teachers should become more skilled or able professionals, and even act as change agents in the educational system. References: Dörnyei, Z. (2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, London: Arnold Ellis, R. (2012). Language Teaching Research and Language Pedagogy. New Jersey, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Flick, U. (2015). Qualitative Inquiry—2.0 At 20? Developments, Trends, and Challenges for the Politics of Research. Qualitative Inquiry, DOI: 1077800415583296, Retrieved from: http://qix.sagepub.com/content/21/7/599, last accessed on 30th October 2015. Öz, H., Demirezen, M., &Pourfeiz, J. (2015). Willingness to Communicate of EFL Learners in Turkish Context. Learning and Individual Differences, 269–275. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2014.12.009, last accessed on 02nd November 2015. Pollard, A. & Collins, J., (2005). Reflective Teaching: Evidence-Informed Professional Practice. New York, NY: Continuum Intl Pub Group. Stronge, J.H. (2002). Qualities of Effective Teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Van Manen, M. (1995). On the Epistemology of Reflective Practice. Teachers And Teaching: Theory and Practice, 1(1), 33-50. DOI: 10.1080/1354060950010104, last accessed on 18th September 2015. Weber, R. P. (Ed.). (1990). Basic Content Analysis (No. 49). London: Sage. Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Wright, G. (2011). Student-Centered Learning in Higher Education. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 23(3), 92-97. Retrieved from: http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE834.pdf, last accessed on 02nd November 2015. �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3256 Title A name given to the resource Pre-service teacher training: motivation, objectives and teaching strategies Author Author Cecic Mladinic, Daniela Abstract A summary of the resource. Trinity College Diploma in TESOL offers a compulsory part of the course titled Unknown Language Learning Experience. It is an assessed part of the course and it accounts for 20% of the final mark. Trainees have to write a language journal guided by a semi- structured questionnaire after observing and participating in four lessons taught in an unknown language. The main objective of this experience is to introduce teaching methodologies and activities suitable for total beginners and to show how to write up a lesson plans and do a contrastive analysis. In 2003 we have organized a course on the island of Gran Canaria training 24 students from the UK, Australia and Spain. Eleven/twelve years after the experience, in 2015, we have asked them the very same questions they had to answer back in 2003 in their journals. This action research procedure has proven the validity of the unknown language experience. The questions we have analysed deal with feeling, motivation, teaching strategies, objectives and techniques. 100% of them valued the experience as a positive one and 40% of them stated that they could follow the lesson precisely because only L2 was used. 100% of the trainees said that they have used the same unknown language teaching strategies since they have considered them as a very useful in language teaching methodology. Due to the success of the experiment we have done trial experiments from 2011- 2013 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria with the main aim to implement the Unknown Language Experience in the core curriculum at the Teacher Training Faculty. Keywords: L2, TESOL, journal, motivation, ULE Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-08 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebb75ff344f26a78888b5e289d07a2da.pdf 2c46f2a3bef61c6af1eebcbe40861656 PDF Text Text Sufiksi perzijskog porijekla u bosanskom jeziku Amela Šehović & Đenita Haverić University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Apstrakt: U radu se istražuje zastupljenost sufiksa perzijskog porijekla u bosanskom jeziku, koji su općenito manje proučavani u poređenju s npr. sufiksima turskog porijekla. Želi se ukazati na činjenicu da oni nisu tako malobrojni, kako bi se moglo činiti, ali nisu ni pretjerano frekventni. Među njima, prisutne su i mnoge samostalne riječi iz perzijskog jezika, koje u našem jeziku imaju funkciju sufiksa, poput perzijskog kar, koje se u našem jeziku realizira kao -ćār/-ćer, i perzijskih hane, name i zade, koji se u našem jeziku ostvaruju kao -(h)ana, nama i -zada. Pored njih, zabilježeni su i sufiksi: -dān/-den, -dār/-tār, -stān i -vān/-van, te sufiks -ane, jedini kojim se izvode prilozi. Cilj rada jeste ukazati i na potrebu njihovog podrobnijeg osvjetljavanja u kontekstu tvorbenog sistema bosanskoga jezika. Ključne riječi: sufiksi, bosanski jezik, perzijski jezik, turski jezik 1. Uvod Mnoge riječi bosanskog jezika izvedene su sufiksima orijentalnog porijekla, među kojima su zasigurno najzastupljeniji sufiksi porijeklom iz turskog jezikai, i to: sufiksi -džija i lija, koji se dodaju na imeničku osnovu, kao i sufiksi -luk, -suz, -baša. Što se tiče pridjeva, oni koji se tvore uz pomoć sufiksa turskog porijekla -liii uglavnom su indeklinabilni i ekspresivni. S druge strane, u bosanskom je jeziku manje proučavana zastupljenost i funkcija sufiksa perzijskog porijekla. Oni nisu tako malobrojni, kako bi se moglo činiti, ali nisu ni pretjerano frekventni. Među njima, prisutne su i izvorne riječi iz perzijskog jezika, koje u našem jeziku imaju funkciju sufiksa, poput perzijskog kar, koje se u našem jeziku realizira kao -ćār/-ćer, i perzijskih xāne, nāme i zāde, koji se u našem jeziku ostvaruju kao -(h)ana, nama i -zada. No, sve one, zbog česte upotrebe, u perzijskom jeziku mogu dobiti i ulogu sufiksa. Pored njih, zabilježeni su i sufiksi: -stān, -dār/-tār, -dān/-den (od perz. -dān) i -vān/van (od perz. -bān). Svim navedenim sufiksima izvode se imenice, a jedini sufiks kojim se izvode prilozi je sufiks -ane od perz. -āne. U nastavku slijedi podrobnija analiza navedenih sufiksa poredanih abecednim redoslijedom radi preglednosti. 2. Sufiksi perzijskog porijekla 2.1. Sufiks -(h)ana Sufiks -(h)ana potječe od perzijske riječi xāne – kuća, što se u literaturi ne prepoznaje kao činjenica te se ovaj sufiks često ubraja u sufikse turskog porijekla (Nikolić, 1972: 133, 1 �Radić, 2001: 79, Ćorić, 2008: 195). S druge strane, Klajn ga tretira kao perzijsko-tursko hane (2003:39), što također nije potpuno precizno. U perzijskom je jeziku ova riječ nesumnjivo imenica i služi za tvorbu složenica, ali je zbog česte upotrebe dobila i ulogu sufiksa u značenju mjesta obavljanja neke radnje ili općenito lokacije, npr. qahwexāne – kafana, ċāyxāne – čajdžinica (Afšār, 1996: 474). U bosanskom jeziku ovaj se sufiks uglavnom realizira sa etimološkim h, za razliku od srpskog i hrvatskog jezika, u kojima je to mnogo rjeđi slučaj.Porijeklo od riječi koja u perzijskom jeziku označava kuću utjecalo je na razvoj mjesnoga karaktera ovoga sufiksa. U skladu s tim, primarno tvorbeno-semantičko značenje leksema sa ovim sufiksom je značenje mjesta, i to: a) ustanova i drugih objekata opće namjene: dershana, đumrukhana, islahana, kiraethana, kutubhana, menzilhana, musafirhana, tefterhana (defterhana), telegrafhana; b) vjerskih objekata i prostora: abdesthana – 'posebna prostorija u džamijama i starim bosanskim kućama gdje se uzima abdest'iii, čifuthana – 'jevrejska bogomolja; sinagoga', gasulhana, muvekithana, semahana; c) skladišta: barutana – 'zgrada u kojoj se čuva barut, spremište baruta', čulhana, saručhana, tophana– 'skladište oružja, municije i vojne opreme; arsenal'; d) ugostiteljskih objekata: kafana (kahvana), mehana (mejhana); e) kuća i prostorija: čifuthana – 'jevrejska kuća', dembelhana, divanhana, hošafhana, sandukhana, te mjesta za proizvodnju: barutana – 'fabrika za proizvodnju baruta', ćerhana, ćumurana (ćumurhana) – 'jama ili peć u kojoj se paljenjem drva dobija ćumur, drveni ugalj', tabakhana (tabhana), tarafhana (taraphana), tophana – 'fabrika za izradu topova' i prodaju čega: ćumurana (ćumurhana) – 'mjesto gde se prodaje ćumur', edžzahana. Kao što se može primijetiti, neke od navedenih leksema su polisemične – one mogu označavati mjesto za skladištenje ali i proizvodnju čega: barutana, tophana; predmet ali i mjesto za prodaju čega: ćumurana (ćumurhana), na temelju čega možemo konstatirati da u ovim primjerima dolazi do semantičkog preklapanjaiv. Rijetko, ovaj sufiks može biti upotrijebljen za tvorbu leksema sa značenjem predmeta: dabulhana– 'neki od instrumenata (ob. po jedan ili po dva) koji ulaze u sastav vojne muzike (daulbas ili talambas, bubnjevi i zurle)', džebhana, šešana (šišana) te nekih apstraktnih pojmova: dabulhana – 'vojna muzika koja se sastoji od daulbasa ili talambasa, bubnjeva i zurli; općenito, bučna muzika, svirka', mehterhana (mekterhana). Primjeri poput lekseme dabulhana privlače posebnu pažnju budući da se njom istovremeno označavaju i konkretni predmeti i apstraktni pojmovi. U prikupljenom korpusu rijetki su razgovorni i žargonski primjeri, poput lekseme tarapana. Lekseme sa ovim sufiksom tvore se od imeničkih osnova, rjeđe od brojnih osnova stranog porijekla, koje su u našem jeziku leksikalizirane: šešana. Imeničke osnove mogu biti porijeklom iz perzijskog jezika ili nekih drugih jezika (arapskog, turskog, grčkog, latinskog, hebrejskog). U prvu grupu spadaju sljedeći primjeri: abdesthana, ćerhana zast., dembelhana zast., divanhana arhit., hošafhana, mehana (mejhana) – 'razg. pejor.ugostiteljski objekt neuređenog interijera i skromne ponude jela i pića;birtija', mehterhana (mekterhana) zast., šešana (šišana). Drugu grupu čine sljedeće lekseme: barutana (baruthana), čifuthana zast. pejor., čulhana, ćumurhana zast., ćumurana, dabulhana zast. muz., dershana zast., džebhana zast., đumrukhana zast., edžzahana zast., gasulhana isl., islahana hist., kafana (kahvana), kiraethana zast., kutubhana zast., menzilhana hist., musafirhana hist. ekspr., muvekithana, 2 �sandukhana, saračhana, semahana, tabakhana (tabana), tarafhana (taraphana) zast., tarapana – '1. razg. ekspr.gužva, metež, gungula 2. žarg.tučnjava, tuča', tefterhana (defterhana) zast., telegrafhana zast., tophana zast. Iako su primjeri iz prve grupe manje brojni, zanimljivo je da je među njima nekoliko leksema koje su i danas dio aktivne leksike u bosanskom jeziku, za razliku od primjera iz druge grupe, koji su mahom arhaizmi i historizmi. Osnove na koje se dodaje ovaj sufiks su pune, vrlo rijetko okrnjene: tabhana. Iz svega navedenog proizlazi da zaključak P. Radića kako u tvorbenom sistemu srpskog književnog jezika ovaj sufiks ima uglavnom perifernu ulogu (2001: 85) ne vrijedi i za bosanski jezik, u kojem on ima primjetniji udio. 2.2. Sufiks -ane Sufiks -ane izveden je od perzijskog -āne, koje uglavnom služi za tvorbu priloga načina, npr. bozorgāne – veličanstveno. Iako se on u perzijskom jeziku može dodavati i na imenice i tako obrazovati pridjeve, npr. mardāne – muški, u našem se jeziku njim primarno izvode prilozi, čime se on izdvaja među sufiksima analiziranim u ovom radu, kojima se gotovo isključivo izvode imenicev. Specifičnost ovog sufiksa, koji također nije zabilježen niti u jednoj od konsultiranih monografija (Babić 1986, Klajn 2003, Radić 2001, Vajzović 1999), jeste da se on dodaje primarno na pridjevske a manje na imeničke osnove. Od pridjevskih su osnova izvedene lekseme: gaibane, hakikane, halisane, nazićane, usulane, sve od osnova arapskog porijekla. Izuzetak je leksema nazićane, koja je perzijskog porijekla, kao i prilog dervišane, koji je izveden od imeničke osnove. Ekspresivan je prilog hakikane, rijetko se upotrebljava halisane, dok je arhaično usulane. Na temelju rečenog, zaključujemo da u bosanskom jeziku ovaj sufiks ima perifernu ulogu. Prilozi izvedeni ovim sufiksom redovno imaju dugouzlazni akcent na prvom slogu ovog dvosložnog sufiksa. 2.3. Sufiks -ćār/-ćer Sufiks -ćār/-ćer zabilježen je u rijetkim monografijama (Vajzović, 1999: 158) i radovima (Pranjković, 2002: 17), ali bez ikakvog dodatnog opisa. Babić bilježi samo sufiks ćār (1986: 103), a ilustrira ga jednim primjerom – leksemom zulumćar. Ovaj je sufiks, u našem jeziku s dvjema varijantama, postao od perzijske imenice kar, koja označava rad, posao a služi za tvorbu složenica. Ona u perzijskom jeziku ima i funkciju sufiksa, i to participskog sufiksa, koji pokazuje vršioca radnje ili nosioca zanimanja, npr. daryākar – mornar, ali imai značenje nosioca osobine (Afšār, 1996: 876/877), npr. ziyānkār – zijanćer, štetočina, gonāhkār – grešnik. U našem jeziku primarno tvorbeno-semantičko značenje ovoga sufiksa je značenje nosilac osobine (nomina attributiva), atoj grupi pripadaju sljedeće lekseme: đunahćar, hilećar. Sve su one arhaične. U nomina agentis spada ekspresivno hizmećar, dok se u zijanćer i zulumćar prepliću navedena dva značenja. Sve su ove lekseme nastale od imeničkih osnova, uglavnom arapskog porijekla, sa izuzetkom dviju leksema – đunahćar i zijanćer – koje imaju imeničku osnovu iz perzijskog jezika. Razgovornom stilu pripada ekspresivno zijanćer. 2.4. Sufiks -dān/-den 3 �Sufiks -dān/-den, porijeklom od perzijskog sufiksa -dān, ima perifernu ulogu u bosanskom jeziku, što može biti objašnjenje zašto nije zabilježen niti u jednoj od konsultiranih monografija (Babić 1986, Klajn 2003, Radić 2001, Vajzović 1999). U perzijskom jeziku služi za tvorbu imenica koje u najvećem broju primjera označavaju neke posude, npr. sormedān – posudica za surmu, odnosno općenito predmete, npr. šamʻdān – svijećnjak. To je onda preneseno i u bosanski jezik, u kojem primarno označava predmete: džamadan (džemadan), džuzdan, đulevden, surmedan, šemidan. Neke su od ovih leksema arhaične: džuzdan, šemidan, a druge označavaju predmete koji pripadaju etnološkoj sferi: džamadan (džemadan) –'etnol.muškizatvoreniprslukkoji se oblači na anteriju ili košulju i preklapa se na prsima, izrađen je od čohe ili kadife, a ukrašen gajtanima, srmom i sl.', đulevden. Jedina leksema koja označava osobu, i to nomina attributiva, je hanedan. Leksema surmedan ima i svoj sinonim, sa istovjetnim oblikom, proširenim sufiksom turskog porijekla luk: surmedanluk. Sve su ove lekseme nastale od imeničkih osnova, većinom arapskog: džuzdan, šemidan i perzijskog porijekla: džamadan (džemadan), đulevden, hanedan, a izuzetno turskog porijekla: surmedan. 2.5. Sufiks -dār/-tār Sufiks -dār/-tār zabilježen je u rijetkim monografijama (Vajzović, 1999: 158, Radić, 2001: 104–105) i radovima (Pranjković, 2002: 17), bez ikakvog dodatnog opisa. Ovaj je sufiks postao od perzijskog sufiksa -dār/-tār, koji je participski sufiks, a uglavnom dolazi na preteritske osnove i obrazuje imenice koje označavaju vršioca radnje, npr. xarīdār – kupac, forūxtār – prodavač. Također dolazi na imenice i označava onoga koji nešto posjeduje te onoga koji nešto čuva, npr. pūldār – bogataš, xa(e)zānedār – rizničar (Afšār, 1996: 515). U skladu s tim, primarno tvorbeno-semantičko značenje ovog sufiksa i u našem jeziku je značenje vršioca radnje, bilo da ostvaruje ono što je u osnovi izvedenice ili se time bavi. Kao historizmi su obilježene sljedeće lekseme: bajraktar (barjaktar), čohodar, haznadar, muhurdar, serdar, silahdar, arhaizmi su: haberdar – 'onaj koji donosi kakvu vijest, glas;glasnik, glasonoša,vjesnik' i tahsildar, dok je razgovorna leksema čuvadar. Značenje nosioca osobine zastupljeno je u arhaizmu hisedar. Manje je zastupljeno značenje predmeta: džeferdar, haberdar– 'ono čime se što oglašava (top ili puška kojima se daje znak da što počinje, npr. iftar)'. Ova je izvedenica poslužila kao osnova za novi derivat – leksemu haberdarka. Kao što se može primijetiti, u našem su jeziku pretežno zabilježeni primjeri sa sufiksom -dār. Ipak, neki derivatolozi bilježe isključivo rjeđu varijantu -tār, poput Babića (1986: 103), i to u riječi barjaktar, dok je u našem korpusu zabilježen još samo jedan primjer s ovim sufiksom, a to je sandžaktar, sa istim značenjem zastavnika. Općenito, ovaj se sufiks dodaje na imeničke osnove iz orijentalnih jezikavi, sa rijetkim izuzecima od tog pravila, a to su lekseme tefterdar (defterdar) i čuvadar. Prva je od imeničke osnove ali iz grčkog jezika, dok je drugoj osnova glagolska, i to iz bosanskog jezika, od glagola čuvati, po čemu je klasični primjer hibridne lekseme, koja se javlja u razgovornom stilu bosanskog jezika. 4 �Sve lekseme s ovim sufiksom pripadaju imenicama izuzev lekseme havadar, koja je pridjevska. I pored toga što je ovaj pridjev arhaičan, tvorbeno je zanimljiva sama činjenica da od imeničke osnove i ovog sufiksa u našem jeziku nastaje nepromjenljivi pridjev. 2.6. Sufiks -nama Sufiks -nama nije zabilježen niti u jednoj od konsultiranih monografija (Babić 1986, Vajzović 1999, Radić 2001, Klajn 2003), što ne osporava njegovu prisutnost u jeziku. Vjerovatni razlog takvoj praksi je činjenica da se ovaj sufiks mahom pojavljuje u historizmima i arhaizmima, zbog čega ima perifernu ulogu u savremenom bosanskom jeziku. No, imajući u vidu činjenicu da u ovom radu istražujemo formante perzijskog porijekla u tvorbenom sistemu bosanskog jezika, neophodnost uključivanja i sufiksa sa perifernom ulogom u savremenom jeziku, kakav je sufiks -nama, postaje neupitna. On je izveden od perz. imenice nāme – pismo, koja služi za tvorbu složenica, ali može imati i funkciju sufiksa, kada označava neko pisanje ili knjigu koja se odnosi na neku temu, npr. rezāyatnāme – svjedodžba, uvjerenje, sougandnāme – tekst zakletve (Afšār, 1996: 1112). Značenje iz perzijskog jezika odredilo je osnovno tvorbeno-semantičko značenje leksema sa ovim sufiksom u bosanskom jeziku, a to je značenje kakve knjige, dokumenta i sl. Administrativno-pravnoga karaktera su historizmi: ahdnama, idžazetnama, izunama – 'isl. ovlaštenje koje izdaje šerijatski sudija imamu – matičaru da može obaviti vjenčanje po šerijatskim zakonima', kanunama, vakufnama, a u značenjskoj vezi s njima su i historizmi emernama i izunama–'hist. pismena dozvola; ovlaštenje' te arhaizmi šehadetnama i vasijetnama. Različite vrste knjiga označavaju sljedeće lekseme arhaizmi: jilduznama, ruznama, sejahatnama, tabirnama. S tim su značenjem blisko povezane i lekseme salnama, tebriknama. Jedina apstraktna leksema s ovim sufiksom je pejorativni arhaizam tandrnama, gdje glasovni sastav osnove također doprinosi razvoju pejorativnog značenja. Osnova na koju se dodaje ovaj sufiks mahom potječe iz arapskog jezika, a u manjoj mjeri iz perzijskog, turskog i grčkog. Što se tiče akcenta, imenice izvedene ovim sufiksom redovno imaju dugouzlazni akcent na prvom slogu ovog dvosložnog sufiksa. 2.7. Sufiks -stān Još jedan iz plejade malo poznatih sufiksa perzijskog porijekla je i sufiks -stān, koji je zabilježen u rijetkim monografijama (Vajzović, 1999: 158) i radovima (Pranjković, 2002: 17), bez ikakvog dodatnog opisa. Kako ovaj sufiks u perzijskom jeziku primarno služi za tvorbu imenica mjesta i država: npr. golestān– ružičnjak, Hendūstān – Indija, te, u nekoliko slučajeva, za tvorbu imenica vremena, npr. tābestān – ljeto, i u našem je jeziku primarno tvorbeno-semantičko značenje leksema sa ovim sufiksom značenje mjesta, i to mjesta na kojem se nalazi ono što je u osnovi polazišne lekseme: đulistan, kabristan, mezaristan, odnosno na kojem se prodaje ono što je u njenoj osnovi: bezistan. Osnovu uvijek čine imenice, i to iz arapskog jezika, sa jedinim primjerom gdje su i osnova i sufiks perzijskog porijekla: đulistan. I pored malobrojnosti leksema sa ovim sufiksom, treba primijetiti da su neke od njih vrlo frekventne u bosanskom jeziku, kao aktuelni nazivi pojedinih objekata (bezistan), dok su druge karakteristične za jezik književnosti (đulistan) i ekspresivan način izražavanja (mezaristan). Arhaična je leksema kabristan. 2.8. Sufiks -vān/-van 5 �Ovaj je sufiks izveden od perzijskogsufiksa -bān, koji označava vršioca radnje i nosioca zanimanja, npr. bāġbān – baštovan, pāsbān – policajac. Spominju ga Vajzović (1999: 158) i Pranjković (2002: 17) i za njega navode primjere: baštovan, pehlivan, kojima Pranjković dodaje i gedžovan (Ibidem). U našem su korpusu dvije imenice izvedene sufiksom -vān/-van: baštovani sajvan, od kojih prva označava vršioca radnje, a druga, koja je arhaična, predmet. Što se tiče lekseme pehlivan, smatramo da ona nije izvedena ovim sufiksom budući da u perzijskom jeziku ona glasi pahlawān– 'heroj, junak; atleta; onaj koji je hrabar, odvažan' i izvedena je od imenice pahlaw(-ow) – geogr. Partavii i sufiksa -ān. 2.9. Sufiks -zada Slično sufiksu -nama, ni ovaj sufiks nije zabilježen niti u jednoj od konsultiranih monografija (Babić 1986, Vajzović 1999, Radić 2001, Klajn 2003), vjerovatno iz istog razloga kao u prethodnom slučaju – on je u korpusu vrlo malo zastupljen, čak u mnogo manjoj mjeri u poređenju sa sufiksom -nama. Naime, sufiks -zada se pojavljuje u svega tri riječi, od kojih su dvije arhaizmi, a osnova im je iz arapskog (haramzada) i turskog (odžakzada) jezika, ne iz perzijskog. Jedina leksema koja se upotrebljava i danas jest leksema šeherzada, u čijoj tvorbi učestvuje i osnova i sufiks perzijskog porijekla. Ona se u bosanskom jeziku upotrebljava kao vlastito ime, a moguće je da je njenoj popularizaciji u funkciji vlastitog imena doprinijela činjenica da se tako zove junakinja djela 1001 noć. Dakle, i ovaj sufiks ima perifernu ulogu u savremenom bosanskom jeziku, ali ga svakako uključujemo u ovo istraživanje formanata perzijskog porijekla u tvorbenom sistemu bosanskog jezika. Sufiks -zada izveden je od perz. imenice zāde– rođen; dijete, potomak, koja služi za tvorbu složenica, ali je zbog česte upotrebe dobila i ulogu sufiksa.Uglavnom se upotrebljava kao dio prezimena, npr. Hasanzāde (Afšār, 1996: 621). Osnovno značenje osobe koja je rođena, odnosno potomka, utjecalo je i na izvođenje istog tvorbeno-semantičkog značenja leksema sa ovim sufiksom u bosanskom jeziku. Na prozodijskom planu, imenice izvedene ovim sufiksom redovno imaju dugouzlazni akcent na prvom slogu ovog dvosložnog sufiksa. 3. Zaključak Bosanski je jezik u sufiksalnoj ulozi prihvatio neke samostalne riječi (imenice) iz perzijskog jezika, koje u tom jeziku mogu služiti za tvorbu složenica, ali zbog česte upotrebe mogu dobiti i ulogu sufiksa. Takve su imenice: perzijsko kar, koje se u našem jeziku realizira kao -ćār/-ćer, i perzijsko xāne, nāme i zāde, koji se u našem jeziku realiziraju kao -(h)ana, nama i -zada. Pored njih, zabilježeni su i sufiksi: -stān, -dār/-tār, -dān/-den (od perz. -dān) i vān/-van (od perz. -bān). Jedini sufiks kojim se izvode prilozi je sufiks -ane od perz. -āne. Svi oni uglavnom su se adaptirali jeziku primaocu, odnosno bosanskom jeziku. I pored nesumnjive arhaičnosti osnova na koje se dodaju ali i samih sufiksa, njihovo podrobnije osvjetljavanje predstavlja imperativ za sve koji se bave leksikologijom i tvorbom riječi bosanskog jezika. Reference: 6 �Afšār, Ġolāmhoseyn Sadrī; Hakāmī, Nasrūn; Hakāmī Nastaran (1996). Farhang-e fārsī-ye emrūz (Rječnik savremenog perzijskog jezika). Teheran: Moʼassese-ye Našr-e kaleme. Babić, Stjepan (1986). Tvorba riječi u hrvatskom književnom jeziku. Zagreb: Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti – Globus. Ćorić, Božo (2008). Tvorba imenica u srpskom jeziku. Beograd: Društvo za srpski jezik i književnost Srbije. Klajn, Ivan (2003). Tvorba reči u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Deo drugi, Sufiksacija i konverzija. Beograd – Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva – Institut za srpski jezik SANU – Matica srpska. Nikolić, Berislav (1972). „Akcenatske adaptacije stranih reči u savremenom srpskohrvatskom književnom jeziku”. Književnost i jezik. 2‒3. Str. 133‒135. Pranjković, Ivo (2002). „Hrvatski i orijentalni jezici”. Zbornik Zagrebačke slavističke škole. Zagreb: Filozofski fakultet. Str. 16‒28. Radić, Prvoslav (2001). Turski sufiksi u srpskom jeziku sa osvrtom na stanje u makedonskom i bugarskom. Beograd: Institut za srpski jezik SANU. Vajzović, Hanka (1999). Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu: lingvistička analiza. Sarajevo: Institut za jezik i Orijentalni institut. i Vajzović, 1999: 154. ii To je kompromisna replika. Značenja navedenih leksema data su samo za lekseme koje mogu imati dva ili više različitih značenja. Pri iii tome, lekseme i njihova tumačenja preuzeti su iz neobjavljenog rječnika riječi perzijskog porijekla u bosanskom jeziku autorica teksta. iv Više o ovome u Radić, 2001: 83. v Jedini je izuzetak leksema havadar, o kojoj govorimo u nastavku, u cjelini 2.5. vi Najviše je osnova iz arapskog jezika, i to u sljedećim leksemama: haberdar, havadar, haznadar, hisedar, silahdar, tahsildar, turbedar; iz perzijskog su jezika: čohodar, džeferdar, muhurdar, serdar, a najmanje je leksema s osnovom iz turskog jezika: bajraktar, sandžaktar. vii Parti, istočnoiranski narod, u legendama i pričama opjevan po izuzetnoj hrabrosti, najviše u čuvenom nacionalnom epu Šahnami. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3255 Title A name given to the resource Sufiksi perzijskog porijekla u bosanskom jeziku Author Author Šehović, Amela Haverić, Dženita Abstract A summary of the resource. U radu se istražuje zastupljenost sufiksa perzijskog porijekla u bosanskom jeziku, koji su općenito manje proučavani u poređenju s npr. sufiksima turskog porijekla. Želi se ukazati na činjenicu da oni nisu tako malobrojni, kako bi se moglo činiti, ali nisu ni pretjerano frekventni. Među njima, prisutne su i mnoge samostalne riječi iz perzijskog jezika, koje u našem jeziku imaju funkciju sufiksa, poput perzijskog kar, koje se u našem jeziku realizira kao -ćār/-ćer, i perzijskih hane, name i zade, koji se u našem jeziku ostvaruju kao -(h)ana, -nama i -zada. Pored njih, zabilježeni su i sufiksi: -dān/-den, -dār/-tār, -stān i -vān/-van, te sufiks -ane, jedini kojim se izvode prilozi. Cilj rada jeste ukazati i na potrebu njihovog podrobnijeg osvjetljavanja u kontekstu tvorbenog sistema bosanskoga jezika. Ključne riječi: sufiksi, bosanski jezik, perzijski jezik, turski jezik Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-05 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d9fa87b6bf8f0be98000ba044aa197a.pdf 3444c97dfdf6f1050db017608f5849a9 PDF Text Text Motivation versus age variable in secondary-school learners of English language Aida Terzić International University Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Motivation is probably the most important factor for successful learning of any kind. This paper will attempt to explore the process of motivation for English language learning in secondary school learners considering the variable of age - its application or lack of it through the learning process itself, relevant factors which affect students, teacher’s role, the influence of parents, peers, and the environment, and to prove the hypotheses that a) motivation changes and decreases with the change of age in secondary school learners; and b) extrinsic motivation is more present than intrinsic motivation at secondary school level. This research problem will be examined through the method of questionnaire on the sample of 100 respondents – secondary school students (from first grade up to the fourth grade) of High Commercial School in Travnik. The paper will also attempt to discuss the types of motivation, types of learners, learners’ age, environment etc. and other learners’ variables, both through the recent theoretical studies regarding motivation in general (a detailed description of sources, characteristics and types of motivation), and, also, it will try to present a practical sample research of a decrease in motivation that starts at the upper-primary level and tends to decrease through the secondary level. Key words: Motivation, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, language learners, age variable 1. Introduction Motivation is a key factor in learning process of any kind, and it is certainly one of the main factors that affect Second Language Acquisition (SLA). It is no wonder, therefore, that many studies have been dedicated to the exploration of the issue of motivation, its origins and classifications, as well as to the means and ways of improving it within the classroom. As Jeremy Harmer (2001) puts it, “at its most basic level, motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something.” (p. 51). Since motivation is obviously an important concept, particularly in language learning (since this aspect is the major concern of this paper) it seems only logical and sensible to strive to the further understanding of this concept. There have been many practical studies reported on the research of motivation and its practical implementation amongst language learners of various age, but, again, it is the opinion of the author of this paper, that an important concept such as this one needs to be constantly researched in the light of modern developments in the field. 1 �1.1.Objectives of the study This paper will attempt to explore the process of motivation for English language learning in secondary school learners. We will discuss types and sources of motivation, characteristics of good learners, the variable of learners’ age, environment, peers, siblings and parents, teacher’s influence, as well as other learners’ variables that relate to extrinsic motivation, as well as the variables of intrinsic motivation in the recent theoretical studies; and also, we will attempt to prove our hypothesis that the age variable has a major impact on the change and decrease of motivation in secondary school learners, as well as the hypothesis that extrinsic motivation and its incitements in the classroom are more present amongst these learners than the intrinsic incitements. 1.2.Research questions and hypotheses As previously stated, we will attempt to research motivation for English language learning amongst secondary school learners, considering the variable of age, as well as the importance of extrinsic motivation over intrinsic motivation. The paper will attempt to answer the two key questions considered here: a) Motivation changes and decreases with the change of age in secondary school learners; b) Extrinsic motivation is more present than intrinsic motivation at secondary school level learners. 1.3.Scope of the study The study was conducted with the samples selected from the first, second, third and fourth grade of students of High Commercial School in Travnik, to explore the variation in motivation and to explore the dominant motivation in their English language learning. The data for this study was obtained through the questionnaire administered to the total number of 100 students. Identifying the change and decrease of motivation with the change of age, we may be able to formulate measures for improvement of their learning motivation, for the purposes of better learning success. Their type of motivation could be identified at this first point to assist them through their successful path of learning English. 2. Review of Literature 2.1.What is motivation? There are many different definitions of motivation, especially in language learning. And it is no wonder, since we have already ascertained the importance of the concept for any type of 2 �successful learning, including language learning. In addition to the previously cited Harmer’s definition of motivation being a “some sort of internal drive”, Marion Williams and Richard Burden suggest that motivation is a “state of cognitive arousal” which provokes a “decision to act” as a result of which there is “sustained intellectual and/or physical effort” so that the person can achieve some “previously set goal”(Harmer, 2001, p.51). Gardner (1985), in his socio-educational model, notes that “motivation is perceived to be composed of three elements…. effort, desire, and affect” (p.10-11) (effort being the time spent studying the language and the drive of the learner; desire indicating how much the learner wants to become proficient in the language; and, finally, affect meaning the learner’s emotional reactions related to language study). Penny Ur (2002), however, believes that the abstract term “motivation” on its own is rather difficult to define, therefore she stipulates that “it is easier and more useful to think in terms of the “motivated” learner: one who is willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress.(p. 274) 2.2.Sources of motivation Now that we have attempted to answer the question of what motivation is, we need to ask ourselves the following: where does it come from, namely, what are the sources of motivation? As Jeremy Harmer (2001) argues, “the motivation that brings students to the task of learning English can be affected and influenced by the attitude of a number of people.” (p. 51). He further offers several sources of motivation: the society we live in; significant others; the teacher; and the method. 2.3.What makes a good learner? When it comes to discussing the features or characteristics of good or successful learner, many studies have been conducted in this field as well. Neil Naiman and his colleagues, in a classic study of successful language learning, came to the conclusion that the most successful learners are not necessarily those to whom a language comes very easily (Ur, 2002, p. 275). They included several areas, or typical characteristics that successful learners display, including: positive task orientation; ego-involvement; high aspirations; goal orientation; perseverance and tolerance of ambiguity. Now that we know what makes a good or successful learner, we will dedicate the following chapter of this paper to investigating the variable of learners’ age, with the special focus on the adolescents (secondary school students), since this variable is of the key interest to this study. Next, the following chapters will further discuss the types of motivation in general, with the special attention to the features of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, these being, again, of the key interest to this study. 2.4.The variable of learners’ age 3 �The effects of age on SLA have been often investigated by different scholars in the field of Second Language Acquisition, and many debates have covered this particular issue. And no wonder, since it is most certainly a major factor in making decisions on how to teach and what to teach – because, obviously, “people of different ages have different needs, competences, and cognitive skills; we might expect children of primary age to acquire much of a foreign language through play, for example, whereas for adults we can reasonably expect a greater use of abstract thought.”(Harmer, 2001, p.37) The main focus of this particular study is to try to find out the age effect on English language learning amongst secondary school learners, where we will try to prove that motivation changes and decreases with the change of age, as Steven Pinker (1994) points it out, “acquisition of a normal language is guaranteed for children up to the age of six, is steadily compromised from then until shortly after puberty, and is rare thereafter”, and further continues to argue that, “language-learning circuitry of the brain is more plastic in childhood” (p. 293). This is only one of commonly held views about the variable of age in SLA, where majority of scholars believe that children learn languages faster than adults do. Also, Muriel Saville-Troike (2006) argues that there is a “critical period” for first language acquisition, where children have only a limited number of years when normal acquisition is possible, and that, after this period, brain loses its plasticity (p. 82). However, Penny Ur (2002) argues that “given the same amount of exposure to a foreign language, there is some evidence that the older the child the more effectively he or she learns”, and she additionally asserts that “probably teenagers are overall the best learners” (p. 286). She continues to argue that teenagers have greater learning potential than young children, however, it is much more difficult to motivate and manage them. Additionally, Jeremy Harmer (2001) says that “teenagers, if they are engaged, have a great capacity to learn, a great potential for creativity, and a passionate commitment to things which interest them”, and, that it is teacher’s job to “provoke student engagement with material which is relevant and involving” (p. 39). When we consider those aforementioned arguments which state that teenagers are, in fact, the best learners, it inevitably raises the question of why are adolescents often difficult to manage, disruptive in class and unmotivated to learn foreign languages? Perhaps one of the reasons lies in the fact that adolescence is the period of “the search for individual identity….which has to be forged among classmates and friends; peer approval may be considerably more important for the student….”(Harmer, 2001, p. 39). Perhaps it also has something to do with the mere boredom they feel, or the problems they bring to class from outside school. Whatever the reasons may be, this paper will attempt to find out what are some of the key motivational factors amongst teenage English language learners, and also to find out to what extent their motivation changes and decreases as they progress through secondary school and grow older. 2.5.Types of motivation 4 �Since the objective of this paper is to investigate the factors that influence secondary school learners’ English language learning, including the change in motivation through their age, in the following paragraphs we will discuss the accepted distinctions of motivation. There have been several distinctions of motivation made in the literature; the first one being between “integrative”(an interest in learning second language due to learning about or associating with the people who use it - emotional or affective factors have a great deal) and “instrumental”(involves concepts of purely practical value in learning second language in order to increase learners’ career or business opportunities) motivation(Saville-Troike,2006, p. 86).Additionally, Stephen D Krashen (2002) claims that “for the integratively motivated performer, interaction for its own sake will be valued… (whereas) for the instrumentally motivated performer, interaction always has some practical purpose.” The second major distinction, or classification of motivation, (and perhaps more useful one for teachers) is the one between “extrinsic” and “intrinsic” motivation (Ur, 2002, p. 276). Since this paper is primarily concerned with this classification of motivation, we shall further look into the features of these two types of motivation in the following chapters. 2.6.Extrinsic motivation – features As the name itself says it, it is a type of motivation which is derived from the influence of some kind of external incentive. As Jeremy Harmer (2007) puts it, this kind of motivation “comes from outside the classroom and may be influenced by a number of external factors such as the attitude of society, family and peers” (p.20), and continues on to saying that (2001) “it is caused by any number of outside factors, for example, the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel” (p. 51). So, as we can see, actually both integrative and instrumental motivations are hereby grouped under the branch of the extrinsic motivation. Since it involves incentives that are brought into the classroom from outside, most of these are inaccessible to the teacher’s influence. There are, however, other external sources that are directly affected by the teacher, and some of them include success and its rewards (a desire to get a reward and avoid punishment); failure and its penalties; authoritative demands (teacher pressure); and tests and competition (to beat their opponents) (Ur, 2002, p. 277-279). Finally, we could say that “extrinsic motivation comes from the desire to get a reward or avoid punishment” (Arnold, 2000, p. 14), however, especially for long-term retention; Arnold argues that learning is most favourably influenced by intrinsic incitements. Majority of schools, it seems, encourage only extrinsic motivation through their emphasis on teacherdirected classroom, grades, tests and competitiveness, and this leads students to work to please teachers or authorities, rather than to develop a love of knowledge in independent minds. In our research, we will try to prove that secondary school learners are generally more motivated extrinsically, than intrinsically, and we will try to find out which of the extrinsic incitements have the major influence on the second language learning. 5 �2.7.Intrinsic motivation – features Intrinsic motivation arises from within the individual, which is the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake, and is associated with what has been termed “cognitive drive” (Ur, 2002, p. 276) – the urge to learn for its own sake, which is very typical of young children and tends to deteriorate with age. Also, intrinsically motivated person enjoys the learning process itself or desires to make himself/herself feel better. What most researchers and methodologists have come to understand is that “intrinsic motivation is especially important for encouraging success” (Harmer, 2001, p. 51). Besides the desire to learn for the sake of learning itself, Jeremy Harmer (2007) says that intrinsic motivation can occur within the classroom as well in the sense that “it is generated by what happens inside the classroom; this could be the teacher’s methods, the activities that students take part in, or their perception of their success or failure” (p. 20). As Jane Arnold (2000) puts it, “with intrinsic motivation the learning experience is its own reward” (p. 14), and, as already mentioned, intrinsic motivation is better for long-term retention, where language learners will succeed better when intrinsic forms of motivation are developed, in which they learn for their own personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy. In this paper we will try to prove that the level of intrinsic motivation within secondary school English language learners does, in fact, deteriorate with age, and that it is far less present than extrinsic motivation. 3. Research Methodology 3.1.Participants The research problem will be examined on the sample of 100 respondents – secondary school students that will include students from first grade up to the fourth grade of High Commercial School in Travnik. The selected sample has the following features: - Total number of respondents is 100 students of High Commercial School in Travnik – economic technician. The sample includes first grade, second grade, third grade and fourth grade students Male – female ratio is 43-57. 3.2.Research instrument The data for the study will be obtained through the method of questionnaire (a 5 point Likert Scale which was adapted from the original 7-point Likert Scale format of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMI), ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree” (Gardner, 1985, p. 177). Additionally, in order to process attained data, we will use 6 �exploratory research, descriptive statistics, calculation of questionnaire results, as well as the analysis and synthesis, all for the purposes of reaching conclusive data that would support our research objectives and in the end prove our research hypotheses. Data gained in the questionnaire method will be processed by descriptive statistics: calculation of percentages, frequencies and graphic representations of gained data. There were 24 questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was composed of two main parts: the existence and variation (change) and the fluctuation in motivation (items 1-4) and the factors of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (items 1-20). The questionnaire format consists of the following parts: Part 1: Part 2: Part 3: General demographic information of students: sex and age (grade). Students’ motivation variation – the change and decrease in motivation with the change of age in secondary school learners; as well as the fluctuation in motivation – the older the students (grade), the more they preferred learning English in lower grades (when younger). Factors of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in secondary school level learners’ motivation for the purposes of determining the presence of both types of motivation and larger significance of extrinsic motivation over intrinsic; also, to determine which extrinsic motivation factors are more significant. 4. Findings The findings of the study were divided into three main parts: (1.a.) Students’ motivation variation – the change and decrease in motivation with the change of age in secondary school learners; (1.b.) fluctuation in students’ motivation – the older the students, the larger preference for learning English in lower grades; (2) factors of extrinsic motivation (subdivided into three subgroups); and (3) factors of intrinsic motivation. 4.1.The level of students’ motivation and variation in motivation; the fluctuation in students’ motivation according to their age This part of the research represents the level of motivation of secondary school English language learners, starting from first grade up to the fourth grade. As we can see, motivation significantly varies with the change in age of students. First graders have the highest level of motivation (64%), which significantly drops in second grade (only 28%), then rises up in third grade again (44%), and falls once more in fourth grade (38%). From the findings, it is safe to say that motivation for English language learning does in fact changes and decreases with the change of age in secondary school learners. Graph 1 shows the change in motivation: 7 �70,00% 64,00% 60,00% 54,00% 50,00% 44,00% 40,00% 30,00% 40,00% 38,00% 18,00% 20,00% 22,00% Positive Neutral 28,00% 24,00% 20,00% 36,00% Negative 12,00% 10,00% 0,00% First grade Second grade Third grade Fourth grade Graph 1 The level of motivation The second issue examined in this part of the research dealt with the fluctuation in students’ motivation in learning English. The questionnaire examined the fluctuation in motivation in relation to the change of students’ age – the students preferred learning English more in lower grades. First grade students had 30% of positive answers regarding the fluctuation of motivation (which is acceptable, since they demonstrated the highest level of motivation); second grade students had 46% of positive answers (which corresponds to the drop in motivation from the first part); third grade students had 42% of positive answers (again, corresponding to the slight rise in motivation); and, finally, fourth grade students had 32% of positive answers (which corresponds to yet another drop in motivation). Graph 2 shows the fluctuation in motivation: 70,0% 60,0% 58,0% 50,0% 50,0% 46,0% 40,0% 30,0% 44,0% 42,0% 32,0% 30,0% Neutral Negative 20,0% 16,0% 10,0% Positive 38,0% 12,0% 18,0% 14,0% 0,0% First grade Second grade Third grade Fourth grade Graph 2 Fluctuation in motivation in relation to the change of students' age 8 �From the presented findings, it is possible to conclude that the motivation for learning English does in fact changes and decreases with the change of students’ age, which is additionally supported by the fluctuation in motivation in relation to the change of students’ age. Therefore, we can conclude that our first hypothesis has been proven true. 4.2. Factors of extrinsic motivation This part of research was concerned with the presence of extrinsic motivation in secondary school English language learners and the fact that extrinsic motivation is more present than intrinsic motivation. The questionnaire was divided into three subgroups of factors that constitute extrinsic motivation: factors outside of classroom; integrative/instrumental motivation; and factors in the classroom. Here we tried to find out not only the superiority of extrinsic over intrinsic motivation in students, but also to see which extrinsic factors constitute the most important incitements in English language learning. Due to the principle of the economy, we will demonstrate detailed results for factors that highly influence students’ extrinsic motivation; whereas those factors that do not contribute significantly will be abbreviated. The first subgroup of factors (outside of classroom) concerned positive attitudes of the environment, of parents and siblings regarding learning English. Picture 1 shows the total percentage of positive attitude of the environment towards learning English for all grades (from first to fourth), where, as we can see, 50% of students responded positively to the attitude of the environment towards learning English, which means that students consider this to be a major factor in their learning: Attitude of the environment 24,00% Positive 50,00% Neutral Negative 26,00% Picture1 The total percentage of positive attitude of the environment (1st – 4th grade) 9 �Next factor in the questionnaire considered positive attitudes of parents and siblings regarding learning English. Picture 2 shows the total percentage of positive attitude of parents and siblings towards learning English for all grades (from first to fourth): Attitude of parents and siblings 5,50% 8,00% Positive Neutral Negative 86,50% Picture2 The total percentage of positive attitude of parents and siblings (1st – 4th grade) Here, 86,5% of students responded positively to the question of positive attitude of parents and siblings towards learning English, which also means that this is a factor that students feel has a major importance for their studies. To summarize the results, we believe it is plausible to say that secondary school students are motivated outside the classroom by both the environment and their parents and siblings, the latter being stronger motivational source (over 80%), whereas the influence of the former is also significant (50%). In this part of the questionnaire, we can conclude that the factors of extrinsic motivation outside of the classroom are strongly present in the overall students’ motivation in learning English. The second subgroup of factors (integrative/instrumental motivation) concerned the issues of integrative motivation (learns English to understand English books, music, movies etc.; learns English to make new English-speaking friends); and the issues of instrumental motivation (learns English to get a better job in the future; learns English for travelling abroad). From the results of the questionnaire, it is plausible to conclude that students are highly motivated by both integrative and instrumental factors, former being slightly more expressed in their motivation. 10 �Picture3 shows the total percentage of integrative motivation factors that influence students’ motivation towards learning English for all grades (from first to fourth), where we can see that 87% of students answered positively to the questions regarding integrative motivation factors, which means that they perceive the importance of learning English in order to integrate into and better understand English-speaking communities. We can conclude that integrative motivation also constitutes a major factor in learning English amongst secondary school learners: Integrative motivation 6,50% 6,50% Positive Neutral Negative 87,00% Picture 3 The total percentage of integrative motivation factors (1st – 4th grade) Picture 4 shows the total percentage of instrumental motivation factors that influence students’ motivation towards learning English for all grades (from first to fourth): 11 �Instrumental motivation 4,00% 12,00% Positive Neutral Negative 84,00% Picture 4 The total percentage of instrumental motivation factors (1st – 4th grade) Here, 84% of students responded positively to the questions regarding instrumental motivation factors, which again means that they understand the importance of learning (and knowing) English for their future careers, travel and various skills and knowledge. Once more, we can say that instrumental motivation contributes significantly to the overall extrinsic motivation in learning English amongst secondary school learners. Again, in order to summarize the results, we can say that students are highly motivated by both instrumental and integrative motivation factors, and that these factors contribute highly to their “drive” to learn English. In this part of the questionnaire, we believe it is plausible to conclude that instrumental and integrative factors of extrinsic motivation are also strongly present in the overall students’ motivation in learning English. Finally, the third subgroup of factors (factors in the classroom) concerned the issues of peer influence (positive attitude of peers; mockery of peers; competition amongst peers); teacher’s attitude (positive attitude of teacher towards the subject; teacher’s strict demands); learning only for mark/test; and, finally, learning because of interesting learning materials (the materials are up to date, adopted to teenagers’ interests etc.). From the results of the questionnaire, it is plausible to conclude that students are, in the classroom, mostly motivated by the teacher’s attitude and by their marks, whereas other factors in the classroom do exist, but do not seem to contribute highly to the level of students’ extrinsic motivation. As we can see, Picture 5 shows the total percentage of peer influence regarding their positive attitudes towards learning English; the unwillingness of students to participate in English classes due to the fear of peer mockery, and, finally, competition amongst peers as an extrinsic incitement for students: 12 �Peer influence 26,00% Positive Neutral 50,00% Negative 24,00% Picture 5 The total percentage of peer influence (positive attitude; mockery; competition) (1st – 4th grade) So, when it comes to the peer influence, according to the results of the questionnaire, we can conclude that it does exist as a motivational factor within the classroom, but, it is not the one of major significance to secondary school English learners. The second factor within the classroom that influences students’ extrinsic motivation was related to learning because of interesting learning materials (that are up to date, interesting, adopted to teenagers’ interests etc.). Once more, students did acknowledge the existence of this factor, but once more did not feel it to be of any significant importance towards their extrinsic motivation. Picture 6 shows the total percentage of the influence of learning materials: 13 �Learning materials 27,00% 38,00% Positive Neutral Negative 35,00% Picture 6 The total percentage of the influence of learning materials (1st – 4th grade) Up to this point of the results, it is plausible to conclude that students do recognize the factors of peer influence and of learning materials, but that they do not feel these factors have any major impact onto their extrinsic motivation for learning of English in classroom. Therefore, it is safe to say that these factors do not contribute significantly to students’ extrinsic motivation. However, the following two factors – teacher’s attitude and demands, as well as their marks – do quite significantly influence their motivation within the classroom. First, we will look at the importance of teacher as being a major factor in student’s motivation. In the questionnaire, the students were asked about teacher’s positive attitude towards the subject, and if they felt that such attitude helps and motivates them to study more; and, secondly, they were asked about the influence of teacher’s strict demands on their motivation. Picture 7 demonstrates the results for all grades regarding teacher’s positive attitude towards the subject; andas we can see from the results, 69% of students felt that teacher’s positive attitude towards the subject significantly influences their motivation to learn English. 14 �Teacher's positive attitude 12,00% Positive 19,00% Neutral Negative 69,00% Picture 7 The total percentage of teacher's positive attitude towards the subject (1st – 4th grade) Second, the students were asked about the influence of teacher’s strict demands as a motivational factor, and to what extent did such demands motivate them to learn English. Picture 8 shows the results for all grades regarding teacher’s strict demands: Teacher's strict demands 39,00% 44,00% Positive Neutral Negative 17,00% Picture 8 The total percentage of teacher's strict demands influencing students' motivation (1st – 4th grade) 15 �As we can see from the results, 44% of students responded positively to the issue of teacher’s strict demands as a factor that influences their own motivation. To summarize the results, the influence of the teacher on students’ motivation is more than evident within the classroom. However, students feel that they are more motivated by the teacher’s positive attitude towards the subject, than by the teacher’s strict demands, even though they recognize this as an influential factor as well. Finally, the last significant extrinsic factor within the classroom is students’ marks. In the questionnaire, the students were asked if they learnt English only for their marks, or when they have tests, and the total results, shown in Picture 9, are as follows: Marks/Tests 30,50% Positive Neutral 54,50% Negative 15,00% Picture 9 The total percentage of students' motivation to learn due to marks or tests (1st – 4th grade) Here, as the results demonstrate, 54,50% of students are motivated by their marks, meaning that they study in order to get a good (or better) mark (tests included). According to the results of the questionnaire, we believe it is plausible to conclude that secondary school students are highly motivated extrinsically. As we said earlier, the objective of this paper is to try to ascertain that this age group is motivated extrinsically more than intrinsically, but also, to try to ascertain which extrinsic factors are more relevant for secondary school learners. From the results of our questionnaire, we can say that students are motivated a) outside the classroom more by their parents and siblings than by their environment; b) they are also highly motivated by instrumental and integrative factors; and c) within the classroom they are mostly motivated by their teacher’s attitude and their marks.From all of the above, 16 �we feel it is safe to conclude that our hypothesis on the level of presence of extrinsic motivation is hereby proven true. The final part of this paper (and of the questionnaire itself) deals with the existence and the level of presence of intrinsic motivation amongst secondary school learners of English. Here, we will try to prove our hypothesis that secondary school students are more motivated extrinsically than intrinsically. The students were asked questions typically assigned to the factors of intrinsic motivation (learning for the pleasure of learning itself; because learning makes me feel good; because I can discover new languages; because I can improve my skills and knowledge etc.), and the results, displayed in Picture 10, are as follows: Intrinsic motivation 24,00% 46,00% Positive Neutral Negative 30,00% Picture 10 The total percenate of students' intrinsic motivation (1st grade – 4th grade) As we can see, only 46, 00% of the total sample of students is motivated intrinsically, which is significantly lower percentage than the factors of their extrinsic motivation. According to the results of our questionnaire, we can say that students are less motivated intrinsically than extrinsically and therefore it is plausible to say that our hypothesis that extrinsic motivation is more present than intrinsic motivation at secondary school learners is hereby proven true. 5. Discussion and Recommendations The overall results reveal that the students’ motivation does in fact change with the change of their age, which answers the research question of what the level of students’ motivation is per each grade. Based on the comparison and assessment of the results, we have 17 �discovered that students are more strongly motivated to learn English by the factors of extrinsic motivation, than by the factors of intrinsic motivation, which also answers our question of higher presence of extrinsic motivation over the intrinsic one. Based on the findings of this study, the results are unique for these particular aimed groups of students, and the study of students in other schools or institutions with largely different context may yield significantly different results. Future research should also include more and various schools and institutions. Additionally, this research obtained the data from 100 students, where we included one class of each grade only, and is therefore recommended that future studies use a larger sample size in order to increase the degree of generalization of the study, and in order to make the findings more valid and reliable. 6. Conclusion As the motivation to learn English is one of the most important learning factors, the need to determine the actual motivational situations of any students’ group is worthwhile. This is for the benefit of their language-learning effectiveness and proficiency. In conclusion, this study was conducted to provide some insight into the level and type of motivation of students in High Commercial School in Travnik. Although the data source of the study may not represent all other student groups, the author of the paper is still confident that the results will give a relative representation and be of a great value to authorities or researchers concerned. References: I Books and Articles Arnold, J. (2000). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold Publishers. Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching, 3rd Edition. Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited. Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited New Edition. Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. New York: Harper Perreinal. Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing Second Language Acquistion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. (2002). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, M. and Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 18 �II Electronic Sources Krasher, Stepen D. (2002). Second Language Acquistion and Second Language Learning. Retrieved from http://testing.greenlitex.com/ 19 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3253 Title A name given to the resource Motivation versus age variable in secondary-school learners of English language Author Author Terzić, Aida Abstract A summary of the resource. Motivation is probably the most important factor for successful learning of any kind. This paper will attempt to explore the process of motivation for English language learning in secondary school learners considering the variable of age - its application or lack of it through the learning process itself, relevant factors which affect students, teacher’s role, the influence of parents, peers, and the environment, and to prove the hypotheses that a) motivation changes and decreases with the change of age in secondary school learners; and b) extrinsic motivation is more present than intrinsic motivation at secondary school level. This research problem will be examined through the method of questionnaire on the sample of 100 respondents – secondary school students (from first grade up to the fourth grade) of High Commercial School in Travnik. The paper will also attempt to discuss the types of motivation, types of learners, learners’ age, environment etc. and other learners’ variables, both through the recent theoretical studies regarding motivation in general (a detailed description of sources, characteristics and types of motivation), and, also, it will try to present a practical sample research of a decrease in motivation that starts at the upper-primary level and tends to decrease through the secondary level. Key words: Motivation, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, language learners, age variable Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bfad84c430a7801a70ed7b77ab3e316b.docx 9528b833a1202bff5fc6df765f3a5bf0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c47575128503bcdff39abc33c1b0a8f.pdf 4086b277b31c17c882c602875e7fc082 PDF Text Text Providing Learner’s Motivation By Effective Usage Of Visual Aids In Foreign Language Teaching Azamat Akbarov. Mustafa Arslan Bastug, Harun � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3243 Title A name given to the resource Providing Learner’s Motivation By Effective Usage Of Visual Aids In Foreign Language Teaching Author Author AKBAROV, Azamat BASTUG, Harun Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a825e1a3cd919b2be013525ee7feb10e.docx 01fbb5d75e36d8e138d831d271c76956 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0747b118738ed954f8840b3e0ed81d76.pdf 465a24c2755f705851cd212afd3df1c2 PDF Text Text Bosansko-englesko-turska knjiga fraza A Akbarov, H Baştuğ, S Djemaili – 2011 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3246 Title A name given to the resource Bosansko-englesko-turska knjiga fraza Author Author AKBAROV, Azamat BASTUG, Harun DJEMAILI, S Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ae760bcc64fc733745ec7b5baef73d66.docx ab615d25daf13070d55cafb0a4e7290a https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/33489811e5b31e0465dae2ac1cdc1013.pdf ec01677412eb62f95349e7994c7d4fc7 PDF Text Text Listening activities: teachers and students think the same in Sarajevo? Mehmet Akdoğan Harun Baştuğ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3239 Title A name given to the resource Listening activities: teachers and students think the same in Sarajevo? Author Author AKDOGAN, Mehmet BASTUG, Harun Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f881f5cae3e8b6f4a25d2f1612bc62b4.pdf 965e41813aa2dc561f70852e63449177 PDF Text Text MEVLÂNÂ’NIN MESNEVÎ'SİNE GÖRE XIII. YÜZYILA AİT BAZI ADET VE GELENEKLER Doç. Dr. Şadi Aydın Özet Mevlânâ Celaleddin-i Rumî, bir takım siyasi ve toplumsal sebeplerle ayrıldığı Harezm, Belh ve Horasan’dan sonra kaderin kendisine çizdiği rotayla nihayet o gün için adeta bir sulh adacığı olan Anadolu’yu mesken tutmuştur. Devir itibarıyla Moğol tehdidi önüne kattığı toplulukları o zamanki Orta Asya ve İran coğrafyasından sürüyordu. Neredeyse bütün bu toplulukların sığındığı Anadolu gelenlere ana gibi kucağını açmıştır. Elbette gelen topluluklar kendi dil ve kültür varlıklarıyla geliyordu ve Anadolu kültürel olarak yeniden harmanlanıyordu. Göçenler sadece insanlar değil aynı zamanda dil ve kültürdü. Anadolu adeta bir kültürler mozaiği halini alıyordu. İşte böyle kültür taşıyıcıları arasında entelektüel bir yapıya sahip olan Mevlânâ ve ailesi de coğrafyamıza farklı renkler ve anlayışlar getirmiştir. Daha sonra Mevlevilik olarak adlandırılacak bu düşünce ve fikir yapısı temelinde Harezm, Belh ve Horasan kültürünü barındırmaktadır. Selçuklu kültürünü besleyen bu göçler, zihni ve entelektüel zenginleşmeyi de beraberinde getirmiştir. Biz bu çalışmamızda hissi bir tarih ve kültür belgesi olarak adlandırdığımız Hz. Mevlânâ’ya ait Mesnevî-i Şerif adlı hacimli eserde, yazıldığı devre yani XIII. asra ait bazı adet ve gelenekleri şahitleriyle birlikte inceleyeceğiz. Anahtar Kelimeler Mevlânâ Celaleddin-i Rumî, Mevlevilik, Mesnevî, XIII. Yüzyıl, Gelenek. SOME CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF THE 13TH CENTURY ACCORDING TO MATHNAWI Abstract Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi, who had to leave Khwarezm, Balkh and Khorasan due to various political and social reasons took shelter in erstwhile island of peace – Anatolia. The  Mevlana Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Türkçe Eğitimi Bölümü Öğretim Üyesi. �threats posed by Mongols drove communities out of the then Central Asian and Iranian geography. Anatolia welcomed all these communities wholeheartedly. These communities obviously brought their own languages and cultures with them and Anatolia’s diversity was increasing. It was becoming a melting point of cultures. In such a diverse society, Rumi and his family brought different ideas and understandings to our geography with their intellectual abilities. These ideas and understandings which would later be known as Mevlevilik trace its roots in Khwarezm, Balkh and Khorasan. These immigrants who fostered Seljuk culture had brought scholarly and intellectual richness with them. In this paper, we, along with the witnesses, would analyse the customs and traditions of the 13th century which are described in Rumi’s glorious and most renowned book, Mathnawi. Key Words Mawlana Rumi, Mevlevilik, Mathnawi, 13th Century, Tradition. Giriş Binlerce yıldır edindiğimiz tarihi ve kültürel birikim hazinemiz kendi tabii coğrafyamızın en batısını teşkil eden Anadolu’ya yığılmıştır. Kaşgar, Balasagun, Hoten, Tıraz, Harezm, Belh, Horasan, Merv, Semerkant, Buhara, Herat, İsfahan, Rey ve Tebriz adeta Anadolu’ya taşınmıştır. Bunlarla birlikte Anadolu’daki kültür yeniden harmanlanmış büyük bir medeniyet haline gelmiştir. Moğol ve haçlı istilası sonrası Anadolu’nun çok kısa denebilecek bir süre zarfında yeniden ayağa kalkması işte bu yoğun kültürel birikimin neticesindedir. Kültür mirası ne kadar derin ve geniş ise bir milletin çeşitli sebeplerle düştükten sonra yeniden dirilmesi o kadar rahat olur. Anadolu’da yaklaşık XIII. asrın ortasında yıkılan Anadolu Selçuklu devletinin geride bıraktığı kültürel ve medeni mirastan hemen yarım asır sonra kuvvetli yeni bir devlet teşekkül etmiştir. Henüz rüştünü ispat eden bu devlet yani Osmanlı, yaklaşık bir asır sonra yine büyük bir hezimete uğrayarak perişan olmuştur. Timur saldırısından yarım asır sonra İstanbul’u fethedecek bir güç ve kuvvet toplamıştır. Bütün bu yeniden dirilme ve fetihlerin temelinde kültür mirasımız bulunmaktadır. Kendi devirlerinde birer kültür taşıyıcı insan olarak niteleyebileceğimiz Mevlânâ Celaleddin, Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli ve Yunus Emre, Türkistan, Harezm, Horasan ve Belh’i Anadolu’ya aktaran büyük şahsiyetlerin başında gelirler. Bunlar gibi onlarcası bu kültür ve medeniyet naklini gerçekleştirmişler ve bu coğrafyanın İslamlaşmasına büyük katkıda bulunmuşlardır. �Anadolu’yu yurt yapmışlardır. Yesevilik, Mevlevilik ve Bektaşilik tarihsel süreç içinde Anadolu’yu mükemmel bir şekilde mayalamıştır. Şimdi bize düşen Anadolu’da yaşanan bu kültürün izlerini sürmek, bu kültüre ait her türlü unsuru tespit edip onları yaşanabilir ve anlaşılabilir kılmaktır. Gelecek nesillere aktarılması gereken bu unsurları ortaya koymak ve gerekli araştırmaları yapmak da bu işin ehlinin vazifesidir. İşte bu düşünceden yola çıkarak XIII. yüzyıla mührünü vuran ve bu asrı ihya eden Hz. Mevlânâ’nın meşhur eseri Mesnevî-i Şerif’i inceleyerek ortaya koyduğumuz o devre ait Anadolu ve Selçuklu kültüründen bazı adet ve gelenekleri tespit ettik. Çalışmamızda esas tuttuğumuz eser, rahmetli Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı’nın Mesnevî tercüme ve şerhidir. Nezr-i Mevlânâ Mevlevilerde nezr-i Mevlânâ, dokuz, on sekiz, yirmi yedi, otuz altı gibi dokuzun misli olan sayılardır ve bilhassa on sekiz sayısı kutsaldır. Herhangi bir yoksula, bir dergâha, bir dervişe niyaz olarak verilen para on sekiz sayısınca verilir; on sekiz kuruş, on sekiz lira gibi. Derviş bin bir gün çile çıkardıktan sonra hücre sahibi olur, hücrede on sekiz gün hücre çilesi çıkarması şarttır. Çile çıkarmayan fakat şeyh olan kişi de Konya’ya gider, Mevlânâ dergâhında on sekiz gün hizmet eder, ondan sonra kendisine icazet verilir. Hizmetler de on sekize ayrılır.1 Yangın Söndürme “Akılları başlarında olanlar, ateşe kovalarla sular, varillerle sirke döküyorlardı.”2 Bu ifadelerden anlaşılacağı üzere o devirde ateşi söndürmek için sirke kullanılmaktaydı. İnci Tanesi “İnci tanesini havanda döverler ama göz ışığı olur, gönül ışığı kesilir, gene yücelik elde eder.”3 “İnci öğünür, ufalanır ama gözü ağrıyan hastanın gözüne de tutya olur.”4 (İnci) dövülüp toz haline getirildikten sonra sürme gibi göze çekilir, göz ağrısını giderir ve görüşe kuvvet verir.5 Manaya derin bir mecaz gizleyen Mevlânâ, ezilsek de bir işe 1 - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1973, Cilt I, s. 28. 2 - a.g.e., Cilt I., s. 599. 3 - a.g.e., Cilt I., s. 530. 4 - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1974, Cilt IV, s. 52. 5 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 63. �yaramalıyız ve insanın ancak ezilmekle ehil hale gelebileceğini ima eder. Zira ezilen üzüm ayakaltından başa çıkar. İncinin bu şekilde kullanılması bir gelenek ve bir tedavi yöntemi olması hayli ilginç olmasıyla birlikte bugün bu kullanım tedavülde değildir. Tutya “Tez iyileştiren, inatçı karanlıkları sürüp götüren ululuk tutyasını sür. O tutyayı sür ki körün gözüne sürüldü mü, yüzyıllık karanlığı bile giderir.”6 Tutya, Rumca’dan Farsça’ya geçmiş bir addır. Koyu gök renginde bir taştır ki dövülür, toz haline getirilir, bir mille gözlere çekilir. Gözün görme gücünü artırır.7 Tas Çalmak “Nöbetimi, Allah diye, padişah diye çalıyorlar ama gerçekte ay tutulmuş, halk tas çalıyor. O tası çalıp duruyorlar, gürültü ediyorlar ama o vuruşlarla ayı rezil ediyorlar.”8 Ay, eski bir inanca göre şeytanlar tarafından tutulurmuş. Ay tutulunca tas, kap, kacak, çalınırsa şeytanlar korkup kaçarlarmış. Ay da kurtulurmuş. Bu gelenek Anadolu’da hala vardır.9 Gölpınarlı bu âdetin yetmişli yıllarda Anadolu’da bulunduğunu söylüyor. Ancak bir hurafe olan bu gelenek sanırız şimdilerde unutulmuş haldedir. Padişahların Bir Âdeti Selçuklu asrına ayinedarlık eden Mesnevî-i Şerif, padişahların mühim bir âdetini zikrediyor ve bu âdeti hikmet nazarıyla yorumluyor. “Bunu işitmişsindir, hatırındadır, padişahların âdetiydi. Sol yanlarında yiğitler dururlardı, çünkü kalp bedenin sol yanındadır. Defterdarlar, kalem erbabı sağ yanında dururlardı, çünkü yazı bilgisi, sağ elle kazanılır, yazı sağ elle yazılır. Sofilereyse karşılarında yer verirlerdi, çünkü onlar can aynasıdır; hatta aynadan da iyidir onlar. ”10 Tersine Çakılmış Nal 6 - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1973, Cilt II, s. 176. 7 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 191. 8 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 442. 9 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 498. 10 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 529. �“A bön kişi, bunlar tersine çakılmış nallardır.”11 “Fakat yüce Allah, kahrı lütufta gizlemiştir, lütufları da kahırda. Bu, tersine çakılmış naldır, Allah’ın mekridir.”12 Tersine çakılmış nal, izi kaybetmek, kovalayanı şaşırtmak için atın nallarını tersine çaktırmak adetmiş.13 Mevlânâ, harp esnasında kullanılan bir savaş hilesine tasavvufi bir anlam yükleyerek Allah’ın mekrini tefsir sadedinde bu âdeti kullanıyor. Efsun “Efsuncu, düşman gibi efsun okur yılana, fakat yılan da onu efsunlar.”14 Bu beyitlerden, yılan oynatmanın adet olduğunu aynı zamanda yılana ve zehirli hayvanlara karşı efsunlanmanın bir gelenek halinde yayılmış bulunduğunu anlıyoruz.15 Çevgen Klasik kültür ve edebiyatımızın önemli bir ayrıntısı olan aynı zamanda adına “Guy u Çevgen” Mesnevîleri yazılan top ve çevgen Mevlânâ’nın Mesnevî-i Manevî’sinde şöyle yer alır; “Emriyle varlığı yaratanın emir çevgenine uymuşuz, o çevgenin önünde, mekân âleminde de koşup yuvarlanıyoruz, mekansızlık âleminde de.”16 “Biz avlarız, bu çeşit tuzak, kimlerin tuzağıdır? Çevgenin topuyuz biz, çevgen vuran nerde?”17 Kader, irade ve itaat bahsi işte bu özlü sözlerle rahat anlaşılır hale geliyor. Esirci O devirde esirci ve onun esirleri satarken yaptığı davranışı bizlere şöyle nakleder; “Esirci, cariyeyi göstereceği vakit üstündeki ayıpları örten elbiseyi soyar. Ama cariyenin ayıbı, kusuru varsa hiç onu soyar mı? Bir düzene başvurur da onu elbiseyle gösterir.”18 11 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 445. - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1974, Cilt V, s. 77. 13 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 499. 14 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 430. 15 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 494. 16 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 443. 17 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 202. 18 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 431-32. 12 �Dilenciler “Aşağılık kişiler dilenmek için yünden arslan yaparlar, Ebu Müseyleme’ye Ahmed adını takarlar.”19 Bu beyitte dilenmek için yünden arslan yapmayı Şarih-i Ankaravî, dünyayı elde etmek için gerçek erlerin, yol arslanlarının şekline bürünürler tarzında anlıyor. Üstad Füruzanfer bu beyti, dokunmuş bezden arslan şeklinde bir şey yapıp içini yünle doldurduklarını söyleyerek Mevlânâ’nın yün hırkaya bürünüp şeyhlik iddia edenleri kastettiğini bildiriyor. Sanırız ki yünden arslan şeklinde bir şey yapıp onunla hünerler göstererek, ona bazı hareketler yaptırarak dilenenler de vardı ve Mevlânâ, hem yol arslanlarını taklit edenleri söylüyor hem de bu âdeti anlatıyor.20 Posta Güvercinleri Mevlânâ’nın hikmet şiirinin malzemesi, kâinat ve tabiatta bulunan her şeydir. Kadim zamanlarda günlük hayatın bir unsuru olan posta güvercinleri mühim bir mananın anlatılmasında şöyle kullanılıyor; “Güzel olsun, çirkin olsun, sabah çağında sanatlarla huylar, nereden gittilerse gene oraya gelirler. Hani haber götüren güvercinler gibi şehirlerden uçar giderler, mektupları götürürler, gene dönerler, kendi şehirlerine gelirler.”21 Satranç ve Tavla Edebiyatımızdaki mühim metaforlardan birisi de satranç ve tavladır. Hz. Mevlânâ, hikmetlerle dolu şiirine çevresinde bulunan imgeleri başarıyla yerleştirir ve böylece bu vesilelerle hikmete kapı aralar; “Âşık, satrançtaki ruh (kale) gibi bir adımını ta yukardan aşağıya atar, öbür adımını fil gibi eğri-büğrü basar.”22 “Yaya, yolculuğa düşer de satrançta, yüce vezir olur. Yusuf, yolculukta yüzlerce murada erer.”23 “Şahı vezir hanesine kondurur, ahmak kişinin ihsanı işte böyle olur.”24 “O çağ gelip çatınca o padişah doğdu, padişahlık satrancını oynamaya 19 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 110. - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 126. 21 - a.g.e., Cilt I, s. 340. 22 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 278. 23 - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1973, Cilt III, s. 65. 24 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 215. 20 �koyuldu.”25 “Böylece gözünü yönlerden yönlere çevir de karşındakini mat edinceye dek oynayacağın oyunları gör.”26 “A satranç oynayan, sen oyununu oynadın, şimdi enine boyuna, düşmanın oyununu seyret.”27 “Sufiler, birer birer onu ağırlamadaydı, güzel güzel izzet, ikram ediş tavlasını oynuyorlardı.”28 “Cehennem köprüsünün üstüne bir mescit kurdular, Allah’la azgınlık tavlası oynamaya giriştiler.”29 “Yalnız savaşta Allah’a dayanmaktan ne çıkar? Bu, tavla oynayanların, oyunda Allah’a dayanmalarına benzer.”30 “O, dostu düşmandan ayırt edemiyordu, tavlayı körcesine, eğri-büğrü oynuyordu.”31 “Kulluk tavlasını yersiz oynamış da taştan arslanı, sahici arslan sanmış.”32 “Arif, şeşten de geçmiştir, beşten de. Bu tavladan çekinmededir o.”33 Hacamat Günümüzde alternatif tıp hekimlerinin de önerdiği hacamat şeklindeki tedavi yöntemi tarihsel süreçte halkın sıkça başvurduğu bir yoldu. Mevlânâ eserinde bu adeti şöyle anlatır; “Bize kastetmiş keskin bir hançersin sen, bizi hacamat etmek için zehirli bir neştersin sen.”34 “Çocuklar, hacamattan ağlarlar, çünkü işin sonunu bilmez onlar. Adamsa hacamatçıya altın verir, kan içen hançeri okşar.”35 Remil Bugünlerde epeyi revaçta olan fal ve fala bakma-baktırma eski dönemlerin vazgeçilmez bir geleneğiydi; “Kimi de olur, toprağa halini yazar, hani kum üstüne remil döken remilci gibi.”36 Kapı Dibinde Durmak 25 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 265. - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 400. 27 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 462. 28 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 111. 29 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 411. 30 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 401. 31 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 379. 32 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 135. 33 - Abdulbaki Gölpınarlı, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1974, Cilt VI, s. 689. 34 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 339. 35 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 282. 36 - a.g.e., Cilt II, s. 278. 26 �“Babandan öğrensene, Âdem, suç işleyince bir hoşça ta kapı dibine, ayakkabı çıkarılan yere geldi. O sırları bilenin gücünü gördü de iki ayağının üstünde durdu, suçunun bağışlanmasını dilemeye koyuldu.”37 Kapı dibi, ayakkabı çıkarılan yer. Mevlânâ kafiye dolayısıyla “pay-ı gâh” diyor; terim olarak “pay-ı mâçân”dır ki odanın eşiğinden içeriye girilince, kapının kıyısıdır. Ayakkabı, terlik, eşiğin dışında çıkarılır ve odaya girilir. Bir suç bir yolsuzluk yapan salik, yerinden kalkıp yüzünü dönmeden geri geri oraya gider, sağ ayağının başparmağını sol ayağının başparmağı üstüne kor, ayak mühürler. Sağ eli üstte olmak, parmaklar düz ve açık bulunmak üzere ellerini çaprazvari göğsüne kor, parmak uçları omuz başlarını biraz geçer, buna “niyaza durmak” denir. Bu vaziyette suçunu söyler, cezasına razı olduğunu bildirir. Suçu bağışlanırsa yürüyüp şeyhe niyaz ederek, yani dizini öperek yerine oturur. Kalenderiler, ayak mühürleyip sağ eliyle sol, sol eliyle de sağ kulaklarını tutarlarmış. Pay-ı mâçân, bilhassa Mevlevilerle, Bektaşilerde vardır ve buna “peymançeye durmak” denir.38 Kılıç-Kefen “Saygı yolunu vurduysam a ay yüzlüm, kılıçla, kefenle geldim.”39 Bağışlanması mümkün olmayan bir suç yapan kişi, çırçıplak soyunur, bir kefene bürünür, eline kınsız bir kılıç alır. Hüküm sahibinin önüne gidip diz çöker, kılıcı, onun önüne kor, başını eğer, bu hareketiyle, istersen başımı kes, istersen bağışla demek isterdi.40 Eşekbaşı Türkçede yaygın olarak kullanılan “eşekbaşı” deyiminin anlamını açıklayan aşağıdaki bilgi oldukça önemlidir; “Harfin görünüşünü, sözün duyuluşunu, mana bağına, o güzelim bahçeye dikilmiş eşekbaşı bil. Ey Hak ziyası Hüsameddin, şu eşekbaşını getir de o kavun, karpuz bostanına dik. Eşek yüzüldüğü yerde ölüp gitti, sen de onun başını getir, dik de bostana başka bir gelişme bağışlasın.”41 37 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 50. - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 62. 39 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 49. 40 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 61. 41 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 531. 38 �Bu beyitlerde korkuluk olarak bostanlarda bir sopaya geçirilen eşekbaşını, manayı gizleyen harfe, söze benzetiyor.42 Hikâyeci “Ağzından ballar akan hikâyeci, gaddar terzilerin hikâyelerini geceleyin anlatır. Hani, hiç işitmedin mi sen? Geceleyin hikâyecinin biri, gene bir terzi hikâyesi anlatıyordu, kalabalık bir halk yığınını çevresine toplamıştı.”43 Hikâyecilere, eskiden “kıssa-han” derlerdi ki Farsça olan bu söz, hikâye okuyan, anlatan anlamına gelir. Sonradan bilhassa oruç ayında ve uzun kış geceleri mahalle kahvelerinde, bazen de boş arsalara kurulan çadırlarda, çeşitli milletlerle bölgeler halkının taklitlerini de yaparak hikâye söyleyenlere, övücü anlamına gelen ve Arapça bir söz olan “meddah” denmişti. Meddah yükseğe konmuş bir sandalyeye oturur, taklidini yapacağı bölge halkının baş giysilerini de yanındaki torba veya çantadan çıkarır, onu giyip taklide başlar, halkı gülmekten kırar geçirirdi. Mevlânâ’nın bu beyti, Anadolu ve İran Selçukluları devrinde hikâyecilerin bulunduğunu gösteriyor.44 Hırka Atmak “Bizler sofileriz derler, hırkalarımızı attık, değil mi ki oynadık, utulduk, geri almayız artık.”45 “O, bir sofi, vecde gelmiş de hırkasını atmış, artık bir daha o hırkayı alır mı o? Attığı hırkayı tekrar almak, pişman oldum, aldanmışım ben, arkadaş ver o hırkayı bana, ulaştığım vecd, bu hırkaya değmez demektir.”46 Sofilerde bir adet varmış. Vecde gelip sema’ya kalkan sofinin hırkası sırtından düşerse, o hırkayı bir daha almazmış. O hırka parça parça kesilir, o parçalardan seccade yapılırmış. Mevlânâ’nın bu beytinden, o zamana, ondan önceki zamanlara ait bir gelenek olduğunu anlıyoruz. Başka metinlerde de bu geleneğe rastlamaktayız. Ankaravî de bunu belirtiyor.47 Baş Sağlığı Mektubu 42 - a.g.e., Cilt IV, s. 538. - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 240. 44 - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 257. 45 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 176. 46 - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 657. 47 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 182. 43 �“Bir kul kıyamete uyanır, eline kapkara amel defteri verilir. Başsağlığı mektubu gibi üstü kapkara amel defteri verilir.”48 Beyitten, başsağlığı mektuplarının üstünün siyah renkte olduğunu ve bunun o zamana ait bir adet olduğunu anlıyoruz.49 Tavus Tüyü “Hafızlar, her tüyünü, her kanadını üstün görüyorlar, beğeniyorlar da Mushaf arasına koyuyorlar. Halk, havalanmak, serinlemek için kanadından yelpazeler yapıyor.”50 Gölpınarlı diyor ki; bu adet, bizim çocukluğumuzda da vardı. Kuran sahifelerinin arasına tavus kuşunun tüyünü koyar, hatta her nedense, tüy parlaklığını korusun diye ekmek içini çiğner, sap tarafını o çiğnenmiş ekmekle sarardık. Her halde, mushafın tezhibi ve yazısı bozulmasın diye tavus tüyü, mıklep yani sahifeleri çeviren alet olarak kullanılmış, sonradan da Mushaf içine konması, adet olup kalmış olsa gerek. Tavus tüyünden yelpaze yapıldığını da bu beyitten öğreniyoruz. Minyatürlerde de bu yelpazeleri görmekteyiz.51 Nahl “Senin de yoksul huyun hünerle sıvanmış, mumdan yapılmış nahl gibi hani; ne yaprağı var, ne meyvesi.”52 Eskiden, düğün alayının önünde, üstüne kumaşlar örtülmüş, kumaşlara çiçekler, mücevherler takılmış iki yahut daha fazla hususi olarak balmumundan dökülmüş mum götürülürdü. Bu mumlara “nahl” halk deyimiyle “nakıl” denirdi. İstanbul’daki “Nakılbent mahallesi”, nahl dökenlerin dükkânlarının bulunduğu yermiş. Gene İstanbul’da, süslü püslü şeye yaprak ve meyveyle dolu ağaca “pür-nakıl” denirdi ki bu benzetiş de “nahl” âdetinden dile geçmiştir. “Nahl”in ibtidai inançlardan olan Falizm’den kaldığını sanıyoruz. Konya’da genç ve evlenmemiş erkeklerin cenazelerinin önünde götürülen kesilmiş iki dal da bu inançtan kalma bir gelenek olsa gerektir.53 Muarrif 48 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 345. - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 355. 50 - a.g.e., cilt V, s. 100. 51 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 115. 52 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 71. 53 - a.g.e., Cilt V, s. 76. 49 �“Can gözü açık olmayan, sarıktan sakaldan başka bir şey görmez, adamın ileri yahut geri olduğunu muarriften sorar. Ey arif, sen muarrife aldırış bile etmezsin, sen görüp durursun, çünkü sen doğan, parıl parıl parlayan ışıksın.”54 “Şehzade, padişahın tapısında diz çöktü, on tane muarrif, onun halini anlatmaya koyuldu. Padişah, önceden bütün halini, fazlasıyla biliyordu ama muarrif de kendi işini görüyordu. A temiz kişi, içindeki bir zerrecik anlayış ışığı, yüz muarriften yeğdir. Muarrife kulak vermek, perde altında kalışa, çekinişe, zamana düşüşe delildir. Muarrif, seçilmiş padişaha karşı, onun halini anlatmak için dudağını açtı.”55 Muarrif, tarif eden, anlatan anlamına gelir. Törenlerde, gelen kişileri, derecelerine, mevkilerine göre vasıflarla anan ve halka tanıtan memurlara denirdi. Anadolu Selçuklularında olan bu memuriyet İran Selçuklularından kalmadır. Sipehsalar, Mevlânâ’nın cenaze töreninde, muarrifin, cenaze namazını kıldırması için Şeyh Sadreddin-i Konevî’yi, “Melikü’l-Meşayıh” yani “şeyhlerin padişahı, buyurunuz” diye çağırdığını, Ekmeleddin Tabib’in, “Muarrif, edebe riayet ediniz, Sultan-ı meşayıh-ı hakiki Hz. Mevlânâ idi, rıhlet buyurdu” dediğini nakleder. 941 hicride (1531) Kalkanelenli Fakirî, “Tarifât” risalesinde, “muarrif”i şu beyitlerle anlatır; Muarrifler nedir devr içre daim Gehî mahfil-nişin u gâh kâim Hudâ ile Râsul’ü yâd iderler Ânı gûş ideni dil-şâd iderler Selâtini gehi tarif iderler Şerif ismin anup teşrif iderler Bu beyitlerden anlıyoruz ki Osmanoğulları devrinde muarrifler, meclislerde belki tekkelerde, kahvelerde, tahmid, na’t v.s. okuyan, padişahı, her halde büyükleri öven bu suretle geçinen bir taife haline gelmişlerdir.56 Sonuç 54 - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 55 - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 656-57. 56 - a.g.e., Cilt VI, s. 64. 55 �Mevlânâ Celaleddin-i Rumî’nin Mesnevî adlı dünya çapında maruf olan tasavvufi ve edebi şah eseri görüldüğü gibi hissi bir tarihi vesika ve belge niteliğini de haizdir. Bütün edebi eserlerimize bu zaviyeden bakmak gerekir. Onlar sadece bir edebiyat ürünü değil aynı zamanda bir tarih, coğrafya, sosyoloji ve folklor kaynağıdır. Malum olduğu üzere XIII. yüzyıl Anadolu Selçukluları devrine ait elimizde bulunan tarihi belge oldukça azdır. Lakin o dönemde kaleme alınan edebi eserlerin sayısı epey kabarıktır. O devre ait sadece Mevlevi kaynaklarının sayısı dahi yirmi civarındadır. Bu malzeme o devir edebiyat, tarih, sosyoloji ve folkloru için bir hazine değerindedir. Ancak maalesef bu hazinenin tüm eserleri henüz günümüz Türkçesine aktarılmamıştır. Edebi ve tarihi miras bakımından Karun kadar zengin olmamıza rağmen bu hazinenin henüz layık-ı veçhiyle farkında değiliz. KAYNAKÇA Gölpınarlı, Abdulbaki, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, Cilt I-III, İstanbul, 1973. ________, ________, Mesnevî ve Şerhi, Başbakanlık Kültür Müsteşarlığı, Kültür Yayınları, 1. Bs., Milli Eğitim Basımevi, Cilt IV-VI, İstanbul, 1974. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3601 Title A name given to the resource MEVLÂNÂ’NIN MESNEVÎ'SİNE GÖRE XIII. YÜZYILA AİT BAZI ADET VE GELENEKLER Author Author AYDIN, Şadi Abstract A summary of the resource. Özet Mevlânâ Celaleddin-i Rumî, bir takım siyasi ve toplumsal sebeplerle ayrıldığı Harezm, Belh ve Horasan’dan sonra kaderin kendisine çizdiği rotayla nihayet o gün için adeta bir sulh adacığı olan Anadolu’yu mesken tutmuştur. Devir itibarıyla Moğol tehdidi önüne kattığı toplulukları o zamanki Orta Asya ve İran coğrafyasından sürüyordu. Neredeyse bütün bu toplulukların sığındığı Anadolu gelenlere ana gibi kucağını açmıştır. Elbette gelen topluluklar kendi dil ve kültür varlıklarıyla geliyordu ve Anadolu kültürel olarak yeniden harmanlanıyordu. Göçenler sadece insanlar değil aynı zamanda dil ve kültürdü. Anadolu adeta bir kültürler mozaiği halini alıyordu. İşte böyle kültür taşıyıcıları arasında entelektüel bir yapıya sahip olan Mevlânâ ve ailesi de coğrafyamıza farklı renkler ve anlayışlar getirmiştir. Daha sonra Mevlevilik olarak adlandırılacak bu düşünce ve fikir yapısı temelinde Harezm, Belh ve Horasan kültürünü barındırmaktadır. Selçuklu kültürünü besleyen bu göçler, zihni ve entelektüel zenginleşmeyi de beraberinde getirmiştir. Biz bu çalışmamızda hissi bir tarih ve kültür belgesi olarak adlandırdığımız Hz. Mevlânâ’ya ait Mesnevî-i Şerif adlı hacimli eserde, yazıldığı devre yani XIII. asra ait bazı adet ve gelenekleri şahitleriyle birlikte inceleyeceğiz. Anahtar Kelimeler Mevlânâ Celaleddin-i Rumî, Mevlevilik, Mesnevî, XIII. Yüzyıl, Gelenek. SOME CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF THE 13TH CENTURY ACCORDING TO MATHNAWI Abstract Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi, who had to leave Khwarezm, Balkh and Khorasan due to various political and social reasons took shelter in erstwhile island of peace – Anatolia. The threats posed by Mongols drove communities out of the then Central Asian and Iranian geography. Anatolia welcomed all these communities wholeheartedly. These communities obviously brought their own languages and cultures with them and Anatolia’s diversity was increasing. It was becoming a melting point of cultures. In such a diverse society, Rumi and his family brought different ideas and understandings to our geography with their intellectual abilities. These ideas and understandings which would later be known as Mevlevilik trace its roots in Khwarezm, Balkh and Khorasan. These immigrants who fostered Seljuk culture had brought scholarly and intellectual richness with them. In this paper, we, along with the witnesses, would analyse the customs and traditions of the 13th century which are described in Rumi’s glorious and most renowned book, Mathnawi. Key Words Mawlana Rumi, Mevlevilik, Mathnawi, 13th Century, Tradition. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PI Oriental languages and literatures https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fab097c6d36a2057e35a6b0f5067c064.pdf ea88a7de3e2cd244c4c84dfb5bfc5aaa PDF Text Text SECURITY IN EUROPEAN TOURISM WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION PAID TO THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA Romina Alkier Department of Tourism University of Rijeka , Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management Opatija, Croatia rominaa@fthm.hr Korana Radović Nimac Department of Quality and Controlling University of Rijeka, Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management Opatija, Croatia koranarn@fthm.hr Sanja Lipovac University or Rijeka, Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management Abstract: Security and the sense of being secure represent an important component in choosing a tourist destination, but also the quality of life of domestic population and stay of tourists in a tourist destination. Therefore, in cooperation with participants in tourism, destinations must enable safe and adequate surrounding for its visitors, and encourage the coexistence with the domestic population. Protection and security in tourism are becoming complex multidimensional terms which cover a great number of components among which are political security, public security, health and sanitation security, protection of personal data, legal protection of tourists, protection of consumers, security in communication, getting authentic data, ensuring the quality of services, etc. Croatia is a member of the European Union, and it monitors trends in the development of tourism on the European Union level and Europe in whole. Personal safety is an important component of choosing Croatia as a destination, and is one of the advantages of Croatia in relation to the competitive countries. Within the research conducted in the paper the focus is on the analysis of safety in tourism of Europe and the Republic of Croatia. The goal is understanding the significance which “sense of safety” has on the choice of European destinations and the necessity of establishment of security measures and the protection of tourists during tourist travel on all levels. Based on the conducted analysis, measures of improvement of security and protection of tourists in European and Croatian tourist destinations will be suggested. Keywords: Security, tourism, tourist protection, Republic of Croatia, Europe JEL Classification: L83 Introduction European Union, as an economic community of twenty-eight states, is the biggest tourist destination in the world. Tourism as a phenomenon which stimulates the development of various economic activities directly and/or indirectly connected with providing services in tourism, and the image of cities, can produce various forms of crimes. Destinations must, in cooperation with stakeholders in tourism, enable safe and appropriate surroundings for its visitors, and encourage coexistence with the ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 353 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) domestic population. As important factors in choosing a destination, safety and sense of security are crucial for the quality of life in tourist destinations. This was particularly visible after 11th of September in 2001 when there was a decrease of international tourist travels due to the terrorist attacks in the United States of America, and European tourists avoided distant destinations, respectively, travelling by plane. Besides that, the quality of life was disturbed in cities exposed to the terrorist attacks (New York, London, Madrid, etc.). Croatian tourism also registered a decrease, and the drastic fall in tourist movements due to the warfare on the area of the Republic of Croatia, as well as the neighboring countries. But, apart from these extreme security problems which had negative consequences on tourism, there are various security problems in tourism such as various threats for life and health of tourists, threats conditioned by thefts, criminal acts, violence on cultural monuments in the tourist destination, threats due to the vessels, and some activities on sea and mainland, etc. The subject of research of this paper is security in tourism of the European Union and the Republic of Croatia. The purpose and the goal of the paper are following: to present theoretical characteristics of tourists and security measures, to analyze security in tourism of the European Union with reference on the Republic of Croatia, and the effects which insecurity and sense of insecurity have on international tourist movements. Safety and tourism development on the European Union level Tourist policy of the European Union has a goal to maintain the position of the European Union as one of the leading world destinations and maximizing the industry contributes to the growth, employment and promotion of cooperation among European Union countries, particularly through exchange of good practice. The main challenges in tourism of the European Union have been identified among which security and protection have a special place. The challenges are following (Overview of EU Tourism Policy, European Commission): 1. 2. 3. 4. Security and protection – environment, politics and social security, food and accommodation safety, and socio-cultural threats to sustainability; Economic competitiveness – seasonality, regulatory and administrative obstacles, relation of tax system and tourism, difficulties in finding and keeping professional personnel; Technological – keeping up with the information–technological development caused by globalization of information and progress of technology (IT tool for holiday reservation, provision of information through social networks about tourist services, etc.). Market and competition – growing demand for individual experiences, new products, growing competition from other EU destinations. In June 2010 the European Commission has launched an initiative for adoption of a new joint tourist policy in Europe under the name “Europe world tourist destination No.1”. That initiative launched a new strategy and action plan of European Union tourism. Four priorities of actions have been identified (Overview of EU Tourism Policy, European Commission): • • encouraging competitiveness of European tourism, promotion of development of sustainable, responsible and quality tourism; 354 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation • consolidation of image of Europe as a collection of sustainable, high-quality destinations, maximizing potential of financial policy of the European Union for tourism development. Safety of tourists is included in development of European brand “Quality tourism” in which increasing security of tourists and trust in a tourist product is pointed out as a value of brand. Necessity of further cooperation of the European Commission with state members, tourism industry and other stakeholders is especially pointed out in order to improve security in accommodation facilities, especially considering the fire risks (Overview of EU Tourism Policy, European Commission). Previously mentioned indicates that the European Commission pays great attention to safety and protection in tourism, in order to improve quality of tourism on the European Union level. Safety as a motive of arrival in the European Union Motive is defined as a stimulation of a person on a certain activity due to the satisfaction of a created need (Pirjavec, 1998). From the stated definition it can be concluded that tourist motives are an internal stimulation to a person to include in tourist flows, so tourist motivation as well is an internal impulse for inclusion in tourist flows. One of the most numerous reasons for inclusion of a person in tourist flows is certainly a vacation. It is the most frequent motive. Besides this motive, motives that encourage people on temporary leave and stay outside domicile place are, i.e., hunting, navigation, sports show, visit to a sanctuary, congress, music events, exhibitions, gastronomy, entertainment, relaxing, etc. Motives for travel have changed its character throughout the history. However, security also has a greater significance as an element of tourist offer in motivation of tourist arrivals to a destination. “Personal safety” and “sense of safety in a country” are not motives which trigger tourists on tourist travel, but can be sorted in key factors which influence tourist´s decision about the choice of a tourist destination (Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006). Research conducted by the European Commission in 2005 has shown a decrease of crime, such as auto theft, burglary, robbery, sexual and other assaults in the period from 1995 until 2004 in the majority of the European Union member states, except Belgium, where the research registered growth of number of robberies and thefts (European citizens and the feeling of insecurity, 2006). Out of 15 “old” member countries, and Estonia, Poland and Hungary which were included in the research, 15% of the respondents claimed they were victims of a crime in 2004, which is a reduction in relation to 1995 for 21%. Furthermore, research has shown that the citizens of Great Britain, Estonia, Netherlands and Denmark have identified their countries as countries with higher crime rate for 30% than the European Union average. In the frame of countries of Eastern and Middle Europe, the report has shown high crime rate and bad opinion about the police and Estonia; three countries, Estonia, Hungary and Poland reported about a high number of pickpockets, robberies and auto thefts. Road safety is one of the causes for concern for about 30% of interviewed Europeans (European citizens and the feeling of insecurity, 2006). In 2015, Eurobarometer research has pointed out on safety challenges which the European Union is facing. Approximately half of the respondents (49%) identified terrorism as one of the most important security challenges. This is a substantial increase from 33% of respondents who mentioned terrorism in 2011 (Internal Security, 2011). Among the most significant security challenges the citizens of EU also pointed out economic and financial crisis (27%), organized crime (23%), ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 355 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) poverty (23%), corruption (23%) religious extremism (20%) and irregular immigration (19%) (European Commission, Europeans’ Attitudes towards Security, 2015). Bearing in mind that in some European Union countries domestic tourists make over 90% of total tourist turnover, it can be concluded that is also the perception of tourists on the tourist travel within the European Union. Terrorism as a security problem of tourists in the European Union In the recent years terrorism has been profiled as one of the most difficult security problems in the European Union, but also around the world (Bilandžić, 2011). However, it is necessary to point out that this is not a new phenomenon in Europe. In the period from 2009 until 2013 in the European Union member states there was 1.010 of unsuccessful, disabled or conducted attacks in which thirty-eight people were killed (EU fighting against terrorism, 2014). Considering the threats which in terms of terrorism are present in the European Union, terrorism needs to be combated on the national and international level. In 2005 the European Council has adopted strategy for fighting of European Union against terrorism. It is focused in 4 main directions of action: prevention, protection, prosecution and response. Prevention determines and solves factors which contribute to the radicalism and processes in which individuals are recruited with a goal of conducting terrorist actions. Protection of citizens and infrastructure is the second pillar in fighting against terrorism. It includes protection of external borders of the European Union, improvement of security in traffic, protection of goals of strategic importance and reduction of exposure of critical infrastructure. Third pillar on which fighting against terrorism in the European Union is based is prosecution. In order to reduce capability of terrorists in planning and organizing terrorist activities, European Union is working on bringing them to justice. In realization of these goals it is focused on strengthening capabilities of national institutions, improving cooperation among countries and information exchange between judicial authorities and the police, through Eurojust and Europol, fighting against financing terrorism and deprivation of terrorists of their financial funds for organization and conducting attacks and intercommunication. In 2014 Council and the Parliament of the European Union brought a set of rules about prevention of money laundry and financing terrorism. The fourth pillar of fighting against terrorism is preparation for managing and reducing consequences of terrorist attacks. It is operated in this direction by strengthening the capability to respond on consequences, by coordinating and satisfying the victim´s needs. Priorities in this direction are developing an arrangement of the European Union for coordination of the response on crisis, audit of the mechanism for civil protection, development of risk assessment or exchange of the best practice in providing help for the victims of terrorism. Particular significance is given to the cooperation with the third countries, i.e. USA, and other international and regional organizations which act in fighting against terrorism. Security and health of passengers in the European Union UNWTO expressed its attitude about the safety of health of passengers in the manual “Tourist protection and safety, Practical measures for the destination” wherein the following is: “Health risks connected with travels are a problem of divided responsibility of all participants in tourism (health care, tourism industry and passengers)…” Key factors of health risks on a journey are: destination, duration of a visit, purpose of travel, traveler’s behavior and reliability/local/health care and standards of accommodation, food and water quality, as well as sanitation and hygiene of the 356 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation destination´s environment (Gotovac, 2007). In order to reduce health risks of tourists in the European Union, information is placed on national webpages of health institutions about possible health risks in the countries visited. For example, Croatian Institute for Public Health reported about risks of a disease of Ebola in Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Nigeria, and localized transmission of Ebola on the area of the European Union, in Spain and Great Britain. European Union citizens and citizens of third world countries (if they have a right on health protection in the European Union countries) which travel to the European Union countries with the necessary certificate (European health insurance card and temporary substitute of a receipt) can get the necessary services directly without the compensation, except paying the administrative costs for public hospital protection in a private arrangement with national health services. Citizens which come from countries that are not included in the agreement about health protection must pay for health services in the European Union member countries according to the price list of health services. Safety problems and security measures in the accommodation facilities European Commission is trying to minimize security problems in the accommodation facilities with various measures. These measures include recommendation of the Council 86/666/EEZ about the safety of the existing hotels in terms of fire risks, Directive 90/314/EEZ about package travels, package holidays and package tours (in the process of the audit) and Directive 2008/122/EZ about using real estates for temporary lease (European Parlament, Sektorske politike - turizam). Security measures in accommodation facilities also relate on the application of hotel standards during building the hotel facility, as well as standards related with accommodation services in a hotel, food services in a hotel, etc. In order to guest´s health in a hotel facility, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) is used, which implies the analysis of dangers and critical control points. It is a preventive and systematic system for ensuring food safety, based on the application of correct technological processes and their control and supervision of the whole system (Mogorović, 2005). It is about the system which enables managing food safety, and is based on control of the production process in order to reduce occurrence of risks to the lowest possible level, from which arises the purpose of this system. Besides threats of guests safety which arise from the construction itself, equipment and providing food and beverage services in the accommodation facility, threats occur as criminal actions as well, such as thefts in accommodation facilities, assaults, etc. For this purpose security measures are undertaken, which are related with legislation and institutions in charge of safety in certain countries. In 2014, the European Commission conducted a research about the safety of tourists in the accommodation facilities in the European Union (Green paper Safety of Tourism Accommodation Services, 2014). In the context of the existing instruments and implementation on the national level, when it comes to accommodation services in tourism in a wider sense, politics of certain countries significantly varies in terms of security. From twenty-four member states which delivered the data to the European Commission in 2014, twenty-one reported about the existence of the general law which covers services such as categorization of accommodation facilities (or general regulations about safety of services, or safety of products, or protection of consumers, or safety at work), and seventeen member states gave a thorough report about ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 357 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) sector regulations which refer to the accommodation services, supplemented with self-regulation in six cases (Green paper - Safety of Tourism Accommodation Services, 2014). The obligation of the Member States is to provide information about the risks which are threatening health and safety (article 29.3). Considering the safety of tourist services, there is no comprehensive legislation on the European Union level. The only instrument related to safety in the accommodation facility is the recommendation of the Council of Europe 86/666 about the fire safety in the existing hotels which defines minimum security standards for all the hotels in the European Union (capacity of at least 20 rooms), and it is recommended that all member states undertake all the necessary measures of insurance and application of safety standards when the existing laws are not sufficient. Besides that, numerous instruments of the European Union and initiatives in the area of various politics (i.e. building products, safety on work place, professional qualification, environment and travel) can contribute directly or indirectly to the safety of services in the accommodation facilities. In the context of monitoring and implementation, the unique existing European instrument which regulates fire protection in the tourist accommodation is not obligatory, so it is without the mandatory implementation. In the mid-year of 2011, the European Commission presented the report about the application of recommendations in the member countries. In the report it was concluded that, even though recommendations contribute to the increasing of the level of safety in hotels throughout the European Union, minimum security standards prescribed in the recommendation were not totally achieved. Safety in tourism of the Republic of Croatia As already pointed out in the paper, the element of safety is one of the most significant elements of the tourist offer which influences on the decision of tourists when choosing a tourist destination. The basic preconditions of appearance of tourist travels are undoubtedly a certain level of everyday settlement of basic physiological needs, and adequate level of safety. It is understandable by itself that the same level of settlement of these two basic needs in the place of temporary tourist stay must not be brought to question in any way, because that in the same extent reduces “space” for achieving all those needs whose satisfaction is the basic motive of a tourist travel. In order to highlight the perception of tourists on safety as an element of tourist offer in a destination, in this part of the paper the authors will research the satisfaction of tourists with safety in the Republic of Croatia, and provide a comparative review with the competitive countries. Satisfaction of tourists with the safety in the Republic of Croatia With comparative advantages of the Republic of Croatia, such as: natural beauties of the Adriatic Coast, islands and tourist potential of a Continental part (thermal springs, castles, protected area, etc.), ecologically clean natural surroundings, geographical position, rich cultural-historical heritage, etc., personal safety also finds its place, as in accommodation facilities and in destinations (Strategy of Development of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia until 2020, 2013). Results of the research Tomas indicate that in the period from 2004 until 2010 the level of satisfaction of guests with the element of personal safety was increased in coastal 358 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation destinations of the Republic of Croatia (seven coastal counties). In 2004 the element “personal safety” was in sixth place, while in 2010 it took fourth place (Tomas - Attitudes and Consumption of Tourists in Croatia, 2004, 2007, 2010). It is also necessary to point out that in 1987 and 1989 this element of tourist offer of Croatia was in third place, while in 1994 it took sixth place (Tomas trends – Attitudes and Consumption of Tourists in Croatia 1987-2008, 2009). In 1994 “personal safety” was graded with a low level of satisfaction in the Republic of Croatia, which is understandable considering that war operations still lasted in its area. Improving the level of satisfaction of tourists with “personal safety” is an indicator that Croatia is working intensively on creating an image of a safe destination; it takes care about the safety of its visitors. The majority of guests in the Republic of Croatia separates the sense of safety as an element with high or very high influence when choosing a destination for spending a summer vacation (57,6% in the year 2010). Thereby the influence of this element on the majority of tourists was higher than the average. It has the highest impact on the guests from Poland (67,2%), followed by guests from Netherlands (64,6%), and the domestic guests (62,7%). Tourists from Serbia (41,7%) were the least influenced by the “sense of security” when choosing a destination. By analyzing the trends in the period from 2004 until 2010 it has been noticed that the “sense of security” became more important for almost all of the guests. In 2004 the “sense of safety” as an element of tourist offer has influenced the most on the choice of tourists who visited the Dalmatian counties: Zadar, SplitDalmatia, Šibenik-Knin and Dubrovnik-Neretva. County of Dubrovnik-Neretva still has a high influence of “sense of safety” (63% in the year 2010). Research of Institute for tourism Tomas Summer Attitutes and Consumption of Tourists 2014 has shown that in the Adriatic coastal destinations tourists’ grade “personal safety” with a high grade. As an element of offer of a tourist destination, it is placed on the fourth place behind “beauty of nature and landscape”, “kindness of personnel in the accommodation facilities” and “suitability for spending a family vacation”. In relation to the researches which were conducted in years 2004, 2007 and 2010, satisfaction of tourists with this element of tourist offer hasn´t changed. “Sense of safety” as an element of tourist offer of coastal destinations still has a high level of guest´s satisfaction, and in 2014 it was placed on the very top of the elements of tourist offer that tourists were most satisfied with. 80,7% of tourists who stayed in Croatia in summer 2014 were satisfied with “personal safety” as an element of tourist offer. The most of them were satisfied in the County of Dubrovnik-Neretva (86,7%) and the least in the County of Šibenik-Knin (72,9%) (Tmas - Summer Attitudes and Consumption of Tourists, 2014). Comparative review with the competitive countries Safety in a country is one of the competitive advantages of Croatia, along with the beauty of landscape and cleanliness of place. By comparing tourist´s grades of elements of tourist offer in Croatia with the competitive countries (picture 1) it has been registered that the sense of safety in the country was graded significantly better in 2010. For 31,2% of tourists this element is better in Croatia than in France, and for 53,4% of them it is better than in Turkey. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 359 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Picture 1: Grade of the element “sense of safety in a country” in relation to the competitive countries in year 2010 Source: Tomas Summer-Attitudes and consumption of tourists in Croatia, Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, 2010. According to the results of Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report (Strategy of Development of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia until 2020, 2013), in 2011 Croatian tourism took 34th place according to its international competitiveness in the world, wherein it significantly lags behind other developed tourist countries of the Mediterranean (France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Malta). Among other elements, Croatia also achieved average competitiveness in the quality of personal safety (range 33) (Strategy of Development of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia until 2020, 2013). This is also contributed by the measures undertaken by all the stakeholders in the tourist destination, and it relates on increasing the safety in the destination, from tourists themselves, hotel facilities, local government and state measures. Security problems in Croatian tourism Various security problems are present in Croatian tourism, which can be comprehensively divided on threats conditioned by thefts, felonies, and violence on cultural monuments. One of the negative phenomena in tourism is crime. Very often, tourists are victims of criminal acts conducted because of greed. I.e., in parallel with the growth of tourist turnover in coastal destinations of the Republic of Croatia also grew the problem of so called tourist crime, respectively, criminal acts in which the victims are mostly tourists. Tourists and their asset and destination in which they are spending their holiday become the place where forms of thefts connected to the tourist season manifest (Matika and Gugić, 2007) . It is important to point out that some forms of criminal acts, which are present during the whole year on a certain area, more frequently appear during the tourist season, so the growth of such criminal acts conditioned by the tourist season is called Seasonal crime (Matika and Gugić, 2007). During the tourist season an increase of the number of criminal acts was registered against the assets, security in road traffic, in the area of the economic crime, against life and body, dignity of a person and moral, for example, indecent acts, rape, pedophilia, etc. Tourism creates a large number of opportunities for conducting criminal acts, but also in a large number of cases tourists themselves create “opportunities” of conducting such offenses, and the perpetrator in such case doesn´t choose the way 360 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation how to commit the offense, but the way of committing is conditioned by the caught situation, or the situation is the consequence of the specific conditions brought by tourism. There are no special statistics about tourist crime, so it is difficult to determine whether criminal acts committed during the summer were only on tourists. The data is sporadic and presented only in order to point out the problem of crime during the summer stimulated by the influx of a large number of tourists, but also the reduction of tourist´s caution during the vacation. So in the County of Primorje-Gorski kotar during June and July in 2013 there was a significant growth of criminal acts of burglaries and thefts. Seventy-three thefts and burglaries were reported in residential buildings, which in comparison to the same period in 2012 is an increase of 64%. Burglaries occur mostly during the day, when there is no one in the residential building, and the object of thefts is mostly gold and jewelry (The Voice of Istria, 2013). Car burglaries were also increasing; twenty-six in relation to sixteen in June and July in 2012, which is a growth of 62,5%. The objects of car burglaries are handbags, cell phones and portable computers which the owners usually leave in a visible place. The burglar´s targets are most frequently cars parked along the beach and public places. On the beaches in the County of Primorje-Gorski kotar in June and July in 2013 forty - one reported theft have occurred and in relation to the same period in 2012, that is an increase of 10% (The Voice of Istria, 2013). Based on the stated it is visible that during the tourist season in Croatian coastal destinations there is an increase of criminal acts, so it is necessary to increase security measures in that part of the year, especially in the context of creating an image of Croatia as a safe tourist destination. Threats conditioned by violence of cultural monuments As an example of tourist crime in Croatia criminal acts could be stated in which the victim is not a tourist, but in which artistic and cultural values are being attacked. Croatia is rich in monumental and cultural heritage, especially in its coastal area. This area registers a large number of immovable and movable cultural heritage, nonmaterial cultural heritage, and archeological cultural heritage. The excavations of contractors in historical destinations are very frequently accompanied by the findings of old graves, the remains of stone walls, processed stone blocks or objects made of ceramic, copper and other materials, or materials which have a monumental value (Matika and Gugić, 2007). Numerous sites which are situated in the coastal area of the Republic of Croatia are partially explored, and they possess archeological and artistic value which is under the protection of the state, regulated by the law about protection of cultural monuments. In towns and settlements there are numerous cultural monuments of high value: sacral objects, fortresses, summer houses, palaces, village houses and objects of everyday use, which provide tourists the local atmosphere, enable acquisition of historical findings about the destination they are visiting, and offer responses on numerous questions regarding the destination´s history. The desire of tourists for owning a little part of that history is completely understandable, the objects such as stone, ceramics, and similar archeological findings. Usually, the archeologists leave for the visitors something they can bring to their homes, which won´t call in question the research or reduce archeological and artistic value of a particular archeological locality. However, usually it doesn´t end with that, so small petty thefts turn into devastation, violence and crime. So, protection of monumental culture is a big problem. In favor of that, a fact can be stated that all objects of monumental ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 361 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) value are not registered in the registers, partially due to the number, and partially due to the negligence and disorganization (Matika and Gugić, 2007). Considering that monumental culture provides Croatia special value, it is an important component of its tourist development, attractiveness with individual tourists and positioning on the tourist market. Characteristic forms of endangerment of cultural monuments are manifested in the following activities (Matika and Gugić, 2007): 1. Underwater activities on forbidden places where ship wrecks are situated, with the cargo from which various objects are extracted and illegally carried out of the country. These activities are usually lead by domestic people who know underwater and present themselves as guides or scuba-diving instructors; 2. Breaking into objects, of which the most endangered are churches, convents, chapels and similar objects, and the objects of theft are artistic pieces, paintings, sculptures, chalices, candlesticks, and similar. The perpetrators of criminal offenses over cultural monuments are usually organized groups of foreign tourists who arrive to Croatia, with all the necessary equipment (i.e. for scuba-diving in great depths), then they associate with good connoisseurs of underwater archeological localities or art in churches and galleries, and jointly approach to their robbery. Even though the number of such criminal acts is not high, it causes priceless and irreparable damage to the Croatian cultural-historical treasure, especially since the experience shows that numerous desolations of underwater treasure (stealing of amphora, antique dishes etc. from underwater findings) were never revealed or the true extent of illicit activities is never determined. Even if the felony is discovered, its perpetrator usually stays unknown, and stolen art usually irretrievably end up in antique shops or private galleries abroad. Statistical data point out on significantly smaller state than the real one. Namely, reviews of the collections are irregular, incomplete and imprecise. Detected thefts are often in a large time gap from their commission. A great number of accidently discovered thefts show that there is a significantly larger number of those that are never discovered, and very often are not reported so unconcern of those who take care of the art would not be discovered. These cases are most frequent in the archives, galleries, holdings and other institutions. Lack or evasion is very often discovered after the implementation of the inventory which is, as it is already pointed out, irregular. Besides in the tourist season, more frequent are attacks on naval localities of sunken ships outside the tourist season, as well as stealing amphora and other objects from the Adriatic Sea (Matika and Gugić, 2007). Based on the mentioned, it can be concluded that stealing of cultural asset is a frequent problem in the Republic of Croatia, and must be given an undivided attention. Security measures in Croatian Tourism Tourism crime present in Croatia effects negatively on the image of a tourist destination and has a negative promotion. So, various measures are undertaken in order to reduce it to the minimum, with a goal of protecting personality and tourist´s asset. Preventive activities of the police, but also the local community and the tourists themselves have a special meaning. 362 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Measures which the Republic of Croatia is conducting with a purpose of increasing safety of tourists consist of three elements: preventive security measures, providing help to the tourists and international cooperation in tourism. Within the frame of preventive security measures of Croatia, and according to the instructions of the World Tourism Organization, a whole set of projects was designed, which influenced on increasing the level of security during the tourist season (brochures about self-protective behavior for tourists, bicycle patrols, police water scooters, etc.). Units of traffic youth, contact police officers and complete police operating system in the field are trying to preserve a favorable state security within their regular tasks. Since 1994, an action Tours is continuously conducted in Croatia due to the raising of security during the tourist season, through prevention of crime and offenses, and increased security measures in traffic and on border crossings, in order to enable for tourists a safe arrival and stay in Croatia (Ministry of the Internal Affairs of the Republic of Croatia). In 2006 this action was expanded by adding new contents, modeled by long-standing practice in the European Union countries, and a pilot project was started – International police cooperation “Police in uniform” which was during the time renamed into “Safe tourist season”. During June in 2006 the Ministry of the Internal Affairs was the host of the meeting of principles of 12 European countries whose citizens are the most frequent and the most numerous tourists in the Croatian Adriatic. During that period of time, a Plan of measures and activities within the action Tours was presented, experiences were exchanged, police cooperation was concretized in order to enable top quality stay for tourists from the European countries, a Memo about understanding and cooperation was signed, and the right of pre-emption with the Croatia was shared by the Hungarian police. Considering the data which showed that the majority of Hungarian guests stayed in Zadar area, and based on the memo about the understanding between Hungarian and Croatian police, it was decided that during the summer season four Hungarian police-officers will stay in the area of police department of Zadar. Their role was to establish the highest quality communication with the Hungarian tourists. In 2007 an interest was shown by the Austrian, Italian, Czech and German police, so a memo about cooperation was signed with the police of these countries for that year. From year 2009 Ministry of Tourism was also included, and in 2012 it co-financed a project with 200.000 Croatian Kuna (Ministry of the Internal Affairs of the Republic of Croatia). The fact is, however, that security in tourism is not achieved only through activities of police officers, but it must also comprehend all participants in tourism, and especially tourist employees. Conclusion Independently whether it is about safety of tourists or service providers, safety in tourism is the basic need and assumption of an effective tourist activity. Even though it is not the primary, but the secondary motive of tourist arrivals in a certain tourist destination, it is one of the important elements of tourist offer, by which an image of a tourist destination is created, and competitiveness on the tourist market is achieved. So, tourist destinations are trying to ensure stay of tourists with a high level of security and create an image of a safe tourist destination. State takes over the obligation to protect the public good, to create general level of safety of population and tourists, and regulation of relations and conditions in the area of private protection. Responsibility for safety, however, is distributed on an individual, organizers and tourist employees, tourist communities, local and regional community. Only through systematic actions it is possible to act preventively and increase safety in the destination. Safety is an important factor of tourist development in the European Union. Special significance has been given to it in the proposition of the Strategy of development of the European ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 363 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Union. European Union doesn´t have a joint policy of security and protection of tourists in its area, it is mostly left to the individual states within their national legislation. The fact is, however that the European Union meets with numerous security problems, so various measures are undertaken in order to reduce these security problems to a minimum. This is particularly related to the problem connected with terrorism, on which area there is a joint policy of member countries in fighting against terrorism. In the area of Croatia significant measures are undertaken with a goal of tourist´s safety, such as increased police patrols, participation of foreign tourists during the tourist season, printing flyers with warning, greater ensuring of forest protection, greater safety on the roads, etc. By increasing the level of safety, an image of a safe tourist destination, gladly visited by the tourists, will be formed. References • Bilandžić, M. (2011). Terorizam u teorijama i teorijskim perspektivama. Društvena istraživanja. 20, 3, 837-859, DOI: 10.5559/di.20.3.12 • Dobranović, Ž. (2003). Opći pristup sigurnosti u turizmu, Defimi, Zagreb. • Efus. European citizens and the feeling of insecurity, Retrieved 15 December 2015 from http://efus.eu/en/topics/risks-forms-of-crime/fear-of-crime/partners/629/ • European Commission. Green paper Safety of Tourism Accommodation Services, Retrieved 13 September 2015 from http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_foodsafety/dgs_consultations/ ca/docs/cons_ 2014 1130_tourism_gp_en.pdf • European Commission. Internal Security, Retrieved 13 September 2015 from http://ec.europa.eu/ public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_371_en.pdf • European Commission. Overview of EU Tourism Policy, Retrieved 16 March 2015 from https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/tourism/policy-overview_en • European Commission. Special Eurobarometer 432. Europeans’ Attitudes Towards Security. Report, European Union, 2015, Retrieved 5 January 2016 from http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ebs_432_en.pdf • Glas Istre Rijeka. (2013.) Porast krađa i provala tijekom sezone, Retrieved 17 February 2015 from http://www.glasistre.hr/vijesti/specijalna/rijeka-porastkradja-i-provala-tijekom -sezone-419964 • Gotovac, P. (2007). Turizam i zdravlje: Što uspješan menadžment lokalne destinacije treba znati o sigurnosti zdravlja kao elementu pouzdanosti turizma?, Acta Turistica Nova. 1, 1, 61-85. • European Parlament. Sektorske politike – turizam, Retrieved 27 March 2015 form http://www. europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/hr/displayFtu. html?ftuId=FTU_5.6.13.html. • Mansfeld, Y. & Pizam, A. (2006). Tourism Security & Safety:From Theory to Practice, Elsevier. Oxford. • Matika, D. & Gugić, A. (2007). Turizam i sigurnost, Adriatica.net, Zagreb. • Ministarstvo unutarnjih poslova Republike Hrvatske. Sigurna turistička sezona, Retrieved 7 May 2015 from http://www.policija.hr/96913.aspx • Mogorović, M. (2005). Implementacija sustava sigurnosti namirnica na primjeru opatijskih hotela, Zbornik radova 6. Hrvatske konferencije o kvaliteti, 18 – 20 May, Opatija. • Pirjevec, B. (1998). Ekonomska obilježja turizma, Golden marketing, Zagreb. • Strategy of Development of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia until 2020, Retrieved 28 March 2015 from http://www.mint.hr/UserDocsImages/Strategijaturizam-2020-editfinal.pdf • Tatalović, S. & Bilandžić, M. (2005). Osnove nacionalne sigurnosti, Ministarstvo unutarnjih poslova Republike Hrvatske, Zagreb. 364 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation • Tatalović, S. (2006). Nacionalna i međunarodna sigurnost, Politička kultura, Zagreb. • Tomas (2004). Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Hrvatskoj, Institut za turizam, Zagreb. • Tomas (2007). Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Hrvatskoj, Institut za turizam, Zagreb. • Tomas (2010). Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Hrvatskoj, Institut za turizam, Zagreb. • Tomas (2014). Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Hrvatskoj, Institut za turizam, Zagreb. • Vijeće Europske unije. Borba EU-a protiv terorizma, Retrieved 17 March 2015 from http://www.consilium.europa.eu/hr/policies/fight-against-terrorism/ ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 365 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3333 Title A name given to the resource SECURITY IN EUROPEAN TOURISM WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION PAID TO THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA Author Author Alkier, Romina Radovic Nimac, Korana Lipovac, Sanja Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Security and the sense of being secure represent an important component in choosing a tourist destination, but also the quality of life of domestic population and stay of tourists in a tourist destination. Therefore, in cooperation with participants in tourism, destinations must enable safe and adequate surrounding for its visitors, and encourage the coexistence with the domestic population. Protection and security in tourism are becoming complex multidimensional terms which cover a great number of components among which are political security, public security, health and sanitation security, protection of personal data, legal protection of tourists, protection of consumers, security in communication, getting authentic data, ensuring the quality of services, etc. Croatia is a member of the European Union, and it monitors trends in the development of tourism on the European Union level and Europe in whole. Personal safety is an important component of choosing Croatia as a destination, and is one of the advantages of Croatia in relation to the competitive countries. Within the research conducted in the paper the focus is on the analysis of safety in tourism of Europe and the Republic of Croatia. The goal is understanding the significance which “sense of safety” has on the choice of European destinations and the necessity of establishment of security measures and the protection of tourists during tourist travel on all levels. Based on the conducted analysis, measures of improvement of security and protection of tourists in European and Croatian tourist destinations will be suggested. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e5648bc2dbc1d9777d9b8f984b44f79.pdf 959ffbd8b1113ffa934e93c6679e5ae0 PDF Text Text FORMATION OF A HIGHER EDUCATION ORGANIZATION IDENTITY BETWEEN IMAGINATIONS AND STANDARDS: THE CASE OF TURKISH UNIVERSITIES SYSTEM Atay Erhan Suleyman Sah University Turkey eatay@ssu.edu.tr Zehra Topal Suleyman Sah University Turkey ztopal@ssu.edu.tr Abstract: Nowadays universities on the one hand try to survive and handle to their managerial system on the other hand cope with constrains from their institutional environment. The constrains are multilateral and including organizational demands, increasing competition in the market, national and international standardization however which are comprise of responding to demands of the students who are grown up in the technological era. Hence, universities are increasingly facing a double-sided pressure: to be innovative with a specific organizational duty while at the same time being an embedded part of a growing, and highly interconnected, internationalized and standardized higher education ‘industry’. This dilemma has both theoretical and practical interest, and is explored in this paper through an empirical study of how one university has dealt with these challenges of innovation and standardization. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. By studying a Turkish foundation university from its establishment in 2007 to present, and by extensive triangulation of more qualitative studies on this university in this period, the paper concludes that higher education institutions may handle this dilemma by relating it to the continuous struggle for organizational identity. As methodologically has done per deep interview with founding members and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Key Words: Higher Education, Organizational Identity, Standardization, Innovative Entrepreneurship, Institutional Isomorphism, Autonomy Introduction In the social life we are living with diverse institutions as in embedded and significant sense the life. Sometimes old institutions weaken by way of loss of legitimacy and meaning although many of their properties of alive. Vice versa is possible; a new social arrangements, agreements and perspectives may be given the outward form of an institution. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 265 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Otherwise, function as one of its member finds little or no inner meaning inside it (Beteille, 1995:563). Institutions have in general a longer life span than people. Even if some institutions by the time they can transform into a new formations. If they do not adapt to recent development they have may conflict. Universities are one of the most extended institutions in the world. On the other hand, the role and character of universities around the world is rapidly changing, with an increasing number of countries witnessing the rise of a market-based model of higher education and a rapid expansion of student enrolments. The world-wide trend in higher education is to push for enhanced student outcomes, accountability and innovation (Shaw et all., 2013:992). In Turkey as our case, this emphasis has been encapsulated in the some formation process. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. Theoretical Framework In the statement of DiMaggio and Powell (1983:150), organizational adaptation as determined by external forces where organizations have to adapt to economic, societal and cultural demands for reasons of legitimacy and survival. A representative theory here is the sociological version of neo-institutionalism, where a central thesis is that due to external political pressure, increased professionalization within a societal sector, or organizational uncertainty, organizations will become increasingly similar. In other words, organizational adaptation is a change towards standardization within a given organizational sector, e.g. higher education. Also, organizations are dependent on external forces, but argues that each organization still has certain discretion left when it comes to how they should respond to external pressures. The concepts of strategic choice or critical decisions are in this perspective important, along with a view that organizations must find their environmental niche in order to successfully compete for customers, students or markets shares, improve financial support or relations with society at large (e.g., Selznick 1957; Clark 1998; Sporn 1999). At this point our question research is arise, how universities cope with the external pressures by making their own shape organizational identities? For clear understanding we should briefly sort out condition of universities in the context of Turkey. Condition of Universities in the Context of Turkey The Council of Higher Education (CoHE) consult, supervise and control to universities in Turkey. The CoHE is an autonomous institution which is responsible for the planning, coordination and governance of higher education system in Turkey. CoHE is established in 1982 and has a constitutional and centralized structure. The number of universities has been increasing by times. Regarding of CoHE’s statistics there are two break point have seen in this duration. One of them is in the year of 1992 and other one is in 2006 and after. The count has increased approximately three times in this process. Especially foundation and private universities have establishes intensively in the term. 266 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation While the number of non government universities was only one before 1982, they were 16 in 1997, 30 in 2007 and 63 in 20111. Recently the update number is 76. Conjunction with this increasing, a competitive market has raised between universities. The rising competition in higher education and the mass demands for education prompt to universities to get seeking differentiation for fixing their strategic situation, and hit them transforming into organizational identity(Sakinc and Bursalioglu, 2012:93). In this case, our question research made out; formation by CoHE and differentiate organization identity of universities has presented a contradiction and how universities cope and deal with between imaginations and standards in their way. Organizational Identity Universities as an organization are dependent on external forces while each one still has specific discretion. They should respnd and manage this dependency with concept of strategic choice or critical decisions. They are in a challenge market and they must find their niche in order to prospering compete for their stakeholders (Stensaker and Norgard, 2001:479). In this case organizational identity should be dynamic concept where identity tags last. Organizational identity in relation to both culture and image in order to understand how external and internal definitions of organizational identity interact and commit. Accordig to Whetten (2006) this commitment the identity claims or referents that signify the organization’s self determined and self defining position in social space. From this perspective organizations are more than a social collectives they are social actors (Gioia et all. 2010:6). However structure of centralized system of higher education in Turkey caused isomorphism (Stensaker and Norgard, 2001:476) and lead to rationalized formal structures (Meyer and Rowan, 1977:342). In this study we investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. We aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. Methodology Our unit of observation is a foundation university which is established in 2007. In the academic meaning, there are two faculties and eight departments. University take position and differentiate itself social science. In the scope of our study we used a qualitative methods find out an embedded meaning of identity and perception of centralized system by employees in the university. Our sample consist of 32, and we did per deep interview each one by recording during one hour. We did discourse analysis to dechipred text and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Our analysis table is still in progress. Refernceces • Gioia, D. A., Price, K. N., Hamilton, A. L., & Thomas, J. B. (2010). Forging an identity: An insider-outsider study of processes involved in the formation of organizational identity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(1), 1-46 • Beteille, A. (1995). Universities as institutions. Economic and Political Weekly, 563568. • Barnett, R. (2011). The idea of the university in the twenty-first century: where’s the imagination?. Yükseköretim Dergisi, 1, 88-94. 1 http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/web/uluslararasi-iliskiler/turkiye-de-yuksekogretim-sistemi ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 267 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) • DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American sociological review, 147-160. • Erdem, A. R. (2012). Küreselleşme: Türk yükseköğretimine etkisi. Yükseköğretim Dergisi, 2(2), 109-117. • Stensaker, B., & Norgård, J. D. (2001). Innovation and isomorphism: A case-study of university identity struggle 1969–1999. Higher Education, 42(4), 473-492. • Gioia, D. A., Patvardhan, S. D., Hamilton, A. L., & Corley, K. G. (2013). Organizational identity formation and change. The Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 123-193 • Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American journal of sociology, 340-363. 268 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3324 Title A name given to the resource FORMATION OF A HIGHER EDUCATION ORGANIZATION IDENTITY BETWEEN IMAGINATIONS AND STANDARDS: THE CASE OF TURKISH UNIVERSITIES SYSTEM Author Author Atay, Erhan Topal, Zehra Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Nowadays universities on the one hand try to survive and handle to their managerial system on the other hand cope with constrains from their institutional environment. The constrains are multilateral and including organizational demands, increasing competition in the market, national and international standardization however which are comprise of responding to demands of the students who are grown up in the technological era. Hence, universities are increasingly facing a double-sided pressure: to be innovative with a specific organizational duty while at the same time being an embedded part of a growing, and highly interconnected, internationalized and standardized higher education ‘industry’. This dilemma has both theoretical and practical interest, and is explored in this paper through an empirical study of how one university has dealt with these challenges of innovation and standardization. In this paper it is investigated that the processes involved in forming an organizational identity, which it is studied during the founding of a distinctive new college by using an interpretive, insider-outsider research approach. It aimed that to identify elements that constitute the identity. It is considered a dilemma that imaginations and innovations attitudes of entrepreneurs of university such as struggles to be innovative and authentic on the other hand centralized structure of state, national and international standardizations and especially idiosyncratic context of Turkey. By studying a Turkish foundation university from its establishment in 2007 to present, and by extensive triangulation of more qualitative studies on this university in this period, the paper concludes that higher education institutions may handle this dilemma by relating it to the continuous struggle for organizational identity. As methodologically has done per deep interview with founding members and content analysis to archive documents since its establishment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)