109 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3482 Title A name given to the resource EVALUATION OF ELT MATERIALS FOR YOUNG LEARNERS: COURSE-BOOKS AS CULTURAL ARTEFACTS Author Author Stec, Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper will focus on teaching and learning materials used in early English education. The aim is to identify the most important factors for the evaluation of ELT materials and find answers to two questions: What are the challenges in evaluation of English course books for young learners? What is the nature of cultural content in these materials? The project involves an analysis of ten course books currently used in teaching English to young learners and older learners. The project is based on a set of criteria and a checklist as the instrument for this investigation. It is hoped that the results from the research project will enrich the process of materials evaluation for children. Keywords: young learners, evaluation, course books, culture content Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2152437067a737d4cc3305ec787225ad.pdf d5d234fe994221fe256dbb367e57a593 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Raiffeisen Researh CEE Banking Sector Report http://www.rbinternational.com/eBusiness/services/resources/media/677012584775275435677012584775275436_677251119927032833-772104317120223179-1-9-DE.pdf Simon Jr, G. (2012) An Economic History of Socialist Yugoslvaia, Social Science Research Network, Rochester, New York, Available at : http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983907 Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2004) Banking Sector Developments in South –Eastern Europe, Working Paper No.44, ELIAMEP, WP4,Regional Cooperation, ELIAMEP, Athens, Available at: http://balkan-observatory.net/archive/stubos.pdf Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2005) Regional Integration Challenges in South East Europe: Banking Sector Trends , Working Paper, Bank of Greece Available at: http://www.bankofgreece.gr/BogEkdoseis/Paper200524.pdf Basel II – Policy Implications and Implementation Challenges for Bosnia and Herzegovina Aida Bulbul, Ugur Ergun International Burch University, Faculty of Economics 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mails: bulbul.aida@gmail.com, uergun@ibu.edu.ba Abstract The financial sector and international banking environment in particular has changed dramatically over the past years. In order to reach and maintain stability and sustainability in the global banking system, decrease risk of insolvency, and to cover unexpected losses, countries (EU in particular) have started implementing the new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) following the worldwide consensus among G-10 central bank Governors by which banks’ capital levels should be regulated to enhance global financial stability. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is still in the beginning of its path towards Basel II legislation and implementation, using detailed literature review and an in-depth analysis this study conducts a comparative analysis on the implementation of Basel II in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia, with regard to both the qualitative and quantitative implementation details and issues which include the implementation stages, progress, and timetables and particular challenges faced by the countries. Moreover, study reveals Bosnia and Herzegovina’s unique situation, challenges and obstacles on the path towards full implementation of Basel II standards and puts an emphasis on how implementation and adoption will affect its banking and economic stability, future and conditions. 74 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Keywords: Basel II, banking supervision, capital adequacy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, central bank, banking agency, risk, risk weight, challenge, adoption, implementation. 1. INTRODUCTION The ultimate goal of all economies is to reach financial stability and to improve key elements of living standards within that economy. Financial markets, in that regard, are supposed to be active, liquid and trusted regardless of the threats, changes and complexities in the economy. One of the crucial players of the whole economic growth and stability process are banks. Their function has traditionally been to help or mediate funds transfer between those who have a surplus of funds and those who have a fund deficit.. As a consequence of banks’ specific role for the society, their impact on the whole economy and their explicit functions, governments worldwide tend to regulate and supervise banks’ activities, operations, and risk management in particular, in order to protect banks’ customers, liquidity, themselves, but most importantly, to preserve economic stability. In addition to this, fast integration of global financial markets, innovations, and all other complexities highly affected banking sector and the way banks collect, measure and manage risks, and the way they regulate they capital requirements (Makwiramiti, 2008). In writing of this work the author relayed mostly on Basel Committee on Bank Supervision (BCBS) official publications, scientific articles on Basel II, benefits, weaknesses and challenges. For analysis of BiH in terms of harmonization with Basel II standards, author used publications of Central Bank of BiH (CBBH) and annual reports of Banking Agencies and key banks in BiH. For comparative purposes, data on Basel II implementation stages in Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia was used, mainly from aforementioned countries’ Central Banks, and available relevant publications. These literature resources combined with one year working experience at USAID/PARE project, provided the author with the knowledge base for completion of this work. Due to internal regulation on sensitive information within USAID/PARE project, no report or case study produced by the project could be included in this work. Nevertheless, a significant part of this work is based on knowledge and experience acquired at USAID/PARE project. 2. THE BASEL COMMITTEE AND REGULATIONS The Basel Committee (‘the Committee’), established in Basel (Switzerland), was founded in 1974 by the governors of G-10 group countries and today consists of senior representatives of bank supervisory authorities and central banks from Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States (Sarlija & Gerec Z, 2008). The Committee is an international body that has an aim to harmonize banking supervision, formulate financial regulation policy at the international level and to create preconditions for intensifying international competition of banks (Plochan, 2007). With increase of competition among banks and with continuing erosion of capital that happened in late 70s, regulators realized that approach to these problems on the international level and standardization of capital regulations was the only possible solution for securing the global banking system. As a result, a common framework for calculating the capital adequacy of banks was proposed. Although subject to implementation variations from one country to another, the Basel regulatory framework was and is being accepted and implemented in all major economies (CEPS Task Force Report, 2008) 75 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 2.1. Basel I Basel I represented a revolutionary agreement whose core was to develop a common riskadjusted capital standard that would be applied internationally, and by which banks would be obliged to put aside a certain percentage of its capital as reserve when providing loans. Basel I had two fundamental objectives: First, to “strengthen the soundness and stability of the international banking system” (by setting the minimum capital adequacy requirements); and Second that the “framework should be in fair and have a high degree of consistency in its application to banks in different countries” (BCBS, 1988) To achieve these goals, the Committee concluded that the minimum target standard ratio of capital to weighted risk assets should be set at 8% (of which the Tier 1 capital element will be at least 4%). This basically means that banks were to put aside 8% of the total amount of a loan in reserve when there is a 100% risk associated with that loan.. For simplicity purposes, the Committee decided that only five weights were to be used: 0, 10, 20, 50 and 100%. Even though it was only “morally, not legally binding, the provisions of the 1988 Basel Accord quickly became the reference point for regulation on credit risk, not just in the original G-10 member countries, but also eventually in over 100 countries throughout the globe” (Ong, 2007). 2.2. Basel II The Basel II framework is built on three mutually reinforcing pillars, which together should contribute to safety and soundness in the financial system. The first pillar, covering minimum capital requirements, offers novelties in terms of credit risk quantification (standardized and internal rating based (IRB) approach of measurement); and introduces category of operational risk measurement in the calculation of capital adequacy ratio. The second pillar concerns supervisory review process is intended not only to ensure that banks have adequate capital to support all the risks in their business, but also to encourage banks to develop and use better risk management techniques in monitoring and managing their risks. (BCBS, 2006) The third pillar concerning market discipline is to complement the minimum capital requirements (Pillar 1) and the supervisory review process (Pillar 2). While the Framework takes the form of an agreement among the BCBS members – and so the implementation is voluntary – in the EU, the framework is a part of legislation and is binding for all EU countries. EU, by the means of Capital Requirements Directive (CRD) required all financial institutions (regardless of size and geographic activity to fully implement the basic Basel II approaches by January 2008, which is when Basel II is compulsory for all approaches. (ECB, 2005) 76 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3. BASEL II IMPLEMENTATION – COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 3.1. Slovenia Lessons that can be learned from the case of Slovenia are: due to the fact that Basel II can adversely affect SMEs and can be extremely costly for low profile domestic banks, the government (and Central Bank in particular) should consider introducing slight changes into legislation (as compared to original Accord) in order to protect businesses and banks within country, but also to preserve financial stability and prosperity of the country. Moreover, in order to overcome the problem with lack of skilled staff for implementation of Basel II, timely trainings and capacity buildings should be organized, so that institutions have people that can cope with all of the tasks and challenges the implementation and understanding of Basel II brings. (Jagric, Jagric, & Podobnik, 2008) 3.2. Croatia Problems and challenges Croatia faced during Basel II implementations are similar to those already mentioned in the case of Slovenia. Nevertheless, Croatia can be used as an example of Country that managed to increase awareness of all benefits of Basel II through regular publications by National Bank that served as a “manual” for understanding Basel II theory, practice and all relevant surrounding issues. Moreover, it organized various workshops, seminars and trainings for banks even before adoption of Basel II, so that they were able to prepare for all of the challenges and tasks of it, and to be able to continue operating successfully. (Jakovcevic, 2003; CNB, 2008; CNB, 2011) 3.3. Serbia The biggest problems banks in Serbia faced during the implementation of Basel II standards were primarily the costs of staff training and building information systems, improvement of information technology - the development of models and databases, as well as the lack of qualified staff (NBS, 2009). To solve the IT problem, a group of banks purchased ready software, while some banks began creating and designing their own software to be used in meeting the Basel standards. Another solution for overcoming this problem is a domestic product developed by Serbia Center for Investment and Finance that could be a unique and less expensive solution for the introduction of Basel II standards. (http://www.cif.co.rs/). This is not only a less costly solution, but also an easier way for the banks to employ, adapt and get their staff experienced with IT systems and software. 4. BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA AND BASEL II Table 1 displays the total number of banks in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska over the period 2000 to 2011. 77 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Year FBiH CAR* RS** CAR* 2000 N/A 26,3% 18 36,1% 2001 N/A 22,4% 16 37,5% 2002 29 19,8% 11 24% 2003 27 19,6% 10 24% 2004 24 18,6% 9 19% 2005 24 17,5% 9 19% 2006 23 17,6% 9 18% 2007 22 17,3% 10 16% 2008 20 16,4% 10 15,7% 2009 20 16,1% 10 15,8% 2010 19 16,2% 10 16,19% 2011 19 15,3% 10 N/A *CAR – Capital Adequacy Ratio (calculated as ratio of net capital and risk weighted assets) ** + Organizational Units of Banks from Federation BH Table 1 - Compiled from FBiH and RS Banking Agencies’ annual reports Current regulations in BiH (in both entities) are in accordance with Basel I. Since there are differences in legislation across entities and due to complexity of political and economic situation in BiH, it would be extremely hard to harmonize this legislation on the state level. Competent people from both agencies agree however that harmonizing with EU Directives and Accord Rules is much simpler and “painless” process that would eventually result in harmonization on the state level. Since 2008 the activities on preparation and adoption of Basel II were initiated. It is important to emphasize that while BiH is working on introduction of Basel II, Basel III is in the process of adoption and entry into force across the EU. As of December 2008 in FBiH and February 2009 in RS, Banking Agencies adopted a strategy for introducing the Basel II standards. Both Agencies emphasized the fact that Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a country that strives to join the EU, is obliged to make preparations for full adoption of Basel II and EU Directives and that this is one of the conditions for becoming a candidate country. Furthermore, with a strong believe in positive impacts of implementation on banking sector, they concluded that transition is to be done cautiously, gradually and according to the principle “from simple to more complex”, with insuring that banks gradually develop their capacities and capabilities to apply new frameworks and that Agencies develop capacities to design and implement the supervisory procedure defined by Basel II. (FBA, 2008; ABRS, 2009) As of today, BiH is in the phase adopting legislation (draft legislation is prepared, but not published and adopted). Although all major banks (in accordance with parent bank requirements) in practice follow the EU requirements, they still create reports in accordance 78 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo with the domestic legislation and requirements, which without any doubt creates many complexities and increases uncertainty about banking sector of BiH. 4.1. Proposed Next Steps Having in mind lessons learned from previously analyzed countries, the following suggestions can be identified: In order to avoid resistance to change and further delays, educational component is very important. Besides regulators, a knowledge base for banks should also be created. This can be done either by organizing regular sessions and workshops, or by publishing manuals, as it was case in Croatia. Bring consultants to take one bank (preferably domestic), guide it throughout the whole process of implementation, promote new models and reporting system, teach its people how to interpret data using new approaches and make them aware that these changes will not bring additional risks. Processes and exercises made with this bank can eventually serve as a template for all other banks across country. Developing proper and common IT/MIS systems – since there will be need for ongoing coordination between the BSAs, CBBH and key regulatory institutions, and since it will be necessary to harmonize reporting formats and protocols, interactive IT systems will play a crucial role. As examples of Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia showed, this is a very expensive and challenging process, and it could be worth considering developing domestic IT solutions, as a less expensive solution. Finally, it is necessary to emphasize the need for undertaking all these activities without disturbing and interfering with banks’ everyday business. Customers should not be adversely affected by the transition period and should not bring into question the trustworthiness of the bank. 5. CONCLUSION Effects of the implementation of Basel II/III to the banking sector in BiH will surely cause the reorganization of banks, whose capital requirements would be significantly increased. Moreover, pressure on banks to increase the amount and quality of capital would impose costs and lead to increased interest rates to customers. Even though these conservative policies and increase in interest rates would in the short-term lead to decrease in the number of granted loans, in the long-term, the successful implementation would lead to greater stability of the banking system and increase the competitiveness of banks in BiH with the banks in the world. In the short term, the introduction of Basel II/III could endanger the competitiveness of weaker banks since the increase of the capital level is more expensive for them than for larger banks. When it comes to profits of the banks in general, they would also be decreased in the short-term, since a particular amount would be separated to meet the minimum credit requirements. Nevertheless, a successful implementation of Basel II/III in BiH would lead to safer and more stable banking system. Improved and more formalized risk management would result in better assessment, quantification and greater awareness of risks in general. Also, bringing BiH banking sector regulations closer to the policies of EU banking would take BiH a step closer to the EU. Successful implementation of Basel II will unquestionably contribute to a more resilient and stable banking system that is capable of not only being a good intermediary, but also promoting sustainable economic growth. (Caruana, 2006) 79 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo REFERENCES ABRS. (2009, February). Strategija za uvođenje "Međunarodnog sporazuma o mjerenju kapitala i standardima kapitala" BAZEL II. Retrieved February 08, 2012, from Banking Agency of RS website: http://www.abrs.ba/publikacije/StrategijaBaselII.pdf BCBS. (1988, June). International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards. Retrieved February 01, 2012, from Bank For International Settlements website: http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs04a.pdf BCBS. (2006, June). International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards. Retrieved February 1, 2012, from Bank for International Settlements website: http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs128.pdf Caruana, J. (2006). The implementation of Basel II. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from Bank for International Settlements website: http://www.bis.org/events/cbcd06f.pdf CEPS Task Force Report. (2008). Basel II Implementation in the Midst of Turbulence. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies. CNB. (2008, December). Bilten o Bankama 17. Retrieved March 15, 2012, from Croatian National Bank Website: http://www.hnb.hr/publikac/bilten-o-bankama/hbilten-o-bankama17.pdf CNB. (2011, December). Bilten o Bankama, 23. Retrieved March 15, 2012, from Croatian National Bank website: http://www.hnb.hr/publikac/bilten-o-bankama/hbilten-o-bankama23.pdf ECB. (2005, December). The New Basel Capital Framework and its Implementation in the European Union. Retrieved March 15, 2012, from European Central Bank website: http://www.ecb.int/pub/pdf/scpops/ecbocp42.pdf FBA. (2008, December). Strategy For introducing the «International Convergence for Capital Measurement and Capital Standards» adopted in 2006 - Basel II. Retrieved February 08, 2012, from Banking Agency of the FBiH website: http://www.fba.ba/index.php?page=17 Jagric, V., Jagric, T., & Podobnik, B. (2008). Implications and consequences of Basel II for banking sector of a small open transition economy – a case of Slovenia. Banks and Bank Systems, Volume 3, Issue 1 , 26-32. Jakovcevic, D. (2003, November). Izazovi i iskusenja usvajanja i primjene “Bazela II.” za hrvatski bankovni i gospodarski sustav. Racunovodstvo, Revizija i Financije , pp. 143-149. Makwiramiti, A. (2008). The Implementation of the New Capital Accord (Basel II): A Comparative Study of South Africa, Switzerland, Brazil and the United States. Grahamstown: Rhodes University. NBS. (2009). Summary of the Results of Questionnaire on the Implementation of Basel II. Retrieved March 16, 2012, from National Bank of Serbia: http://www.nbs.rs/export/sites/default/internet/english/55/55_2/55_2_2/55_2_2_1/summary_r esults_2009.pdf Ong, K. M. (2007). The Basel Handbook: A Guide for Financial Practitioners 2nd Edition. London: Risk Books. Plochan, P. (2007). Risk Management in Banking. Bratislava: University of Economics in Bratislava. 80 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Sarlija, N., & Gerec Z, A. (2008). Kratak pregled Basela 2. Retrieved March 20, 2012, from Economic Faculty of Osijek: http://oliver.efos.hr/nastavnici/nsarlija/projekti/doc/Kratak%20pregled%20Basela%202.pdf The Importance of Environmental Accounting in the Context of Sustainable Development and Within IFRS Evaluation Hasan Şenol, Hakan Özçelik Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey E-mails: hasansenol@sdu.edu.tr, hakanozcelik@sdu.edu.tr Abstract Nowadays, companies cause a lot of environmental problems because of profit maximization, the endless needs, rapidly advancing technological developments, unconscious consumption of natural resources, as they execute their operations. At first glance, these efforts in order to remove environmental pollution means additional cost to companies in the short term nevertheless they can have a chance of cost minimization in medium and long term and even additional income in this process. To meet the needs of business management and related people about the enviroment, enviromental accounting has started up. The study of TAS/TFRS accounting in the context of the enterprises is focused on enviromental accounting and its importance, reflecting the financial progress on enviromental sensitivity reports and sharing those info with the community. There is no relevant TAS/TFRS on the accounting for and the reporting of environmental costs within the existing set of TAS/TFRS. Because, the accounting principles set out in the existing set of TAS/TFRS are already adequate to deal with the accounting for and the reporting of environmental costs. Also, in our study various suggestions were made for he healthy functioning of enviromental accounting. Keywords: Turkish Accounting Standards, Turkish Financial Reporting Standards, Environmental Accounting, 1.INTRODUCTION The main goal of economic development and welfare, environmental balance and sustainable development model has led to awareness of nature should be protected. Optimum use of resources being wasted, the effectiveness of natural resources, environmental protection and economic growth and environmental quality of the flood to provide a working model of integration. Sustainable development, social, ecological, economic, spatial and cultural dimensions of a concept (Yıldıztekin, 2009:368). When environmental problems that appeared together with industrialization process have reached serious levels round the world, preventative or decremental solutions for these problems have been sought by developed countries. These environmental problems experienced with industrialization caused a better understanding of importance of sustainable 81 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1281 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Author Author Aida , Bulbul ERGÜN, Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. The financial sector and international banking environment in particular has changed dramatically over the past years. In order to reach and maintain stability and sustainability in the global banking system, decrease risk of insolvency, and to cover unexpected losses, countries (EU in particular) have started implementing the new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) following the worldwide consensus among G-10 central bank Governors by which banks’ capital levels should be regulated to enhance global financial stability. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is still in the beginning of its path towards Basel II legislation and implementation, using detailed literature review and an in-depth analysis this study conducts a comparative analysis on the implementation of Basel II in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia, with regard to both the qualitative and quantitative implementation details and issues which include the implementation stages, progress, and timetables and particular challenges faced by the countries. Moreover, study reveals Bosnia and Herzegovina’s unique situation, challenges and obstacles on the path towards full implementation of Basel II standards and puts an emphasis on how implementation and adoption will affect its banking and economic stability, future and conditions. Keywords: Basel II, banking supervision, capital adequacy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, central bank, banking agency, risk, risk weight, challenge, adoption, implementation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f48d6e9c234d8d5b151cf8d628517ff.pdf e26c1a59380b2ece86ada14cc5a1a8dd PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Seokjin, K. & Behnam, N., 2008. The Dynamics of Quality Costs in Continuous Improvement. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, pp. 842-859. Sipahi, B. & Yıldırım, H., 2004. Kalite Maliyetleri Muhasebesi ve İstatistiksel Analizi. İstanbul: Türkmen Kitapevi. Şimşek, M., 2001. Toplam Kalite Yönetimi. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Tsai, W. -. H., 1998. Quality Cost Measurement Under Activity-Based Costing. International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, pp. 719-752. Vahevanidis, N. M., Petropouolos, G., Avakumovic, J. & Mourlas, A., 2009. Cost Of Quality Models And Their Implementation In Manufacturing Firms. International Journal for Quality Research, pp. 27-36. Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Nađa Dreca International University of Sarajevo,Faculty of Business and Administration 71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mails: nadja.dreca@students.ius.edu.ba, nadja_n88@hotmail.com Abstract The objective of this study is to compare the financial performance of the banking sector in some ex- Yu countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia for period from 2005 to 2010. Banking sector of Yugoslavia was strong but because of the weakness and the collapse all these characteristics disappeared. The financial performance of banks is study on the basis of some selected financial variables and ratios, such as return on asset, return on equity, capital adequacy ratio, share of non-performing loans in total loans, participation of deposits, assets and loans in Gross Domestic Product of the country. All of the indicators improved in period until the beginning of the global crisis, but with the first signs of crisis the conditions in entire economy worsen as well as the situation in the banking sector. Data show that banking system of these countries suffers from problems largely influenced by its huge debt to IMF, political situation, financial crisis, internal situation and other political factors. The authorities of banking system in selected countries took some measures in order to improve financial position and to slowdown the negative consequences of the global crisis. Keywords: Banks, ROA, ROE, Non-performing loans, Reforms, Crisis 1. INTRODUCTION The banking sector is considered to be an important source of financing for most businesses. Increase in the financial performance leads to more improved functions and activities of any 68 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo organization. It has effect on total economy of the country, because banks are the sources of finance for better job opportunities; develop of new ideas; research and overall prosperity. The factors that influence performance of banks are: bank size measured by its assets, profitability measured by returns on assets and equity, size of deposits and loans, as well as the percentage of non- performing loans in the total loans. 2. BANKING SYSTEM The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) was very important in each field, in economic and political. It had great impact on its member republics. All banks were nationalized. The system had social characteristics, introduced two-tier banking system in 60s when it left the Soviet style mono-banking system, and in 80s Yugoslavia was the most developed and the largest country in the region. The strong Yugoslavia represented a great base for development of the strong and healthy banking system. The system had social characteristics, introduced two-tier banking system in 60s when it left the Soviet style monobanking system, and in 80s Yugoslavia was the most developed and the largest country in the region. In 1980s the Yugoslavia experienced crisis that were caused by a high exchange rate, a high fiscal deficit, and low performance in trade that were the consequences of the big recession and international crisis. During that period, national currency, Dinar, highly depreciated and it leads to the difficulties in repaying foreign loans that in previous century were taken. The government started to promote the Markovic anti-inflation program to make faster economic stabilization. The plan allowed the establishment of private and mixed firms. These new reforms were interrupted by the weakness and collapse of the SFRY. (Simon 2012) The reforms of the banking system started in 1990s. Those reforms happened after the breaking the SFRY and separation of its republics. Separation started first in year 1991 with small military conflict in Slovenia, then Croatia (1991-1992) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995). The military conflicts, hyperinflation, high unemployment rates and other reasons influence the flow of the political and the economic reforms. These negatively influence the position of all former republics and took away all advantages they had before as the part of the SFRY. ( Radzic and Yuce 2008) Reforms in each country are made in order to make transformation of the socialist banking system into a new organizational form. The privatization of the banks was the most important element in the rehabilitation of the banking sector. Privatization was caused by the entrance of the foreign banks and increase in the capital shares. It was made to bring new capital and to help bank reconstruction. The foreign banks brought new way of business and new banking products on this market. The main changes in banking system that reforms brought are: The privatization of state owned banks and the closure of insolvent institutions The writing- off of non-performing loans The entry of foreign banks either by establishing an autonomous presence or by taking over local banks The adoption of regulations according to international standards and practices The implementation of tighter and more effective supervision exercised by the central banks and currency boards. (Stubos 2005) 69 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Whole economic situation in the country has impact on the banking sector. The period of crisis is marked by the worse condition in the economy. As the Table 1 presents each country experienced the decrease in these indicators in period of crisis. Table 1: Key Economic Figures Source: National Sources, Raiffeisen RESEARCH Number of the banks in the selected countries changed over the time. The number of banks in each country, in 2010 compared to 2005 decline mostly because many banks merge with each other or by some regulations some banks are closed. Foreign banks entrance was done either by acquisition of local banks or establishment of their own subsidiaries or branches. Foreign banks brought more confidence and safety in the banking sector, so that assets and deposits increased. (Ilgun and Coskun 2009) Table 2: Number of Banks Source: CBBH, CNB, NBS, BSI As it is shown in Table 3 deposits of all countries grew, except in 2008 when it decreased due to first impact of financial crisis. Deposits of other three countries continue to grow after the crisis, but only Slovenia recorded negative deposit growth. Due to return of confidence in banks and increase in savings also the deposits of banks increased in last year. Deposits from households represent the key factor in the banking service. In period of crisis because of the large risk, citizens mostly did withdrawal from their accounts or they tried to do diversification of the risk, so they left some portion of their deposits on the accounts and part withdraw. The year 2008 is the year in which the citizens mostly lost the confidence in their banks and remove their deposits. Second part of Table 3 represents the share of the deposits of households in GDP. In 2009 the deposits increased due to reconstruction of confidence in banks, new policy of the banks to attract again back the depositors. Increase in deposits from households was creates opportunities for the increase in the supplied loans and brings stimulants in the lending activity. Table 3: Total Deposits in % of GDP and Deposits from Households in % of GDP Source: CBBH, NBS,CNB,BSI, Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author 70 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Clients for the needs of financial activities use the banking services as dominant source of finance. Table 4: Total Loans, Loans to Households and Loans to private enterprises in % of GDP Source: CBBH, NBS,CNB,BSI, Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Table above shows that loans have positive growth over the time.Banks started to implement more restrictive politics and it slowdown loans growth. The most significant factor that influence the limitation of the credit growth is the crisis that had impact on the entire economy and worse the condition in the real sector, then decrease in citizen`s spending, and more restrictive and prudent lending policies of banks. Due to the global economic crisis, consumption was reduced, as well as the volume of activities of domestic firms, which led to decline on demand for new loans. At the same time, credit conditions worsened and interest rate rose. Irregularity of debt servicing by clients increased and the banks put more attention to the credit risk exposure. Economic crisis influenced the demand for the loans. In the years when most people lost their jobs or salary decreased, their creditworthiness decrease and the banks impose more restrictive policy that leads to decrease in the growth of the loans. Growth rate in the loans to households is not high as it was before due to existence of risk on the financial markets, depreciation of currency and other factors that influence the decline in the growth rate of loans. Even if there was increase in this ratio, it is not caused by the new loans but taking loans to refinance existing one. The growth in credit provided to private enterprises was caused by the rise of the costs of performing business, increase in input prices and some other restrictive measures that crisis brought with itself. Increase in the loans to enterprises was mostly due to the needs of financing the working capital and refinance of the existing loans. Banks brought some measures in order to stimulate banking activities, lending and accumulation of deposits, change reserve requirements, make some exception on calculation of ratios, policy about currency ,they fund these changes partly from the internal sources as well as lending from external sources etc. Table 5 illustrated for the listed countries the total assets of the banking sector as percentage of GDP in the period of 2005 to 2010. Slowing lending activities of the commercial banks resulted in a decline of assets on 2009. The banks` asset quality deteriorated considerably as a result of weakening creditworthiness of borrowers. The banking sector had a growth trend over the past years, but it was stopped due to economic crisis. The increase in balance sheet was partly due to bank recapitalization, the inflow of funds from stand-by arrangement, and requalification of bad loans. In 2010 assets again decreases because of high participation of non-performing loans and banks` loss. Table 5: Total Assets in % of GDP Source: CBBH, NBS,CNB,BSI, Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author 71 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The sign of growth of ROA and ROE is changing over the time. Figure 3: ROA, ROE, and NPL (% in Total Loans) in B&H, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Source: CBBH, CNB, NBS, BSI, IMF The banking sector was influenced by the economic crisis and recession, and one of the main characteristics of this sector in 2010 was a decrease in profitability of banks. The assets quality has the greatest impact on the profitability of banks. Decrease in ratio of NPL to total loans can be explained by the increase in loans especially because most loans are long term and also it influence the assets quality can be visible more in the long run. Increase in NPL had greatest impact on profitability of banks. The reason for decrease in profitability was increase in loan loss provision, increase in loan delinquency, delay payments and downfall in interest and similar income. The profitability improvement is the result of reform and implementation of the adjustment of non-performing loans, introduction of modern banking techniques and increasing the rate of credit expansion. The percentage of NPL in the total loans in the mentioned countries increases over the time. The global financial crisis has large impact on this indicator.During the financial crisis there was downfall of asset quality and increase of non-payable claims, produced by difficulties in loan repayments. In 2010 banks did reclassification of the loans, and significant amount was moved from B to nonperforming, that results in the increase of the loan losses and had negative impact on financial performance. Due to poor performing receivables trend in delay in collecting the past due loan receivables from customers, there were activated some guarantees in a number of delinquent loans that had this type of insurance, so the burden of the loan repayment fall on the guarantors. Capital adequacy ratio is significant indicator of financial soundness. Figure 3 shows Capital Adequacy ratio. As it is visible the ratio, all countries fluctuate over the time. Decrease in the capital adequacy ratio is caused by high participation of the risky asserts. It is always higher than minimum prescribed by law (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia 12%, Croatia 10% and Slovenia 8%) and it represents satisfactory capitalization of the entire system and very strong basis and foundation to preserve its safety and stability. The restructure of state owned banks and the injection of capital by governments improved capitalization significantly. Decrease in CAR was due mainly to the increase in risk-weighted assets and increase of credit risk of them. Figure 3: Capital Adequacy Ratio Source: CBBH, CNB, NBS, BSI, IMF 72 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4. CONCLUSION This study provides analysis of banking sector performance measured by several indicators in the three countries that were part of ex – Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia. Indicators show that banking sector is influenced by the global financial crisis. The performance of the banking sector in last years was under the strong impact of the global economic crisis and recession. This crisis produces many bad consequences and the adverse effects in banking sector of those countries, such as stagnation of sector, decline in profitability, increase of the non-performing assets and loans, past due receivables, loan loss provision and deterioration of other key indicators of banks` performance. In 2010 banking sector recorded the first signs of slight recovery but still there is no satisfactory condition to grow faster, so the recovery will be slow and lengthy. Each country records decrease in profitability ratios, merely due to decrease in profits, loss of provision, and increase in nonperforming loans, slowing credit activity and worsening market conditions. In order to make financial situation countries took support from other sources, but in most cases it just increased debt level and makes conditions worse. In order to improve the situation in banking system better, banks should increase interest on deposits, decrease interest on loans especially for the less risky clients, to provide better banking products that help everyone in market, such as more credit cards with deferred payments on the markets; it helps everyone in way that everyone is better off, client pays without interest, it is on time payment, and bank tied client to the bank with issuing this product. More credits to small business should be provide, at the lower interest rate and economy should encourage investments domestic producers should be encouraged by more favorable conditions of borrowing also it will solve many economic problems, decline in unemployment rate by creating job opportunities, less domestic products, so it will decrease trade deficit, provide more income for domestic governments and decrease budget deficit, and country would be in better position to return the debt to IMF. REFERENCES Bank of Slovenia, Annual Reports, various issues www.bsi.si Bonin, J.P. (2001) Financial Intermediation in South East Europe: Banking On the Balkans, Working Paper 006, The WIW Balkan Observatory,URL http: balkan observatory.net/wp/2001%2010%20wiiw%20bo%20wp%20006.pdf Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Annual Reports, various issues www.cbbh.ba Croatian National Bank, Annual Reports, Various issues www.hnb.hr Coskun, A. and Ilgun,E. (2009) Reconstruction and Development in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 2009, Sarajevo,pp.52-63, URL http://www.alicoskun.net/Publications/Coskun-Ilgun-ISSD2009.pdf International Monetary Fund , Financial access Survey (FAS), Financial Soundness Indicators (FSIs) www.imf.org National Bank of Serbia, Annual Reports, various issues www.nbs.rs Radzic, J. and Yuce, A. (2008) Banking Development In The Former Yugoslavian Republics, International Business and Economic Research Journal, Vol 7. No.9 pp.35-48 73 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Raiffeisen Researh CEE Banking Sector Report http://www.rbinternational.com/eBusiness/services/resources/media/677012584775275435677012584775275436_677251119927032833-772104317120223179-1-9-DE.pdf Simon Jr, G. (2012) An Economic History of Socialist Yugoslvaia, Social Science Research Network, Rochester, New York, Available at : http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983907 Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2004) Banking Sector Developments in South –Eastern Europe, Working Paper No.44, ELIAMEP, WP4,Regional Cooperation, ELIAMEP, Athens, Available at: http://balkan-observatory.net/archive/stubos.pdf Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2005) Regional Integration Challenges in South East Europe: Banking Sector Trends , Working Paper, Bank of Greece Available at: http://www.bankofgreece.gr/BogEkdoseis/Paper200524.pdf Basel II – Policy Implications and Implementation Challenges for Bosnia and Herzegovina Aida Bulbul, Ugur Ergun International Burch University, Faculty of Economics 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mails: bulbul.aida@gmail.com, uergun@ibu.edu.ba Abstract The financial sector and international banking environment in particular has changed dramatically over the past years. In order to reach and maintain stability and sustainability in the global banking system, decrease risk of insolvency, and to cover unexpected losses, countries (EU in particular) have started implementing the new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) following the worldwide consensus among G-10 central bank Governors by which banks’ capital levels should be regulated to enhance global financial stability. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is still in the beginning of its path towards Basel II legislation and implementation, using detailed literature review and an in-depth analysis this study conducts a comparative analysis on the implementation of Basel II in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia, with regard to both the qualitative and quantitative implementation details and issues which include the implementation stages, progress, and timetables and particular challenges faced by the countries. Moreover, study reveals Bosnia and Herzegovina’s unique situation, challenges and obstacles on the path towards full implementation of Basel II standards and puts an emphasis on how implementation and adoption will affect its banking and economic stability, future and conditions. 74 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1280 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Author Author Nađa , Dreca Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to compare the financial performance of the banking sector in some ex- Yu countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia for period from 2005 to 2010. Banking sector of Yugoslavia was strong but because of the weakness and the collapse all these characteristics disappeared. The financial performance of banks is study on the basis of some selected financial variables and ratios, such as return on asset, return on equity, capital adequacy ratio, share of non-performing loans in total loans, participation of deposits, assets and loans in Gross Domestic Product of the country. All of the indicators improved in period until the beginning of the global crisis, but with the first signs of crisis the conditions in entire economy worsen as well as the situation in the banking sector. Data show that banking system of these countries suffers from problems largely influenced by its huge debt to IMF, political situation, financial crisis, internal situation and other political factors. The authorities of banking system in selected countries took some measures in order to improve financial position and to slowdown the negative consequences of the global crisis. Keywords: Banks, ROA, ROE, Non-performing loans, Reforms, Crisis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd6483548df1a86a3a3ea6cf141b4f4a.pdf ef8dffc9cc7b0d9e85bfa54268ce0e99 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Nađa Dreca Faculty of Business and Administration International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina nadja_n88@hotmail.com Abstract: The objective of this study is to compare the financial performance of the banking sector in some ex- Yu countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,Slovenia and Serbia for period from 2005 to 2010. The banking sector of these countries experienced reforms after the separation from the Yugoslavia. The financial performance of banks is studied on the basis of some selected financial variables and ratios that are either obtained from different sources either calculated by author.During this period the banks become privatized and there is increase in the presence of the foreign owners on the Balkans.This is mostly descriptive research that explains and provides some insights about situation in banking of the selected countries. Financial performance in this study is measured by selected indicators, such as return on asset (ROA), return on equity (ROE), capital adequacy ratio (CAR), share of non-performing loans (NPL), participation of deposits, assets and loans in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country.Data show that banking system of these countries suffers from problems in the banking sector, largely influenced by its huge debt to IMF, political situation, financial crisis, internal situation and other political factors KEYWORDS: Banks, Return on Assets (ROA), Return on Equity(ROE), Nonperforming loans (NPL),Reforms, Crisis ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 03 March 2012 Resubmitted: 07 July 2012 Resubmitted: 07 November 2012 Resubmitted: 08 December 2012 Accepted: 24 December 2012 JEL codes: G21 65 �Nađa DRECA Introduction The banking sector is considered to be an important source of financing for most businesses. Increase in the financial performance leads to more improved functions and activities of any organization. It has effect on total economy of the country, because banks are the sources of finance for better job opportunities, development of new ideas; research and overall prosperity. The factors that influence performance of banks are: bank size measured by its assets, profitability measured by returns on assets and equity, size of deposits and loans, as well as the percentage of non- performing loans in the total loans. This study is organized as follows: the next section following the introduction discusses the characteristics of banking sector. Methodology of study is described in third section. The forth section provides details of the results and analysis of the available data, and final section presents the main conclusion. Banking system The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) was very strong in each field, in economic and political meaning. It had great impact on its member republics. The banking system was different than the system of other planned economics. Banks had participation in all activities for enterprises, in commercial and financial activities. All banks were nationalized. The banking system of Yugoslavia in period from 1960 to 1980 was one of the most advanced banking systems in Central and Eastern Europe in that period. The system had social characteristics, introduced two-tier banking system in 60s when it left the Soviet style mono-banking system, and in 80s Yugoslavia was the most developed and the largest country in the region. The strong Yugoslavia represented a great base for development of the strong and healthy banking system. The National Bank of Yugoslavia controlled short-term loans, issued currency, performed general banking and agency services for government and served as a clearing house for the entire economy. The Bank through its branches had a monopoly of all commercial banking operations in the whole country. In 1985 in Yugoslavia there were 170 banks and in one decade from 70s to 80s there was no bank liquidation or bankruptcy. In 1980s the Yugoslavia experienced crisis that were caused by a high exchange rate, a high fiscal deficit, and low performance 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia in trade that were the consequences of the big recession and international crisis. During that period, national currency, Dinar, highly depreciated and it leads to the difficulties in repaying foreign loans that in previous century were taken. It negatively influenced the banks` portfolio and the growing debt of the country. Getting the agreement with Paris and London Club the debt was postponed. Failure of the reforms that were made in order to solve the crisis leads to the bringing new banking law in 1989. The government started to promote the Markovic`s antiinflation program to make faster economic stabilization. The plan allowed the establishment of private and mixed firms. These new reforms were interrupted by the weakness and collapse of the SFRY. The reforms of the banking system started in 1990s. Those reforms happened after the breaking the SFRY and separation of its republics. Separation started first in year 1991 with small military conflict in Slovenia, then Croatia (1991-1992) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995). The military conflicts, hyperinflation, high unemployment rates and other reasons influence the flow of the political and the economic reforms. These negatively influence the position of all former republics and took away all advantages they had before as the part of the SFRY.(Radzic and Yuce, 2008) In order to perform better and to make system stronger there were introduced some measures such as implementation of solvency ratio, limiting the total amount of the assets to less than fifteen times the equity, also to decrease the risk exposure the ceilings on the foreign credits were imposed. National Bank of Yugoslavia had right to issue for bank licenses. It could initiate rehabilitation procedures if losses exceed permanent bank reserves. Yugoslav financial system was characterized by widespread substitution of dinars by hard currency such as German Mark (DM). Citizens started to use more foreign currency to keep their savings and for making transactions and dinar lost its role as a store of value. It leaded to loss of control by monetary authorities over the domestic money supply. (Simon, 2012) Reforms in each country are made in order to make transformation of the socialist banking system into a new organizational form. Reconstruction of the banking system in Bosnia and Herzegovina started after the Dayton Agreement, after which Bosnia is divided in two entities, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and Republic of Srpska (RS). The entities got the authority over the privatization and supervision of the banks. The reforms started in 67 �Nađa DRECA 1997 in FBiH, and in RS in 1998. The reforms were faster in Federation B&H. The most important step toward the reforms was the establishment of the entities banking agencies, in the end of 1996 Federal Banking Agency, and Agency for Banking RS in 1998. Their main activities of agencies are to issue and to revoke license to banks and their supervision.In accordance with the concluded agreements, Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina(CBBH) continued to act as the banking and fiscal agent of the Banking Agency of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBA) and the Banking Agency of the Republic of Srpska (BARS). Banking Agency functions are directed towards a strong and stable banking system, as marketoriented and based on the international standards of performance and supervision of banks. The main tasks of FBA include: issuance of banking license, adoption of regulations, supervision of banks, microcredit organizations and leasing companies and measures taken in accordance with the Law, including initiation of provisional administration and liquidation in banks, initiation of bankruptcy procedure over banks. The privatization of the banks was the most important element in the rehabilitation of the banking sector. Privatization was caused by the entrance of the foreign banks and increase in the capital shares. It was made to bring new capital and to help bank reconstruction. Western banks have the largest share. The foreign banks entered this market because of the new opportunities for business and good market conditions to offer their products. The foreign banks brought new way of business and new banking products on this market. Reforms in Slovenia stated in 1991 by establishing the Bank Rehabilitation Agency (BRA) to help the implementation of reforms. The largest Slovenian banks past through the rehabilitation process and they showed the positive results such as a decrease in non-performing loans, increase in profits, and institutional and organizational improvements. Also the privatization of the state –owned banks was key factor in reforms. Banks are governed by Bank of Slovenia. 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Reforms in Serbia started mostly in 2002 when Serbia decided to liquidate the four the largest banks because of highly unrecoverable losses, large decrease in the deposits, and people’s loss of the confidence in the banks. National Bank of Serbia is responsible for banks in Serbia. The banking reform in Croatia had three stages: financial reconstruction, writing off debts and transfer of bad loans to workout agency, changes in management and operational restructuring and the privatization by foreign owners. (Bonin, 2001) Also Croatian reforms included big bonds issued in response to problems with bank insolvency and bonds for old currency savings accounts. Reforms also include privatization of banks. National Bank of Croatia governs the banks in Croatia. In 1996, in Bosnia and Herzegovina there was 53 banks mainly private owned, 23 banks were state-owned. The decrease of the number of the banks was due to bankruptcy, consolidation and the merging the banks. In 2005 there were 33 banks. Most banks become in the foreign ownership. In 1998 the number of banks in Croatia was 96 mostly in private ownership. The decrease in the number of the banks was mainly caused by the bankruptcy and the mergers. In 2005 there were 34 banks. In 1997 the number of the Serbian banks was 106 and it decreased to 40 banks in 2005 due to privatization and merging. In 1995, 41 banks were licensed for operation in Slovenia. The main changes in banking system that reforms brought are: - The privatization of state owned banks and the closure of insolvent institutions - The writing- off of non-performing loans - The entry of foreign banks either by establishing an autonomous presence or by taking over local banks - The adoption of regulations according to international standards and practices - The implementation of tighter and more effective supervision exercised by the central banks and currency boards. (Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, 2004,2005) 69 �Nađa DRECA Methodology This research paper will use the cross-country comparison methodology and examine the following aspects: - Size and structure of the banking sector, measured by the number of the banks - Loans and Deposits as the percentage of Gross Domestic Product - Profitability of the banking sector, measured by return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE), total assets as percentage of GDP and capital adequacy ratio (CAR) Data has been analyzed and interpreted using the financial indicators, financial ratios, references and personal judgment. In order to find the trend of behavior of the ratios, the average value of ratios in period from 2005 to 2007, before crisis and for period during and after crisis, from 2008 to 2010 were calculated and compared. Data are obtained from the sites of Central Banks of selected countries and from their financial reports, annual reports for period 2005 to 2010, EBRD, IMF and WB. I also used some graph to analyze my findings. This is descriptive research because it describes information which is taken from annual reports and other reports. Also research is quantitative because there is analyze of numerical data. Analysis and Discussion This section represents the discussion about analysis of the banking sector. It analyzes the size of the sector, financial performance through number of banks, assets, loans and deposits, and profitability ratios such as Return on Assets (ROA), Return on Equity (ROE), Non-performing Loans (NPL) and Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) of the banking system of the selected countries. Whole economic situation in the country has impact on the banking sector. The period of crisis is marked by the worse condition in the economy. As the Table 1 presents each country experienced the decrease in these indicators in period of crisis. 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Table 1. Key Economic Figure Real GDP (%) Consumer prices (avg, %) Unemployment rate (avg, %) Budget balance (% of GDP) Current account balance ( % of GDP) Gross Foreign Debt (% of GDP) 2005 3.9 3.8 44.0 2.4 -17.3 25.7 Real GDP (%) Consumer prices (avg, %) Unemployment rate (avg, %) Budget balance (% of GDP) Current account balance ( % of GDP) 2005 5.6 16.5 20.8 0.3 B&H 2008 5.7 7.4 41.5 -2.2 -14.2 49 Serbia 2008 3.8 11.7 13.6 -2.6 Gross Foreign Debt (% of GDP) -8.7 64.2 -21.6 64.6 2010 0.7 2.1 43.2 -2.2 -5.3 58.3 2005 4.2 3.3 18.0 -4.0 -5.5 72.1 2010 1.0 6.5 20.0 -4.8 2005 4.1 2.5 10.1 -1.4 Croatia 2008 2.2 6.1 13.2 -1.4 -8.8 84.9 Slovenia 2008 3.7 5.7 6.7 -1.8 -7.4 84.5 -1.8 72.6 -6.7 105.2 2010 - 1.2 1.1 17.4 -4.9 -1.1 101.2 2010 1.2 1.8 10.7 -5.5 -1.1 111.9 Source: National Sources (period 2005 to 2010), Raiffeisen RESEARCH The real GDP growth of selected countries is declining and even reached negative sign. In each county in 2009 the growth was negative, and in 2010 only Croatia still has negative growth rate of GDP, while others show slightly positive change. The reason of the decrease in GDP is increase in unemployment, decrease in wages, decrease in production and consumption, as well as the trade deficit. The average consumer price indicator was high in period crisis, but in last year it is decreasing, but still there is so high influence of crisis on the well being of the citizens. Because of the crisis the prices of imports increases, especially because these countries are mostly import oriented. Serbia records the highest inflation rate of 6.5% As everywhere, also in these selected countries the crisis brought unemployment. The highest average unemployment rate has Bosnia and Herzegovina (43.2%) compared with other countries from sample. It is caused because most companies are closed, decrease in the number of working places, worsening working conditions. 71 �Nađa DRECA Each county recorded the negative budget balance. The reason for this might be the bad collection of the government income and high debt and expenditure. The worst budget balance in 2010 has Slovenia ( -5.5%) compared with Bosnia and Herzegovina that still has deficit, but it is lower than in other countries (-2.2%). The external debt of each country increased over the period, especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina because of the Stand-by-arrangement with IMF, and Slovenia as the EU country and suffers from European crisis. Number of Banks Number of the banks in the selected countries changed over the time. The number of banks in each country, in 2010 compared to 2005 decline mostly because many banks merge with each other or by some regulations some banks are closed. Most of the banks are in the foreign ownership. It is the result of the increasing competition and it increase strength and safety and soundness of banking institutions. Foreign banks have better position because of their access to the financial markets and they are able to obtain borrowings with the financial support of their parents` banks. The privatization of state owned banks was a critical element in the process of banking reforms. Foreign banks entrance was done either by acquisition of local banks or establishment of their own subsidiaries or branches. Banks are most in the ownership of Austria and other West countries. In 2010 the highest foreign share in Bosnian banks had Austria and it represents the dominant owner with a share of 64.4%, and it increased compared to 2005 (45%). Some studies say that foreign banks in developing countries generate more profits, have higher interest rates than domestic banks, the presence of these banks increase competition in the market and it can also increase the costs of the domestic banks. Also in the countries with higher level of foreign bank participation, firms easier access to the credits. Study shows that foreign banks are more efficient than domestic banks. Foreign banks brought more confidence and safety in the banking sector, so that assets and deposits increased. Entrance of the foreign owned bank helped the process of the reformation in these countries.. (Ilgun and Coskun, 2009) 72 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia In 2005 the market share of foreign owned banks ( % of total assets) in Slovenia was 38.6%, Serbia 69%, Croatia 91.3% and in Bosnia and Herzegovina 90.7% compared to 2010 with market share in Slovenia 37.1%, Serbia 72.5 % , Croatia 90.3 and Bosnia and Herzegovina with 96.6%. It can be concluded that the highest participation of foreign owned banks is in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Participation of the foreign banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia increased compared to 2005, while in Croatia and Serbia there was slight decrease. Table 2. Number of Banks Year B&H Serbia Croatia Slovenia 2000 2005 55 33 96 40 43 34 25 20 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 32 32 30 30 29 37 35 34 34 33 33 33 34 34 33 20 21 19 19 19 Source:CBBH,CNB,NBS,BSI(2005 -2010) Deposits Deposits represent the important part of the banking. By the size of the deposits in banking system the power of the system can be measured and it serves as good indicator of the health of system. The deposits represent the key factor in starting the business and health of banking system. Table 3. Total Deposits in % of GDP Year Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbia Croatia Slovenia 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 40.1 45.7 55.6 48.1 50.3 51.6 23.6 28.5 35.8 30.0 39.5 41.9 64.2 70.1 72.4 70.9 75.7 80.5 82.3 96.6 104.7 101.2 66.5 64.3 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI,(2005 to 2010)Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author 73 �Nađa DRECA According to the table 3 it is seen that deposits as the percentage of GDP has positive growth rate, except in year 2008.In each country in 2008 there was decrease in the deposits, especially because of the global financial crisis that has effects on the finance in those countries. In the last years, deposits again grow in these countries, slightly because of some measures taken by governments to make financial situation better, but in Slovenia it did not recover and it has negative growth rate since 2008. During beginning years of the financial crisis most of the citizens withdraw their deposits from banks and it explains the decline in the deposits level in those countries. The European crisis has large impact on the deposits. In Bosnia and Herzegovina the deposits grew in period from 2005 to 2007, and average share of deposits in GDP in period from 2005 to 2007 was 47.1%, in period during and after crisis the participation of deposits in GDP on average was 50%. It shows that average deposit share in last three years is larger than in previous by 2.9 %.During the financial crisis in 2008 deposits fall from 55.6% to 48.1% or by 7.5%.The deposits are growing after the crisis, but not at the same rate as before and it has not reached the level of 2007. The deposit share in GDP in 2007 is higher than in 2005 by 15.5 %, while in 2010 it is lower than in 2007 by 4%. The highest deposit share was in 2007 due to privatization and increase in government deposits. Share of Deposits in GDP of Serbia increased in period before the crisis and average share was 29.3% before the crisis, and after crisis it is 37.1% and there is increase in the average share by 7.8%. Deposits in 2007 compared to 2005 increased from 23.6% to 35.8% or by 12.2%, while in 2010 compared to 2008 the deposits increased by 11.9%. The deposit share in year 2008,declines merely because of the withdrawal of savings. Deposits in 2010 have the highest value and it is higher than in 2007 by 6.1%.Increase of deposits in last two year was caused by increase in savings, or by restoration of savings and returns of confidence in banks. In Croatia the average deposit participation in GDP in period before crisis was 68.9% and deposits were growing until 2007 then in 2008 it decreased due to financial crisis. Compared to 2005, the share of deposit in GDP in 2007 increased by 8.2%, from 64.2% to 72.4%. In 2008 deposits decreased to 70.9% and again it started to grow in the next years. The average share of deposits in GDP of Croatia after crisis was 75.7% and compared to period before crisis it increased by 7.8%. The share of deposit in 2010 compared to 2008 increase by 9.6% and it has higher value than in 2007. 74 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Slovenia is the EU country that according to the data shows large decrease in participation of deposits in GDP. In period before crisis it has positive growth rate and in 2007 it accounted for 104.7% of GDP and it was higher by 22.4 %then in 2005. In period of crisis it started to decrease and in 2008 it had value of 101.2% of GDP while in 2010 it decreased by 40.4% of GDP. Average value of share of deposit before crisis in period from 2005 to 2007 was 94.5%, and in period after crisis average participation of deposits in GDP decreased to 77.3%. One of the reasons for this lies in the fact that is that Slovenia as the EU country was most hurt by global crisis As it is shown in Table 3 deposits of all countries grew, except in 2008 when it decreased due to first impact of financial crisis. Deposits of other three countries continue to grow after the crisis, but only Slovenia recorded negative deposit growth. The average deposits in Serbia and Croatia in period after crisis grow by 7.8% compared to pre crisis period, and in Bosnia and Herzegovina by 2.9%, while in Slovenia it fall by 17.2%. Due to return of confidence in banks and increase in savings also the deposits of banks increased in last year. Table 4. Deposits from Households in % of GDP Year Serbia Croatia Slovenia 2005 Bosnia and Herzegovina 18.6 12.3 36.8 35.9 2006 21.3 14.6 38.5 35.7 2007 23.7 18.4 38.3 34.1 2008 21.1 15.4 39.4 34.5 2009 23.6 22.7 42.1 38.1 2010 26.8 26.5 45.6 38.1 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI,(2005 to 2010)Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Deposits from households represent the key factor in the banking service. It provides funds for loans that are the main source of financing many needs, private and business needs. The global crisis influenced the households` deposits in the banks. In period of crisis because of the large risk, citizens mostly did withdrawal from their accounts or they tried to do diversification of the risk, so they left some portion of their deposits on the accounts and part withdraw. The year 2008 is the year in which the citizens mostly lost the confidence in their banks and remove their deposits. Table 4 represents the share of the deposits of households in GDP. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia recorded small decrease in households` deposits, 2.6% and 75 �Nađa DRECA 3.0% respectively. The average deposit share in period before crisis in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 21.2% and in period after crisis it increased to 23.8%. Serbia has the highest change in deposits before and after crisis, there is increase by 6.4%, from 15.1 % in period from 2005 - 2007 to 21.5% in period after, from 2007 to 2010. Also Croatia recorded the high change in average deposits; it increased from 37.9% to 42.4%. Slovenia has the smallest increase in the average participation of the deposits from households in the GDP, it just increased by 1.7%. In 2009 the deposits increased due to reconstruction of confidence in banks, new policy of the banks to attract again back the depositors, so the deposits raised in year 2009 compared to 2008 as following: in Bosnia and Herzegovina by 2.5%, Serbia 7.3%, Croatia 2.7% and in Slovenia 3.6%. Increase in deposits from households was creates opportunities for the increase in the supplied loans and brings stimulants in the lending activity. Loans Clients for the needs of financial activities use the banking services as dominant source of finance. Table 5. Total Loans in % of GDP Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Bosnia and Herzegovina 44.0 48.3 54.9 58.9 58.7 60.1 Serbia Croatia Slovenia 29.3 29.3 35.1 36.7 45.5 53.4 59.7 67.6 68.3 72.0 76.5 82.9 53.3 64.7 81.1 89.4 95.4 93.9 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI, (2005 to 2010) Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Table above shows that loans in Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia have positive growth over the time. Only in B&H during 2009 the loans slightly decline especially because most people lost the job, and they were afraid of financial crisis so they took fewer loans. Later in 2010 the loans start to increase and achieved level at 2008. Also banks started to implement more restrictive politics and it slowdown loans growth.The most significant factor that influence the limitation of the credit growth is the crisis that had impact on the entire economy and worse the condition in the real sector, then decrease in citizen`s spending, and more restrictive and prudent 76 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia lending policies of banks. The lending activity decreased in the course of 2008, as a continuation of the trend began in late 2008. Due to the global economic crisis, consumption was reduced, as well as the volume of activities of domestic firms, which led to decline on demand for new loans. At the same time, credit conditions worsened and interest rate rose.Irregularity of debt servicing by clients increased and the banks put more attention to the credit risk exposure. In Bosnia and Herzegovina the share of loans in GDP increased over the time. Total loans participation in GDP was lower only in 2009 by 0.2 percent point compared to 2008. Participation of loans in 2007 compared to 2005 was higher by 10.9%, while in 2010 compared to 2007 by 5.2%, and it is twice less. The highest increase was in 2007 or by 6.3% compared to 2006. Average participation of loans in period after crisis was 49.1% and after it, the share was 59.2 or there was 10.1% increase. Loans in pre crisis period has larger growth rate, then in period after. In order to make position of clients better, bank did reprograms of existing loans. The reason for this is more restrictive banks condition to obtain credit and increase in interest rates. Participation of loans in GDP of Serbia increases over time and in 2007 it had value of 35.1% and in 2010 it increased to 53.4% so there was increase by 18.3%. Average participation of loans in period before crisis was 31.2% and it increase by 14% in period after crisis. The reason for increase in total loans is better conditions to obtain credit and responds from banks, increase in the prices of real estates and increase in collaterals. The highest increase was in 2009 or by 8.8% compared to 2008. Lending of the banking sector slowed in response to increased investment risk in crisis conditions. Loans in Croatia grow over time and the highest increase was in 2010 by 6.4% compared to 2009. The average participation of loans before crisis was 65.2% and it in period after it increased to 77.1% or by 11.9%. Increase in loans participation in 2007 compared to 2005 was 8.6% while in 2010 compared to 2008 it increased from 72% to 82.9% or by 10.9%. Slovenia also experienced the growth in loans participation in GDP until 2010 when it decreased by 1.5% compared to 2009. Average participation of loans in pre crisis period was 66.4% and it increased to 92.9% in period after or by 26.5%. Total loans participation of loans in GDP in 2007 was 81.1% and it is higher by 27.8% than in 2005, while in 2010 compared to 2007 it increased by 12.8%, more than two times less than in first three years. The low growth in loans was result of low creditworthiness, rising cost of loan collateral. 77 �Nađa DRECA Among these four countries Slovenia experienced the largest growth of average participation of loans in GDP on the annually basis. The share of loans in GDP in period after crisis increases by 26.5%, in Serbia 14%, in Bosnia and Herzegovina it is 10.1%, and in Croatia 6.9%. All countries, except Slovenia recorded the growth in the selected period. Slovenia reports decrease in 2010 by 1.5% compared to previous year. Table 6. Loans to Households in % of GDP Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Bosnia and Herzegovina 20.2 22.7 26.1 27.1 26.3 26.0 Serbia Croatia Slovenia 7.8 10.3 13.3 12.8 16.6 18.9 29.5 33.2 35.4 36.5 36.5 37.8 14.0 16.3 16.5 17.7 20.1 21.6 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI, (2005 to 2010)Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Today loans are the key factor of financing many activities, such as ordinary purchase or purchase of home, starting business or some other activities that need lots of funds. Due to high destruction in economy of ex-Yu countries, the citizens in order to obtain more in their life take many loans. Economic crisis influenced the demand for the loans. In the years when most people lost their jobs or salary decreased, their creditworthiness decrease and the banks impose more restrictive policy that leads to decrease in the growth of the loans. Serbia had decline in loans to households by 3.8% in 2008 compared to 2007.Bosnia and Herzegovina after 2008 has negative growth rate of loans to households, while other countries has slight increase in loans. Banks implemented more restrictive policies in approving new loans, which was one of the biggest limiting factors for the placement of new loans, in addition to reduced consumption and slowing economic activity. Average participation of loans in the period after crisis is higher than in period before. The average participation of loans of households in GDP in Bosnia and Herzegovina increased by 3.5%, in Serbia 5.6%, in Croatia by 4.3% and in Serbia it increased by 4.2%. Reason for increase is decrease in the reserve requirements ratio in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Growth rate in the loans to households is not high as it was before due to existence of risk on the financial markets, depreciation of currencyand other factors that influence the decline in the growth rate of loans. Even if there was increase in this ratio, it is not caused by the new loans but taking loans to refinance existing one. 78 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Table 7. Loans to Private Enterprises in % of GDP Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Bosnia and Herzegovina 18.9 18.9 24.2 27.3 27.8 28.6 Serbia Croatia Slovenia 20.9 18.6 21.5 24.0 27.9 32.2 23.5 27.3 24.6 25.6 27.0 29.9 39.4 48.4 64.6 71.7 75.3 72.3 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI,(2005 to 2010) Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Loans to enterprises are very important factor for the entire economy of the country. It creates funds for establishing business, creating new job opportunities, support business and help the improvement in working condition. The global crisis also influence the credit to private enterprises, because some of the companies are closed due to severe conditions on the market, decrease in demands for their products, lower supply, while the input prices raised. Table 7 shows that the loans to enterprises had positive growth, but in some countries during the crisis period it was slow growth. The growth in credit provided to private enterprises was caused by the rise of the costs of performing business, increase in input prices and some other restrictive measures that crisis brought with itself. Banking sector of selected countries reported the growth of the average participation of the loans to private enterprises in GDP of countries. This increase in period after crisis compared to period before was in Bosnia and Herzegovina by 6.8%, in Serbia by 7.7%, in Croatia it is increase by 2.4% and among these countries Slovenia has the highest increased by 22.3%. Slovenia as the European country needed to inject large capital to support its private sector due to severe consequences of crisis in the Europe. In 2009 the banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina makes reprogram of the loans possible to households and corporate in order to continue with their activity. It influenced the increase in the loan supply. Serbia implements the policy of the subsiding loans. Increase in the loans to enterprises was mostly due to the needs of financing the working capital and refinance of the existing loans. 79 �Nađa DRECA Figure 1. Total Loans in % of GDP 123,9 122,4 102,8 105,8 96,5 109,7 93,0 98,0 98,7 94,3 122,6 101,6 143,4 146,1 115,2 116,7 127,5 116,4 101,0 103,0 88,3 2005 Slovenia 67,0 2006 2007 Croatia Serbia 77,5 64,8 Bosnia 2008 2009 2010 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI, (2005 to 2010)Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Main source of the financing the loans are the deposits. In most cases they are not enough to cover all loans so the banks find new sources to provide new loans. It is done either by borrowing from other sides, from their parents` banks or by some other policy that will increase loans` supply. In these selected countries in some periods the deposits could not be enough to satisfy the demand for loans. In the period from 2005 to 2008, in Croatia and Slovenia the deposits were enough to cover loans, but in next period as well as in other countries banks deposits were lower than demand for loans, so the banks used other funds to provide additional loans, and to cover the difference. In Bosnia and Herzegovina decrease in minimum reserve requirement ratio helps the supply of the loans so the banks had more available funds for loans. Bosnia and Herzegovina records the largest ratio of loans to deposits in 2008, and Serbia, Slovenia and Croatia in 2010. Average loans to deposit ratio in period after crisis is higher than in period before crisis. The highest change is in Slovenia. It increased from 69.8% to 125.9% or by 56% and it is really large changed compared to other selected countries. In Bosnia and Herzegovina it increased by 13.9%, in Serbia by 13.5% and in Croatia by 7.3%. 80 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia In period after crisis to correct for the consequences of the crisis, banks brought some measures in order to stimulate banking activities, lending and accumulation of deposits, change reserve requirements, make some exception on calculation of ratios, policy about currency,they fund these changes partly from the internal sources as well as lending from external sources etc. Assets Assets serve as a good measure of the size of the banking sector. They are key factor in determination of the banks value. Table 8. Total assets in % of GDP Year Serbia Croatia Slovenia 2005 2006 2007 2008 Bosnia and Herzegovina 69.3 76.3 89.6 85.2 54.3 64.9 73.6 64.7 98.7 106.5 108.4 107.5 99.1 108.6 122.1 127.3 2009 2010 87.2 86.9 84.4 91.6 113.0 117.1 145.4 137.6 Source: CBBH, NBS, CNB, BSI, (2005 to 2010)Raiffeisen RESERCH, Author Table 8 illustrated for the listed countries the total assets of the banking sector as percentage of GDP in the period of 2005 to 2010. It is seen that assets of Croatian Banks and Serbian has almost always the positive growth rate over the period, but in 2008 these three countries experienced the decrease in the total assets. Later it increased. The reason for negative growth is financial crisis, high participation of non-performing assets and it leads to the decrease in the total assets of the banking sector.Slowing lending activities of the commercial banks resulted in a decline of assets on 2009. The banks` asset quality deteriorated considerably as a result of weakening creditworthiness of borrowers. Bosnia and Herzegovina in period from 2005 to 2007 recorded the growth in assets, then in 2008 it decreased and again in later years it starts to increase. In 2007 the assets share was the highest because of the inflow of capital from the privatization of Telecom RS. Decrease in NPL had positive impact on the growth of assets, because the share of nonperforming assets in total assets decreaseduntil 2007. The share of assets in 2007 compared to 2005 was higher by 20.3%. In 2008 the share of NPL increased and it negatively influenced the total assets and it decreased by.3.6 81 �Nađa DRECA percentage points compared to 2007. Decrease in credit activity in leads to decrease in assets. The banking sector had a growth trend over the past years, but it was stopped due to economic crisis. The increase in balance sheet was partly due to bank recapitalization, the inflow of funds from Stand-By arrangement, and requalification of bad loans. Average asset participation in GDP in period after crisis was 86.4% and compared to period before it is higher by 8%. In 2010 assets again decreases because of high participation of non-performing loans and banks` loss. Serbia also experienced the increase in asset share in GDP. In period before crisis the average participation of assets in GDP was 64.3% and it period after it increased to 80.2%. In 2008 the assets decreased by 8.9% and later it continues to grow. The highest increase in asset participation was in 2009 by 19.7% compared to 2008. In 2010 the asset participation grew to 91.6% from 64.7% in 2008. Increase in assets was caused by the increase in loans in period 2009 and 2010. Increase in assets in Croatia was related to the increase in loans in period from 2005 to 2007. Increase in assets` share in GDP in 2007 compared to 2005 was 9.7% and in 2010 compared to 2008 it increased from 107.5% to 117.1% Average participation of assets in GDP in pre crisis period was 104.55 and it increase to 112.55 in period after Slovenia shows increase in the participation of assets in GDP over the time but in 2010 it reports decline in share of assets by 7.8%. Participation of assets in first three years was 109.9% and in after crisis period it is 136.8% or it increased by 26.9%. Asset share in 2007 compared to 2005 increased by 23%. The highest increase in asset participation was in 2009 and it is higher by 18.1% compared to the previous year. The main reasons for decline in total assets were the banks` continuing debt repayments to banks in the rest of the world, the repayment of funding obtained in Eurosystem and the withdrawal of government deposits. All countries experienced the growth of asset participation in the period before crisis. Assets share of Serbia and Croatia continues to grow after fall in 2008, while in Slovenia it decline only in 2010. Bosnia records positive growth in 2009 after crisis, but in 2010 it had slightly decreased. 82 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia ROA, ROE and NPL in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia The profitability indicators Return on Assets (ROA) and Return on Equity (ROE) are very important in order to measure how the system performed over the time. Many other variables have high impact on these ratios, not only profits or loss, but also the structure of assets, participation of non- performing loans (NPL), value of deposits, depreciation of currency, income from interest etc. The figure 2 represents the profitability indicators of banking sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As it is seen, there is increase in the non-performing loans and decrease in the profitability indicators over the time. Figure 2. Bosnia and Herzegovina: ROA, ROE and NPL (% of Total Loans) 16,00 14,00 12,00 10,00 8,00 6,00 4,00 2,00 0,00 -2,00 -4,00 -6,00 -8,00 13,90 10,50 8,40 6,20 5,30 0,70 2005 8,90 4,00 3,40 0,90 0,90 2006 2007 6,60 RoA 4,30 RoE 0,40 2008 0,80 0,10 2009 NPL -0,60 2010 -5,50 Source: CBBH, IMF( 2005 to 2010), Author The sign of growth of ROA always change. In B&H it has the highest in 2006 and 2007 then starts to diminish and in 2010 it reaches negative sign of 0.60 because the banking sector register the loss. The sign of the growth of ROE is changing over the time, in Bosnia it is almost always declining then in last year it shows negative sign 5.50% because the system report the loss and it is 6.30% less compared to 2009 or 14.4% less compared to 2007. The share of non-performing loans to total loans increased to 13.90 % in 2010, which was 3.4 percentage points more compared to the end of 2009. The banking sector in Bosnia was influenced by the economic crisis 83 �Nađa DRECA and recession, and one of the main characteristics of this sector in 2010 was a decrease in profitability of banks. In 2010 the banking sector recorded a negative financial results and banks reports the loss in business. The reduced value of ROE was caused by decrease in profits and losses of the business in the banking system. Return on Assets was -0.6% at the end of 2010 and there is decrease of 0.7 percentage points relative to the end of the 2009. The assets quality has the greatest impact on the profitability of banks.Increase in profitability ratios is caused by increase in the profits. Until the end of 2007 the NPL decreases by 1.9 percentage points compared to 2005 and this decrease in ratio of NPL to total loans can be explained by the increase in loans especially because most loans are long term and also it influence the assets quality can be visible more in the long run. Average increase in ROA in period after crisis was 0.83%, while in period after crisis it has negative sign and value of -0.03%. There is drop of average value ROA in period after crisis by 0.86% compared to period before. Same happened with average value of ROE. In pre crisis period it had value of 7.83% and in period after crisis it declines by 7.96% to -0.13%. Increase in NPL had greatest impact on profitability of banks. During period 2005 to 2007 NPL decreased, and average value was 2.93% and in period after crisis it is 10.33% so it increased by 7.4%. In 2010 the participation of NPL in total loans was 13.90% what is by 10.50% higher than in 2007 or four times more. 84 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Figure 3. Croatia: ROA, ROE and NPL (% of Total Loans) 20,00 15,00 15,10 12,40 10,00 5,00 0,00 10,90 9,90 6,20 5,20 4,80 4,90 1,70 1,50 1,60 1,60 2005 2006 2007 2008 11,20 7,80 6,40 6,50 1,10 1,10 2009 RoA RoE NPL 2010 Source: CNB, IMF, (2005 to 2010), Author The situation in Croatian Banking system is similar as in the other Balkan`s countries. The profitability of banking sector over the time decreased mostly because of the loss of the provision, high loans which payments are delayed, participation of non-performing loans, and decrease in deposits. Compared to 2005, ROE in 2010 more than two times declines, while percentage of non- performing loans in total loans almost doubled in 2010 compared to 2005. ROA declines over the time because of the participation of non-performing assets and decrease in deposits. Decrease in ROE was connected with recapitalization of the banks in 2007 from 12.4% to 10.90%. Average value of ROA in period from 2005 to 2007 was 1.6% and it decreased in last three years from 2008 to 2010 to 1.27% or by 0.33percentage points. ROA oscillates over the time, and in last two years it had value of 1.10% and it is less than 2008 by 0.5% Value of ROE on average for the period 2005 to 2007 was 12.8% and it decreased to 7.6% in period after crisis, so there was drop by 5.2%.ROE decreased over the time, and it shows slightly increase in 2010 of 0.1 % compared to 2009. But there is decrease in ROE in 2010 to 6.5% from 15.10% in 2005. Average participation of NPL in total loans in pre crisis period was 5.4% and in period after crisis it increased by 2.8% to 8% on average. In period before crisis NPL participation was decreasing and in 2007 it decreased by 1.4% compared to 2005. In crisis period the NPL started to increase and in 2010 it had value of 11.2% or 6.3% 85 �Nađa DRECA more than in 2008. This increase merely due to high loans level and delayed payments because of the problems in entire economy caused by the change in economic indicators. Figure 4. Serbia: ROA, ROE and NPL (% of Total Loans) 25,00 23,80 23,10 20,00 21,40 17,80 15,50 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00 5,60 1,00 2005 7,00 1,30 2006 8,50 1,70 2007 RoA 11,30 9,30 2,10 2008 RoE NPL 4,60 5,40 1,00 1,10 2009 2010 Source: NBS, IMF, (2005 to 2010), Author The banking system of Serbia experienced the same situation as it is in other countries. Financial crisis has large impact on the financial performance. The profitability of banking sector increased until 2008 then again it reports negative growth. Until 2008 the percentage of non-performing loans decreased and it leaded to the increase in the profitability ratios, ROA and ROE. It increased the quality of assets and equity, as well as the profits in the sector, then again in the last years of financial crisis the system slowdown and reports lower ratios and decrease in financial performance because of the increase in the non-performing loans. The highest impact on increase in ROA and ROE was due to large collection of income from interest. ROA before the crisis on average had value of 1.33% and in period after crisis it increased to 1.4%. The highest ROA was recorded in 2008 and had value of 2.1% what is by 0.4% higher than ROA in 2007 and by 1.1% then in 2009. 86 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Return on Equity worsted from 9.30% in the 2008 to 4.6% in 2009. Average ROE in period 2005 to 2007 had value of 7.03% and in period after crisis it decreased to 6.4%. The highest value of ROA was in 2008 until when the ROE increased and had value of 9.30% that is 3.7% higher than in 2005, and in 2010 it decreased to 5.40 or by 3.9%. As the other countries suffer from losses in period crisis, also Serbia banking sector recorded losses and it influence its profitability indicators. NPL decreased until the 2008 and it had value of 11.3% compared to 23.8% in 2005. Under the impact of the crisis, the share of bad loans rose significantly. It start to grow again and in 2010 it reached value of 17.8% what is by 6.5% higher than in 2008. As it happened to the other three countries from this study, also it happens in Slovenia negative effects of the global financial crisis. From Figure 5 it can be seen that until 2008 the system reports positive changes, while under the effect of crisis it slowdown, and profitability decreased as the participation of bad loans increases. In last year the system reports loss and it leads to the negative profitability ratios in the banking system of Slovenia. In 2010 compared to 2005 the ROA decreased more than 5 times. ROE in 2008 had sharp decline compared to the previous year. It decreased twice. Figure 5. Slovenia: ROA, ROE and NPL (% of Total Loans) 20,00 15,10 15,00 16,30 12,60 ROA 10,00 8,10 5,00 0,00 2,50 1,00 2005 2,50 1,30 2006 1,80 1,40 2007 1,80 0,70 2008 ROE 3,90 2,30 0,30 2009 3,60 NPL -0,20 2010-2,30 -5,00 Source: BSI, IMF, (2005 to 2010), Author 87 �Nađa DRECA Slovenia also as the result of the global financial crisis experienced the decline in profitability ratios. Domestic demand and investment remain weak, unemployment remains high. Average value of ROA before the crisis was 1.23% and in period after it decreased to 0.27% or by 0.96% until 2007 ROA grew and then it starts to decline and in 2010 it had value of – 0.2% so there was decline of 1.6% compared to 2007. Increase in NPL had negative impact on ROA. Average value of ROE in pre crisis period was 14.7% and it decreased to 3.2% in period from 2008 to 2010 or by 11.5%. In pre crisis period ROE grew and it increased to 16.30% in 2007 what was 3.7% higher than in 2005. In 2008 the ROE decline more than twice from 16.3% to 8.10%, then again twice in 2009 from 8.10% to 3.9% and in 2010 it reached negative value of - 2.3% and there was decrease by 18.6%% compared to 2007. The average participation of NPL in total loans did not have large average change before and after crisis, the value of ratio before crisis was 2.27% and after 2.57%. In period until 2008 it decreased and again starts to decrease and in 2010 it had value of 3.6% twice than in 2008 and 2007. The reason for decrease in profitability was increase in loan loss provision, increase in loan delinquency, delay payments and downfall in interest and similar income. The profitability improvement is the result of reform and implementation of the adjustment of non-performing loans, introduction of modern banking techniques and increasing the rate of credit expansion. The percentage of NPL in the total loans in the mentioned countries increases over the time. The global financial crisis has large impact on this indicator. Most of the people lost the job, and the value of NPL increases over the time. During the financial crisis there was downfall of asset quality and increase of nonpayable claims, produced by difficulties in loan repayments. In 2010 banks did reclassification of the loans, and significant amount was moved from B- category (Bank`s classification of loans due to time of default) to nonperforming, that results in the increase of the loan losses and had negative impact on financial performance. 88 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Due to poor performing receivables trend in delay in collecting the past due loan receivables from customers, there were activated some guarantees in a number of delinquent loans that had this type of insurance, so the burden of the loan repayment fall on the guarantors. Capital Adequacy Ratio Capital adequacy ratio is significant indicator of financial soundness. It represents net capital over total weighted risks. Figure 6shows Capital Adequacy ratio. As it is visible the ratio, all countries fluctuate over the time. In Bosnia it has diminished as well as in Serbia. Decrease in the capital adequacy ratio is caused by high participation of the risky asserts. It is always higher than minimum prescribed by law (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia 12%, Croatia 10% and Slovenia 8%) and it represents satisfactory capitalization of the entire system and very strong basis and foundation to preserve its safety and stability. The restructure of state owned banks and the injection of capital by governments improved capitalization significantly. Capital adequacy ratio increased over period in Bosnia and it shows positive effects. The increase in the capital adequacy ratio during the observed period was due to growth in banks’ own funds, the change in methodology of exposure calculation. In Serbia the CAR reached 21.4% in 2009 and it was lower by 0.5% percentage points relative to 2008 due to faster growth in risky assets. Decrease in CAR was due mainly to the increase in risk-weighted assets and increase of credit risk of them. 89 �Nađa DRECA Figure 6. Capital Adequacy Ratio 32,00 28,00 24,00 20,00 16,00 12,00 8,00 27,90 25,00 24,70 21,90 17,80 14,70 10,50 17,70 14,00 11,10 17,10 16,40 11,20 16,30 15,20 11,70 21,40 16,40 16,10 Bosnia 19,90 18,80 16,20 Croatia 11,60 Serbia 11,30 Slovenia 4,00 0,00 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: CBBH, CNB, NBS, IMF(2005 to 2010) Average value of CAR in Bosnia and Herzegovina before the crisis period was 17.53% and in period after it decreased to 16.20%. The highest CAR was in 2007 because of high capital inflow from privatization and in 2010 it decreased by 8% compared to 2007. Serbia CAR also decreased over time; in period from 2005 to 2007 it had value of 28.87% and it lower to 21.07 % in period 2008 to 2010. Croatia shows increase in average value of CAR. In period from 2008 to 2010 the average value of CAR was 16.8% and it is by 1.8% higher than in period 2005 to 2007. Slovenia also records increase in average value of CAR in period after crisis and it had value of 11.53% what is by 0.6% higher than in period before crisis. These countries record the decrease in CAR because most of the capital was withdrawn and the quality of assets is deteriorating, so the participation of risky assets decreases the ratio. But each country keeps ratio above the minimum prescribed. 90 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Conclusion This study provides analysis of banking sector performance measured by several indicators in the four countries that were part of ex – Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia. Indicators show that banking sector is influenced by the global financial crisis. Bosnia and Herzegovina records the lowest indicators. Bosnian financial sector is influenced by many problems inside the country, not established government, large money outflow, huge loans by IMF, with entire situation in country. Croatia is better compared to the other countries. It has to make good steps in each sector because of its aim to become EU member. In Serbia situation is similar to the Bosnia. The financial sector is influenced by political situation. Banking sector in Slovenia is also influenced by the global crisis, but also effects of the European crisis are significant. The performance of the banking sector in last year was under the strong impact of the global economic crisis and recession. This crisis produces many bad consequences and the adverse effects in banking sector of those countries, such as stagnation of sector, decline in profitability, increase of the non-performing assets and loans, past due receivables, loan loss provision and deterioration of other key indicators of banks` performance what comes as the conclusion from the data and analysis presented above In 2010 banking sector recorded the first signs of slight recovery but still there is no satisfactory condition to grow faster, so the recovery will be slow and lengthy. In order to compete for customers and greater market share banks enter into acquisition and integration process through mergers. Each country records decrease in profitability ratios, merely due to decrease in profits, loss of provision, and increase in non-performing loans, slowing credit activity and worsening market conditions. In order to make financial situation countries took support from other sources, but in most cases it just increased debt level and makes conditions worse. In order to improve the situation in banking system better, banks should increase interest on deposits, decrease interest on loans especially for the less risky clients, to provide better banking products that help everyone in market, such as more credit cards with deferred payments on the markets; it helps everyone in way that everyone 91 �Nađa DRECA is better off, client pays without interest, it is on time payment, and bank tied client to the bank with issuing this product. More credits to small business should be provide, at the lower interest rate and economy should encourage investments domestic producers should be encouraged by more favorable conditions of borrowing also it will solve many economic problems, decline in unemployment rate by creating job opportunities, less domestic products, so it will decrease trade deficit, provide more income for domestic governments and decrease budget deficit, and country would be in better position to return the debt to IMF. 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia References Bank of Slovenia.(BSI). (2005 – 2010). Annual Reports for years 2005 to 2010, Various issues,Retrieved 26th January 2012 fromwww.bsi.si. Bonin.J.P. (2001).Financial Intermediation in Southeast Europe: Banking On the Balkans , Working Paper 006, The wiw Balkan Observatory,Retrieved 26th January 2012from: http://balkan observatory.net/wp/2001%2010%20wiiw%20bo%20wp%20006.pdf Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina.(CBBH)(2005 – 2010). Annual Reports for years 2005 to 2010, Various issues, Retrieved fromwww.cbbh.ba. Croatian National Bank. (CNB).(2005 – 2010). Annual Reports for years 2005 to 2010, Various issues, Retrieved fromwww.hnb.hr. Coskun, A. and Ilgun E.(2009). Reconstruction and Development in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 2009, Sarajevo pp.52-63 Retrieved 26th January 2012 from: http://www.alicoskun.net/Publications/Coskun-Ilgun-ISSD-2009.pdf International Monetary Fund .Financial Access Survey (FAS).Financial Soundness Indicators (FSIs). Retrieved 26th January 2012fromwww.imf.org National Bank of Serbia.(2005 – 2010). Annual Reports for years 2005 to 2010, various issuesRetrieved 26th January 2012 fromwww.nbs.rs Radzic, J. and Yuce, A. (2008). Banking Development In The Former Yugoslavian Republics, International Business & Economics Research Journal, Vol 7. No.9, pp.35-48 RaiffeisenResearh CEE Banking Sector Report (2009). Rough playing field......committed players. June 2009. Retrieved 30th January 2012http://www.rzb.at/eBusiness/services/resources/media/10263598849481026359885014_1026067924320_1026689962565-574060325146557957-1-38EN.pdf 93 �Nađa DRECA RaiffeisenResearh CEE Banking Sector Report. (2010). Gradually gaining momentum and leaving the storm behind, September 2010 Retrieved 30th January 2012 from http://www.rzb.at/eBusiness/services/resources/media/677012584775275435677012584775275436_677251119927032833_677257048341086064679588600387211306-1-9-DE.pdf RaiffeisenResearh CEE Banking Sector Report.(2011) Banking Sector Convergence2.0.October 2011Retrieved 30th January 2012 from http://www.rbinternational.com/eBusiness/services/resources/media/677012584775 275435-677012584775275436_677251119927032833-772104317120223179-19-DE.pdf Simon Jr, G. (2012). An Economic History of Socialist Yugoslvaia,Social Science Research Network, Rochester, New York, Retrieved 26th January 2012 from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983907 Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2004). Banking Sector Developments in south –Eastern Europe, Working Paper No.44, ELIAMEP, WP4,Regional Cooperation, ELIAMEP, January 2012 fromhttp://balkanAthens, Retrieved 26th observatory.net/archive/stubos.pdf Stubos, G. and Tsikripis, I.(2005). Regional Integration Challenges in South East Europe: Banking Sector Trends ,Working Paper, Bank of Greece Retrieved 26th January 2012 fromhttp://www.bankofgreece.gr/BogEkdoseis/Paper200524.pdf 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1389 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Financial Performance of Banking Sector: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia Author Author Nađa , Dreca Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to compare the financial performance of the banking sector in some ex- Yu countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,Slovenia and Serbia for period from 2005 to 2010. The banking sector of these countries experienced reforms after the separation from the Yugoslavia. The financial performance of banks is studied on the basis of some selected financial variables and ratios that are either obtained from different sources either calculated by author.During this period the banks become privatized and there is increase in the presence of the foreign owners on the Balkans.This is mostly descriptive research that explains and provides some insights about situation in banking of the selected countries. Financial performance in this study is measured by selected indicators, such as return on asset (ROA), return on equity (ROE), capital adequacy ratio (CAR), share of non-performing loans (NPL), participation of deposits, assets and loans in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country.Data show that banking system of these countries suffers from problems in the banking sector, largely influenced by its huge debt to IMF, political situation, financial crisis, internal situation and other political factors Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1e379bd16df4acb32c543b838da15f59.pdf b822db8e8a6d18695435c9db5eb9653d PDF Text Text Evaluation of Residual Stresses in Heat Treated AISI 5115 and AISI 52100 Steels via Analysis of Instrumented Sharp Indentation Load-Unload Cycle Osman Culha Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey osman.culha@deu.edu.tr Seher Tas Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey seher.tas@ogr.deu.edu.tr Mustafa Toparli Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey mustafa.toparli@deu.edu.tr Abstract: In this research, heat treated AISI 5115 (16MnCr5) cementation and AISI 52100 roller bearing steels were investigated. The specimens that were prepared before and after heat treatment application were sectioned via wire-erosion machine. Specimens were properly sanded and polished to get a smooth surface. Optical micrographs of each specimen were taken by a Nikon Eclipse ME 600 metallographic microscope. These specimens were then examined by using a Dynamic Ultra Micro Hardness (DUH) tester under a set of maximum loads of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mN. For each heat treated and non-heat treated specimen subjected to load-unload cycle under the same amount of maximum load, load vs. penetration depth curves were plotted. By comparing the resultant load-unload curves, types of the residual stresses were determined. Individual calculations were made for tensile and compressive residual stresses to obtain the residual stress values. Introduction Residual Stress after various product stages such as welding, casting, surface processing and heat treatment process that remain in parts. Varieties relevant with welding manufacturing, casting, surface treatments and heat treatment effect mainly reason become residual stress. Residual stress because of in part after manufacturing will be applied external stress during service, effect with residual stress (Dilmeç et al., 2008). In this case, contained residual stress in a part, real applied condition may be much different from estimated that results obtained by analysis/calculate on part. Tensile and compressive residual stresses consist of thermal stress resulting from cooling difference between surface and core of material. This stresses may be beneficial or harmful to the material performance (Asi & Asi, 2003). While, tensile stresses decrease fatigue life of material so early damage, compressive stresses act to increase fatigue life of materials. Successful heat treatment process may hinge upon achieving not only the appropriate surface finish, hardness, but also a residual stress distribution producing the longest component life During surface hardened process such as cementation and nitruration, surfaces are heated in carbon or nitrogen atmosphere. These of result, volume of surfaces grow up and compressive residual stresses are becoming in the surfaces. Depending on rising hardened layer thickness in the cemented steel increase compressive residual stresses. Therefore abrasion resistance and fatigue strength in parts of surfaces is increased (Karataş et al., 2001). To understand the significance of these effects on the production of parts such as bearing ball and gears, and to evaluate material's performance during service need to know level of residual stress. There are many destructive and nondestructive methods in order to measure the residual stresses in materials. Non-destructive residual stress measurement techniques make use of different characteristics of samples in order to obtain residual stress. There are magnetic method, ultrasonic method, raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction. The main principle of the destructive methods is that by removing some part of the sample depending on the technique. Sahin et al. (2003) determined residual stresses near the surface of the material by the hole-drilling strain-gage method. In addition, the contour method is one of the 308 �recent destructive residual stress measurement techniques. Turski and Edwards (2009) examined the measurement of transverse residual stresses within the bead-on-plate weld specimen using the contour method. Suresh and Giannakopoulos (1998) have first introduced indentation technique which is a destructive technique for estimating residual stress. Comparing with traditional techniques, the depth-sensing indentation technique provides a quick and effective method of measuring the residual stress field (Chen et al., 2006). In this technique, experimentally determined the type and magnitude of residual stresses from automatically drawn load-unload curves from computer which connected microhardness test equipment, can be easily calculated residual stress. Being a destructive testing method, instrumented sharp indentation has been applied in recent years as a technique to evaluate the inhomogeneously distributed residual stresses caused by plastic deformation or thermal effects in welded, cast, surface processed and heat treated materials. By utilizing instrumented sharp indentation, residual stresses produced by various different processes on material surfaces can be directly measured. It’s evident through current studies that results obtained by using this technique are robust enough to compare with other methods. As a fast and reliable means of residual stress evaluation, it’s believed that this technique will become a common practice in the foreseeable future. In the present study, subjected to heat treatment of AISI 5115 (16MnCr5) and AISI 52100 (100Cr6) steels were measured in the bottom of surface the residual stresses using indentation techniques. Instrumented Indentation Method The microindentation technique (Nishibori et al., 1978; Dub et al., 2002) has been developed in some decades, and the mechanical properties within a sub-micron or nano scale are widely discussed. The techniques are expected to be useful for measurement of the mechanical properties of thin films or local structure of various materials. While employing the instrumented indentation technique at nanoscale one can directly determine the nanohardness, Young’s modulus and the deformation characteristics (Reibold et al., 2005). From the loading and unloading curve the nature of elastic–plastic transition can be analyzed. Elastic modulus E and microhardness H can be obtained with the load and penetration depth data (Uzun et al. 2005). During indenter loading, test material is subjected to both elastic and plastic deformation. The three key parameters needed to determine the hardness and modulus are the peak load (Pmax), the contact area (Ac) and the initial unloading contact stiffness (S). Similar to the conventional microhardness testing, the micro indentation hardness is usually defined as the ratio of the peak indentation load, Pmax, to the projected area of the hardness impression, Ac, i.e. P Pmax ( Ac = 26.43hc 2 ) (1) H = max = 2 Ac 26.43hc Different approaches for deducing the contact depth, hc, from the resultant load displacement curve have been purposed and perhaps the most widely used one is that of Oliver and Pharr (Oliver &.Pharr, 1992). The Oliver and Pharr (1992) data analysis procedure begins by fitting unloading curve to an empirical power-law relation. (2) P = α(h − hf )m where P is the indentation load, h is the penetration depth, hf is the final unloading depth and α and m are empirically determined fitting parameters. Using the initial part of the unloading curve, both stiffness and contact depth are determined by differentiating Eq. (2) at the maximum depth of penetration, h = hmax. Then, the stiffness of the contact is given by S= 2 dP = E r Ac dh π (3) Where Er is the reduced elastic modulus. In this study, the Oliver and Pharr (1992) method was used to calculate the initial stiffness (S), contact depth (hc) and hence reduced modulus (Er) and hardness (HV). 2 1 1 −ν 2 1 −ν 0 (4) = + Er E Eo Where E and ν are Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for the specimen, and Eo and νo are the same parameter for the indenter. As explained above, instrumented indentation is characterized by a sharp rigid indenter which mechanical properties are known (frequently made of a very hard material like diamond) penetrating normally into a homogeneous solid where the indentation load, P, and displacement, h, are continuously recorded during one complete cycle of loading and unloading (Figure 1). 309 �Figure 1: Schematic graph of the indentation load–depth curve (Son et al., 2003) Measured residual stress is based on the calculation of the difference between the indentation contact areas of with and without stressed surfaces by analyzing ‘‘indentation load–depth’’ data according to the below equations (Suresh & Giannakopoulos, 1998): For tensile residual stress Ac/Ao = (1-(σr / ρave ))-1 For compressive residual stress Ac/Ao = (1+(σr sinα / ρave )) -1 (5a) (5b) where Ac and Ao are the indentation contact areas with and without residual stress (σr), respectively. α is a geometric factor, where a is related to the indentation angle of the indenter. If the Vickers pyramid indenter is used α = 22o. ρave is the average contact pressure, ρave =Pmax/Amax Depend on the type of residual stress (tensile or compressive) as shown in Figure 2 if the indentation contact area ratio (Ac/Ao) is known then σr values can be calculated simply from Equation (1a) or (1b). Figure 2: The indentation load-depth (P-h) curves for the surfaces with and without residual stresses. We now seek to derive the effects of a compressive residual stress on the contact areas and indentation penetration depths. Figure 2 schematically shows the load-depth curve for the indentation of the virgin material, and that for the substrate with an equibiaxial compressive residual stress. Assume that the following loading history takes place. The material with the residual stress is first indented with a load P1 which causes the indenter to penetrate it by a depth h1. This point is denoted by the symbol X in Figure 2 (Suresh & Giannakopoulos, 1998) Keeping the indentation depth h1 constant, let the indented material now undergo a complete relaxation of the residual stress, i.e. let the residual stress relax from σxRo = σyRo 0 to zero at a fixed penetration depth, h1=h2. In order for the average contact pressure pave to remain invariant, the equivalent plastic strain beneath the indenter should be preserved, as noted earlier. Consequently, the change in the stress state of the material beneath the indenter during the release of this compressive residual stress must be hydrostatic. The resulting 310 �tensile hydrostatic stress, σH, σxRo, σyRo, σzRo can be regarded as introducing an effective differential force of magnitude σHfA in the z direction, i.e. in the direction of the applied indentation load, as shown in Figure 3, where f= sinα. Thus, as the compressive residual stress, σxRo, σyRo is released and the point of indentation moves from location X to location Y in the P-h curves in Figure 2, the contact force effectively decreases from P1 to P2 at a constant penetration depth, h1=h2. In summary, for a fixed indenter penetration depth and for X-Y in Figure 2, P1-P2= σHfA=- σxRo fA= -σyRo fA From the equation (2) can be obtained ratio (Ac/Ao) : R A  σy = 1 + σu Ao      −1  σy .1 +  σu   E tan α  . 1 + ln R 3σ y    −1  E tan α  .1 + ln  3σ y   (6) where σy and σyR are the yield strengths of the surface with and without residual stress, respectively, σu is the ultimate strength (Suresh & Giannakopoulos, 1998). Figure 3: Schematic representation of residual stress while indenter is under contact position with material a) for Suresh and Giannakopoulos (1998) b) for Atar et al. (2003) Suresh and Giannakopoulos (1998) reported that according to the upper-bound solution of the compressive residual stress, the magnitude of the force acting normal to the inclined faces of the indenter during indentation is σrfA as shown in Figure 3a. Since α=22o for the Vickers pyramid indenter, the geometric factor f =sinα is noted as 0.375 theoretically. In the present study, the geometric factor was calculated experimentally as 1, which corresponds to an a value of 90o. This indicates that the impelling force having a value of σrA is acting against the applied indentation load in the direction of indentation (perpendicular to the indentation contact area) rather than the component of the residual stress acting normal to the inclined faces of the indenter. Thus, Net indentation load =applied indentation load- impelling force as shown in Figure 3b. Therefore, for the calculation of the residual compressive stress in materials by utilizing the Vickers pyramid indenter, Eq. (5b) should be modified as (Atar et al., 2003): A   σ r = 1 +  Ao   ρ ave    −1 (7) In this study, we draw attention to residual stress calculation of AISI 5115 and 52100 bulk material after heat treated by indentation method. In this context, Both Atar et al. (2003) and Suresh & Giannakopoulos (1998) method were used and compare with each other. Firstly, mechanical properties of materials were examined by Shimadzu Dynamic Ultra-micro hardness test machine for estimating Young’s modulus due to load-unload sensing analysis, in addition to mechanical investigation hardness-force and Young’s modulus-force curves of the coatings were obtained. Load depended elastic modulus and hardness were obtained at 200 mN, 4000 mN, 600 mN, 800 mN and 1000 mN applied peak loads. After obtaining characteristics indentation curves under applied loads of different quality virgin and heat treated materials, residual stresses were calculated with two different indentation approaches. Experimental Study High carbon through-hardening steel AISI 52100 and case-carburized low carbon steel AISI 5115 are used for antifriction bearings and gears, shafts, axles, cam. (Stickels & Janotik, 1980). Case-carburized parts and 311 �cemented steels develop compressive residual stresses at the surface. Compressive residual stresses at the surface are beneficial performance of material, which during service. In this experimental study, samples were manufactured from rods of an AISI E52100 ball bearing steel and AISI 5115 (16MnCr5) carburizing steel. This samples chemical composition is given in Table 1 and Table 2. The samples turned a disk with a thickness of 0.50mm and a diameter of Ø22mm after the samples were cut from rod at a wire EDM machines samples to measure with and without the stresses before and after heat treatment processing, respectively. C (%) 0.966 Si(%) 0.236 Mn(%) 0.468 P(%) 0.008 S(%) 0.005 Cr(%) 1.580 Ni(%) 0.107 Cu(%) 0.110 Table 1: Chemical composition of the AISI 52100(100Cr6) ball bearing steel C (%) 0.14-0.16 Si (%) 0.15-0.40 Mn(%) 1.0-1.30 P(%) 0.035 S(%) 0.05 Cr(%) 0.8-1.1 Table 2: Chemical composition of the AISI 5115 (16MnCr5) carburized steel Carburizing programs were carried out in gas atmosphere at 960°C and 840°C for16MnCr5 and 100Cr6, respectively at heat treatment. During the carburizing process the carbon potential of batch furnaces was adjusted to 1.2 % C and 0.45 % C at 960°C and 840°C and then reduced to maintain the final surface carbon content of the 16MnCr5 specimen below 0.8% C and but increased above 0.8% C of the final surface carbon content for 100Cr6 specimen. Specimens were processed in the direct quenched condition and then were tempered at 80°C for 20-30 minutes. Surface preparation of the disks was done by grinding and polished. These specimens were then examined by using a Dynamic Ultra Micro Hardness (DUH) tester under a set of maximum loads of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mN. For each heat treated and non-heat treated specimen subjected to load-unload cycle under the same amount of maximum load, load vs. penetration depth curves were plotted. During the test load-depth (P-h), elasticity modulus and hardness data of each samples were recorded with connected computer. By comparing the resultant load-unload curves, types of the residual stresses were determined. Individual calculations were made for tensile and compressive residual stresses to obtain the residual stress values. Results and Discussion The mechanical properties such as hardness, Young’s modulus, fracture toughness, ductility, etc are important parameters for industrial application. Shimadzu Dynamic Ultra Micro Hardness Testing machine is used for determination hardness variation and young modulus of FeB layers. Different loads such as 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 mN are applied for determination of hardness and Young’s modulus. Loading and unloading curves of AISI 5115 and 52100 before and after heat treated materials are shown in Figure 4 and 5. According to the results, compressive characteristics residual stresses were obtained for each material. 312 �1. (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 4: Loading- unloading curves of AISI 5115 quality steels under a) 200 mN b) 400 mN c) 600 mN d) 800 mN e) 1000mN 313 �(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 5: Loading- unloading curves of AISI 52100 quality steels under a) 200 mN b) 400 mN c) 600 mN d) 800 mN e) 1000mN The calculated Young’s modulus of AISI5115 and AISI52100 quality steels with and without stress under different applied peak loads are shown in Figure 6. According to the results, Young’s moduli of stressed and unstressed materials are decreased with increasing applied loads. 314 �AISI 5115 with Stress E 300,00 AISI 5115 Without Stress E AISI 52100 With Stress E E (GPa) 250,00 AISI 52100 Without Stress E 200,00 150,00 100,00 50,00 0,00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Force (mN) Figure 6: Young’s modulus variations of AISI 5115 and AISI 52100 with and without stress 35,00 10,00 AISI 5115 with Stress H 30,00 Yield Stress GPa) H (GPa) AISI 5115 Yield Stress Without Stress 8,00 AISI 52100 With Stress H 25,00 AISI 5115 Yield Stress With Stress 9,00 AISI 5115 Without Stress H AISI 52100 Without Stress H 20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 AISI 52100 Yield Stress With Stress AISI 52100 Yield Stress Without Stress 7,00 6,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00 1,00 0,00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0,00 0 200 Force (mN) 400 800 1000 1200 Force (mN) a) b 1,50 18,00 AISI 5115 With Stress AISI 5115 Ultimate Stress With Stress 16,00 1,30 AISI 5115 Ultimate Stress Without Stress 14,00 AISI 52100 Ultimate Stress With Stress 12,00 AISI 52100 ultimate Stress Without Stress AISI 5115 Without Stress AISI 52100 with Stress hr/hmax Ultimate Stress (GPa) 600 10,00 8,00 1,10 0,90 6,00 0,70 4,00 0,50 2,00 AISI 52100 Without Stress 0,30 0,00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 Force (mN) Force (mN) 315 1000 1200 �c) d) 450,00 AISI 5115 With Str ess 400,00 AISI 5115 Without Stress 350,00 AISI 52100 With Stress AISI 51200 Without Stress C (GPa) 300,00 250,00 200,00 150,00 100,00 50,00 0,00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Force (mN) e) Figure 7: a) Hardness b) Yield Stress c) Ultimate Stress d) hr/hmax and e) C –Force curves of AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steel (with and without stress) Hardness study of samples is shown in Figure 7 a). When the applied loads increased from 200 to 1000 mN, hardness values of AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steel were decreased from 5,40 to 3,64 GPa and 4,38 to 3,38 GPa, respectively. After heat treatment regime and compressive residual stress (reduction of contact area), hardness of samples increased as 26,60 to 14,69 GPa and 24,92 and 16,09 GPa for AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steels under same applied loads. Yield and ultimate stress of samples were determined by analyzing the indentation load–depth data according to the step by step procedure (Suresh & Giannakopoulos, 1998). This calculation procedure was applied for both AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steels and their heat treated samples. Yield and ultimate stress values differences between virgin and heat treated samples were given in Figure 7 b) and c). Each result influenced from applied loads and indentation size effect active in this model. hr/hmax and C values of samples is indicated the elastic properties. C is active in loading part of indentation curve as P=Ch2. As shown in Figure 5 and Figure 7 e), C values of heat treated samples increased depending applied loads. 316 �100,00 Residual Compressive Stress (GPa) A ISI 5 11 5 Compre ssive Res idu al Stre ss S tress by At ar (2 00 3) 90, 00 A ISI 5 11 5 Compre ssive Res idu al Stre ss b y S ure sh an d Gia nn ak op ou lo s (1 99 8) A ISI 5 21 00 co mpre ssive Resid u al S tres s b y At ar (2 00 3 ) 80, 00 A ISI 5 21 00 Co mpress ive Re sid ua l S tress by Su resh a nd G ian na ko po u los (1 99 8) A ISI 5 11 5 Compre ssive Res idu al Stre ss b y Te o . X RD 70, 00 60, 00 50, 00 40, 00 30, 00 20, 00 10, 00 0,00 0 200 40 0 600 800 1 000 1200 Force (mN) Figure 8: Residual Compressive Stress variations (for two different theories) of AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steels under different applied loads The residual stress values of AISI 5115 and 52100 quality steels determined by the instrumented indentation method were found and represented in Figure 8. Atar et al. (2003) and Suresh & Giannakopoulos (1998) methods were applied to indented samples and calculation results showed that differences of contact area calculation is directly effect the residual stress results. References Asi, O. & Asi, D. (2003). An investigation of residual stresses developed in carburized SAE 8620 steel. Gazi University Journal of Science 16, 725-732. Atar, E., Sarıoğlu, C. et al. (2003). Residual stress estimation of ceramic thin films by X-ray diffraction and indentation techniques. Scripta Materialia 48, 1331-1336 Chen, X., Yann, J., Anette, M.K. (2006). On the determination of residual stress and mechanical properties by indentation. Materials Science and Engineering: A 46, 139-149. Dilmeç, M., Yiğit, O., Halkacı, H.E.(2008). Measurement of residual stresses with layer removal method and comparison with other methods. Mühendis ve Makine 49, 20-27. Dub, S., Novikov, N., Milman, Y. (2002). The transition from elastic to plastic behaviour in an Al-Cu-Fe quasicrystal studied by cyclic nanoindentation. Philosophical Magazine A 82, 2161–2172. Karataş, Ç., Fetullayev, E., Kafkas, F. (2001). The research into the residual stresses on the root’s teeth of a gear wheel made of AISI 5115 steel. Journal of Faculty Engineering Architecture Gazi University 16, 9-18. Oliver, W.C. & Pharr, G.M. (1992). An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic-modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments. Journal of Materials Research 7, 1564-1583. 317 �Nishibori, M. & Kinoshita, K. (1978). Ultra-microhardness of vacuum-deposited films I: Ultra-microhardness tester. Thin Solid Films 48, 325-331. Reibold, M., Belger, A. et al. (2005). The impact of nanoindentation at room temperature upon the real structure of decagonal AlCoNi quasicrystals. Physica Status Solidi A-Applications and Materials Science 202, 2267–2276. Sahin, S., Toparli, M. et al. (2003). Modelled and measured residual stress in a biomaterial joint. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 132, 235-241. Stickels, C.A. & Janotik, A.M. (1980). Controlling residual stress in 52100 bearing stress by heat treatment. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 11, 467-473. Suresh, S. & Giannakopoulos A.E. (1998). A new method for estimating residual stresses by instrumented sharp indentation. Acta Materialia 46, 5755-5767. Turski, M. & Edwards, L. (2009). Residual stress measurement of a 316l stainless steel bead-on-plate specimen utilising the contour method. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86, 126-131 Uzun, O., Kölemen, U. et al. (2005). Modulus and hardness evaluation of polycrystalline superconductors by dynamic microindentation technique. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 25, 969-967. 318 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 446 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Residual Stresses in Heat Treated AISI 5115 and AISI 52100 Steels via Analysis of Instrumented Sharp Indentation Load-Unload Cycle Author Author Culha, Osman Tas, Seher Toparli, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, heat treated AISI 5115 (16MnCr5) cementation and AISI 52100 roller bearing steels were investigated. The specimens that were prepared before and after heat treatment application were sectioned via wire-erosion machine. Specimens were properly sanded and polished to get a smooth surface. Optical micrographs of each specimen were taken by a Nikon Eclipse ME 600 metallographic microscope. These specimens were then examined by using a Dynamic Ultra Micro Hardness (DUH) tester under a set of maximum loads of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mN. For each heat treated and non-heat treated specimen subjected to load-unload cycle under the same amount of maximum load, load vs. penetration depth curves were plotted. By comparing the resultant load-unload curves, types of the residual stresses were determined. Individual calculations were made for tensile and compressive residual stresses to obtain the residual stress values. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2acce459dd997e552e02671e01d21dd1.pdf e6b2544544a6dac54f5556fcd29d2d4a PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Evaluation of Roadmap of Turkey for Public Management in the Postmodern Era: Challenges and Prospects Hakan Altıntaş University of Gaziantep, Gaziantep, Turkey hakanaltintas@hotmail.com Seyhan Taş Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey seyhantas1@hotmail.com In reality, government is virtually the only sector in society today that has yet to embrace the total philosophy of reinventing and reengineering in this Information Age. Public sector world that previously contained a dearth of relevant theory. Moving beyond the orthodoxies of policy and management. In this study, the current situation of public management system in Turkey was analyzed, the positive and negative aspects were stated through, Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological Factors. Method and SWOT Analysis, postmodern public management indicators of different countries were compared and finally a roadmap of Post-modern public management cases was suggested for a successful post-modern public management implementation. Keywords: Roadmap, Management and Organizations, Postmodern Era, Turkey 139 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b4ce98e2a6e0660083bfc60871d7764.docx 3688d5542f9e497d4e87fc42643ad599 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aca873892509c55d8bbf79e4745c5325.pdf cca6f84390ef88ec66ef26e933ae7aff PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Evaluation of Roadmap of Turkey for Public Management in the Postmodern Era: Challenges and Prospects Hakan Altintas University of Gaziantep, Gaziantep, Turkey hakanaltintas@gantep.edu.tr Seyhan Tas Kahramanmaras Sutcu ImamUniversity, Kahramanmaras, Turkey seyhantas@ksu.edu.tr Abstract In reality, government is virtually the only sector in society today that has yet to embrace the total philosophy of reinventing and reengineering in this Information Age. Public sector world that previously contained a dearth of relevant theory. Moving beyond we have the orthodoxies of policy and management. In this study, the current situation of public management system in Turkey was analyzed; the positive and negative aspects were stated through, Political, Economic, Socio-cultural and Technological Factors. Method and SWOT Analysis, postmodern public management indicators of different countries were compared and finally a roadmap of Post-modern public management cases was suggested for a successful post-modern public management implementation. Keywords:New Public Management, Public Management, SWOT, Public Management System Introduction During the 1980s and 1990s, through to the now, public management system have been experiencing significant reform and portrayed as a global paradigm emerging in response to economic, institutional, political, and ideological changes with both a rhetoric and reality focused on change in regimes. A growing literature has discussed these reforms around concepts of “New Public Management” (Hood, 1995) and more recently a literature has been building around “New Public Financial Management” (Guthrie et al., 1999; Olson et al., 1998). Hood‟s (1995) depiction of NPM was presented as an aid to comparative research in public sector management yet it is ironic that with the exception of the landmark study by Olson, et al. (1998a), little work has been devoted to comparative studies of reforms such as performance measurement change”. “By arguing for a “new global paradigm” in public sector management, Osborne and Gaebler (1992) sowed the seeds for a growing body of literature which examined the phenomenon known as “New Public Management” (NPM). The literature on NPM is now quite wide and includes official exhortations to adopt various elements of NPM, academic considerations of the advantages and disadvantages of NPM and various texts dealing with specific elements of NPM techniques” (Mark and Yoshimi, 2003:2). Studies of change in organizations may take different approaches; our interest is the current situation of public management system in Turkey was analyzed, the positive and negative aspects were stated through, Political, Economical, Socio-cultural, Technological Factors. 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Turkey has been going through a dynamic transformation process in public life in the last decade due to heavy internal and external pressures. The elements of the internal pressures can be listed as the two big economic crises of 1994 and 2001, the earthquake in 1999 and the increasing demand by citizens for more democracy and freedom. In terms of external pressure, Turkey faces pressures stemming from being part of the international community. Fulfillment of the requirements of the IMF and the WB and the ongoing harmonization. Process for EU membership result in dynamic changes in Turkey. The Constitution of Turkey has been amended seventeenth times. In many fields related to public administration and human right issues, major changes have been realized. Within this transformation process, even for the experts, following and learning the changes has become difficult (UNDP, 1994). A relatively new concept in organizational management, SWOT is a tool that assists organizations assessesthem by evaluating their internal and external competencies, challenges, opportunities and threats, with a view to enhancing their performances. Economic and budgetary restraints are common elements in studies of both external and endogenous determinants of organizational change. In addition to budgetary restraints and other resource problems. The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes, supports and sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for a clearly articulated concept of governance has just begun. New Public Management (NPM) can be seen as the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country's affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. New Public Management (NPM) is, among other things, participatory, transparent and accountable. It is also effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. New Public Management (NPM) ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources. New Public Management (NPM) has three legs: economic, political and administrative. Economic governance includes decision-making processes that affect a country's economic activities and its relationships with other economies. It clearly has major implications for equity, poverty and quality of life. Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy. Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation. Encompassing all three, New Public Management (NPM) defines the processes and structures that guide political and socio-economic relationships (UNDP, 1994). The institutions of governance in the three domains (state, civil society and the private sector) must be designed to contribute to sustainable human development by establishing the political, legal, economic and social circumstances for poverty reduction, job creation, environmental protection and the advancement of women. Much has been written about the characteristics of efficient government, successful businesses and effective civil society organizations, but the characteristics of New Public Management defined in societal terms remain elusive. Participation - All men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests. Such broad 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively. Rule of law - Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the laws on human rights. Transparency - Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them. Responsiveness - Institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders. Consensus orientation - Good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of the group and, where possible, on policies and procedures. Equity - All men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. Effectiveness and efficiency - Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of resources. Accountability - Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organizations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. This accountability differs depending on the organization and whether the decision is internal or external to an organization. Strategic vision - Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded. Conceptual Analysis: Public Management System in Turkey Turkey has a prominent place among today‟s developing countries due to the length of its experiences on the fields of economy, culture, law and public administration. Since the beginning of 19th century, during the Ottoman as well as the Republican period, Turkey has always strived to develop her public administration in line with the needs of society and internal and external developments. Within this period, six constitutions, two of which were in the Ottoman Empire period, have been enacted. In line with the Constitutions there are more than 10,000 laws in force. The Turkish administrative system is based upon certain fundamental political and legal principles stated in the Constitution of 1982. However, this Constitution was subject to many amendments in the last 20 years. In addition to the six amendments made in the last five years, the seventh one is underway. After these amendments it is going to be necessary to examine the administrative structure again. It is worth giving an example to understand the nature of the forthcoming amendments to the constitution. With these amendments, in  This section is prepared from Assessment of Public Administration in Turkey, United Nations Public Administration Network. 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo addition to securing democracy, equality between men and women will become a constitutional principle. The Constitution starts with announcing that the political system is a republican democracy and outlines fundamental characteristics of the Republic such as separation of powers, secularism, supremacy of law, and constitutional government. These political and legal principles also apply to the organization and the functioning of the Administration as well. Some of these principles may be enumerated as follows: • Legality of the Administration, • Rule of Law, • Concept of the Social State, • State Intervention in the Economic Field, • Secularism, • Integrity of Administration, • Judicial Review through Administrative Courts. All of the above-mentioned principles are the cornerstones and inseparable characteristics of the contemporary Turkish Administration. According to the structure of the Constitution and the principles of the Turkish Administrative System, the “Administration” is not a satellite of the Executive; it is within the Executive branch, but a separate entity. It operates, however, in close relation with the Executive and under the supervision of the legislative, executive and judicial branches. Public administration in Turkey is divided between the central and local administrations. Article 126 of the Constitution states that the formation of the central administration is organized so that the land mass of the country is divided into provinces and the provinces into further smaller divisions according to geographic and economic conditions, and the need for public services. In relation to this, Article 127 of the Constitution states that, for the purpose of meeting collective local needs, the populations of provinces, municipalities, and villages are to be administered by units of local government established by law as legal public entities and governed in accordance with the principle of self-government. Article 123 of the Constitution, however, states that in order to maintain integrity in public administration in terms of organizations and duties, national, provincial, urban, and rural administrations should function in unity and coherence. As a unitary state, Turkey has 81 provinces, and within those provinces there are 850 districts, and about 35,000 villages. However, even though there has been a greater support for self-government and the delegation of the powers from the institutions of the central government to the provincial level Over the past decade, the structure and tradition of a highly centralized public administration still persists today. Central Administration Central Administration is the core of the administrative structure, both from structural and functional aspects. The central administration includes The Office of the Prime Minister, the Council Of Ministers and Consultative Agencies. Provincial Organizations are the provincial units of the Ministries. Each Ministry is headquartering in Ankara, with units at the provinces serving as their field organizations. The Council Of Ministers is appointed by The President of the Republic, who is part of the executive, exercises various administrative powers with limited liability. The Council of Ministers acts with the confidence of Parliament and is at the head of the Central Administration. The Prime Minister, according to the 1982 Constitution (articles112, 109) is the head of both the Council Of Ministers and the Administration in general. The Prime Minister, as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, ensures co-operation among the Ministers and supervises the implementation of the government‟s general policy. Each 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Minister is responsible to the Prime Minister, for the conduct of affairs under his jurisdiction and for the acts and activities of his subordinates. The Prime Minister ensures that the ministers exercise their functions in accordance with the constitution and the law. If necessary, the Prime Minister may take corrective measures such as the dismissal of a minister through a proposal to the President of the Republic. Within the Central Administrations, the head of each agency –Ministers, Under-secretariats Governors, Subgovernors-enjoys hierarchical supervision, includes disciplinary authority over the decisions and actions of subordinates, towards of expediency and legality. Autonomous bodies Regulatory bodies Turkey has made tremendous progress on the way to integrating with the world economy since the establishment of the Republic in 1923. Looking at where we stand, we see that Turkey now has a more market oriented and competitive economy, resilient both to domestic and external shocks. High public deficits and concomitant chronic inflation, together with the relatively slow pace in taking regulatory measures under an open capital account made the economy vulnerable to external and internal shocks in the 1990s. Most significantly ongoing crises including 1994 foreign exchange crisis; 1997 Asian and 1998 Russian crises, the earthquake in 1999 and the 2001 financial crisis had a serious impact on the economy. By the end of the 1990s, it was obvious that the macroeconomic imbalances had to be dealt with permanent measures. Therefore in late 1999 the government embarked upon a comprehensive economic reform program to address the long-standing structural problems of the economy, to cut inflation to single digits and to achieve sustainable growth. As the economy was moving towards a private sector driven structure, regulatory policy has become more important. With a view to separating the ownership, policymaking and routine super visionary functions in the liberalized sectors such as infrastructure (telecommunications, electricity and natural gas), agriculture, and finance, the authorities established: Telecommunication Authority, Energy Market Regulatory Authority, Board to regulate tobacco and alcoholic beverages, Board to regulate sugar markets, • Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA), Capital Markets Board of Turkey, Competition Authority, • Public Tender Authority, Radio Television Supreme Council. State Economic Enterprises In Turkey the intervention of the state in the economy increased from the 1930s to the 1980s. State Economic Enterprises, functionally decentralized organizations, had constituted 2/3 of the Turkish economy. However, within the liberalization policy pursued since the 1980s, the privatization process also started. Despite all these efforts, 40% of the Turkish economy still is composed of SEE. However, recently the petro-chemical and tobacco industries have come close to being fully privatized. Higher Education Board The Higher Education Board, which was established in 1981, is an autonomous body according to the Constitution. All the public and private universities are supervised by the academic and administrative decisions of the Board. The Board is governed by a Council and The president of the Board is appointed by the President of the Turkish Republic. 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Local administration Local Administration, which functions under the administrative tutelage of the central administration, is divided into three main administrative tiers. These are the special provincial administrations, municipalities, and village administrations. The functionaries of the special provincial administrations, established in all of the 81 provinces, are the provincial general assembly, whose members are elected to office, and the governor who is appointed directly by The central government - The duty of the special provincial administrations is to provide public services deemed necessary on the outlying lands not under the jurisdiction of municipalities. There are 3,215 municipalities in Turkey; currently 16 are “metropolitan municipalities” established but 14 metropolitan municipalities will be establishing in 2014 according to a law enacted in 1984. In addition to the Constitution, the status of municipalities is explicated by the Law on Municipalities dated 1930, and by various other codes, statutes, and, regulations enacted since then. According to the Law on Municipalities, the municipalities are vested with powers in two large domains - service provision and administrative tutelage. Administrative tutelage pertains to, among others, construction, environment, local transportation, and workplace permits. SWOT Analysis Framework As already noted above, SWOT is an acronym for Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. It is sometimes called situational analysis. According to Carysforth and Neeld (2004), SWOT is a technique for comparing or matching an organization‟s internal strengths and weaknesses with opportunities and threats found in the external environment. It is a useful strategic planning tool for evaluating the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats involved in a project or in a business. SWOT analysis is based on the assumption that if managers carefully review internal strengths and weaknesses and external threats and opportunities, they can formulate and select a useful strategy for ensuring organizational success. Lewis and Trevitt (2000) provide a useful insight into what constitute the strength, weakness, opportunities and threats of an enterprise as follows: Strength These are resources and capabilities of an organization that can be used as a basis for developing a competitive advantage. It is an important organizational resource which enhances an organization‟s competitive position. Some of the internal strengths of an enterprise are:  Distinctive competence in key areas.  Manufacturing efficiency like exclusive access to high grade natural resources.  Skilled workforce.  Adequate financial resources.  Superior image and reputation such as strong brand names.  Insulation from strong competitive pressures.  Product or service differentiation.  Proprietary technology such as patents and resultant cost advantages from proprietary know-how. 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Weakness A “weakness” is a condition or a characteristic which puts the organization at disadvantage. The absence of certain strengths may be viewed as weakness. Weakness makes the organization vulnerable to competitive pressures. Weaknesses require a close scrutiny because some of them can prove to be fatal. Some of the weaknesses inherent in public service organizations include:  No clear strategic direction.  Outdated facilities.  Lack of management vision; depth and skills.  Inability to raise capital.  Weak distribution network.  Obsolete technology.  Low employee morale.  Poor track record in implementing strategy.  Poor market image.  Higher overall unit costs relative to competition reflected in: o a weak brand name o poor reputation among customers o high cost structure o lack of access to the best natural resources o Lack of access to key distribution channels, etc. Opportunities An “opportunity” is considered as a favorable circumstance which can be utilized for beneficial purposes. It is offered by outside environment and the management can decide as to how to make the best use of it. Such an opportunity may be the result of a favorable change in the external environment. It may also be created by a productive approach by the management in modeling the environment to its own benefit. Some of the opportunities may include the following:  Strong economy.  Possible new markets and an unfulfilled customer need.  Emerging new technologies.  Complacency among competing organizations.  Vertical or horizontal integration.  Expansion of product or service line to meet broader range of customer needs.  Removal of international trade barriers.  Loosening of regulations, etc. It must however be mentioned that an organization needs not necessarily pursue more lucrative opportunities. Rather it may have a better chance at developing a competitive advantage by identifying a fit between its strength and upcoming opportunities. Threats Change in the external environment also may present threats to an organization. Management should anticipate such possible threats and prepare its strategies in such a manner that any such threat is neutralized. Some examples of threats include:  Shifts in customer tastes away from the organization‟s products or service. 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo           Emergence of substitute products. New regulations. Increased trade barriers. Entry of lower cost foreign competitors. Cheaper technology adopted by rivals. Raising sales of substitute products. Shortages of resources Recession in economy. Adverse shifts in trade policies of foreign governments. Adverse demographic changes. SWOT analysis can help an organization to formulate strategies that will take advantage of all these factors. SWOT Analysis in the Turkish Public Management System SWOT analysis emerged in the 1960s from research at Stanford Research Institute into the failure of current corporate planning methods (Lomax and Roman, 2005). It provides a framework for analyzing the market position of an organization and can be applied in a range of planning and strategic contexts including strategy development, market planning, and the evaluation of strategic options for a whole business or an individual department. In the Turkish public management system SWOT analysis can be an effective way of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of public enterprises, and of examining the opportunities and threats they face. Carrying out a self-awareness exercise using the SWOT framework would help equality among social groups, humanization of the workplace, empowerment, and expanded political participation so a public organizations to focus its activities into areas where it is strong and where the greatest opportunity lie. The use of SWOT analysis becomes necessary for an organization while developing a strategic plan or planning a solution to a problem, after it has analyzed the internal and external environment, such culture, economy, health, sources of funding, demographics, staffing, etc. A SWOT analysis, usually performed early in the project development process, helps organizations to evaluate the environmental factors and internal situation facing the project. Because it concentrates on issues that potentially have the most impact, the SWOT analysis is useful when a very limited amount of time is available to address a complex strategic situation. The internal and external situation analysis can produce a large amount of information, much of which may not be highly relevant. The SWOT analysis can serve as an interpretative filter to reduce the information to a manageable quantity of key issues. The SWOT analysis classifies the internal aspects of the organization as strengths or weaknesses and the external situational factors as opportunities or threats. Strength can serve as a foundation for building a competitive advantage, and weaknesses may hinder it. By understanding these four aspects of its situation, an organization can better leverage its strengths, correct its weaknesses, capitalize on golden opportunities, and deter potentially devastating threats. When the analysis has been completed, a SWOT profile can be generated and used as the basis of goal setting, strategy formulation and implementation. Strength 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo We look at the concept of transparency, Public authorities in Turkey started to appoint public spokesman for the illumination of public. In addition some steps have been taken in the last years. These are: • The Law on the Organization of the Prime Ministry that requires the ministries to consult with relevant institutions and organizations during the preparation of new legislation before the draft legislation is submitted to the Prime Ministry. • The Civil Code was amended through a participatory drafting process, consisting of consultative methods such as meetings, workshops, and correspondence among relevant parties, including women‟s NGOs. The amended Civil Code guarantees equality between men and women. • Legislation guaranteeing the right of information (Right of Information Act), which is in the possession of the administration, will enter into force on 10 April 2004. With the new act, information about all administrative acts and actions with the exception of national security issues will be disseminated to citizens upon request. • The plenary sessions of the Turkish Grand National Assembly is now broadcast live by the Turkish Radio and Television. We look at the concept of accountability some of the mechanisms for enacting accountability in Turkey are as follows: • Political accountability is exercised through democratic institutions and practices. The most evident practice is Turkey‟s general elections. Votes are given to any number of approximately 11 political parties with different political ideologies participating in elections that constitute the final link in the accountability process. • In their attempts to influence political decisions as well as by channeling reactions, criticisms, evaluations, and affirmations of the voters, NGOs, and the media also constitute a form of accountability. There are 1500 NGOs with 3 million members and the strengthened role of NGOs also contributes to political accountability in Turkey. • In terms of administrative and financial accountability, the State Supervisory Council attached to the Office of the President was established with the purpose of performing and furthering the regular and efficient functioning of the administration and its observance of the law. • Several public institutions and organizations are pursuing a “total quality” approach in for the improvement of quality of services. Currently, some hospitals managed by the Ministry of Health, the Social Security Institution, and universities have received “ISO 9001 and “ISO 9002” Quality Certificates. • Legal accountability is embodied in a constitutionally and legislatively defined system of judicial review. At the apex of this system are the higher courts such as the Constitutional Court, the High Court of Appeals, and the Council of State. Every citizen has the right to appeal to administrative courts against the actions of the public administration that damage his/her interests with the argument that such actions are against the law. In addition to these tools, draft laws on public administration and local governments provide the framework and the instruments for the achievement accountability as a principle of good governance. We look at the concept of participation, it is observed that political participation in Turkey usually takes the form of participation in elections and election campaigns; and, individual or collective petitioning to political organizations in order to convey demands, complaints, or requests. The Ninth Five-Year Development Plan (2007-2013 ) foresees a change in the outlook of the public administration. They call for the restructuring of the central government and a 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo decentralized implementation of “a participatory and people-based administrative system. Civic public administration is seen as being more effective in local administrations with the example of Local Agenda 21. However, progress in general has thus far been limited. Public participation in environmental issues takes place under the leadership of political parties, professional organizations, associations, foundations, and voluntary organizations. The Regulation on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), prepared by the Ministry of Environment is the most notable effort in this respect. The EIA is compulsory for all largescale economic projects. In order to prepare the EIA, the administration is required to follow a participatory process, which includes method such as “submitting written views” and “holding public meetings”. We look at the concept of responsiveness in Turkey, in line with country needs, and adoption of effective methods for the provision of quality goods and services is necessary. The bureaucracy in general has a tendency of concealing regulations and procedures from citizens, instead of trying cooperate with them and understand the nature of their needs. In order to overcome this bureaucratic attitude two major steps have been taken. • The Right to Information Act (mentioned above under the heading transparency) will contribute to the responsiveness of the administration. With the Act the administration will be obliged to respond to the citizens „demands for getting information. • With the Administrative Procedural Act is still in the phase of debate before the Cabinet; taking into consideration the views and demands of related parties before taking any administrative act or decision will become compulsory. Weakness We look at the concept of transparency, there is not an accurate system to provide accountability in Turkey since the supervision is based on bureaucratic and administrative supervision within central administrative structure. Central government uses two tools: supervision by the superintendents and administrative tutelage over local administration. Administrative tutelage is used by the central government to control and supervise the local governments. Within this context, decisions of the local governor related to budget are subject to the approval of the representative of the central government. We look at the concept of accountability, Public administrations in Turkey traditionally had the tendency to keep information regarding the whole public administration issues as state secret. The issues not related to national security such as public debt are also considered to be secret. There was no obligation by the laws or regulations for the dissemination of information. Therefore, the public authorities did not feel any obligation to disseminate information and illuminate the citizens even on the issues that would affect people deeply, such as in the case of emergence of a disease. This attitude prevailed from top administrator to the desk clerk. We look at the concept of participation, a “mandatory legal procedure”, which facilitates the participation in the decision-making processes of those who” may be affected by administrative decisions, and the sharing of information and documents, continues to be a problem in Turkey. An explicit procedure requiring consultations with all the relevant and affected parties or for incorporating their comments and views into the regulations during the preparation of laws, statutes and by-laws does not yet exist in Turkey. The Economic and Social Council, originally established to enable affected parties to take part in the economic decision-making process of the government, is not functioning; thus, preventing the initiation of the aforementioned consultation process. 10 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo We look at the concept of woman participation, In addition to the challenges in term of participation in general, there is a problem concerning women‟s participation in Turkey. Although women‟s suffrage rights were established in 1930 and 1934, female participation in elections as candidates is low. We look at the concept of responsiveness in Turkey, existing structures make it difficult for public institutions to adapt to changing conditions. Public services cannot sufficiently meet the requirements and expectations of the people; inefficiency and extravagancy in the public institutions lead to distrust towards these institutions. Complexity and excessive redtape in administrative procedures cripple the effective functioning of public institutions and make it difficult for the private sector and the people to benefit from public services. The role of public sector in economy The Turkish economy has developed under the leadership of the public sector since 1930s. This tradition still prevails although the size of public sector in the economy has already decreased (from approx. 80% to 40%). The problems and developments regarding the public sector will be mentioned again under the heading of privatization. We look at the concept of Auditing, despite the fact that professional standards conform to international auditing standards and auditing organs are adequately diversified and sufficient in number, auditing services are not as effective as desired. The main reason for this ineffectiveness is that the system of auditing is largely based on compliance audits. In other words, statutory verification is the prevalent. The current auditing practice puts the emphasis on the formal elements of auditing, and therefore, is ritualistic. Since the results of auditing functions are not disclosed to the public, it does not allow for true transparency of information. We look at the concept of Centralist tradition and highly bureaucratic culture, the centralist nature of public administration is not only a tradition which has been inherited from the Ottoman period, it has also been developed and enhanced by Republican administrations during the consolidation of the nation state. This centralist structure is also furthered by the democratic representative system within the multi-party system since 1946. Members of Parliament are elected on a provincial base according to population of the province. Members of Parliament set up their ties through their parties‟ local leaders in their constituency. Therefore, they play an intermediary role between local demands and central decisions, resources that can be aligned to meet local needs. Consequently the deputies prefer to solve local problems through the resources of central government instead of adopting local solutions. We look at the concept of E-government process in Turkey; • Lack of sound infrastructure for e-government: In the World Economic Forum‟s recent study “Global Information Technology Report (2012), different countries were ranked according to their readiness to information society. Among 142 countries, Sweden (5.94), Singapore (5.86), Finland (5.81) takes the top three, Bosnia and Herzegovina 84th (3.65) the US (ranked as 8), the Haiti (2.27) and Turkey is ranked as 52th (Score:4.1), demonstrating the limited usage and access to internet. • Lack of well-defined vision and mission statement: Instead of national priorities, the needs and priorities of each organization affected the development of e-government implementation and this did not result in great success. Therefore, all information society activities need to be coordinated in such a way as to ensure increased economic value added and social welfare, as well as be carried out in a participatory manner. 11 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo • Lack of cooperation among governmental agencies: Although every ministry has its own web page, the linkage between them and a standard system is missing. The system, therefore, is not interactive. • Lack of information in the Internet environment: Not all the information for which the public access should exist can be found on the web pages of the public administration authorities. On the positive side, all ministries have also an English version of their web pages, but not all the documents are available in English. • Lack of cooperation between governmental agencies and private sector agencies: In the private sector, there exists the capacity, technology and qualified personnel regarding IT. However this knowledge has not been used efficiently towards the need of e-government implementation in public administration. • Lack of willingness in the usage of e-government tools within bureaucracy: Bureaucracy in general tends to resist change. Due to the perception that wide usage of the internet would decrease its dominance, the bureaucracy sees e-government implementation as a threat. • The lack of formal education regarding the usage of computers and the internet: School curriculums have not been designed according to the needs of this technology century. Therefore, there is insufficient education in the schools regarding the usage of computer and internet. • The lack of legal framework in the field of e-government: The needs which stem from the developments in telecommunication technologies are not fully met by regulations, such as legislation on the preservation of privacy and personal information, provisions regarding information technology crimes in Penal Code, and legislation on intellectual property rights. Opportunities 1) Turkey must be dealt wealth an extraordinary explosion of new knowledge and technological innovations, especially in the areas of information sciences, genetics, materials, instrumentation, automation, and space. 2) Changing institutional patterns resulting from the emergence of postindustrial economies and structures of governance based on information, knowledge, and services. In the future, Turkey even more than today, knowledge and information will prevail. And if knowledge is power, then those Turkey have knowledge will indeed have power in the political system. 3) Turkey must focus on, the increasing integration and globalization of business, politics, culture, and environmental concerns. The globalization of society is obvious today, though in twenty five years or so, we may experience trans-globalization or beyond, as the frontiers of the oceans and space are extended even further. 4) Turkey should know demographic and socio-cultural shifts toward more and more diversity and potential conflicts. We have already introduced this issue by referring to the concern for maintaining diversity within the wholeness we desire from the idea of community. We point suggesting that “the „common good‟ is first of all preservation of a system in which all kinds of people can - within the law - pursue their various visions of the common good, and at the same time accomplish the kinds of mutual accommodation that make a social system livable and workable. The play of conflicting interests in a framework of shared purposes is the drama of a free society.” 5) An erosion of confidence in traditionally structured institutions to cope with the consequences of these challenges. Already this phenomenon is reaching crisis proportions around the world. In the Turkey, where 2001 some twenty-nine per cent of the people trusted the government to do the right thing, today that number is sixty-two per cent. In the 12 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Turkey, where 1990 some fifty-eight per cent of the people trusted the parliament to do the right thing, today that number is same. In the Turkey, where 2008 decreasing the people trusted the army, now seventy-six. In the Turkey, where 1990 some thirty-six per cent of the people trusted the European Union to do the right thing; today that number is thirtynine. What‟s more there is a similar erosion of confidence in other social institutions business, labor, the media, and even religion. Threats We look at the concept of transparency; debates in the Parliament in Turkey were also affected by this attitude. Opposition parties could obtain information not through official channels but through unofficial ones. Thus, leakage of information had become a source of media. Dissemination of information even about very simple matters through unofficial channels to the public through media, conceived as a big crime. When the public authorities were subject to criticism about the lack of information disseminated they tended to use an excuse that related laws had not stipulated the dissemination of information as compulsory. This is a real threat about it however; recently there has been a change in this attitude. We look at the concept of accountability, this system does not provide real accountability; therefore, Turkey has been witnessing a huge amount of corruption, bribery, favoritism and nepotism. Public opinion researches conducted in the last year‟s show that lack of accountability is one of the reasons for decreasing confidence towards public authorities, as well as towards politicians. Within the existing system, there are some tools for providing accountability. However, accountability has been perceived as only a legal issue rather than a principle of good governance. Therefore, the tools have been directed to provide accountability in legal context. We look at the concept of participation; in general, the public tends to exercise their participation and scrutiny functions through the NGOs, local governments, and the media. Thus, the mode of political participation is influenced by the political elite. However, elite-driven political participation is not as prevalent, though there are various examples of the impact of civic initiatives. The “One Minute of Darkness for Enlightenment “campaign was effective in pressuring the TBMM to commence an investigation into a matter which was brought to public attention by a traffic accident that surfaced the obscure relationship between state forces and the mafia. We look at the concept of woman participation, it is also observed that particularly in rural regions women‟s votes are often mobilized by male figures such as husbands, fathers, or brothers. We look at the concept of Centralist tradition and highly bureaucratic culture, one of the results of this centralist tendency is the unfairness in revenue sharing between central and local administrations. The bureaucratic structure also supports this “taking and giving “with politicians to preserve its powerful position. This is as a major obstacle towards decentralization. This centralist nature of the government eventually results in the weakness of local administrations. Since local needs cannot be satisfied by the local authorities all attention turns to the central government. Conclusions There is no room for dogmatism, either for or against the new public management. We have seen how different situations can call forth responses that are diametrically opposed to one another. Reformers in the new public management mould make much of the „three Es‟ (economy, efficiency and effectiveness). Two more are needed: experimentation and eclecticism. The search for solutions to the problems of government in Turkey and 13 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo developing countries requires open-mindedness and addictiveness above all else. Turkey‟s performance reporting has changed because NPM changes have been observed in the world. However, there are sufficient differences in the observations to conclude that NPM alone cannot fully explain the path taken in the performance developments of Turkish public management system. There is apparent worth in adding post-modern public administration theory, the role of epistemic communities and governance to our toolbox but additional work is required before we can be confident of the strength of these tools in explaining complex matters such as the role of performance reporting in Turkish public management system with social and economic change. In applying additional explanatory factors it is important to recognize that NPM paths are varied across the many countries experiencing change in their public management system. References Assessment of Public Administration in Turkey,United Nations Public Administration Network, http://www.unpan.org/ Christensen, Mark and Hiroshi Yoshimi, “Public Sector Performance Reporting: New Public Management and Contingency Theory Insights “Government Auditing Review, Volume 10 (March, 2003). http://www.jbaudit.go.jp/english/exchange/pdf/e10d06.pdf Competition Authority, http://www.rekabet.gov.tr Evaluation Report on Draft Law on Local Governments, Istanbul Policy Center and Evaluation Report on Public Administration Basic Draft Law, Istanbul Policy Center Lomax, W. and Raman, A. (2005),Analysis and Evaluation. London. Heinemann. 61th Government Program, http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr Nineth Five Year Development Plan, http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, http://www.basbakanlik.gov.trState Planning Organization, http://www.dpt.gov.tr The Global Information Technology Report (2012), http://www.weforum.org/reports/globa l-information-technology-report-2012 TESEV, www.tesev.org.tr Turkish National Programme for the Adoption of the Acquis, 2013, http://www.abgs.gov.trTurkish Treasury, http://www.treasury.gov.tr Turkey Atlas of Values 14 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo http://www.bahcesehir.edu.tr/files/files/ATLAS%20SUNUM%202_10_2012%20(2).pdf UNDP, (1994), http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home.html Urgent Action Plan, http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1522 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Roadmap of Turkey for Public Management in the Postmodern Era: Challenges and Prospects Author Author ALTINTAS, Hakan TAS, Seyhan Abstract A summary of the resource. In reality, government is virtually the only sector in society today that has yet to embrace the total philosophy of reinventing and reengineering in this Information Age. Public sector world that previously contained a dearth of relevant theory. Moving beyond the orthodoxies of policy and management. In this study, the current situation of public management system in Turkey was analyzed, the positive and negative aspects were stated through, Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological Factors. Method and SWOT Analysis, postmodern public management indicators of different countries were compared and finally a roadmap of Post-modern public management cases was suggested for a successful post-modern public management implementation. Keywords: Roadmap, Management and Organizations, Postmodern Era, Turkey Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f655a108bebd21775b59e970eb34832d.pdf c6bd709168650a001e11da1c35e29152 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evaluation of Vocational Education Construction Technician by Lecturers Latif Onur Uğur Ahi Evran University, Kaman Technical Vocational College, Kaman, Kirşehir/Turkey onurugurtr@yahoo.com Đlknur Bekem Ahi Evran University, Kaman Technical Vocational College, Kaman, Kirşehir/Turkey ilknurbekem@hotmail.com Serdar Korkmaz Ahi Evran University, Kaman Technical Vocational College, Kaman, Kirşehir/Turkey skorkmaz@ahievran.edu.tr Abstract: In this study the faculty members who served in the Civil technician training in Construction Technology Program which one of two-year Vocational Technical High School Program, have been trying to search for relating to alumni comments and suggestions about classroom curriculum, industry-based training applications, information systems. For this purpose a questionnaire was administered to teaching staff who served in different vocational schools of different universities which consists of 28 questions. Survey in the context of the teaching staff of the course content, how much they are happy, whether they think the theoretical and practical lesson hours in curriculum classes, the laboratory facilities of the application whether or not, technical field trips, conferences, seminars served in the vocational schools which are applied in frequency were asked. Apart from problems related to curriculum, construction technician has a very important place in teaching that the inspection of industrial training, internship and then interview, examination and achievement levels of students received a result that responses were evaluated. The ideas of the construction teaching staff in arranging a national symposium on education technicians and construction sectors in the field of civil engineering/construction teacher/architectural education provider to do joint activities with the perspectives were investigated. In addition, surveys of faculty members applied the quality of construction technicians in the art are also to be thinking about. Some results of the findings of this work, a symposium is desired as soon as possible broad participation with a construction technician education, the construction industry different topics technicians was trained with organizations collaborate and projects consolidated at being desirable, training of the overall goal reached, but inspection and examination of the continuing benefits, monitoring system on the development of graduates are beneficial. Introduction The construction sector is one of the oldest branch of industry on earth. It firstly existed by people who tried to protect themselves from the negative impacts of the nature and it developed, diversified and reached its current level by the time when water constructions, temples, memorials, city walls for cities and countries, roads and bridges and with other constructions were built. Approximately 150 years ago, that branch of industry caused the existence of civil engineering as the first engineering and the first engineering education begun (Yoklu, 2009). Another higher education facility that supply qualified labour for the sector is occupational high 134 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo schools. The alumni of the occupational schools are employed in private construction or supervision companies as civil technician in the constructions of dam, road, airport, house, etc., and in public and local administrations as technicians in the departments of natural resources, transportation/highways, construction or material test laboratories. They play an important role in planning, projects, construction and control phases of all the constructions, including but not limited to roads, bridges, dam, airport, water supply and distribution, houses and trade centres (Uğur and others., 2008). The study There are many studies which have been done generally by students on the civil technician education in the higher occupational schools for two years. Those studies have been focused on courses, educational perspectives, instructors, job trainings, physical sufficiency of the schools. Birinci and Arı (2004) stated that there are lack of laboratories and workshops in some of those occupational schools; however, those schools with their implementative orientation for the educational qualification give no great importance to the buildings with special design for the continuance of the education. Hızlan (1997) stated that the basic criteria of the education are the conformity and objective unification of industry and schools. The assessments of the instructors on the basis of the opinions of students is one of the most used methods to determine the features of the education and many countries have been accepted such data as an important input (Shevlin, 2000, Greenwald, 1997, Mskheachie, 1997). The student assessments, however, cause some discussions. Those discussions have been focused on invalidation of the student assessments since the expectations and prejudgments of students may affect the assessment and whether those students have met the required qualifications to make such assessments. (Kaya and others, 2007). It is seen that the number of the studies about the opinions of the instructors who are very important for the civil technician education. A questionnaire with 28 questions has been asked to 60 instructors who are employed in 12 different occupational school of civil technician in Turkey to assess the education in the schools. The occupational schools where those instructors are employed are in the Table 1. University / Vocational education Ahi Evran University / Kaman Ahi Evran University/ Kırşehir Batman University / Batman Bitlis Eren University/ Bitlis Cumhuriyet University / Sivas Çukurova University / Adana Dicle University / Dicle Hacettepe University / Polatlı Sakarya University/ Hendek Selçuk University / Kadınhanı Faikiçil Selçuk University/ Teknik bilimler Süleyman Demirel University/ Isparta Table 1. Universities and occupational schools where the instructors are employed The questionnaire have tried to clarify the profile of the instructors, sufficiency of courses, laboratories, implementations on civil technician, benefits of cooperation of the civil technician education and students with other departments and students of other departments, job trainings for students and probable participation of symposium/congress on civil technician. The opinions of instructors on the development of the civil technician education have been taken, as well. There are multiple-choice questions for 25 and the rest is open ended. The answers of the instructors have been converted to percentages and they were explained meaning by the help of graphics and tables. 135 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Findings According to the findings, the participants have been working averagely in occupational schools for 6 years. The percentage of the academic members is 41,7 % and lecturer is 58,3 % in those 60 instructors answering the questionnaire. The instructors consist of 50 % civil work instructors, 42 % civil engineering and the rest is, 8 %, architecture (see Figure 1) Lecturer's occupations 42% Civil Engineer Architect 50% Construction teacher 8% Figure 1. Professions of the instructors Educational background of instructors; %34 “BA degree”, %33 “MA degree”, %33 is “doctorate” (see. Figure 2). Graduation status of lecturers 33% 34% Undergraduate MA Ph.D. 33% Figure 2. Educational backgrounds of instructors The instructors participating to questionnaire are asked which courses have sufficient contents they think enough. When the answers are examined (see Table 2), it is seen that they find mostly the content of “Concrete Technology” with 98,38 %. It is followed by “Construction Technology” and “Construction Static” with 7,29 %. 136 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Courses % Concrete Technology 9,38 Construction Static 7,29 Construction Technology 7,29 Organization of office and construction site 6,25 Soil Mechanics 6,25 Damage Detection in Structures 6,25 Materials Science and Building Materials 6,25 Topography 5,21 Quantities and Discovery Works 5,21 Computer 4,17 Computer Aided Design 4,17 Road Construction 4,17 Resistance 4,17 Systems Analysis and Design 4,17 Structure Installation Information 3,13 Steel Structures 3,13 General and Technical Communication 3,13 Business administration 3,13 Architectural drawings of buildings and details 2,08 Water Supply and Waste Water 2,08 Hydraulics and hydrology 1,04 Timber Structures 1,04 Prefabricated Buildings 1,04 Total 100 Table 2. The courses and percentages which the instructors find sufficient The instructors were asked that which course contents are insufficient in the curriculum; the answers and percentages are indicated in Table 3. Accordingly, “Wooden Building” and “Business Management” are found insufficient in terms of their content with 21,43 %. They are followed by “General and Technical Communication” with 17,86 % and “Hydraulic and Hydrology” with 14,29 %. Courses % Wooden building 21,43 Business management 21,43 General and Technical Communication 17,86 Hydraulics and hydrology 14,29 Water Supply and Waste Water 14,29 Systems Analysis and Design 7,14 Organization of office and construction site 3,57 Total 100 Table 3. The courses and percentages which the instructors find insufficient The instructor have assessed the existing courses and stated that there can be other courses which can be included in the civil technician education. The courses which the instructors find useful to add the curriculum are 137 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo construction technician drawing, laboratories on mansonry and wooden, cement and floor mechanics laboratories, construction law, job security and labour health, computer aided project management. The instructors of occupational higher schools have stated that theoretical and practical hours of the courses are not suitable for 66,7 %, however, 33,3 % of the instructors have stated the suitability of the courses for the civil technician programmes. The instructors, 91,7 % have stated that the new comer students have insufficient background to have civil technician education. The instructors have asked for the sufficiency assessment of the computer, foreign language, topography and problem solution implementation in the programmes. The answers indicated; • Computer implementation 66,7 % sufficient (see Figure 3), • Foreign language 50 % mid-level sufficient (see Figure 4), • Topography 75 % mid-level sufficient (see Figure 5), • Problem solution 66,7 % mid-level sufficient (see Figure 6) Computer application 66,7 Enough 16,7 Medium 16,7 No 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 70,0 Figure 3. Assessment of the sufficiency of the computer implementation Foreign language application 8,3 Enough 50,0 Medium 41,7 No 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 Figure 4. Assessment of the sufficiency of the foreign language Topograpy application 8,3 Enough 75,0 Medium 16,7 No 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 Figure 5. Assessment of the sufficiency of the topography 138 70,0 80,0 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Problem solving application 33,3 Enough 66,7 Medium No 0,0 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 70,0 Figure 6. Assessment of the sufficiency of the problem solution The answers of the instructors to question about the frequency of the technical visits in their occupational higher schools are in Figure 7. Accordingly; • 51 % of the instructors stated that there is no technical visit at all; • 33 % of them stated that there is a technical visit once a year; • 8 % of them stated that there is a technical visit once a semester; • The rest 8 % stated that there are technical visits more than one in a semester. The frequency of technical visits 8% Never Once a year 51% 33% Once a semester More than once a semester 8% Figure 7. Frequency of the technical visits The instructors have been asked the frequency of the conferences and seminars in their own schools; 42 % stated that “once in semester”. 17 % of the instructors stated that there is not any conference/seminar in their school (see Figure 8). The frequency of conferences and seminars 17% 33% 8% Never Once a year Once a semester More than once a semester 42% Figure 8. Frequency of conference and seminars The instructors have assessed the duration of job training, scope, accuracy, practice and opportunity to learn the construction sector in the construction programme of students as “insufficient”, “average” and “sufficient”. • The ratio of sufficient for the job training are equal to average and insufficient as 33,3 %. 139 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo • According to the instructors, the scope of the job training for the civil technician programme students are 16,7 % sufficient, 58,3 % average and 25 % insufficient. • Only 16,7 % of the participants find the accuracy of the job training is sufficient. • There is no instructor who finds the scope of the job training is exactly what it should be. 50 % finds it insufficient while the other 50 % finds it “averagely sufficient”. The instructors, as 58,3 %, stated that the opportunity for students to learn the sector during the job training is insufficient. Only the 8,3 % thinks that such opportunity is sufficient. No instructor has supervised the students during the job training. However, 75 % of the instructors say there are interviews/tests for post jobtraining periods. According to the answers of the 50 % of instructors, 70 % of students are successful in these post-job training interviews and tests. On the other hand, 25 % of the instructors has stated that the ratio of successful students in post-job training evaluations as less than 70 % (see Figure 9). Percentage of success in interview/test of internships 8% 0% 25% 17% Less than % 70 70% 80% 90% 100% 50% Figure 9. Success ration in post-job training interview/examinations The instructors were asked about the information on construction programme in their web sites and the answers are in the Table 4. Accordingly, mostly included web information is; • 25,64 % course contents, • 23,08 % courses, • 20,51 % definition of civil technician education. The web sites; • Legislation, • Authority and responsibilities, • Occupational modes (Occupational roles, control, project drawing, bill of quantities, etc.), • General situation of the construction sector, • Place of the civil technicians in the sector, and • Occupational and sectoral institutions are not included. Web information % Course contents 25,64 Course List 23,08 Technician training is the definition of construction 20,51 Technical tours 12,82 Legislation 12,82 Internship applications 2,56 Vocational training 2,56 Total 100,00 Table 4. Web site contents The 41,7 % instructors have negative opinions about 6 semester technician education that will be enforced by the Board of Higher Education (YÖK). %33,3 of instructor has no idea about the matter (see Figure 10). 140 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo View of 6 semesters of training technicians 33,3 I have no idea 41,7 Negative 25,0 Positive 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 Figure 10. Opinions on 6 semester technician education. The instructors were asked “do you think that a national level congress or symposium on ‘Civil Engineering Education” should be held on” and all of them answered positively by saying “Yes, it should be”. In case such an organization is held, the instructors will; • 44,4 % will participate in with a paper, • 17 % will not participate in, • 11,1 % will be work in scientific committee, • 11,1 % will participate as referee, • 11.1 % will be in advisory board, • 6 % will participate as audient (see Figure 11). Form of congresses and symposia to join 17% 11% 11% 6% Science committee Advisory board Referee Participate with a paper 11% Listeners I don't join 44% Figure 11. Form of participation to congress or symposium When the instructor were asked whether they have student follow up system; only 16,7 % told that they have a follow up system, 25 % told that such a system is at the developmental stage. 58,3 % of the participants stated that they do not have such a follow up system. The instructors assessed the benefits of co-works their current institutions which educates the civil technicians with other institutions which educate civil engineering, building teacher/architecture. As it can be seen in Table 5, • In terms of the co-ordination of the instructors, such efforts will benefit 50 %, • In terms of harmonization of the different disciplines in the same sector, such efforts will benefit 58,3 %, that is great, • In terms of following the technical developments, such efforts will benefit 91,7 %, that is great, • In terms of following the changes in legislation, such efforts will benefit 75 %, that is great, • In terms of contributing the changes in legislation, such efforts will benefit 66,7 %, that is great, • In terms of updating the education methods and practices, such efforts will benefit 91,7 %, that is great, • In terms of joint projects and increasing the scientific researches, such efforts will benefit 83,3 %, that is great. 141 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Coordination of the teaching staff More Medium No 41,7 50,0 8,3 Belonging to different disciplines in the same sector, 58,3 41,7 0,0 harmonization of training programs Technical monitoring developments closely 91,7 0,0 8,3 Monitoring of legislative changes 75,0 8,3 16,7 Contribute to changes in legislation 66,7 33,3 0,0 Updating of teaching methods and practices 91,7 8,3 0,0 To carry out joint projects 83,3 8,3 8,3 Increasing scientific research 83,3 8,3 8,3 Table 5. Opinions on the aspects of benefit of co-works with institutions which educate on civil engineering/ building teacher / architecture. A question in the questionnaire made the instructors to assessed the aspects of benefit that in case the civil technician students pair up with students of engineering/architecture/building teacher on different grounds; according to the answers; • Such an effort will be useful to understand the roles in the work life (%66,7), • Such an effort will be useful for health evaluation of authorities and responsibilities in the construction projects (%75,0), • It will be useful in terms of the diminishing the emotions on account of misunderstandings (%83,3), • Such an effort will be useful to understand the other occupations’ scope of education (%75,0). (see Table 6). More Medium No A better understanding of the role of business 66,7 33,3 0,0 75,0 25,0 0,0 Authority and responsibility for construction projects more robust assessment of 83,3 16,7 0,0 Misunderstanding caused by the reduction of the sense of 75,0 25,0 0,0 Understanding of the scope of vocational training of other Table 6. Assessment the aspects of benefit that the civil technician students pair up with students of engineering/architecture/building teacher on different grounds. The instructors were asked whether the civil technician education must be monotype or it must be different according to the university/occupational higher school; 67 % of them said “must be different”. (see Figure 20). 33% Must be the same Must be different 67% Figure 20. Civil technician education must be monotype or different from each other, the answers and percentages Majority of the participants stated that civil technicians cannot take place in the occupational higher schools as instructor (%91,7). 142 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The instructors, 91,7 %, have supported the existence of the course of Occupational Ethic in the construction programmes of occupational higher schools. (Figure 12). Professional ethics course 8,3 Hayır 91,7 Evet 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0 Figure 12. Perception of the instructors on occupational ethic course The instructors, also, defined the possible revisions in the current system to grow better civil technicians, as below: • The supervision of the job-training should be increased. • The frequency of conference, seminar and technical visits should be increased. • The duration of education should be increased. • The technology must be traced more closely. • The cooperation between schools and companies should be developed by signing protocols. • The qualifications of the instructors should be increased. • The open admission should be abolished. Conclusions Those are seen in the direction of the answers given by the instructors; The content of some courses of civil technician education are insufficient, it is useful to update those courses, • It is found useful civil technician education to add the courses of technical drawing, labour health and job security, • The exchange of theoretical and practice hours will contribute to the students positively, • Majority of the students who begins the civil technician education have insufficient infrastructure, therefore, its compensation either in secondary education or at the beginning of the higher education, , • It is necessary to increase the practice of foreign language, computer and topography and frequency of technical visit, conference and seminars. • The job-trainings are not supervised during the term but the post-job training examination is useful, the supervision needs to be increased, • The scope, accuracy and practice of job-training have been found averagely sufficient and should be recovered, • It will be positive when the information on legislation, authorities and responsibilities of technicians, situation of the sector is placed into web sites, • Only the quarter of the instructors have positive opinions about the 6 semester education in 2 years, • The occupational ethic practices will be useful, • A civil technician education symposium with broad participation is demanded, • A cooperation and joint projects with institutions which educates technicians for different places of construction sector are desired, • It will be useful to develop alumni follow-up systems. • 143 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Toklu, C.Y. (2009). Đnşaat Mühendisliği Eğitiminde Yeni Eğilimler, 1. Đnşaat Mühendisliği Eğitimi Sempozyumu, Antalya. Uğur, L.O, Yüksel, E., Bekem, Đ., Korkmaz, S. .(2008). Đnşaat Teknikerliği Eğitimi Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması, Selçuk Üniversitesi Teknik Bilimler Meslek Yüksekokulu, Teknik-Online Dergi Cilt 7, Sayı:3. Binici, H., Arı, N. (2004). Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimde Arayışlar, (pp. 383-396). Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 24, Sayı. Hızlan, D. (1997). Okul-Sanayi Đlişkileri, Đnkılap Yayınevi, Đstanbul. Shevlin, M. and etc. (2000). The Validity of Student Evaluation of Teaching in Higher Education: love me, love my lectures?, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 25, No. 4. Greenwald, A. G. (1997). Validity Concerns And Usefulnes Of Student Rating Instruction, (pp. 1182–1186). American Psychologist, 52(11). Mckheachie, W. J. (1997). Student Rating: The Validity of Use, (pp.1218–1225). American Psychologist, 52(11). Kaya, H.Đ., Bay, E., Yazıcı, G., Şebin, K. (2007). Öğretim Elemanlarının Ders Verdikleri Öğrencilerin Özelliklerine Đlişkin Görüşleri, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi / Journal Of Graduate School Of Socıal Scıences, Cilt 10, Sayı 2. 144 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 415 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Vocational Education Construction Technician by Lecturers Author Author Uğur, Latif Onur Bekem, İlknur Korkmaz, Serdar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study the faculty members who served in the Civil technician training in Construction Technology Program which one of two-year Vocational Technical High School Program, have been trying to search for relating to alumni comments and suggestions about classroom curriculum, industry-based training applications, information systems. For this purpose a questionnaire was administered to teaching staff who served in different vocational schools of different universities which consists of 28 questions. Survey in the context of the teaching staff of the course content, how much they are happy, whether they think the theoretical and practical lesson hours in curriculum classes, the laboratory facilities of the application whether or not, technical field trips, conferences, seminars served in the vocational schools which are applied in frequency were asked. Apart from problems related to curriculum, construction technician has a very important place in teaching that the inspection of industrial training, internship and then interview, examination and achievement levels of students received a result that responses were evaluated. The ideas of the construction teaching staff in arranging a national symposium on education technicians and construction sectors in the field of civil engineering/construction teacher/architectural education provider to do joint activities with the perspectives were investigated. In addition, surveys of faculty members applied the quality of construction technicians in the art are also to be thinking about. Some results of the findings of this work, a symposium is desired as soon as possible broad participation with a construction technician education, the construction industry different topics technicians was trained with organizations collaborate and projects consolidated at being desirable, training of the overall goal reached, but inspection and examination of the continuing benefits, monitoring system on the development of graduates are beneficial. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f1b2919467540f2e50e375a3efb1f095.pdf d0ab165fe0f9d26bde25fe48326e1715 PDF Text Text Evaluation of Zinc Accumulation Ability of Transgenic and Non Transgenic Tobacco Hatice Daghan Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey hdaghan@mku.edu.tr Mehmet Arslan Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crop, 31000 Hatay, Turkey marslan@mku.edu.tr Nurcan Koleli Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey nkoleli@mersin.edu.tr Veli Uygur Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey vuygur@mku.edu.tr Abdullah Eren Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey aeren@mku.edu.tr Absract: The T2 generations of the ScMTII gene bearing transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants were grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L1 Zn to evaluate Zn accumulation capacity. Dry mass of shoot and roots, Zn concentration and Zn content were determined. In addition to Zn, glutathion (SH groups) concentrations, N, P, K, Cu, Fe and Mn of shoots and roots were determined. After growth for 15 days on media containing 10 mg L-1 Zn, non-transgenic plant showed slight chlorosis symptoms, including significant reduction in growth and chlorophyll. Transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants have been tested in terms of phytoremediator for Zn accumulations. The highest Zn concentration in shoots and also roots was tested in all Zn supply. The results showed that Zn accumulation ability of transgenic tobacco plant was higher than nontransgenic tobacco plants and Zn accumulation in the transgenic and the non transgenic tobacco plants were lower in the shoots compared to the roots. The Zn concentration in shoot of transgenic plant was increased by approximately 1.4 times compared to the non transgenic tobacco plants. Higher amount of Zn concentration in the shoot is a good indicator as a phytoremediation agent. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Introduction Heavy metal contamination of soils is a common problem in the world (Finzgar and Lestan, 2007). Many heavy metal cations such as Cu2+, Zn 2+, Mn2+, etc., are essential plant micronutrients, but when present in excess, these and non-essential metals, such as Cd2+, Hg2+ or Pb2+, can become extremely toxic 94 �(Macek et al., 2002). Heavy metals, released to the environment from anthropogenic and natural sources, tend to persist in soils, sediments and water and are difficult to remove. Heavy metals in soils frequently remain in the upper horizons, causing adverse effects on soil microbial activities and crop productivity, with the added risk of contamination of the food chain. Remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. Remediation technologies for contaminated soils can be grouped into three general categories: (1) extraction/removal, (2) destruction after separation, and (3) in situ processes. For third process, several technologies can be employed to clean up the soils contaminated by heavy metals, this process including thermal, biological, and physical/chemical procedures, or their appropriate combinations. These technologies usually require the removal of contaminants from contaminated soils, such as phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is defined as the use of green plants to remove pollutants from the environment or to render them harmless (Raskin et al., 1997). Phytoremediation technologies include phytovolatilzation, phytostabilisation and phytoextraction (Vangronsveld et al., 2000; Garbisu and Alkorta, 2001). The terms phytoremediation and phytoextraction are sometimes incorrectly used as synonyms, but phytoremediation is a concept while phytoextraction is a specific cleanup technology (Kumar et al. 1995). Phytoextraction is the most commonly recognized of all phytoremediation technologies, and is the focus of the research proposed in this prospectus. Phytoextraction is the most acceptable and applied phytoremediation technique that can successfully remove heavy metals from soils (Cunningham et al., 1995; Dushenkov et al., 1997; Ebbs et al., 1998; Huang et al., 1998). The removal of heavy metals from soil by plants, resulting in metal uptake, transport and concentration in plant tissues, is described as phytoextraction. These plants known as metal hyperaccumulators, frequently endemic to metalliferous soils with the capacity to accumulate unusually large concentrations of metals in their aboveground parts (shoots), are potentially most effective for this strategy (Baker and Brooks, 1989). Metal hyperaccumulator plants comprise species that accumulate (in mg/kg)>10000 (Mn or Zn), >1000 (Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) or >100 (Cd) in their shoots (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Wenzel and Jokwer, 1999). Of the over 450 plant species which have been identified as hyperaccumulators, 75% have been Ni hyperaccumulators (Clemens, 2001). Cropping metal-contaminated soils with species of these plants has demonstrated the potential of this technique as a low cost, low technology alternative to physical and chemical methods of soil remediation (McGrath et al., 1993), although it is limited by the rarity, slow growth rates and low biomass production of many hyperaccumulator species. Two most important characters include the ability to accumulate large quantities of biomass rapidly and the ability to accumulate large quantities of environmentally important metals in the shoot tissue (Kumar et al. 1995; Cunningham and Ow, 1996; Blaylock et al. 1997; McGrath, 1998). It is the combination of high metal accumulation and high biomass production that results in the most metal removal. In practice, metal accumulating plants are seeded or transplanted into metal contaminated soil and are cultivated using established agricultural practices. The roots of established plants absorb metal elements from the soil and translocate them to the above-ground shoots where they accumulate. If metal availability in the soil is not adequate for sufficient plant uptake, chelates or acidifying agents may be used to liberate them into the soil solution (Huang and Cunningham, 1996; Huang et al. 1997; Lasat et al. 1998). First, hyperaccumulator plants are usually specific for one particular metal (Baker and Brooks, 1989), and are adapted to precise climate and soil conditions (not really transferable). Furthermore, they cannot be managed as a conventional crop, have low biomass, and often a short life cycle. Therefore it seems more reasonable to search for non hyperaccumulator plants showing good features for phytoremediation and then transfer biotechnologically traits that make the modified plant even a more powerful tool than natural hyperaccumulators. Hence, the aim of the work reported in this paper was to engineer increased heavy metal absorption in a screen selected wild type plant species. In recent years, genetic engineering is a technique that might be applied advantageously to the search for more suitable phytoremediation plants combining high metal accumulating capacity and high aboveground biomass yield (Kärenlampi et al. 2000). With genetic engineering, plants can be manipulated to accumulate, translocate and tolerate heavy metals, thus creating the ideal transgenic plant for environmental clean up in the shortest possible time (Pilon-Smits, 2005; Bennett, 2003; Persans et al., 2001). For instance, genes can be isolated from metal hyperaccumulators and inserted into fast growing high biomass plant species (Persans et al. 2001). It has been suggested that phytoextraction would become commercially available if metal removal and tolerance properties of hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulescens (Brown et al., 1995; Bennett, 2003) or Pteris vittata (Ma et al., 2001), could be transferred into fast growing, high biomass producing crop species. The introduction of an additional metal binding domain to the implemented protein should further enhance the metal binding capacity (Macek et al. 1996, Kotrba et al. 1999). The goal of genetic modification is to develop fast growing, high biomass plants 95 �with the metal accumulation traits of natural small biomass hyperaccumulators: ‘engineered phytoremediators’ (Ow, 1996). The advantage of this technique is the relatively short space of time and selective targeting of genes for improvement. Most recently, Cd accumulation was enhanced when a metallothionein gene from Silene vulgaris L. was over-expressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) (Gorinova et al., 2006). The main objective of this study was to evaluate Zn accumulation ability of transgenic (p-SScMTII) tobacco (Nicotiana tobaccum) cultivar Petit Havana and the non-transgenic tobacco cultivar Petit Havana (SR-1) grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn. In addition to Zn accumulation, chlorophyll, glutathion (SH groups), N, P, Cu, Fe and Mn concentrations were also measured. Material and Methods Seeds of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII gene bearing) and non-transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabaccum) cultivar Petit Havana (SR-1) were obtained from RWTH-Aachen Molecular Biology Department. Seeds were germinated initially on Murashige and Skoog plates containing antibiotic (kanamycine), then transferred to a perlit and torf (1:1) mixture since having 2-3 leaves (after approximately 4 weeks). Then the seedlings were transferred into the pots included Hoagland nutrient solutions and were grown under controlled environmental conditions with a 16 h light/8 h dark period (light intensity of 10 klux or 120 µmol m-2s-1), a 25/20 oC temperature regime, and 60% relative humidity. Hoagland nutrient solutions consist of 3 mM KNO3, 2 mM Ca(NO3)2.4H2O, 0.25 mM MgSO4.7H2O, 1 mM KH2PO4, 0.001 mM MnSO4.H2O, 0.1 mM FeEDTA, 0.00025 mM CuSO4.H2O, 0.00025 mM (NH4)6Mo7O24, 0.001 mM ZnSO4.7H2O, 2.5 mM KCl, 0.0125 mM H3BO3; the medium buffered to pH 5.2. One in every 3 days the plants were transferred to fresh medium. Plants were treated with 0, 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn as ZnSO4.7H2O. Zinc was added to the nutrient medium in doses of 0 (the control), 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn. This Zn dosage was addition to initial Zn concentration (0.288 mg L-1) in nutrient solution. The plants were harvested after 15 days of growth. Each treatment was replicated three times for each plant. Before harvest, plants were assessed for the severity of leaf symptoms caused by Zn toxicity. In addition, chlorophyll in old and young leaves was measured using a Konica-Minolta SPAD-502 at the harvest. After harvest, the leaves and roots were separated. The roots were thoroughly washed with deionized water. For SH analysis in fresh tissues, approximately 0.5 g fresh mass (FM) of each organ was separately sampled three times, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 oC until analysis. In addition, fresh mass of all plant parts was weighted (data not shown). The remaining tissues were oven-dried at 70 °C for determination of dry matter amount and then plant material was decomposed by microwave (MarsXpress) and the heavy metal concentration was determined by ICP-AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry, Varian Series II). Dried root and shoot samples were ground and digested in 2 mL 30% H2O2 and 5 mL 65% HNO3 in sealed vessels of a microwave apparatus. Cadmium, Zn, Fe and Cu were measured by ICP-AES. All sampling and measurements were carried out by using three independent replications. The accuracy of analyses was verified using blanks and the Virginia Tobacco Leaves (CTA-VTL-2) reference material. Total N was determined using Kjeldahl metod, total P was determined also using blue color method and total K was analyzed also using method (Kacar, 1995). Phosphorus, K, Fe, Mn, Cd and Cu concentrations were also measured by ICP-AES. SH-group content was determined using 5-5’-dithiobis (DTNB) under 5% meta-phosphoric acid as a reagent as described in Cakmak and Marschner (1992). Accordingly, 0.5 g fresh plant sample was homogenized in 5% meta-phosphoric acid and centrifuged at 4000 mg kg-1. The reaction mixture contained 0.5 mL aliquot of the supernatant, 2.5 mL 150 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) containing 5 mM EDTA and EDTA 0.5 mL 6mM dithiobisnitrobenzoic acid (DTNB). After incubation at room temperature for 20 min reaction time, the color produced was measured at 412 nm using a Hitachi U-2000 Spectrophotometer. Reduced glutathione was used as a standard in the range of 0 to 100 µg L-1. All measurements were carried out in triplicate. The results of the experiments were analyzed statistically using Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1996). Comparisons between means were carried out using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the significance level of p < 0.05. 96 �Findings After Zn application, visual symptoms were reported through the experiment. Both non-transgenic and transgenic plants (SR-1 and p-S-ScMTII) did not show any typically symptom for Zn toxicity, such as necrosis on oldest leaf, especially on the leaf parts close to stem (data not shown). But non-transgenic tobacco plant showed slight chlorosis at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (Fig. 1). Increased Zn application was obviously decreased the shoot and root growth of both transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco (Fig. 1). After harvest of the tobacco plants the dry mass production of the shoots and roots were determined and is shown in Tab. 1. The dry mass of transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants decreased with the increasing concentration of Zn supply in the nutrient solution (Tab. 1) as shown also Fig.1. The highest shoot and root dry mass were obtained from the p-S-ScMTII gene bearing plants. The dry mass of transgenic and non transgenic tobacco plants were not significantly different (Tab. 1). Figure 1: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoots and roots growth of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) (Nicotiana tabaccum Petit Havana) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days before harvest. Tested Tobacco Plant Zn Supply (mg L-1 ) Dry Weight Zn Concentration Zn Content Shoot Root -1 (g plant ) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (µg plant DM) TF** P-S-SCMTII 0 5 3.56 3.78 0.41 0.48 32 784 116 3168 112 3009 49 1543 0.28 0.25 SR-1 10 0 5 2.12 3.46 3.26 0.09 0.35 0.43 1326 31 578 8145 70 2215 2780 106 1885 794 25 970 0.16 0.44 0.26 10 1.86 n.s.* 0.06 n.s. 980 86 7402 306 1846 560 488 232 0.13 LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not significant **TF: translocation factor 97 �Table 1: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root dry weight, Zn concentration, Zn content and translocation factor of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-transgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. The highest level of Zn concentration in the shoots and roots was detected in the transgenic tobacco plants. The concentration of Zn in the roots was higher than in the shoots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants (Tab. 1). Compared to the control plants, increased Zn dosage resulted in higher Zn concentrations in plant shoots and roots grown in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants. However, the Zn concentrations were higher in the transgenic plants. Our results are in agreement with Paplikova et al. (2004). While the shoots of transgenic tobacco plant accumulated similar Zn concentration (31-32 mg L-1 Zn) with the control plant (SR-1) at 0 mg L-1 Zn supply, at 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn supply accumulated approximately 1.4 times higher Zn. The highest Zn accumulation observed in roots was in transgenic tobacco plants at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (8145 mg kg-1 DM), which was 1.1 times the concentration of the control plant. The highest Zn accumulation in shoots was observed at 10 µM Zn supply (1326 mg kg-1 DM), which was 1.4 times the concentration of the control plant. Hyperaccumulation implies concentrations in dry matter above 1% for Zn, i.e. 10000 mg L-1 (Reeves and Baker, 2000). Transgenic tobacco plant grown on 10 µM Zn supply can be not evaluated as hyperaccumulator. The distribution of the accumulated metals within the plant is important, for phytoremediation, especially for the rate of the translocation into the harvestable parts (Macek et al. 2002). In fact, to evaluate the potential of plants for phytoextraction the translocation factor (TP) was used. This ratio is an indication of the ability of the plant to translocate metals from the roots to the shoots of the plant (Marchiol et al., 2004). Translocation factor is calculated by the ratio of root metal concentration to shoot metal concentration. Metals that are accumulated by plants and largely stored in the roots of plants are indicated by the translocation factor values < 1 with values > 1 indicating that the metals are stored in the shoots. As this evaluation, the translocation factor values of tobacco plants were < 1 and these values value verified that the Zn is stored in the roots. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Zinc content was calculated as dry mass x Zn concentration. Similarly, the highest level of Zn content in the shoots and roots was detected in the transgenic tobacco plants. The content of Zn in the roots was higher than in the shoots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants (Tab. 1). In shoot and root, the total content of Zn (µg plant-1 DM) (Tab. 1) in transgenic tobacco was larger than in non-transgenic tobacco plants. However, Zn content in shoot was higher in transgenic tobacco at 5 mg L-1. Since Zn concentration at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply was the highest but dry mass production was the lowest. This indicated that transgenic tobacco was tolerant to 5 mg L-1 Zn supply. Content of dry matter of transgenic plant was not significantly different compared to non-transgenic tobacco (Tab. 1). The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn in the shoots were lower than in roots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants. The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn in the shoots were higher in non-transgenic tobacco plant than the transgenic tobacco plant. But this difference was not statistically significant (Tab. 2). Tested Tobacco Plant Zn supply (mg L-1 ) Cu Concentration Fe Concentration Mn Concentration Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) P-S-SCMTII 0 5 28 27 174 310 81 77 18265 18900 40 46 209 53 SR-1 10 0 5 19 31 34 400 101 181 32 87 85 20322 1900 10126 15 42 56 38 440 147 10 24 2.77 127 49 41 n.s. 3752 2439 24 6.63 561 61 LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not signifigant 98 �Table 2: Effect of increasing Zn supply on Cu, Fe and Zn concentration of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-ransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nurtient solution for 15 days. N Tested Tobacco Plant P Root Shoot K Zn supply (mg L-1 ) Shoot P-S-SCMTII 0 5 4.65 4.50 n.d.** n.d. 0.59 0.59 21.07 1.28 7.54 8.01 4.11 4.13 SR-1 10 0 5 2.80 4.66 4.65 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.44 0.59 0.59 3.00 18.42 1.25 5.90 8.30 8.08 2.47 3.94 4.12 (%) Root Shoot (%) Root (%) 10 2.31 n.d. 0.41 3.13 5.56 2.77 LSD (p<0.05) n.s.* n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. *n.s.: not signifigant **n.d.: not determined Table 3: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root N, P and K of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root N, P and K of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days shown in Table 3. But these differences for N, P and K are not statistically significant (Tab. 3). Plants have their own systems for binding heavy metals, mostly based on phytochelatins (Macek et. al., 2002). As a measurement of phytochelatins was determined spectophotometrically total glutathione (SH) in the fresh roots and shoots tissue of tobacco plants. Gluthation content of non-transgenic plant was higher in shoot at especially at 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn application. But SH content of non-transgenic plant was not statistically significantly different compared to transgenic plant (Tab. 4). The contents of chlorophyll on old and young leaf were severely reduced by the Zn applications relative to 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (Tab. 4), especially with the 10 mg Zn L-1 application. This value verified visual chlorysis symptom. Similar results in chlorophyll were obtained for each of the two tobacco plants. SH Tested Tobacco Plant Zn Supply (mg L-1 ) Chlorophyll Shoot Root -1 (mg kg FM) Old Leaf Young Leaf (SPAD) P-S-SCMTII 0 5 343 136 28 25 37 37 34 31 SR-1 10 0 5 53 269 585 104 25 30 30 39 39 26 35 35 10 462 n.s.* 71 n.s. 32 2 24 n.s. LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not signifigant Table 4: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root SH and chlorophyll (on old and young leaf) of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-transgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. 99 �Conclusion The remediation of contaminated soil is necessary to preserve the soil resource (Li et al., 2005). There is an urgent requirement for develop of new techniques which are cheaper and more effective to remediate the contaminated soils. Using genetically modified plants is a new technique and has been introduced to remediate metal-contaminated soils. In the present study, the transgenic tobacco showed higher tolerance to Zn and Zn accumulation more than the non-transgenic tobacco plant. The ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco showed not the possibility of its utilization for Zn phytoremediation. Phytoextraction is an environmentally sound method for cleaning up sites that are contaminated with heavy metals. 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Accumulation of heavy metals in plants grown on mineralised soils of the Austrian Alps. Environ. Pollut. 104, pp. 145–155. 102 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 339 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Zinc Accumulation Ability of Transgenic and Non Transgenic Tobacco Author Author Daghan, Hatice Arslan, Mehmet Koleli, Nurcan Uygur, Veli Eren, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. The T2 generations of the ScMTII gene bearing transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants were grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L- 1 Zn to evaluate Zn accumulation capacity. Dry mass of shoot and roots, Zn concentration and Zn content were determined. In addition to Zn, glutathion (SH groups) concentrations, N, P, K, Cu, Fe and Mn of shoots and roots were determined. After growth for 15 days on media containing 10 mg L-1 Zn, non-transgenic plant showed slight chlorosis symptoms, including significant reduction in growth and chlorophyll. Transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants have been tested in terms of phytoremediator for Zn accumulations. The highest Zn concentration in shoots and also roots was tested in all Zn supply. The results showed that Zn accumulation ability of transgenic tobacco plant was higher than nontransgenic tobacco plants and Zn accumulation in the transgenic and the non transgenic tobacco plants were lower in the shoots compared to the roots. The Zn concentration in shoot of transgenic plant was increased by approximately 1.4 times compared to the non transgenic tobacco plants. Higher amount of Zn concentration in the shoot is a good indicator as a phytoremediation agent. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2762 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation on Security of Energy Supply for Macedonia Author Author ABDURAHMAN, Suat TUGRUL, A. Beril Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study energy circumstance of Macedonia was analized in order to evaluation for security of energy supply. Firstly, energy resources and power plants were investigated.and tabulated. SWOT analysis applied with strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) concepts which were written for the country regarding geographical and strategical position, energy resources and economical situation of the country. As known that, SWOT analysis may be used in decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) has been defined. Internal and external analysis applied and some suggessions composed as the conclude evaluation of SWOT analysis for Macedonia energy analysis. Keywords: energy supply, energy demand, macedonia, swot analysis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-06 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233 - 0054 T Technology (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/033b62a17148c4cc7cf7994a07f88dde.docx 0c07de8b0611508798f725028320bb55 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5b4ef500a6304cd83bbdd3cc461992ca.pdf ee7111b25c5dfa8fe386831a95904adc PDF Text Text EVALUATION ON SECURITY OF ENERGY SUPPLY FOR MACEDONIA Suat Abdurahman IstanbulTechnical University, Istanbul, Turkey sabdurahman@itu.edu.tr A. Beril Tuğrul IstanbulTechnical University, Istanbul, Turkey beril@itu.edu.tr Keywords: Energy supply, Energy demand, Macedonia, SWOT analysis. ABSTRACT In this study energy circumstance of Macedonia was analized in order to evaluation for security of energy supply. Firstly, energy resources and power plants were investigated.and tabulated. SWOT analysis applied with strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) concepts which were written for the country regarding geographical and strategical position, energy resources and economical situation of the country. As known that, SWOT analysis may be used in decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) has been defined. Internal and external analysis applied and some suggessions composed as the conclude evaluation of SWOT analysis for Macedonia energy analysis. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2058 Title A name given to the resource EVALUATION ON SECURITY OF ENERGY SUPPLY FOR MACEDONIA Author Author ABDURAHMAN, Suat TUGRUL, A. Beril Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Energy supply, Energy demand, Macedonia, SWOT analysis. ABSTRACT In this study energy circumstance of Macedonia was analized in order to evaluation for security of energy supply. Firstly, energy resources and power plants were investigated.and tabulated. SWOT analysis applied with strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) concepts which were written for the country regarding geographical and strategical position, energy resources and economical situation of the country. As known that, SWOT analysis may be used in decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) has been defined. Internal and external analysis applied and some suggessions composed as the conclude evaluation of SWOT analysis for Macedonia energy analysis. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565