108 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ecbd24d715cbff5716d5ab9199b0f89e.pdf 9948f1f7579dbd9dfff372c5b42ea96c PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Arta Toci South East European University, Macedonia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 19.11.2014. Abstract Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Introduction Writing as a productive skill is an integral partof the language-learning process.However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.According to Reid (1993), many ESL teachers only used writing as a skill to support language learning. This assumption led them to think that writing could be useful as a technique for adding interest or as a testing device for assessing grammar errors. Nowadays, writing has become an important communicative skill as a result of researchin this field. ESL teachers have come to recognize writing as a skill that is equal to other integral language-learning skills and many of them have investigated different approaches to writing. The importance of writing in EFL classes 31 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Like speaking, writing is a key to academic language success.From an early age, students acquire second languagesthrough words, and thencontinuing with sentences, paragraphs and longer papers.They encounter difficulties because most students find it hard to express ideas even though they have basic language knowledge. When taking on a writing assignment, students have little confidence, which leads to different preconceptions and stereotypes about writing. This problem has been a topic for discussion among many language teachers and researchers due to the great importance of writing in language learning. “Each time I am assigned a paper I stuck in my breathas if I had to move a hundred-pound stone from the entrance to my apartment in order to go on living” (Bishop, W., 1990, p.26).Anxiety makes students reluctant to engage themselves in the writing process. The fear of not doing everything right makes them step back and teachers miss out on what students really know. If students are free to express themselves, teachers will be able to see what they know and what they need to learn in order to improve. There are many contradictory opinions on whether controlled instruction should be the prevalent method for teaching writing or ifcreative writing techniques should take over. A group of researchers would prefer to use them interchangeably even though they might prefer one to the other. Having looked at different researchers’ views in this area of study, we teachers can decide to choose which instruction methodis the most useful and fruitful in teaching writing. It is crucial to bear in mind what writing really is and how we can enhance learning through the instruction of writing. “The view of writing as a tool for learning and not just a means to demonstrate learning is one of the major contributions of the research into the writing process” (Elbow, 1998). Therefore, if students are given the opportunity to use the target language in order to build their capacities to write, they will surely acquire the language at the same time. Defining creativity in writing The traditional approaches to writing have had a great impact on both teachers’ and students’ beliefs about how to teach and learn writing. Despite the fact that many researchers have reported positive results from usingcreative writing techniques, many teachers have been reluctant to adoptthis method in the classroom. It must be noted that creative writing existed in theory long before it started to be used in practice. Considering that creative writing differs in many ways from traditional methods of teaching writing, it has been considered a challenge and an unfamiliar method that does not take into account important elements such as accuracy and precision. 32 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The movement from controlled to free or guided writing started in the early 1980s when teachers decided to embrace this new methodology (Reid, 1993).Creative writingas a writing methodology is characterized by the free expression of thoughts and ideas in a supportive and constructive classroom environment. It is also referred to as expressive or creative writing. This approach focuses on enhancing students’ ability to express their creativity and to genuinely practice writing in an anxiety-free atmosphere. Techniques that demonstrate the above-mentioned characteristics of creative writing include: writing a paragraph by describing a person or a place; writing a short story; writing an informal letter to a friend or a report about something you have read; writing about a given topic; and writing by describing a picture. Moreover, there have also been discussions about creative writingas a way of boosting critical thinking. Major (1994) has argued that creative writing activities actually improve critical thinking since they are based on students’ personal and emotional state, which gives them a sense of motivation. Elbow (1998) also supports the use of creative writing by giving arguments for its general application and even recommending it for freshman writing courses, saying that students “need to practice nonacademic writing”. Evaluating creativity in writing “Feedback has long been regarded as essential for the development of second language (L2) writing skills, both for its potential for learning and for student motivation.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.83). Giving the wrong feedback may discourage students’ progress in creativity and decrease their creativity. Responding to students’ writingshould be seen as a process in itself and proper attention should be given to its importance in their language-learning progress. In most cases, a piece of writing is analyzed as a final product and the main focus is on error correction. However, language teachers face a permanent question: Does error correction always help to improve students’ writing in L2? “One line of argument, influenced by process theories, claims that feedback on error to L2 students is discouraging and generally fails to produce any improvements in their subsequent writing.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.84). However, a considerable number of researchers claim the opposite. Feedback is considered a much more difficultapproach to evaluating creative writing.This is because an idea that one person considers creative may not be seen as such by another person. Another problem in measuring creativity is avoiding subjectivity and choosing the right criteria. “Self-report measures of creativity and global assessments of students’ creativity by others (such as teachers) have also failed to demonstrate sufficient validity to be trusted for most uses.” (Baer, J. & Mc Kool, Sh., 2009, p.2) 33 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Giving feedback on creative writing is thought to be very difficult since not everyone rates creativity in the same way. In addition, it is human nature to render judgments based on feelings, and a work that changespeople’s feelings is considered worthier.To better illustrate this idea, Kaufman, Christopher & Kaufman, (2008) claim: It may be the case, then, that we make judgments of a set of work based upon the pieces that made us ‘feel’ the most. If we attach an emotion to a piece of poetry, then we should be able to remember that piece better and, further, to use it as an anchor for our judgments of other works by that artist. (p. 3). What to focus on when giving feedback on creative writing? Thisis the hardest part for language teachers. Creative writing positively affects language expression through writing, which leads to a better general performance in that language. Students need to have access to this writing approach, which seeks to be aesthetic and at the same time offers relaxation for both the reader and writer. Whether approached in a traditional way or in a contemporary one, the teachers’ main aim should be to help their students progress in their language learning. With a lot of care, they should offer feedback so that students can see their strengths and errors and continue striving for optimal performance. The research This study was conducted among 25third-year students at the English department at South East European University in Tetovo. Participantswere givenassignments such as writing a letter, writing a short story, writing by using pictures, etc. All of the inclass activities mentioned above were used according to creative writing techniques and no error correction was provided. The teacher’s role during the course of these activities was to be an observer, a supporter and a guide or a prompter. Students received more peer feedback rather than teacher feedback during the in-class activities. As a result of their group and peer work, students were giving comments to each other related to the structure of ideas and the choice of vocabulary. Students received feedback from the teacher after they read what they had written. The teacher feedback included appraisal for the good and strong points of the writing task and suggestions for improvement on the weaker points. It did not include error correction or correction related to mechanics. The students were evaluated ontheir progress in the following categories: Introduction, support, organization, vocabulary and sentence structure, and grammar and spelling. 34 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Students’ assignments were collected every week. After each class the students received feedback from the teacherbased upon the following criteria: Table 1. Evaluation criteria adopted from ‘The HOT Writing Rubric’ developed by Project Zero at Harvard University and by the Composition Program at the University of California, Irvine. Criteria 5 4 3 2 1 0 Creative Writing Excellent use of imagery; similes; vivid, detailed descriptions; figurative language; puns; wordplay; metaphor; irony. Surprises the reader with unusual associations, breaks conventions, and thwarts expectations. Some startling images, a few stunning associative leaps with a weak conclusion or lesser, more ordinary images and comparisons. Inconsistent. Sentimental, predictable, or cliché. Borrows ideas or images from popular culture in an unreflective way. Cursory response. Obvious lack of motivation and/or poor understanding of the assignment. No response. All three drafts submitted by the students were analyzed according to the analytic scale in order to tracktheir progress through the workshop. Detailed results from drafts are shown in Figure 1. The following figures will show students’ progress throughout the drafts in five categories as separate units and throughout drafts as whole essays. 35 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Chart 1: Draft results for all five categories 10 9 8 grading scale 7 6 5 Draft 1 Draft 2 4 Draft 3 3 2 1 0 Vocabulary Organization and sentence structure Grammar and spelling Introduction Support Draft 1 3.12 3.92 3.2 3.84 4.48 Draft 2 5.36 6.08 5.68 5.76 6.48 Draft 3 6.32 6.56 6.8 7.28 7.84 As shown in Figure 1, students’ introductions scored an average of 3.12 inthe first draft. In the second draft, the average score improved to 5.36. Students showed additional progress in the third draft, with the average score rising to 6.32. In other words, the writers made significant progress between their first and second drafts, with the average score improving by 2.24, whereas the improvement between the second and third drafts was slighter at about 0.96. The overall average increase from the first to the thirddraft was 3.2. In the category of support, students’ performance in writing the first draft was evaluated at an average of 3.92 out of 10. Students’ ability to support their essays improved significantlyby the second draft, where they scored an average of 6.08. However, their progress slowed between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.56. In other words, the average score rose 2.16 points between the first and second drafts, while the improvementbetween the second and third draftswas just 0.48. Even though the progress between the second and third draftswas not significant, it must be noted that the difference between the first and third drafts was 2.64, which is a considerable success. 36 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics In the category of organization, students scored an average of 3.2 in the first draft. The second draft showed a considerable difference, with the average rising to 6.68. A slighter difference was detected between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.8. Nevertheless, students’ progress in organizing their essays from the first draft to the second showed a very significant difference of 2.48, while the third draft improved on the secondby just 1.12. It should also be noted that in all three categories discussed so far, students made greater progress between their first and the second drafts than between their second and third drafts. In the organization category, total progress between the first and third draftswas 3.6, which is higher than the total improvement in the first two categories, especially support. Vocabulary and sentence structure is the fourth category that was analyzed in the three student drafts. In the first draft, students’ performance with respect to the vocabulary they used and their sentencestructure resulted in an average of 3.84. The second draft showed an average increase to 5.76, while the students’ average scores rose to 7.28 in the third draft. In this category, students’ progress between the three drafts was more equal than in the first three categories. There was a difference of 1.92 between the first and the second draft, while the progress between the second and the third drafts showed a difference of 1.52. The overall progress from the first draft to the last one in this category was 3.68, slightly higher than the total progress in the organization category. The fifth category, grammar and spelling,presented the following outcomes:The average score in the first draft was 4.48 – the highest first-draft average in all five categories. The average scoresin the second and the third draftswere 6.48 and 7.84, respectively. The difference between the first and second draft was 2 points, whereas the difference between the second and the third drafts was 1.36. Overall, students’ scores improved by 3.36 points between the first and third drafts, which is approximately the same as theirrate of progress in the introduction category. Conclusions The findings of this research not only reflect the expected outcomes,but also provide insight into some interesting points with respect to writing instruction. Research on students’ progress in writing has been an issue for decades and has covered many important aspects of writing. The interpretation of the findings is similar to the results of some research projects, but different from others. This may reflect the different nature of the sample that each researcher uses. The results of this research point toa need for other related studies. If EFL students respond positively to creative writing instruction, it would be interesting to find out whether adult students of English as a foreign language respond in a similar manner. 37 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Other in-depth investigations into feedback and its effects on language learningmightprovide more interesting insights on the proper way to respond to student writing. Teachers and educators should practice creative writing so that students can produce a ‘self work’. The outcomes of teaching creative writing are enormous for language learners. In addition to practicing new vocabulary, students practice structure deductively and at the same time concentrate on the content. Writing drafts and peer feedback are closely connected to the final evaluation. Teachers have the main say when evaluating creative writing. Using an evaluation chart is helpful both for the teacher and the student writer. This study answers several questions. Clearly, creative writing makes students better writers. This does not mean that students who practice creative writing are able to do well in other writing approaches, but it helps in creating writing habits. Creative writing is also an approach to writing that finds a good place in literature.Creative writing, also known as a poetic or artistic writing, can help students become better writers. References Baer,J. & Mc Kool, Sh. (2009). Assessing creativity using the consensual assessment technique. USA, IGI Global. Black, Paul and Wiliam, Dylan (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, Vol. 5. Issue 1. pg. 7-74. Print Bishop, W.(1990). Released into a language: options for teaching creative writing. Printed in USA, National Council of Teachers of English 1111Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801. Elbow, P. (1991).Reflections on Academic Discourse: How It Relates to Freshmen and Colleagues. College English, Vol. 53. No. 2. pg. 135-155. Elbow, P. (1998). Writing without teachers. New York City: Oxford University Press, Inc. Emërllahu, D.(1998). Bazat e MetodikëssëPunësEdukative FakultetiiMësuesisëiUniversitetittëPrishtinës. 38 .Prishtinë: �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Harasim, L.&Hiltz, S. R. &Teles, L. &, Turoff, M. (1997) A field guide to teaching and learning online;Learning Networks. London, England:The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (2006) Language Teaching. Feedback on second language students’ writing.USA:Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on March 25, 2014 from: http://epi.sc.edu/ar/AS_4_files/Hyland%20and%20Hyland,%202006.pdf Kaufman, S. B. & Christopher, E.M. & Kaufman, J.C. (2008). The Genius Portfolio: How do poets earn their creative reputations from multiple products.Empirical Studies of the Arts, Vol. 26. No.2. pg.181-196. Retrieved on 27 March 2014 from: http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/06/Kaufman-Christopher-Kaufman-2008.pdf Leki, I. (1998). Academic writing-Exploring processes and strategies, New York City: Cambridge University Press Lillis, Th. M. (2001). Student Writing: Access, London:Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, EC4P 4EE. Regulation, Desire. Langan, J. (1997).College writing skills with readings (4th Ed.) United States of America: McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. Major, W (1994). Freewriting: A Means of Teaching Critical Thinking to College Freshmen. Retrieved on April 3, 2014 from: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/composition/major_freewritin g.htm Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1998). Writing Academic English. New York City: Addison Wessley Longman. Reid, J. M. (1993). Teaching ESL writing. United States of America:Prentice Hall Regents Steinberg, M. (2000) Peninsula: Essays and Memories from Michigan. Michigan: Michigan State University Press 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2783 Title A name given to the resource Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Author Author Toci, Arta Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3369 Title A name given to the resource EVALUATING ESL STUDENTS’ CREATIVITY IN WRITING Author Author Toci, Arta Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing as a productive skill is very important integral part in the language learning process. However, writing is not considered as an easy skill by the students and it is certainly considered a difficult skill to teach by many ESL teachers. Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts which have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing. Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By giving a constructive feedback, the teacher understands writer’s problems and intentions by also making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Keywords: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment, Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b7235e306e879235350c1d13c830de70.pdf eec286239922ec9ef413d4e7a25b9843 PDF Text Text Evaluating of Total Antioxidant and Total Oxidant Capacities in Organic and Non-Organic Apples and in the Blood of Their Producers Serdal ÖĞÜT1 Mümin POLAT2 Erdoğan KÜÇÜKÖNER3 1,2Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Medicine, Blood Bank 3Suleyman Demirel University, Food Engineering Abstract: In this study there are two aims determined. Initially, the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities will be compared in apples which are produced by using the pesticides including various effective chemicals and the apples produced in an organic way by using natural animal fertilizers and commercial organic fertilizers. Secondly, the antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the workers’ blood samples who are applying the pesticides, and the ones who are working in producing the organic apples. The total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the blood samples taken from 30 workers who were applying the pesticides, and 30 workers who were producing the 30 organic apples at least for 3 years, and of the apples they produced were analysed. The total antioxidant and oxidant capacities were measured using direct measurement kits for spectrophotometry. As a result of the spectrophotometric analyses, no significant difference (p>0.05) between the total antioxidant, and oxidant levels of the organic and non-organic apples was determined. Besides, the antioxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant decline compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). In addition, the oxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant increase compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). These results indicate that pesticide applications do not cause a change in the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the apples. However, the workers who are applying the pesticides can be affected negatively by these chemicals, in the mean of the decreased total antioxidant capacity, and increased total oxidant capacity. Keywords: Pesticides, organic apple, non-organic apple, total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS). Introduction Today in Turkey the use of chemicals and chemical fertilizers although not yet as high as in European countries, the amount is not to be underestimated. The amount of chemical fertilizer used in our country 1-4 kg / ha, but ranged in total 9.8 million tons / year at the level (1). Ecological conditions suitable for organic production and a large production potential of our countries, organic produce and food market share in the world, unfortunately, is too low (2). However, organic agriculture in Turkey is increasing every year, around 20% (3). 62 �Isparta, Karaman, especially to our country and in many provinces are in intensive apple production. Appropriate in terms of the Isparta ecology of apple cultivation and has considerable potential. In Turkey, nearly one-fifth of the apple offered for consumption are produced in Isparta (4). Plant-origin food consumption as a result, only the important antioxidant vitamins (vitamins C, E, A), but also the antioxidant properties of natural compounds as well (flavanoller, catechin, flavonoids, etc.), nutrition can assure you. Recent studies showing the antioxidant activity of substances that occur because of oxidative stress, cataracts, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurological diseases, such as playing a significant role in the prevention of many degenerative diseases has revealed that (5–7). Apples, contain phytochemicals that have powerful antioxidant activity. A large part of these phytochemicals are phenolic components. Phenolic components of apple flavonoids; flavonoller (quercetin and glycosides) that are specific only to Apple dihidrokalkonlar (floridzin and floretin) is composed from. Most of the other phenolic compounds chlorogenic acid in apples are (8–10). Pesticides in our country use every day increases, but the practitioners' (producers, workers, or paid agents make those), drug preparation and during application take precautions not or extra doses of medication to do because of some health and environmental problems arise. Isparta in terms of agricultural workers in the state is consistent with our country's problems (11). Agriculture in the widely used pesticides, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide (O2) and hydroxyl radical (-OH) as reactive oxygen species formation or by causing oxidant and antioxidant capacity changes may cause. These radicals can react with biological macromolecules such as enzyme inactivation, and can also cause DNA damage (12). Two targets have been identified in this study. The first of these goals, and pesticides with organic apple production in the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total antioxidant capacity (TOC), and the second in the TAC that the blood of persons producing apples and compare TOC. Materials and Methods Apple samples in the study due to Isparta Gelendost within the boundaries of the district were collected from apple orchards. The blood samples, taken from the person who produced these apples. This purpose, the pesticides used (diazinon, chlorpyriphos, thiacloprid, phosalone, methidation, deltamethrin, cypermethrin, Carbaryl, 98% copper sulfate) produced 30 apple samples and these apples for at least 3 years use pesticide that 30 person's blood taken. 30 apple producers also produced by means of the organic (natural organic manure and commercial fertilizers), 30 samples with Apple is that Apple produces at least three years, 30 people were taken from the blood. An evaluation questionnaire to participants in the study was performed, and those with any chronic illness, or non-alcohol-dependent individuals are not included in the study. Apples used in the study, the average weight of 140 g apples Starking are denominated. Apple in the blood in the TAC and TOC values in 2004 and Erel (13, 24) developed by the TAC and TOC direct measurement kit using [(Total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS) - Rel AssayTurkey)] spectrophotometrically determined. Erel TAC test (13), a technique developed by the fully automated and powerful body against free radicals is a method for measuring the total antioxidant capacity. Fe2 +-o-dianisidine complex with hydrogen peroxide by Fenton-type reaction generates OH radicals. This powerful, low pH, colorless reduced reactive oxygen species react with o-dianisidine molecules to yellow-brown dianisidin radical form. Dianisidin radicals advanced oxidation reactions by participating in the formation of color is increasing. However, examples of antioxidants that stop the oxidation reaction suppressed the formation of the access to the colors. Automated analyzers used in this reaction results are given as measured spectrophotometrically. Traditionally used as a standard of the water soluble vitamin E analogue, Trolox was used, and the results mmol Trolox equiv. / L is expressed as. TOC measurement again Erel (24) by a colorimetric method developed fully automated. Ferrozine-oxidants found in the sample ions are oxidized to o-dianisidin complex ferric ions. Accelerate the reaction medium contained glycerol is about three times out. Ferric ions in acidic media "xylenol orange" color with a complex form. Oxidants found in samples of the color intensity is related to the amount as measured spectrophotometrically. Perkin Elmer brand spectrophotometric analysis (UV / Vis spectrophotometer model lambda 20 - USA) spectrophotometer was carried out. Tubes were taken to study biochemistry in the blood. Within days of the cold chain reached the laboratory has been the blood centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes. After taking blood samples until analysis and 63 �stored at -80 ° C freezer. Primarily on analysis of blood was transferred to the refrigerator at +4 ° C, then melted at 37 ° C hot water bath is used for analysis spectrophometric. Spectrophotometric TAC and TOC measurements in blood and apples in the bathtub for the first of three separate spectra were taken and their 800'er mL in reagent 1 (R1) has been applied. Then a 50 mL standard on one of these containers, standard and sample were added 2. Spectrophotometer at 660 nm and then the absorbance readings were recorded. 125 mL of these reagents to them, then two (R2) were added at room temperature for 10 minutes was expected. Finally, also the second 660 nm absorbance was read and recorded. OSI values, the TOS value is calculated by dividing the value of the TAS (24). SPSS 15.0 statistical evaluation of data entered into the program, calculations were made using t-test. Results Demographic characteristics of study participants are given in Table 1. Male Those who do drugs Those organic production Total Female Total n % n % n % 27 90 3 10 30 100.0 26 86.6 4 13.4 30 100.0 53 88.3 7 23.4 60 100.0 Table 1. Demographic characteristics of study participants Applied pesticides in apples and organic apples in the TAC, TOC, and p values in Table 2 are given. Apples produced with pesticides (TAC) (n=30) Average (µmol equivalent/g) 1,74 1,75 Organically produced apples (TAC) (n=30) Apples produced with pesticides (TOC ) (n=30) 1,58 1,60 trolox p value >0,05 >0,05 Organically produced apples (TOC ) (n=30) Table 2 Applied pesticides in apples and organic apples in the average TAC, TOC and P values. As can be seen in Table 2, produced with pesticides, and organic apples in a significant difference compared to TAC and TOC values was found (p> 0.05). But not significantly higher TAC of apples produced in the organic way, as determined TOC lower. The person who made pesticides and organic apple production in the blood of the person making the TAC, the TOC and p values are given in Table 3. Average (µmol equivalent/g) 64 trolox p value �Pesticides in the blood of the person who made TAC (n=30) 1,59 1,63 <0,05 Organic production in the blood of the people TAC (n=30) Pesticides in the blood of the person who made TOC (n=30) 1,65 1,60 <0,05 Organic production in the blood of the people TOC (n=30) Table 3. The person who made pesticides and organic apple production in the blood of the person making the TAC, TOC and p values. Table 3 with the results that can be seen pesticides using the apple production of the person who made the blood of the TAC on the average, organic apple production the person who made the blood of the TAC values than the average significantly (p <0.05) lower TOC values, the average is significantly (p <0 , 2005) were higher. TAC and TOC values of each group of oxidative stress index (ODI) was calculated to make the pesticides from the other group of people OSI (OSI= TOS/TAC × 100) significantly (p <0.05) were higher (Table 4). People who made pesticides (n=30) People who makes organic production (n=30) Average OSI value (OSI= TOS/TAC × 100) 103,7 98,7 p value <0,05 Table 4. Using pesticides and organic apple production to production of individuals in the OSI and the p values of the blood of the people. As shown in Table 4, apple production in persons with pesticides, OSI, compared with those of organic produce a significant increase (p <0.05) was observed. As with pesticides, and organic apple production OSI values of men and women who make a significant difference was found compared (Table 5). However, although not statistically significant for both pesticides and organic produce in the group who were higher in OSI. Men who make pesticides (n=27) Women who make pesticides (n=3) The men's organic produce (n=26) The women's organic produce (n=4) Average OSI value(OSI= TOS/TAC × 100) 104,2 103,5 99,3 98,2 p value >0,05 >0,05 Table 5. With pesticides, and organic apple production of the women and men TAC, TOC, and p values. Discussion Like many other fruit apples high amounts of vitamin C, vitamin E and the risk of cancer by reducing DNA damage and contains valuable antioxidants. Apple contains vitamins and antioxidants with the diet is an important fruit. Apple radical trapping tests showed high antioxidant activity (14). A study in Finland, kuersetin'den rich apple consumption increases have been reported to decrease coronary mortality (15). In a study conducted in Hawai'i with apple consumption has been identified a negative relationship between lung cancer and its relationship with Apple that may stem from antioxidants have 65 �been reported (16). In our study, the organic way (natural animal manure and commercial organic fertilizer) is produced, as well as several effective chemicals containing (diazinon, chlorpyriphos, thiacloprid, phosalone, methidation, deltamethrin, cypermethrin, Carbaryl, 98% copper sulfate), pesticides produced by Apple in the TAC significant values were higher. The cause of the apple produced in these two groups and that the antioxidant properties against free radicals consumed in diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer can be said to show a protective effect. This study produced using pesticides and organic apple production in the TAC and TOC was determined by the two groups, and TAC - TOC Apple found a significant difference between values (Table 2). In 2005 study conducted by Karadeniz and colleagues, pomegranate, quince, apples and grapes in the morning as the highest antioxidant activity was determined. The same study, Cooper kind of apples average antioxidant activity mean% 14.7 Golden Delicious type apple mean antioxidant activity% 20.7, our research we also used Starking kind of apples average antioxidant activity while 19.5% have been reported (9). Production of organic products in research on food quality and environmental health has revealed positive effects (17, 18). In our investigation, the apples in organic apple production was not due to a significant increase in TAC. Organic apple production in the same way, Apple does not cause a change in the TOC (Table 2). Live in the TOC, external to the body directly can be received, or in the body, some reactions during the open can crop up and to DNA affecting the genetic damage, lipid effects by cell membrane dysfunction or protein by acting on the enzymes in the loss of function which may lead to radicals occurs. The body against oxidative stress TAC various substances such as enzymes and vitamins is a defense mechanism consisting of (19). Plasma and body fluids found in the TAC reflects the total effect of all antioxidants. This is why the blood antioxidant status in determining individual antioxidants, rather than giving them the value of the total antioxidant measurement is widely TAC (19). Approximately one fifth of apples produced in Turkey are produced in Isparta (4). Apple production in the region is quite high, brings extensive use of pesticides. But the research about the use of the pesticide manufacturers in the region has revealed the inadequacy of (11.20). The results of this lack of research has proven once again. Because pesticides do people with TAC values, the organic produce of the people TAC values when compared with significantly (p <0.05) reduced, the TOC values were compared, a significant increase (p <0.05) is true (Table 3). In a survey of pesticides to people mainly organophosphorus insecticides (diazinon, chlorpyrifos, thiacloprid, phosalone, methidation) were used. Piretroit this group of synthetic insecticides (deltamethrin, cypermethrin) and carbamat insecticides (Carbaryl) follow (11). Drugs for at least three years of our work, including the person who has been. Therefore, some pesticide applicators in the history of our country in 2008, prohibited the use of endosulfan pesticide active ingredient have been identified in their survey. This study pesticides made of people (producers, workers, or paid agents of the person making the) blood in the TAC and TOC values and organic apple production of the employees (producers, workers, or paid agents of the person making the) blood in the TAC and TOC values compared to Apple Contrary significantly (P <0.05) difference was found. TAC and TOC results in terms of these pesticides did not affect the quality of apples, but in terms of reduced TAC and increasing TOC pesticides adversely affect the health of the person making the shows. In our survey of women and men who do drugs and TOK TAK average men and women produce and organic apple compared to the average of the TAC and TOC was significantly (p <0.05) difference was found (Table 5). Although not statistically significant, men have more than OSĐ'lerinin longer than men do these jobs and their studies may have resulted in heavy work (Table 4). Excessive formation of reactive oxygen compounds, for whatever reason or lack of antioxidant defense systems and repair systems are developed as a result of oxidative stress (21). Pesticides reduce antioxidant capacity, by increasing antioxidant capacity, causing oxidative stress have been many studies showing that (22.23). This current study also yielded results consistent with the literature data. People who make pesticides OSI (increased oxidant capacity, decreased antioxidant capacity) OSI of organic production compared with the person who made a significant increase (p <0.05) was determined. Altuntas and colleagues at work, in the Mediterranean region is widely used organophosphate pesticide fasolonun in vitro lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense systems were examined on the effects. Fasolon, malondialdehyde (MDA) formation increased, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) has led to a decrease in activity. Fasolonun very high 66 �concentrations but these effects are only lethal dose level were observed (23). SOD, GSH-Px and CAT antioxidant enzymes in our body is called. In this study, blood taken from these enzymes, including the PAC were measured and Altuntas and colleagues working in parallel with the pesticides to the victim in the TAC was significantly lower than was found. TAC and TOC in our body is in balance. TOS / TAS is OSI’s rate (24). In this study, an increase TOC, TAC’s reduction, direct and may be caused by an increase OSI. OSI increased atherosclerosis in people with a pesticide application, may increase the risk of cancer and premature aging. During five years of agricultural workers exposed to pesticides total of 41 healthy men, age and economic status of the 21 individuals with the same free radical formation, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant status and the cellular enzyme activity determination were compared. Compared with the control group significantly increased MDA in agricultural workers. Glutathione, α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and ceruloplasmin concentrations of antioxidants, such as the control group significantly decreased compared with (25). Participated in this study, a large portion of the 30 pesticide applicators (n = 15) consisted of agricultural workers. Pesticide applicators, while the remaining 12 were producers, 3 are doing this job for payment. TAC of 15 agricultural workers is calculated separately as this value was 1.60. Kisby and his colleagues working in the orchards in their study of pesticides on farm workers, the negative impact of oxidative stress and DNA have been put forward. The results in the context of a relationship between pesticides and cancer incidence may be increasing attention was (26). As a result, the use of pesticides in growing the food, the environment and human health is threatened. The person who made this study of pesticides in blood TAC and TOC reduction in growth and therefore increase the value determined OSI, the long-term adverse effects of exposure to pesticides have been found out once again. TAC and TOC in pesticide applications, but Apple did not cause significant change in the value produced as organic pesticides applied to apples with apples produced in the TAC and TOC values were found to show similarities. Organic farming practices that have an impact on Apple is not in the TOC or TAC, the apples that produce a positive impact on the health of people suggest. References [1] Er C. (2002) Organik Tarım Bir Lüks müdür?. Türk Tarım ve Köy Đşleri Bakanlığı Yayınları 145:16–20. [2] Demiryürek K. (2004) Dünya ve Türkiye' de Organik Tarım, Harran Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 8(3–4):63–71. [3] Tozan M, Ertem A. (1998) Ekolojik Tarımın Ve Ürünlerin Dünü, Bugünü, Ekolojik (Organik, Biyolojik) Tarım. S:7, Bornova, Đzmir. [4] Anonim 2004. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations (FAO) http://www.fao.org [5] Riemersma RA. (1994) Epidemiology and the role of antioxidants preventing coronary heart disease: a brief overview. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 53: 59-65. [6] Halliwell B. (1996) Antioxidants in human health and disease. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 16: 33-34. [7] Schwartz JL. (1996) The dual roles of nutrients as antioxidants and prooxidants: their effects on tumor cell growth. J. Nutr. 126: 1221-1227. [8] Linda MR, Colm PO, Kelly JD, Downey K. (2004) Preliminary Studies for the Differentiation of Apple Juice Samples by Chemometric Analysis of Solid-Phase Microextraction−Gas Chromatographic Data. J. Agric. Food Chem 52 (23): 6891–6896. [9] Karadeniz F, Burdurlu HS, Koca N, Soyer Y. (2005) Türkiye’de yetişen bazı sebze ve meyvelerin antioksidan aktiviteleri. Turk J Agric For. 29: 297-303. [10] Gök V, Kayacıer A, Telli R. (2006). Hayvansal ve Mikrobiyal Kaynaklı Doğal Antioksidanlar. Gıda Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi 2: 35-40. 67 �[11] Öğüt S, Küçüköner E. (2007) Isparta’da kullanılan tarım ilaçlarına karşı üreticilerin tutum ve davranışları. Tarım Đlaçları Kongre ve Sergisi Bildiri Kitabı S: 378–385. [12] Reiter RJ, Pablos M, Agapito TT, Guerrero JM (1996) Melatonin in the context of the free radical theory of aging, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 786, 362-378. [13] Erel O. (2004). A novel automated method to measure total antioxidant response against potent free radicals reactions. Clin Biochem 37: 112–9. [14] Heinonen IM. (2002) Antioxidants in fruits, berries and vegetables. In: Fruit and Vegetable Processing, 1st ed. (Ed. W. Jongen), CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 23–44. [15] Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A, Maatela J. (1996) Flavonoid intake and coronary mortality in Finland: a cohort study. Br Med J. 312: 478–481. [16] Le Marchand L, Murphy SP, Hankin JH, Wilkens LR, Kolonel LN. (2000) Intake of flavonoids and lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 92: 154–160. [17] Demir H, Topuz A, Gölükçü M, Polat E, Özdemir F, Şahin H. (2003) Ekolojik üretimde farklı organik gübre uygulamalarının domatesin mineral madde içeriği üzerine etkisi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 16(1): 19-25 [18] Kumbur H, Özsoy HD, Özer Z. (2008) Mersin ilinde tarımsal alanlarda kullanılan kimyasalların su kalitesi üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi. Ekoloji 17(68): 54-58. [19] Ghiselli A, Serafini M, Natella F, Scaccini C. (2000) Total antioxidant capacity as a tool to assess redox status: critical view and experimental data. Free Radic Biol Med 29:1106-1114. [20] Öğüt S, Çetin GN, Küçüköner E. (2008) Isparta ve çevre ilçelerde tarımsal üretimde kullanılan pestisitlerin uygulayıcılar üzerindeki akut etkileri. Toksikoloji Dergisi 6 (1-2): 69-72. [21] Kökoğlu E. (1998) Oksidatif stres ve yaşlanma, Yaşlanmaya Biokimyasal Yaklaşım Uluslararası Sempozyumu, Ankara [22] Gökalp O, Buyukvanlı BE. Cicek M, Kaya Ö, Koyu A, Altuntas Đ, Koylu H. (2005) The effects of diazinon on pancreatic damage and ameliorating role of vitamin E and vitamin C. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 81: 123–128. [23] Altuntaş Đ, Delibaş N, Doğuş DK, Özmen S, Gültekin F. (2003) Role of reactive oxygen species in organophospat insecticide poasalone toxicity in erythrocytes in vitro, Toxicology in vitro 17: 153-157. [24] Erel O. 2005. A novel automated colorimetric method for measuring total oxidant status. Clin Bioche 38: 1103–1111. [25] Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Lalitha S. (2001) Plasma and RBCs antioxidant status in occupational male pesticide sprayers, Clinia Chimca Acta 310: 107-112. [26] Kisby GE, Muniz JF, Scherer J, Lasarev MR. (2009) R Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage in Agricultural Workers, Journal of Agromedicine 14: 206–214. 68 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 330 Title A name given to the resource Evaluating of Total Antioxidant and Total Oxidant Capacities in Organic and Non-Organic Apples and in the Blood of Their Producers Author Author ÖĞÜT, Serdal POLAT, Mümin KÜÇÜKÖNER, Erdoğan Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study there are two aims determined. Initially, the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities will be compared in apples which are produced by using the pesticides including various effective chemicals and the apples produced in an organic way by using natural animal fertilizers and commercial organic fertilizers. Secondly, the antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the workers’ blood samples who are applying the pesticides, and the ones who are working in producing the organic apples. The total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the blood samples taken from 30 workers who were applying the pesticides, and 30 workers who were producing the 30 organic apples at least for 3 years, and of the apples they produced were analysed. The total antioxidant and oxidant capacities were measured using direct measurement kits for spectrophotometry. As a result of the spectrophotometric analyses, no significant difference (p>0.05) between the total antioxidant, and oxidant levels of the organic and non-organic apples was determined. Besides, the antioxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant decline compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). In addition, the oxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant increase compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). These results indicate that pesticide applications do not cause a change in the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the apples. However, the workers who are applying the pesticides can be affected negatively by these chemicals, in the mean of the decreased total antioxidant capacity, and increased total oxidant capacity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b7ad30376b3ddcc2a57b25e44f0465d4.pdf b35ce86e5ccf30db632b9de817cf5b13 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Stavros Rodokanakis Department of Social and Policy Sciences University of Bath Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, England srodo2003@yahoo.gr Vasileios A. Vlachos Department of European and International Studies University of Macedonia Egnatia 156, 540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece vlachosuk@hotmail.com ABSTRACT This paper investigates unemployment risk and job prospects of males and females in the two Greece’s most populated regions - Attica and Central Macedonia - during the implementation of the first Community Support Framework (1989-1993). Originality lies in the separate analyses for males and females. The sample is based on anonymous records (micro-data) of the Labour Force Survey for both employed and unemployed at Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics-2 level. Firstly, social and demographic characteristics increasing the odds of being employed are examined - i.e. age, marital status, residence, education and training. Secondly, the issue of whether University graduates have lesser odds of being employed is investigated. The findings indicate that gender differences in odds of being employed appear mainly across education levels. Moreover, higher education attainment increases the odds of being employed particularly for females. The paper delivers conclusions that can be used for comparative research among European regions. KEYWORDS Cross-sectional Models, Labour Economics Policies, Human Capital, Skills, Unemployment Models, Regional, urban and rural analyses ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted: 6 August 2012 Resubmitted: 02 November 2012 Resubmitted: 11 January 2013 Accepted: 15 March 2013 Jel Code: C21, J08, J24, J64, O18 Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 119 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Introduction The programmes implemented in Greece and other EU member states under the Community Support Frameworks (CSFs) - which were infrastructure-related development projects and investments in physical and human capital - aimed to gear the economy onto a sustainable path of economic growth and development. The CSF goal of promoting growth through investments in infrastructure and human capital was the prerequisite for the cohesion of EU and the sustainability of the nominal convergence objective of the Maastricht Treaty in the way to the European Economic and Monetary Union. In this context, it is interesting to see if investment in human capital (education and training) in Greece had a real impact on the labour market. The aim of the paper is to study the impact that social and demographic characteristics had on the labour market in the Greek Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS)-2 regions of Central Macedonia and Attica, during the implementation of the CSF-1 (1989-93). Greece consists of thirteen NUTS-2 regions. During the examined time period both regions belonged to the Objective 1 (European regions with a GDP per head less than 75% of the EU mean) of the EU Structural Funds. We choose Central Macedonia and Attica because the above regions are the largest in Greece in terms of population, and the two biggest urban agglomerations in the country (Athens and Thessaloniki) are situated in the regions under study; so, we research half of the Greek population. The reason we choose these years is because 1988 is the last year before the start of the implementation of the Structural Funds, whereas 1992 is the year of the Maastricht Treaty and also the first year of getting information on training programmes in the Greek Labour Force Survey (LFS). So, other studies can compare that period with more recent years. The main questions to be answered, analysing the data separately for males and females, are: (i) What are the social and demographic characteristics that increase the chances of someone in the examined population finding a job? (ii) Whether University graduates face greater difficulties in finding a job than the non-University graduates, as a series of studies (see Meghir et al., 1989; OECD, 1990; Iliades, 1995; IN.E./GSEE-ADEDY, 1999; Katsikas, 2005) or aggregate statistics (LFS; Eurostat: Education and Employment Prospects, 1995) for Greece conclude. (iii) How does the participation in training courses affect the chances of getting an employment? 120 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia We test male vs. female unemployment, and the human capital theory which provides one of the main explanations for the uneven incidence of unemployment by skill (education and training); we try to research whether the more educated and the more trained a person is, the higher the probability of him finding a job. Previous labour market studies for Greece were based on qualitative research and LFS aggregated data. Our analysis of investigating the unemployment risk in the Greek labour market - at Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) 2 level - is based on the micro-data of the Greek LFS. The access to the individual anonymised records of the Greek LFS was not allowed to researchers until the summer of 2005, due to the Data Protection Act. The article starts discussing the gender unemployment issue. Then, we examine the relation between education and unemployment in the EU, and the impact of training programmes on the employment prospects of individuals in the EU and the rest of the OECD according to a series of studies; the results are based on both crosssectional and longitudinal data. We also discuss the vocational training policies for the unemployed in Greece. Then, we refer to the macroeconomic indicators of the examined regions and follow a logit model for the years 1988 and 1992 - based on micro-data of the Greek LFS - for the two regions under study working separately for men and women. The article concludes with the impact of the socio-economic variables used on employment probability in the examined regions, and ends with some general comments on the merit and value of this study. Literature Review Male versus female unemployment: The theoretical context There is an enormous literature on gender gaps in pay and a vast literature on gender gaps in labour force participation rates (see Altonji and Blank, 1999, and Blau and Kahn, 2003). Yet, there is very little written on gender gaps in unemployment rates (OECD, 2002, p. 63). According to OECD Statistical Compendium (1999b) the largest gender gaps in unemployment rates are to be found in the Mediterranean countries (Greece, Spain, Italy and France), following by the Benelux countries Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 121 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), the “Germanic” countries (Germany, Austria and Switzerland), then the “Nordic” countries (Sweden, Finland and Norway) and, finally, the “Anglo-Saxons” (US, UK, Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand). In a number of the Mediterranean countries the ‘unemployment problem’ is largely a problem of female unemployment. According to International Labour Organisation (ILO) to be classified as unemployed people must have looked for work in the recent past and are available to start work in the near future. Sometimes women that do not want to work because of domestic responsibilities (to take care of children and the elderlies) are considered as unemployed, not as inactive. This fact ‘spills over’ into a higher female unemployment rate. If this is true then the female unemployed in ‘high-gap’ countries may be less serious about wanting a job and taking steps to get one than the male unemployed (Azmat et al., 2004b). In many of the European countries with high unemployment rates, the female unemployment rate is substantially above the male. Women in all countries tend to have higher flows into inactivity both from employment and unemployment. However, in the ‘high-gap’ countries (namely with a large gender gap in unemployment rates) women tend to have higher flows from employment into unemployment and from unemployment into employment, namely in both flows. Providing explanations for this is not so easy and it is much simpler to present evidence against hypotheses than evidence in favour of them (Azmat et al., 2004a). Data from the first six waves 1994-1999 of the European Community Household Panel Survey (ECHPS) shows that in the Mediterranean or ‘high-gap’ countries, the gender gaps in unemployment rates are largest among the young, the married and those with young children. It is true that there is a lot of variation in the extent of part-time employment and that it tends to be relatively rare in the ‘Mediterranean’ countries which have large gender gaps in unemployment rates. But the unemployed women in these countries do not report that they are looking for part-time jobs and it seems likely that the lack of availability of part-time work can explain low female participation rates in some countries but not their high unemployment rates (Eurostat, LFS, 1996). 122 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia The human capital approach and the human capital theory The role of education in explaining how the labour market operates represents one of the main areas of disagreement between labour market theories. During the late 1950s and early 1960s the current neoclassical theory of the labour market emerged with the development of the human capital theory. Gary Becker (1964 - 2nd ed., 1975) published a book with the title “Human Capital” which developed a theory of human capital formation and analysed the rate of return to investment in education and training. However, investment in human capital remains a controversial issue (Woodhall, 1987; Kapstein, 2001; de la Fuente, 2003). Whilst the human capital literature has highlighted a number of productivity-related characteristics, human capital theorists give most emphasis to the importance of education and training as the main component of productivity (Blaug, 1975). Education, it is suggested, provides the basic skills of reading and writing, cognitive skills, and the “ability to learn” which will increase an individual’s productivity in all jobs (general human capital), whilst vocational education, on the other hand, will increase an individual’s productivity in a narrower range of jobs by providing more specific skills (specific human capital). Becker (1962) distinguishes general from specific human capital of workers, and within specific human capital between employer- and employee-financed on-thejob training. Most broadly the theory of specific human capital predicts that where the fixed costs of employment, due to on-the-job training, are greatest, unemployment is lowest (Rees, 1973, pp.118-20). Following Becker’s (1964) analysis on the economic role of human capital, particularly education, there is now a considerable amount of empirical research on the closely related topics of education and skills [see Prais (1995); Murray and Steedman (1998)] and, more specifically, the increasing role of skilled labour in the economy [Berman et al. (1994); Machin (1996); Machin and van Reenen (1998)]. Training as a human capital To examine what constitutes training, it is necessary to divide it into two significant purposes. Firstly, it is possible to view training as an investment in human capital, Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 123 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS perhaps adding to the skills gained in the first education. Secondly, training can be a replacement of initial education with company training when there is a mismatch between skills the employee has and those needed. Theoretically, these different purposes belong to two theoretical viewpoints, which sometimes coincide: the human capital theory and matching theory. It can be considered that these theories coincide because it could be an investment to train to add to skills. However, the two theories are based on diverse approaches to training (van Smoorenburg and van der Velden, 2000). Human capital theory holds that it is the type of training input that largely determines the amount of increase in job tenure. In actual fact, training is not totally general or totally particular (Stevens, 1994). Job tenure will become greater if training is particularly connected to the company, than if it is general (in the classroom). It is less likely the worker will leave then. Also, employers are not keep to let workers go when they have paid for them to learn particular skills. However, when training is general, there is nothing to tie the worker to his existing job, since his skills may be of use in all companies. This difference also applies where weakly transferable and widely transferable training are involved. If this is true, it is reasonable to assume that classroom training is more transferable for the unemployed and training at work leads to greater job tenure (Cockx et al., 1998). On the whole, employers need skilled workers, involving work experience as well as training, so classroom training is not sufficient on its own. Matching theory claims that under-education will result in an increased necessity for more training. Less necessity for training, however, arises from over-education. It is not yet certain if training can make up for inadequacies in formal education (substitution) or if it can just add to variations in human capital (complementarity) that are already present. It might be inferred, though, that it is only the features of the job (level and kind of job) in which the substitution features of training are to be found and that it is only in the features of the formal education (level and breadth) that the complementarity nature of training is obvious (van Smoorenburg and van der Velden, 2000). According to credentialist and screening theories (Blaug, 1975), initial training does not serve as an investment aimed at increasing human capital so much, but instead certificates acquired from training can reveal what workers are capable of. On the other hand, Blaug notes various kinds of credentialist theory and the weak kind is not at variance with human capital (Tatch et al., 1998). 124 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Unemployment and skills in Greece and the rest of the EU Educational level and unemployment in the EU Table 1 gives unemployment rates by qualification in different EU countries according to Eurostat data. The differences were enormous. There are only a few countries where this inverse relation between unemployment and qualification did not exist: in Greece and Portugal unemployment among people on ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) 3 level (Lyceum) was higher than among the less qualified, but not among the University graduates (ISCED 5-7); in Italy and Luxembourg, unemployment rates among the highly qualified (ISCED 5-7, University) exceeded those of people with intermediate qualifications. Table 1. Unemployment rates by level of educational attainment(1); EU 1994 ISCED 0-2c 12.5 12.6 14.8 6.2 22.4 14.8 21.0 9.3 3.7 12.6 6.1 11.2 13.2 Country BEL DEN GER GRE ESP FRA IRL ITA LUX NL POR UK EU-12 ISCED 3b 7.5 8.3 8.9 8.3 20.0 9.7 9.1 7.4 1.9 7.7 6.4 7.9 8.8 ISCED 5-7a 3.7 4.6 5.3 5.3 15.1 6.6 5.3 8.1 2.4 5.5 2.4 4.1 6.1 (1) 25-59 years old Source: Eurostat: Education and Employment prospects, 1995. a All first and higher degrees. All teaching, nursing qualifications. HNC/HND. b 1 or more A-level passes, GNVQ 3 and equivalent, NVQ 3 and equivalent. Trade apprenticeship. GNVQ 2 or equivalent, NVQ2 or equivalent. c ISCED 2: 1 or more O-level/ GCSE passes, 1 or more CSE passes. All other qualifications. ISCED 0-1: No qualifications. Looking at the long-term unemployment (LTU) of different skill levels, we again find that intermediate and higher educated people were less affected. This is true for the whole Union except Spain and Greece, where LTU was higher on ISCED levels 3 and 5-7 compared to levels 0-2, for Italy where LTU was the highest on ISCED 3 Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 125 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS level, and for Luxembourg and Portugal where the ratios of ISCED levels 0-2 and 3 were equal (Eurostat, Education and Employment Prospects, 1995). Training evaluation in Europe and Greece Findings on European training programmes’ evaluation Up-to-date evaluation studies point to minor impacts of European training policies and they are most likely less significant and not always as positive as those responsible for designing them had wished. Although the cross-national figures show a few positive results from programmes, it is impossible to disregard the more negative results. The findings allow us to conclude that training programmes seem to have some positive effects on employment and no effects on earnings. Moreover, effects diminish over time. The negative effects reported by several evaluations can be explained, on the one hand by a locking-in effect, and on the other by the fact that some participants seem to enrol in training merely in order to collect unemployment insurance benefits (Cueto and Mato, 2009). The conclusions based on the recent studies are somewhat similar to those of Heckman et al. (1999) and Stanley et al. (1999) for the U.S. In spite of being restricted to only a small number of nations, micro-economic studies of effect evaluations, based on both cross-sectional and longitudinal data, indicate that some programmes have managed to noticeably better employment prospects for those taking part. On the other hand, the findings include a number of programmes which appear to have had almost no effect. Programmes with fairly specific targeting have managed positive results and this may be due to the fact that these programmes usually take account of individual requirements. However, a number of programmes that were most widely targeted have had little impact.1 1 See Kaitz, 1979; Ridder, 1986; Card and Sullivan, 1988; Ham and Lalonde, 1991; Gritz, 1993; OECD, 1993; Bonnal et al., 1994; Torp, 1994; Calmfors and Skedinger, 1995; Jackman, 1995; Bjorklund and Regner, 1996; Fay, 1996; Jackman et al., 1996; Zweimuller and Winter-Ebmer, 1996; Cockx et al., 1998; Kluve et al., 1999; Gerfin and Lechner, 2000; Lechner, 2000; Brodaty et al., 2001; van Ours, 2001; Kluve and Schmidt, 2002; Raaum and Torp, 2002; Regner, 2002; Cockx, 2003; Weber and Hofer, 2003; Graversen, 2004; Hamalainen and Ollikainen, 2004; Hujer et al., 2004; Leetmaa and Vork, 2004; Rosholm and Svarer, 2004; Albrecht et al., 2005; Arellano, 2005; Cavaco et al., 2005; Centeno et al., 2005; Fitzenberger and Speckesser, 2005; Hogelund and Holm, 2005; Kluve et al., 2005; Lechner et al., 2005; Lorentzen and Dahl, 2005; MalmbergHeimonen and Vuori, 2005; Steiger, 2005; Stenberg, 2005; Aakvik and Dahl, 2006; WinterEbmer, 2006; Biewen et al., 2007; Lechner et al., 2007; Mato and Cueto, 2008; Meadows and Metcalf, 2008; Rosholm and Skipper, 2009; Kluve, 2010. 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Lastly, to establish the ways in which programmes can be made better more research is necessary. Vocational training policies for the unemployed in Greece The situation in Greece is complicated with low level of investments to training programmes compared to the rest of the EU, and weak interconnection among targeting of training programmes and needs of labour market. The structure of expenditures for “active” interventions in 1997 shows that the level of expenditures in Greece (0.35%), as a percentage of the GDP, is behind that of the EU-15 average (1.13%) concerning all specific interventions, with the exception of “measures for the young” (youth vocational education and training, etc. 0.10%) which are comparable to the European average (0.13%). Furthermore, there is a quite low level of expenditures on the training of adults (0.06% for Greece in comparison to 0.29% for the EU-15) - (OECD, Employment Outlook, 1999a). The system of continuing vocational training (CVT) in Greece was developed mainly due to its incorporation in Community funding programmes (Iliades, 1995; Chletsos, 1998; Papakonstantinou, 1998). Policies concerned with training and retraining for the unemployed have been confined to continuing training programmes. Vocational training programmes for the unemployed were unconnected with employment policies (Gravaris, 1991, p. 37; Christodoulakis and Kalyvitis, 1995; Balourdos and Chryssakis, 1998; Economic and Social Committee of Greece, 1998). This is reflected in the fact that the unemployment rate for those (20-29 years old) with complementary vocational training in Greece was 20%, compared to 14% for those with only compulsory schooling; the corresponding figures for the EU were 11.5% and 23.5% (see Table 2). Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 127 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Table 2. Unemployment rates among young people (20-29) with basic education and those with supplementary vocational education and training (EU - 1995 figures) COUNTRIES EU-14 Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden UK BASIC EDUCATION 23.5 24.3 17.7 16.2 14.3 33.9 30 22.2 5.7 14.8 : 11.2 35.4 21.7 18.5 BASIC EDUCATION PLUS SUPPLEMENTARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION / TRAINING 11.5 19.7 8.5 7.6 20 34.9 17.1 15.9 : 7.2 4 16.2 23.6 : 10 Ireland – No figures available : = Data unreliable Source: Eurostat (as quoted in Economic and Social Committee of Greece, 1998, p. 31). The market of CVT in Greece is insufficiently covered, leaving many sectors unattended, mainly due to the lack of specific demand and supply structures (Chasapis, 1994). Training in Greece runs in the same way from early 1990s up to now and there is no in-depth and detailed analysis of the labour market needs. Although in the field of training in Greece the real expenditure (absorption) of EU funds is 100%, there is no change in the philosophy, design and implementation of programmes during the three CSFs (INE/GSEE, 2008). Only the financial control was strict during the second and the third CSFs. The most successful programmes in terms of matching supply and demand for labour are mainly those on accountancy and informatics (authors’ personal experience). Particularly with regard to training programmes for the unemployed in Greece, the method of identifying skills requirements, on the basis of which the programmes were offered, was wholly inadequate. It was based on changes in labour force categories derived from the LFS, on estimates of the impact of investment programmes on employment (where these existed or where such estimates were possible) and on Job Market 128 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Surveys. These last record shortages of skills on the basis of company estimates of their own shortages, which were often inaccurate or did not correspond to the capacity of the firms to utilise the skills demanded (Linardos-Rylmon, 1998). Macroeconomic data of the examined regions The Region of Central Macedonia (RCM) Central Macedonia is the largest region of Greece (19,147 km2 - 14.5% of the country’s surface) and is situated in the centre of Northern Greece. The RCM consists of seven NUTS-3 areas (Thessaloniki, Serres, Chalkidiki, Imathia, Pella, Kilkis and Pieria) and is the second largest Greek region in terms of population (about 1.7 million inhabitants according to 1991 census) after that of Attica, whereas the population of the entire Greece was approximately 10.26 million. Between the census of 1991 and 2001 the population rose by 9.6%, a rise higher than the national mean (6.9%). Also, the major urban centre and capital of Central Macedonia is Thessaloniki, which is the second most important Greek city. According to 1991 census the population of the Thessaloniki Area was about 750,000 inhabitants, whereas that of the county of Thessaloniki was approximately 945,000 inhabitants. The main cities are ThessalonikiVeria-Serres-Katerini-Naoussa-Edessa-Polygyros-Kilkis. The main industries were textiles, plastic-chemicals, food-beverages and clothing. In 2003, the region’s per capita GDP (PPS) was 17,110 euro (83% of the EU-25 average), whereas Thessaloniki and Chalkidiki were the richest counties of the region having a GDP per head equal to 90.3% and 89.5% correspondingly of the EU-25 mean. In 2003 the region produced 17.6% of the country’s GDP (the second largest contributor after Attica) - 18% of the national agricultural produce (first in the country), 20% of the manufacturing production (second in the country) and 18% of services (second in the country). The unemployment rate in the RCM was 9.2% in 1992 and increased to 11.5% in 2002 [source:  (www.statistics.gr)]. The Region of Attica The Region of Attica (NUTS-2) - which is geographically situated in Central Greece - is the one and only region-county (NUTS-3) in Greece, since according to 1991 census its population size was about 3.5 million inhabitants; namely, 3 out of 10 Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 129 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Greeks lived in Attica. The capital of the region is the city of Athens, which is by far the most important Greek city in economic, administrative and political terms. In 1988, Attica’s GDP was equal to 61% of the EU-12 average (58% for Greece as a whole), whereas in 1996 the region improved its position since its GDP was 77% of the EU-15 mean (68% for the country as a whole) and 86% of the EU-25 mean in 2003 (80.9% for Greece as a whole). In 2003, Attica was ranked third among the 13 Greek regions, based on that criterion (GDP per capita), after Central Greece and the Southern Aegean. The Region of Attica produces 37.4% of the country’s GDP - 2.7% of the country’s agricultural produce, 35.5% of the manufacturing and 42% of services (2001) – [sources: www.ypes.gr/attiki and  (www.statistics. gr)]. There was an increase in the percentage of unemployed from 10% in 1988 to 11.7% of the workforce in 19952. The male unemployment rate was 6.47% in 1988 and 8.4% in 1995, whereas the corresponding female percentages were 16.32% and 16.86%. LTU - as percentage of total unemployment - amounted to 45.4% in 1988 and 50.9% in 1995 (LFS). Methodology, Analysis/Findings/Discussions Econometric model: Logistic regression for unemployment The logistic regression based on the micro-data of the Greek LFS European Community Household Panel Survey (ECHPS) and Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC) data have been designed for the country as a whole in the case of Greece, so we cannot really work at regional level. Also, individual census records do not exist in Greece, like e.g. in Denmark, so the only way is to base our research on the LFS micro-data. The originality of this research is that we use individual anonymised records (microdata) of the LFS for both employed and unemployed (about 1.5% of the total population of each region). The questionnaire of the Greek LFS was greatly modified in 1992. 2 The percentage of unemployment is characterized by an augmentative tendency with the exception of the two year period 1989-1990, during which it shows a temporary decrease. 130 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Tables 3 and 4 display the frequency distribution of the binary variables for 1988 and 1992 respectively. Due to their binary nature, statistics about their central tendency and dispersion would be perplexing. Apart from the system missing records, following the limitation of age (15-64 years old) and removing the non-active population, we ended with the following numbers of records available for analysis in each region (in the spring and early summer, namely from the 14th to 26th week of the year): Table 3. Descriptive statistics for the sample of 1988 Central Macedonia Males (6.075) Frequencies Share Employed 5,804 95.50% Unemployed271 4.50% Females (3.633) Frequencies Share 3,233 89.00% 400 11% Attica Males (12.708) Frequencies Share 11,876 93.50% 832 7.50% Females (7.214) Frequencies Share 6,028 83.60% 1,186 16.40% 78.40% 2,777 76.40% 9,507 74.80% 4,705 65.20% 657 1,361 1,578 2,479 10.80% 22.40% 26.00% 40.80% 580 957 929 1,167 16.00% 26.30% 25.60% 32.10% 1,157 3,358 3,691 4,502 9.10% 26.40% 29.00% 35.40% 1,342 2,489 1,936 1,447 18.60% 34.50% 26.80% 20.10% 27 0.40% 11 0.30% 175 1.40% 70 1.00% 525 8.60% 400 11.00% 1,778 14.00% 1,208 16.70% 225 3.70% 177 4.90% 1,386 10.90% 821 11.40% 933 15.40% 641 17.60% 2,835 22.30% 2,307 32.00% 9 years compulsory 794 education 13.10% 255 7.00% 1,877 14.80% 545 7.60% Primary school 3,494 graduates and below 57.50% 2,080 57.30% 4,429 34.90% 2,017 28.00% Variables Married or divorced or 4,763 widows Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates 12 years of schooling Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 131 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Table 4. Descriptive statistics for the sample of 1992 Central Macedonia Variables Attica Males (5.815) Females (3.475) Males (12.559) Females (7.742) Frequencies Share Frequencies Share Frequencies Share Frequencies Share Employed 5,537 95.20% 3,056 87.90% 11,703 93.20% 6,453 83.40% Unemployed 278 4.80% 12.10% 856 6.80% 1,289 16.60% Married or divorced or widows 4,385 75.40% 2,579 74.20% 9,021 71.80% 5,097 65.80% Aged 15-24 579 10.00% 525 15.10% 1,260 10.00% 1,360 17.60% Aged 25-34 1,307 22.50% 935 26.90% 3,367 26.80% 2,478 32.00% Aged 35-44 1,467 25.20% 934 26.90% 3,414 27.20% 2,236 28.90% Aged 45-64 2,462 42.30% 1,081 31.10% 4,518 36.00% 1,668 21.50% MSc or PhD holders 33 0.60% 0.50% 0.80% 0.50% University graduates 583 10.00% 460 13.20% 2,197 17.50% 1,435 18.50% 221 3.80% 6.40% 7.10% 9.10% 1,132 19.50% 769 22.10% 3,529 28.10% 2,990 38.60% 794 13.70% 307 8.80% 15.00% 641 8.30% Primary school graduates and 3,052 below 52.50% 1,701 48.90% 3,962 31.50% 1,931 24.90% Apprenticeship 34 0.60% 27 0.80% 53 0.40% 32 0.40% Intra-firm training 13 0.20% 9 0.30% 7 0.10% 5 0.10% CVT 41 0.70% 9 0.30% 37 0.30% 10 0.10% Popular training5 0.10% 5 0.10% 3 0.00% 0 0.00% Nonparticipation 5,722 in trainings course(s) ever 98.40% 3,425 TEI graduates 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education 419 17 221 100 892 1,879 98.60% 12,459 37 708 99.20% 7,695 99.40% The majority of individuals in the sample are married (over two thirds of total population), divorced or widowed. Both in 1988 and 1992, most males are in the age range of 45-64, while the age range 15-24 represents roughly 10% of total males. A similar but not that dispersed division of age groups population is also depicted for females in Central Macedonia, both for 1988 and 1992. On the contrary, female population of Attica both in 1988 and 1992 is primarily concentrated on the age 132 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia groups of 25-34 and 35-44. With regard to education, the majority of the population is concentrated to primary school graduates and twelve years of schooling. Females and the residents of Attica indicate a higher share in higher education. Participation in training courses is particularly small, mainly through CVT and apprenticeship for males, and apprenticeship for females. The basic aim of the econometric analysis is to test the impact that various social and demographic characteristics had on people’s job prospects in the Regions of Central Macedonia and Attica, during the implementation of the CSF-1 (1989-93). We use a logistic regression model. Regression models allow for group comparisons adjusting for demographic and socio-economic variables. It should be noted that regression-adjusted comparisons may still provide misleading results when other important variables that might have an effect are omitted. The dependent variable takes two possible values (employed versus unemployed). A full description of the explanatory variables is given below and are among the most important variables generally acknowledged as affecting access to labour market. The models were fitted using SPSS version 18.0. The effect of demographic variables such as age, gender, marital status, as well as educational level and participation in training programmes (the last is only available in 1992) on the employment status, is investigated with a logistic regression model due to the categorical nature of the dependent variable. The binary logistic regression equation is: e = 0 + 1 m.s. + 2-4 a.g. + 5-9 educ. (1988) e = 0 + 1 m.s. + 2-4 a.g. + 5-9 educ. + 10-13 tr. (1992) where e (employment status) is the logit (ln of the odds) of being unemployed. The independent variables are – in the order appearing in the equation – gender, marital status, age groups, education achieved and training (or not). Age groups, education achieved and training are groups of contrasting variables. The parameter estimates  – 0 is the constant – are the odds ratio of the independent variables. It should be noted that we are only capturing causal effects under very strong and unrealistic assumptions, but the estimates are still interesting as they show whether the descriptive patterns hold up against additional control variables. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 133 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Also, measurement errors in the “treatment” variables (education and/or training) will lead to downward bias in the regression’s estimates. A limitation of the research is that the data available are cross-sectional rather than longitudinal and therefore we cannot study any population changes across time. Description of the variables We define now the complete list of variables together with their coding values that we use in the model. The reference category of each variable is underlined. Dependent variable Employment Status (STA1) (Unemployed, Employed) Explanatory variables 1) Gender (Female, Male) 2) Marital status (Married or divorced or widows against Non-married) 3) Age groups 15-24 years old 25-34 years old 35-44 years old 45-64 years old 4) Level of education University graduates MSc or PhD holders Technological Educational Institutions () graduates Lyceum graduates (12 years of schooling) or not finished University High-school graduates (9 years-compulsory education) Primary school graduates or not finished primary school or never in school. 134 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia 5) Participation in the past in training course(s) Apprenticeship Intra-firm training Continuing vocational training (CVT) Popular training Non-participation in the past in training course(s) The base (or reference) categories are those that appear in the Tables 5-8 with empty cells and with which the rest of the corresponding variables are compared. The reference categories are chosen so as to match the needs of the research. The working age population is between 14-65 years old. However, marking in SPSS the ages 14 and 65 we also include those who are 13 and 66 years old something which we want to avoid; so, we include people from 15 to 64. We examine people below and over 30 since until the age of 30 years old, employment is often not “permanent” due to (post)graduate studies and working experience acquisition, plus fulfilment of compulsory military service for men. The variable “participation in the past in training course(s)” first appeared in the 1992 questionnaire; it means that the interviewee had completed one or more training courses. This is also an indication of the attitude towards training in Greece at the beginning of the 1990s. The duration of apprenticeship and intra-firm training had to be at least one year according to the questionnaire of the Greek LFS. The term “popular training” (laiki epimorphosi in Greek) means training courses intended mainly for elderly people independently of their educational level, where the curriculum includes largely courses of general knowledge. We cannot examine the impact of training on earnings, because this kind of information does not exist in the questionnaire of the Greek LFS. Concerning the residence location (see robustness checks in sections 5.2 and 5.3) in the case of Attica in 1988 there were some reservations which may be related to the fact that the 1992 LFS data are better than those of 1988, as the most recent data are better than those of 1992. Consequently the investigation of the subsequent years is needed in order to have a clearer picture in the 1990s given the fact that, as mentioned in the introduction, the Greek LFS micro-data are now available to researchers. Tables 5-8 present the estimated coefficients (B) and their standard errors (S.E.) of each explanatory variable in the logistic regression for unemployment. The column “Sig.” (level of statistical significance or p value) corresponds to the probability of the rejection area. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 135 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Results for Central Macedonia Table 5 displays the odds of being unemployed at Central Macedonia in 1988. The Exp(bk) column displays the odds ratio. Odds ratios less than 1.000 correspond to decreases and odds ratios more than 1.000 correspond to increases in odds. Odds ratios close to 1.000 indicate that unit changes in that independent variable do not affect the dependent variable. Parameter estimates are significant at 1% level except for some groups in education (MSc or PhD holders, TEI graduates, 12 years of schooling for males, and these plus 9 years compulsory education for females). Gender differences are present only for the level of education. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by being not-married rather than married. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are decreased by being 25 years old or more. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by holding a first degree except for two educational categories. For males, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased being a TEI graduate rather to holding a first degree. For females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing postgraduate education rather to holding a first degree. The robustness checks provide evidence of structural validity and vary according to the distribution of the population. They indicate that the odds for employment are increased for higher education graduates/postgraduates aged 30 and more or not leaving in Thessaloniki (the latter is not demonstrated for males). A notable difference for geographical grouping with respect to males, is that the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased for being a TEI graduate rather to holding a first degree, when based in Thessaloniki. The respective odds are significantly decreased when based in rural areas. For males aged less than 30 the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing postgraduate education and decrease by being a TEI graduate rather to holding a first degree. On the other hand, for males aged 30 or more, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased considerably by achieving any educational level (except for postgraduate education) rather to holding a first degree. In addition, for females in rest urban areas the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by achieving any educational level (postgraduate education is not available) rather to holding a first degree. For females aged less than 30 the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing postgraduate education rather to holding a first degree. For females aged more than 30 the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by achieving any educational level (except for postgraduate education) rather to holding a first degree. 136 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Table 5. Results for Central Macedonia (1988) Robustness checks MALES Exp(bk) 0.475 0.34 0.109 0.082 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.205 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.843 n.a. n.a. 0.84 1.292 0.74 0.085 - - - - - Thessaloniki Rural areas Sig. 0.18 0.01 0 0 Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.197 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. s.e. 0.21 0.17 0.28 0.27 Sig. 0 0 0 0 Exp(bk) 0.252 0.393 0.223 0.338 Sig. 0 0 0 0.01 Exp(bk) 0.223 0.32 0.199 0.383 -0.13 1.05 0.9 0.88 0.87 University graduates - - - - TEI graduates 0.151 0.34 0.65 1.163 0.57 1.254 0.47 0.407 0.42 0.725 0.26 2.402 12 years of schooling 0.061 0.22 0.78 1.063 0.93 0.977 0.41 0.538 0.06 0.617 0.01 4.375 9 years compulsory education -0.76 0.24 0 0.468 0.02 0.459 0.05 0.211 0 0.255 0.06 3.118 Primary school graduates and -0.65 0.21 below 0 0.521 0.34 0.783 0.03 0.208 0 0.194 0.02 3.395 Constant 0 0.364 0 0.44 0.605 0 0.486 0 0.028 Sig. Robustness checks Rest of urban Aged less than Aged 30 and Thessaloniki areas 30 more Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders bk -1.38 -0.94 -1.5 -1.09 - -1.01 0.2 FEMALES s.e. - 0.48 - Variables bk Marital status -0.73 0.14 0 0.481 0 0.491 0 0.387 0 0.388 0 0.46 Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates -0.68 -1.27 -1.78 0 0 0 0.507 0.28 0.169 0.4 0.244 0.187 0.619 0.243 0.332 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.68 1.404 0.67 1.418 n.a. n.a. 0.35 3.249 0.73 0.064 - - - - - 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education Primary school graduates and below Constant Volume 3 0.15 0.2 0.23 0.339 0.82 - - 0 0 0 - - 0.14 0.688 0.03 0.471 0.95 1.036 0.03 0.528 0.47 1.592 -0.19 0.17 0.26 0.829 0.07 0.702 0.3 1.552 0 0.506 0 3.983 -0.19 0.21 0.35 0.824 0.58 0.866 0.24 1.798 0 0.427 0 8.312 -0.57 0.17 0 0.567 0.27 0.784 0.31 1.51 0.3 0.07 2.074 -0.43 0.15 0 0.648 0.09 0.751 0.13 0.567 0.36 0.87 0 0.049 Spring 2013 - n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. -0.37 0.25 Number 1 - 0.15 0 0.01 0 - 137 �Table 6 displays the odds of being unemployed at Central Macedonia in 1992. Parameter estimates are significant at 1% level except for education (lyceum graduates are significant for women) and training. Marital status for females is significant at 5% level. Gender differences are present only for the level of education and training. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by being not-married rather than married. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are decreased by being 25 years old or more. For males, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing secondary education or being an MSc or PhD holder rather to holding a first degree. For females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by achieving any educational level (except for postgraduate education) rather to holding a first degree. For males, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing an apprenticeship rather to not participating in training courses. For females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are not increased only by completing CVT. The robustness checks provide evidence of structural validity and vary according to the distribution of the population. In general, they indicate that the odds for employment are increased for higher education graduates aged 30 and more or leaving in Thessaloniki (TEI graduates also enjoy increased odds in some categories). Moreover, apprenticeship increases the odds for employment for males that do not reside in Thessaloniki. A notable difference for males of Thessaloniki - as compared to those of rural areas - is in the increased odds of being unemployed compared to being employed by completing all educational levels (except for 9 years compulsory education) rather to holding a first degree. Also for males in rural areas the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are significantly decreased by completing an apprenticeship rather to not participating in training courses. Another notable difference is for males aged more than 30 years old - as compared to those less than 30 - where the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are not increased only by being a TEI graduate rather to holding a first degree. MSc or PhD holders have greater odds to be unemployed compared to those holding a first degree. The difference between Thessaloniki and the rest of urban areas for females is in the decreased odds of being unemployed by being a TEI graduate rather to holding a first degree. Another difference regarding the rest of urban areas is in the increased odds of apprenticeship. The differences between the age groups of females are in the decreased odds of being 138 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �unemployed by being a postgraduate or completing up to nine years of schooling (two categories) rather to holding a first degree for the group of less than 30 years old. Another difference is in the increased odds of apprenticeship for the group of 30 years old or over, and the increased odds of intra-firm and popular training for the group of less than 30 years old. Table 6. Results for Central Macedonia (1992) Robustness checks MALES Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates bk -1.18 -0.42 -1.23 -1.01 s.e. Sig. 0.192 0 0.165 0.01 0.267 0 0.259 0 Sig. 0 0.01 0 0 Sig. 0.02 0.06 0.25 0.56 Exp(bk) 0.292 0.569 0.231 0.287 Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.235 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.333 n.a. n.a. 0.74 1.601 0.18 2.964 - - - - - - Non-participation in trainings course(s) ever Volume 3 Exp(bk) 0.174 0.397 0.359 0.625 Rural areas 0.979 0.653 0.13 2.661 0.08 - - - TEI graduates -0.1 0.363 0.79 12 years of 0.128 0.232 0.58 schooling 9 years compulsory -0.42 0.261 0.11 education Primary school graduates and -0.33 0.231 0.15 below Apprenticeship 0.342 0.639 0.59 Intra-firm training -4.22 9.881 0.67 CVT -0.79 1.027 0.44 Popular training -3.68 16.22 0.82 Constant Exp(bk) 0.307 0.658 0.293 0.365 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.332 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Thessaloniki - - -1.48 0.24 0 Number 1 - - - 0.907 0.57 1.282 0.27 0.253 0.8 0.895 0.28 0.321 1.136 0.31 1.339 0.17 0.342 0.41 0.784 0.28 1.528 0.66 0.78 0.04 0.191 0 0.311 0.07 2.056 0.717 0.14 1.551 0.01 0.133 0 0.377 0.34 1.395 1.408 0.015 0.455 0.025 0.75 0.63 0.4 0.79 1.418 0.042 0.421 0.052 0.73 0.92 0.8 0.96 0.008 0.027 0.014 0.17 0.89 0.76 0.78 n.a. 1.122 0.019 0.748 n.a. 0.59 0.77 0.58 0.84 1.743 0.035 0.026 0.038 - - - - - - - - - 0.47 0.229 0 Spring 2013 0.244 0.37 0.525 0 0.308 0 0.062 139 �FEMALES Variables bk s.e. Sig. Marital status -0.3 0.146 0.04 Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 -0.78 0.157 0 Aged 35-44 -1.15 0.193 0 Aged 45-64 -1.82 0.224 0 MSc or PhD -0.46 1.047 0.66 holders University graduates TEI graduates 0.295 0.25 0.24 12 years of 0.52 0.191 0.01 schooling 9 years compulsory 0.237 0.23 0.3 education Primary school graduates and 0.121 0.195 0.54 below Apprenticeship 0.551 0.468 0.24 Intra-firm training 0.149 0.845 0.86 CVT -0.73 1.081 0.5 Popular training 1.133 1.144 0.32 Non-participation in trainings course(s) ever Constant -1.13 0.195 0 Exp(bk) 0.74 0.457 0.315 0.162 Robustness checks Rest of urban Thessaloniki areas Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) 0.17 0.781 0.03 0.449 0 0.424 0 0.304 0 0.253 0 0.229 0 0.165 0 0.159 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.575 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0.12 0.673 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.629 0.66 0.63 n.a. n.a. 0.69 0.022 0.71 1.497 - - - - - - - - - 1.344 0.48 0.797 0.08 3.125 0.35 1.33 0.93 1.046 1.682 0.08 1.464 0.08 2.851 0.05 1.59 0.01 2.3 1.268 0.37 1.281 0.44 1.702 0.77 0.919 0 3.503 1.128 0.02 1.73 0 5.857 0.06 0.563 0.06 1.768 1.735 1.161 0.48 3.104 0.99 0.45 0.58 0.26 0.996 0.017 0.026 3.746 0.6 n.a. 0.71 n.a. 1.164 n.a. 0.035 n.a. 0.17 0.73 0.74 0.64 0.231 1.353 0.689 5.585 0 0.77 0.74 0.72 6.934 0.024 0.027 0.02 - - - - - - - - - 0.324 0 0.371 0.14 0.397 0 0.323 0 0.061 Results for Attica Table 7 displays the odds of being unemployed at Attica in 1988. Parameter estimates are significant at 1% level except for some groups in education. Significant estimates for education groups regarding males are those for MSc or PhD holders and 9 years compulsory education (10% level). The latter category has also significant estimates for females (3% level). Gender differences are present only for the level of education. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by being not-married rather than married. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are decreased by being 25 years old or more. For males, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are decreased by any level of education attained rather to holding a first degree. For 140 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing all levels until secondary education rather to holding a first degree. The robustness checks provide evidence of structural validity and vary according to the distribution of the population. They indicate that the odds for employment are increased for higher education graduates/postgraduates aged 30 and more or not leaving in Athens (the latter is not demonstrated for males). A notable difference for males of rest urban areas is in the increased odds of being unemployed compared to being employed by being 45-64 years old rather to being 15-24 years old. In addition, the level of education attained has a different effect on each age group. For males aged 30 or more, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased considerably by achieving any educational level (except for postgraduate education) rather to holding a first degree. A notable difference for females between Athens and semi-urban areas is in the increased odds of being unemployed compared to being employed for any level of education attained especially by being a TEI graduate - rather to holding a first degree. For females aged 30 or over, the odds ratios of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased considerably by achieving any educational level rather to holding a first degree. Table 7. Results for Attica (1988) MALES Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education Primary school graduates and below Constant Volume 3 bk -1.35 -0.64 -1.03 -0.84 s.e. 0.1 0.1 0.14 0.14 Robustness checks Rest of urban Athens areas Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.262 0.01 0.213 0 0.512 0.93 0.953 0 0.336 0.74 0.775 0 0.416 0.93 1.068 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.169 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.32 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Sig. 0 0 0 0 Exp(bk) 0.259 0.527 0.358 0.432 -0.83 0.47 0.08 0.436 0.09 0.452 0.82 0.007 0.26 0.417 0.63 0.748 - - - - - - - -0.04 0.14 0.75 0.957 0.68 0.944 0.55 0.518 0 0.558 0 2.071 -0.12 0.11 0.29 0.886 0.39 0.904 0.69 0.691 0 0.593 0.02 1.639 -0.25 0.13 0.05 0.779 0.16 0.831 0.24 0.323 0 0.446 0 1.898 -0.11 0.11 0.33 0.895 0.62 0.943 0.5 0.57 0 0.437 0 1.979 -1.08 0.11 0 0.339 0 0.35 0.308 0 0.436 0 0.06 - Number 1 Spring 2013 - - 0.17 - - 141 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS FEMALES Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education Primary school graduates and below Constant bk -0.26 -1.17 -1.58 -2.22 s.e. 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.15 Robustness checks Semi-urban Athens areas Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) 0.01 0.786 0.36 0.576 0 0.302 0.51 0.653 0 0.204 0.01 0.085 0 0.113 0.02 0.056 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.453 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0.37 1.142 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Sig. 0 0 0 0 Exp(bk) 0.772 0.31 0.205 0.109 -0.08 0.39 0.85 0.928 0.83 0.921 n.a. n.a. 0.5 0.669 0.23 1.94 - - - - - - - - -0.18 0.13 0.16 0.838 0.12 0.819 0.09 8.868 0 0.562 0 2.619 0.06 0.09 0.52 1.062 0.59 1.052 0.29 3.311 0.05 0.803 0 2.912 0.282 0.13 0.03 1.326 0.01 1.424 0.48 2.415 0.86 1.028 0 4.828 0.117 0.11 0.28 1.124 0.2 1.154 0.1 6.077 0 0.597 0 2.749 -0.44 0.09 0 0.645 0 0.652 0.07 0.125 0 0.627 0 0.036 - - - - Table 8 displays the odds of being unemployed at Attica in 1992. Parameter estimates are significant at 1% level except for some groups in education and all training groups. With regard to males only MSc or PhD holders (10% level) and primary school graduates and below (3% level) have significant estimates. Education categories with significant estimates for females are 12 years of schooling, 9 years compulsory education and primary school graduates and below (all at 1% level). There are no gender differences regarding the values of odds (e.g. less or more than 1) for the general model. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by being not-married rather than married. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are decreased by being 25 years old or more. Both for males and females, the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased for achieving any level of education other than a first degree. Both for males and females the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing CVT. The robustness checks provide evidence of structural validity and vary according to the distribution of the population. Males in rest of urban areas completing primary 142 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia education have increased odds of being employed compared to holding a first degree. In addition, for males in rest of urban areas apprenticeship seems to be very important in employment prospects. Holding a first degree is particularly important for the employment prospects of males aged more than 30 years old. The picture for females is more integrated as only two estimators resulting from the age groups robustness tests deviate from the general model. A notable difference for males of rest of urban areas - as compared to those of Athens - is in the decreased odds of being unemployed compared to being employed when being a primary school graduate rather to holding a first degree. Also for males in Athens - compared to the general findings - the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing an apprenticeship rather to not participating in training courses (the opposite is indicated for males in rest of urban areas). Moreover, males aged 30 and more have more odds to be employed by holding a first degree. On the other hand, males aged less than 30 have a greater odd to be employed only over those having finished postgraduate studies. Also for males aged more than 30 years old the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing CVT. The residential robustness tests for females are not differentiated from the general model (e.g. the values of odds remain for each variable less or more than 1). Furthermore, females less than 30 that hold a first degree have decreased odds to employment only against postgraduates. Females aged 30 and more have increased odds to employment by holding a first degree. Finally, for females aged more than 30 years old the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing CVT rather to not participating in training courses. About the non-impact of training programmes on the Greek labour market at national and regional (NUTS-2) level see also Rodokanakis, 2009 & 2010; Rodokanakis and Tryfonidis, 2009; Rodokanakis and Vlachos, 2012. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 143 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS Table 8. Results for Attica (1992) MALES Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education Primary school graduates and below Apprenticeship Intra-firm training CVT Popular training Non-participation in trainings course(s) ever Constant bk s.e. Sig. -1.13 0.107 0 -0.97 0.099 0 -1.33 0.142 0 -1.04 0.142 0 0.655 0.371 0.08 0.104 0.173 0.55 0.175 0.125 0.16 Exp(bk) 0.322 0.379 0.263 0.355 1.925 1.109 1.191 144 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.209 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.68 1.333 0.8 0.942 0.8 0.955 Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.363 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.053 2.389 0.948 1.018 0.027 1.48 0.079 0.142 0.58 1.082 0.58 1.088 0.92 1.073 0.42 0.854 0.032 1.55 0.301 0.127 0.02 1.351 0 1.479 0.57 0.681 0.1 0.69 0 -0.06 0.541 0.92 -3.73 8.057 0.64 0.522 0.559 0.35 -2.72 12.81 0.83 - - - -1.27 0.131 0 2.151 0.945 0.024 1.685 0.066 0.91 0.64 0.32 0.83 1.061 0.024 1.745 0.069 0.82 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.007 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.91 0.6 0.72 n.a. 1.075 0.017 0.679 n.a. 0.695 0.67 0.854 0.034 0.053 3.326 0.856 0.022 - - - - - - - - 0.281 0 FEMALES Variables Marital status Aged 15-24 Aged 25-34 Aged 35-44 Aged 45-64 MSc or PhD holders University graduates TEI graduates 12 years of schooling 9 years compulsory education Primary school graduates and below Apprenticeship Intra-firm training CVT Popular training Non-participation in trainings course(s) ever Constant Robustness checks Rest of urban Athens areas Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.304 0.09 0.412 0 0.361 0.06 0.414 0 0.246 0.53 0.669 0 0.337 0.42 0.592 0.06 2.011 n.a. n.a. 0.72 1.069 0.1 3.846 0.16 1.202 0.91 1.09 0.292 0.06 0.269 0 Robustness checks Semi-urban Athens areas Sig. Exp(bk) Sig. Exp(bk) 0.01 0.807 0.17 0.516 0 0.393 0.13 0.459 0 0.239 0.04 0.29 0 0.174 0 0.085 0.8 1.151 n.a. n.a. 0.12 1.254 0.75 1.291 0 1.532 0.53 1.557 0.264 0 Aged less than 30 Sig. Exp(bk) 0 0.533 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.54 0.521 0.08 1.362 0 1.713 0.06 Aged 30 and more Sig. Exp(bk) 0.676 0.947 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.282 1.962 0.115 1.459 0 1.892 s.e. Sig. bk -0.23 0.083 0.01 -0.9 0.091 0 -1.41 0.111 0 -1.79 0.127 0 0.094 0.546 0.86 0.197 0.141 0.16 0.392 0.105 0 Exp(bk) 0.795 0.405 0.245 0.167 1.099 1.217 1.48 0.691 0.135 0 1.995 0 2.031 0.48 1.782 0 2.177 0 2.913 0.949 0.114 0 2.584 0 2.533 0.02 4.819 0 2.405 0 3.064 -0.33 0.509 0.51 -3.14 6.016 0.6 0.364 0.849 0.67 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.717 0.043 1.439 n.a. 0.31 0.6 0.65 n.a. 0.565 0.044 1.468 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.95 0.68 0.21 n.a. 0.963 0.02 4.78 n.a. 0.548 0.539 0.756 0.019 0.651 0.023 n.a. n.a. - - - - n.a. n.a. - - - - - -0.99 0.109 0 0.371 0 0.358 0.24 0.439 0 0.274 0 0.061 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Conclusions Binary logistic regression is employed in order to determine the effects of gender, marital status, age, education and training - the latter only for 1992 - on unemployment/employment. There are separate analyses with respect to gender for each region and for each year. The robustness checks based on residential and age grouping provide evidence of structural validity and vary according to the distribution of the population. Regarding marital status for both areas in 1988 and 1992, the odds of being unemployed increase for non-married. Moreover, for both areas and for the same period, the most vulnerable age group to unemployment is between 15-24 years of age. Gender differences both in Central Macedonia and Attica for 1988, are present only for the level of education. For Central Macedonia, the individuals most vulnerable to unemployment are females holding a postgraduate degree and males that have achieved a TEI degree. For Attica, the individuals most vulnerable to unemployment are males holding a first degree and females that have attended up to secondary education. While there are not any gender differences in Attica for 1992, gender is differentiated to the level of education and training in Central Macedonia for the same year. For Central Macedonia, the individuals most vulnerable to unemployment are males holding a postgraduate degree or completed secondary education, and females completing any level of education up to achieving a TEI degree. For Attica, the individuals less vulnerable to unemployment are those holding a first degree. Regarding training, for Central Macedonia, the males most vulnerable to unemployment are those that have completed an apprenticeship and the females less vulnerable to unemployment are only those that have completed CVT. On the other hand, the odds for males and females in Attica of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased by completing CVT. Higher education attainment (over TEI) for females in Central Macedonia in 1992, and in Attica in 1988 for females increases the odds for employment. Both male and female university graduates in Attica in 1992 have increased odds to be employed. It would not be proper to conclude on the effect of training on the odds of being employed in 1992, as active population in Greece was not interested in participating to training programmes (the Greek LFS is representative of active population Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 145 �Stavros RODOKANAKIS / Vasileios A. VLACHOS in Greece). However, even if we were to rely on these insignificant estimators, there would be a mixed outcome since different forms of training - both across sexes and regions - seem to increase the odds of being employed. Since the sample does indicate very little participation in training programmes, we cannot obtain significant results. It seems, however, that the relative preference of both males and females for apprenticeship did not pay off, since the odds of being unemployed compared to being employed are increased. 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Estimating the threat effect of Active Labor Market Programs, Working Paper No 6, Department of Economics, University of Aarhus. 150 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Stanley, M., Katz, L., & Krueger, A. B. (1999). Impacts of employment and training programs: The American experience, Harvard University (mimeo). Steiger, H. (2005). Is less more? A look at non-participation in Swiss active labor market programmes, University of St. Gallen (mimeo). Stenberg, A. (2005). Comprehensive education for the unemployed - Evaluating the effects on unemployment of the Adult Education Initiative in Sweden, Labour, 19, 123-46. Stevens, M. (1994). An investment model for the supply of training by employers, Economic Journal, 104, 556-70. Tatch, J., Pratten, C., & Ryan, P. (1998). 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Coping with a structural crisis: Evaluating an innovative redundancy-retraining project, International Journal of Manpower, 27 (8), 700-21. Woodhall, M. (1987). Economics of education: A review, in Psacharopoulos G. (ed.), Economics of education: Research and studies, Pergamon Press, 1-8. www.ypes.gr/attiki Zweimuller, J., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (1996). Manpower training programmes and employment stability, Economica, 63 (249), 113-30. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 151 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2378 Title A name given to the resource Evaluating the employment probability: Men and women in comparative perspective in Attica and Central Macedonia Author Author Rodokanakis, Stavros Vlachos, Vasileios A. Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper investigates unemployment risk and job prospects of males and females in the two Greece’s most populated regions - Attica and Central Macedonia - during the implementation of the first Community Support Framework (1989-1993). Originality lies in the separate analyses for males and females. The sample is based on anonymous records (micro-data) of the Labour Force Survey for both employed and unemployed at Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics-2 level. Firstly, social and demographic characteristics increasing the odds of being employed are examined - i.e. age, marital status, residence, education and training. Secondly, the issue of whether University graduates have lesser odds of being employed is investigated. The findings indicate that gender differences in odds of being employed appear mainly across education levels. Moreover, higher education attainment increases the odds of being employed particularly for females. The paper delivers conclusions that can be used for comparative research among European regions. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-03-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9abd7525aa9d7024a3303c5f5788130c.pdf 04b737e855c4e1ec2672e3cfaa9d04b2 PDF Text Text Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Đhsan Ö mür Bucak Fatih University, Engineering Faculty, Computer Engineering Department, 34500 Buyukcekmece,Istanbul, Turkiye ibucak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Keywords: Vehicle Acceleration, Vehicle Dynamics, Decision Tree Learning, Machine Learning. Introduction A vehicle can go faster if it has more horsepower. In reality, there are many aspects to a vehicle acceleration besides it's horsepower. One other major aspectis vehicle weight.Ifthe vehicle weightislowered, itsacceleration, braking, and handling capabilites will beincreased. Given the same power and adequatetraction, a light vehicle will accelerate quicker than a heavier vehicle. Figure 1 shows such an acceleration performance, specifically 0-60 mph (=26.66 m/s) passing time, for various vehicle weights from 1100 kg to 1700 kg with all other parameters unchanged on a simple vehicle dynamics modelrealized on Matlab-Simulink (Matlab, 2008). A very quick street or race car usually combines excellent power with less weight. The most current vehicle dynamics controllers attempt to ensure stability by keeping lateral acceleration, sometimes, longitudinal acceleration, and yaw within reasonable bounds (Bauer, 1999a; 1999b; Jurgen, 1999; Karri and Butler, 2002). The faster that a vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucialto its performance and handling. The acceleration of a vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the vehicle performs during merging and evasive maneuvering. The launching performances are the acceleration performance with variousthrottle positions and the transient characteristics of vehiclecreep and throttletip-in. Every time a new or redesigned performance car enters the marketplace,itis accompanied by a number; specifically,the number of seconds it takes to reach 60 miles per hour (26.66 meters per second) from a standing start. So many drivers want to push that pedal allthe way to the metal, as much of the time as possible; because they do not want to have trouble merging into an expressway or take endless seconds to pass another vehicle on a two-lane road. Weak acceleration is an issue that needs to be addressed when minicars,including those powered by batteries, begin to emerge into the world market. What matters is not the ability to reach 60 miles per hour in a few seconds. Allthat countsisthe abilityto accelerate at midrange speeds:from 30 to 50 mph, or 50 to 70 mph. That is where energetic acceleration has a valid purpose, and is essential for safe motoring. Charts display acceleration times not only from 0 to 60 mph, but for a selection of useful speed ranges. Road tests include a broad set oftimed acceleration runs. Excess acceleration and deceleration need to be detected and mitigated within the required response time particularlyinthe case of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).There are a variety of simulation programs developed toinvestigatethelaunching performance in variouslaunching conditionsthrough the use of mathematical models of each driveline component (Kim, 2005). Automotive manufacturers use such performance programs to evaluate their vehicles during product design and development stages so that they can meet the stringent govermentalregulations on performance,fuel economy, and emissions before the vehicleis actuallylaunched to the marketplace. Practical evaluation of acceleration behavior through the rulistic expression of decision trees helps to expose the major factors that affectthe performance-related design parameters so thatthe redesign can be made more productively and effectively in orderto prevent vehicle recalls and/or customer dissatisfaction. 395 �0-26.66 m/s passing time for various vehicle weights 100 90 80 1100 kg 1300 kg 1500 kg 1700 kg Vehicle speed m/s 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time s 60 70 80 90 100 Figure 1. Acceleration performance for various vehicle weights. This paperis based on decision tree learning used to evaluate vehicle dynamic parameters for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior. The remaining of the paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 briefly explains the basics of the decision tree learning including the definition, the construction, attributes as classifiers, entropy and information gain. Section 3 describes the method. Section 4 presents the numerical experiments and simulations. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 5. Decision Tree Learning Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. One of the several advantages of decision trees is that they are simple to understand and interpret. This is mainly due to the fact that,in contrastto neural networks, decision trees represent rules. These rules can readily be expressed so that people can understand them after a brief explanation (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Decision tree learning, used in data mining and machine learning, uses a decision tree as a predictive model which maps observations about an item to conclusions about the item's target value. More descriptive names for such tree models are classification tree (discrete outcome) or regression tree (continuous outcome). In these tree structures, leaves represent classifications and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those classifications (Breiman et al., 1984; Yuan and Shaw, 1995; Mitchell, 1997; Berikov and Litvinenko, 2003; Menzies and Hu, 2003, Wikipedia, 2009). Decision tree is a classifier in the form of a tree structure, where each node is either (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001): • a leaf node -indicatesthe value ofthe target attribute (class)of examples, or • a decision node - specifies some test to be carried out on a single attribute-value, with one branch and sub-tree for each possible outcome ofthe test. A decision tree can be used to classify an example by starting atthe root ofthetree and moving through it untilaleaf node, which providesthe classification oftheinstance. Most algorithms that have been developed for learning decision trees are variations on a core algorithm that employs a top-down, greedy search through the space of possible decision trees. Decision tree programs construct a decision tree from a set of training cases (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The estimation criterion in the decision tree algorithm is the selection of an attribute to test at each decision node in the tree. The goalisto selectthe attribute thatis most useful for classifying examples. A good quantitative measure of the worth of an attribute is a statistical property called information gain that measures how wella given attribute separatesthetraining examples according totheirtarget classification. This measure is used to select among the candidate attributes at each step while growing the tree.In orderto define information gain precisely, we need to define a measure commonly used in information theory, called entropy, that characterizes the (im)purity of an arbitrary collection of examples. Given a set S, containing only positive and negative examples of some target concept (a 2 class problem), the entropy of set S relative to this simple, binary classification is defined as: Entropy( s ) = − p p log 2 p p − pn log 2 pn , (1) where pp is the proportion of positive examples in S and pn is the proportion of negative examples in S (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). One interpretation of entropy from information theory is thatit specifies the minimum number of bits of 396 �information needed to encode the classification of an arbitrary member of S (i.e., a member of S drawn at random with uniform probability). For example, if pp is 1, the receiver knows the drawn example will be positive, so no message need be sent, and the entropy is 0. On the other hand, if pp is 0.5, one bitis required to indicate whether the drawn example is positive or negative. If pp is 0.8, then a collection of messages can be encoded using on average less than 1 bit per message by assigning shorter codes to collections of positive examples and longer codes to lesslikely negative examples (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). If the target attribute takes on c different values rather than the special case discussed above where the target classification takes on 2 different values, i.e., binary, then the entropy of S relative to this c-wise classification is defined as c Entropy( S ) = ∑ − pi log 2 pi , (2) i =1 where pi isthe proportion of S belonging to classi. Note the logarithm is still base 2 because entropy is a measure of the expected encoding length measured in bits. Note also that if the target attribute can take on c possible values,the maximum possible entropy islog2 c (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Given entropy as a measure of the impurity in a collection of training examples, we can now define a measure of the effectiveness of an attribute in classifying the training data. The measure we will use, called information gain,is simply the expected reduction in entropy caused by partitioning the examples according to this attribute. More precisely, the information gain, Gain (S, A) of an attribute A, relative to a collection of examples S,is defined as Sv Gain( S , A ) = Entropy( S ) − Entropy( Sv ) (3) ∑ v∈Value( A ) S where Values(A)isthe set of allpossible values for attribute A, and Sv isthe subset of S for which attribute A has value v (i.e.,Sv = {s  S | A(s) = v}). Note the firstterm in the equation for Gain isjustthe entropy of the original collection S and the second term isthe expected value ofthe entropy after S is partitioned using attribute A. Gain (S,A) is therefore the expected reduction in entropy caused by knowing the value of attribute A. Put another way, Gain(S,A) is the information provided about the target attribute value, given the value of some other attribute A. The value of Gain(S,A) is the number of bits saved when encoding the target value of an arbitrary member of S, by knowing the value of attribute A (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The process of selecting a new attribute and partitioning the training examples is now repeated for each non-terminal descendant node,this time using only the training examples associated with that node. Attributes that have been incorporated higher in the tree are excluded, so that any given attribute can appear at most once along any path through the tree. This process continues for each new leaf node until either of two conditions is met: 1. every attribute has already been included along this path through the tree, or 2. the training examples associated with this leaf node all have the same target attribute value (i.e.,their entropy is zero). Practical issues in learning decision trees include determining how deeply to grow the decision tree, handling continuous attributes, choosing an appropriate attribute selection measure, handling training data with missing attribute values, handing attributes with differing costs, and improving computational efficiency. Overfitting is a significant practical difficulty for decision tree learning and many otherlearning methods. There are several approaches to avoiding overfitting in decision tree learning (Schaffer, 1991; Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Method and Data Vehicle dynamics describes the forces acting on the vehicle that resultin its motion. Tractive effort and resistance are the two primary opposing forces that determine the performance characteristics of road vehicles. The engine in the vehicle supplies the tractive-effort force, and the magnitude of this force is restricted by internalfriction losses. The difference between thetractive effortand the resulting resisting forceisthe netthrust Fnet available for accelerating vehicle. The forces of air resistance, rolling resistance, grade resistance, and friction resistance oppose the engine tractive force and limit the acceleration capability of the vehicle (Wong, 1978; Snare, 2002). Maximum tractive force, Ftotal,isthe maximum amount of force thatthe engine can supply to the tires of the drive axles. Therefore,the maximum tractive force delivered to the tires ofthe drive axlesinthe chosen gear combination can be expressed as follows: Ftotal = ( Tm .Tr .Rr .Rn .Grx ) / Ts , (4) where Tm represents maximum torque (Nm), Tr transfer case or auxiliary gear box ratio, Rr final drive ratio, 397 �Rn drive axles efficiency (%),Gr1 gear ratio forthe first gear (i.e.,x=1), and Ts tire size (radius) (m). Required pullforce, Freq,isthe force required to cause the vehicleto roll. Hence,the required pullforce is calculated by the following equation: Freq = overcome friction + Accelerate+ C lim b slope or, (5) Freq = µ R .W g . cos( sl ) + ( W g / g ).a + W g . sin( sl ) , where µ R represents coefficient of rolling friction, Wg gross vehicle weight (mTon), g gravitation ( m / s ) ,and sl maximum slope in route (degree). In this paper acceleration behavior is evaluated based on the 37500 data, which are formed by the combination ofthe maximum torque, weight, gear ratio,finaldrive ratio, maximum slope and tire size variables. These variables,also known as attributes,are expressed inthe form of one-dimensional arrays. The same number of elements of each attribute array represents a dynamic parameters of a unique vehicle. Thereforethe number of different vehicletypesinthe evaluation processis determined by the size ofthe arrays, allin equallength. Drive axles efficiency is taken constant that is set at 90%. The efficiency slightly reduces due to internal friction although the absolute traction between tires and road surface increases. Coefficient of rolling friction is also considered constant,and is set at 0.03 valid for most ordinary cartires on asphalt pavements. The other constant parameter is transfer case. Transfer case or auxiliary gear is intended to select two wheel drive or four wheel drive operations and may contain one or more sets of low range gears. Low range gears slow down the vehicle and increase the torque available at the axles. Therefore, they are used during slow speed or extreme off road maneuvers. Although on all drive sports cars this feature is absent, we still consider the equations that include the transfer case ratio, but we decide to setthe ratio 1:1 for allthe vehicle types considered. However,transfer case ratio has had no effect on our conclusions when we setit at 2:1 for the purpose to exhibit and observe its role in describing the complete acceleration behavior. Itis assumed thatthe first gear is engaged as the lowest gear and used as such in the entire calculations. The limits of acceleration variable forthe evaluations have been determined through acceleration vs speed charts (Snare, 2002). The speed calculations have not taken into account any environmentalforces such as wind or state (and incline) ofthe road. 2 Numerical Experiments and Simulations In this study there are seven determined attributes used to evaluate the vehicle acceleration behavior. These attributes are maximum acceleration, weight,torque,gear ratio,final drive ratio,tire size, and slope. The attributes are used to calculate the leaf and decision nodes, and the branches in the tree are formed by the attribute values, which are simply one-dimensional array elements. Each element holds a unique branch value. For each and every acceleration value in the acceleration array, the difference between the total tractive force and the required pullforce is checked whetherthe resulting difference between the forces is sufficient enough to accelerate the vehicle when needed on the road. If the difference is positive, the further analysis is done to determine the effects ofthe variables mentioned previously and hence evaluate acceleration behavior(usually for maximum acceleration) as the acceleration is varied between its predetermined minimum and maximum limits. Therefore,the objective ofthis paperisto develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of personal motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. In this study we use the ID3 algorithm (Quinlan, 1986) to learn the decision tree by constructing them topdown, beginning withthe root node ofthetree. The bestvariable (attribute) has been selected and used as the test at the root node of the tree. A descendant of the root node is then created for each possible value of this attribute, and the training examples are sorted to the appropriate descendant node. The entire process is then repeated using the training examples associated with each descendant node to selectthe best attribute to test at that point in the tree (greedy search policy) (Mitchell, 1997). We must note that the gain can be negative. A negative gain indicates thatthe cost of using the statisticalinformation is more than the cost of determining the path at each node (Rontogiannis and Dimopoulos, 1995). The decision tree in Figure 2 shows the entire tree to classify by sorting the problem through the tree to the appropriate leaf node, then turning classification associated with this leaf (in this case Yes or No). Figure 3 shows the 30% post pruned decision tree (Mitchell, 1997; Esposito, Malerba, and Semeraro, 1997). Both figure sets the depth of the tree to three to view the tree better since the branch numbers getintermingled as the depth isincreased. Yes in the tree indicates the value of thetarget attribute (class) of examples, which, also means thatthe difference between the totaltractive force and the required pullforceis sufficient enough to acceleratethe vehicle when needed on the road, and the magnitude of this difference will always be positive. No indicates that no such force for a given acceleration can be produced by the engine and therefore vehicle cannot accelerate for a given conditions, and the magnitude ofthis difference will always be zero or negative. 398 �The leaf and decision nodes receive their values, which, in this case, are shown in numbers by the program, according to the variable organization sequence during the software loop execution and represent attributes. Therefore, ‘1’ represents maximum acceleration, ‘2’ maximum slope, ‘3’ gross vehicle weight, ‘4’ maximum torque, ‘5’ gear ratio,‘6’ final drive ratio, and finally ‘7’ tire size. The numbered branches indicate the valuesinthe attribute array in the order from lefttothe rightthatthe specific branches belong to as shown in Table 1. 1 2 3 4 Accel (m/s^2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 W (mTon) 1.0728 1.696 1.999 1.379 1.192 sl (deg) arctan(0.0 1) 145.1 arctan(0.03 ) 332.2 atctan(0.0 5) 375.6 244.1 173.6 3.615 4.056 0.2997 4.484 3.16 0.34544 3.06 3.42 0.3746 3.50 3.812 0.3327 3.143 4.765 0.317 5 Tm (Nm) Gr1 Rr Ts (m) 5 Table 1. Branch numbers and their values forthe selected attributes. Conclusions In this paper the most effective parameters or variables for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior have been assessed by using decision tree learning. Having analyzed the 37500 data by the fully complete and post pruned decision tree, we conclude that the maximum torque that the engine can produce is the main significantfactorin determining an accelerating vehicle behavior and always ends up atthe root node ofthe tree regardless of the several trials with different initial parameters. Moving down the tree branch, the maximum acceleration comes up asthe second significant variableto describe an accelerating vehicle behavior.Inthe third subtree level,the vehicle weight, and in the fourth, the final drive ratio seem to emerge other most significant ones. Lastly, gear ratio,tire size, and maximum slope in route are the least significant ones, depending on their defined ranges, as compared to others. These conclusions have been obtained after many runs with different initial set-ups for mainly train size, test size, and prune size parameters of the decision tree algorithm. Of the 37500 data, 50% to 80% has been chosen as train size, 3% to 10% as test size, and 30% to 50% as prune size in different occasions to come to the above conclusion. For a vehicleto be really quick,these conclusions suggestthatitisimportantto pay attention to variables like torque, horsepower, desired maximum acceleration, gear ratios, transmission selection, traction, weight. Specifically, maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a motor vehicle may be determined by tire traction limit atlow speeds other than engine power which may be accounted at high speeds (Gillespie, 1992). All of these factors work in harmony with each other to create a signature acceleration rate. Once the major components arein place,the nextthing would be to tune the combination to create an optimu m acceleration. 399 �References Bauer, H. (1999a) ESP Electronic Stability Program, Technical Instruction, Robert Bosch GmbH, Society of Automotive Engineers. Bauer, H. 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(1991) ‘When does overfitting decrease prediction accuracy in induced decision trees and rule sets? Machine Learning’ — EWSL-91, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, pp. 192-205. Snare, M. C. (2002) Dynamics model for predicting maximum and typical acceleration rates of passenger vehicles, M.Sc. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA. Wikipedia (2009). Decision tree learning. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning 31/3/2009]. Wong, J. Y. (1978) Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Yuan, Y. and Shaw, M. J. (1995), ‘Induction of fuzzy decision trees’, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 69, pp. 125–139. 400 [accessed �3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 1 1 3 3 3 3 0.5 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes 0 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes nonoyes yes nonononononononono 0 10 20 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1234 1234 1234 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 30 yes yes 2 3 4 1 1 1234 1234 1 5 yes 1 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 50 40 60 yes 2 3 1 4 1 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nonoyes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nononoyes nononono 70 80 90 100 Figure 2. The decison tree output for an accelerating vehicle. 3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 yes 3 4 yes 5 yes 1 12 3 4 1 yes 3 0.5 0 2 1 2 34 3 no yes 3 12345 12345 0 yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 10 20 3 3 12345 12345 12345 30 40 50 60 70 80 yes yes no yes yes yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 90 100 Figure 3. The output ofthe 30% pruned decison tree for an accelerating vehicle. 401 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 518 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Author Author Bucak, İhsan Ömür Abstract A summary of the resource. The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/882b749011c8120058f952709707b3aa.pdf b6c8526790aa24f99341186fb3309a36 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Evaluation of All Inclusive System with Respect to Sustainable Tourism Principles Pasa Mustafa Ozyurt, Onur Oku, Ali Riza Aktas Akdeniz University, Alanya Faculty of Business, Tourism Administration, Antalya, Turkey E-mails: ozyurt@akdeniz.edu.tr, onuroku@akdeniz.edu.tr, alirizaaktas@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract The aim of this study is to analyze the “all inclusive system”, an important marketing strategy of tourism enterprises, with respect to sustainable tourism principles. Following this purpose, all related academic studies and literature have been compiled and the subject was analyzed according to the collected information. Existing research suggests that the notion of sustainable tourism and the concept of all inclusive system may be far apart from each other in many ways. The quality of service and consequently guest satisfaction has been negatively affected from all inclusive system. Another negative aspect found is that the system stimulates unnecessary and excessive consumption, which is not beneficial both for the enterprise and for sustainability. Furthermore, since guests make most of their spending within the enterprise using the all inclusive system, local businesses find it harder to make profit and survive in the competition. Local community is a key factor in sustainability, so the system contradicts with sustainability in many ways. Some enterprises on the other hand defend the system since it creates economic activity somehow, yet they agree on the fact that this system should not be used in urban areas. Keywords: Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Enterprises, Tourism Marketing, All Inclusive System. 1. INTRODUCTION Tourism is basically an economic activity and it has been growing rapidly especially after World War II. The extent of tourism and travel has increased tremendously in the last decades, both in terms of more travelers and of a vast choice of products on the market. From a historical perspective this can be explained by a number of factors such as the growing prosperity in society, vacations entitled by law, an increasing leisure time, new modes of communication, urbanization and a growing population (Nordin, 2005: 6). According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), international arrivals worldwide have more than doubled since 1990, rising from 435 million to 675 million in 2000, and to 940 million in 2010 (WTTC, 2011: 2). International tourist arrivals grew by over 4% in 2011 to 980 million. With growth expected to continue in 2012, at a somewhat slower rate, international tourist arrivals are on track to reach the milestone one billion mark later this year, 2012 (UNWTO, 2012: 1). Tourism investments worldwide have increased correspondingly, since tourism increases foreign exchange earnings, creates employment opportunities, and provides a boom to many other sectors by its multiplier effect. However, too many tourism investments caused surplus of supply in time. Furthermore, regional or global economic crisis, natural disasters or wars decreased demand in 77 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo tourism. At this point, tourism enterprises looked for new marketing strategies in order to attract more customers. They developed further strategies and used the all inclusive system, which was initially used starting from 1930s. Having the ability for travelers to plan their expenses in advance increased the popularity of the system. Along with the all inclusive system came out hotels with low profitability ratio profiles. Although the occupancy rates were high, hotels had to settle for cheaper prices because of the competition. In order to increase their profitability, tourism enterprises using this system felt the necessity of trying to decrease their costs by compromising service quality. 2. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM By the late 1980s, the governments of most countries as well as the United Nations noted the increase in global tourism and the industry’s deleterious effects to the environment and society of those countries in which it was most rapidly expanding (Bowman, 2010: 269). As a result of the global policies set forth in the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development to the United Nations General Assembly's report "Our Common Future" (otherwise known as the Brundtland Report), and the subsequent United Nations Conference on Environment (popularly known as "The Earth Summit") in 1992, sustainability emerged as a key issue in development (Berno & Bricker, 2001: 3). Sustainable tourism shall be organically linked to development, in general, to environmental, social, economic and ethical balances, mainly aiming to offer qualitative stays that generates in return fair income to local population (Cianga & Patrascu, 2010: 33). Sustainable tourism concept arose when sustainable development idea was applied to the tourism industry. Main principle of sustainable tourism is protecting local cultures, natural resources, and the continuation of the economy, while ensuring the growth of tourism with planning and control. The notion of the continuity of the economy is not just for tourism enterprises, but it also means that the local people who live at the tourism destination joins tourism activities and gains economic profit from tourism. Sustainable tourism should integrate the natural, cultural and human environment. As shown in Figure 1, sustainable tourism management is an approach, which (ETE, 2009: 39): Minimizes the negative environmental, social and cultural impacts of tourism, Generates economic profit from tourism for local people and improves their quality of life, their working environment and their access to technology and information, Allows local people and other stakeholders to participate in decision making processes involving tourism development which could affect them, Informs all stakeholders of tourism development which could affect them, Contributes to natural and cultural preservation and conservation and promotes the importance of and protects biodiversity, Provides tourists with more meaningful tourism experiences, e.g. meeting, cooperating, communicating and working with local inhabitants etc. bringing the tourist closer to the culture of the destination, 78 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Enables visitors to observe and understand environmental and cultural relationships and contexts, Is sensitive to local people, as well as other stakeholders, their needs, rights and aspirations, Sees policy, planning and management as extremely important to combat the problems caused by non sustainable tourism, Emphasizes that there are limits to tourism development, Can be very frustrating because there are limits to how much can be achieved in the short and medium term. It is a slow process of development, Generally involves frequent conflicts between stakeholders over resources, implementation etc. Compromises may be necessary. Figure 1: Relationship Between the 12 Aims and the Pillars of Sustainability Source: UNEP, 2006. 79 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3. ALL INCLUSIVE CONCEPT All Inclusive System is described as the application of a marketing and pricing system in which all services such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, room services, local and import drinks, sport activities are covered under a fixed price package (Ciftci et al., 2007: 269). This system emerged as an alternative to the other hotel rate systems such as bed & breakfast, half board or full pension. All inclusive services generally includes accommodation services, food & beverage services such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, local drinks and import drinks, and many other services that the tourist might need during their stay. The prices of all these services are fixed in advance (Otar, 2008: 9). In order to understand how all inclusive system works, a brief history of the package tours need to be discussed. First package tours were organized by Thomas Cook to England in 1841. Therefore, Cook is generally accepted as the first organized package tour operator. (Icoz, 2000: 169). The first examples of all inclusive concept date back to 1930’s at some vacation camps in England. Later on, a French swimmer made a vacation camp at Mallorca in 1950. Mallorca is a Spanish island and Spanish government decided the swimmer to pay one total price for all the accommodation, food & beverage and other spending activities. This incident sparked the foundation of all inclusive system and many entrepreneurs were influenced by the idea. Their investments are the founding stepping stone of today’s all inclusive system. (Otar, 2008: 15). All inclusive system spread around the world after the increasing power of mass tourism in 1960’s. As seen on other pricing systems like half board or full pension, all inclusive system does not have globally standard applications and rules. What is included differs from country to country, region to region, even hotel to hotel, because there are not any set of rules of laws defining the parameters of the system. Different applications of the system resulted in different titles for the system such as; Ultra Inclusive, Mega Inclusive, Imperial, High Class, Maximum Mega Ultra Inclusive, etc. (Gurkan, 2002: 53). 4. FINDINGS Accommodation companies started using all inclusive system in order to increase their occupancy rates and to market their products and services more easily. All inclusive system is an accepted and sought marketing tool by people who would like to find everything ready, use technology and prefer the easier methods all the time (Yurik, 2002: 291). Main reasons of why hotels prefer all inclusive system may be listed as follows:          80 Provides easier marketing, Increases sales in order to reach maximum profitability, Yields competitive advantage against competitors in tourism market, Presents customers different holiday options, Lower running costs and better planning of the services due to knowing the number of buyers and the services that will be provided in advance, Advertisement of the facility, Controlling of personnel, product and services costs, Better occupancy rates create better image for the company, Easier to sell for travel agencies and tour operators, �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo   Bulk purchasing is cheaper, Prepayments of all inclusive packages result in better financial planning for spending and investments. (Corbaci, 2004: 52). According to Valhouli (2003), the popularity of the all inclusive system relies on two basic reasons. These are time and value. Tourists do not wish to spear time calculating the likely cost of their vacations. At the same time, tourists expect the services provided with the all inclusive system to satisfy their expectations. Hence, the most attractive aspect of the all inclusive system is that is an application where the value of the service to be taken and how much money to be spent in the end are clearly specified. According to Suklum’s (2006) study on 354 tourists (50% Turkish, 23% German) who stayed at two vacation clubs with all inclusive concept in Bodrum, 35,2% of the questionnaire respondents prefer all inclusive system because of the lower extras. 18,9% of the tourists prefer the system because they don’t have to follow their spending, 14,4% because their vacation plans are ready in hand, 9,6% because they don’t have to worry about money exchange. Only 8,2% of the tourists said they prefer all inclusive system because they believe the quality of the services is better. Another important finding of the study is that 31,9% of the tourists noted they do not participate in any economic, social or other activity outside the hotel, saying basically one third of the tourists do not even go out of the hotel. Barak (2006) made a study with 131 enterprises in Bodrum in order to understand the effects of all inclusive system to the region. 27% of these enterprises were food & beverage, 25% gift shops, 12% bars or night clubs, 10% textile apparels, and 26% were from different sectors. According to the owners or general managers of these enterprises, “all inclusive system decreased the number of tourists visiting their shops”; “the main reason for decreasing tourism receipts is all inclusive system”; “tourists spend less because lower income tourists come for the system; and “all inclusive system does not increase the number of tourists to the region”. Otar’s (2008) study on employees’ job satisfaction on accommodation units suggested that employees working in other pension types are more satisfied from their jobs than employees serving in all inclusive system. The study was made on 422 employees working under all inclusive system, and 422 employees working under other pension systems. The employees of accommodation units using the other pension systems were also more satisfied from their jobs according to “manager behavior”, “wage policies” and “promotion possibilities” than the employees of all inclusive system hotels. Yayla’s (2011) study in Antalya on finding out the reasons for tourist’s preference of all inclusive system was applied at a total of 65 four or five star hotels with the participation of 387 tourists. The findings were that they prefer the system because (a) there are not many cancellations due to the low number of participants, (b) price of the vacation packages are affordable, (c) and many services are included in the price. 5. CONCLUSION Findings of the literature survey and the study suggest that there are some positive and negative aspects of all inclusive system. Cheaper prices for the tourists and higher occupancy rates for the hotels are the main positive reasons for the preference of the system. Planning is the other 81 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo important positive both for the tourist and the hotel. Tourists may easily plan their spending in advance while the hotels may plan their purchasing, marketing, and financial strategies ahead of time. When the principles of sustainability is taken into account, it has been observed by many studies that cheaper vacations for the tourists by the means of all inclusive tourism decrease the quality of service, customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, and tourist spending. One third of tourists who prefer these packages do not even leave the hotel for shopping or other purposes, which is a big minus for social contribution of sustainable tourism to local society. As described above, sustainable tourism has socio-cultural, economic, environmental and community participation factors. Since the main purpose of sustainable tourism is protecting local cultures, natural resources, and the continuation of the economy, all inclusive system does not directly possess any positive affects towards these three purposes at the same time. There is not any strong evidence that the hotels using all inclusive system are using local products, which is another negative aspect for sustainability. Therefore, it is evident that all inclusive system does not directly help local community, does not increase job satisfaction of the local residents, and does not help the environment any better than hotels using other pension systems. Tourists over-consume because of fixed charges, and this is a burden to economic resources of the society. Over-competition between all inclusive hotels decreases the prices of rooms and thereby the tourism earnings decrease. It may be creating new jobs for the society, but since job satisfaction is lower than the other pension systems, work overload may be the case instead of hiring new staff. REFERENCES Barak, H. (2006). Turizm Sektöründe Uygulanan Herşey Dahil Tatil Sisteminin Bölgedeki İşletmeler Üzerindeki Etkisi Ve Bodrum Örneği. Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, İzmir. Berno, T., & Bricker, T. (2001). Sustainable Tourism Development: The Long Road From Theory to Practice. International Journal of Economic Development, 3 (3). Bowman, K. S. (2011). Sustainable Tourism Certification and State Capacity: Keep it Local, Simple and Fuzzy. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5 (3), 269-281. Cianga, N., & Patrascu, C. (2010). Sustainable Development-Concept and Present Trend in The Context Of The Globalization Of Tourism And Of Romania’s Accession In The European Union. Journal of Tourism Challenges and Trends, 3 (1), 29-43. Çiftçi, H., & Düzakın, E., & Önal, Y., B. (2007). All Inclusive System and Its Effects on The Turkish Tourism Sector. Problems and Perspective in Management, 5 (3), 269-285. Çorbacı, A. K. (2004). Hersey Dahil (All Inclusive) Sisteminin Destinasyon Bölgesine Olumlu ve Olumsuz Etkileri, Ekonomik ve Teknik Dergi Standard, 43 (511), 51-52. 82 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo ETE, (2009). Sustainable Tourism, Training the Trainers Programme. Last Access: 25.04.2012 http://www.oete.de/tourism4nature/results/backdocs/ETE_2009_Sustainable_Tourism_Training.p df Gürkan, T. A. (2002). “Herşey Dahil” (All Inclusive) Sistemin Türk Turizmi Açısından İncelenmesi (Antalya-Kemer Örneği), Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Sakarya. İçöz, O. (2000). Seyahat Acenteleri ve Tur Operatörlüğü Yönetimi. 3.Baskı, Turhan Kitapevi, Ankara. Otar, H. (2008). Konaklama İşletmelerinde Uygulanan Herşey Dahil Sisteminin İşgörenlerin İş Tatmini Üzerindeki Etkisi. Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı Ankara. Nordin, S. (2005). Tourism of Tomorrow, Travel Trends and Forces of Change. European Tourism Research Institute.2005,27 Süklüm, N. (2006). Türkiye’de Hizmet Sektöründeki Turizm İşletmelerinde Uygulanan “Her şey Dahil” Sisteminin Müşteri Memnuniyeti Üzerindeki Etkisinin Ölçümlenmesi ve Bir Alan Araştırması. Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Aydın. UNEP, (2006). Making Tourism More Sustainable, A Guide For Policy Makers. Last Access: 18.04.2012 http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx0592xPA-TourismPolicyEN.pdf UNWTO, (2012). World Tourism http://mkt.unwto.org/en/barometer Barometer, Last Access: 22.04.2012 Valhouli, Christina, (2003). Best All-Inclusive Resorts, Last Access: 20.04.2012 http://www.forbes.com/2003/10/16/cx_cv_1016feat.html WTTC, (2011). Travel & Tourism 2011. London. Last Acces: http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/traveltourism2011.pdf 16.04.2012 Yayla, İ. (2011). Turistlerin Herşey Dahil Sistemini Tercih Etme Nedenleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma: Antalya Örneği. Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Ankara. Yürik, E. Ö. (2002). Herşey Dahil (All Inclusive) Sistemi ve Sistemin Türk Turizm Sektörüne Etkileri. 2.Turizm Şurası Bildirileri, 1, T.C. Turizm Bakanlığı, 15-22 Nisan, Ankara. 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1366 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of All Inclusive System with Respect to Sustainable Tourism Principles Author Author Pasa , Mustafa Ozyurt Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to analyze the “all inclusive system”, an important marketing strategy of tourism enterprises, with respect to sustainable tourism principles. Following this purpose, all related academic studies and literature have been compiled and the subject was analyzed according to the collected information. Existing research suggests that the notion of sustainable tourism and the concept of all inclusive system may be far apart from each other in many ways. The quality of service and consequently guest satisfaction has been negatively affected from all inclusive system. Another negative aspect found is that the system stimulates unnecessary and excessive consumption, which is not beneficial both for the enterprise and for sustainability. Furthermore, since guests make most of their spending within the enterprise using the all inclusive system, local businesses find it harder to make profit and survive in the competition. Local community is a key factor in sustainability, so the system contradicts with sustainability in many ways. Some enterprises on the other hand defend the system since it creates economic activity somehow, yet they agree on the fact that this system should not be used in urban areas. Keywords: Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Enterprises, Tourism Marketing, All Inclusive System. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da8464101ee95c473fcb45c074ec1c01.pdf ec9c7f2e97d1c26bc1dddeb096652858 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evaluation of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Prospective Primary School and Primary Science Teachers Salih Zeki GENÇ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey szgenc@yahoo.com Abstract: This research, aims to assess the critical thinking abilities of prospective primary school and primary science teachers, was obtained by using California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale The inventory was applied to 560 randomly selected prospective teachers (ranged from 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year) in Faculty of Education at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in Turkey in 2006 and analysed using SPSS program. The students who answered entry incorrectly excluded from the study. Finally, the answers of 480 teacher candidates were taken into consideration. In the analysis of data t, variance and Tukey’s statistic tests were used. It was found out that the point of views of teacher candidates from both departments about the whole inventory were between 31 and 39 (they’re not sure about critical thinking disposition). On the other hand, a significant difference was not found between the gender, learning methods and critical thinking dispositions of teacher candidates. It was also found out that there is a significant difference between teacher candidates grade levels, their self confidence and their ways of searching for truth. Today’s teacher candidates who will become teachers of tomorrows are expected to improve ‘critical thinking skills’ through education process. Therefore, the teacher candidates should have critical thinking skills in order to contribute the development of their countries. Keywords: Critical Thinking Disposition, Teacher Candidate, Primary School Teacher, Science Teacher Introduction Critical thinking concept has become popular in the recent years in education. Reasoning and problem solving are the two common critical thinking skills which are supported by the educationalists in schooling process. Today, there are master and doctorate programmes on teaching critical thinking skills at many universities. Therefore, critical thinking is the core concept in education. Critical thinking has a number of definitions made by many researchers. Beyer (1983) defines critical thinking as the evaluation of the authenticity, accuracy and worth of knowledge, thoughts, beliefs or discussions. In addition, Norris (1985, p: 40-45) states that it supports teacher candidates to “apply everything they already know and feel, to evaluate their own thoughts and especially to change their behaviours…” Relatively, critical thinking disposition-as a part of our personality- is regarded as an approach to problem-framing problem solving through reasoning. Braman (1999) states that critical thinking is effective not only in academic studies or environments but also in solving every kind of problem. For this reason, teacher candidates are expected to teach the necessary information, skills and behaviours to their students for their future lives. According to Scriven & Paul (1996), critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. The experts in teacher education claim that lifelong learning and professionalism should be the basic qualities of teacher education programmes. Therefore, teacher candidates should develop traits of intellectuality about teaching in order to become teachers who are good researchers. According to Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky experience encourages the development of cognitive processes (Rodriguez and Sjostrom, 1998). Although contemporary education curriculum is criticised, the educationalists agree on that a new curriculum should be developed which enables the students to think well and to think for themselves (Pithers, 2000). According to Ikuenobe (2001) critical thinking skills should be taught to students due to following reasons: (1) instructors motivate questioning by explaining to students its logic, functions and basis as an epistemic process- this may help to vitiate the negative attitudes and implications; (2) students have to see the 216 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo connections among questioning, critical thinking, inquiry and learning, and fallibilism; (3) instructors have to develop a constructive and non-threatening way to ask questions and teach students a process of asking questions so that one does not alienate and intimidate; and (4) the instructor must create, in general, a classroom environment that will allow students to express themselves, and they must be given the opportunity to actively participate in their own learning process, which involves acquiring the skills of questioning for the purpose of bringing about understanding, growth and progress in knowledge (Ikuenobe, 2001). A number of studies were carried out regarding the assessment of critical thinking disposition in the recent years (Brookfield, 1987; Costa and Lowery, 1989; Wade and Tavris, 1993; Facione, Facione and Giancarlo, 2000; Giancarla and Facione, 2001; Phillips, Chesnut and Rospond, 2004). As a result of the developments in the field of education in the world, the educational reform process has started in Turkey not only in the primary and secondary education but also in teacher training. No matter what the individual differences which exist in the vision of elementary education in Turkey might be, there are views such as inquiry-questioning, critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making skills. For this reason, changes have been made to the curricula of primary school education and science education programs and training primary school and science teachers who can guide students to gain the values mentioned above has become important. Therefore, evaluating critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates constitute the problem of the research. Purpose of the Research The primary purpose of the research is to evaluate the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. In this respect, answers to the following questions are of vital importance. 1. What is the distribution regarding the general status of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 2. Is there a significant difference between the genders and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 3. Is there a significant difference between the type of schooling and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 4. Is there a significant difference between the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 5. Is there a significant difference between the class level they have received schooling and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? Method This study was conducted with 480 teacher candidates studying at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Primary School Teacher Training and Primary Science Teacher Training in 2009-2010 academic years. This study was limited to 51 articles used in California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale (CCTTS). Sampling 560 teacher candidates from 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years studying at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Primary School Education and Science Education Program (day and evening groups) were selected randomly and scales were applied. 480 teacher candidates were included in the sampling process after excluding the candidates who provided incomplete and wrong answers (see Table I). 217 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Student Teachers’ Common Characteristics f % Male 198 41.3 Female 282 58.7 480 100.0 Total Day Group 240 50.0 Type of Instruction Evening Group 240 50.0 480 100.0 Total Primary School Education 240 50.0 Department Science Education 240 50.0 480 100.0 Total First Year 120 25.0 Second Year 120 25.0 Class Third Year 120 25.0 Fourth Year 120 25.0 480 100.0 Total Table 1. Distribution of the Student Teachers in Relation to Gender, Type of Instruction, Department and Classes. Gender Data Collection and Analysis Data were collected by using the California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale. California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale was developed by Facione and Facione (1992) by considering the criteria mentioned in definition of critical thinking which was put forward by Delphi Project. Scale is composed of 6-options, 75 Likert type items and 7 sub-scales (Facione, Giacarlo, Facione & Gianen, 1995). The scale, which was originally written in English was adapted by Kokdemir (2003) into Turkish and factor analysis, validity and reliability studies were carried out. The new scale which was formed after these analyses were rearranged in the form of 51 items associated with 6 load factors and at the end of the application, reliability coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) of the whole scale was found as 0.88 6 sub-dimensions that take place in the Turkish form of California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale have been formed namely, Analytical Approach, Curiosity, Open-mindedness, Personal Confidence, Look for the Truth, Systematic Approach. Certain items which were listed in Cognitive Maturity sub dimension in the original scale, have been eliminated and some of them have been listed under the open-mindedness sub dimension (Hamurcu et al., 2005). The scale was applied to the sampling group in November 2006 by the researcher and the data were analysed by the SPSS program. In the analysis of the data obtained, distribution of the general status of critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates was evaluated by calculating their arithmetic averages. t-test, which was used to measure the differences between the averages was applied to examine whether there is a significant difference between their genders, type of schooling, departments, and their critical thinking tendencies. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there is a difference between class levels they received schooling and critical thinking tendencies; and Tukey test was used to identify the classes those differences exist. Findings and Discussions Findings obtained in the research have been listed under five categories. Sub dimensions n Analytical Approach Open-mindedness Curiosity Personal Confidence Search for Truth Systematic Approach Total 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 Primary School Teacher Std. Deviation X 41.36 43.92 35.69 28.92 25.12 20.26 32.54 5.70 6.68 5.43 4.32 3.91 5.20 3.10 218 n 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 Science Teacher Std. Deviation X 41.32 43.84 35.12 28.75 24.99 20.17 32.36 6.11 7.08 5.10 4.85 3.64 3.57 2.71 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 2.General Status of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 2 provides the distribution regarding the general status of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. Prior to the preparation of the tables, standard points for every sub-scale, and total point calculations were carried out separately. According to Kokdemir (2003), the maximum score that can be obtained from the scales is 60 and the minimum score is 6. Giancarlo and Facione (2001) also state that while making calculations for every sub-dimension of the scale, people who receive a total of 30 points or less than 30 points for that particular subscale are considered as weak or in negative direction in terms of their tendency for critical thinking, people who receive a total of 40 points or higher than 40 points are considered as strong or in positive direction and people who receive a total score between 31 points and 39 points are considered as undecided. On the other hand, when the whole scale is examined, people who receive a total score of 180 points or less should be considered as having a weak or negative general critical thinking tendency and people receive 240 points or more are considered as having a strong or positive general critical thinking tendency. According to results shown on the table 2, it can be concluded that the averages of the opinions of the teacher candidates for the whole scale are range between of 31-39. Therefore, it can be put forward that teacher candidates in primary school education and science education departments are “undecided” in the critical thinking tendencies. In addition to this, it can also be stated that in dimensions of analytic approach and openmindedness, teacher candidates have a high and positive critical thinking tendencies as they have obtained points greater than 40. On the other hand, it is also remarkable that teacher candidates of both primary school education and science education departments have provided extremely similar opinions in all sub-dimensions. Low points obtained in search for truth dimension of teacher candidates participated in the study overlap with the findings of various studies carried out in the same field (Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Facione et al, 1995; Hamurcu et al, 2005). Facione et al (1985) have stated that it is worth examining these low points in “search for truth” dimension in terms of the quality of the university education and its possible effects on future generations. Sub dimensions Gender n X Analytical Approach Male 198 41.50 Female 282 41.23 Open-mindedness Male 198 43.17 Female 282 44.38 Curiosity Male 198 35.10 Female 282 35.62 Personal Confidence Male 198 29.08 Female 282 28.67 Search for Truth Male 198 25.06 Female 282 25.05 Systematic Approach Male 198 20.40 Female 282 20.08 * The main difference is significant at the .05 level. Std. Deviation 5.99 5.85 5.71 7.56 5.19 5.32 4.83 4.41 3.97 3.64 4.25 4.60 Df 478 t p 0.494 .621* 478 1.908 .057* 478 1.063 .288* 478 0.956 .340* 478 0.011 .991* 478 0.792 .429* Table 3. Findings Regarding the Differences Between the Their Sexes and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates The gender variable is considered as one of the factors in the studies conducted to measure critical thinking tendencies (Facione et al, 1995; Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Kokdemir, 2003; Hamurcu et al, 2005). In this study, Table 3 provides findings regarding the differences between the sexes and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The averages of the views of the male and female teacher candidates regarding their critical thinking tendencies show high similarities for all sub dimensions (Table 2). In this case, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the sexes and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. Therefore, these two variables can be considered independent. In the study carried out by Hamurcu et al (2005), a significant difference was observed for analytic approach, open mindedness, personal confidence and search for truth sub dimensions of the sex variable; and no difference was observed for the curiosity and 219 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo systematic approach sub dimensions. Therefore, it can be concluded that none of the studies were able to observe any differences in curiosity and systematic approach sub dimensions. Sub dimensions Type of Instruction n Analytical Approach Day Group Evening Group Open-mindedness Day Group Evening Group Curiosity Day Group Evening Group Personal Confidence Day Group Evening Group Search for Truth Day Group Evening Group Systematic Approach Day Group Evening Group * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. X 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 41.74 40.94 43.87 43.89 36.10 34.70 29.17 28.50 24.89 24.52 20.14 20.29 Std. Deviation 6.45 5.29 7.19 6.57 5.50 4.94 4.18 4.95 3.63 3.91 4.85 4.03 t p 1.485 .138* 478 0.020 .984* 478 2.941 .003* 478 1.592 .112* 478 0.966 .334* 478 0.368 .713* df 478 Table 4. Findings Regarding the Differences between the Type of Schooling and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 4 provides findings regarding the differences between the type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. When the table is examined it is seen that averages of critical thinking tendencies of day and evening groups of primary school and science teacher candidates show similarities for all sub dimensions. In this case, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The critical thinking tendencies of both day and evening groups of teacher candidates are close to each other. This can be interpreted as that the type of schooling (dayevening group) is not an important factor in terms of their critical thinking tendencies. Sub dimensions Analytical Approach Department Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Open-mindedness Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Curiosity Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Personal Confidence Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Look for the Truth Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Systematic Approach Primary School Teacher Science Teacher The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. n X 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 41.36 41.32 43.92 43.84 35.69 35.12 28.92 28.75 25.12 24.99 20.26 20.17 Std. Deviation 5.70 6.11 6.68 7.08 5.43 5.10 4.32 4.85 3.91 3.64 5.20 3.57 df 478 t p 0.077 .939* 478 0.139 .889* 478 1.187 .236* 478 0.397 .692* 478 0.362 .717* 478 0.225 .822* Table 5. Findings Regarding the Differences between the Departments and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 5 provides findings regarding the differences between the departments and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The findings indicate that averages of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates show similarities for all sub dimensions. Therefore, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the departments and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The critical thinking tendencies of both primary school teacher candidates and science teacher candidates are close to each other. It overlaps with the results of the study conducted by Hamurcu et al. (2005) since these differences do not exist in open-mindedness, search for truth and systematic approach sub dimensions according to department. 220 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Source of Variance Sum of Squares Personal Confidence df Between Groups 3 Within Groups 476 Total 479 Search for Truth Between Groups 3 Within Groups 476 Total 479 The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. Mean Square 184.083 9925.883 10109.967 192.133 6646.233 6838.367 F p 61.361 20.853 2.943 Source of Variance .033* 64.044 13.963 4.587 .004* Table 6.Findings regarding the differences between the grade levels with regard to type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates Table 6 provides findings regarding the differences between the class level with regard to type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. It has been limited to the personal confidence and search for truth sub dimensions. Because, it has been found that the critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates have differentiated in these two sub dimensions. According to the results of the Tukey’s test that was conducted in order to identify the differences between the teacher candidates, it was found out that according to personal confidence sub dimension, there were significant differences in favour of 3rd year teacher candidates between the 1st and 3rd year teacher candidates, and according to search for truth sub dimension, there were significant differences in favour of 3rd year teacher candidates between the 2nd and 3rd year teacher candidates. Therefore, it can be concluded that 3rd year teacher candidates have more positive critical tendencies compared to other teacher candidates particularly 1st and 2nd year teacher candidates. The findings of the study overlap with the findings of the study conducted by Hamurcu et al (2005) with regard to personal confidence sub dimension. On the other hand, Facione and et al. (1995) have found out that new students tend to obtain higher points for curiosity and open mindedness and lower points for systematic approaches sub dimensions. Conclusion and Suggestions This research had aimed at evaluating the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. As a result; 1. It has been found that opinions of teacher candidates in both departments regarding the whole scale are in the range of 31-39 points. Therefore it can be concluded that teacher candidates are undecided in their critical thinking tendencies. 2. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the sexes of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies. In this respect, it can be concluded that these two variables are independent of each other. 3. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the types of schooling (day and evening group) of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies. Thus, there is a similarity between the critical thinking tendencies of day and evening group teacher candidates. 4. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the departments (primary school teacher and science teacher) of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies (including all sub dimensions). Thus, it can conclude that there is a similarity between the critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates in both departments. 5. Meaningful differences have been found in comparisons made according to class levels with regard to schooling type, particularly between the points obtained in Personal Confidence and Search for Truth sub scales and there are differences in higher class levels. 6. The low points for Search for Truth dimension obtained by the teacher candidates participated in the sampling also overlap with the various results obtained in similar areas (Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Facione and et al, 1995; Hamurcu et al, 2005). Furthermore, Facione et al. (1995) have found out that new students tend to obtain higher points for curiosity and open mindedness and lower points for systematic approaches sub dimensions. 1. According to the above result the following suggestions could be made: Creating an environment which will enable today’s teacher candidates to gain “critical thinking” skills who will be training tomorrow’s students is of vital importance. The teacher candidates who will 221 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2. 3. 4. 5. become intellectuals and managers are primarily responsible for constructing the future of their country. For this reason they should have the ability to think critically about events and facts. Therefore, it may be sensible to arrange subject areas where they will obtain and develop critical thinking skills. It is also important for academicians at the universities to have critical thinking skills who train teacher candidates. Moreover, they should be able to use these skills and serve as role models for those candidates. For this reason, practices aimed at developing critical thinking skills of students should be included in the programs to train academicians. A similar study can be conducted which would cover different faculties and departments in different universities. In this study, teacher candidates from primary school and science education departments have been selected. Because, individuals first face primary school teachers and science teachers play a vital role to educate individuals to understand the society, and the world. Another study can be conducted to measure the relationship between the critical thinking tendencies and academic achievement of teacher candidates or university students. A research covering secondary education students, current secondary and primary school teachers and family members may even be carried out. In this study, complete California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale with its subscales analytical approach, curiosity, open-mindedness, personal confidence, search for the truth, systematic approach, and related questions were used and results were interpreted according to the sub dimensions. In another research, a more extensive analysis can be done by only including one or some other sub dimensions of the measurement tool. References Beyer, B. (1983) Common sense about teaching thinking skills. Educational Leadership Vol.41, EJ 289-719. pp. 44-49. Braman, O. R. (1999) Teaching peace to adults: Using critical thinking to improve conflict resolution. Adult Learning, 102 (2), 30-32. Brookfield, S. D. (1987) Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. Josey-Bass Publishers. San-Francisco, CA. Costa, A. L.; & Lowery I, Lawrence F. (1989) Techniques for Teaching Thinking. Critical Thinking Press and Software. Pacific Grove, CA. Facione, P.A., Facione, N.C.& Giancarlo,C.A. (2000) The disposition toward critical thinking. It’s character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, vol.20, no. 1, pp. 61-84. Facione, P.A., Giancarlo, C.A., Facione, N.C.& Gainen, J. (1995) The disposition toward critical thinking. Journal of General Education, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 1-25. Giancarlo, C.A. and Faacione, P.A. (2001) A look across four years at the disposition toward critical thinking among undergraduate students. The Journal of General Education, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 29-55. Hamurcu, H., Günay, Y., Akamca, G.Ö. (2005) Profiles of critical thinking dispositions of science and class students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, vol.20, pp. 147-157. Ikuenobe, P. (2001) Questioning as an epistemic process of critical thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol.33, no. 3 & 4, pp. 325-341. Kökdemir. D. (2003) Belirsizlik Durumlarında Karar Verme ve Problem Çözme. Ankara Üniversitesi Social Science Faculty, Phd Thesis, Ankara. Norris, S.P. (1985) Synthesis of research on critical thinking. Educational Leadership, vol. 42, pp. 40-45. EJ 319-814. Phillips, C. R., Chesnut, R. J., Rospond, R. M. (2004) The California critical thinking instruments for benchmarking, program assessment, and directing curricular change. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, vol. 68, no. 4. Pithers, R.T., (2000) Critical Thinking in Education: A Review.Educational Research. vol. 42, no. 3, winter, pp. 237-249. Rodriguez, Y.E.G., Sjostrom, B.R. (1998) Critical reflection for professional development: a comparative study of nontraditional adult and traditional student teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 49, no. 3. Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (1996) “Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking”, Retrieved: March 12, 2007, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk Wade, C.& Tavris, C. (1993) Critical& Creative Thinking: The Case of Love and War. Harper Collins College Publisher, New York NY. 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 699 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Prospective Primary School and Primary Science Teachers Author Author GENÇ, Salih Zeki Abstract A summary of the resource. This research, aims to assess the critical thinking abilities of prospective primary school and primary science teachers, was obtained by using California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale The inventory was applied to 560 randomly selected prospective teachers (ranged from 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year) in Faculty of Education at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in Turkey in 2006 and analysed using SPSS program. The students who answered entry incorrectly excluded from the study. Finally, the answers of 480 teacher candidates were taken into consideration. In the analysis of data t, variance and Tukey’s statistic tests were used. It was found out that the point of views of teacher candidates from both departments about the whole inventory were between 31 and 39 (they’re not sure about critical thinking disposition). On the other hand, a significant difference was not found between the gender, learning methods and critical thinking dispositions of teacher candidates. It was also found out that there is a significant difference between teacher candidates grade levels, their self confidence and their ways of searching for truth. Today’s teacher candidates who will become teachers of tomorrows are expected to improve ‘critical thinking skills’ through education process. Therefore, the teacher candidates should have critical thinking skills in order to contribute the development of their countries. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/75663415a88bf5179daab9dabd8c9db5.docx e788d089ba50ccc6da02292c39748a04 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/957cfee652fd9795a7aacb6aaf5735f6.pdf 7d1f0496f98e2caa5246eea1e5421f37 PDF Text Text Evaluation of e-Business in Turkey Furkan Ozbek International Burch University Turkey furkan_skater@hotmail.com Abstract: The internet and technologies have produced an amazing impact on the way enterprises carry out organization in Turkey and worldwide. Turkey enterprises are similar to their own global counterparts and have put in heavily to help leveraging the internet and transform their own classic businesses directly into e-businesses in the last 10 years. E-business purchases are generally professing sizeable share of overall IT budgets in many enterprises whether they are generally modest, channel as well as huge. On the other hand, professionals are generally underneath continuous stress to help justify e-business charges along with to ensure most of these purchases keep reducing. Previous investigation on e-business in Turkey dealt with problems on the price connected with e-business uptake along with the usage of the internet to help particular organization functions. Research discussed in this paper is primary and tries to evaluate the worthiness connected with e-business. It is dependent on data compiled, collated along with analyzed from the reactions received from it along with e-business professionals from all over Turkey. Keywords: e-business evaluation, e-business drivers, e-business financial success. 142 �142 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2605 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of e-Business in Turkey Author Author OZBEK, Furkan Abstract A summary of the resource. The internet and technologies have produced an amazing impact on the way enterprises carry out organization in Turkey and worldwide. Turkey enterprises are similar to their own global counterparts and have put in heavily to help leveraging the internet and transform their own classic businesses directly into e-businesses in the last 10 years. E-business purchases are generally professing sizeable share of overall IT budgets in many enterprises whether they are generally modest, channel as well as huge. On the other hand, professionals are generally underneath continuous stress to help justify e-business charges along with to ensure most of these purchases keep reducing. Previous investigation on e-business in Turkey dealt with problems on the price connected with e-business uptake along with the usage of the internet to help particular organization functions. Research discussed in this paper is primary and tries to evaluate the worthiness connected with e-business. It is dependent on data compiled, collated along with analyzed from the reactions received from it along with e-business professionals from all over Turkey. Keywords: e-business evaluation, e-business drivers, e-business financial success.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/513a9657c4ab552cb8bf8abd8a4ba084.docx c7cfb080e0656fd9801f18aae2ce071f https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5e641e6df2df252ed051a807a3d58fca.pdf 0732f4fe94f6488b7afabd659f003687 PDF Text Text Evaluation of E-Learning and LMS Usage at IBU FeridHadzic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina ferid.hadzic@gmail.com Abstract:Advances in the domain of information and communication systems have enabled new methods for transfer and acquisition of knowledge to emerge and become popular. Elearning has become an area with substantial investments, both in financial terms and research efforts directed towards optimization of existing education methods and discovery of novel ways to disseminate knowledge through usage of modern technologies. The emphasis is upon the importance of integrated learning paths that vary according to the student, the subject material, the level of competence, and corporate or student preferences. Successful implementation of e-learning requires the same management commitment as other missioncritical organization-wide initiatives. Most of all e-learning needs to be compelling to the audience it targets, offering the learner a resource that is seen as appealing, valuable and productive to their goals and aspirations. A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of elearning education courses or training programs. This project describes the process used to analyze needs and select a LMS. Readers will be provided with information about choosing and evaluating a LMS, and also evaluation of LMS usage at The International Burch University and how it is implemented, lessons learned, and tips for organizations seeking to purchase a LMS in the future. Keywords: E-learning, Learning Management System (LMS), Technology, International Burch University (IBU), Implementation, Evaluation. 101 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2559 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of E-Learning and LMS Usage at IBU Author Author HADZIC, Ferid Abstract A summary of the resource. Advances in the domain of information and communication systems have enabled new methods for transfer and acquisition of knowledge to emerge and become popular. E-learning has become an area with substantial investments, both in financial terms and research efforts directed towards optimization of existing education methods and discovery of novel ways to disseminate knowledge through usage of modern technologies. The emphasis is upon the importance of integrated learning paths that vary according to the student, the subject material, the level of competence, and corporate or student preferences. Successful implementation of e-learning requires the same management commitment as other mission-critical organization-wide initiatives. Most of all e-learning needs to be compelling to the audience it targets, offering the learner a resource that is seen as appealing, valuable and productive to their goals and aspirations. A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of e-learning education courses or training programs. This project describes the process used to analyze needs and select a LMS. Readers will be provided with information about choosing and evaluating a LMS, and also evaluation of LMS usage at The International Burch University and how it is implemented, lessons learned, and tips for organizations seeking to purchase a LMS in the future. Keywords: E-learning, Learning Management System (LMS), Technology, International Burch University (IBU), Implementation, Evaluation. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a1d1ed31c214668a71423b1618ecb77b.pdf 6a88562475cfea4f74b9f0bdfcd2f0a4 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evaluation of Elementary Education 6th Grade Turkish Workbook from The Point of Constructivist Grammar Teaching Süleyman Eroğlu Uludag University Faculty of Education Turkey seroglu@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: The skill area of language covers listening/watching, reading, speaking and writing; the knowledge area covers grammar. Grammar is the set of rules supporting basic language skills. It is important for students to learn about the rules and knowledge composing the structure and function of a language so that they can support other skills. Undoubtedly, the way of functional and permanent grammar teaching is firstly to explain about the knowledge and rules of language and then to construct them. The presence of such an understanding in grammar teaching is possible primarily through the presence of a Turkish Course Teaching Program prepared as based on constructivist approach and the presence of teaching materials formed parallel to this. It is known that course books as a teaching material play an important role in having students acquire certain skills. At this point, it is obvious that there is a need to determine if course books possessing great importance were prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach. The present study aimed to evaluate the 6th Grade Turkish Workbook, one of the Turkish teaching materials and expected to have been prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach and still in use; it also aimed to determine the extent to which the various activities in grammar teaching area included in the book meet the requirements of the constructivist approach. Key Words: Elementary 6th Grade Turkish Course Workbook, Grammar Teaching, Constructivist Approach, Turkish Course Teaching Program Introduction Language is a natural means helping people communicate with one another and plays a key role in all educational activities. Language acquisition and teaching take place during a certain process. Individuals have a natural tendency toward learning and consolidating what they have learned and this can be developed when appropriate methods and techniques are used. A human’s world of thought that he or she sets up while trying to understand him/her and the events happening around him/her is shaped with concepts and the relations between these concepts. Humans become socialized through values that concepts acquire in language integrity and are involved in some thinking and expression activities such as learning with the help of language, practicing what they have learned and interpretation. Turkish learning is composed of comprehension, interpretation, and basic language skills such as listening/watching, speaking, reading and writing directed to the development of skills to set up communication and grammar (Turkish Course Teaching Program, 2006, p. 2). The main objectives of the use of language which is the most effective means of agreements between people are to help individuals transfer their own feelings and thoughts to others adequately and effectively, to understand others’ emotions and thoughts fully and correctly. In addition to the basic skills of language such as reading, listening / watching, talking and writing, the information forming the structure and identifying the functioning rules of Turkish is also important to have as well. The ongoing lifelong process of language acquisition avoids arbitrariness and becomes formal in the formal primary education period. Students in the first stage of the primary education are supported primarily with respect to language skills and then tried to be made competent in the knowledge level of the language. This situation, particularly in primary education, will be possible through a constructivist language teaching; because a learner learns and builds knowledge structures when he or she discovers his or her own answers and concepts and creates his or her own interpretation. This is undoubtedly possible through a constructivist teaching approach. Constructivism is the process in which students make sense of and construct new information they encounter under the guidance of teachers also by benefiting from their past learning experiences (Yapıcı, 2008). Constructivist approach is a learning approach in which individuals form their own knowledge, skills and 165 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo qualities as a result of their own experiences and thinking. In this approach, individuals participate in the learning process actively, question, inquire and associate the information they will get through their past experiences and construct it on their own (Shunk, 1996). Knowing the structure and opportunities of the means -language- enabling communication will undoubtedly affect the success of comprehending-expressing activity. And this entails a good grammar education. Language is a system composed of the units taking their values from interrelated relations, and grammar is the field of study aiming to put forward this system (Adalı, 1983, p. 35). The primary aim of grammar is to make students become aware of the basic rules of the Turkish language with respect to speaking, writing and reading and feel confident in using their mother tongue. In other words, the aim of grammar teaching is to make students acquire the skills of using their emotions, thoughts and plans correctly, clearly and effectively. Taken from this perspective, grammar can be accepted as a field of study aiming to make students comprehend meanings correctly and reach the awareness of expressing their own thoughts, emotions and desires properly (Calp, 2007, p. 304). The effective and permanent grammar teaching, a field of study helping individuals to acquire the skills of comprehending and expressing correctly is closely related to not only the constructivist approach but also the quality of textbooks. ”Just as it is impossible to perform any task without any tools, teaching a lesson without a textbook is not likely, too” (Cemiloğlu, 2004, p. 203). Textbooks are the basic sources used for both educational and teaching purposes. They are printed educational and teaching materials equipped with cognitive and sensory skills appropriate for students’ age and knowledge levels, composed of rich texts, prepared in the direction of the principles based on teaching programs, and transferring the information they include to students with the help of teachers. Textbooks have an important function, especially in Turkish lessons, in making students acquire basic language skills. This function originates from texts included in textbooks. For, in Turkish lessons, students are made to acquire all the language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening and grammar) through activities prepared starting from these texts (Çeçen and Çiftçi, 2007, p. 39). Student’s textbook, student’s workbook and teacher’s guide are considered as indispensable complementary tools in the learning and teaching processes realized in the school environment of the Turkish course. Not only are texts included in textbooks the basic materials of grammar teaching, but also opportunities offered by the activities prepared according to the constructivist approach determine the quality of education. The quality of grammar teaching depends on not only textbooks but also a stage-wise programming prepared according to levels of students. In the Turkish Language Teaching Program prepared in 2006 and specifying the framework of grammar teaching, the basic grammar teaching is started in the 6th grade. In the program, starting with the 6th grade, the following acquisitions are included with the aims of supporting the basic language skills and making students comprehend the functioning properties of the Turkish language: 1. Comprehension and practice of the knowledge and rules with respect to the structural properties of words 2. Comprehension and practice of the knowledge and rules with respect to the types of words. As understood from the main acquisition headings of the program, the grammar teaching at primary education level is started on the basis of making students comprehend the properties that the Turkish language has on the word dimension. It is aimed to make students comprehend the knowledge and rules concerning the structural properties of words with the following sub-headings of the 1st acquisition: 1.1. Comprehend root and affix. 1.2. Distinguish between noun affix and verb affix. 1.3. Distinguish between derivational affix and inflectional affix. 1.4. Comprehend stem. 1.5. Comprehend the functions of derivational affixes and the meaning properties they attach to words. 1.6. Comprehend compound words. 1.7. Distinguish between simple, derived and compound words. And it is aimed to make students learn about the knowledge and rules concerning the types of words with the following sub-headings of the 2nd acquisition: 2.1. Comprehend the functions of nouns in a sentence; use nouns in accordance with their functions. 2.2. Perceive the functions of pronouns in a sentence; use pronouns in accordance with their functions. 2.3. Comprehend the functions of the affixes indicating aspect. 2.4. Comprehend the functions of the affixes indicating possession. 2.5. Comprehend the construction and meaning properties of noun phrases. 2.6. Perceive the functions adjectives in a sentence; use adjectives in accordance with their functions. 2.7. Comprehend the construction and meaning properties of adjective phrases. 2.8. Comprehend the functions of prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations and the meaning properties they attach to a sentence; use these words in accordance with their functions. 166 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2.9. Use words in different positions in a sentence. These statements, included in the Turkish Language Teaching Program prepared in 2006, are an indication of the transition from behaviorist approach to constructivist approach. The evaluations that we have hitherto made indicate that the Turkish textbooks prepared within the framework of the Turkish Language Teaching Program need to be the tools of the constructivist approach. Starting from this thought, the basic aim of our study is to evaluate the opportunities that the Turkish textbooks offer to students in terms of the constructivist approach within the framework of grammar teaching. However, our study’s remaining within the boundaries of a paper has made it possible to evaluate only the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook. Contents of the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook includes chapters sectioned on the basis of six different themes considering students’ interests and needs and certain language acquisitions. Under these themes, there are a total of 247 activities depending on 26 texts in different types. And 61 – approximately 25%- of the 247 activities are grammar ones. At the end of each theme in the book, there are also six different review sections under the heading of Theme Review Questions. Examination of the Grammar Activities in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook The grammar activities of the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook consist of word, sentence and text level practices. In order to make students achieve the above-mentioned behavioral objectives related to language skills, there are activities in the processes of elicitation, comprehension and consolidation. In these processes, knowledge and rules are not offered to students, but instead elicitation and comprehension are realized through examples. When the activities that students are supposed to perform in the workbook are evaluated as a whole, it can be stated that they have been organized on the basis of the constructivist learning. Not offering knowledge or rules in any of the sample activities is an indication of the fact that the constructivist approach has been applied. Moreover, the activities’ having been given largely within the sentence integrity and context and supported with visual elements contributes to the realization of the constructivist learning. It is obvious that grammar, a field of learning which can be acquired through practice, needs to have some unique methods and techniques. In this context, in order to let students achieve the grammar-related acquisitions, the activities included in the workbook have been created using various methods and techniques. As a result of the present study made on the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook, it was observed that the activities are in the forms of analysis, grouping, completion, combining, matching, using in a sentence and explanation. Analysis The majority of the grammar activities included in the workbook is in the form of analysis. With this type of activities, it has been aimed to make students perceive similarities and differences through analysis and then comprehend them. In the following sample activity, students are asked to read the paragraph first and then analyze the underlined words in accordance with the example given. 167 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 1: Sample analysis activity Grouping One of the types of activities frequently included in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is grouping activities. And with this example where students are asked to group by separating noun and verb roots into parts with different colors, it has been intended to make students consolidate the subjects of nouns and verbs that they have previously learned. Table 2: Sample grouping activity Completion Word formation occupies an important place among the grammar works of the Turkish language, an agglutinative one. The extent to which students can lexicalize the words they already know with different affixes will determine the ease of use of the language. In the activity given below, too, students are asked to derive new meanings by adding different derivational affixes to word stems. By this way, it is aimed to have students construct different meanings on their own through the use of different affixes. 168 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 3: Sample completion activity Combining Just as in many languages, words and additional combinations show unique features in Turkish as well. In the following sample, with this feature acquired through many experiences during the process of the use of language, it is aimed to have students elicit and comprehend the fact that not every affix is used with every word in Turkish, and affix-root combinations differ depending on the properties of affixes and roots. Table 4: Sample combining activity Matching In the Turkish Workbook, matching activities are less in number compared to those mentioned above. In the following examples, it is aimed to have students identify the persons to which affixes indicating possession that words derived from nouns bear correspond. 169 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 5: Sample matching activity Using in a sentence Making sentences, using words in different sentence patterns, is an important criterion indicating the language competence of individuals using the language. Developing students’ skills of making correct and effective sentences in different structures and constructions is among the important goals of the Turkish course. In the following sample, too, students are asked to use the words given in the forms of preposition, conjunction and exclamation in a sentence correctly. By this way, it is aimed to ask students to construct meanings on their own starting from the words given in the direction of their skills. Table 6: Sample using in a sentence activity Explanation In the sample activity below, students are asked first to perceive the semantic relationships between the underlined words in the whole sentence and then to explain them. With this type of activity, it is aimed to make students determine and express the functions of similar units in different sentences with the constructivist approach. 170 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 7: Sample explanation activity Conclusion One of the primary aims of grammar teaching is to make students comprehend the semantic and syntactic properties of the language as much as possible. For this reason, the Turkish Course Teaching Program and the Turkish textbooks prepared on the basis of this need to be introduced with a constructivist approach with which students explore knowledge and rules on their own. The findings obtained as a result of the investigations made starting from this thought indicate that the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is a product of such an approach and effort. In the studies and observations made on learning, it has been concluded that the knowledge and skills acquired through practice are more permanent. This situation can be observed more concretely in language teaching. To make this objective possible, it is no doubt necessary to make students frequently be exposed to sample practices. The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook as an activity-based teaching tool is of quality that will contribute to students’ developing their language skills. The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook prepared on the basis of the constructivist approach put forward by the Turkish Course Teaching Program paves the way for students to reach information and rules on their own through various activities in the forms of analysis, grouping, completion, combining, matching, using in a sentence and explanation. The fact that the book does not include any kinds of information and definitions fits the very spirit of the constructivist approach. Moreover, the activities’ having been supported with visuals to concretize learning appears as a benefit as well. But in the meantime, we have some evaluations that should be included in the workbook in terms of the constructivist approach. For the 6th graders having newly met the knowledge area of the language following the skills area, the concrete learning should, no doubt, be started starting from the known elements. Structuring a grammar teaching over the texts about which students already know is rather important in terms of comprehensible and permanent teaching. In this sense, the arrangement of some of the activities in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook independently from reading texts may pose an obstacle in front of students’ developing their knowledge and skills. It will be appropriate to revise and re-evaluate the activities in the workbook within this framework. Another problematic point present in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is that some examples in the activities have been given independently from the sentence integrity. The examples to be given with respect to the subject should be given in sentence integrity. Such an approach will make students perceive the pieces of information as the parts of the language they use. Artificial and independent examples may not only make it difficult for students to structure their knowledge and skills but also pose an obstacle in front of their making sense of statements. In conclusion, although the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook prepared based on the constructivist approach is regarded as an effective tool in the grammar field of the Turkish teaching, it should be re-evaluated under the light of the findings and suggestions specified and its quality should be increased in this direction. 171 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Adalı, O. (1983), Anadili Olarak Türkçe Ögretimi Üstüne,. Ankara, Türk Dili, S: 379–380, s. 34–35. Calp, M. (2007), Özel Öğretim Alanı Olarak Türkçe Öğretimi, Konya: Eğitim Kitabevi. Cemiloğlu, M. (2004), Đlköğretim Okullarında Türkçe Öğretimi, Đstanbul, Aktüel Yayınları Çeçen, M. A., Çiftçi, Ö. (2007). Đlköğretim 6. Sınıf Türkçe Ders Kitaplarında Yer Alan Metinlerin Tür ve Tema Açısından Đncelenmesi. Millî Eğitim, S: 173, s. 39–49. Đlköğretim Türkçe 6 Çalışma Kitabı (2008), Ankara, MEB Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. Đlköğretim Türkçe Dersi (6,7,8. sınıflar) Öğretim Programı (2006), Ankara, T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Shunk, D. H. (1996). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. YAPICI, Mehmet. ”Yapılandırmacılık ve Sınıf”, (http://www.universitetoplum.org/pdf/pdf_UT_312.pdf, 05.05.2010. 172 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Roles and the Organization of University in the Context of Lifelong Learning Prof. Dr. R. Cengiz AKÇAY Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversity, Faculty of Education rakcay@comu.edu.tr Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu KARSLI Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversity, Faculty of Education mkarsli@comu.edu.tr Abstract:Universities have been criticized more for managing their functions and roles. A new determiner of the universities’ duties for the society is the concept of life long learning. The fact that the number of the people desiring to develop their level of education is increasing and age groups are changing by including not only the youth but also all age groups requires that universities should be supplied with the global necessities and should change their structures within the concept of LLL. Life is a singly process of learning. Every person needs constant, planned and institutive educational opportunities so as to be prepared for the changes around to activate the whole potential. Life long learning is the complete of the all educational activities including the information, abilities and competences related to personal, social and employment to be developed during the life period. The aim of this study is to put forward the effect of the LLL concept developing especially in EU on the universities; to redefine the aims, roles and duties of the universities changing with this effect; to determine the need of reorganization and discuss the differences emerging with the LLL effect in the new structures of the universities. In Europe, tranferring to information based economy and information society are obliged to be carried by the help of direction to the life long learning. The topic of life long learning has destroyed the understanding of where to perform the educational activities. Universities in need of education in order to be powerful against the changing preferences of customers and competition should change their aims and aim groups to serve the perpective of life long learning and accept people from all ages and levels. This change requires the change in the structure and educational methods. Organization should be more flexible and teaching method should be more students-centered and less formal. Problem The classical approach related to the imparting function of the school within the society has been criticized by many others and it is claimed that the school increases the inequalities. The universities have also been criticized ever increasingly for functioning and playing their roles. The new determiner of “where must the place of university be in the society?” in recent years is the concept of lifelong learning (LLL). The increasing number of the individuals with the wish of promoting their education level and the changing of age groups by containing not only youth but also everybody require a global provision of needs and a change in the structure of the universities according to these qualities and in the direction of the LLL concept. Life is a learning process on its own. Every person needs constant, planned and organizational opportunities of education for the purpose of being ready for the changes around him/her and activating his/her whole potential. Lifelong learning is all educational activities that include the lifelong development of all information, abilities and competence about personal and social employment. In recent years the developments which have largely influenced the higher education institutions can be ordered as: a) globalization, b) the increasing need for lifelong learning, c) the quick and compact developments in cognition and communication technologies (Yılmaz and Horzum,2005). Lifelong education (LLE) is adopted as an approach that responds the needs of being an information society, integration of formal and non-formal education, and the continuity of education. Ever increasing demand and requirement for lifelong learning lands higher education institutions with educational responsibilities to respond these requirements and demands (Erçetin, 2001). These new responsibilities make universities’ new construction and organizational alteration obligatory. 173 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The objective of this study is presenting the impact of LLL , which is improving in EU, on universities; redefining the changing objectives, roles, and tasks of universities with this impact; determining the need of reorganization and discussing the differences that have arisen by LLL effect in new university construction. LLL The Lifelong Education concept first became a discussion subject in an international ambiance as UNESCO, OECD and CE in 1970s. But it was used differently from its current meaning. Whenever lifelong education (LLE) is available in this period humanistic ideals, social and cultural objectives have primarily been accepted. Until 1990s humanistic objective had been lost because of the economic crisis and LLE came into prominence by economic discourses. In this period the concept was generally in an obscure and ineffective condition. Since 1990s LLE has widely lost its humanistic aspect and fallen into a pragmatic and economic understanding. In 2000s the concept has started to be handled with a new understanding by especially EU (Beycioğlu ve Konan, 2008). The LLL concept, by its meaning in developed countries, takes the individual as the centre and has a characteristic which asserts that non-formal learning must be accentuated and the state’s burden on education must be decreased (DPT,2001:2). LLE has made for three main objectives. These are: enabling individual’s personal development by creating opportunities in LLL, achieving the social integration and providing the economic growth (DPT, 200:15). In this point it is good to refer to the conceptual discussions of late years and their LLE policy and applications. Particularly from the point that globalization started to be effective to now the LLL concept has been preferred to the concept of LLE. According to common view LLL maintains a strategy development for post-school education and reshapes the education including adult education (Edwards and Usher; 2001). LLL has become more and more opt for LLE. The changing of interest to LLL leads the people to be a lifelong learner and the governments encourage the citizens to be more responsible and active in their own lives. The goals, processes, organizational structures and curricula of the educational institutions vary under the expression of LLL. The stream of LLL will break the monopoly of institutionalized education on information, production and evaluation and the authorities and capacities of these institutions will be able to be questioned. As it has begun to be accepted that learning consists a lot of activities apart from institutions, many activities including learning can be qualified as “educational” (Edwards and Usher; 2001). All these evaluations and claims will keep on being discussed. Because LLE will increasingly affect education systems. The concept of LLE is a notion that is impacted densely by the globalization that emphasizes individualism. Therefore, it requires a minimum individual development, the eminence of educational experiences and literacy, shortly it implies all society education’s coming to a minimal/ acceptable degree. In the countries without such levels of development LLL concept must be changed into LLE concept and understanding. Because institution and state efforts and breakthroughs are needed in these countries. The people must have a critical view and transformation will so as to form a distinctive future and life. LLE can only gain meaning under these circumstances (Ayhan, 2005:21). Otherwise brutal competitive conditions will swallow the individuals that experience educational and the other absences extremely. These individuals are in the need for protection. This protection must occur by means of LLE policies. As a result the scope of LLE is of importance in the sense of this concept’s provision of functional and expected benefits. We can order the scope of LLE as: a) Formal-non formal education b) Professional- general education c) Olds-youngs d) Employers – non employers and job seekers e) Lepers and the ones looking for speciality. LLL must be organized and developed in the form of including all these groups and structures. 174 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Globalization and LLL Globalization is on one hand perceived as market’s being more powerful than states and their proliferation, on the other hand it is a simple term that is used by the circles who intend to destroy welfare state and government. To transformists globalization is the main politic power behind the quick social, politic and economic evolutions that reshape modern societies and the world order. There is no clear difference between external affairs (international relations) and internal affairs any more (Bozkurt,2002 Güçlü, 2003). There are also ones who evaluate globalization as a new form of Americanization, capitalism, imperialism. Kızılçelik (2004) sees globalization as international economic relations that arose in the world after the cold war. Such that he asserts globalization can be thought with capitalist modernism and can only be declared within this framework. Accordingly it can also be said that there are some people who interpret globalization as the new form of capitalism or imperialism. Actually lots of evidences show that it is reportedly correct (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005). On the one part it is emphasized that globalization is necessary and it is a transition process, on the other part globalization is seen as a threat to the current order and values. At this point the evaluation of the probable results of globalization and cultivation of individuals being able to cope with these evolutions are of great importance (Yılmaz and Horzum,2005). Globalization has deep and permanent impacts on universities. Because globalization weakened two main assumptions behind university like “nation state” and “welfare state”. Now it is difficult to consider the problem of university independently from welfare state, nation state and similar problems. The declination of these two concepts exposed the result that the state decreased the resources reserved for universities (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005). Universities have been affected from these alternations positively or negatively. There are different inclinations that impact the development, management, and financing of universities as democratization, territorialization, polarization of the inequalities and marginalization. These developments ensure universities’ revision of their relationship with state, industry and society. While the reordering of the world higher education institutions have complicated in four dimensions: They are (Callan 2000; Scott 1999; Erçetin,2001): 1) The intimacy of cultural identities in the face of the expansion of national cultures. 2) The reduction of the connection between higher education and national structures by means of raising values. 3) The standardization of teaching owing to the quick expansion of cognition technology and global search networks. 4) The composed global markets’ causing a decrease in the incomes of developed countries and damaging public expenditures, thus higher education institutions. All of these evolutions enforce higher education institutions to change and respond new structures and organizations. In this sense it can be expressed that the higher education institutions of the future will survive only if they turn into the organizations that continue their existences globally, that are autonomous in a financial, managerial and academic sense, and that are integrated with global research cultures and networks (Erçetin, 2001). Globalization has caused a radical change in economic system and human life within the industrial and pre-industrial countries. Educational organizations need LLE in order to stay alive in the face of changing consumer preferences and competition (Glastra, 2004). EU and LLL In Europe the successful transition to information based economy and information society is not obligatory in company with orientation to LLL. The agenda of LLL has completely ruined the understandings about where the learning will be done. Emphasizing a transition to a information based economy first in 2000 in Lisbon, EU felt the absence of education and by seeing it as one of the basic goods of “integration with union” process they adopted LLE approach as common discourse (Beycioğlu and Konan,2008). LLL was defined by EU as all learning activities in every period of human life with the purpose of improving information, ability and proficiency, in the perspective related to personal, citizen, and social works. Within the EU process LLL was first seen in a report called White Paper in 1995 and with the title of “Towards a Learning Society” EU societies’ goals for LLL and things to do were handled (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005; Akbaş and Özdemir, 2002). The developments seen with this history can be summarized orderly as: 175 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1995. The publication of White Paper by European Commission. In this paper the elements that have been defined as goals are: a) Encouraging individuals to gain new information, b) concentrating school and business sectors, c) fight against exclusion, d) improving the proficiency in three of the union’s languages, e) equalize the factory with the investment whose training is done. 1996. Declaration of Europe LLL year. This year’s three main goals are: a) inducing LLL concept, b) expressing its meanings and features, c) revising the reality of this concept for all European citizens (Akbaş and Özdemir, 2002). In the formation of LLL in EU, Lisbon strategy of the year 2000 has played an important role. EU’s desire for having a dynamic, competitive and information-based economy impacted LLL concept. For this purpose these were suggested in 2001 The Ministers of Education Conference (Hake,2005:21): a) Increasing the effectiveness and quality of EU education and upbringing systems, b) Being sure that education is public, c) Expanding education and upbringing to a wider world. 2000. Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Two fundamental goals in this memorandum are: a) gaining the necessary professional skills to adapt new information based society and participate in social and economic life completely, b) introducing active European citizenship and fitting this in. This memorandum gives 6 important messages: a) gaining the information and skills that are needed by people for taking a part in information based society, b) increasing the investments for human resources, c) developing effective methods for LLL and introducing the innovations in the field of education, d) raising the status of education by developing new learning strategies, e) providing a full access to quality education easily for everybody, f) maintaining that people will benefit from the opportunities of LLL as soon as possible (Akbaş ve Özdemir, 2002). 2001. An action plan reflecting LLL memorandum and 6 key messages in 2000 was prepared. 2003. The Memorandum of Berlin. Within this memorandum the importance of higher education in actualizing LLL is taken into consideration. In the way of achieving this goal several steps were taken to conform national policies and to induce higher education institutions for developing LLL chances. They have stressed that some opportunities must be created for citizens to follow – in the direction of their abilities and expectations- the ways of LLL within and towards higher education (http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page =yazi&i=11). 2007. The Memorandum of London. It has been asserted that some elements related to flexible learning are available in many countries but the systematic development of flexible learning strategies that will support LLL is just on the onset. Therefore studying in respect of developing a common understanding about increasing the sharing of good applications and the role of higher education in LLL is required (http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page=yazi&i=81). It is thought that European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning that was accepted formally in April 2008 could be a reference tool, could enable the comparability of different countries’ education systems and could develop employment, mobility and social integration of employers, graduates and students (Higher Education National Qualifications Framework Draft Report of Turkey) (http://www.eqf-lll.eu/en/eqf_en). 2009. The Memorandum of Leuven . The expansion of participation must be actualized by means of LLL which is a supplementary part of education systems. LLL is a piece of public liability. Accessibility, quality assurance and information transparency have to be maintained. The application of LLL policies requires a strong association between relevant institutions and people. LLL will be supported by suitable organizational structures and financial resources. In the direction of LLL application the development of national qualifications framework is an essential step. In Europe the successful transition to information based economy and information society is not obligatory in company with orientation to LLL. The agenda of LLL has completely ruined the understandings about where the learning will be done. LLL includes acquiring qualifications, increasing knowledge, getting new skills and perfections for having personal development. LLL means the competence that can be acquired by flexible education strategies including the gathered information from half-time education and business. In the documents about LLL in Europe both the goals of learning, effective citizenship, personal/special satisfaction, social participation and the aspects/approaches about employment heve been pointed out. LLL applications can be established according to education steps as (EURYDICE, 2000; acc. Beycioğlu ve Konan, 2008): Pre-School Level: At this level the essential aim is to increase participation regarding with the philosophy of “LLL from cradle to grave”. Compulsory Education Level: Compulsory education must be perceived as the main step for LLL. In this step there are some approaches connected with LLL phenomenon like learning how to learn, personal 176 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo development, the education of citizenship and language learning. Similarly minimizing the school absence, supporting education technologies, new forms of education, teaching and management, communication with families are also evaluated as the supporting policies of LLL. Secondary Education Level: In this step the continuity of LLL phenomenon and policies are stressed. Professional and technical education are handled subjects in this level at the same time. Developing a positive attitude and environment towards LLL is targeted. Decreasing the school absence and failure is one of the interest areas. Higher Education Level: It is the level in which LLL emphasis particularly comes into prominence. It is intended that the learning individuals will prepare by using business resources more productively thus variety will be maintained. Using computer technologies LLL phenomenon is tried to be actualized by means of more flexible learning environments as distance education. Post- Higher Education: Developing adult education is attempted. It can be evaluated as the primary subject of LLL. Among member countries the support of finance and flexibility are given to this kind of institutions. To summarize, whichever education level it is, member countries emphasize LLL concept, they support and encourage that will settle this phenomenon, create improving environments and bring about several applications in this direction. As a result, since LLL concept has not been fit in a formal description in a general sense within EU countries no direct definition is preferred. This condition can be a reason for “why is LLL concept tackled in increasingly detailed way? ”. The concept keeps its actuality as still being considered and discussed as an “ambiguous” phenomenon. In most EU member countries there is directly no formal text to support this concept. LLL phenomenon is aimed to accommodate in education steps. LLL and Universities The universities which are in an urgent need of LLE to survive in the face of changing consumer preferences and competition, must change their target groups and goals in this direction to a form that serve LLL understanding and accept individuals of all ages and levels. This alteration brings with an obligation of change in structure and education methods. Organization has to be more flexible where the teaching method must be more student-centered and less formal. The problems and changing areas that globalization has created on EU process and LLL understanding are: 1. Taking an active part in solving global, regional and local problems emerged as an obligation. For universities territorial level is not seen adequate. 2. The dilemma of local-global preferences. The alienation of universities to their own society and problems going away from national and local area by means of globalization. 3. The problem of financing. Competition conditions in global economy pushed the universities into a big financing problem. 4. Presenting education services that people will benefit from. Universities’ liability and roles in LLE is the other important problem arising by the effect of EU process and globalization. 5. Using education technologies that are based on developed cognitive technologies. Distance education is a fundamental device for LLE. Student’s accessibility to these opportunities is of importance. It requires high investment costs for universities in order to improve cognition occasions. 6. Educating with parallel to the needs of labour market, preparation of individuals for life and maintaining his/her life. 7. Using flexible education programmes and methods in the direction of the requirements of different student groups. Universities’ problem of exclusion comes to the forefront and student groups must be reached with several reasons. Equal opportunity has to be the main goal in all cases. 8. The need for organization facing the arrangement of student’s education procedure and student’s participation in determination of the method. 9. The settlement of student centered education and learning culture gained importance. In the formation of this culture students must be encouraged to learn the learning. 10. The requirement of establishing a pivotal planning and coordination centre. Higher education institutions must actualize this transformation that will respond the responsibility of solving these problems. For this, the universities must put these into practice (UNESCO 2000) (Erçetin,2001): 177 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Creating a better future for society and individual by means of research, whole interaction and coordination activities of education and society. In the transition to information society leading for refreshing the society by performing analysis, production and consult which will maintain social transformation. Taking an active role in solving global, regional and local problems. Building a consciousness of LLE. Serving the education services that people will lifelong benefit from. Utilizing distance education technologies based upon developed cognition technologies. The responsibility of giving education to non-undergraduates. Education is an activity in which the individuals of all ages and amputations develop and integrate their personalized cognitive powers for their own and for the future of humanity (Erçetin,2001). As it can be seen the LLL responsibilities of the universities come into prominence now and will do so in the future. The university of LLL understanding must be organized and structured as: 1. Before the organization of the universities the necessity of a national LLL organization must be mentioned. Such an organization has primarily to be within The Ministry of Education but must be equipped with new authorization in the subject of cooperation with relevant institutions and organizations. At this point one important problem is the problem of a second institution responsible for common-public education apart from The General Directorate of Apprenticeship and Non-formal Education within The Ministry of Education. Instead of constructing a new organization the solution of this problem is to reorganize the present structure in the manner that responds the new understanding of LLL (General Directorate of LLL). 2. Establishing a committee that will describe LLL requirement and make the arrangement out of this structure. The tasks of the committee called “ National Committee of LLL” must be forming quality assurance system and standards of LLL and providing coordination also it must have an autonomous structure. 3. Taking an active part in solving global and international problems caused by globalization and EU process emerged as an obligation. Universities had to renew their visions for being more successful in global competition and increasing their support for the organizations like EU. For universities local and territorial levels are not seen as adequate and international expansions must enhance their global activities as the members of the unions. 4. Universities must be some kinds of organizations that must reach not only the registered students of formal education but also people of all ages and all environments especially the ones who are excluded and the ones deprived from education opportunities; they must serve everybody, everywhere, every time as flexible open and flexible organizations with all its dimensions like goal, structure and process. For this purpose, they must first go into a changing progress in organizational subjects. The understanding of flexible organization, particularly when it is thought that there is monotype university organization, is gaining importance. In terms of LLL, their structuring with a target of different groups is considered. Maybe, only the formation of LLL universities can be guessed. LLL requires the understandings that make the organizations more effective as continuing education centers. Certificate provider education and educational activities maintaining credit saving demand LLL structures which are able to be accredited and have standard credits and features. 5. LLL programmes also affect the education understanding and methods of the universities. Distance education and dense utilization of information technologies are of these methods. There are also some techniques to ease the settlement and development of new understandings and organizations ordered above. Lateral communication and dominance of democratic administration culture is of great importance on the settlement of these kinds of structures. The existence of administration culture based on the effectiveness of the committees and the management understanding leaning against the distribution of dole discretions are two of them. 178 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Akbaş, O. & Özdemir, S. (2002). Avrupa Birliğinde Yaşam Boyu Öğrenme. 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Yükseköğretim Ulusal Yeterlikler Çerçevesi Komisyonu & Çalışma Grubu. Türkiye Yükseköğretim Ulusal Yeterlikler Çerçevesi (Tyuyç) Ara Raporu. www.yok.gov.tr/ index.php?option=com docman&task=doc. (erişim tarhi: 01.03.2010) 180 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 453 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Elementary Education 6th Grade Turkish Workbook from The Point of Constructivist Grammar Teaching Author Author Eroğlu, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. The skill area of language covers listening/watching, reading, speaking and writing; the knowledge area covers grammar. Grammar is the set of rules supporting basic language skills. It is important for students to learn about the rules and knowledge composing the structure and function of a language so that they can support other skills. Undoubtedly, the way of functional and permanent grammar teaching is firstly to explain about the knowledge and rules of language and then to construct them. The presence of such an understanding in grammar teaching is possible primarily through the presence of a Turkish Course Teaching Program prepared as based on constructivist approach and the presence of teaching materials formed parallel to this. It is known that course books as a teaching material play an important role in having students acquire certain skills. At this point, it is obvious that there is a need to determine if course books possessing great importance were prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach. The present study aimed to evaluate the 6th Grade Turkish Workbook, one of the Turkish teaching materials and expected to have been prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach and still in use; it also aimed to determine the extent to which the various activities in grammar teaching area included in the book meet the requirements of the constructivist approach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)