103 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c5470a4d656141b5cb89734ac590369b.docx a6dcdc25c97b14316743c2a6e39c566c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ddc6d0e678544cd9cd696e48ab8ca986.pdf ea839ed891ac4bf3bae2a83bb2ea14ca PDF Text Text Entrepreneurship: Analysis of the Literature Dino Arnaut International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina arnaut.dino@gmail.com Uğur Ergün International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina ugur.ergun@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Throughout the world, shifts in population demographics, technological modification, fluctuating economies and alternative dynamic forces have transformed societies as never before, bringing new challenges in addition to opportunities to the forefront. Among the responses to those everyday shifting forces is an actual increase in stress on entrepreneurship by governments, organizations and the general public. Entrepreneurship cannot be a panacea for it all, but it can surely be part of the answer. Entrepreneurship is a very popular topic for the researchers in almost every part of the world. This paper seeks to create a roadmap for the entrepreneurship literature. This task is not easy since entrepreneurship itself is a multifarious and complex social and economic phenomenon. This roadmap’s sole purpose is to highlight aspects of entrepreneurship that can act as a guideline for policy makers to help them understand the most important questions and issues, and to understand better the distinctions of entrepreneurship in emerging markets from that in developed countries. This is critical in order to develop private sector in developing countries. This paper examines recent empirical evidence that systematically and collectively supports the claim that entrepreneurship cause important economic benefits, such as economic development and growth. Keywords: entrepreneurship, literature development, economic growth. review, roadmap, self-employment, economic 165 �165 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2645 Title A name given to the resource Entrepreneurship: Analysis of the Literature Author Author ARNAUT, Dino ERGUN, Ugur Abstract A summary of the resource. Throughout the world, shifts in population demographics, technological modification, fluctuating economies and alternative dynamic forces have transformed societies as never before, bringing new challenges in addition to opportunities to the forefront. Among the responses to those everyday shifting forces is an actual increase in stress on entrepreneurship by governments, organizations and the general public. Entrepreneurship cannot be a panacea for it all, but it can surely be part of the answer. Entrepreneurship is a very popular topic for the researchers in almost every part of the world. This paper seeks to create a roadmap for the entrepreneurship literature. This task is not easy since entrepreneurship itself is a multifarious and complex social and economic phenomenon. This roadmap’s sole purpose is to highlight aspects of entrepreneurship that can act as a guideline for policy makers to help them understand the most important questions and issues, and to understand better the distinctions of entrepreneurship in emerging markets from that in developed countries. This is critical in order to develop private sector in developing countries. This paper examines recent empirical evidence that systematically and collectively supports the claim that entrepreneurship cause important economic benefits, such as economic development and growth. Keywords: entrepreneurship, literature review, roadmap, self-employment, economic development, economic growth. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c31c4b0ea79e53d232aafd48494aff90.docx f3562e734068c8b4e13bb6f08bc07d56 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd8012fa266c38d84ed886833a548947.pdf c41e46efca7d6ce005db29b08cb687e0 PDF Text Text ENVER KADİÇ VE TARİH-İ ENVERİ Ali Rıza ÖZUYGUN – Şefika YAPICI International Burch University, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bölümü, Saraybosna / Bosna Hersek Anahtar Kelimeler: Muhammed Enver Kadiç, Bosna, Kronik, Tarih, Edebiyat . ÖZET Bosnalı bir tarihçi ve edebiyatçı olan Muhammed Enver Kadiç, 19.yüzyıl sonları ile 20.yüzyıl başlarında yaşamış önemli bir şahsiyet olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. M. Enver Kadiç, Bosna’da Türkçe yazma geleneğini sürdürmüştür. Döneminde Bosna edebiyatına ve tarihine ışık tutacak olan ‘’Tarih-i Enveri ‘’veya ‘’Enver Kadiç Kroniği’’ adlı eseri ile tanınmıştır. Eser 13641927 yılları arasında Bosna tarihi ve edebiyatına ait bilgileri kapsamaktadır. Bosna arşiv merkezi olan Evrak-ı Kalemi’de çalışan Enver Kadiç; 28 ciltte ilannameler, yıllara göre vefatlar, hüccetler, ferman suretleri, paşa buyrukları, Saraybosna şehrindeki önemli yapıları ve edebiyatla alakalı bütün bilgileri kronolojik olarak kaydetmiştir. Bu çalışamızda Enver Kadiç’in hayatı ve Kroniğine dair bilgiler vermeyi amaçladık. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2261 Title A name given to the resource ENVER KADİÇ VE TARİH-İ ENVERİ Author Author ÖZUYGUN, Ali Rıza YAPICI, Şefika Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Muhammed Enver Kadiç, Bosna, Kronik, Tarih, Edebiyat . ÖZET Bosnalı bir tarihçi ve edebiyatçı olan Muhammed Enver Kadiç, 19.yüzyıl sonları ile 20.yüzyıl başlarında yaşamış önemli bir şahsiyet olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. M. Enver Kadiç, Bosna’da Türkçe yazma geleneğini sürdürmüştür. Döneminde Bosna edebiyatına ve tarihine ışık tutacak olan ‘’Tarih-i Enveri ‘’veya ‘’Enver Kadiç Kroniği’’ adlı eseri ile tanınmıştır. Eser 1364- 1927 yılları arasında Bosna tarihi ve edebiyatına ait bilgileri kapsamaktadır. Bosna arşiv merkezi olan Evrak-ı Kalemi’de çalışan Enver Kadiç; 28 ciltte ilannameler, yıllara göre vefatlar, hüccetler, ferman suretleri, paşa buyrukları, Saraybosna şehrindeki önemli yapıları ve edebiyatla alakalı bütün bilgileri kronolojik olarak kaydetmiştir. Bu çalışamızda Enver Kadiç’in hayatı ve Kroniğine dair bilgiler vermeyi amaçladık. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8cd10ab8ba25d34c43d85242e395714f.pdf 64489f6f0866fb352b5d02f021ce7b8c PDF Text Text El-zaeems, S.Y. 2004. Alteration of the productive performance characteristics of Orechromis niloticus and Tilapia Zillii under the effect of foreign DNA injection. Egypt J. Aquat. Boil. Fish. 8(1): 261-278. El-Zaeem, S.Y., Aseem, S.S. 2004. Application of biotechnology in fish breeding: 1 – production of highly immune genetically modified Nile, tilapia Orechromis niloticus with accelerated growth by direct injection of Shark FAO. 2007. The role of aquaculture in sustainable development. Thirty-fourth Session. 17-24 November 2007, C 2007/INF/16 Rome. FAO. 10 pp. FAO. 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome. 197 pp. Fletcher, G. L., Hobbs, R. S., Evans, R. P., Shears, M. A., Hahn, A. L., Hew, C. L. 2011. Lysozyme transgenic Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture Research, 42: 427–440. Hew CL, Davies PL, Fletcher G. 1992. Antifreeze protein gene transfer in Atlantic salmon. Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1(4-5):309-17. Hew, C.L., Fletcher, G.L. 2001. The role of aquatic biotechnology in aquaculture. Aquaculture 197, 191-204. Snow, A.A, Andersen, B, Jørgensen, R. 1999. Costs of transgenic herbicide resistance introgressed from Brassica napus into weedy B. rapa. Molecular Ecology 8:605–615. Soltanian, S., Stuyven, E., Cox, E., Sorgeloos, P., Bossier, P. 2009. Beta-glucans as immunostimulant in vertebrates and invertebrates. Critical Reviews in Microbiology , 35: 109–138. Subasinghe, R.P. 2007. Aquaculture: Status and Prospects. In ―Role of Aquaculture in Sustainable Development. FAO Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Rome, Italy. Subasinghe, R., Soto, D., Jia, J. 2009. Global aquaculture and its role in sustainable development. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1: 2–9. Tepfer, M. 2002. Risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic plants. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 40, 467-491. Environmental Impact of Hydroelectric power plants (HPP) and Fishways Mehmet Kocabaş1, Nadir Başçinar2, Filiz Kutluyer3, Önder Aksu3 1 Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Wildlife Ecology & Management, 61080, Trabzon, Turkey 2Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Department of Fisheries Technology Engineering, 61530, Trabzon, Turkey 3Tunceli University, Fisheries Faculty, 62000, Tunceli Abstract Hydroelectric power plants (HPP), which are not cause environment pollution relatively and renewable, inexpensive, has increased importance. However, there are positive and negative impacts on the ecological balance of these systems. One of the main environmental impact of hydropower development is related to fish passage both upstream and downstream. 190 �Hydroelectric power plants (HPP) adversely impact both fish biodiversity and local fishing communities. Ecosystem change destroys feeding as well as breeding grounds, with a resultant loss of fish species. Where the movement of migratory fish up and down river is affected by hydropower development, fish hatcheries near the dam sites or fish ladders for fish movement should be considered as mitigation options. Local user groups and other stakeholders should be involved in decision-making, to keep good relations concerning peoples‘ livelihoods and the sustainability of aquatic resources. The fish maintain the existence with feeding and reproduction migration of fish, a sufficient amount of water flows in the stream bed and with proper planning of fish ways. Depending on aquatic habitat and fish movement corridor values and other site characteristics, use of culvert fishways may preclude the need to adopt over-conservative and unnecessarily expensive designs using bridges. The suitability of culvert fishway facilities in meeting fish passage and other multipurpose design requirements can be demonstrated for numerous waterway types and structure configurations, and particularly for retrofit facilities. Recognising the need for ongoing design development and evaluation of fish passage facilities for road crossings and other waterway structures and for innovative solutions to address aquatic fauna connectivity barriers. The remaining water in the line of river, life line support will allow to the presence of fish in streams continue. Transverse structures to do with the river flow as well as standing water and thus fish would have the opportunity. The development and increase the number of aquatic species, fish would be affected positively by increase the feeding. Keywords: Hydroelectric power plants, fish way, ecosystem. 1. INTRODUCTION Environmental problems, which are eventuated during production and the use of energy, is one of the main reasons to be disuse of old technologies. Coal, oil and natural gas power plants threatens the world. The plants damages areas where they are established. Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and dust, which are released into the atmosphere, pollute the environment and cause to deaths when fossil fuels are burned. In addition, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases cause to global climate change (Uyar, 2001). Today, world population growth, water conservation and energy requirement is made a current issue to construction of new dams and HEPP. The importance of dam and HEPP gradually increase due to be cheap and renewable (Akkaya et al., 2009; Kocabaş et al. 2011). Although, there are benefits use of water for renewable electricity generation, interactions carry with the environment (Aksungur et al., 2011). The effects of hydroelectric power plants is quite varied and HEPP cause to significant impacts on the area as physical, biological and on human beings. Damages to natural life, destruction of local cultures and historic sites, changes in water quality occurring in the river bed are some of adverse effects. Hydroelectric power plants affect to aquatic life. Especially, fish are negatively affected from the structures due to prevent migration of fish. Fishways are the most frequently used systems in the world. In review, environmental impact of hydroelectric power plants (HEPP) and importance and design of fishways are presented. 191 �2. HYDROELECTRİC POWER PLANTS (HEPP) Hydroelectric power plants (HEPP), which are not cause environment pollution relatively and renewable, inexpensive, has increased importance. Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute the air, land, or water, as other powerplants may. Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of electric power industry. Growing populations and modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and expanding. In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the electric energy produced. Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate. 3. ENVİRONMENTAL AND SOCİAL IMPACTS OF HYDROELECTRİC POWER PLANTS (HEPP) Effects on animal populations (fauna) vegetation (flora) and the human, social and economic problems, physical, biological impacts, problems of energy transmission lines are major problems. 3.1. Effects on land Physical environment is substantially affected by the construction of hydroelectric power plants. Both the river and the surrounding ecosystem will change with beginning of the construction studies. The changes can be listed as the topography changes, loss of farmland, forest land, settlement and cultural field. Water will begin to accumulate in reservoir with construction of barriers. Areas, which are used for agriculture, forestry and other purposes, become unavaliable. 3.2. Ecological impacts Ecological impacts can be listed as loss of fauna and flora (biotopes / biomass), habitat loss, climate change, effects on water resources, groundwater and thermal effects, surface water impacts, the soil and agricultural production, metals and other fossil resources, socioeconomic environment, landscape and recreation areas, noise, vibration impacts (work tools, and blasting), ecosystem degradation, geological and soil impact, division of highway, railway, waterway routes (Satılmış, 2009). HEPPs have various effects on vegetation, especially during the construction phase. Negative effects on vegetation such as direct destruction of vegetation, fragmentation of forests and other natural ecosystems, destroying of aluvial / riperian vegetation occur during the operation phase of the plants (Kurdoğlu and Özalp, 2010). Forests are important to the continuity of water resources. The destruction of forests and fragmentation of valleys cause to landslides and changes in flow rates of water. Destruction of feeding and breeding areas, intraspecific and interspecific competition, deterioration of habitats of wild animals, decreases in the number of rare species are adverse effects on fauna. In addition, ongoing construction, blasting, construction equipment, a high amount of dust in construction sites, noise and vibration cause to escape of wild animals to other areas (Kurdoğlu and Özalp, 2010; Kocabaş et al., 2011). To be inhibit of water flow in river will affect the amount and diversity of fish species. Similarly, changes in mineral levels will adversely affect to aquatic productivity as a one192 �sided. Hydroelectric power plants affect to aquatic systems. Especially, fish are negatively affected from the structures due to prevent migration of fish. Excavation, which are spilled to river beds, cause to turbidity, temperature change of water and destruction of aquatic organisms. Destruction of spawning areas, changes in water flow rate due to drought, the oxygen depletion as a result of high temperature cause to death of adult and juvenile fish. Fish have to do short- long distance migration for feeding or reproduction depending on the season. The migrations are a natural phenomenon for fish. Changes in hydrology of estuary and flow rate of water because of water collection ponds cause to changes in diversity of phytoplankton depending on changes in water quality. Distrupting of food chain negatively affected to feeding of fish. Life line support is another problem resulting from construction of hydroelectric power plants. Life line support should be available in sufficient amount for the maintenance of natural life, drinking and irrigation water and fish farms (Kurdoğlu and Özalp, 2010). Construction of energy transmission lines for transmission of produced energy, destruction of forests and distruption of ecosystems because of energy transmission lines are important problem. Energy transmission lines cause adverse effects on human health because of high voltage and currents, low frequency electromagnetic fields (Muluk et al. 2009). 3.3. Effects of hydroelectric power plants on fish and fishways Fish have instinct to migrate long or short distances in streams due to feeding, reproduction and sudden changes in the water quality (sudden rainfall, snow melting, etc.). Spawning migration is the most important of these migrations. The migrations is very important for their life cycle and the cycle should be maintain by fish. Catadromous species such as Blacksea trout (Salmo trutta labrax), sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), pearl mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichii) are hatched at sea but spends much of its adult life in freshwater streams. By contrast, anadromous species such as salmon, eel fish (Anguilla anguilla), hatched upstream in a freshwater environment but spend their adult lives at sea in the salt water. Some species such as Capoeta sp., Barbus sp. migrate to water resource in the river for reproduction. Water in small-scale hydroelectric power plants transport from river bed through the tunnels or channels in order to provide adequate water downfall. Water completely remove from the river bed. In this way, remaining as dry of river bed affect of these migrations. Serious changes on the quality and quantity of water occur depending on seasonal, day, annual climate change. Fishways are facilitating structures to fish migration. Effectiveness of fishways and collectors is tried to enhance due to prevent of fish migration of the structures. For this reason, studies have been performed related to species-specific fishways for many years. Recently, developed methods and monitoring systems are used to be maintain behaviour and migration of fish (Aksungur et al., 2011). The use of artificial channels has also been the object of recent development. Fish ladders technically can be built in such a way that mimic to nature. In addition, there are technical solutions such as bypass channels and fish ramps, fish elevators and transverse structures. 193 �4. CONCLUSIONS Fish populations and the ecosystems of rivers and streams negatively affected from the structures because of changes in the flow and quality of water. Lower levels of oxygen in the water can present a threat to animal and plant life. However, these issues can be addressed if fish ladders are put in place to ensure safe passage around the area, and the water is aerated on a regular basis to maintain adequate oxygen levels safe for animal and plant life. The flow of water should be monitored closely to prevent the ecological dangers associated with overstressing bodies of water. These dangers can easily be avoided by shutting down pumping operations temporarily to allow balance to return to damaged ecosystems. The suitability of culvert fishway facilities in meeting fish passage and other multipurpose design requirements can be demonstrated for numerous waterway types and structure configurations, and particularly for retrofit facilities. Recognising the need for ongoing design development and evaluation of fish passage facilities for road crossings and other waterway structures and for innovative solutions to address aquatic fauna connectivity barriers. The remaining water in the line of river, life line support will allow to the presence of fish in streams continue. Transverse structures to do with the river flow as well as standing water and thus fish would have the opportunity. The development and increase the number of aquatic species, fish would be affected positively by increase the feeding. REFERENCES Akkaya, U., Gültekin, A. B., Dikmen, Ç. B. & Durmuş, G. (2009). Baraj ve Hidroelektrik Santrallerinin (HES) Çevresel Etkilerinin Analizi: Ilısu Barajı Örneği. 5. Uluslar arası İleri Teknolojiler Sempozyumu (IATS09), 13-15 Mayıs, Karabük. Aksungur, M., Ak, O. & Özdemir, A. (2011). Nehir Tipi Hidroelektrik Santrallerinin Sucul Ekosisteme Etkisi: Trabzon Örneği, Journal of Fisheries Sciences. 5(1), 79-92. Kocabaş, M., Can, E., Kutluyer, F., Aksu, Ö. & Kayım, M. (2011). Doğal Alabalıkların Üreme Alanlarına İnsan Faaliyetlerinin Etkileri. Ekoloji Sempozyumu s: 186, 5-7 Mayıs 2011, Düzce, Türkiye. Kurdoğlu, O. & Özalp, M. (2010). Nehir Tipi Hidroelektrik Santral Yatırımlarının Yasal Süreç, Çevresel Etkiler, Doğa Koruma Ve Ekoturizmin Geleceği Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi, III. Ulusal Karadeniz Ormancılık Kongresi 20-22 Mayıs 2010, Cilt: II s. 688-707. Muluk, Ç., Turak, A., Yılmaz, D., Zeydanlı, U. & Bilgin, C.C. (2009). Hidroelektrik Santral Etkileri Uzman Raporu: Barhal Vadisi. Kaçkar Dağları Sürdürülebilir Orman Kullanımı ve Koruma Projesi, EMA-ODTÜ-Doğa Koruma Merkezi. Satılmış, M. (2009). Baraj ve hidroelektrik santrallerin Çevresel Etki Değerlendirmesi. FORUM 2009, Doğu Karadeniz Bölgesi Hidroelektrik Enerji Potansiyeli ve Bunun Ülke Enerji Politikalarındaki Yeri, 13-15 Kasım 2009, Trabzon. Uyar, T. S. (2001). Enerji Sorunu Nedir? Alternatif Enerji Çözüm müdür?. NEU-CEE 2001 Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering Symposium, 23-26, Lefkoşa TRNC. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1244 Title A name given to the resource Environmental Impact of Hydroelectric power plants (HPP) and Fishways Author Author Mehmet , Kocabaş Abstract A summary of the resource. Hydroelectric power plants (HPP), which are not cause environment pollution relatively and renewable, inexpensive, has increased importance. However, there are positive and negative impacts on the ecological balance of these systems. One of the main environmental impact of hydropower development is related to fish passage both upstream and downstream.Hydroelectric power plants (HPP) adversely impact both fish biodiversity and local fishing communities. Ecosystem change destroys feeding as well as breeding grounds, with a resultant loss of fish species. Where the movement of migratory fish up and down river is affected by hydropower development, fish hatcheries near the dam sites or fish ladders for fish movement should be considered as mitigation options. Local user groups and other stakeholders should be involved in decision-making, to keep good relations concerning peoples‘ livelihoods and the sustainability of aquatic resources. The fish maintain the existence with feeding and reproduction migration of fish, a sufficient amount of water flows in the stream bed and with proper planning of fish ways. Depending on aquatic habitat and fish movement corridor values and other site characteristics, use of culvert fishways may preclude the need to adopt over-conservative and unnecessarily expensive designs using bridges. The suitability of culvert fishway facilities in meeting fish passage and other multipurpose design requirements can be demonstrated for numerous waterway types and structure configurations, and particularly for retrofit facilities. Recognising the need for ongoing design development and evaluation of fish passage facilities for road crossings and other waterway structures and for innovative solutions to address aquatic fauna connectivity barriers. The remaining water in the line of river, life line support will allow to the presence of fish in streams continue. Transverse structures to do with the river flow as well as standing water and thus fish would have the opportunity. The development and increase the number of aquatic species, fish would be affected positively by increase the feeding. Keywords: Hydroelectric power plants, fish way, ecosystem. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b57e98dfc7d563e90a297b95073b92af.docx 8763e7019cbf07bd92c76bdc051262fe https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b0a4212846dd57b425403da91c6e43a9.pdf 3dbedda165213dbe3f2cb91877e03f96 PDF Text Text ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE FOR CO2 IN BALKAN COUNTRIES Mehmet Mert Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey mmert@akdeniz.edu.tr Hakan Bozdağ Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey hakanbozdag@sdu.edu.tr Keywords: Balkan Countries, EKC Hypothesis, CO2 emissions JEL classification: Q53, Q56 ABSTRACT The Balkan states are those countries on the Balkan Penisula, which is located in South-East Europe and includes Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, and part of Turkey. In this study, the relationship between environmental quality and economic growth has been empirically modeled through emissions– income relationship so far, and the outcome of most of these studies has been formulated by the called environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. According to the EKC hypothesis, the relationship between per-capita GDP and per capita pollutant emissions has an inverted-U shape implies that, economic growth may be profitable for environmental quality. The purpose of this study is to test whether the EKC hypothesis is valid for Balkan Countries over a time period of 1992–2008, has been tested and then tried to determine relationship between CO2 emissions– income for the Balkan Countries. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2166 Title A name given to the resource ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE FOR CO2 IN BALKAN COUNTRIES Author Author MERT, Mehmet BOZDAG, Hakan Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Balkan Countries, EKC Hypothesis, CO2 emissions JEL classification: Q53, Q56 ABSTRACT The Balkan states are those countries on the Balkan Penisula, which is located in South-East Europe and includes Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, and part of Turkey. In this study, the relationship between environmental quality and economic growth has been empirically modeled through emissions–income relationship so far, and the outcome of most of these studies has been formulated by the called environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. According to the EKC hypothesis, the relationship between per-capita GDP and per capita pollutant emissions has an inverted-U shape implies that, economic growth may be profitable for environmental quality. The purpose of this study is to test whether the EKC hypothesis is valid for Balkan Countries over a time period of 1992–2008, has been tested and then tried to determine relationship between CO2 emissions–income for the Balkan Countries. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5350f703b28bb8058bc2df15ef561ead.pdf 599ff1882bf9d1cf5aafec29e7116094 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002. AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1997. Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012. Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2 1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery, 45020, Manisa, Turkey 2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, 45040, Manisa, Turkey E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr, ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr Abstract In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated. Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir welding were determined for pure aluminum. Keywords:Friction stir welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties. 1. INTRODUCTION Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance, lightness, ease of production, physical and mechanical properties and corrosion strength. Aluminum is known for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3. Aluminum has an excellent atmosphere, water, salt water, oil 6 corrosion resistance against and many chemicals. the In �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo addition, electrical and thermal conductivity of aluminum is superior. In addition, the strengths of some aluminum alloys are higher than strength of structural steels (ASM Metals Handbook, 1979). Friction stir welding (CCT) is a solid-state welding technique developed bythe Welding Institute (Cambridge, United Kingdom) in 1991 and is used for the combination of the non-ferrous metals and alloys. Although friction stir welding can be used to combine a large number of materials, the first studies and the industrial interest have focused on the combination of aluminum alloys. Friction stir welding has become an important and rapidly developing welding technique in combining these alloys (Boz and Kurt, 2004; Fonda, Bingert and Colligan, 2004; Somasekharan and Murr, 2004; Meran, 2006) In friction stir welding, tools which are cylindrical, rotating, inexhaustible, and hard, has got a tip in thecenter and is composed of a shoulder. The tip of the tools is firmly immersed in between the two workpieces to be welded and brought forehead to forehead firmly. During the welding, while the tip is going forward in a rotational movement, the shoulder moves towards the welding in contact with the upper surface (Meran, 2006; Ericsson, 2005; Smith, Hinrichs; Crusan and Leverett 2003; Butlerworth-Heinemann,2001; Staron,Koçak, Williams and Wescott, 2004). Friction stir welding of welding connections found in the welding region is a typical form of onion rings and weld metal, as the format consists of many variables. This format depends on the type of alloy being welded and the parameters of welding process (Özsoy and Kaluç, 2002). The position of the half-circles on the surface of the tool during rotation and forward movement provides necessary heat for the welding and pushes hot metal on the surface and appears to stay on the surface. The continuous nature of welding provides the consistency of semi-circular rings and the distance between the rings is equal to the distance the tool travels during one rotation. The material is pushed towards the sides and back in a semicircular ring during each rotation of the tool. There is more mixing near the upper surface. All these results lead the researchers to the idea that the process mentioned is an extrusion process (Mert and Kaluç2003). Although the main material or the material resistant to heat is far from the welding point, they are affected by the thermal cycle of the process. But this does not affect the microstructural or mechanical properties(http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF). The objectives of this study are to investigate mechanical properties of pure Al, to study the hardenability of welding region and the region under the heat effect, to further investigate internal structures of these regions and the resistance value of welded parts. 2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Plates of 5 mm x 110 mm x 300 mm size were processed using an universal milling machine. Afterwards, 8 mm thick base material was placed on the milling table. After clamping the plates to be joined on the metal sheet base, the material 7 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo was ready for welding process. The mechanical characteristics of the materials used in the experiments are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Mechanical properties of materials used in the experiments Material Pure Tensile Strength (MPa) Break Elongation (%) R0.2 Yield Strength 105 40 25 Hardness (HV) (MPa) 20 In the experiments, tip geometry of the material and revolution per minute was kept constant, but, travelling speed of the tip was varied (Table 2). Table 2. Friction stir welding parameters Material Pure Spindle Speed (rpm) 1250 Traveling Speed (mm/min) 20 40 63 After cleaning the surface ofthe plates to be joined with the help of bind mold head to head, friction stir welding was successfully realized. There was neither distortion nor deformation ofwelded plates after joining process. Tensile tests were applied to determine the maximum stress values of plates of welded joints. The tensile samples prepared in accordance with DIN 50109 as shown in Figure 1 were processed perpendicularly to the welding direction of the sheets in a CNC milling machine. The tensile tests were carried out at across head speed of 2 mm/min using an Universal Testing Machine (AG- 50kNG Shimadzu Autograph, Japan). True stress and strain curves were determined by computer connected to the device. Threepoint bend tests at 180° were conducted at a bending speed of 10 mm/min. 8 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Fig.1. Samples prepared for tensile test and subsequent measurements For optical microscope examinations, samples from the base material and welding region were taken out, before and after welding process. Samples measuring 10 x 20 x 5 mm were cut. The surfaces of the samples were polished by means of abrasives having a 220, 400, 600, 800 and 1200 grid, respectively. After the process ofthe last polishing the materials with 10 micron alumina polish, the sample surfaces were etched in Keller solution with 2 ml hydrofluoric acid (HF), 10 ml nitric acid (HN03) and 88 ml water immersion for 12 seconds. Henceforth, the structural changes occurring in the junction area were determined. In the analysis of samples, an optical microscope (Nikon Eclipse U50, Japan) was used. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3. 1. Mechanical Properties Figure 2 shows the microhardness results of pure aluminum groups. 70 60 50 40 1-I 30 1-II 20 1-III 10 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fig.2. Microhardness distribution of pure aluminum When hardness of all samples was examined, four different regions of hardness distribution were found to change significantly. Hardness values of the samples joined by friction stir welding were higher than those of the base material. 9 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The samples broke in the HAZ (heat affected zone) region adjacent to the weld seam, as the tensile tests were applied to the welds. This region was identified as the thermo-mechanically formed region under the influence of the welding heat. Maximum Tensile Strength (N/mm2) The results of the tensile tests are given in Figure 3. 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 Traveling Speed (mm/min) Fig.3. Maximum tensile strength distributions for pure aluminum The tensile strength of pure aluminumdecreased with an increase in welding speed. The reason was that low heat input of HAZ due to increasing travelling speed caused largedecreases in the HAZ width, the samples experienced fewer necks which could cause decreases in tensile strength. This was not the case for pure aluminum. The highest tensile strength for pure aluminum was observed at the 20 mm/min travelling speed. Maximum Bending Strength (N/mm2) As a result of bending tests, no failure occurred in the weld region. The results of bending test are given in Figure 4. 195 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 20 63 40 1 2 3 Traveling Speed (mm/min) Fig.4. Aluminum bending test results for pure aluminum Charpy test results of pure aluminum welds are given in Figure 5. 10 �Notch Impact Strength (Joule) 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 50 40 30 20 10 0 1-I 1-II 1-III Traveling Speed (mm/min) Figure 5. Charpy test results for pure aluminium For the Charpy notch impact test, a standard test device with a capacity of 300 Joule was used. A 2 mm deep notch with a 450 angle was opened in the middle of the specimens which measured 55 x 10 x 5 mm due to the dimensions of the friction stir welded plates. 3. 2. Microstructure Properties The schematic cross-section of a typical friction stir weld shows four distinct zones which are illustrated in Figure 6, as reproduced from another study. Friction stir welding is a solid state welding method which produces joints below the melting temperature. Friction stir welding produces a very narrow he at affected zone compared to other welding methods, because not very high temperatures are involved in this process. RCR HAZ BM TMAZ Fig. 6Macrostructure of the friction stir welding These areas are the dynamical recrystallized region (RCR), the thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the base material (BM). The following four different regions were thus determined throughout the experiments: A: base material B: he at affected zone (HAZ) C: thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ) D: dynamically recrystallized zone (DXZ) 11 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In the DXZ, the grains become smailer as a result of severe deformation and extrusion, whereas in thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the grains were observed to grow gradually. The fine-grained structure of the dynamical recrystallized zone (DXZ) contributed to strength and hardness improvement after welding. The cause of changes in the structures of grain is associated with the heat of friction. When the number of revolutions was kept constant and the traveling speed was increased, in the buffer zone, the widths of the mix of bands gradually increased. This case can be related to the amount of material transported per unit time and increasing travelling speed. This region of intense plastic deformation and high friction temperature is called as "dynamical recrystallized zone" or "welding center". Dislocation density is lower and thinner in this region and it is composed of oriented grains. In the friction stir welding applications of similar types of alloys, this region resembles a pool of onion rings. The TMAZ zones are shown in the Figures 7, 8. Fig.7. The microstructural zones of pure aluminium after welding Fig. 10. Fracture surfaces pure aluminium 12 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigations ofpure aluminiumtypes: Micro-structural analysis indicated an expansion in the size of the heat affected zone with reduced travelling speed. In the dynamical recrystallized zone, the grains became smaller as a result of severe deformation and extrusion while in the thermo-mechanical affected zone, the grains were observed to grow gradually. The travelling speed of 40 mm/min produced the best microhardness, bending, tensile and Charpy test results for all the samples studied, and thus, has to be regarded as the optimum travelling speed. After complete bending, no microcracks were observed in the weld zones REFERENCES ASM Metals Handbook(1979). Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals park, Ohio. BozA.,KurtA.(2004). The influence of stirrer geometry on bonding and mechanical properties in friction stir welding process.Materials and Design(25), 343–347. FondaR. W.,BingertJ. F., ColliganK. J.(2004). Development of grain structure during friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia(51), 243–248. SomasekharanA. C.,MurrL. E.(2004). Microstructures in friction-stir welded dissimilar magnesium alloys and magnesium alloys to 606l-T6 aluminum alloy.Materials Characterization(52)49–64. MeranC.(2006). The joint properties of brass plates by friction stir welding.Materials and Design(27)719–726. Ericsson M.(2005). Fatigue strength of friction stir welded joints in aluminum.Ph.D Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology. Sweden. SmithC. B.,HinrichsJ. F., CrusanW. Leverett(2003). FSW stirs up welding process competition.Forming & Fabricating(2)25–31. David J. E.,(2001). Ship Construction, 5th Edition, Butlerworth-Heinemann, India StaronP.,KoçakM., WilliamsS., WescottA(2004).Residual stress in friction stirwelded Al sheets, Physica B(350) 491-493. ÖzsoyM.,KaluçE.(2002). Sürtünen eleman ile birleştirme kaynağının esasları, Mühendis ve Makine Dergisi (513)21-35 (in Turkish). 13 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo MertS.,KaluçE. (2003). Sürtünme karıştırma kaynağında kullanılan takımlardaki gelişmeler.TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası Kaynak Teknolojisi IV.Ulusal Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 103-ll5 (in Turkish) http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate İbrahim Aydın1, Hakan Cetinel2, Ahmet Pasinli3 1Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme Manisa, Turkey 2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Manisa, Turkey 3Ege University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme İzmir, Turkey E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, hakan.cetinel@bayar.edu.tr, ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr Abstract In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH + H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating. Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2. Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness Ti6Al4V. 1. INTRODUCTION Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) hip prosthesis is a material used in orthopedic implant production just as widely as bone plates and bone screws (Hench, 1991). Hydroxiapatite (HA) coatings are used in Ti6Al4V alloys in implant materials in 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1221 Title A name given to the resource Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding Author Author Selim , Sarper Yilmaz Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated. Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir welding were determined for pure aluminum. Keywords:Friction stir welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7276dc34375535b5f6252f0c48885ae7.pdf 1ef701befc94166d5df04634abd292e7 PDF Text Text Environmentally Sustainable Salmonid Culture Yusuf GÜNER Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department, Izmir-Turkey yusuf.guner@ege.edu.tr Gürel TÜRKMEN Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department, Izmir-Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Until very recently most research relating environmental quality and aquaculture was limited to assessment of environmental conditions necessary for culture. Emphasis was placed on dissolved oxygen requirement of the culture fish or the maximum dissolved nitrogen level that could be tolerated without impairment of growth rates or survival. Most attention was directed towards the effect of the environment upon the aquaculture operation, while the converse perspective, the effect of aquaculture upon environmental quality, was largely ignored. The sustainability of aquaculture development and the environmental impacts of aquaculture operations have become a matter of considerable concern for all stakeholders. The development of the aquaculture industry, especially if it is to sustain its current growth, depends on finding ways to increase its environmental, economic and social acceptability. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world varies greatly with respect to the water source and means of confining the fish. With the rapid growth of salmonid cage culture over the past decade has come increased examination of this industry segment as a potential pollution source. Aquaculture pollution mainly originates from the physical and chemical characteristics of feed and the applied feeding management. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Key words: Salmonid, Aquaculture, Environment 1. Introduction Aquaculture has been the most important food source in the world, as an alternative to land based agriculture. The FAO records indicate this industry as the fastest growing sector in agriculture. The production amount had increased from 16.8 million metric tonnes to 68.35 m metric tonnes between 1990 and 2008. (FAO 2010) Based on these statistics, aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other animal foodproducing sectors. Aquaculture production in Europe has grown to become a significant industry over the past decade and has partly compensated for the decrease in capture pro duction due to dwindling natural stocks (European Commission 2002). The largest aquaculture producer in Europe in 2008 was Norway (Fig. 1). In terms of volume of production there are four other countries in Western Europe, aside from Norway, which are major producers, namely Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, in terms of volume of production, Turkey is the major producer (Fig. 1; Fishstat 2010). The most important species in terms of volume and value of production for aquaculture is the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (high market value but also high cost of production), while the species with the second highest levels of production are mussels (in terms of volume) and seabream and seabass (in terms of value) . It seems that high production (volume and value) is associated with intensive farming of marine fish species (salmon, while the highest production purely in terms of volume (i.e. mussel farming) is associated with lower market value. Of the total world aquaculture production in 2008, 43% was in the form of finfish and crustacean species, the production of which is dependent upon the supply and use of external off-farm nutrient inputs in the form of compound aquaculture feeds. Feed development may need to place increased emphasis on the efficient use of resources and the reduction of feed waste and nutrient discharge. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world vary greatly particulary with respect to the water source(i.e., groundwaters or fresh, salt or brackish surface waters) and the means of confining the fish (i.e., raceways,tanks,ponds,cages). Land-based culture vs. cage culture in open water is a major dichotomy central to the prediction of likely environmental impacts. A wide variety of waste recovery or treatment 630 �900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 B Sw elg itz ium er la Au nd st Ic ria el Po and rtu Sw g a l ed Fi en n D lan en d m G ar e N rm k et he any rla nd Ire s la U n ni te Gre d d e Ki ce ng do m Ita Fr ly an ce Sp ai N n or w ay Production in year 2008 (000 tonnes) techniques are available to the land-based culturist where effluent is confined within some form of conduit.In cage culture the effluent is immediately diluted within the receiving water body with little or no opportunity for waste recovery and treatment. A land-based salmonid farm is generally viewed by regulators as a typical pointsource discharge.It will often be required to have some means of waste retention or treatment (e.g.,settling pond or filtration), and the effluent will be regulated for parameters such as total suspend solids (TSS) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). However, a cage farm is subject to none of these treatment or effluent limitations, even if it contains as great or greater fish biomass as its land-based counterpart. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Production in year 2008 (000 tonnes) A (Western and Central Region of European Aquaculture) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 y y s ia ia ia ia a ia ia a ia ia d ic ia tv oni en on alt an an pru gar oat an ak gar ubl lan rke v un M lb hu Cy ul o Tu r p La Est lov ed m o l P e C t A Li B H R S ac Ro S h M ec Cz B (Eastern Region of Europaen Aquaculture) Figure 1. European aquaculture production (FAO, 2010). 2. Types of Wastes Assocıated with Salmonıd Culture 2.1. Particulate Wastes The primary types of particulate waste from salmonid culture are feces and uningested feed 631 �pellets.When fed a dry pelleted diet, salmonid feces typically comprise about one-third of ingested material on a dry weight basis ( Butz and Vens-Cappell 1982). The amount of uningested feed will depend upon many factors, including the feed type and metod of dispersal, so consequently estimates of feed wastage vary greatly. Between 1 and 40 % of the feed provided to the fish will not be ingested. Such methods have shown that food losses are typically 1–15%, although if feeding with trash fish they can be as high as 40% (Wu 1995). Feed pellets may be rejected by the fish rather than swallowed if they are contaminated in any way or the fish does not feel like eating (Smith et al. 1993). There is some evidence that feed waste is lower in land-based systems than in cages, possibly due to more efficient feeding in tank sor pond ( Beveridge 1987). 2.2. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Pelleted salmonid feed typically 1-1.5 % phosphorus. The phosphorus in most feeds is both in exceess of the dietary needs of the cultured fish and partially in an unassimilable form. Consequently, a substantial fraction of the phosphorus provided is lost to the environment via the feces, in addition to lesser amounts excreted in the urine. Ammonia and, to a lesser extent, urea are the principale nitrogenous wastes associated with fish culture, anda re produced as by products of protein metabolism. Ammonia may be present either as the nontoxic ammonium ion (NH+4) or as the toxic un-ionized form (NH3). The relative pproportions of the two form are dependent upon temperature and pH, with formation of the toxic NH3 favoured by high temperature and high pH. No cases of ammonia toxicity to aquatic life downstream from fish farm have been reported. Nitrogen and phosphorus are recognized as limitin nutrients in many aquatic systems. The addition of these nutrients generally results in an increase in plant growth. 2.3. Dissolved Oxygen Depletion Salmonid culture will reduce dissolved oxygen concentration through both fish respiration and mineralization of the organic-rich wastes(i.e., feed, fece, soluble metabolites). Salmonid rspiration rate depends upon fish, age, sex, activity and temperature, but an average respiration rate for routine metabolism is about 300 mg O2/kg wet weight/h (Kils 1979). The BOD of the feces and metabolic wastes may consume about 1.5-3 times as much oxygen as respiration alone (Willoughby et al. 1972). Effluent released from salmonid farm can deplete dissolved oxygen in receiving water, either because the effluent itself is oxygen depleted, because of its high BOD, or a combination of both factors. There is also the possibilty of indirect effects, such as nutrient-induced growth of micro- or macroalgae, and the eventual oxygen depletion accompanying decomposition of this algal biomass. 2.4. Chemotherapeutants Chemotherapeutants are employed to treat viral,fungal,bacterial or parasitic infections of culture salmonids.The most commonly used parasiticide/fungicide in salmonid culture is formalin. A wide variety of antibiotics are administered as feed supplements to treat bacterial diseases in salmonids. On a worldwide basis, oxolinic acid and oxytetracycline have historically comprised the vast majority of total antibiotic use by the salmonid culture industry, although their use has diminished in recent years. Other antibiotic used in one or more salmonid-producing countries include potentiated sulfonamides, flumequin,chloramine T, and erythromycine. Little is known about the environmental fate and effects of salmonid chemotherapeutants despite the fact that a substantial portion of the drugs often leave the culture site via the effluent,or in the case of cage culture, are directly released to the environment. Regulatory agencies have generaly assumed that rapide dilution of the therapeutant would result in little or no environmental impact. 3. Environmental Impacts of Land-Based Facilities Land-based salmonid culture systems in freshwater include hatcheries, systems for the production of fry and smolts, and systems for growth to consumption or restocking size. Following this early stage, salmonids may be grown using a variety of land-based or cage.Land-based sysrems include tanks, earth ponds and raceways. Such systems typcally are of the ‘flow-through’ type, but some ‘recycle’ systems are also in use. Recycling systems are used in fish farming when water availibity is limited, or there is a need for strict control over the culture environment. The high cost of recycling systems has restricted their use in salmonid culture to a few hatcheries that heat water to accelerate egg development and then recycle the water to conserve heat. 632 �3.1. Waste Products and Loading Uneaten feed and excreta give rise to elevated concentrations of suspended solids, BOD, nutrients and minor elements in land-based salmonid farm effluent. Many studies show considerable variation in waste loading, attributable to differences in species, fish size, physiological status,method and intensity of culture, and temperature. Waste loading from hatcheries are likely to be small during egg incubation because there is no feeding. After hatching, use of artificial feed results in increasing waste loading from discharge of uneaten pellets,feces and soluble excreta. Following early growth stage, salmonids will be transferred to different growout systems,the type of which affects total waste loading. During winter, when shorter day length and lower water temperature limits activity and feeding, wastage rates fall dramatically. On a daily basis, waste loading vary depending principally upon feeding schedules and tank, pond or raceway cleaning. Suspended solid, BOD and total phosphorus commonly peak during and immediately after feeding, later followed by peak ammonium concentration. A number of studies reviewed in Alabaster (1982) reveal a net reduction in solids concentration as water passed through the farm. However, accumulation of solids in pond and tanks can lead to very high “shock” loads of solids during harvesting or tank cleaning. 3.2. Environmental Đmpacts 3.2.1. Water Use: Water requirement forland-based salmonid culture depend on stock biomass and feeding patterns.Withdrawal of water for land-based salmonis farm has the potential to reduce water flow from streams and rivers, with potetial impacts including: (1) changes in channel shape, patters of sedimentation, water movement and silation; (2) loss of spawning areas for fish stocks, or loss of nursery areas; (3)barriers to the movement of migratory fish; (4) changes in biological communities, through loss of dilution capacity between inflow and outflow, reduced turbulence and oxygenation,plus possible loss of habitat due to stranding and desiccation in channel areas above the waterline. 3.2.2. Dissolved Oxygen: A survey of effluent from land-based tank and pond farm by Alabaster (1982) found a mean decrease of 1.6 mg/l. from inflow to outflow, with an average flow of 12.6 ls-1.t-1 of annual fish production. Depending on the quality of the effluent, further changes in dissolved oxygen in receiving water may occur. The need to maintain oxygen levels to protect the farm stock shoukd ensure that significant depletion downstream from farm is unlikely in most cases, although the possibility exists of some localized depletion associated with deposition of organic solids. 3.2.3. Chemotherapeutants: Toxicity to downstream biota attributable to discharge of waste chemotherapeutants is possible, although there is little information on such effects. Formalin and Iodophors are the most widely used disinfectants in European aquaculture (Henderson and Davies 2000). Antifoulants are, by their nature, toxic to marine organisms. The amounts involved may be substantial-for example, around 156 tonnes of copper were released into the environment from the use of antifouling treatments in salmon farming in Norway in 1994. Formalin is widely used asan immersion treatment on tank, pond and cage farm for control of ectoparasites,usually as a bath treatment at 150250 mg/l. for 1 h. lethal concentration of formalin vary from 60-600 mg/l. for fish (for exposures of 24-96 h.), 0.3-0.5 mg/l. for alg, to up to 835 mg/l. for certain aquatic insects, suggestion the possiblity of some localized toxic effects on aquatic biota directly below land-based outfalls, particulary for the more sensitive planktonic and microbial organisms. 3.2.4. Microorganisms: Some qualitative changes in the bacterial microflora of trout farm effluents have been observed, altough the bacteria present are generally similar in terms of number and composition to those found in the inflows (Austin 1985). Although some studies have shown increases in the number of fecal coliform during the passage of water through trout farm (Hinshaw 1973), the data are fragmentary and the consensus seems to be that this phenomenon is not a significant problem. Viruses have also been detected in farm effluent. Leon and Turner (1979) measured effluent concentrations of infection hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) as high as 400 plaque-forming units (pfu) ml-1 during a disease outbreak at a salmonid hatchery. 3.2.5. Benthic Impacts: Impacts of fish farm wastes include a loss of sensitive invertebrate species at or just below the point of discharge, with an increase in the density and biomass of organisms tolerant of organic pollution such as olgochaetes, chironomids and certian leeches. Markmann (1982) also reporteda loss of ‘cleanwater species’ such as Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera and an increase in oligochaetes, leeches, 633 �Diptera larvae and gastropods below Danish rainbow trout farm. Organic-rich particulate wastes appear to be the most significant source of impact and there is evidence that benthic communities can return to background condition if suspended solids are removed from effluent (NCC 1990). 3.2.6. Macrophytes: Publised data on the effects on land-based farm on macrophytes are limited, although enhanced macrophyte growth, particularly growth of pollution-tolerant species, is frequently cited as a response to fish farm discharge in English rivers. Studies on the River Hull show greater adventitious root growth and shoot extension in Ranunculus penicillatus var. Calcareus collected below a trout farm discharge,although effects related to weed cutting may also have been important (Carr 1988). 3.2.7. Wild Fish Populations: Water withdrawal for land-based tank or pond farm may result in physical and chemical changes to fish habitats, and some loss of habitat has been reported in England (Allan 1983). However, studies in Denmark (Rasmussen 1988) and the U.S. ( Hinshaw 1973) showed that addition of fish farm effuent may increase the productivity of downstream fish populations. 4. Waste Reduction and Treatment 4.1. Feeding Techniques and Feed Type Uneaten food, faecal losses, food conversion ratios (FCR; the ratio of the weight of feed added to the weight of fish produced) and digestibility can be estimated to derive expressions of various wastes, such as for N or P. The result is a budget showing the flow of nutrients from the food offered, the assimilation of food in the fish as a result of growth (metabolism) and the loss of nutrients into the sediments and water column. Wastage of whole pellets may depend on various factors. If pellets are supplied at a rate that exceeds the ability of the fish to eat them or under conditions such that the pellets are not detected as they settle, there will be wastage of whole pellets. Davies (2000) reported predicted dissolved N release rates in the range of 35–45 kg per tonne of salmon produced, depending on the details of the stocking, feeding and harvesting strategies adopted. GESAMP (1996) reported values for the rate of excretion of dissolved N by farmed fish of around 75–120 kg N/tonnes of production. If the FCR, wastage from uneaten pellets and indigestibility can be reduced further, it is anticipated that release rate of dissolved N would be reduced to 33 kg/tonne of production (Davies 2000). Further reductions need new technology and additional innovative approaches. Careful feeding and the use of correct diet offer good potential to reduce effluent loads at the source. Overfeeding of fish also decreases feed digestibility and increases fecal production. Thus, a reduction in feed losses by monitoring of feed losses and careful hand-feeding, either exclusively or as a supplement to automatic feeders, can significantly reduce effluent loads and reduce impacts on running waters (Bromage et al. 1990). The physical characteristics of the fish food are very important in term of pollution potential of the feed. The use of dry pellets rather than moist pellets or”trash” or “rough” fish considerably reduce the amount of wastage (Alabaster 1982). Unstable pellts may also increase waste loading if rapidly broken down into unacceptably small-size particles. Foof with low settling velocity also help to prevent excess wastage. The amount of phosphorus discharge from fish farm is determined by the amount and digestibility of phosphorus in the feed (Crampton 1987). The total concentration of phosphorus must be kept low and its digestibility high to minimize waste phosphorus release. Most waste phosphorus is bound in the particulate fraction, although a significant part of this particulate fraction is easily dissoveld. In the marine environment, losses of P from fish farms have been estimated as 19.6–22.4 kg/tonne fish (trout) produced, 34–41% of which is released in dissolved form with the remainder lost by sedimentation. Holby and Hall (1991) estimated that 4–8% of the sedimentary P was returned to the water column per year. There would thus seem to be excellent potential for reducing phosphorus levels in salmonid farm effluent by reducing phosphorus in feed.The level of protein and amino acid balance has been determined (decreased N content in the feed, 45% protein in the feeds), and the P content in the feeds has been decreased (from 1.5 to 0.7 in salmon feeds). Nitrogen excretion depends on many factors including its bioavailability and feeding rate, but on average, 60 % of dietary nitrogen is excreted (Beamis and Thomas 1984)The quality of fish meal and other protein sources used in the diet dictates the proportion of feed protein that can be assimilated into muscle tissue.Ammonia excretion rates are higher if protein is used as energy source, because ammonia is a by-product of protein metabolism. Poor quality carbohydrate sources result in increased suspended solids and BOD and can cause growth of sewage fungus in receivingwaters. Alternatively, if the carbohydrate(or lipid)source is insufficient, then 634 �ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes increase. In the production of extrude pellets, the higher temperatures and pressures may result ingelatinization of dietary starch, thus increasing the bioavailability of carbohydrate. Alternative protein sources to replace fishmeal (e.g. soya) and methods of reducing the discharge of feed from farms have been examined (Hardy 1996). Although carbohydrates can be used as an alternative to fishmeal, research has shown that certain fish, such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), use dietary carbohydrates rather poorly: they show prolonged postprandial hyperglycaemia. The efficiency of glucose utilization as an energy source by rainbow trout is low (Panserat et al. 2000). Further research is needed to understand dietary carbohydrate utilization in fish in order to enable the development of diets that can replace fishmeal as the major source of dietary protein for farmed fish. Recently, a reduction in N released to the environment was achieved through a general reduction in FCR, which is currently 1:1 for salmon farming in Western Europe ( Pearson and Black 2001). Oil and fats may contribute to visible surface scums and the BOD of fish farm effluent. Problems associated with these constituents can be partly avoided by the use of high quality ingredients and a correct balance between requirement and concentration in the diet. Many freshwater diets are formulated as “high energy” diets that contain high level of fat.Thes diets are designed to minimize protein metabolism and can be used to reduce ammonia excretion. 4.2. Settlement Treatment Settlement treatment work on the principal that solid particles with a densiity greater than water will fall out of suspension when water fow is reduced.the rate at which particles will setle in stil water condition depens largely on particle size and density; larger or more dense particles will settle more rapidly than smaller or less dense ones. The design and effectiveness of a settlement system is therefore dependent on the retention time of effluent in a settling tank or pond as well as the surface area available for settling. It is also desirable to prevent the solid in the effluent becoming fragmented as particle break up will inhibit settling and promote leaching of nutrient from the solid waste. Fish farm and settling tanks sholud be designed to minimize break up due to unnecessary turbulance.The stuidies show that up to 90 % of suspended solids, 60 % of BOD and 50 % of total phosphorus loads can be removed by settlement treatment, although system performance is extremely variable. When level of suspended solids are <10 mg/l., is common in salmonid farm effluent, efficiency is greatly reduced, although it is possible for suspended solids to be increased by pre-concentration treatment.It is also difficult to obtain suspended solids levels of < 6 mg/l in settled effluent ( Henderson and Bromage 1988). Other problems are that the area required for settling ponds or lagoons can be large in comparison with the size of the farm. Others class of settling tank desing are based on a circular water flow (centrifuge) and the swirl concentrator . A major constraint upon the use of settlement devices remains the characterization of particle size of loads; as previously mentiond, both the nature and quantity of wastes produced by a farm varies substantially both during a day, and throughout the growing season. A consequnce of this varying waste output is that in order for settlement devices to be effective waste treatment systems,they must be designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of partile sizes. 4.3. Screening and Filtration Treatment The most popular method of mechanical particle separation is the treatment by static or rotating microscreens. The treatment efficiency of microscreens has been tested in several studies (Lekang et al., 2000; Makinen et al., 1988; Wedekind, 1996) and a wide range of nutrient removal could be found. By using microscreens, reduction of solids achieved 50 — 74%, 49.3 — 63% of total phosphorus (TP) and 10— 42.7% of total nitrogen (TN). Salmonid farm effluent may be treated by passage through a screen to remove particulate matter. It is a self-cleaning or rotating filter. The most common configurations are variation of rotary screens, where the screen operates only partially submerged in the water that is to be filtered. The submerged section of the screen filtes the water passing through it while the remainder of the screen is cleaned, usually by a high pressure water jet, with the residue running to a settling pond. The clean section of screen then rotates to replace the submerged section. One of these systems are the “Triangelfilter”. Its removal efficiencies data clearly demostrate the potential of these and similar screen filters for removing materials from fish farm effluent. The advantage of the “Triangelfilter” or similar systems is that solids are separated from the effluent water relatively quickly, thereby reducing the amount of time for leaching of soluble material from solid particules. After screening, filtration may be used as a secondary systems for fine solids removal. Diatomaceous earth filters are good at removing extremely fine particulate matter (0.1-5 µm), but are not cost effective in treating effluent from salmonid farm. The most common filter medium is sand and gravel ranging in size from 0.25-5mm, usually graded coarse to fine in the direction of water flow. The growing concern over potential impacts of therapeutants on the environment has stimulated interest in techniques for removing such chemicals from fish farm effluent. But 635 �there is little information on methods for treatment of chemical. 4.4. Biofiltration Biofiltration can, in theory, be used to improve effluent water quality from salmonid farm. In aquaculture, biofiltres are commonly used in recycle sytems to prevent accumulation of ammonia and nitrite.The technique is not considered practical or economic for treatment of salmonid farm wffluent in most circumstances due to low temperatures (NCC 1990) and large volum of effluent involved. There has been some interest in using algae and aquatic macrophytes, such as reeds, to reduce levels of nutrients in effluent. Reed beds are being investigated for nutrient removel from small scale sewage works and water hyacinths and duckweed have been grow for this purpose in warmer countries (Zirschky and Reed 1988). As with settlement pond, one of the major constraints to biofilters is that of space required. 4.5. Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands represent a natural treatment system based on biological symbiosis between macrophytes (Phragmites sp., Typha sp., etc.) and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae), and their interactions with the soil chemistry. In recent years, created wetlands have been developed to successfully treat agricultural, municipal, or industrial wastewaters. Depending on the choice of construction and function, macrophyte treatment systems can be divided into: 1. ponds with free-floating or submersed plants and no effluent; percolation through the soil 2. root zone systems with emergent plants and completely effluent percolation through the soil; 3. hydrobotanic systems as link between (1) ponds and (2) root zone systems. Moreover, these treatment systems can be subclassified by the flow direction of effluents (vertical or horizontal), the plant species or type of soil (Kehrer, 1997). Biotic and abiotic purification mechanisms of constructed wetlands are based on the following processes (Gumbricht 1993): (a) mechanical screening and sedimentation, (b) microbial degradation, (c) biochemical nutrient removal of plant rhizomes, (d) adsorption through ligand exchange, (e) precipitation and chemical fixation of reactive soil ingredients.Removal efficiency is strongly influenced by the microorganisms inhabiting soil particles and the rhizome of plants. Plants with aerenchym root systems aerate the soil and consequently aerobic microorganism (e. g. Nitrosomonas sp., Nitrobacter sp.) growth is promoted. Bahlo and Wach (1993) found more intensive biological degradation of ammonium to nitrate close to the rhizomes. Microbial elimination of nitrate — nitrogen (denitrification) occurs in the anaerobic parts of the soil, which can be found even in effluents of constructed wetlands with oxygen levels of more than 4 mg/l. Particle bound phosphorus is mineralized by heterotrophic microorganism and at low redox-potential sorpted to iron-, aluminium-, manganese hydroxides/-oxides, calcium or clay minerals (Gumbricht, 1993). Removal processes of constructed wetlands show increased efficiency by using smaller soil particle sizes. 636 �Figure 2. Design of used root zone constructed wetlands with horizontal flow and emergent plants; larger substrate at inlet and outlet to facilitate influent distribution and effluent drainage (Schulz et al. 2003). Schulz et al. (2003) investigated treatment of aquaculture effluents of flow- through systems in created wetlands. The constructed wetlands types used in this study were subsurface root zone systems with emergent plants and horizontal effluent soil percolation (Fig.2). Three 1.40 x 1.00 x 0.70 m (L x W x H) root zone systems were filled with sands of 1 — 2 mm particle size and planted with 20 rooted shoots of reed per square meter (Phragmites australis). Nutrient removal of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) effluents flowing through the wetland was determined for hydraulic loading rates of 1, 3 and 5 l/min corresponding to very short hydraulic residence times (HRTs) of 7.5, 2.5 and 1.5 h, respectively. Inflowing nutrients were removed within every continuously flooded wetland. Total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were reduced by 95.8 — 97.3% and 64.1 — 73.8%, respectively, and demonstrated no influence of HRT. Total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) removal rates varied from 49.0% to 68.5% and 20.6% to 41.8%, respectively, and were negatively correlated with HRTs. Effluent purification was best at HRT of 7.5 h, but sufficient removal rates were achieved for shorter HRTs. Obtained removal rates demonstrated that created wetlands with high hydraulic loads reduced inflowing nutrients by amounts comparable to, or exceeding that achieved by mechanical treatments such as microscreens or sedimentation tanks. Thus, created wetlands are a viable alternative treatment for aquaculture effluents. 4.6. Integrated Aquaculture The salmon aquaculture industry has adopted a number of strategies to reduce nutrient wastes and its impacts on the local environment, including improved feed formulations and digestibility, improvements in feed/waste monitoring and feeding techniques, site rotation and fallowing, and reduced stocking densities. Integrating the culture of filter-feeding bivalve molluscs (e.g. mussels, oysters, scallops) with salmon farms has long been advocated as another potential strategy to alleviate waste loadings and environmental impacts associated with open-water salmon culture (Folke et al., 1994; Kautsky et al., 1997). In a conceptual open-water integrated culture system as proposed by Kautsky et al. (1997), filter-feeding bivalves are cultured adjacent to meshed fish cages, reducing nutrient loadings by filtering and assimilating particulate wastes (fish feed and faeces) as well as any phytoplankton production stimulated by introduced dissolved nutrient wastes. Waste nutrients, rather than being lost to the local environment, as in traditional monoculture, are removed upon harvest of the cultured bivalves. With an enhanced food supply within a fish farm, there is also potential for enhancing bivalve growth and production beyond that normally expected in local waters. Therefore, integrated culture has the potential to increase the efficiency and productivity of a fish farm while reducing waste loadings and environmental impacts. This model of integrated bivalve – fish culture is certainly simple and, intuitively, appears promising. However, few practical studies have been undertaken, with conflicting conclusions regarding the potential for openwater integrated culture to enhance bivalve production and, by implication, to significantly reduce fish farm wastes. Studies have shown that bivalves are capable of utilising fish farm wastes as an additional food supply (Mazzola and Sarà 2001), likely explaining the increased growth displayed by mussels (Wallace, 1980) and oysters (Jones and Iwama, 1991) grown adjacent to fish cages. However, other studies have reported no, or minimal, growth enhancement of bivalves cultured in an integrated bivalve – fish system (Gryska et al.,1996). 637 �Decreasing Dependence on Local Ecosystem Services Increasing Material and Energy Inputs Land-Based Flow-Through Net-Cage Land-Based Recirculating Bag Figure 3. The flow of material and energy inputs in relation to the dependence on ecosystem services 4.7. Land-Based Recirculating Systems In recent years, particular emphasis has been placed on the development of closed-containment systems, a term widely used to describe a range of production systems that employ an impermeable barrier to isolate the culture environment from surrounding ecosystems. Theoretically, by culturing fish in a closed environment, fish farmers can exert greater control over the rearing conditions, allowing them to improve the quality of the fish while at the same time reducing proximate environmental impacts. Some of the potential advantages of closedcontainment systems are: (1) minimized fish escapes; (2) minimized predator interactions; (3) reduced disease transmission; (4) lower feed inputs; (5) higher stocking densities; and (6) improved waste management capabilities. The system is entirely contained inside a warehouse and consists of a series of circular concrete tanks of various sizes. New water is continuously pumped into the tanks from an on-site freshwater well. Approximately 99% of the water is recirculated back into the system after passing through an extensive mechanical and biofiltration process.Wastewater that is lost from the system at various stages passes through a holding tank where solids are settled out and the remaining wastewater enters the municipal sewer system. The solid fish wastes are collected in the holding tank for future use as a substitute for conventional synthetic fertilizers for plants fertilizer in an adjacent greenhouse. Ayer and Tyedmers (2008), studied on Assessing alternative aquaculture technologies: life cycle assessment of salmaonid culture systems in Canada. In the study, four different system such as; Marine net-pen, Marine floating bag, Land-based flow-through and Land-based recirculating were studied. At the end of study, the recirculating system was the only system at which wastes were managed. The differences of the systems was presented in Fig. 3 (Ayer and Tyedmers 2008). 5. Conclusions Intensive salmonid cultivation can introduce significant quantities of nutrient wastes from uneaten feed, faeces and excretory products into the local environment. Along with the growth of the salmon aquaculture industry, so too have concerns regarding the environmental impacts from aquaculture wastes. One of the major challenges for the sustainable development of salmonid culture, and the aquaculture industry generally, is to minimise environmental degradation concurrent with its projected expansion. The impacts of particulate wastes such as uneaten fish feed and faeces are largely on the benthic environment immediately surrounding fish farms; alterations to sediment biogeochemistry and benthos from sedimented solid wastes are well-documented (Brooks et al., 2003). Remineralised nutrients from these deposits, along with fish metabolic wastes, particularly ammonia, are dispersed within the receiving water body and may contribute to localised hypernutrification. During seasonal cycles of nutrient availability, additional dissolved nutrient wastes have the potential to stimulate benthic algal production, increase phytoplankton production leading to localised eutrophic conditions, and alter dissolved N/P ratios that promote the growth of toxic algal species (Folke et al., 1994). Bubridge and Burbridge (1994) identify three ways in which it would be possible to achieve control of feed impacts from aquaculture: (1) control of the sites where the culture farms are located; (2) control of the released effluents; (3) monitoring of impacts generated by effluents once the farm begins its work. Polyculture, or inte- grated aquaculture associating shellfish 638 �and algae culture with fish culture may be part of the solution (Cheshuk et al. 2003). The development and application of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) and the design of models for evaluating environmental impacts are other initiatives for controlling and monitoring the environmental impact of fish farms. References Alabaster, J.S. (1982). Survey of fish farm effluent in some EIFAC countries.p. 5-20 In: J.S.Alabaster(ed.) Report of the EIFAC workshop on fish-farm effluents. 26-28 May 1981. Silkeborg, Denmark. EIFAC Tech.Pap.41 Allan, I.R.H. (1983). A study of the impacts of fish farming on the fisheries and fishing in the revers test and ıtchen, Hampshire. Report to the test and ıtchen fishing association, (Unpublished). Austin, B. (1985). Antibiotic pollution from fish farm: effects on aquatic microflora. Microbial.Sci., 2:113-117 Ayer, N.W., Tyedmers, P.H. (2008). Assessing alternative aquaculture technologies: life cycle assessment of salmaonid culture systems in Canada. Journal of Cleaner Production, 89: 1-12. Beveridge, M.C.M. (1987).Cage aquaculture. Fishing News Books Ltd; Farnham, Survey, 352p. Bromage, N., M., Phillips, K. Jauncey and M. Beveridge. (1990). Fish feed growth and the environment.Fed. Eur. Salmoniculture (FES): 5p. Brooks, K.M., Stierns, A.R., Mahnken, C.V.W., Blackburn, D.B. (2003). Chemical and biological remedi- ation of the benthos near Atlantic salmon farms. Aquaculture, 219: 355–377. Bubridge, P., Burbridge, V. (1994). Review of Scottish coastal issues. A consultants report to the Scottish Office. Crown Copyright, Edimburgh, Scotland. Bahlo, K., Wach, G., (1993). Naturnahe Abwasserreinigung, P!anung und Bau von Pflanzenklaranlagen. 2. Au- flage, O kobuch Staufen bei Freiburg., 137 pp. Carr, O.J. (1988). Fish farm effluent and their effects on river biology. Ph.D. thesis. Univ.Hull;Hull,UK. Butz, I., Vens-Cappell, B. (1982). Organic Load from the metabolite products of rainbow trout fed with dry food. p. 73-82. In: J.S. Alabaster (ed.) Report of the EIFAC workshop on fish-farm effluents.26-28 May 1981. Silkeborg, Denmark.EIFAC Tech.Pap. 41p. Cheshuk, B.W., Pursera, G.J., Quintana, R. (2003). Integrated open-water mussel (Mytilus planulatus) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) culture in Tasmania, Australia. Aquaculture, 218: 357–378. Crampton, V. (1987). How to control phosphorus levels. Fish Farmer, July/August 1987: 38-39. Davies, I.M. (2000). Waste production by farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Scotland. ICES, CM 2000. 18p. European Commission (2002). A strategy for the sustainable development of European aquaculture. Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Brussels/ Strasbourg. FAO (2010). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. ISBN 92-5-104842-8. FAO Fisheries Department, Rome. Folke, C., Kautsky, N., Troell, M. ( 1994). The costs of eutrophication from salmon farming: implications for policy. J. Environ. Manag. 40: 173 – 182. Fishstat (2010). Computer system for global fishery statistical time series. http://www.fao.org. GESAMP (1996). Joint group of experts on the scientific aspects of marine environmental protection. Monitoring the ecological effects of coastal aquaculture wastes. Study report, GESAMP, 57. FAO, Rome. Gumbricht, T. (1993). Nutrient removal process in freshwater submersed macrophyte systems. Ecol. Eng., 2 (1): 1 — 3O. Gryska, A., Parsons, J., Shumway, S.E., Geib, K., Emery, L ., Kuenster, S. ( 1996). Polyculture of sea scallops suspended from salmon cages. J. Shellfish Res. 15, 481. Summary. Hendreson, J.P. and N. Bromage. (1988). Optimising the removel of suspended solids from aquacultural effluent in 639 �settlement lakes. Aquacult. Eng., 7: 167-181. Holby, O., Hall, P.O.J. (1991). Chemical fluxes and mass balances in a marine fish cage farm: ll. Phosphorus. Mar.Ecol., Prog. Ser. 70: 263 – 272. Hardy, R.W. (1996) Alternative protein sources for salmon and trout diets. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 59: 71–80. Henderson, A.R., Davies, I.M. (2000). Review of agriculture, its regulation and monitoring in Scotland. J Appl Ichthyol., 16: 200–208. Hinshaw, R.N. (1973). Pollution as a result of cultural activities. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency; EPA-R3-73-009, Washington, DC. Jones, T.O., lwama, G.K. (1991). Polyculture of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg), with chinook salmon, Onchorynchus tshawytscha. Aquaculture, 92: 313 – 322. Kautsky, N., Troell, M., Folke, C. ( 1997). Ecological engineering for increased production and environmental improvement in open sea aquaculture. ln: Etnier, C. (Ed.), Ecological Engineering for Wastewater Treatment. Lewis Publisher, Chelsea, Ml, pp. 496 – 501. Kehrer, I. (1997). Untersuchungen zu Grundlagen der dezentralen Abwasserreinigung mit Pflanzen unter besonderer Berü cksichtigung gartenbauö konomischer Aspekte. MSc Thesis, Humboldt-University, Berlin, 175 p. Kils, U. (1979). Oxygen-regime and artificial aeration of net-cages in mariculture. Meeresforschung, 27(4): 236-243 Lekang, O.I., Bergheim, A., Dalen, H. ( 2OOO). An integrated wastewater treatment system for l and-based fish- farming. Aquac. Eng., 22: 199 — 211. Markmann, P.N. (1982). Biological effects of effluent from Danish fish farm.p. 103-112 In: J.S.Alabaster(ed.) Report of the EIFAC workshop on fish-farm effluents.26-28 May 1981. Silkeborg, Denmark. EIFAC Tech.Pap.41 Mazzola, A., Sarà, G. (2001). The effect of fish farming organic waste on food availability for bivalve molluscs (Gaeta Gulf, Central Tyrrhenian, MED): stable carbon isotopic analysis. Aquaculture, 192: 361 – 379. NCC (1990). Fish farming and the Scottish freshwater environment. Nature Conservancy Council Report, 129p. Panserat, S., Medale, F., Breque, J., Plagnes-Juan, E., Kaushik, S. (2000). Lack of significant long-term effect of dietary carbohydrates on hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase expression in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Nutr Biochem., 11: 22–29. Pearson, T.H., Black, K.D. (2001). The environmental impacts of marine fish cage culture. In: Black KD (ed) Environmental impacts of aquaculture. Academic Press and CRC Press, Sheffield, UK,pp 1–32. Rasmussen, F. (1988). Therapeutics used in fish production: pharmokinetics,residues and withdrawal periods. EIFAC/XV/88/Inf.13:22p. Smith, I.P., Metcalfe, N.B., Huntingford, F.A., Kadri, S. (1993) Daily and seasonal patterns in the feeding behaviour of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in a sea cage. Aquaculture, 117: 165–178. Wallace, J.F. ( 1980). Growth rates of different populations of the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, in Norway. Aquaculture, 19: 303 – 311. Willoughby, H., H.N., Larsen and Bowen, J.T. (1972). The pollutional effects of fish hatcheries. Am.Fish. U.S.Tout News 17(3): 20-21. Wu, R.S.S. (1995) The environmental impact of marine Bull. , 31: 159–166. fish culture: towards a sustainable future. Mar Pollut. Schulz, C., Gelbrecht, J., Rennert, B. (2003). Treatment of rainbow trout farm effluents in constracted wetland with emergent plants and subsurface horizantal water flow. Aquaculture, 217: 207-221. Zirschky, J. and Reed, S.C. (1988). The use of duckweed for wastewater treatment. J.Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 60: 1253-1258. 640 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 611 Title A name given to the resource Environmentally Sustainable Salmonid Culture Author Author GÜNER, Yusuf TÜRKMEN, Gürel Abstract A summary of the resource. Until very recently most research relating environmental quality and aquaculture was limited to assessment of environmental conditions necessary for culture. Emphasis was placed on dissolved oxygen requirement of the culture fish or the maximum dissolved nitrogen level that could be tolerated without impairment of growth rates or survival. Most attention was directed towards the effect of the environment upon the aquaculture operation, while the converse perspective, the effect of aquaculture upon environmental quality, was largely ignored. The sustainability of aquaculture development and the environmental impacts of aquaculture operations have become a matter of considerable concern for all stakeholders. The development of the aquaculture industry, especially if it is to sustain its current growth, depends on finding ways to increase its environmental, economic and social acceptability. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world varies greatly with respect to the water source and means of confining the fish. With the rapid growth of salmonid cage culture over the past decade has come increased examination of this industry segment as a potential pollution source. Aquaculture pollution mainly originates from the physical and chemical characteristics of feed and the applied feeding management. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1338a5054468b96cd6eacb30b9d13286.pdf 1081f954b9fc2eeac03cbbf5e5dded78 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Gurel Turkmen Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen @ege.edu.tr Os man Ozden Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department Izmir, Turkey osman.ozden@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water, land, fishmeal, and by other factors, such as environmental pollution. The problems caused by aquaculture wastes to the receiving water have drawn great attention worldwide in recent years. Intensive shrimp farming has been developed steadily over the last decade in response to increasing world market demand. The production system evolved from extensive toward intensive with increasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Thus, waste loads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. In traditional intensive shrimp culture, the deteriorated pond water is frequently exchanged with new external water supply to maintain desirable water quality for shrimp growth. The nutrient laden effluent discharged from shrimp farms can cause eutrophication of coastal waters and its impact has been a major environmental concern. Many technology and method has been developed to protect the water resources and environment from being polluted and wasted. In these systems shrimp is cultured next to other organisms, which are converting otherwise discharged nutrients into valuable products. Long-term growth of the shrimp aquaculture industry requires both ecologically sound practices and sustainable resource management. Sustainable Aquaculture Systems Sustainability may be expressed in terms of three interrelated aspects (Fig. 1): production technology, social and economic aspects,and environmental aspects(AIT 1994). An aquaculture farming system needs to be sufficiently productive to make it an attractive option to alternative or competing uses of resources i.e.,land and water, capital and labour, and farm by-products. Social and economic aspects of aquaculture have received relatively little attention compared to production aspects and are major constraints to development through aquaculture (Edwards 1994).Environmental aspects are only now beginning to receive the attention they require to prevent humans from exceeding the global carrying capacity for our species. An Environmental Revolution has been called for, as momentous as the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions that had such an impact on the evolution of human society (Harrison 1993). Production technology may be subdivided into three main aspects: cultured species, culture facility and husbandry. The choice of species influences the type of facility and together these determine the type of husbandry needed for the various stages of production (hatchery, nursery, grow-out). Husbandry may involve various methods of stock management (monoculture or polyculture; single or multiple, stocking and harvesting strategies), use of different feeds (natural,supplementary or complete feed), management of substrate and water quality, and disease prevention and therapy. Social and economic factors influencing sustainable aquaculture may be considered at the macro-level (international, national and regional aspects) and the micro-level (community and farm household). Macro-level issues include world trade, national development goals, government policy, and social characteristics such as cultural attitudes and input supply and marketing. Micro-levelissues are mainly alternative uses of resources. The environment is defined as being externalto the aquaculture system and includes the natural resources used for aquaculture development such as land, water, nutrients and biological diversity;the internal environment of the culture system is considered as part ofthe husbandry of production technology. The external environment is defined broadly to include the two-way interaction between itself and the aquaculture system. The natural environment (climate, geomorphology, hydrology and soils) and its human transformation (agroecology, urbanization,industrialization),exert majorinfluences on aquaculture, which may be either positive or negative. As an example of positiveinteraction between aquaculture and the environment,a pond dug on a small-scale 117 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo farm functions as a nutrienttrap and provides water forirrigation of rice seedlings and vegetables in addition to providing fish. Fish ponds may also be used to treat human sewage, manure from feedlot livestock as well as effluents from intensive aquaculture. Negative interactions between aquaculture and the environment are the adverse effects of pollution on aquaculture and adverse effects of aquaculture on the environment such as eutrophication, misuse of chemicals, and reduction of biodiversity and mangrove destruction. Production Technology Productive Sustainable Aquaculture Systems Socially relevant and profitable Social and Economic Aspects Environmentally compatible Environmental Aspects Figure 1: Sustainability of Aquaculture Systems (AIT 1994). An Overwiev on the World Shrimp Aquaculture Shrimp is one ofthe most populartypes of seafood inthe world. Approximately 5 million metrictons of shrimp are produced annually. Shrimp farms are being created throughoutthe worldto help meetthe demand for shrimp. In 1975, the shrimp aquaculture industry contributed to 2.5% of total shrimp production. Shrimp aquaculture, which increased nine fold during the 1990s and is one of the fastest growing forms of aquaculture, now accounts for one-third of the shrimp produced globally. Most shrimp aquaculture occursin China,followed by Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico, India, Brazil, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Philippines and Malasia (Fig. 2). Shrimp Aquaculture (MT) 1400000 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 Figure 2: World Shrimp Aquaculture by Countries (FAO 2007) 118 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, accounts for more than half of the total shrimp aquaculture output. Other important commercial species are P. monodon, P. merguiensis, P. japonicus, P. chinensis and P. indicus. In recent years,the export of Penaues vannamei to Asia has created a boom production, especially in China. The majority of farmed shrimp isimported to the United States, European Union and Japan. The growth has generated substantial income for developing and developed countries particularly Asia, the Americas and Africa but also has raised concerns about how shrimp farming affectsthe environment and society (FAO 2007). Shrimp Farms and the Environment Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water,land, fishmeal, and by otherfactors,such as environmental pollution (Schneider et al. 2005). Shrimp farming hasthe capacity to dramatically transform coastal areas. Extensive farms have an enormous requirement for land and the development of intensive culture practices increases nutrient impacts on the local coastal environment. Alongside environmental changes such as eutrophication, salination and land use changes, are attendant social transformations. Articles in popular science journals have focused public attention on the potential negative environmental impact of aquaculture, in particular intensive production of salmon and shrimp (Bunting 2006). The high demand for shrimp in overseas markets changed traditional farming practices along the coastal areas for peasantfarmers. Thairice farmers converted their coastalfields and often the mangrove foreststhat bordered them,to shrimp ponds. The production system evolved from extensivetoward intensive withincreasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Consequently, wasteloads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. Generally more intensive culture systems produce higher loads of nutrients such as N (Nitrate) and P (Phosphate) in their discharge (Alonso-Rodriguez & Paez-Osuna 2003). Formulated diets fed to shrimp consist of high amount of protein 35-50%, nitrogen 5.9-7% and phosphorus 1.5-2.1%. However, much of the feed is not assimilated into shrimp tissue butis discharged as dissolved and particulate waste. Based on food conversion ratio (FCR) of 2.0 with stocking density 30-50 shrimp/m2, shrimp feed of 2 tons, generates 1 ton of shrimp and waste of 900 kg organic matter, 87 kg nitrogen and 28 kg phosphorus. These compounds,together with excrement from the shrimp, increase organic matter, resulting in a high biochemical oxygen demand that can stimulate oxygen deplation (Jeganaeson & Annachhatre 2001, Tacon & Forster 2003). The two significant components ofthe pond environment are the pond water and sediments which interact continuously to influence the culture environment. Pond management activities are a third external factor which influence the culture environment. Management activities include feeding, use of aerators, water exchange and liming (Fig. 3) (Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998). Figure 3: Water Quality Đnteractions and Management Activitiesin Đntensive Shrimp Ponds. The solids budget shows that erosion of pond soil was the major source of both solids (88–93%) and organic matter (40–60%) in the pond. The feed applied to the pond was a significant source of organic matter (31–50%) but contributed little solids(4–7%) tothe system. Applied feed accounted for 78% oftheinput of N to the ponds. Erosion ofthe pond soils, whilst a major contributor of solids, accounted for only 16% of N added to 119 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the system. Other minor contributions were influent water (4%) and fertilizer,rainfall and postlarvae (2%). The sinks for nitrogen were the sediments (24%), harvested shrimp (18%), and discharged water (27%). The principal source of phosphorus in this system was the applied feed (51%). The 26% shortfall in inputs was assumed to be the eroded pond bottom (Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998). Hence shrimp farming become a curse in coastal areas due to their heavy discharge of used water with high organic and inorganic load and it has been regulated strictly under legislations (Tacon & Forster 2003). Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Typically the pattern of production from a shrimp farm is that of an initial ‘honeymoon period,’ characterized by success and good production followed by gradual decrease in yields over successive crops. Depending upon a wide range of factors, decreased yields are manifested as reduced growth, higher FCR, and disease outbreaks that require emergency harvesting. Serious production losses have occurred in shrimp producing countries around the world, principally due to poor rearing environments and pathogenic disease. In response to this,shrimp farmers are changing their culture methods. Long-term environmental sustainability and community acceptance of the shrimp farming industry requires on-going development of effcient cost-effective effluent treatment options. It is important to acknowledge that shrimp aquaculture systems can fulfil all the general sustainability criteriaoutlined in Tab. 1. LAN D USE Local. Do not convert mangrove ecosystems or agriculturalland into shrimp ponds . Reduce the negative indirectimpact on mangroves caused by access roads and water canals .Initiate mangrove restoration programs where aquaculture has caused significant damage tothis ecosystem . Minimise land use by good management . Place pond in areas with low population density to minimise land and water use conflicts . Use feasibility studies priorto development to minimise risk of arising resource use conflicts . Avoid overcrowding of pondsthat exceeds the environmental carrying capacity Global. Locate ponds in consumer countries SEED AND INTROD UCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES AND DISEASE Local. No use of gentically modified organisms (G M O) . Use hatchery produced seed . Close cycle in shrimp hatcheries by domesticating shrimps . Farm only native species Global. No transport of seed and broodstock between countries W A TER USE Local. Reduce water exchange rates and thus waterinput requirement . Site-specific methodlogical considerations: . Develop shrimp farming in fully marine watersto reduce the dependence on fresh watersources . Develop shrimp farming in low salinity watersto minimise the risk of salinisation of adjacent soil and water FEED Local. Use culture system that utilise natural or stimulated production in the ponds orincoming waters . Minimise the food conversion ratio (FCR) through proper management Global. Develop and use formulated feeds not based on fishmeal and fish oil, orreduce content ofthese . Use fish meal based on trimmings of fish processed for human consumption N UTRIENT LOADING Local. Use only certified organic fertilisers . Reduce water exchange rates and thus the amount of effluent discharge . Reduce nutrient concentrations in effluents by investing in settling and biologicaltreatment ponds,including integrated farming with e.g.seaweeds and filterfeeders .Improve feeds and managementto reduce the food conversion ratio (FCR) . Remove saltfrom sludge and use as fertiliser CHE MICAL AND ANTIBIOTIC USE Local. Reduce the need for chemicals and antibiotics by improved pond and water management thatlimitthe risk of exceeding the local carrying capacity ofthe environment Global. Minimise or refrain from chemical use . Refrain from antibiotic use . Use probiotics Table 1: Defining the Local/Regional and Global Criteria forImproved Environmental Sustainabilityin Shrimp 120 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Aquaculture (Rönnbäck 2002). Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture Recently, integrated closed recirculation systems have been developed because of growing concern of water pollution and avoidance of diseaseinfection through waterintake.Inthe system, high organic particles and nutrients in the water from intensive shrimp pond flow to the treatment ponds and then recycle back to the shrimp pond. The integrated culture of plants and herbivores side-by-side with fish and shrimp is a practical technology (Naylor et al. 2000). The system uses algae, fish, mussels, and other aquaculture species to reduce the waste in the effluent. Algae can reduce turbidity and phosphate in the effluent and the algae itselfis a good feed for shrimp as well as fishes. Mussels are also reported to reduce the turbidity but can increase am monia concentration. Fish as discussed is a good way to get rid of algae and other plankton. Several studies have been reported on integrated culture of shrimp with bivalves and macroalgae. For example, oyster removes suspended particulates and phytoplankton, while macroalgae absorbs dissolved nutrients (Wang 1990, Jones et al. 2001, 2002). However, high biofouling and the negative affect of high concentration of particles on growth of oyster were observed (Tanyaros 2001). Thus, sedimentation pond may be an important component in shrimp–bivalve and shrimp–macroalgae integrated culturing to reduce the level of suspended solid before oyster and macroalgae ponds (Jones et al. 2001, 2002). Fish has also been proposed for removing particulate organic matter in shrimp effluent (Tookwinas 2003). For example, grey mullet(Mugil cephalus L.)is effectiven in removing macroalgae from the effluent treatment system. Omnivorous tilapia can be effective for utilizing waste from intensive aquaculture. Closed polyculture systems of Chinese shrimp with constricted tagelus (Sinonovacula constricta Lamarck) and hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus x O. niloticus),in which tilapia was confined in a net cage, showed that the retention of input nitrogen (feed+fertilizers) into tilapia biomass ranged from 2.58 to 2.90% and the retention of phosphorus into tilapia biomass ranged from 6.07 to 11.04% (Tian et al. 2001). Systems that integrate shrimp and red seaweed have been studied, the largest being in Hawaii (Nelson et al. 2001, Gracilaria),and small-scale efforts have been reported by Phang et al.(1996) (Gracilaria)from Malaysia, Kinne et al.(2001) (various algae) from the USA and Chang and Wang (1985), Yin (1987), Wei (1990) and Liu et al.(1997) from China, all ofthem with Gracilaria. Ali et al.(1994) reported on a laboratory-scale integrated culture of shrimp and green seaweed (Ulva)in Japan. Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (ISAS) Desing and Lay Out Lay out Plan The lay-out plan of the ISAS is depicted in Fig. 4 (Ramanujam 2001). As per norms, 10 per cent of the cultivable area should be assigned for the ISAS. For example, for a farm of 5.0 hectare water spread area, 0.77 hectare land area or approximately 0.50 hectare water spread area (actual operational area) will be required for construction of the ISAS. For farms more than 5.0 hectares, the area under ISAS will also proportionately increase (e.g.for a 6.0 ha. farm area, 0.6 hectare under ISAS; for a10 hectare farm area 1.0 hectare under ISAS and so on). The size of the settlement pond, bio-pond and aeration pond has also been suggested taking into consideration the optimum production level of 2.0 tonnes/ hectare/ culture and specific water management practices. Water exchange schedule to be followed for operating the system. The schedule is based on the availability of a reservoir of suitable size for storage and treatment of water for initial filling of the ponds, topping up of waterlevel during the firsttwo months of rearing and limited water exchange during the third and fourth months of rearing (Ramanujam 2001). Settlement Pond/ Sedimentation Pond A settlement/sedimentation pond is basically used to remove suspended solids from the waste water flow. Shrimp farm suspended solid wastes under normal operating conditions (during culture as opposed to harvest) are primarily composed of living plankton cells,feed material and other organic material, which do not easily settle down. Sedimentation tank can trap only 5 to 10 percent of such suspended solids. A retention time of one hour is sufficient to trap the material, which can settle down. Thus settlement pond is less effective in trapping the solid contents of the waste water discharge during the course of culture. However, settlement tanks are effective in trapping suspended solids during the harvest, when solid loads are far higher and particulate matter is denser. Studies have shown that 90% of the solids in the harvest discharge settle in sedimentation ponds. Thus the sedimentation ponds prevent the release of most polluting organic matter that is discharged at the time of harvest(last 5to 10 cm water)tothe environment. 121 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 122 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bio-Ponds or Biological Treatment Ponds Biological treatment aims at using plants and animals to reduce nutrient load and particulate matter in the shrimp farm discharge. Farm discharge after the treatment in settlement and bio-ponds can be readily used for recirculation to ponds for farming operation. Various options available for biological treatment of farm discharge are as follows: - Sea weeds/ water weeds to reduce nutrient(N and P)level, - Molluscs to reduce suspended particulate matter and - Fish to transform the phytoplankton into organic matter Biologicaltreatment can only be used to treat operationalfarm waste wateri.e. during culture period as the waste water during harvest time is biologically unsuitable in its direct form, unless diluted. However, the harvest waste water if allowed to remain in the settlement pond for requisite duration can be treated in the biopond. Various species of weeds and animals availablefor biologicaltreatment(bio-remediation),their usefulness and the constraintsin using them are given in Tab. 2. Figure 4: Layout Plan of Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (5.0 Hectare Shrimp Farm). Group Sea Weeds Species Ulva latuca Enteromorpha Gracilaria Photomedgetone Crassistrea spp. Mollusc Geloria sp. Perna viridis Perna indica Villoria Paphia sp. Anadora granosa Meritrix Usefulness Reduces nutrientload -do-do-doRemoves particulate matter and control of algal growth -do-do-do-do-do-do-do- Constraints Survival and grow ≥ 25 ppt -do26-32 ppt 15-20 ppt Grow 15-25 ppt 15-35 ppt 20-25 ppt 20-35 ppt 2-15 ppt 2-15 ppt > 20 ppt > 20 ppt Mugil cephalus Fish Reduces phytoplankton and 20-35 ppt control of algal biomass Liza spp. -do20-35 ppt Chanos chanos -do2-35 ppt Table 2: Plant and Animal Species Usefulfor Bio-Remediation (Ramanujam 2001). 123 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Aeration Pond Aeration helps to increase the dissolved oxygen levels of water before it is pumped for recirculation. Besides,italso helpsto oxidise any left over ammonia and organic matterinthe waterthat comes out ofthe biopond. An integrated shrimp aquaculture system in shrimp culture is one strategy that minimizes waste from culture systems and the risk of disease and provides an additionalincome source as well. Closed and Semi-Closed Systems Com mon problems in the open water exchange system include phytoplankton crashes, deteriorated pond bottoms and bacterial diseases. A phytoplankton crash causes a significant increase in ammonia in the water, a decrease in dissolved oxygen and a risein organic material. One of the vital activitiesin shrimp culture to maintainthe proper conditions for shrimp is water exchange. Farmers have to drain waterfrom grow-out pond and acquire make-up waterforreplenishment. Forthese reasons,shrimp farms need high amount of saline water throughout the culture period. Impact of discharges from shrimp farms can be reduced by treating the nutrient rich effluent as well as by cleaning the sediments. Systems employing water reuse and recirculation should be adopted to minimize the amount of water exchange for preventing epidemic and to overcome scarcity of makeup water at the low tide. The general scheme of closed is similar to some conventional wastewater treatment facilities, which include sedimentation ponds, biologicaltreatment and aeration. The treated wateris stored in a reservoir pond before being returned to shrimp grow-out ponds. The technology for closed farming systems is still in the experimental phase, and currently the relative contribution to global shrimp aquaculture output is marginal from these systems. In the case of inland shrimp farming in Thailand, the likelihood of no effluents being discharged into the open environment has been questioned (Flaherty et al. 2000). There is no water exchange in the first two months after stocking in these systems, although filling of the pond is necessary towards the end ofthe second month. Depending upon season and rainfall,evaporative loss can cause salinity to rise to an unacceptably high level. To counteract this, freshwater is pumped where available although this has very serious environmental and social impacts if aquifer water is used. Low water exchange systems such as these are complete sinks for nutrients and thus there is no outlet for wastes during production except for discharge at harvest(Tab. 3). Nutrient Total Effluent Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange (kg crop-1) Open system Open system Open system Semi-Closed Closed lined pond clay soil mangrove soil system system 50.5 50.6 95.7 53.9 6.7 8.8 1.6 3.8 7.2 0.8 9.7 3.8 5.7 7.6 0.6 34.4 19.0 25.9 13.1 1.2 1.13 1.49 0.38 0.82 0.12 Total ammonia-nitrogen Nitrite-nitrogen Nitrate-nitrogen Total phosphorus Dissolved reactivephosphorus Chlorophyll a 5630.1 7126.2 7092.6 4261.2 312.3 Chemical oxygen demand 456.4 n.d. 432.8 244.1 21.1 Total suspended solids 4352.4 5053.5 4250.6 3555.6 336.3 Organic suspended solids 2236.7 2719.0 1836.6 1889.1 155.5 Table 3: Nutrient Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange Activities (Funge-Smith 1996). Polyculture of Shrimp with Tilapia Euryhalinous tilapia is characterised by good growth in seawater ponds through acclimation, easy reproduction and availability of fingerlings, resistance to disease, and marketable size reached within one growing season. Stocking performance and production in polyculture of Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) with red Taiwanese tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis mossambicus X O. niloticus) were studied by Wang et al. (1998).In two factorial design (3x4), shrimp juveniles (body length 2.85±0.16 cm) and tilapia hybrids weighing from 79.0 g to 193.8 g reared in net cages were stocked into 24 enclosures at a rate of 4.5, 6.0 and 7.5 shrimp/m2 and 0, 0.16, 0.24 and 0.32 fish/m2, respectively and reared by feeding commercialfeed and by administration of chicken manure and chemical fertiliser. To evaluate cultural pattern on tilapia, the shrimp juveniles and the 124 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo tilapiajuveniles were stocked intotwo enclosures at a rate of 6.0 shrimp/m2 and 0.24 fish/m2 (outsidethe cages), respectively. Overallsurvivalrate of shrimp was 78.6% and did not differ among treatments. Mean final sizes of shrimp decreased with increase in its stocking density. As stocking density of the shrimp increased from 4.5 shrimp/m2 to 6.0 shrimp/m2, mean shrimp yield increased from 325.4±15.3 kg/ha to 522.2±54.9 kg/ha. There was a pronounced influence oftilapia density on growth, survival and yields of shrimp at 6.0 shrimp/m2. At 0.32 tilapia/m2,survivalrate(96.67%), final body length (10.40 cm) and yield (585.5 kg/ha) of shrimp were high. The optimum stocking density of shrimp and tilapia was 60,000 shrimp/ha and some 400 kg tilapia/ha,respectively. Muangkeow et.al.(2007) was studied using outdoortank system with 6 treatment conditions: T1, single shrimp tank system; T2, closed recirculation system without tilapia; T3 to T6, integrated closed recirculation system with the tilapia–shrimp stocking density ratio of 0.01, 0.025, 0.05 and 0.075, respectively. The shrimp were stocked at a density of 40 individual m2 for alltreatments. Shrimp were fed with com mercial pellets, while tilapia was not fed with the feed pellet. The culture period was 8 weeks for shrimp and 7 weeks for tilapia. The shrimp growth rate and netincome ofthe system of T2 was significantly higherthan T5 and T6 (P<0.05) but was no differentfrom T1, T3 and T4. The tilapia growth ratein T3 was significantly higherthan the others (P<0.05). The nitrogen conversion rate into total (shrimp+tilapia) biomass of T2 to T5 was significantly higher than T1 (P<0.05). T6 showed a lower N conversion rate than the lower tilapia–shrimp ratio. The phosphorus conversion rateinto total biomass was significantly higher in T3 to T6 than T1 and T2 (P<0.05). These resultsindicate that tilapia stocking significantly improved P conversion rate but the N conversion and shrimp growth rates decreased with high tilapia stocking. Considering all parameters,theintegrated system with a low tilapia–shrimp ratio (the ratio of 0.01 and 0.025) were effective to improve the nutrient conversion rate to culture animals withoutlowering shrimp growth. Rice-Shrimp Farming in the Seawater Intrusion Zone of the Mekong Delta-Vietnam An estimated 19% (786,329 ha) of the total area in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam is affected by saline water with predominant freshwater in the rainy season and brackish water in the dry season. As saline water intrusion in the dry season is a major constraint to rice farming, many farmers develop alternating rice-shrimp farming system producing shrimp in the dry season and rice in the wet season in the same plot.In this farming practice saline wateris used to flood the rice fields in the dry season to raise shrimp (Penaeus monodon). At the beginning of the wet season, farmers flush salinity out of their fields using rain and fresh river water to plant rice. The integrated farming systems increase farmers’ income and improve the living standards of the local community (Vuong & Lin 2001). Marine Microalgal Culture in Discharge Water from Shrimp Culture Pond Marine microalgal species such as Skeletonema costatum and Chaetoceros coarctatus were cultured in Discharge Water (D W) from shrimp culture pond to recover the organic and inorganic nutrients released as waste (Vankatesan et al. 2006). Total nitrogen (N), nitrate-N and total phosphorus in the D W were observed significantly higher and theirmean values were 95.261, 32.6 and 11.312 mg L-1,respectively. Algalspecies were cultured in processed D W under 12 h light/12 h dark condition withlightintensity 6000-7000 Lux and compared with cultures made in standard Conway medium which served as a control. Cell density was obtained higher overthe control by 30.1 and 20.0 % in S. costatum and C. coarctatusrespectively. The study inferred that,asitis a low cost technology for microalgal production as well as mean for waste water treatment, marine microalgal culture in D W from shrimp farm will be integrated a approach towards sustainable utilization of aquatic resource. Constructed Wetlands As Recirculation Filters in Large-Scale Shrimp Aquaculture Effluent waters from shrimp aquaculture, which can contain elevated levels of phosphorus, ammonia, nitrate, and organics, must be managed properly if shrimp aquaculture is to achieve sustainability. Constructed wetlands are ecologically beneficial, low cost treatment alternatives proven capable of reducing suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals from wastewater of many sources. Tilley et al.(2002) studied to determine how well a constructed wetland performed as a filterin a fullscale shrimp aquaculture operation. A 7.7 ha (19 ac) mesohaline (3–8 ppt) constructed wetland treating 13,600 m3 per day of effluent from 8.1 ha of intensively farmed shrimp ponds at the Loma Alta Shrimp Aquaculture Facility (LASAF) (Fig. 5),located along the coast ofthe Gulf of Mexico in semi-arid South Texas, was found to 125 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo reduce concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS) and inorganic suspended solids (ISS) by 31, 65 and 76%, respectively, during recirculation, and maintained consistently low levels of mean BO D (<9 mg l−1), total ammonia (<1.8 mg N l−1) and nitrate (<0.42 mg N l−1). Constructed wetlands can perform satisfactorily as recirculation filtersinlarge-scale shrimp aquaculture operations,reducing the impact of effluent on local water bodies, conserving large quantities of water and providing valuable ecological habitat. Figure 5: Layout ofthe LASAF atthe H.P. El Sauz Ranch in South Texas, USA. (Tilley et al. 2002) Conclusion The rapid development of shrimp aquaculture in the coastal areas of the country has raised some environmental concerns, especially with regard to the impact of shrimp waste water on the ecology of the open waters systems. The Mediterranean coast supports many human activities, such as tourism, maritime traffic, industry,fisheries,aquaculture or conservation, all ofthem competing for coastal zone resources.Inthis context, the aquaculture industry has grown rapidly during recent years. The negative impact of shrimp aquaculture derives mainly from particulate and dissolved nutrients. The Mediterranean is an oligotrophic sea, with low nutrientlevels;itis an especially sensitive area due to itslow energy and has a limiting nutrientlevelthatisthe reason why a minimum increment of nutrients gives rise to important increases in the primary production. 126 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Different methods have been tried to minimize the effects of nutrient loading. The integration of effluent treatment system as a part ofthe shrimp farm willtherefore assistthe farmerstoimprove waste water quality and provide long-term strategies for sustainable shrimp farming inthe country. References AIT. (1994). The Promotion of Sustainable Aquaculture. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. 98pp. Ali, F., Yamasaki, S., & Hirata, H. (1994). Polyculture of Penaeus japonicus larvae and Ulva sp. fragments. Suisanzoshoku, 42 (3), 453–458. Alonso-Rodriguez, R., & Paez-Osuna, F. (2003). 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Culture of Marine Microalgae in Shrimp Farm Discharge Water: A Sustainable Approach to Reduce the Cost Production and Recovery Nutrients. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 1(3), 262-269. Vuong, D.Q.T., & Lin, C.K. (2001). Rice-Shrimp Farming in the Seawater Intrusion Zone of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. ITCZM Monograph No.6, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, 16pp. Wang, J.K. (1990). Managing shrimp pond water to reduce discharge problems. Aquaculture Engineering, 9, 61–73. Wang, J.Q., Li, D., Dong, S., Wang, K., & Tian, X. (1998). Experimental studies on polycultre in closed shrimp ponds I. Intensive polyculture of Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) with tilapia hybrids. Aquaculture, 163, 11-27. Wei, S.Q. (1990). Study of mixed culture of Gracilaria tenuistipitata, Penaeus penicillatus, and Scylla serrata. Acta Oceanol. Sin., 12, 388– 394. Yin, Z.Q. (1987). Mixed culture of the prawn Penaeus monodon and Gracilaria tenuistipitata. Chin. Aquac., 6, 17. 128 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 491 Title A name given to the resource Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Ozden, Osman Abstract A summary of the resource. Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water, land, fishmeal, and by other factors, such as environmental pollution. The problems caused by aquaculture wastes to the receiving water have drawn great attention worldwide in recent years. Intensive shrimp farming has been developed steadily over the last decade in response to increasing world market demand. The production system evolved from extensive toward intensive with increasing inputs of high quality feed and water supply. Thus, waste loads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic wastes was increased. In traditional intensive shrimp culture, the deteriorated pond water is frequently exchanged with new external water supply to maintain desirable water quality for shrimp growth. The nutrient laden effluent discharged from shrimp farms can cause eutrophication of coastal waters and its impact has been a major environmental concern. Many technology and method has been developed to protect the water resources and environment from being polluted and wasted. In these systems shrimp is cultured next to other organisms, which are converting otherwise discharged nutrients into valuable products. Long-term growth of the shrimp aquaculture industry requires both ecologically sound practices and sustainable resource management. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7060c5e96a083d5b4f8d38575361806a.pdf 899c46add93f8569e62398f1ba42e699 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Environmentally-Sensitive Hospitality Enterprises: A case study in a Green-Star certified Hotel in Turkey Hasan Hüseyin Soybalı Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey hsoybali@aku.edu.tr Ahmet Baytok Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Mustafa Hotamışlı Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey hotamisli@aku.edu.tr Degradation of the ecological balance is one of the important and popular issues in the world in recent times. This fact, raised from the unconscious use of use of natural resources by the human beings, has revealed itself in the form of climate change, threatening or disappearance of certain plants and animal species, natural resource depletion and air, water and soil pollution. In order to eliminate this disadvantage, the tendency towards the sustainable use of all resources at international, national and local scales is on the increase today. The alternative tourism and ecotourism, as sustainable and nature-based tourism types, have become the popular tourism kinds in the tourism industry whose basic products are based on the natural resources for the sustainable use of the resources. As well as the practises of environmental protection and improvement of environmental awareness, encouragement and promotion of positive contributions of tourism enterprises to the environment are some of the subjects which have gained great importance in recent years. For this purpose, a certain standard practices for the tourism enterprises in all countries had been developed and has continued to be improved. The environmental sensitivity of tourism enterprises in Turkey had been tried to develop in 1990s through the Eco-Friendly Tourism Enterprise Certificate (a green pine symbol), but it has not seen enough interest. For his reason, environmental awareness campaign was reviewed in 2008 and brand new Environmentally Sensitive Accommodation Enterprise Certificate (a Green-Star Symbol) practise was started. The main purposes of Environmentally Sensitive Accommodation Enterprise (ESAE) are the 152 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo protection of environment, improvement of environmental consciousness and encouragement of environmentally-sensitive hospitality enterprise constructions and operational management. ESAE practices include water saving, energy efficiency, reducing the amount of environmentally hazardous substances and waste, promoting the use of renewable energy resources, environmentally-sensitive planning starting from the stage of investment, environmental compliance, ecological architecture, raising awareness about environmental sensitivity and provision of education. This study aims to draw attention to Green-Star Symbol provision by evaluating the conceptual framework of ESAE Certificate and demonstrate the contribution of ESAE practices to the sustainability through a case study. Semi-Structured interview questions and analysis of secondary data related to the hospitality enterprises as qualitative research methods will be employed within the scope of research. Keywords: Environment, Hospitality, Turkey, Green-Star. 153 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1606 Title A name given to the resource Environmentally-Sensitive Hospitality Enterprises: A case study in a Green-Star certified Hotel in Turkey Author Author HUSEYIN SOYBALI, Hasan BAYTOK, Ahmet HOTAMIŞLI, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Degradation of the ecological balance is one of the important and popular issues in the world in recent times. This fact, raised from the unconscious use of use of natural resources by the human beings, has revealed itself in the form of climate change, threatening or disappearance of certain plants and animal species, natural resource depletion and air, water and soil pollution. In order to eliminate this disadvantage, the tendency towards the sustainable use of all resources at international, national and local scales is on the increase today. The alternative tourism and ecotourism, as sustainable and nature-based tourism types, have become the popular tourism kinds in the tourism industry whose basic products are based on the natural resources for the sustainable use of the resources. As well as the practises of environmental protection and improvement of environmental awareness, encouragement and promotion of positive contributions of tourism enterprises to the environment are some of the subjects which have gained great importance in recent years. For this purpose, a certain standard practices for the tourism enterprises in all countries had been developed and has continued to be improved. The environmental sensitivity of tourism enterprises in Turkey had been tried to develop in 1990s through the Eco-Friendly Tourism Enterprise Certificate (a green pine symbol), but it has not seen enough interest. For his reason, environmental awareness campaign was reviewed in 2008 and brand new Environmentally Sensitive Accommodation Enterprise Certificate (a Green-Star Symbol) practise was started. The main purposes of Environmentally Sensitive Accommodation Enterprise (ESAE) are the protection of environment, improvement of environmental consciousness and encouragement of environmentally-sensitive hospitality enterprise constructions and operational management. ESAE practices include water saving, energy efficiency, reducing the amount of environmentally hazardous substances and waste, promoting the use of renewable energy resources, environmentally-sensitive planning starting from the stage of investment, environmental compliance, ecological architecture, raising awareness about environmental sensitivity and provision of education. This study aims to draw attention to Green-Star Symbol provision by evaluating the conceptual framework of ESAE Certificate and demonstrate the contribution of ESAE practices to the sustainability through a case study. Semi-Structured interview questions and analysis of secondary data related to the hospitality enterprises as qualitative research methods will be employed within the scope of research. Keywords: Environment, Hospitality, Turkey, Green-Star. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bbdb08c3ce79f7f2bc9c20807a606cbc.pdf 97a40ae592fa53b1cedbe071617ae418 PDF Text Text 8. Velde, V.D., Nevens, S., Hee, F.V., Steenberghe, P.V., Quirynen, D.; 2008, GC-NS analysis of breath odor compounds in liver patients, Journal of chromatography b-analytical Technologies in the biomedical and life sciences vol:875 issue:2 ,344-348 9. Merler, S., C. Furlanello, B. Larcher and A. Sboner, 2001. Tuning Cost Sensitive Boosting and its Application to Melanoma Diagnosis, In MCS 2001, Cambridge, UK, 2096: 32-42. 10. Pardo, M. and G. Niederjaunfner, 2000. Data Preprocessing Enhances the Classification of Different Brands of Espresso Coffee with an Electronic Nose. Sensors & Actuators B, 69. 11. Shilbayeh, N.F. and M.Z. Iskandarani, 2004. Quality Control of Coffee Using an Electronic Nose System. Am. J. Applied Sci., 1: 129-135. 12. Persaud, K.C.; Dodd, G. Analysis of discrimination mechanisms in the mammalian olfactory system using a model nose. Nature 1982, 299, 352-355. 13. Casalinuovo IA, Di Pierro D, Coletta M, and Di Francesco P. 2006. Application of electronic noses for disease diagnosis and food spoilage detection. Sensors 6:1428–1439. Enzyme Supplementation to Soybean Based Diet in Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Effects on Growth Parameters and Nitrogen and Phosphorus Digestibility İbrahim Diler 1,Hüseyin Sevgili 2 ,Yılmaz Emre 2,Halit Bayrak 1 1 Department of Aquaculture, Süleyman Demirel University, 32100, Isparta-TURKEY 2 Mediterranean Fisheries Research, Production and Training Institute, P.O190, Antalya, Turkey E-mail: ibrahimdiler@sdu.edu.tr Abstract The aim of the this study was to examine the effects of the diets based on Soybean Meal (40%) supplemented with exogenous enzymes on growth performance, feed utilization, apparent digestibility and reduce environment pollution waste output of nitrogen and phosphorus in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture. Trout groups (initial weight 87.00±1,5) method of random plots with 3 replications of 50 fish/pond with the ratio of 1050 fish in the concrete ponds. Diets consisted of 25% fish meal (FM) and 40% dehulled hexane extracted soybean meal (SBM) in control group (C0) and diet supplemented with protease enzyme (PRT; 2g/kg-1), diet supplemented with enzyme cocktail (MIX; cellulose, xylanase, endo-ß-1,3:1,4-glucanase; 2g/kg-1) and diet supplemented with pyhtase enzyme (PHY; 2g/kg-1). About of growth performance were found while condition factor (1,21-1,23) were statistically similar (p>0.05), however specific growth rate, SGR, (1,118-1,340) and feed conversion ratio, FCR, (1,26-1,30) were obtained significantly different among groups (p<0,05). PRT and PHY groups significantly improved SGR and FCR better than control group. In this study, showed the highest nitrogen apperent digestibility coefficient, ADC (85,49±1,98) in PRT group while, the poorest value obtained (72,82±0.01) C0 group 369 �respectively (p<0,05). Also the best (58.57±0.49) and lowest (42.85±1.98) ADC was obtained PHT and C0 groups for phosphorus respectively (p<0,05). Keywords: rainbow trout, enzyme, growth performance, nitrogen, phosphorus, digestibility 1.INTRODUCTION Natural feed additives as referred to the use of enzymes; made in the areas of biotechnology and animal feed baits, intensive research has become common parallel developments in nowadays (Nir and Senköylü 2000). Developments in biotechnology, with a significant effect in feeding the fish is quite expensive but can be substituted for fish meal with plant-based raw materials to be used in a more effective and beneficial, increasing digestibility, reduction factors of antinutritional have opened new horizons in the use of these feeds as effective. The most appropriate herbal product.is soybean meal feed raw materials of vegetable origin that can be used instead of fish meal in fish feeds affordability, availability and nutritional value in the markets. The addition of enzyme increases of nutrition value, because of non-starch polysaccharide in soybean meal feed value limited (Deguara et al. 1999, Hardy 2000, Hardy and Gatlin 2002, Cho and Bureau 2003). Enzyme with the use of lower-priced raw materials from more expensive raw materials used in equal and sometimes better performance (Deguara et al. 1999, Nir and Senköylü, 2000). Feed manufacturers are prefers dry and granular enzymes, because of its importance in terms of homogeneous distribution of enzyme activity instead of liquid enzyme preparations (Collier and Hardy 1986, Inbor 1990). Usually the most limiting factor in plant development is phosphorus in freshwater and is nitrogen in the seas. The majority of phosphorus in vegetable feed ingredients commonly used (50-80%), phytic acid or phytate-bound form is found and undigestibility by the monogastric animals. Such animals hasn‘t got any enzymes to break down phytate and phosphorus reveals, adding has been sufficient amount of the phytase enzyme feed stuffs in the structure of phytate phosphorus digestibility remain free (Lantzsch 1989, Sugiura et al. 2000, Sugiura et al. 2001, Saçaklı 2002). Microbial phytase enzyme is effective in reducing environmental pollution by fecal excretion of phosphorus caused, depending on the form of phytic phosphorus in feedstuffs monogastric animal diets vegetarian diet significantly increases of evaluation. (Gibson and Ulah 1990, Graham and Inborr 1993, Gordon and Roland 1997). Discarded and retained in reducing the level of nitrogen and phosphorus levels are the key strategies in the ration protein level needed to keep the fish, the energy: protein and amino acid digestibility of high raw materials (Vergara et al. 1996, Sugiura and Hardy 2000, Cho and Bureau 2003). In fish fed is observed and improvement in performance additon of enzymes addition increased the digestibility of the nutrients, specific growth rate and protein efficiency ratio and a marked improvement (Tandler and Kolkovski 1992, Deguara 1998, Deguara et al. 1999, Ayhan et al. 2008). The aim of this study, with the addition to fish feed as protease enzyme, enzyme cocktails and phytase enzyme, more efficient use of raw materials of vegetable origin, fresh water fish feaces and discharge of nitrogen and phosphorus excretion, thus reducing the environmental pollution, increase growth performance, feed conversion to raise the utilization efficiency. 370 �2.MATERIALS AND METHODS Fish and texperimental design: Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, initial weigh 87,0±1,5g), used in the experiment were obtained from the Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Institute of Mediterranean Fisheries Research, Production & Training, Kepez Unit, Antalya. As a triplicates the design with 4 groups of 50 fish per group for a total of 600 pieces of fish are grouped according to the random subdivision method. Trial; a 6,3 m3 capacity were 4 pieces of concrete ponds. Each concrete pond was seperated equal to 2,1 m3 in capacity for three section. Feed materials: Feeds in the experiment were prepared at feed prepare units in the institution. Utilization rate of feedstuffs used in the experiment and prepared feeds and nutrient contents in the feed are given in Table 1. As a dietary supplement protease enzyme, the enzyme cocktail and phytase enzyme were used. Trial feed grinding-mixing-ratios given in Table 1 was passed through a pelletizing operations. The ration was obtained and pelletted, 50 kg.hour-1 capacity in dry press-pellet machinery. Feeds were stored at +4°C the cooling cabinet. During the experiment, the total feed intake and feed digestibility with biometric measurements were analyzed. In feed and feaces has been analysed dry matter, crude protein, crude fat and crude ash by Weende Analysis and phosphorus analysis according to the method of Vanadat (AOAC, 1995). The digestible energy values calculated in MJ.kg-1 (New, 1987). Chromic oxide, and digestibility of feed and feaces for analysis and the growth performance and value were determined by Steffens 1989; Goddard 1996). Table 1. Ingerdients, nutrient composition, growth performance and digestibility of experiment trial 1 -1 I N G R E D I E N T S, (g.kg ) Fish meal Soybean meal Full fat soybean meal Blood meal Wheat middlings Menhaden oil 2 Vitamin premix 3 Mineral premix 4 Vitamin C Choline 5 Pellet binder 6 7 Chromic oxide Antioxidant 8 9 Allzyme Vegpro Roxazyme-G 10 Ronozyme-P 11 TOTAL Nutrition composition Dry matter, % Crude protein, % Crude oil, % Crude cellulose, % 371 DIETS C0 1 PRT1 MIX1 PHY1 25 40 9,.22 5 9,23 7 2 1 0,3 0,15 0,4 0,4 0,3 25 40 9,12 5 9,13 7 2 1 0,3 0,.15 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 25 40 9,12 5 9,13 7 2 1 0,3 0,.15 0,4 0,4 0,3 25 40 9,12 5 9,13 7 2 1 0,3 0,.15 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 100,00 100,00 100,00 0,2 100,00 92,33 44,85 13,36 3,25 92,92 44,72 12,45 3,25 91,94 42,81 13,52 3,25 93,54 43,14 11,89 3,25 �Crude ash, % Metabolizable energy, (MJ. kg –1) Calcium, % Phosphorus, % Lysine, % Methionine+cystine, % Growth Performance Initial Weight (g)43 Final 6Weight (g) SGR 7 FCR CF 8 Digestibility ADC Dry matter % 12 ADC Protein % 12 13,74 14,.39 1,09 1,45 3,17 1,50 76,0±11,5 208,0±5,0b 1,118±0,02b 1,29±0.01a 1,21±0,01 15,15 14,.39 1,09 1,45 3,17 1,50 11,38 14,39 1,09 1,45 3,17 1,50 12,29 14,39 1,09 1,45 3,17 1,50 76,1±0,5 75,0±2,5 75,0±1,5 211,0±1,5a 206,0±5,5ab 206,0±5,5ab 1,340±0,02a 1,122±0,02ab 1,290±0,02ab 1,26±0.01b 1,30±0,01a 1,27±0.01b 1,23±0.01 1,22±0,04 1,23±0,04 63,79±0,49bc 68,73±1.52c 61,58±0,03b 66,92±0,52a 85,03±0,75ab 87,42±l,17c 86,96±0,55b 87,21±0,46a ADC Nitrogen % 12 72,82±0.15b 85,491.98c 69,711.19b 78,950.68a ADC Phosphorus % 12 42,85±0.58a 48,77±2.01a 45,69±0.48a 58,57±0.49b 1 Data (mean±SD) with different letters within a row are significantly different (p<0.05). 2 C0: Control group, no added enzyme, PRT: Protease group: 2%o protease; MIX: Mix group : 2%o enzyme cookteyl; PHT: Phytase group : 2%o phytase 3 Vitamin mixture; Included of per kg; 18.000 IU A, 2000 IU D, 200 mg E, 12 mg K, 150 mg B2, 20 mg B1, 0,05 mg B12, 20 mg pyridoxine, 10 mg panthotenic acid, 220 mg niacine, 120 mg inositol, 5 mg folic acid, 0,5 mg biotine, 2000 mg choline. 4 Mineral mixture: Included of per kg: 70 mg zinc, 60 mg mangenese, 60 mg magnesium, 4 mg ferro, 2 mg copper, 1.5 mg iode, 0.5 mg cobalt, 0.05 mg selenium. 5 Vitamin C, Hoffman La-Roche Inc. 6 Choline, Ufuk Kimya İlaç San. ve Tic. Ltd. Sti Istanbul. 7 Lignosulphanate, 8 Cr2O4, Merck 9 Buthylhidroxitoluoen, (powder form) 10 Allzyme Vegpro, All-Tech Inc. 11 Roxazyme G, Hoffman La-Roche Inc. 12 Ronozyme-P, Hoffman La-Roche Inc. 13 Body weight of initial (WI) 14 Body weight of final (WF) 15 Specific growth rate, SGR (%/day) = ((Ln final body weight – Ln initial body weight)/days) x 100 16 Feed conversion ratio, FCR = dry feed intake (g) / weight gain (g). 17 Condition factor = (W/L3) x 100 18 Apparent Digesitbility Coefficient (ADC) = 100 – (100 x ((Cr2O3 in diet, % / Cr2O3 in feaces, %) x (nutrient in feaces, % / nutrient in diets, %)) Experimental process: Total duration of the experiment, was carried out in 14 weeks including 2 weeks of adaptation time. During the experiment, a biometric measurements were made every two weeks. During the trial, daily feed intake is calculated depending on the temperature of the water and total live weight from 1.5 to 3%. Feeding was 2 times per day (09:00am, 16:00pm). Each fish in the tank every two weeks weighed in bulk. Trial groups from 14.5 to 18.5°C change in water temperature, dissolved oxygen 7.84 ± 0.46 mg.L-1, 7.78 ± 0.06 pH, ammonia and nitrite 0001 0:01 to 0:10 mg.L-1 was determined to be. The study of natural fotoperyot (15 daylight: 9 nightlight ) were applied. Digestive work: 15 days trial period at the end of the experiment the fish groups fed in the milking stools on a daily basis via the -20°C until analyzed were collected and incubated freezer. After analysis of nutrient digestibility in feed and feces rates calculated Apparent Digestibility Coefficient, ADC (Steffens 1989; Goddard 1996). 372 �Statistical analysis: The results of the trial groups were analysed by one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan's multiple comparison tests used to determine the groups which are responsible for the difference, made with SAS 5.0 statistical package. Significance was tested at the p=0,05 level and homogeneity of variance was performed by Levene test and variance was found to be homogenous (Orhan et al., 2004). 3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1.Growth performance in trial groups Data on body weight gain and performance criteria of the trial groups given in Table 1. Table 1 According to the Tablo 1 in terms of initial live weight there was no difference statistically significant (p>0.05) but at the end of the experiment statistically significant difference between groups (p<0.05). Thus, specific growth, SGR, in data, the best value protease (PRT, 1.340±0,02) and phytase (PHY, 1.290±0,02) group was obtained. The lowest value by SGR phytase (C0 1.1150,02) group was obtained (Table 2, p<0,05). In terms of feed conversion ratio the best (lowest) value was obtained protease (PRT, 1.26±0,01) group and the worst (highest) of the mix group (MIX 1,30±0,01) (Table 1, p<0,05). Condition factor (CF)were obtained the best value PRT (1,23±0,01) and PHY, 1,23±0,04) groups, while the lowest in C0 group (1,20±0,01) (Table 1, p<0.05). Deguara‘s (1998) study was obtained avg. 50g. seabream fish were added fish meal 26% +soybean meal 32% of the study, 26% basic diets trial groups by 0,01% protease+alphagalactosidase enzyme with low pH and high pH protease+alpha-galactosidase enzymes. Study in terms of live weight than the control group with low pH protease+alpha-galactosidase enzyme supplemented group of about 18 g. while providing a increasing, a high pH protease+alpha-galactosidase enzyme according to the control group was obtained from 10 g good growth. 25%+40% soybean meal based on fish meal similar to the results of the trial group with Deguara's study protease (PRT) and phytase (PHY) enzyme-supplemented groups, the growth has been between 4-6 g live weight than the other groups (Table 1). Deguara's (1998) study, the control group in terms of specific growth rate of 0.53% protease+alphagalactosidase enzyme to grow, but with low pH and high pH group, 0.77% protease+alphagalactosidase enzyme group,% 0.71 a value of was obtained. In this study about of SGR, the control group (C0) 1.12% although, the best growth of the protease (PRT, 1.34%) and phytase (PHY, 1.29%) groups, a similar growth trend was observed (Table 1, p<0,05). Deguara‘s (1998) study were obtained control group in terms of feed conversion coefficient of 2.62, but with low pH value, enzyme protease+alpha-galactosidase group of high pH protease+alphagalactosidase enzyme group, 2.18 and 2.46 value. Yan et al., (2001) in their study, 12.4g The channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), addition of phytase (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 unit.kg-1) fed, 0.57% 0,16% usefull of total phosphorus between, there was no effect in weight gain, but feed consumption was higher than in the control group reported. In our study by feed conversion coefficient, PRT (1,26) and PHY (1,27) groups enzyme-supplemented groups, particularly the control (1,29) group to a more positive level that is lower than for other groups were obtained (Table 1, p<0,05). Similarly Jahan et al (2001), carp and tilapia fingerlings diets in combination karbonhidrase and protease enzyme has an additional 19% increase in weight and mirror carp, more increased 5% in FCR, more value 16% in SGR and had improved, while 9% tilapiada stated that the weight gain. Our study is based on the values 373 �of the FCR and protease enzymes, especially phytase supplemented groups provided a positive contribution to the utilization of the feed can be said. This is because the fish with vegetable protein sources by means of the enzyme phytase phytic phosphat considered to be useful in making the result can be assumed. Terms of condition factor Deguara (1998)'s study in gilthead seabream fish was obtained, in control group, 1.42 value, in alpha-galactosidase enzyme with low pH protease group, 1.49 value and a high pH protease+alpha-galactosidase, group 1, 44 value. In our study, trout condition factor ranged from 1.21 to 1,23 value (Table 1, p<0,05). 3.2.Nitrogen-phosphorus digestibility (ADC) in trial goups In terms of the value of nitrogen digestibility in the trial groups were obtained the high digestibility of 85.49% protease (PRT)and the lowest digestibility 69.71% enzyme cocktail (MIX) group. The control group (C0) with 72.82% in the second last. In the same way by phosphorus digestibility among groups with the highest digestibility value of 86.58% phytase (PHY) 74.99% and lowest value in the control group (C0)74,99% (Tablo 1, p<0.05). Digesitbility (%) Digesitbility (N-P and Protein, %) 400 300 200 100 ADC- P 48,77 58,57 42,85 45,69 72,8285,4969,7178,95 66,9268,7361,5863,79 85,0387,4286,9687,21 0 C0 PRT MIX PHY Trial of Groups ADC- N ADC Dry matter ADC Protein, Fig 1. Digestibility nitrogen-phosphorus and dry matter-protein in experimental diets (%) Digestibility of nitrogen were mesured at feed and feaces in experimental groups, which is one of the media in order to determine what percentage of the amount of nitrogen and fecal nitrogen values. If you need to compare the groups in terms of enzyme-supplemented groups less than the control group to be noted that levels of nitrogen excretion (Table 1). Ramseyer and Garling (1998) reported without any additives in fish feeds were assessed 30% of the nitrogen by the body and discarded of 70% in feaces and urine, and feeding was assessed 32% of the phosphorus by the body and discarded of 68% with the urine and feaces. In our study, nitrogen values of between 6,41% - to 6,63% in feed. Based on measurements of nitrogen derived from nitrogen digestibility were obtained minimum percent of 69.72±0.01 in control group (C0) while, the addition of percent of 83,2±1,98 PRT and 81,25±0,68 in PHY supplemented group. Generrally in rainbow trout need to 0.5 to 0.8% of digestible phosphorus in feed, but should be find approximately 1,5 times more phosphorus in that value (Ketola and Harland 1993;Ketola and Richmond 1994; Garcia-Ruiz and Hail 1996). Phytate in the same way, the 374 �total phosphorus in plant protein sources 70% of the phytate phosphorus monogastric animals (fish) are considered very low (Lall, 1991). Phytate phosphorus; channel fish, trout and salmon (Ketola and Richmond 1994), redseabream (NRC,1993) and carp phytase enzyme can not be assessed adequately. This is why the commercial phytase enzyme by the addition of vegetable protein sources in fish feed for fish, the phosphorus becomes evaluated (Riche and Brown, 1996). In feeding studies have found by Lanari et al. (1998) 2% rate of phosphorus excretion in the control group, 1,8g.kg-1 of phytase supplemented group and 0,89g.kg-1 was found. In the same study, 115,.3 g. trout fish of 33% soy trout feed 1000 IU/kg of added phytase enzyme was added at the end of the study group, 9.52% phosphorus digestibility (control group: 58.01%; phytase enzyme group: 68.1% (p<0.01) an increase. Schafer et al. (1994) investigeted by the juvenile carp fish 25%, suggests that the excretion of phosphorus phytase supplemented group. However Deguara (1998) has founded 45.66% of the phosphorus digestibility in the control group, but with low pH value, protease+alphagalactosidase enzyme group, 59.52% and 53.68% as a group of high pH protease+alphagalactosidase. In our study, phosphorus obtained 1.44 to 1.53% in feed while the experimental group (Table 1) by measurements digestibility of phosphorus were identified in the control group was percent of 42.85 while, percent of 48.77 in the protease and percent of 58.57 as phytase group (p<0,05). In plant-based feed find the phosphorus, while which is available at a limited level for the fish to be in the form of phytic acid (Sugiura and Hardy, 2000; Cheng and Hardy, 2002; Lall 1991), but Riche and Brown (1999) and Satoh et al (2003) according to by the studies, the plant protein sources rations based on the availability of more high phosphorus showed, this feed is shown as a control group to include more low phophorus and calcium. While many studies of enzyme supplementation of diets are usually small, such as fry or fingerlings while achieving positive results in individuals, Degura (1998) and this study shows that the big fish in a similar positive results are obtained. Fixing only the performance of these positive results, but also allows the use of fish meal diet, less level. However, similar studies are needed anyway. As a result of, in the raw materials of herbal origin digesitbility of phythin phosphat better to increase of fish feed nitrogen and phosphorus to take advantage of an additional increase of the protease and phytase enzymes, enzyme-supplemented groups had higher rates of nitrogen and phosphorus retention (ie, a higher rate digestibility by the fish's body) in this study were determined. In the same way in aqauculture, environmental pollution is responsible for the largest food nitrogen and phosphorus into the water excretion rate of feaces from the addition of protease, and phytase enzyme were found to be lower in groups. This would mean reducing the parameters of the results of pollution from aquaculture feed. Water left in an improvement of nitrogen-phosphorus ratio of unity, even one in a thousand of waters and protection of the environment adds value to a very positive sense. These studies are possible by increasing the feed rates of reducing pollution from water. Acknowledgements: The authors thank to the study was funded by the Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock The General Directory Research Agriculture. The help of Allzyme in supplying protease and Roche Inc. in supplying Roxazyme-G and Ronozyme-P is gratefully acknowledged. 375 �REFERANCE Allzyme Vegpro 7.7.7. (2004) Aquaculture Technical Dossier, Biotechnological Center, Corporate Headquarters, 3031 Catrip Hill Pike, Nicholasville, KY 40356. AOAC (1995) Official Methods Arlington, VA. of Analysis of AOAC International, 16th Ed., Vol.1 Ayhan V, Diler I, Arabaci M, Sevgili H. 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Researches on Protection, Propagation and Sustainable Usage of Native Bulbous Plants of Turkey Özgül Karagüzel1, İbrahim Baktır2, Deniz Hazar3, Gülden Yılmaz2 1 Western Mediterranean Research Institute, Antalya 2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Antalya 3Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School, Antalya E-mail: tezkara@yahoo.com Abstract Over 1000 flowering bulbous plants are naturally grown in Turkey. Flowering bulbs exportation has been in effect for years from Turkey. In recent years, exportation has been under strict control, it has been realized according to yearly given quota by The Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestocks. Even though the present regulations and status, negligable 378 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1270 Title A name given to the resource Enzyme Supplementation to Soybean Based Diet in Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Effects on Growth Parameters and Nitrogen and Phosphorus Digestibility Author Author İbrahim , Diler Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the this study was to examine the effects of the diets based on Soybean Meal (40%) supplemented with exogenous enzymes on growth performance, feed utilization, apparent digestibility and reduce environment pollution waste output of nitrogen and phosphorus in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture. Trout groups (initial weight 87.00±1,5) method of random plots with 3 replications of 50 fish/pond with the ratio of 1050 fish in the concrete ponds. Diets consisted of 25% fish meal (FM) and 40% dehulled hexane extracted soybean meal (SBM) in control group (C0) and diet supplemented with protease enzyme (PRT; 2g/kg-1), diet supplemented with enzyme cocktail (MIX; cellulose, xylanase, endo-ß-1,3:1,4-glucanase; 2g/kg-1) and diet supplemented with pyhtase enzyme (PHY; 2g/kg-1). About of growth performance were found while condition factor (1,21-1,23) were statistically similar (p>0.05), however specific growth rate, SGR, (1,118-1,340) and feed conversion ratio, FCR, (1,26-1,30) were obtained significantly different among groups (p<0,05). PRT and PHY groups significantly improved SGR and FCR better than control group. In this study, showed the highest nitrogen apperent digestibility coefficient, ADC (85,49±1,98) in PRT group while, the poorest value obtained (72,82±0.01) C0 group respectively (p<0,05). Also the best (58.57±0.49) and lowest (42.85±1.98) ADC was obtained PHT and C0 groups for phosphorus respectively (p<0,05). Keywords: rainbow trout, enzyme, growth performance, nitrogen, phosphorus, digestibility Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1015 Title A name given to the resource Epistemic Modality in English Research Paper and Its Practical Implications in EAP Class Author Author Gradečak-Erdeljić, Tanja Varga , Mirna Abstract A summary of the resource. Traditionally, academic discourse was denoted as objective, neutral, impersonal and lacking in subjective appraisal. However, in the last two decades pragmatically oriented research of academic discourse has offered a significantly different and a more complex perspective of the scientific language use. Scientific texts have been assumed to be not only objective and informative research reports but also a type of a social dialogue between writers and readers in the scientific discourse community (Hyland 1998). Epistemic modality is one of the linguistic categories used to explore the interactive dimension of academic genres. According to the cognitive-pragmatic model (Nuyts 2000) epistemic modality is defined as a speaker's evaluation of the likelihood that a certain proposition has occurred or will occur. Its most prototypical linguistic realizations include modal verbs, modal adverbs, adjectives and nouns. The present paper has dual aims. Firstly, it identifies the prototypical markers of epistemic modality in the self-compiled corpus of 20 scientific papers in psychology and presents their distribution across the rhetorical sections of the paper. In addition, possible pragmatic motivation likely to underlie the usage of epistemic modality markers is also discussed. Secondly, the paper suggests some in-class activities which should prompt the psychology undergraduates to identify epistemic modality markers in different sections of the research papers and their contextual usage. It is assumed that practical implications of such activities should raise consciousness about the distribution of the most salient epistemic modality devices and improve students' level of pragmatic competence in EAP class. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics