101 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3533 Title A name given to the resource ENGLESKI POMORSKI JEZIK KAO FAKTOR SIGURNOSTI PLOVIDBE Author Author Kovačević Pejaković, Sanela Abstract A summary of the resource. Pomorski engleski jezik je specifičan registar i, prema tome, zahtijeva poseban tretman. Ovaj rad podrazumijeva osvrt na važnu ulogu engleskog jezika u okviru sigurnosti plovidbe. Složen, a u isto vrijeme i jednostavan, pomorski registar predstavlja lingvistički fenomen koji zahtijeva multidisciplinarni pristup. U tom registru dominiraju dvije suprotne tendencije: ekonomičnost i kreativnost. Ekonomičnost pomorskog jezika ogleda se u uslovu da mora biti koncizan i nedvosmislen, to jest precizan da bi služio svrsi. Kreativnost, sa druge strane, stvara nove riječi, nova značenja i nove kombinacije postojećih jezičkih elemenata. Postoji određen broj podregistara, kao što su podregistar GMDSS-a (Global Maritime Distress and Safety System subregister); palubni (deck department subregister); podregistar navigacionog mosta (navigational bridge subregister) ; i mašinski podregistar (engine department subregister). Seaspeak je vitalni instrument za komunikaciju na brodu. Važnost engleskog jezika je oduvjek isticana, a posebno standardizovane pomorske fraze koje se koriste u komunikaciji na relaciji brod – brod i brod – obala. Na osnovu analize registra engleskog pomorskog jezika možemo zaključiti da je on „ograničeni jezik“ (restricted language) i da posjeduje određene specifičnosti na fonološkom, morfološkom, leksičkom nivou i sintaksičkom nivou. Te osobenosti su najuočljivije na leksičkom nivou, koji obuhvata stručnu terminologiju. Pored toga, leksika je, kao otvoreni sistem, najviše izložena vanlingvističkim uticajima. Složenost engleskog pomorskog jezika otežava njegovo učenje, odnosno usvajanje. Prvo se moraju savladati stručni termini na maternjem jeziku da bi se išlo dalje sa učenjem engleskog pomorskog registra. Ključne reči: linguistički, kreativnost, ograničeni jezik, leksikologija , pomorski termini, GMDSS, pragmatika, pomorska komunikacija, posebna svrha, brod, plovidba, kormilo, samarica, VHF-oprema, analiza potreba. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3565 Title A name given to the resource ENGLESKI POMORSKI JEZIK KAO FAKTOR SIGURNOSTI PLOVIDBE Author Author Kovačević Pejaković, Sanela Abstract A summary of the resource. Pomorski engleski jezik je specifičan registar i, prema tome, zahtijeva poseban tretman. Ovaj rad podrazumijeva osvrt na važnu ulogu engleskog jezika u okviru sigurnosti plovidbe. Složen, a u isto vrijeme i jednostavan, pomorski registar predstavlja lingvistički fenomen koji zahtijeva multidisciplinarni pristup. U tom registru dominiraju dvije suprotne tendencije: ekonomičnost i kreativnost. Ekonomičnost pomorskog jezika ogleda se u uslovu da mora biti koncizan i nedvosmislen, to jest precizan da bi služio svrsi. Kreativnost, sa druge strane, stvara nove riječi, nova značenja i nove kombinacije postojećih jezičkih elemenata. Postoji određen broj podregistara, kao što su podregistar GMDSS-a (Global Maritime Distress and Safety System subregister); palubni (deck department subregister); podregistar navigacionog mosta (navigational bridge subregister) ; i mašinski podregistar (engine department subregister). Seaspeak je vitalni instrument za komunikaciju na brodu. Važnost engleskog jezika je oduvjek isticana, a posebno standardizovane pomorske fraze koje se koriste u komunikaciji na relaciji brod – brod i brod – obala. Na osnovu analize registra engleskog pomorskog jezika možemo zaključiti da je on „ograničeni jezik“ (restricted language) i da posjeduje određene specifičnosti na fonološkom, morfološkom, leksičkom nivou i sintaksičkom nivou. Te osobenosti su najuočljivije na leksičkom nivou, koji obuhvata stručnu terminologiju. Pored toga, leksika je, kao otvoreni sistem, najviše izložena vanlingvističkim uticajima. Složenost engleskog pomorskog jezika otežava njegovo učenje, odnosno usvajanje. Prvo se moraju savladati stručni termini na maternjem jeziku da bi se išlo dalje sa učenjem engleskog pomorskog registra. Ključne reči: linguistički, kreativnost, ograničeni jezik, leksikologija , pomorski termini, GMDSS, pragmatika, pomorska komunikacija, posebna svrha, brod, plovidba, kormilo, samarica, VHF-oprema, analiza potreba. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0c28462707b8758e9f39b6c460b86cbd.docx d7512e488bd2ea1504b8509bcd0b6c58 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1a7b2238fcdb84655901544cdee16559.pdf 3f4b3aa79ff6849201b7957cd5801808 PDF Text Text English for Employability Project Adel Ali Tunisian Agency for Vocational Education / Tunisia ABSTRACT My abstract will be about The English for Employability project. The project was run through a partnership between the British council and the ATFP and aimed to enhance the quality of vocational English training and through this the employment prospects for Tunisian youth in vocational education. The ultimate goal of this project is to improve the quality of professional development, in particular teacher training, in the vocational education sector by building trainer capacity at the national level. The program, which contributed immensely in boosting our career and open new horizons to us, consisted of the following key phases: phase 1: teacher training, phase 2: Train the trainer, phase 3: Curriculum development and Materials design while phase deals with mentoring and shadowing. In my abstract, I will show the impact of the training we had on the quality of our teaching especially in our context of operation in the vocational training sector. Teaching ESP with a huge variety of fields without any coaching or training was a real challenge to us. One of the main problems we were suffering from in the ESP context was the lack of specialized material as well as the inability of the trainers to design the material appropriate to the needs of the learners. This reflected negatively both on the performance of the trainers as well as on our products, who are the learners. Here came the intervention and the input of the British council whose output gave us the confidence needed to carry on � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1712 Title A name given to the resource English for Employability Project Author Author ALI, Adel Abstract A summary of the resource. My abstract will be about The English for Employability project. The project was run through a partnership between the British council and the ATFP and aimed to enhance the quality of vocational English training and through this the employment prospects for Tunisian youth in vocational education. The ultimate goal of this project is to improve the quality of professional development, in particular teacher training, in the vocational education sector by building trainer capacity at the national level. The program, which contributed immensely in boosting our career and open new horizons to us, consisted of the following key phases: phase 1: teacher training, phase 2: Train the trainer, phase 3: Curriculum development and Materials design while phase deals with mentoring and shadowing. In my abstract, I will show the impact of the training we had on the quality of our teaching especially in our context of operation in the vocational training sector. Teaching ESP with a huge variety of fields without any coaching or training was a real challenge to us. One of the main problems we were suffering from in the ESP context was the lack of specialized material as well as the inability of the trainers to design the material appropriate to the needs of the learners. This reflected negatively both on the performance of the trainers as well as on our products, who are the learners. Here came the intervention and the input of the British council whose output gave us the confidence needed to carry on Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3574 Title A name given to the resource English for Employability Project Author Author ALI, Adel Abstract A summary of the resource. My abstract will be about The English for Employability project. The project was run through a partnership between the British council and the ATFP and aimed to enhance the quality of vocational English training and through this the employment prospects for Tunisian youth in vocational education. The ultimate goal of this project is to improve the quality of professional development, in particular teacher training, in the vocational education sector by building trainer capacity at the national level. The program, which contributed immensely in boosting our career and open new horizons to us, consisted of the following key phases: phase 1: teacher training, phase 2: Train the trainer, phase 3: Curriculum development and Materials design while phase deals with mentoring and shadowing. In my abstract, I will show the impact of the training we had on the quality of our teaching especially in our context of operation in the vocational training sector. Teaching ESP with a huge variety of fields without any coaching or training was a real challenge to us. One of the main problems we were suffering from in the ESP context was the lack of specialized material as well as the inability of the trainers to design the material appropriate to the needs of the learners. This reflected negatively both on the performance of the trainers as well as on our products, who are the learners. Here came the intervention and the input of the British council whose output gave us the confidence needed to carry on Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/528cbfb75a40709e5d6fd3671de3c49f.pdf 731454c8db573bbed932a8f3ba66f8ff PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo English for Mathematicians: from Language to Tasks Martin Mikuláš Department of Language Education Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University Prague, Czech Republic martin.mikulas@mff.cuni.cz Abstract: The author describes the language education system implemented at a faculty preparing professional mathematicians, physicists and IT specialists, paying special attention to the course for mathematicians. The article also presents a profile of a typical attendant of the course based on the theory of learning styles, which together with the stylistic features of the language of mathematics, predetermines the syllabus and appropriate teaching methodology. The author proposes some essential principles on the background of the theory of ESP, EAP and task-based teaching and learning, giving a number of examples from his teaching practice. Key words: artificiality, curriculum, EAP, ESP, language of mathematics, language of science, linguistic competence, mathematical text, naturalness, pragmatic competence, register, symbolic language, style, task-based teaching Introduction About the department and the target group The Department of Language Education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics of Charles University in Prague provides education in a number of European languages, namely English, French, German, Spanish and Russian. Its main task is to prepare their students for future international cooperation, further educational prospects and scientific activities. The faculty offers education in three study programmes, which are physics, mathematics and informatics. The Faculty, being a part of Charles University, is a research institute. Its students are therefore expected to reach prominent positions in Czech research and educational institutions. The Department of Language Education thus has to reflect these aspects and offer adequate language courses. Language training is realized in five semesters in bachelor study programmes and a two-semester postgraduate course. Undergraduates are bound to pass a comprehensive examination in English. After passing the exam, they can enrol on the courses of English for Specific Purposes (i.e. for mathematicians, physicists and information scientists). Combining language education with such specific specializations is not an easy task, considering the scientific profile of the studies. When designing the language curriculum, the specialists of the department had to deal with two main restraining aspects – the nature of the scientific language (discourse) and specific learning needs of students (probable future scientists). Language of Science The language of science is a very specific domain of stylistics. This particular character results from the function of scientific texts and the narrow community it is aimed at and used by. The main function is to formulate accurate, clear and relatively complete utterance (ĥechová, 2008). The choice of information and the form are to have the reader create an unambiguous and entire image of the scientifically described reality. In addition, the recipient is expected not only to understand the main ideas but also to learn and cognitively process the content. It is mainly because the result of studying a scientific text is to further develop the newly acquired thoughts and apply them. Scientific texts are not intended to be read only but primarily to be studied. All the findings of theoretical stylistics must be taken into account when preparing the curriculum of the language course for academic and scientific purposes. Linguistic features Linguistic features of scientific texts appear to be rather rigid and stable as most of them have been observed since the beginnings of science and the development of its discourse. They remain the same even though the subject of science changes and extends dramatically. All the linguistic characteristics depend mostly on the 834 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo essential criterion: the maximum parallelism between the language form and the meaning (ĥechová, 2008). To meet this criterion, the language of science uses specific language means that cannot be found in any other texts.           Mathematization Scientific language is dominated by facts and strictly logical argumentation. We can even observe that in various disciplines of science, the language incorporates some characteristics of the mathematical discourse (ĥechová, 2008). Depersonalisation Personal contribution towards the scientific topic is often depersonalized (e.g. by means of plural or impersonal constructions). Low emotional charge Together with hiding the author‘s personality, scientific texts feature low emotional charge. The author avoids showing any personal attitude towards the topic for the sake of objectivity. As ĥechová (2008) claims, purely standard code is used in scientific texts as it prevents authors from expressing ideas with emotional tone. Composition Paragraphs in scientific texts are very cohesive, dealing with a particular idea only. All sentences are logically combined (not necessarily by means of connectors) to induce or deduce new ideas. Syntax Syntactic construction of scientific texts reflects its mental complexity. Thus, sentences in linguistic texts are longer and more complex (the average number of words in paratactic and hypotactic clauses in Czech scientific texts accounts for almost 20 words, combined in 4 or 5 sentences). Hypotactic sentences prevail in written texts in which sentences are also longer (ĥechová, 2008). Morphology Some forms prevail in scientific texts in comparison with other texts. It is the use of present and future verb forms. Among parts of speech, it is a repertoire of connectors, nouns and adjectives and a number of prepositional phrases (ĥechová). Lexis Nouns are used technically in the form of scientific terminology (which is often based on words of Latin or Greek origin). Low proportion of synonymy among the words used in scientific texts reflects the tendency to avoid ambiguity. Consequently, the range of lexis suffers from monotonicity in scientific texts. Understanding and using terms properly is more important for the author and the recipient than the variety of the expressions used (low expressivity). Urbanová (2008) asserts that expressiveness and matter-offactness cannot be that easily separated since they concur in fulfilling the communicative purpose of texts and utterances. Thematic progression Objective word order prevails in the sentences of scientific texts. Information is developed by means of thematization of rhemes. Text graphics Because of the complexity of scientific texts, graphical means are used to make them comprehensible (system of brackets, lettering, numbering, overuse of punctuation, symbols and other signs). Language economy Authors of scientific texts condense all information to be as precise as possible. Fewer words are used to avoid redundant information. Sentences are therefore condensed by means of non-finite verbs forms. Results and activity as an inseparable part of scientific texts As we have stated above, in science texts do not fulfil only the informative function. Mlìkovská (1977) claims that ―the content of language is formed under the influence of the circumstances of usage, the difference, however, being that in science this process is predominantly organized and goal-directed: it is to help to obtain, fix and deduce products of this specific human activity – products of a cognitive character.― This specific function of scientific texts must be observed when developing students‘ reading comprehension in English for academic and scientific purposes classes. Comprehension cannot be acquired and later tested as simple understanding general or specific information in a text. In the field of science, this concept of comprehension might lead to formalism. Especially in mathematics, understanding a text is a synonym for understanding a particular theory, which can only by demonstrated by human activity, e.g. solving scientific (mathematical) problems. Mlìkovská (1977) tries to specify the whole process of creating a text and its functioning in science distinguishing five stages: 1. The speaker or author finds and creates 2. a concrete mode of linguistic expression of 835 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. 4. 5. a set of thoughts, of information on the empirical or theoretical level, in order to ensure adequate understanding of the recipient or reader the effect of understanding being shown by certain specialized activities of the recipient, the final effects of which manifest themselves not only in the mind of the recipient, but, first and foremost, outwardly. When designing a specialized course of English for mathematicians, one should necessarily consider the different use and purpose of the language of mathematics (not English necessarily). Let us make a short outline of the particularities that a ‘mathematical English‘ is specific for. Specifics of Mathematical Texts The relation of mathematics and mathematical texts is closer than that of biology and biological texts. As Nebeský (1977) states, text in mathematics has the same functions as experiments, measurements and collecting or interpreting empirical data for other sciences. This close relation is obvious from any part of a mathematical text (numerous graphemes or the structure of the text). Symbolic language Texts in mathematics feature the parallel use of verbal and non-verbal expressions: There exists a natural number n such that 3 2n  1 . All these combinations can be expressed verbally, using a subordinate clause. Still, it is inappropriate for mathematicians to avoid using mathematical formulae in such cases. Nebeský (1977) asserts that symbolic language is used in mathematics where natural, non-symbolic language appears to be unreliable to express the mathematical idea. Symbolism is simply used not only to shorten the ideas (complex thought expressed in a minimum number of symbols) but also to point out the structure of the idea. This can easily by seen in such structures that are not linear but two-dimensional (e.g. symbolic expression of matrices).  1 2 3   det  2 5 6   3 4 5   The matrix can be interpreted as a three-membered sequence of the three-dimensional vectors (1; 2; 3), (2;, 5; 6), (3; 4; 5) or a three-membered sequence of the three-dimensional vectors (1; 2; 3), (2;, 5; 4), (3; 6; 5). The symbol det turns this geometrical interpretation to a numerical one. The whole expression can therefore be calculated resulting in a numeric sum, which is equal to -4. Its absolute value then represents the volume of the tetrahedron determined by either of the two sequences of the three vectors. The symbolic representation therefore structures the idea, gives it a spatial model, which can be interpreted numerically again. This comprehension is only possible because of the (cognitive) activity of the reader. This activity is not necessarily mental but also physical as the reader must use a pen and a paper to process the mathematical language into its comprehensive interpretation. Moreover, symbolic (non-verbal) and verbal expressions are used in an extraordinary unity. Nebeský (1977) gives an example similar to the following one: 389 + lg abc and claims: ―The dividing-line between the symbolic and the verbal would not appear to be the main dividing-line in mathematical language. This is not merely because part of the vocabulary employed in a given mathematical text is technicalized, but also because the symbolic material of a mathematical text is often not homogenous.‖ In the abovementioned expression, there are three components: sin, abc and 274. Each of these three-signed symbols has a different function. 389 is a decimal representation of a number, abc represents two algebraic multiplicative operations between three unknowns (a, b ,c). The sign lg represents a function. Implicitly, the information given is much more complex. The symbol identifies not only the name of the function, but also an action that must be do ne with abc. In addition, the knowledgeable reader is aware of the properties of such a function (e.g. the domain, the range and the basis). 836 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another example in which verbal and non-verbal expression mutually coincide is the (over)use of let, which is usually used to ―set the scene‖. In other words, let introduces some necessary conditions to be considered in what follows: Let a R. Then ... The verbal interpretation of the mixture of verbal and symbolic expressions (Let a be an element of the domain of real numbers.) mutually coincides. The reader/speaker combines their content and linguistic knowledge, which is especially apparent from the use of the bare infinitive of the verb to be. Lexis Stiff and Live Expressions Texts in mathematics are also full of fixed and live expressions (Nebeský, 1982, 1984). Fixed expressions are those whose use is properly determined, fixed or defined. Contrary to other sciences, mathematical texts are full of stiff expressions adopted from other texts (frequent intertextuality) while many other expressions become fixed only for the purpose of the text itself. The letter n can represent any natural number in one text, but a number of the vertices of a triangle in another. In addition, one symbol can play more functions within one text for the sake of the language economy. In such cases, expressions can be continuously redefined by the author of the text. Stiff expressions are not only symbols and longer symbolic formulations but also words and phrases. Some of them can be so widespread that they can be found in many fields of mathematics (e.g. set, empty, or, normal). Stiff expressions thus turned into terms. As Nebeský claims, ―It is impossible to recognize which expressions are stiff if one does not have good command of the mathematical discipline and without an overall knowledge of the text―. Besides stiff expressions, mathematical texts are full of live expressions. Their function is usually not clearly defined. They only help mathematicians to speak about mathematical objects (stiff expressions) or order the ideas of mathematicians properly. The use of live expressions is always highly dependent upon the stiff expressions which the text describes and the branch of mathematics. Some expressions can therefore be used as stiff in one text but as live in another. The use and interpretation of live and stiff expressions is determined by the topic, text (cotext) and convention. This peculiarity of mathematical texts is caused by the fact that mathematics deals with abstract and uniquely constructed ideas which must be expressed unambiguously by means of a natural language. We can thus conclude that interpretation and comprehension of a mathematical text can be extremely difficult for a mathematician (without really deep knowledge of the whole text/theory) and impossible for a mathematically non-educated person. Moreover, composing a mathematical text is based on balancing the use of stiff and live expressions properly, which is a matter of real mastery. This mastery represents an indispensable competence of the author, which is unique and specific for mathematicians. Terminology Mathematics has a significant position among other sciences given by its strictly axiomatic structure, deductive reasoning and very precise terminology. Every term in mathematics is profoundly defined to such an extent that no ambiguities are acceptable. This tendency is only possible because mathematics anywhere in the world describes and interprets the same abstract reality, regardless of external (socially determined) influences. Surprisingly, this phenomenon does not eliminate a number of discrepancies in the mathematical terminology of two different languages. Students of mathematics are often disconcerted when they find such differences as follows:  Non-existent lexis The most substantial discrepancy in the system of terminology is the case of non-existent lexical unit for the same entity in either the native or the foreign language. Such terms are usually described by means of a defining term and a specifying modifier, phrase or clause, such as in the following examples: incentre (English)- střed kruţnice vepsané (Czech) (i.e. the centre of an inscribed circle) circumcentre (English) - střed kruţnice opsané (Czech) (i.e. the centre of a circumscribed circle) or vice versa rectangular prism (English) – kvádr (Czech) Students of mathematics usually do not expect non-existence of equivalent terms in either of the languages.  Non-equivalent polysemy 837 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Some terms are polysemous in either the source or the target language, but there is no one-to-one correspondence between the range of meanings. segment (English) – úsečka (Czech) segment (English) – úseč (Czech) circle (English) – kruţnice (Czech) circle (English) – kruh (Czech) As students of mathematics expect one-to-one correspondence between the terminologies of the source and the target language, they can be disoriented and search for other forms of naming the entity.  False friends Students of mathematics can also be confused by numerous ―false friends‖. They usually use these expressions incorrectly in their oral or written production. chord (English) radical axis (English) – – tětiva (Czech) chordála (Czech) derivation (English) differentiation (English) derivative (English) - odvozenì (Czech) derivování, derivace (Czech) derivace (Czech)  Different perception of reality Reality can be perceived differently in two different codes (Pinker, 2009). This can easily be demonstrated on the verbal expression of geometrical interpretation of reality. For instance, names of solid figures in one language are derived on the basis of different criteria: triangular prism (English) (the bottom face is a triangle) – trojboký hranol (i.e. three-faced prism) hexagonal prism (English) (the bottom face is a hexagon) – šestiboký hranol (i.e. six-faced prism) All the lexical discrepancies can combine with one another as it is apparent in the following example: circumference (English) – délka kruţnice (the length of a circle) or obvod kruhu (the perimeter of a circle) The word circumference does not have a lexical equivalent in Czech and the entity of a circle is perceived differently in Czech. The two manners of translation are therefore very difficult to explain to an English native speaker. Grammar Performative verbs Mathematical texts differ from texts of other sciences in use of specific grammatical means. It is quite frequent to use the first person singular imperative forms (e.g. Let us consider, Let us define) or the first person plural future forms (e.g. We will consider, We will choose). These are usually used when indicating performance. As it has been claimed above, text is a laboratory of a mathematician and all performance must therefore be described in detail (performative hypothesis by Yule, 1996). It is a convention of mathematical text to avoid using the more traditional performative form, i.e. the first person singular or plural indicative present form. 838 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Articles The relation between grammatical means and the structure of mathematical texts can also be demonstrated on the use of articles. Mathematical texts are structured in such a way that one section functions as a whole (it can be a sentence). One mathematical object can therefore be named and renamed repeatedly by the same designation. This affects the use of indefinite article, which is used for each new use of the object. Such use is unnatural in fiction and texts of other sciences. The use of articles also differs in case of objects determined by numbering and lettering. In academic grammar books, nouns combined with numbers and letters are thought to be used with no articles, such as Room 10, Tram 210, Paragraph A. In the mathematical (scientific) text, numbering and lettering is frequent. It is used either to structure the text (Theorem 5: Let us...), as a means of intratextual reference (...as we have proved in Theorem 5.) or to refer to objects that are being considered (the triangle ABC). The last example makes difficulties to students. ABC refers to the whole class of objects (it is not any particular triangle, there is no singular reference) but it is determined by lettering. The mathematical generality seemingly clashes with the grammatical definiteness (expressed by lettering). Conclusion: Artificiality and Naturalness We can thus conclude that in comparison with other specialized texts, mathematical texts can simply be labelled as artificial. As we have demonstrated, this artificial nature affects the repertoire of lexical and grammatical means used by mathematicians. It can also be demonstrated on the discourse structure of a mathematical text, which is characteristic for the sequences of definitions, theorems and proofs. Still, texts in mathematics also depend on the expressive power of natural (non-technicalized) language devices. The border between natural and artificial is not clear as natural expressions are technicalized in mathematical texts and, vice versa, artificial (technical) expressions are used naturally by mathematicians. As Nebeský (1977) states: ―The very exactness of a mathematical idea admits the undisturbed transfer of the content of the idea, even given a certain natural looseness of the means of expression employed. The exact content of an idea can be extracted and understood from a mode of expression that may well be considered somewhat inexact, unclear or incomplete.― Teaching students of mathematics to express mathematical ideas in a foreign language must take the dichotomy of artificial and natural into great consideration. Students of mathematics as a target group The other aspect that had to be taken into consideration when designing the curriculum of the course English for Mathematicians was the nature of students of mathematics. First, it is their language needs that arise from the profile of the study programme they enrolled on. As we have said, students of the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics of Charles University in Prague are supposed to by theoretical physicists, mathematicians and informatics specialists. They are expected to continue in the postgraduate studies and most probably they will become scientists and researchers in these disciplines. Second, it is necessary to consider the specific aptitudes of our students. It is highly presumable that it is mathematical and logic intelligence that dominates their intelligence distribution pattern (Gardner, 1999). The essential function of this intelligence is confrontation of a human being with the world of entities, their arrangement and organisation (Gardner, 1999). People dominated by mathematical and logic intelligence are able to estimate quantity, easily understand symbols and symbolic language, handle abstract operations. They are keen on computing and solving problems. They do experiments and are eager to deal with puzzles that they do not understand. They want to do things themselves. Folprechtová (2006) claims: ―In any school subject all types of intelligence can be developed. … Teaching and learning a foreign language is such a complex activity that it calls for this combination of approaches and, what is more, it also offers opportunities for them from its essence.― Besides Gardner‘s theory of multiple intelligence, the theory of learning styles might help us reveal specific learning needs of students of mathematics. We have therefore done research into our students learning styles, using Kolb‘s research method and classification. This year, we have asked a number of our students to voluntarily and anonymously fill out a questionnaire. It was Kolb‘s LSI II A questionnaire published at Auburn University of Montgomery in 1986 (in translation by professor Mareń, the Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, published in Turek, 2001). We received 47 properly completed questionnaires. Kolb distinguishes four learning styles on the basis of two criteria:  Perception of information: in either concrete or abstract form 839 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Processing of information: by means of reflective observation or active manipulation These four poles divide learning styles into four quadrants: concrete experience dynamic (accommodator) innovator (diverger) active experimentation reflective observation practitioner (converger) analyst (assimilator) abstract conceptualisation Our research revealed the following distribution of our students in the four types: It is apparent that two learning styles predominate (converger and accommodator) while the other two are rare (diverger and assimilator). The vast majority (89%) of the students who participated in the inquiry have the same approach towards learning in terms of processing new information. Since they are either accommodators or convergers, they prefer learning by active experimentation. 60% of them prefer abstract conceptualization (convergers and assimilators) and 40% privileges concrete experience (accommodators and divergers). Let us now consider the two dominant learning styles more profoundly. Convergers (called practitioners by Kolb) perceive information in an abstract form but process them actively. They want to know how abstract concepts work in real situations. They like solving problems and apply ideas. They consider teachers as trainers who organize and manage the teaching and learning process. They are said to prefer studying applied sciences. They are introverts who are best motivated by problems as they want to know how abstract ideas function. They learn faster if they can be active, do things ―with hands― (have preference of kinaesthetic activities). The heuristic method is an effective way of teaching which they appreciate most. Accommodators prefer gaining information in a concrete form which they process actively. They often learn new things by trial-and-error method. They are impulsive and impatient. They need to deal with problems practically since they want to discover things and ideas and to apply what they have learnt. They are best motivated if they can see the result of their hard work. They prefer cooperative and project teaching methods. The micro-research did not prove the hypothesis entirely that the type of assimilators and convergers would prevail. As we expected it is abstract conceptualisation that is a dominant means of perceiving information. Surprisingly, 89% learn by active experimentation rather than reflective observation. Curriculum of the course English for Mathematicians When designing the curriculum of the course English for Mathematicians, we had to consider all the specifics of the learning needs of mathematicians and the peculiarities of mathematical texts and language briefly described above. We can thus summarize some prerequisites: 840 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  The content and methods involved in the course must reflect the needs and learning style of students of mathematics. Teachers should always be aware of the particularities, focusing on developing analytical skills of the students of mathematics. Students of mathematics are capable of processing abstract ideas (content) but they appear to prefer learning by doing and applying their knowledge in experiments and problem solving tasks (methods).  Special attention must be paid to the stylistic features of mathematical texts. Students cannot simply start developing their receptive and productive skills without explicitly dealing with the language and style of mathematical/scientific language.  Since mathematical ideas must always be expressed precisely and unambiguously, the course must primarily focus on the development of linguistic and pragmatic competence (Hedge) to result in accuracy.  As we have shown, in comparison with other scientific texts even the style and structure of mathematical texts are fixed and rigorous. Thus, it is also necessary to focus on developing discourse competence (Hedge). In addition, students have almost no experience with the concepts of the particular genres of scientific (mathematical) texts in English.  Since the lexical level of mathematical texts plays a substantial part in the language of mathematics, the course should explicitly deal with mathematical terminology. Particular attention must be paid to discrepancies in the terminological systems of the national and foreign languages. Misuse of terminology in mathematics is totally unacceptable.  Comprehension of a mathematical text in a foreign language in its complexity is to result in activity based on solving problems, explaining and deducing theories. The course of English for mathematicians should therefore be task-based oriented. All these prerequisites are essential to premeditate as the attenders of the course English for Mathematicians usually have some experience with studying foreign languages. At primary and secondary schools in the Czech Republic, the paradigm in the theory of teaching foreign languages follows the principles of communicative approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Undergraduates can therefore deal with a number of situations from their everyday life in a foreign language because their strategic competence (Hedge, 2000) has been fairly highly developed. But their language command sometimes lacks in accuracy. Curriculum The syllabus of the course of English for Mathematicians was divided into three stages, observing the abovestated prerequisites. It can be described briefly by the following table: AREA LANGUAGE FOCUS a) STAGE ONE b) STYLE AND STRUCTURE c) d) STAGE TWO - a) b) The language of science – discourse/text analysis, orality vs. literacy, the level of formality, formal and informal academic words and expressions Research articles and other research genres (abstracts, research presentations, theses and dissertations), organizing academic writing Presentations – language, structure and analysis, making presentations Symbolic language and mathematical notation, punctuation Quantifying expressions Talking about/describing facts, evidence and data, numbers, statistics, graphs and diagrams, cause and TASKS Simple arithmetic and algebraic tasks in order to practise reading symbolic language. Each student is to prepare and present a mathematical topic. Complete analysis of a scientific text. Simple arithmetic and algebraic tasks in order to practise reading symbolic language. 841 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FUNCTIONS AND NOTIONS STAGE THREE GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY AND c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) a) b) c) d) e) f) g) effect Analysing results Presenting an argument Describing research methods Classifying Comparing and contrasting Defining Stating theorems Proving theorems Non-finite verb forms Passive voice Inversion Articles The language of geometry The language of algebra The language of analysis Formulating definitions, theorems and their proofs. Complex mathematical problems and sequences of problems from the basic disciplines of mathematics. Stage one In the introductory part of the course of English for Mathematicians, students deal with the stylistic properties of scientific and mainly mathematical texts (grammatical, lexical, structural and other features). Students analyse a number of texts pointing out the differences between technical and literary/popular texts. Particular attention is paid to genres that students are supposed to deal with in their further practice, namely abstracts, research papers, articles and presentations. The analysis is based on noticing and subsequent interpretation mainly. It is important to work with texts that are natural for mathematicians. Authenticity is not the only criterion because there are authentic texts about mathematics that do not observe the naturalness of the language of mathematics. They are either written by non-mathematicians for other non-mathematicians or by mathematicians for non-mathematicians (popular texts, journalistic texts). Still, such texts lack in the purpose of goal-directed scientific activity (Mlìkovská, 1977). These texts were and sometimes are used in textbooks of English for mathematicians as we can see in the following examples: 842 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A sample text on Cartesian Geometry used in the textbook Úvod do četby anglických odborných textů pro posluchače MFF UK by Vladimìr Mach. Adequate texts used in the classes of English for mathematicians should not only be authentic but mainly natural. They must be written by mathematicians for mathematicians. Such texts can only fulfil the criterion of cognitive scientific activity as the result of comprehension. Comparison of the two kinds of natural texts reveals obvious and fundamental differences: A mathematical text on Logarithmic and Exponential Function from the book Introduction to Analysis by Maxwell Rosenlicht Besides studying the specifics of the style and structure of natural texts, students must learn the verbal interpretation of the symbolic mathematical language. Although such knowledge is not essential for comprehension, it is simply necessary for reading the texts. The teacher should therefore assign tasks like these:  Verbal interpretations and reinterpretations Read the following expression. {x  X : P( x)}  Calculations Find the result.  1 2  2 4   ? ?         3 1  3 1   ? ?  Students can even assign such tasks to each other, dictating verbal expressions for their partners to write them down symbolically. Only then can they appreciate indispensable command of the symbolic language and its verbal expression. Stage two In the second stage, students learn to use grammatical and lexical means in order to express basic functions and notions. It is crucial for mathematicians to correctly formulate mainly definitions, theorems and proofs. 843 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo First of all, students are exposed to language forms which are sorted according to the criteria that were formulated in Stage One (e.g. first person plural, Let, overuse of the passive). Students study such language forms to be able to formulate definitions, theorems and proofs on their own. All the examples were excerpted from original (authentic and natural) English mathematical texts and are distributed in the form of worksheets weekly. Finally, the stage of language practice comes, in which purely linguistic assignments and mathematical problems are combined. When selecting the methods of practice, we took into consideration the specifics of our students‘ learning style and the characteristic combination of stiff and live expressions in mathematical texts. Therefore, the assignment types include:  contrastive analysis Students are to compare forms used in Czech and English, focusing on equivalent counterparts of Czech and English sentences. 844 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Věta 6.3 je kritériem pro rozhodovánì o konvergenci posloupnosti. Theorem 6.3 provides criterion for deciding on convergence of the sequence.  translation into Czech Students are asked to translate some English sentences into Czech, paying special attention to the forms underlined. First we prove the theorem when n = 1, in which case the ordering on R can be put to good use. Indeed we have the following result.  gap-filling Students are required to fill in gaps extracted from authentic sentences. ___________ the rank of the matrix A is less ___________ the number of columns in A (r<k), then the columns of A are linearly dependent. ___________ the rank of A equals the number of columns in A (r=k), ___________ the columns of A are ___________.  translation into English Students are ready to translate selected Czech mathematical sentences (definitions, theorems, proofs) into English. They are asked to pay attention to the phrases underlined. Lagrangeovu větu lze vyslovit následovně: Věta 3: Nechť funkce je spojitá na intervalu Pak existuje bod  takový, ţe platì a má v kaţdém bodě intervalu derivaci. . production Finally, students have to produce their own mathematical texts (definitions, theorems, proofs). All tasks are designed to emphasize structures that are natural (stiff and live according to Nebeský, 1982, 1984) in English mathematical texts. Students‘ written and oral production is therefore stimulated to be not only acceptable and grammatical but also natural. Some activities can be organized as games. Students define mathematical terms while the others guess. If the teacher wants to direct students‘ attention to some terms only, they can put the desirable terms on the board or distribute them on a piece of paper. In case of proofs, students are activated by the task to present their proofs on the board. Geometrical proofs of algebraic theorems are especially appreciated. Stage three In the final stage, all the work in the language classroom is framed by particular mathematical disciplines. In a semester course, we usually manage to deal with three essential fields, i.e. algebra, geometry and mathematical analysis. Students are assigned to focus on terms whose meaning can easily be transferred from Czech. Students use the language means acquired in the second stage of the course (defining). Define the following terms: isomorphism, algebraically closed field Particular attention if subsequently paid to terms which students are expected not to be able to define. These include lexical discrepancies described above. Finally, students deal with various mathematical problems from the selected mathematical disciplines. In this phase, students have to use all the language from the previous stages. They have to prove some theorems, do calculations and solve problems. Prove the following theorems: 845 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Let k be a circle and AB a chord of the circle k. Then the central angle over AB with respect to k equals two angles over AB at the circumference of k. Solve the following problems: Find the radical axis of two arbitrary intersecting/nonintersecting circles. Describe the construction. Students are also ready to present their results to the others and compare other students‘ approaches towards these tasks. At the same time, they are expected to sound natural in terms of the language they use. Conclusion: Task-based approach As we have shown, the whole curriculum is task-based oriented. Since the very beginning, students are exposed to language by means of authentic and natural mathematical texts. Their learning always leads to activity typical of workers (researchers) in mathematics. The whole course proceeds from the focus on language (style, structure, functions, grammar and lexis) towards problem-solving in some mathematical disciplines. What is more, this task-based orientation is twodimensional. Each lesson in the course of English for Mathematicians starts with language focus (e.g. notation in Stage One, language used to give definitions in Stage Two, lexis in Stage Three) and moves gradually to activity in the form of mathematical tasks. At the same time, the complexity of language as well as tasks is successively upgraded. The use of symbolic language as well as terminology and functional language is mutually combined and included in tasks. In the following example, the symbolic definition (STAGE ONE) of the limit is to be expressed by means of the functional exponents used for defining (STAGE TWO) and finally explained within the frame of the theory of mathematical analysis (STAGE THREE): Write, read and explain the following definition: def . lim f ( x)  A    0  0x 0  D f : x  P (a)  f ( x) U  ( A) x a Simple calculations gradually turn into more complex problems. Finally, isolated problems turn into sequences of interrelated problems (Willis, 2007) towards the end of the course. In the following examples, c follows form b which is deduced from a. a) Let k be a circle and AB a chord of the circle k. Then the central angle over AB with respect to k equals two angles over AB at the circumference of k. b) Let k be a circle and A a point lying out of the circle k. Let p, p‘ be lines passing through A intersecting the circle k at points A, B  p, A‘, B‘ p‘. Then the following equality is true: AB=A‘B‘ c) The set of all points whose power with respect to a given circle is equal is a straight line. The process of proceeding towards the proof of theorem c simulates the desired mathematical research activity. Conclusions and Recommendations Courses of English for specific purposes are definitely unique not only in their content but also teaching approaches, methods, materials and aids used. But courses of English for mathematicians differ in a greater extent. First, the many specifics of the language of mathematics and stylistics of mathematical texts require explicit knowledge of these features. Students have usually very poor knowledge of the peculiarities from their previous studies. As communicatively-oriented language classes place emphasis on development of discourse and strategic competence, students‘ communication in English is fairly fluent but sometimes lacks in precision and accuracy. The course English for Mathematicians should therefore focus on developing linguistic and pragmatic competence, paying particular attention to the style, genres, their structures, and lexical and grammatical features of this register. In addition, understanding a mathematical (scientific) text does not result only in comprehension based on reinterpreting general or specific information included in the text. It is special mathematical (scientific) activity that proves thorough understanding. This goal and activity-oriented aspect of mathematical texts correspondents with the nature and prevailing learning style of students of mathematics, physics and informatics. Although they perceive new information on the basis of abstract conceptualisation, they mostly process what they have learnt by means of 846 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo active experimentations. To meet these learning needs, the course of English for mathematicians should therefore deal with applications of the theoretic language and content basis in real mathematical activity. To sum up, the course activities should always result in task-based assignments, using heuristic teaching methods such as problemsolving tasks (ideally mathematical). References ĥechová, M. et al. (2008). SouĦasná stylistika. Praha: NLN. Folprechtová, J. (2006). Gardnerova teorie rozmanitých inteligencì, in NeĦasová P. (ed.) Činnostnì pojetì vyučovánì cizìm jazykům, Praha: PedF UK, (pp. 36 - 40) Gardner, H. (1999). Dimenze myńlenì: teorie rozmanitých inteligencì. Praha: Portál. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford University Press. Jelìnek, S. (2006). K rámcové charakteristice Ħinnostnìho pojetì vyuĦovánì cizìm jazykům, in NeĦasová P. (ed.) Činnostnì pojetì vyučovánì cizìm jazykům, Praha: PedF UK, (pp. 12 - 20) Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Mach, V. (1981). Úvod do Ħetby anglických odborných textů. Praha: SPN. Maxwell, R. (1986). Intorduction to Analysis. New York: Dover Publications. Mlìkovská, V. (1977). Scientific Language: Cognitive Status, in Romportl M. (ed.), Linguistica Generalia 2 – Language of Science and Theoretical Linguistics, Praha: Univerzita Karlova. (pp. 11 - 20) Nebeský, L. (1977). The Artificiality and Naturallness of the Language of Mathematics, in Romportl M. (ed.), Linguistica Generalia 2 – Language of Science and Theoretical Linguistics, Praha: Univerzita Karlova. (pp. 11 - 20) Nebeský, L. (1982). O jazyce matematického textu, in Slovo a slovesnost 43, (pp. 88 - 92) Nebeský, L. (1984). Znovu o jazyce matematického textu, in Slovo a slovesnost 45, (pp. 121 - 127) Pinker S. (2009). Jazykový instinkt: jak mysl vytvářì jazyk. Praha: Dybbuk. 847 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Trzeciak, J. (1995). Writing Mathematical Papers in English. Gdańsk: European Mathematical Society. Turek, I. (2001). Didaktika. Bratislava: Iura Edition. Urbanová, L. (2008). Stylistika anglického jazyka. Brno: Barrister&Principal. Willis, D., Willis, J. (2007). Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford University Press. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press. 848 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 122 Title A name given to the resource English for Mathematicians: from Language to Tasks Author Author Mikuláš, Martin Abstract A summary of the resource. The author describes the language education system implemented at a faculty preparing professional mathematicians, physicists and IT specialists, paying special attention to the course for mathematicians. The article also presents a profile of a typical attendant of the course based on the theory of learning styles, which together with the stylistic features of the language of mathematics, predetermines the syllabus and appropriate teaching methodology. The author proposes some essential principles on the background of the theory of ESP, EAP and task-based teaching and learning, giving a number of examples from his teaching practice. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 952 Title A name given to the resource English for Medicine or Medicine in English? Transdisciplinarity in Teaching English for Medical Purposes Author Author Faure, Pascaline Abstract A summary of the resource. Although to be able to read and speak English is paramount to future doctors, French medical students have very little time to devote to the learning of English. Therefore, at Pierre and Marie Curie School of medicine, we have opted for an integrated approach whose benefits have been demonstrated by research (Grabe & Stoller, 1997; Wolf, 2003; Hellekjaer & Wilkinson, 2003) and which takes the form of lectures on medical specialities in English but which has also been successfully adapted to the teaching of grammar via biomedical metaphors that serve to explain the functioning of various grammatical tools. Yet, opting for a transdisciplinary approach demands that the language teacher be knowledgeable in both the language and the subject whereas language teacher education in France remains very general and rarely integrates LSP (Language for Specific Purposes), let alone a course in the subject. In addition, designing content-based classes raises issues relative to the part dedicated respectively to the language and the content, and to the structuring of both. This article investigates the extent to which transdisciplinarity can be used as a didactic tool in ESP (English for Specific Purposes) classes, its efficacy in terms of motivation and language acquisition, and its impact on teacher education. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bf5921e6b09cb0b36d800e01ed43b705.pdf 753982299a0f1b50c9cff0c3955ed659 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence Chew Ging LEE Nottingham University Business School The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia lee.chew-ging@nottingham.edu.my Abstract This paper addresses the effect of English proficiency on economic KEYWORDS growth empirically with Barro-type cross-sectional growth regression. English Language, Economic The empirical results provide evidence of positive correlation between Growth initial English proficiency and economic growth only for the countries ARTICLE HISTORY in the Asia and Europe. Therefore, countries with higher levels of Submitted: 6 October 2011 English proficiency among the fraction of its population are likely to Resubmitted: 15 November 2011 grow faster. This paper suggests that the ability to absorb knowledge is Resubmitted: 15 February 2012 positively related to the level of English proficiency. It implies that the Accepted: 28 March 2012 level of English proficiency can be viewed as a component of human capital. JEL Codes: O10, O50 Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 5 �Chew Ging LEE Introduction The accumulation of knowledge is generally recognized as having positive effect on economic growth, in particular, knowledge creation through the firms’ research and development activities (Romer, 1990; Grossmann and Helpman, 1991; Aghion and Howitt, 1992; Jones, 1995). At a given point of time, the stock of knowledge available to an economy is just a subset of existing stock of knowledge. New ideas and insights created by a developed economy may not be aware by others, although Keller (2002) suggests that increasing economic integration and the advent of new means of telecommunication ensure that people in all countries have access to the same stock of knowledge. This is because the rate of diffusion of new knowledge to an economy depends heavily on the economy’s absorptive capabilities and the existence of international knowledge spillovers (Coe and Helpman, 1995; Coe, Helpman, and Hoffmaister, 1997; Falvey et al., 2002; Falvey et al., 2004). Therefore, the production, diffusion and absorption of knowledge determine the volume of knowledge that is available to an economy. It is widely accepted that the majority of new knowledge created by developed countries in which English has enjoyed a special status. Furthermore, it is also recognized that developing countries enjoy efficiency gains if they adopt the knowledge created in developed countries (Caselli and Coleman, 2000; Caselli and Coleman, 2001; Hall and Jones, 1999). Crystal (2003) has provided a lengthy discussion on the growth of the influence of English language and the evidence of the importance of English language in the modern society. Since knowledge itself is largely intangible, it is difficult to quantify the stock of knowledge. If the number of internationally accepted journals and published papers can be used as a proxy for the stock of knowledge, we can conclude easily that English has become an effective means of getting access to knowledge. This is because English language has been an important medium of academic publications. For instance, German Economic Review, the official publication of the German Economic Association (Verein für Socialpolitik), and Spanish Economic Review, the official publication of the Spanish Economic Association (Asociación Española de Economía), are published in English. After 49 volumes with the majority of articles in German, the Konjunkturpolitik was relaunched as Applied Economics Quarterly at the beginning of 2003, and now publishes exclusively in English. The impact of English on daily activities can also be examined. Machinery usually comes with instructions or manuals in English. Without a basic understanding of English, workers are generally unable to use this machinery in productive activities 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence effectively. Keller (2002) indicates that the language of communication among R&D engineers in Germany and Italy are invariably in English in the manufacturing industry level. Based on these examples, we cannot deny that individuals are more likely to be in touch with new knowledge if they have learned English. The importance of other languages cannot be denied. But, the importance of the English language as the international language of communication should be emphasized because knowledge is gained either by experience, learning and perception or through association and reasoning. Sometimes, important creations and discoveries in countries where English has no special status are published in a local language. But, to enable the created knowledge to reach much further around the world and to obtain a higher recognition, they would have been translated into English. This does not mean all workers in a country must master English. It just suggests at least a fraction of workers must be fluent in English. The group of workers who are proficient in English will gain access to the new knowledge and then they can translate the learned knowledge into the local language to allow the learned knowledge to reach a wider audience. To date, no known study in economic growth has been carried out to investigate the effect of English on growth either empirically or theoretically. A small number of studies have considered the importance of language for spillovers (Caselli and Coleman, 2001; Keller, 2002). Caselli and Coleman (2001) investigate the determinants of computer-technology adoption with a large sample of countries between 1970 and 1990. They found that the fraction of the population speaking English is statistically insignificant. Keller (2002) finds that language skills are important for international technology diffusion. He shows that speaking the same language facilitates the diffusion of technology. Hall and Jones (1999) argue that the differences in output per worker across countries can be explained by the differences in social infrastructure of which is partially determined by language. They show that the fraction of the population speaking one of the five primary Western European languages: English, French, German, Portuguese and Spanish explains the variation of social infrastructure. This variable also explains the variation of natural logarithm of output per worker. But, the fraction of the population speaking English is insignificant in these two equations. The intention of this paper is to fill the existing gap with empirical evidence. This paper is organized as follows; the first section describes the data collected and also presents empirical evidence on the relationship between the level of English proficiency and economic growth and the last section is the conclusion. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 7 �Chew Ging LEE Data In this study, data is combined from three data sources: Sorensen and WhittaJacobsen (2005, table A, 390-393), TOEFL Test and Score Data Summaries: 19931994 and 1995-1996 Editions (www.ets.org), and Barro and Lee (2000). The description of variables and their sources are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Description of Variables and Their Sources Variable Explanation Source GROWTH Average annual growth rate of real GDP per worker from 1960-2000. Sorensen and Whitta-Jacobsen, (2005, Table A, p. 390-393) INVEST Average investment rate in physical capital (investment share of GDP) from 1960-2000. Sorensen and Whitta-Jacobsen, (2005, Table A, p. 390-393) GDP60 Real GDP per worker in 1960 Sorensen and Whitta-Jacobsen, (2005, Table A, p. 390-393) ENGLISH93 TOEFL total score mean of examinees who took TOEFL Test and Score Data TOEFL from July 1993 through June 1995. Summary 1995-96 Edition ENGLISH91 TOEFL total score mean of examinees who took TOEFL Test and Score Data TOEFL from July 1991 through June 1993. Summary 1993-94 Edition ASIA 1 if a country is classified as Asia or Middle East, 0 otherwise by TOEFL. TOEFL Test and Score Data Summary 1995-96 Edition AFRICA 1 if a country is classified as Africa, 0 otherwise by TOEFL. TOEFL Test and Score Data Summary 1995-96 Edition EUROPE 1 if a country is classified as Europe, 0 otherwise by TOEFL. TOEFL Test and Score Data Summary 1995-96 Edition SCHOOL60 Average schooling years in the group of the population aged 15 and above in year 1960. Barro and Lee (2000) Initially, the fraction of population speaking English compiled by Hall and Jones (1999) that has been used by Caselli and Coleman (2001) is intended to be utilized as the proxy for English proficiency. However, on further investigation this data was found to be unsuitable for this study. Firstly, there are only 35 countries with positive values; others had a value equal to zero. Secondly, this data contains only information about the fraction of population who use English as the «first» language. Thirdly, the reliability of this data has been questioned. For instance, the value for Singapore is 0.089, Sri Lanka 0.009, Philippines 0, India 0 and Malaysia 0 in Hall and Jones (1999). However, the English language has been widely used in the commercial sector of the above-mentioned five countries. English language is also taught as a compulsory subject at least at high school level in these five countries. Lastly, the data of Hall and Jones does not provide a measure of English proficiency for the fraction of population who know English. 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence To determine the suitability of a variable as the proxy for English proficiency, we probably have to go through a heated debate similar to the case for the proxies for human capital and environmental pollution. Based on the illustration in the Introduction, it is anticipated that the rate of absorption of knowledge for an economy would be greater if a larger size of the population has a better command of English. A proxy that can capture these two dimensions: the fraction of population who know English and the level of English proficiency of this group of individuals has to be identified. Currently, there is no data source that can capture these two dimensions. Recognizing that the perfect proxy for English proficiency required by this study may not be available, this study will look for a close proxy which is widely available in the public domain. Since TOEFL and IELTS are two of the widely recognized tests of English proficiency, this study intends to consider the scores of one of the tests as the measure of English proficiency. Generally, these two tests are used to evaluate the ability of an individual to use and understand English in an academic setting. Although both tests consist of four parts: Listening, Reading, Writing and Speaking, they are assessed differently and have different measure of competence in each part. For instance, IELTS test is scored on a scale of 0 to 9 and the Internet-based TOEFL test is scored on a scale of 0 to 120. The mean score of IELTS for a country is not available in the public domain. The mean score of TOEFL can be downloaded from www.ets.org. Since the mean score of TOEFL examinees is the only widely recognized measure of English proficiency that is available in the public domain, it is used as the proxy for English proficiency of a fraction of the population who can speak English. The mean score of TOEFL examinees is not a perfect proxy required for this study. It does not fully capture the fraction of population who can speak English because TOEFL exams are taken by those who plan to live, work or study abroad, particularly in the US, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Therefore, only a small fraction of the individuals in a country enroll in TOEFL exams. The number of TOEFL examinees also varies considerably from one country to another. The number of TOEFL examinees may reflect the amount of resources allocated in the provision of English teaching and also the fraction of population who have some competence in the English language. The mean score of TOEFL examinees may reflect the average proficiency level of the mentioned group of individuals. Creating a new variable by allowing the mean score of TOEFL examinees to interact with the data of Hall and Jones (1999) has been avoided because this only generates a sample with 35 positive values. Although there are limitations associated with the mean score of TOEFL examinees, it is the only widely available measure for English proficiency. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 9 �Chew Ging LEE English language TOEFL Test and Score Data Summary: 1993-1994 Edition provides the earliest available information on TOEFL scores. The number of examinees for TOEFL Test and Score Data Summary varies from one country to another. For instance, in 1993-1994 Edition among the countries where score means are reported, the lowest number of examinees is 34 and highest is 260513. Since outliers can distort average, countries with low number of examinees are excluded. Only countries with at least 1000 examinees are included. The cut-off point of at least 1000 examinees is chosen arbitrarily. A higher cut-off point is avoided so that a reasonable sample size can be maintained. Crystal (2003, pp. 62-65) identifies seventy-five economies in which English has held or continues to hold a special status as either the primary language or second language. These economies include New Zealand, United States, Singapore and others. In these countries, the use of English is high among the general population. Therefore, this group of countries has been omitted from this study because TOEFL is designed to measure the English proficiency of people whose native language is not English. Although this group of countries is the main creators of knowledge in terms of the aggregate volume of created knowledge, some of them are not major creators of knowledge individually. High percentage of knowledge is transmitted from some of these countries to others. Putting these data sources together, the total number of usable observations is only 43 economies, as reported in Table 2. Some of the included countries have to be recognized by this study, for example France, Switzerland and others are major creators of knowledge also. Table 2. Economies Included in This Study Argentina Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cyprus Denmark 10 Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia Finland France Greece Guatemala Indonesia Iran Israel Italy Japan Jordan Korea Mexico Morocco Netherlands Norway Panama Peru Portugal Romania Spain Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan, China Thailand Turkey Venezuela Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence Dummy variables are created for different regions based on the classifications of TOEFL Test and Score Data Summaries. In this study, countries have been grouped under the classifications of Middle East and Asia regions into a single regional dummy. The Asia regions are included in this group because there are only four countries classified under Middle East region and traditionally the countries under these two TOEFL classifications are classified as Asian countries in the atlas. All regional dummies are not used as intercept dummies that are the common approach in existing empirical studies (Barro, 1991, 1997; Easterly and Levine, 1995; Feng, 2003). They will be used as slope dummies to interact with either ENGLISH91 or ENGLISH93. Results The Barro-type cross-sectional growth regression is utilized in this study. This crosssectional regression captures conditional convergence by introducing the initial GDP per capita that is measured by real GDP per worker in 1960, GDP60, as an independent variable. GROWTH is the dependent variable used in this study. There is a possibility of the endogeneity problem arising in this research due to the reverse causality between economic growth and English proficiency. For instance, economic growth leads to increased demand for English speaking employees and thus to higher English proficiency. To tackle this issue, initial English proficiency is used as an independent variable. Mean scores of TOEFL obtained from the TOEFL Test and Score Data Summaries: 1993-1994 and 1995-1996 Editions computed from paper-based TOEFL test are used as the initial English proficiency level. They are denoted as TOEFL91 and TOEFL93, respectively. Both TOEFL91 and TOEFL93 are used to represent the initial English proficiency level in different regression model because in the earlier cross-country studies related to human capital, it has been observed that the empirical results are highly sensitive to the choices of proxy and the types of dataset been used. Since GROWTH is the average annual growth rate of real GDP per worker from 1960-2000 and the year associated with either TOEFL91 or TOEFL91 is within the whole period, the issue related to endogeneity may not be fully addressed. The panel data estimation methods, which are commonly used in the estimation growth equation, for instance the works of Baldacci, Clements, Gupta, and Cui (2008) and Caselli et al. (1996), was not used in this study because it is not possible to obtain long enough data for the mean score of TOEFL of each selected country. New TOEFL tests have been developed over the last decade. Initially, the TOEFL test was paper-based. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 11 �Chew Ging LEE However, in 1998, the computer-based TOEFL test was introduced. Subsequently, the Internet-based TOEFL test was developed in September 2005. With the introduction of Internet-based TOEFL tests, computer-based TOEFL tests were discontinued in September 2006. Currently, paper-based TOEFL test is offered on a limited basis to support the Internet-based TOEFL testing network. The maximum score of each test is different. For instance, the maximum score of Internet-based TOEFL test is 120, paper-based TOEFL test is 677 and computer-based TOEFL test is 300. The regression results are reported in Tables 3, 4 and 5. It has been noted that, in the existing empirical studies, the significance of one independent variable can be affected by the choices of data and groups of independent variables used (Levine and Renelt, 1992; Sala-i-Martin, 1997). Equation (1) is the base model, which captures common control variables observed in the literature and the proxy for initial English proficiency is only introduced in the remaining equations. Two control variables (INVEST and GDP60) were used to keep the regression models simple and to prevent the debate on the suitability of other variables. INVEST and GDP60 are both statistically significant at 1% level for all equations reported in Table 3. They showed the expected result. These results are consistent with previous studies. ENGLISH91 and ENGLISH93 are statistically insignificant in Equation (2) and Equation (3), respectively. But, they have the expected positive result. The lack of significance of the coefficient of either ENGLISH91 or ENGLISH93 warrants some careful analysis. At this stage, it is premature to conclude that English proficiency has no impact on economic growth because it is assumed that the effects of English proficiency are homogeneous across continents. Whether English proficiency has an effect on economic growth is a problem of the specification of a model. To overcome this problem, slope regional dummies were introduced into Equation (4) and Equation (5) of the study. ENGLISH91 and ENGLISH93 are still statistically insignificant. The signs for both of them are different. ENGLISH91 has a negative sign which against the argument that the level of English proficiency has a positive effect on economic growth. Among the slope regional dummies, only ASIA and EUROPE are significant. There are only 3 countries associated with AFRICA. The low number of observations in AFRICA may be the reason why this slope dummy is statistically insignificant. Comparing Equation (4) and Equation (5), each regional dummy has same sign and similar magnitude. Based on F-test, ENGLISH91 and ENGLISH91xAFRICA are jointly insignificant even at 10% level in Equation (4). ENGLISH93 and ENGLISH93xAFRICA of Equation (5) are also jointly insignificant at 10% level. Therefore, these jointly insignificant variables are omitted to estimate Equation (6) and Equation (7). 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence In Equation (6) and Equation (7), all left-hand side variables are significant at 1% level. The coefficient of each left-hand side variable for these two equations has a similar magnitude. Both these final equations also have R 2 of slightly above 0.7. All the earlier equations have R 2 lower than both these two final equations reported in Table 3. Interaction terms between ASIA and either ENGLISH91 or ENGLISH93 are significant Table 3. Regression Results: GROWTH as the Dependent Variable Equation (1) (2) (3) 5.69x10-3 (0.0292) 4.71x10-3 (0.0306) (4) 0.0135 (0.0265) (5) (6) (7) 0.0137 8.64x10-3 0.0137 (0.0265) (3.76x10-3)a (3.76x10-3)a INTERCEPT 9.98x10-3 (3.84x10-3)b GDP60 -1.26x10-6 -1.29x10-6 -1.29x10-6 -1.19x10-6 -1.19x10-6 -1.22x10-6 -1.22x10-6 (1.86x10-7)a (2.33x10-7)a (2.25x10-7)a (1.73x10-7)a (1.67x10-7)a (1.41x10-7)a (1.40x10-7)a INVEST 0.1400 (0.0170)a 0.1397 (0.0171)a 0.1397 (0.0171)a ENGLISH91x AFRICA 8.89x10-6 (1.13x10-5) ENGLISH91x ASIA 2.84x10-5 (8.90x10-6)a 2.93x10-5 (8.70x10-6)a ENGLISH93x ASIA 2.94x10-5 (8.52x10-6)a ENGLISH91x EUROPE 2.62x10-5 (6.38x10-6)a ENGLISH93x EUROPE 2 0.0727 (0.0217)a 8.47x10-6 (1.13x10-5) ENGLISH93x AFRICA R 0.0728 (0.0218)a 6.00x10-6 (4.66x10-5) 1.04x10-5 (5.76x10-5) ENGLISH93 0.0787 (0.0221)a -3.11x10-6 (4.79x10-5) 8.52x10-6 (5.58x10-5) ENGLISH91 0.0783 (0.0223) a 2.82x10-5 (8.79x10-6)a 2.62x10-5 (5.46x10-6)a 2.56x10-5 (6.17x10-6)a 0.5598 0.5487 0.5488 0.6992 0.6994 2.60x10-5 (5.42x10-6)a 0.7096 0.7096 Statistically significant at the 1% level in a two-tailed test. Statistically significant at the 5% level in a two-tailed test. c Statistically significant at the 10% level in a two-tailed test. Standard errors are in the parentheses and are constructed from White’s (1980) heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix. a b Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 13 �Chew Ging LEE at 1% level as reported. The same conclusion also applies to interaction terms between EUROPE and either ENGLISH91 or ENGLISH93. This implies that the level of English proficiency has a positive impact on the economic growth of Asian and European economies only. The economies in other regions do not enjoy the positive effects of English language on growth probably due to internal factors, such as political instability, market distortion, policy uncertainty and lack of political freedom. These internal factors may disrupt market activities and threaten the effective use of human capital. To keep the models simple, the regression models obtained in Table 3 have only two control variables: INVEST and GDP60. These regression models lack a general education variable, which may lead to misspecification of model. Furthermore, some researchers may suggest that the results in Table 3 are obtained because the English language variable has acted as a proxy for general education. To check whether the results of English language variable are robust to the inclusion of other common independent variables and to prevent the misspecification of model, initial average years of schooling, SCHOOL60, is introduced in the regression models reported in Table 4. Recognizing that the interaction of the dummy variable associated with African countries and initial English proficiency is insignificant in the earlier results and there are only three African countries in this sample, ENGLISH91xAFRICA and ENGLISH93xAFRICA are omitted. 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence Table 4. Regression Results: GROWTH as the Dependent Variable Equation (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 0.0115 (0.0047)b 0.0109 (0.0333) 0.0107 (0.0354) 0.0338 (0.0321) 0.0295 (0.0332) GDP60 -1.32x10-6 (2.4x10-7)a -1.33x10-6 (2.5x10-7)a -1.33x10-6 (2.43x10-7)a -1.24x10-6 (1.95x10-7)a -1.25x10-6 (1.91x10-7)a INVEST 0.1273 (0.0296)a 0.1273 (0.0309)a 0.1273 (0.0311)a 0.0542 (0.0352) 0.0550 (0.0354) SCHOOL60 4.5x10-4 (1.1x10-3) 4.4x10-4 (1.2x10-3) 4.4x10-4 (1.2x10-3) 6.6x10-4 (1.0x10-3) 6.2x10-4 (1.1x10-3) INTERCEPT -3.57x10-5 (5.6x10-5) 1.05x10-6 (6.18x10-5) ENGLISH91 -2.73x10-5 (5.72x10-5) 1.46x10-6 (6.5x10-6) ENGLISH93 ENGLISH91x ASIA 2.77x10-5 (8.57x10-6)a ENGLISH93x ASIA 2.78x10-5 (8.44x10-6)a ENGLISH91x EUROPE 2.87x10-5 (6.99x10-6)a ENGLISH93x EUROPE R 2.82x10-5 (6.82x10-6)a 2 0.5429 0.5302 0.5302 0.7007 0.6998 Statistically significant at the 1% level in a two-tailed test. Statistically significant at the 5% level in a two-tailed test. c Statistically significant at the 10% level in a two-tailed test. Standard errors are in the parentheses and are constructed from White’s (1980) heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix. a b Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 15 �Chew Ging LEE Table 5. Regression Results: GROWTH as the Dependent Variable Equation (13) (14) (15) (16) 0.0116 (4.8x10-3)b 0.0116 (0.0048)b 0.0254 (4.6x10-3)a 0.0253 (4.6x10-3)a GDP60 -1.35x10-6 (2.51x10-7)a -1.35x10-6 (2.5x10-7)a -1.3x10-6 (2.0x10-7)a -1.3x10-6 (1.99x10-7)a INVEST 0.1258 (0.0282)a 0.1259 (0.0281)a 0.0630 (0.0241)b 0.0630 (0.0240)b ENGLISH91x SCHOOL60 9.92x10-7 (1.8x10-6) INTERCEPT ENGLISH93x SCHOOL60 -4.82x10-6 (2.0x10-6)b -4.77x10-6 (1.98x10-6)b 9.7x10-7 (1.79x10-6) ENGLISH91x SCHOOL60x ASIA 7.44x10-6 (2.31x10-6)a ENGLISH93x SCHOOL60x ASIA 7.39x10-6 (2.29x10-6)a ENGLISH91x SCHOOL60x EUROPE 6.84x10-6 (1.67x10-6)a ENGLISH93x SCHOOL60x EUROPE R 2 6.79x10-6 (1.65x10-6)a 0.5442 0.5441 0.7170 0.7166 Statistically significant at the 1% level in a two-tailed test. Statistically significant at the 5% level in a two-tailed test. c Statistically significant at the 10% level in a two-tailed test. Standard errors are in the parentheses and are constructed from White’s (1980) heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix. a b Equation (8) is the base model reported in Table 4 with the addition of SCHOOL60 but without any initial English proficiency and the interaction terms of dummy variables. The results associated with GDP60 and INVEST are similar to those obtained from Equation (1). SCHOOL60 is statistically insignificant but its estimated coefficient has the expected positive sign. The proxies for initial English proficiency are in- 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence troduced in Equations (9) and (10). SCHOOL60 is still statistically insignificant. The results for other independent variables are similar to those obtained from Equations (2) and (3). Interaction terms, ASIAxENGLISH91 and EUROPExENGLISH91, are introduced into Equation (9) for the estimation of Equation (11). To estimate Equation (12), interaction terms, ASIAxENGLISH93 and EUROPExENGLISH93, are added to Equation (10). In both Equations (11) and (12), INVEST becomes statistically insignificant. Initial English proficiency variable in both equations is statistically insignificant with negative sign. The interaction terms of initial English proficiency with either ASIA or EUROPE are statistically significant at 1% level with sign and magnitude similar to the earlier estimated equations. Table 4 has produced surprising results indicating that initial schooling is not correlated with economic growth. Furthermore, investment becomes statistically insignificant when the interaction terms between initial English proficiency and regional dummy variables have been introduced as additional independent variables. Instead of analyzing the effects of initial English proficiency and initial schooling separately in this study, these two variables have been allowed to interact to obtain a new proxy for initial human capital: ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60 or ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60. Table 5 provides the results of the estimated models where this new proxy for initial human capital has been introduced as an independent variable. Equations (13) and (14) are the base models with 3 independent variables: GDP60, INVEST and either ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60 or ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60. All these independent variables are significant at 1% level, except ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60 in Equation (13) and ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60 in Equation (14). These two new proxies for initial human capital are allowed to interact with ASIA and EUROPE dummy variables in the estimation of Equations (15) and (16). In both equations, all independent variables are statistically significant at least at 5% level. All these independent variables have the expected signs with the exception of the estimated coefficient of either ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60 or ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60. The negative estimated coefficient of the initial human capital in each estimated equation implies that for Latin American and African countries, this initial human capital and economic growth are negatively correlated. However, for Asian and European countries the initial human capital is positively correlated with economic growth because in absolute value the estimated coefficient of ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60 is smaller than that of either ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60xASIA or ENGLISH91xSCHOOL60xEUROPE and the estimated coefficient of ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60 is smaller than that of either ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60xASIA or ENGLISH93xSCHOOL60xEUROPE. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 17 �Chew Ging LEE The empirical results reported in Tables 3, 4 and 5 are unable to find statistically significant correlation between economic growth and the proxy for initial English proficiency if the effects of initial English proficiency are treated homogeneously across continents. With the introduction of interaction terms between continental dummy variables and initial English proficiency into the regression models, statistically significant correlation between economic growth and the proxy for initial English proficiency can be found for countries in Asia and Europe. Therefore, there is no unanimous evidence to support the positive contribution of English proficiency to economic growth across all countries. English proficiency will have a positive impact on economic growth if the increase in English proficiency is complemented with a minimum threshold of physical capital, technology, political stability, good governance and other factors. The improvement in English proficiency without sufficient accumulation of physical capital, technology and social capital will be add significantly to the economic growth of a country. This probably explains why English proficiency does not contribute to the economic growth of the countries outside Asia and Europe. Hence, English proficiency can be seen as a necessity but not sufficient condition for economic growth. Conclusion The spectacular growth of Asian countries can be attributed to the heavy investment in the creation of human capital that fosters a English-speaking culture and promotes a climate of the use of English. An increase in English proficiency will directly accelerate the knowledge absorptive capabilities of workers. A similar argument can be applied to European economies, which also enjoy a positive growth rate. This study does not find any evidence about the effects of English language on the economic growth of Latin American and African countries. This indicates that a satisfactory understanding of the effect of English language on economic growth requires an appreciation of how the formation of institutions, stability and certainty can encourage the accumulation of knowledge. It is important not to forget the fact that even if this study is able to find a positive relationship between the proficiency level of English and the growth rate in a cross-sectional data, establishing this relationship can be very difficult under different empirical framework and different measures for the proficiency level of English. 18 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �References Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1992). Model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, 60, 323-351. Baldacci, E., Clements, B., Gupta, S., & Cui, Q. (2008). Social spending, human capital, and growth in developing countries. World Development, 36, 13171341. Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross-section of countries. 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European Economic Review, 39, 859-887. Coe, D.T., Helpman, E. & Hoffmaister, A. W. (1997). North-South R&D spillovers. Economic Journal, 107, 134-149. Easterly, W., & Levine, R. (1995). Africa’s growth tragedy: a retrospective, 1960-89. Policy Research Working Paper WPS1503, World Bank, Washington, DC. Volume 2 Number 1 Spring 2012 19 �Falvey, R., Foster, N. & Greenaway, D. (2002). North-South trade, knowledge spillovers and growth. Journal of Economic Integration, 17, 650-670. Falvey, R., Foster, N. & Greenaway, D. (2004). Imports, exports, knowledge spillovers and growth. Economics Letters, 85, 209-213. Feng, Y. (2003). Democracy, Governance, and Economic Performance: Theory and Evidence, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Grossmann, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1991). Innovation and Growth in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hall, R. E., & Jones, C. I. (1999). Why do some countries produce so much more output per worker than others?. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114, 83-116. Jones, C. I. (1995). R&D-based models of economic growth. Journal of Political Economy, 103, 759-784. Keller, W. (2002). Geographic localization of international technology diffusion. American Economic Review, 92, 120-142. Levine, R., & Renelt, D. (1992). A sensitivity analysis of cross-country growth regressions. American Economic Review, 82, 942-963. Sorensen, P. B., & Whitta-Jacobsen, H. J. (2005). Introducing Macroeconomics: Growth & Business Cycles, McGraw-Hill Companies. Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98, S71-S102. Sala-I-Martin, X. X. (1997). I just ran two million regressions. AEA Papers and Proceedings American Economic Review, 87, 178-183. White, H. (1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroscedasticity. Econometrica, 48, 817-838. 20 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1063 Title A name given to the resource English Language and Economic Growth: Cross-Country Empirical Evidence Author Author LEE, Chew Ging Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper addresses the effect of English proficiency on economic growth empirically with Barro-type cross-sectional growth regression. The empirical results provide evidence of positive correlation between initial English proficiency and economic growth only for the countries in the Asia and Europe. Therefore, countries with higher levels of English proficiency among the fraction of its population are likely to grow faster. This paper suggests that the ability to absorb knowledge is positively related to the level of English proficiency. It implies that the level of English proficiency can be viewed as a component of human capital. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd2b70186ca0278a62075f64b69a79ed.pdf d0af275f393e3258a370f23d76fbda3f PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo English language as an instrument of globalization Amela Lukač Zoranid International University in Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia prorektor.nastava@uninp.edu.rs Fahreta Fijuljanin International University in Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia fahretaf@hotmail.com World globalization establishes new standards for foreign language skills as well as for the teachers of foreign languages. Market globalization represents one of the main factors that influenced English language to be international language. In order to have a successful interaction between foreign companies, market and economy felt a need for the knowledge of English language. In this way English language became a device, an instrument of successful management and the most useful second language. There was also the need to improve knowledge of English language in every company and business institutions. Increasing the number of English language speakers, we increase the international communication in an academic and business level. Keywords: Globalization, Communication English 35 Language, Market, Business, � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0482007d1d84f6caf0483450747f0cf4.docx 9be67f0a605b3e239f37a2f739ece4c5 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c4f541b57784c4a823307fea7840e6d8.pdf 43a4956098de59ea8dcfe65492679d78 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo English Language as an Instrument Of Globalization Amela Lukač Zoranić International University in Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia prorektor.nastava@uninp.edu.rs Fahreta Fijuljanin International University in Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia fahretaf@hotmail.com Abstract World globalization establishes new standards for foreign language skills as well as for the teachers of foreign languages. Market globalization represents one of the main factors that influenced English language to be international language. In order to have a successful interaction between foreign companies, market and economy felt a need for the knowledge of English language. In this way English language became a device, an instrument of successful management and the most useful second language. There was also the need to improve knowledge of English language in every company and business institutions. Increasing the number of English language speakers, we increase the international communication in academic and business level. Keywords: Globalization, English Language, Market, Business, Communication Globalization is a term used to describe the changes occurring in our everyday lives and in society as well economy and politics resulting from international trade and cultural exchange. In economics the expression “free trade” was used prior to the term “globalization” to describe trade liberalization and deregulation on international market. The same term “globalization” nowadays is used in extended context, i.e. to describe all aspects of human existence. It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore that: Today's definition of the term comprise of factors that have contributed to globalization including increasingly sophisticated communications (in all levels), transportation technologies and services, mass migration and the movement of peoples and languages. It comes to define a level of economic, social and cultural activities that have outgrown national borders and markets through either industrial combinations and commercial groupings that cross national frontiers, international agreements that reduce the cost of doing business in foreign countries, or cultural influences of certain societies on others. (Wu & Dan, 2006) Globalization enables interference of populations, cultures, languages within international borders as a result of the intensifying economic, social and cultural exchanges within different societies. Access to new technologies, media, internet an other medium of communication allow individuals global interactions with the belief that they frame intercultural communication. There is no doubt that globalization intensifies worldwide social relations and consciousness of the world as whole and is considered as “fashionable buzzword” which can be adopted as a “concept referring to people‟s groving consciousness of belonging to a global community.” (Steger, 2003:11). 56 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo According to Giddens “globalization is westernization or more specifically Americanization since western powers or the United States is now the sole superpower, with a dominant economic, cultural and military position in the global order [and] many of the most visible cultural expressions of globalization are American-coca cola, McDonald s and CNN.” (2000: 33). Stager attempts to indicate that the term globalization applies to a set of social processes that appear to “transform our present social condition of weakening nationality into one of globality”. (2003:10) He explains that globalization is about shifting forms of human contact. In order to define and clarify the phenomenon of globalization Stager raises some questions like: How does globalization occur? What is diving globalization? Is it the cause or a combination of factors? Is globalization a uniform or an uneven process? How does globalization differ from previous social developments? (2003:11) Stager believes that globalization is an uneven process, meaning that people living in various part of the world are affected very differently by this gigantic transformation of social structures and cultural zones. Nevertheless, when we speak about globalization, intercultural features the first language that comes to mind is English language. It is noticeable that English is acknowledged by nearly all people as a result of their need to interact on an international scale. Anglo-America culture industry made English the global lingua franca of the 21st century. English is used in the economy, diplomacy, massmedia and education all over the globe in comparison with other languages which remained visible within national and regional frameworks. The significance of the rise of the English language has a long history reaching back to the British colonialism and the attempt to subaltern the rest of the world as well to exploit and assimilate other cultures imposing English language as medium of communication between people. In 16th century, at the beginning of colonization only 7 million people used English as their mother tongue, by the end of the 20th century the number increased to over 350 million. “English was the official vehicle and the magic formula to colonial elite.”(Wa Thiongo, 2004:12). In many colonized countries English has not been rejected as a symbol of colonialism, it has rather been adopted as a politically neutral language. Any achievement in spoken or written English was rewarded. English became the measure of intelligence and ability in arts, science, music, literature. English became the main determinant for the progress and the success in education and business. Imperialism, led by the USA, presents the struggling peoples of the earth and all those calling for peace, democracy and socialism with the ultimatum: accept theft or death […] Biggest weapon wielded and actually daily unlashed imperialism against the collective defiance is the cultural bomb. The effect of cultural bomb is to annihilate a people‟s belief in their names, in their languages, in their environment, in their heritage of the struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and ultimately in themselves. (Wa Thiongo, 2004:3) Starting from the fact that “language serves as a symbol of group belonging enabling different groups of people to know what ethnic group they belong to and what common heritage they share”. (Kiplangat, 2003) Without language, people would lose their cultural 57 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo identity, still the data pointing that English language is more used in some countries than native languages is concerning. “The fact that absorption of the indigenous population by the colonisers has generally led to the loss of indigenous languages, especially when the colonised are kept in a subordinate position. The critical factor is their involvement in an economic system in which they must use the language of the new ruler in order to compete in the labour force and function adaptively. This is an aspect of globalisation as homogenisation, requiring that things work more or less the same way in the colony as in the metropole, especially in the exercise of power and control of the working class.” (Solikoko, p.29) With globalization allowing languages and their cultures to spread and dominate on a global scale, it also leads to the extinction of other languages and cultures. Steger points out the decrease in number of spoken languages in the world. According to him there were 14,500 spoken languages in the world during 1500, to less then 7,000 in 2000. “Given the current rate of decline, some linguistics predicts that 50-90% of the currently existing languages will have disappeared by the end of the 21st century. (2003:84) According to Anne Johnson along with the spread of the dominant language, the language's culture is also spread. This can be seen in popular American movies being shown globally, as well as American media and American food, such as in the globalization of McDonald's. Proficiency in English has become a valuable commodity. Increases in global interactions over the past century have stimulated demand for more streamlined and efficient communication across lingual borders. Thus, in the business world, companies seeking to expand multinationally have had to find ways to communicate across such difference in cost-effective ways. Many firms have 58 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo changed their corporate languages to the common tongue of English in efforts to streamline communication and avoid leaving team members. Responding to this situation, nearly a billion individuals worldwide are learning the language, most in hopes that their lingual skills will boost their paycheck or land them a better job. States, too, understand that an English-speaking workforce can help their economies integrate and become more competitive on the world market. (Johnson, 2009:132) Anne argues that English language is seen as an imperialist and homogenizing force detrimental to the world‟s cultural diversity, and then examine evidence to the contrary, which indicates that the English language is separating from its culture of origin and actually facilitating cross-cultural dialogue. (Johnson, 2009:136) English is not only the language of the Anglo-Saxon nations but is the common language of many nations worldwide. It has been used in everyday life, in literature in all parts of human acting. Today, more than 80% content posted on the internet is English, leading scientific works are published in English. “in 1997, 95% of the articles indexed in the Science Citation Index‟s Web of Science were written in English, despite the fact that only half were written by authors in English-speaking countries.” (Johnson, 2009:135) It has been noted by the researchers that publications written in languages other than English have a considerably lower impact than English-language works, and command lower compensation than works published in English. It is believed that English language and globalization function as a pull factors for one another. Globalization could not happen in such a degree without development and vest usage of English language and at the same time globalization strengthen the position of English as a global language. It is considered that global community can not function effectively without global language, therefore, as Crystal emphases: English is the language of globalization or “global language”. (Crystal, 1997) Economic and professional incentives have made English an asset, “exportation of desirable technology often carries along the language and culture of the powerful manufacturer.” (Solikoko, 2002:33) Whether it is a result of imperialistic plans of western powers over Europe or it is a natural consequence of globalization, it is certain that English is increasingly becoming popular in European media and education. It is been imposed that who has the knowledge of English doesn‟t need other language in order to communicate with the rest of the world. “A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country.” (Crystal, 1997:3) Is the dominance of English in scientific communication leading to a diglossic situation in continental European countries, a concomitant marginalisation of languages that hitherto have been extensively used in higher education and scholarly writing, with the result that competence in English is becoming a characteristic of elites, and we are moving towards an undemocratic division of linguistic labour since the rest of the population will be confined to a language in which much information is never available? (Philpson, 2000: 198) 59 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo According to Philipson the USA and UK have coordinated efforts to establish English as a „world‟ language, and create the necessary professional infrastructure for achieving this since the 1930s. Crystal believes that British political imperialism had sent English around the globe, during nineteenth century. A language has traditionally become and international language for one chief reason: the power of its people – especially their political and military power. During the twentieth century […] economics replaced politics as the chief driving force, and the language behind the US dollar was English. (1997:9-10) In conclusion it is obvious that English language is a salient example of globalization. As stated by Schichao Li in her article, "Globalization of Languages," the English language can be considered a global language because "except English, no other language dominates international business, academia, media, the Internet, and international air/sea traffic."(2002) English language became a device, an instrument of successful management and the most useful second language. On a daily basis, there is a constant need to improve knowledge of English language in every company or business institution, therefore the rising number of English speakers increases the international communication in academic and business level. References Cheruiyot, Kiplangat. (2003), "Our Languages are Dying", http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/cultural/2003/0224language.htm Crystal, David, (1997), English as a global language, Cambridge University Press, New York Giddens, Anthony, (2000), Runaway World: How Globalization Reshaping Our Lives, Routledge, New York Johnson, Anne (2009) "The Rise of English: The Language of Globalization in China and the European Union," Macalester International: Vol. 22, Article 12. http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/macintl/vol22/iss1/12 Phillipson, Robert, (2000), “European language policy: An unmet sociolinguistic challenge”, Sociolinguistica, No. 14, 2000, p. 197-204. Salikoko S. Mufwene, (2002), “ Colonization, Globalization, and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-first Century”,International Journal on Multicultural Societies, Vol. 4, No. 2, UNESCO Shichao, Li, (2002), "Globalization of Languages", http://www.globalhawaii.org/PDF/language.pdf Steger, B., Manfred, (2003), Globalization: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, New York Wa Thiango, Ngugi, (2004), Decolonizing the mind: the politics of language in African literature, Sunlitho ltd., Kenya Wu, Li, Dan, Ben-Canaan,(2006),The Impact of Globalization and the Internet on English Language Teaching and Learning, Heilongjiang University, School of Western Studies, Harbin http://www.academia.edu/188911/The_Impact_of_Globalization_and_the_Internet _on_English_Language_Teaching_and_Learning 60 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1480 Title A name given to the resource English language as an instrument of globalization Author Author LUKAČ ZORANIĆ, Amela FIJULJANIN, Fahreta Abstract A summary of the resource. World globalization establishes new standards for foreign language skills as well as for the teachers of foreign languages. Market globalization represents one of the main factors that influenced English language to be international language. In order to have a successful interaction between foreign companies, market and economy felt a need for the knowledge of English language. In this way English language became a device, an instrument of successful management and the most useful second language. There was also the need to improve knowledge of English language in every company and business institutions. Increasing the number of English language speakers, we increase the international communication in an academic and business level. Keywords: Globalization, English Language, Market, Business, Communication Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1001 Title A name given to the resource English Language Teaching Quality Criteria in Turkish Secondary Education Author Author Uygun, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Foreign language learning is an unavoidable concept of life in the 21st century. In our daily lives, we are constantly in touch with people with different languages and cultures, and we are living in a multilingual and multicultural world. Competence in one or more foreign languages is not only essential, but also rewarding for the careers of working people. As there is so much demand and need to learn foreign languages, there are many courses and institutions offering language courses. However, finding the right course and support for language learners is not so easy. It is very important to make these courses effective and enjoyable as education in this century is less concerned with the facts or rules of a language, but it is more concerned with learning practical skills that make use of these facts or rules. EAQUALS, the European Association for Quality Language Services, aims to assure the quality of teaching and learning in language schools and departments. The main task of EAQUALS is to ensure that the language teaching and other services provided in the institutions it accredits are of high quality. This qualitative study tries to find an answer to the question of to what extent the secondary education institutions in Turkey are able to apply the quality criteria of EAQUALS in English language teaching. The present study is going to broaden the research on improving and maintaining the quality of foreign language learning and teaching in Turkish secondary education institutions. (245 words) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a53dc16dd59dbf835a08e6d8a9a79571.pdf 515b7d41cfceae466884fbb9c4fc4172 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH CONTENT Alice Ying Nie New York City Teaching Fellows 2008 Fordham University alice.nie@gmail.com Abstract:Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and is not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful and applicable allowing for greater retention of the language. Past research has also shown that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar. In order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing are taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Introduction What we do with language varies context-to-context and task-to-task because language is largely a socio-cultural phenomenon. However, current English language instruction, both at the national as well as international realm, focuses mainly grammar using repetitive grammar exercises as means of instruction. Current curricula in English as a Second Language classroom are designed to teach English as a separate subject focusing on grammar. Most English language classrooms are designed in such a way where there is no link between English and the authentic language used in content classes or for academic purposes. Because of this, academic language is a serious problem for many international students when they begin college (Shi and Beckett, 2002). Many students graduate from secondary school having completed their English language exam yet possess little knowledge of the English language aside from what is required of them from repetitive grammar drills. As with the case in Hungary, many English Language students pass their English language exams but still lack the ability to accomplish English language tasks required for university courses. The teaching methodology employed in Hungary, focuses on teaching English grammar and students are seldom given the opportunity to practice conversation nor are they exposed to authentic English language. Past research have shown that ―teaching ESL students advanced literacy and discipline appropriate language is better done through authentic subject matter content rather than ‗dry run‘ practice‖ (164). Repetitive grammar reviews lacks authentic application and often, students will memorize grammar tenses without really understanding them and without practical application, the retention rate is much lower. There is also a lack of exposure to advanced literature in most English language classrooms causing a rift between what students are taught and what they are expected to know on an university level. When students participate in English courses at the university level, the content dramatically differs from what they were exposed to on the secondary educational level. As in the case of Hungary, English language exams at the secondary educational level consists mainly of grammatical multiple-choice questions. On the contrary, at the university level, students are immediately required to read, analyze and translate advanced university level text. Most students feel inadequately prepared and overwhelmed. Students are never taught cognitive language skills so instead of being able to decode and break down the text for comprehension, students look up individual words in the dictionary, which often gives them the incorrect definition of the word, and they are left with incoherent, isolated words. 84 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This discrepancy between what is taught in the classrooms and the practical application of the English language is what will be addressed in this paper. The content integrated approach to English language education has its roots in Systemic Functional Grammar first made popular in the 1960s by Michael Holliday. Contentbased language teaching was afterwards introduced in 1986 by Bernard Mohan‘s ―Language and Content.‖ While content integrated language education is slowly finding roots in the United States, using content to teach English is still a very foreign concept in most of the rest of the world. Language is a social phenomenon and is influenced largely by our environment and because of this, language should be taught pragmatically for social functions through content integrated curriculum. The goal of content integrated language education is to make meaning available to all students and it is key to both develop academic language as well as valuing the prior knowledge students bring with them into the classrooms. As Halliday (1989) points out, Language is a political institution: those who are wise in its ways, capable of using it to shape and serve important personal and social goals, will be the ones who are ―empowered‖ (to use a fashionable word): able, that is, not merely to participate effectively in the world, but able also to act upon it, in the sense that they can strive for significant social change (p. x). Content integrated English language education is the means to which students can be empowered. When instructors utilize prior knowledge, they are able to facilitate language comprehension by helping students derive meaning through the process of placing text within a framework of what the students are familiar with. The integration of content into English language lessons allows for students to connect language to its practical applications in their subject classes, which helps to both infuse meaning into language as well as provide scaffolding for their other classes. Theoretical Framework: Content integrated English language developed from Functional linguistics as opposed to rational linguistics, which governs much of Chomsky‘s theories on innate language knowledge. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) or Systemic Functional Grammar, which was first introduced by JR Firth, a British Linguists and then later developed by Michael Holliday in ―An Introduction to Functional Grammar‖ in the 1960s. The SFL approach to language education focuses on the practical uses of language rather than the analysis of grammatical language and is mainly concerned with how meaning is construed through spoken conversations and written texts. SFL sees language in a social context where the function of language is central to language development and calls for insightful analysis of text and discourse from a social perspective. Method of Studying: The method of study employed for this paper is a qualitative study. The qualitative study allows me to explore in depth the responses of the participants to provide an analytical perspective on the issue. This study does not provide any general quantitative results, only to gain a deeper understanding of the educational system in Hungary from the perspectives of university students in the country. Sampling: This study first started with two groups of English language students in a high school in Queens, New York. There were 20 students in one class and 24 students in the other class and both classes functioned under the newly developed, content integrated curriculum. The second half of this study focuses on twenty English language students at the University level in Hungary. Data Analysis Processes: The first half of the study focuses on the content integrated English language approach as a new method of instruction at Grover Cleveland High School in Queens, New York. Three different classes of students in the ninth and tenth grade participated in this program. Twenty to twenty five students were assigned to each class with two teachers per class, a content specialist and an English language specialist. The study follows the progress of these students for two years. The idea of the content integrated method is that ESL specialists work in collaboration with the content teacher. While the content teacher focuses on the specific academic objectives that need to be met, the ESL teacher identifies the language support needed in order for the students to comprehend the content information. At Grover Cleveland, the program was modeled after theories developed by Lilly Wong Filmore in which ESL teachers teach with Social Studies teacher in a small classroom setting of no more than twenty students during a two period block. In this classroom setting, students are encouraged to work in small groups. This allows for differentiation of instruction where students are grouped in accordance to their language ability. At the end of the two years, the students take the Social Studies High School Regents 85 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo exam and results of the ESL students in the content integrated classes were compared with results from students in regular ESL classrooms. There was a sixty percent increase in the regents passing rate for these students. The second half of this study analyses the survey results of twenty English language students living in Hungary. While the students surveyed are all University level students, participants all attended different middle and high school and the survey results include both private and public schools in Hungary. For the first half of the survey, students were asked to give a rating, from strongly disagree to strongly agree, to statements. When asked if students had opportunities to practice speaking in class, 80 percent of the students disagreed and the same was true for the statement: ―I felt that my English classes in high school prepared me for University level English reading and writing.‖ For the statement: ―Grammar was the main focus in my English classes in school,‖ 100 percent of the students agreed. When asked if teachers used history, science, and math to teach English, 100 percent of the students answered no. Two of the twenty students answered yes to the questions: ―Did teachers use real life situations to teach English?‖ and ―Did teachers teach using real literature or real newspaper stories?‖ The same two students who answered yes to these two questions also had an overall positive experience in their English classes and felt that they were prepared for University level English. For the second half of the survey, students were asked opened ended questions for a more in depth qualitative analysis. Students were asked questions such as: 1. What usually was the focus of each class? 2. Do you feel that your English language education prepared you for University level courses in English or for applying for jobs in the United States? 3. What do you feel are the strengths and weaknesses of English language education in Hungary? 4. In your English classes, what did you feel you always wanted more practice in? For question number 1, most students answered that grammar was the primary focus of their English classes and students also agreed that their English classes did not provide them with many opportunities to speak and ask questions. Students also agreed that the English they learned was not too useful because there was ―too much weight on grammar.‖ For question number 2, one student‘s response was: ―Not much. Ive learned English in the Hungarian School system for 8 years, from which I had 4 years of intensive course in High School. But my 80% of my English knowledge arouse from the Internet, jobs, films and series etc. Only 20% of it came from the school system.‖ Another student reflected on their overall language education while in secondary school and wrote: ―Practical and useful language knowledge can't be taught and learnt based on purely (or mostly purely) memorizing scientific grammar rules. Human cognitive behavior doesn't work that way. Expression and practice based learning is much more effective than this. On the other hand it‘s also a bad habit in Hungary that everything is about the paper. In this case, no one really cares about the real English knowledge, only about passing the state language exam. And the education is based around this only goal.‖ Students all felt that while grammar was taught strongly, the rest of English language education was weak. As for the question; ―In your English classes, what did you feel you always wanted more practice in?‖ Most students answered speaking and independent thinking. After ten years of English language education, one student wrote, ―When we were children and young, we were so shy and it was so easy just learning grammar and reading. But after, at university, when you meet with for example Erasmus student and you want speak with them…you can‘t, because your speaking skill is so low, end you feel you need more speaking practice.‖ The overemphasis on grammar in the Hungarian Language system has for the most part, inadequately prepared students for high level, academic English language tasks. Some students had answered that they had been learning English for over ten years but felt overwhelmed and inadequately prepared for university level English courses; ―At university the level is higher and more specific, the text are so difficult.‖ The discrepancy between what is taught at the secondary level and what is expected of students at the University level is a major problem in the Hungarian English language education. Students are not exposed to authentic English language while in secondary school and feel unprepared when they enter university classes where they are suddenly expected to read, analyze, and translate university level text. A Socio-Psycholinguistic Approach: The meaning within text is the creation of both the reader and the writer. Letters and words on a blank page itself do not hold any meaning, rather, it is the reader‘s interaction with the test that gives it meaning. In the transactional socio-psycholinguistic approach proposed by Goodman, he write; ―texts are constructed by authors to be comprehended by readers. The meaning is in the author and the reader. The text has a potential to evoke meaning but has no meaning in itself‖ (Goodman, 1994). The reader plays a highly active role in the process of comprehending text where the significance that the reader brings to the text is as important as the text itself. The cultural backgrounds that each student brings into the text aids in his or her comprehension of the text. Acknowledgement of this prior knowledge not only helps facilitate the comprehension of the text but also empowers students by valuing what they are able to contribute. 86 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With a focus on the holistic approach to teaching English as a second language, the transitional sociopsycholinguistic approach encourages students to find meaning in text rather than solely focusing on what each individual word means within a text. In other words, it‘s a top-down and whole-to-part approach, rather than a bottom-up, part-to-whole approach. According to Constance Weaver, author of Reading Process and Practice, this approach enables meaning to emerge ―as readers transact with a text in a specific situational context‖ (Weaver, 2002). Students are able to derive meaning from text by placing words, phrases, or sentences, within a particular context that they are already familiar with. This context, however, needs to be activated prior to the reading of the text as well as during the reading of the text by the educator. The activation of prior knowledge is necessary in order for students to make personal connections with the text to ensure comprehension. If there is no prior knowledge or schemas in place, it must be built. Once the schemas are in place, meaning will become a transaction between the reader and the words in the text (Weaver, 2002). Along with developing schemas, students need to be explicitly taught how to extrapolate meaning from text via context clues, how to make predictions and inferences about and within the text, and how to make text-to-self connections. Within the curriculum and the transactional socio-psycholinguistic approach to literacy, a comprehensive literacy program must be developed. Drawing from Constance Weaver‘s thoughts on literacy, the socio-psycholinguistic approach encourages a curriculum that incorporates a number of different reading and writing strategies that would aid in literacy development such as: read/write aloud, shared reading/writing, the guided reading/writing, sustained readings, and writing workshop. The reading and writing segments would incorporate the more holistic approach to literacy that Weaver argues for and would enable students to become more motivated, independent readers. Under the principles of the socio-psycholinguistic approach, students are taught to learn the parts of a language while immersed in the whole. Students are able to learn skills such as phonics and decoding while reading in context. In the article: ―Quality of Children‘s Recall under Two Classroom Testing Tasks: Towards a SocioPsycholinguistic Model of Reading Comprehension‖ by Mosenthal, research testing was done on various groups of students to understand the involvement of the socio-psycholinguistic model in reading comprehension. Children use four types of meaning while decoding reading material. One type is referential meaning, which is the literal interpretation of an external discourse. The second type of meaning is a text-structured meaning, which includes both logical inferences and enabling inferences. The text-structured meaning of reading comprehension states that students draw meaning from readings through logical inferences and reasoning to make the literature coherent. The third type of meaning is pragmatic inference meaning, which is based on understanding of the literature through world knowledge and not necessarily from the interpretation of the actual text. The last type of meaning is social meaning, which involves the comprehension of the text through the process of communication. Students will use different meanings within the classroom when decoding the reading material because children understand social meaning differently. The first reason why children understand social meaning differently is because of the different expectations placed on the students by the teachers. The second reason is due to the fact that students themselves have different expectations for themselves. Testing results in informal situations shows that; ―in informal testing tasks, the manner in which children relate new knowledge and schema knowledge depends upon how children comprehend social meaning and interact with their teacher.‖ (Mosenthal, 1980) Language, therefore, rather than being something that can be taught in isolation, is instead something that is interdependent upon the society, culture and educational contexts. In the article, the World Outside and Inside Schools: Language and Immigrant Children, Guadalupe Valdes argues that the social context in which language is taught plays a critical role. At Garden School where Valdes‘ conducted her study, students were given very little time to practice their oral communication skills and were not taught basic expressions for functioning in the classroom (Valdés, 1998). They were also given tasks inappropriate for their age, dumbed-down material and activities void of any academic language and content. For example, ―students would examine a picture, fill in the blank in each sentence, and color the picture of the boy‖ (Valdés, 1998). Students were also given worksheets to complete but were not given explicit instruction. The teachers at Garden School did not provide native language support or acknowledgement of the students‘ cultural background in their curriculum. As a result, students became frustrated, unmotivated and restless. If Garden School had a curriculum in place that acknowledged the cultural and linguistic background of the students, that incorporated meaningful activities and engaging literature and texts, gave ample instruction time for teaching the specific skills needed for academic growth, and had sufficient non-standard assessments in place; the students would thrive, would develop the necessary literacy and academic skills to succeed in school, and would be more motivated. In addition, there also needs to be open communication between ESL teachers and the content-area teachers so that the ESL teachers can provide the necessary instructional support to keep students academically up-to-par with their contemporaries. 87 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student to grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and are not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but simultaneously develops the students‘ Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful allowing for greater retention of the language. Classroom Applications and the Role of the ESL teacher: Critical pedagogy that empowers rather than disable students utilizes the transactional sociopsycholinguistic literacy approaches through comprehensive reading programs and engaging curriculum to create a better educational environment for students. Assessing prior knowledge and choosing text connected to content are two essential elements to foster an empowering environment for comprehension of reading assignments. To access prior knowledge, teachers can utilize a range of activities. A quick activity can be writing down a question related to the text on the board and asking students to think about and respond to it. As the students are writing down their answers, the teacher should walk around the class reading the responses and selecting students to share allowed. Students are given the opportunity to first think about the topic and write down their thoughts before having to speak out loud allowing for the quiet and shy students to participate. The teacher is given the chance to select the answers to be shared out loud, guiding the students to the text. Another way that teachers can help access prior knowledge is with a more involved activity such as a KWL (what do you Know, what do you Want to know, and what have you Learned) chart. Students are asked to complete the first two parts, what do you know and what do you want to know, prior to the reading. Students will share their answers and then complete the last part, what have you learned, after reading the text. In the process of accessing prior knowledge, the teacher is first of all, validating the student‘s knowledge and cultural background. Students not only become invested and engaged in the lesson but also empowered to voice their thoughts and opinions. Motivating students to tap into prior knowledge also enables students to better understand the text. Students make connection between what they know and what they are expected to learn filling the text with meaning. Questions and vocabulary will often arise during this phase providing instructors the opportunity to further scaffold the text. The second crucial classroom practice is selecting content infused text to teach literacy skills. Content rich lessons provide students with meaningful text to exposure academic language that is applicable in their other subject classes. Past research also show that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar and struggle in mainstream classes because the academic language is too challenging. This is why ESL teachers must expose students to academic language in ESL classrooms so that the students can excel when they are in mainstream classes. However, in order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing must be taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Well-developed ESL-content lessons must incorporate both English language goals, as well as content goals. Each lesson must have a content objective and a language objective that matches the content objective. For example, if the content objective is teaching the role of Gandhi in India, then the language objective can be the use of cause and effect phrases to write complex sentences. It would not be effective to teach the future tense during a history lesson on what happened in World War II. Taking the example: ―The dog walks down the street,‖ if the language objective is to teach the simple present tense, then a better means of achieving this objective could be through a social studies lesson on the current political parties in the United States. The grammar objective of the simple present tense would be taught through sentences such as: ―Even though the current president is from the Democratic party, the Republicans holds the majority of the seats in the congress.‖ A content focused English language lesson serves to meet three purposes. First of all, students are able to access prior knowledge to better understand the text. In the example above on political parties, if the student has any prior knowledge about politics and political parties, then they are able to use that knowledge and apply it to the lesson. Secondly, students are taught academic language helping them succeed in their content classes. English language classes can provide the vocabulary to help scaffold comprehension in their regular social studies or science classes. Lastly, content focused English language lessons utilize age appropriate material to teach the language. Rather than dumbing-down the material, which makes students feel stupid, content focused lessons 88 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo uses grade appropriate material using the same text and vocabulary as their peers in regular, mainstream classrooms. In developing content related ESL lessons, it is essential for ESL teachers to work alongside content area teachers to define the content objectives and figure out how language can be used to help achieve the content objective. The ideal arrangement for a Content English Language classroom would be a co-teaching environment where the content teacher and the English language teacher are both in the classroom teaching together. Curriculum, lesson plans, assessments and evaluation of the students‘ progress are all discussed and planned together so that both content objectives and language objectives are being met. Conclusion: It is through education and knowledge that a person can be empowered and it is the job of the teacher to empower our students to think critically on their own, to understand, analyze and evaluate the world they live in. To be effective teachers, one must first learn to understand where our students are coming from, their culture and backgrounds. Teachers must first learn about the students, to appreciate and value the knowledge that each student brings to class in order to effectively utilize our students‘ knowledge to teach them. Too often, students are not given the chance to access their prior knowledge. The knowledge that students hold in their experiences in life are not valued nor utilized in classrooms. Instead, we teach them to study and memorize obscure facts that are not related to their understanding of the world. Without making the connection between what they know and what they are learning, students are not able to see the importance and the value of the lesson. Learning is a process of understanding and interpreting the information presented to us, which cannot happen if students are taught to just regurgitate the information teachers give them. The process of knowledge acquisition therefore requires tremendous scaffolding so that students are not receiving the information superficially but understanding it in depth. Students must see the relevance of the information to their personal lives, which happens when teachers access prior knowledge to help students connect the lesson with what they already know. Bridging the gap between language acquisition and content information allows students to see the relevance of the language in practice. As ESL teachers, it is our duty to both value our students‘ diverse backgrounds as well as guide them towards success in their subject area classes. References Cummins, J. (1995). Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention. In O. Garcia & C. Baker (Eds). Policy and Practice in Bilingual Education: Extending the Foundations. Great Britain: Multilingual Matters. Goodman, Y., & K. (1990). Vygotsky in a whole language perspective. In L. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education (pp. 223-250). London: Cambridge University Press. Goodman, Y., & K. (1994). To err is human: Learning about language processes by analyzing miscues. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th vol, pp. 104-23). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Mosenthal, P. (1980). Quality of Children‘s Recall under Two Classroom Testing Tasks: Towards a Socio-Psycholinguistic Model of Reading Comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 4, 504528. Shi, L., & Beckett, G. H. (2002). Japanese exchange students‘ writing experiences in a Canadian university. TESL Canada Journal, 20(1), 38-56. Valdés, G., (1998). The World Outside and Inside Schools: Language and Immigrant Children. Educational Researcher, Vol. 27, No.6, 4-18. Wang, S. (2006). A socio-psycholinguistic study on L2 Chinese readers‘ behavior while reading orally. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 67, 01. 89 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Weaver, Constance. (1994). Reading Process and Practice: From SocioPsycholinguistics to Whole Language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Weaver, C. (2002). Reading Process and Practice: From SocioPsycholinguistics to Whole Language (3rd ed). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 90 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 16 Title A name given to the resource ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH CONTENT Author Author Ying Nie, Alice Abstract A summary of the resource. :Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and is not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful and applicable allowing for greater retention of the language. Past research has also shown that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar. In order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing are taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics