10 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/feb20be2e5dac7e85e19d9b65e29c2b6.pdf 358a4f9a82add476da9123f8b19e2dba Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3266 Title A name given to the resource Pre-Primary Teachers’ Beliefs about Early Foreign Language Learning in Slovenia Author Author Dagarin Fojkar, Mateja Abstract A summary of the resource. The introduction of foreign languages into the early years has spurred a need for qualified teachers. Most of the recent studies (e.g. Garton, Copland & Burns, 2011; Mourão & Lourenço, 2015; Murphy & Evangelou, 2016) reveal that there are not enough teachers who would be proficient in a foreign language and at the same time have thorough knowledge of the preschool curriculum and methodology of teaching foreign languages to young learners. More pre-service and in-service teacher training in this area is highly recommended. In Slovenia, there is currently only a two-year in-service teacher-training programme for pre-primary teachers who wish to gain a formal certificate to teach English to children from the ages of 3 to 6 and only a few teachers have finished it. Nevertheless, the research shows that in 2009/2010 almost half of Slovene kindergartens (47,5%) offered some form of foreign language teaching to children and we can assume that this number has grown in the last six years. Ideally, foreign languages would be taught by trained pre-primary teachers, proficient in foreign languages and early language teaching methodology, and therefore we have conducted a research among 369 pre-primary teachers, asking them about their beliefs about early foreign language learning. Questionnaires were administered to all the participants in the study. The results show that most pre-primary teachers have a positive attitude to early foreign language learning. Most of them think that children should start learning a foreign language in kindergarten and that foreign language learning should be integrated into the preschool curriculum. They think that foreign languages should be taught by qualified pre-primary teachers and approximately half of them are willing to train for early FL teaching. Their attitude to early foreign language learning brings an optimistic forecast into the future, but there is still a lot to be done for effective inclusion of foreign languages into pre-primary education. Keywords: preschool children, pre-primary teachers, foreign language learning Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/db25f4a7b966f60352d0ad2e0aabe974.pdf f0cc5fe57ffa79f5a48cd1678930e841 PDF Text Text 1 Language learning through Facebook: A descriptive case study Judit Papp University of Naples “L’Orientale”, Italy Abstract: According to the statistics as of 15 November 2015 in Italy there are about 28,000,000 Facebook subscribers, which means a 46.1% penetration rate.1 Facebook is also the most commonly used social networking tool among university students: their involvement and the hours they spend on this popular networking site should encourage educators in higher education institutions to consider it as a place for learning and to integrate it in the academic practices. This paper reports and analyzes the data collected using a questionnaire concerning students’ perceptions of language learning possibilities on Facebook. The survey was conducted at the University of Naples “L’Orientale” (Department of Literary, Linguistics and Comparative Studies) during the academic year 2015-2016 and involved students enrolled in three different courses. At this step, students’ perceptions and attitudes were measured through a questionnaire including several questions about demographic information, their perceptions of Facebook and their use and behavior on this social network site. The main purpose of this study was to find out the role and benefits of Facebook in students’ language learning processes, whether Facebook is able to improve students’ language skills and whether students use specific Facebook groups to facilitate language learning. The study was limited only to the generic social networking site Facebook, excluding all the other social networking sites (including the relatively new Language Learning Social Network Sites (LLSNSs) too, such as Babbel, Busuu, italki; Polyglotclub, etc.) Keywords: Social networking sites, Facebook, Foreign language learning, Engagement 1. Introduction In this study I explore students’ engagement on Facebook and their perceptions of it as a language learning tool. It is interesting to investigate how much time students spend on Facebook, however, it is even more stimulating to try to understand what they are doing while logged in, how they are using the different possibilities available on Facebook. This research survey was conducted at the University of Naples “L’Orientale” (Department of Literary, Linguistics and Comparative Studies) during the academic year 2015-2016 with the aim to explore how students use Facebook for academic purpose specially to enhance their second-language skills. It involved a total of 119 students (mainly Italians: 110 out of 119) enrolled in three different courses: Applied linguistics, General translation studies and Literary translation studies. The first two courses are part of one of the Department’s three-year degree 1 http://www.internetworldstats.com/europa.htm#it �2 courses programs (Linguistic and cultural mediation), while the third one is part of some of the Department’s two-year post-graduate degree programs: 93 participants are students of the three-year degree courses program in Linguistic and cultural mediation. 26 participants are students of the two-year post-graduate degree programs (22 students of European and American languages and literatures, 3 students of Comparative literatures and cultures and 1 student of Specialist translation). 2. Method Students’ perceptions, their attitudes towards Facebook and their behavior on this networking site were measured through a questionnaire containing, among others, questions concerning demographic information (students personal data, age, gender, mother tongue, course program, languages studied inside and outside the university), time commitment (number of loggings on Facebook, amount of time spent on Facebook weekly), main reasons for the usage of this social networking site, the usefulness of Facebook for language learning from the students’ point of view, the nature of Facebook’s influence on students’ language learning, memberships in specific Facebook groups for language learning, etc. 3. Findings and discussion The gender figures of the students involved in the survey are illustrated in the following table: three-year degree courses program two-year post-graduate degree program three-year degree courses program two-year post-graduate degree program female 80 (86%) male 13 (14%) 23 (88.5%) 3 (11.5%) Italian students 85 (91.4%) International students (regularly enrolled, mother tongue not Italian) 8 (8.6%) 25 (96.2%) 1 (3.8%) In total, in the survey participated 103 female (86.6%) and 16 male (13.4%) students. The gender figures are fairly representative of the ratio of the general population of university students in the second year of the Linguistic and cultural mediation course program [18.62% male (n=108) and 81.38% female (n=472)] and the second year of the European and American languages and literatures, Comparative literatures and cultures and Specialist translation course programs [12.12% male (n=40) and 87.88% female (n=290)] of the University of Naples “L’Orientale”. The majority (84.87%) of the participants were in the 19-26 years category: �3 Three-year degree courses program2 Two-year post-graduate degree program3 Age group 19-21 22-26 Number of participants 81 out of 93 (87.1%) 20 out of 26 (76.9%) For further researches also the geographical distribution of the participants could be interesting, so according to the data stated by the students in the questionnaire, the geographical distribution is the following: Three-year degree courses program: Province of Naples Province of Caserta Province of Salerno Province of Avellino Others (Latina, Foggia, Benevento, Lecce, Catanzaro, Bari, Potenza) 49 students 20 students 7 students 5 students 12 students Two-year post-graduate degree program: Province of Naples Province of Caserta Province of Salerno Province of Potenza Province of Bari 14 students 7 students 3 students 1 student 1 student Considering the languages studied inside and outside the university, the participants of the survey do not constitute a homogenous group. Students of the three-year degree courses program participating in the survey study the following languages: English (50 students), German (39 students), Russian (33 students), French (24 students), Spanish (22 students), Arabic (9 students), Dutch (3 students) and Portuguese (5 students). English-Russian English-German French-German German-Spanish French-Spanish English-French German-Russian Russian-Spanish English-Portuguese Arabic-Spanish 2 19 18 8 7 6 5 5 5 4 3 Arabic-English Arabic-French French-Russian Arabic-Russian English-Dutch French-Dutch German-Dutch Russian-Polish Spanish-Portuguese 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 students were in the 19 years, 49 students in the 20 years, 16 students in the 21 years, 4 students in the 22 years, 1 student in the 23 years, 3 students in the 24 years, 2 students in the 25 years, 1 student in the 28 years and 1 (international) student in the 42 years category. 3 1 student was in the 21 years, 4 students were in the 22 years, 3 students in the 23 years, 5 students in the 24 years, 5 students in the 25 years, 3 students in the 26 years, 1 student in the 27 years, 1 student in the 28 years, 1 student in the 29 years and 2 students in the 33 years category. �4 Distribution of the language pairs studied by the 1st level participants Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program participating in the survey study the following languages: English (19 students), Spanish (11 students), German (5 students), French (4 students), Swedish (2 students), Russian (1 student), Chinese (1 student) and Japanese (1 student). English-Spanish 7 English-Chinese 1 English-German 4 English-Japanese 1 English 3 Spanish-French 1 Spanish 3 English-French 1 French 2 German-Russian 1 Swedish-English 2 Distribution of the languages/language pairs studied by the 2nd level participants The questionnaire contained various questions concerning Facebook usage and students’ perceptions and the analyzes of the answers is rather interesting. The first question asked how many times a day students log in to Facebook? According to the definition of Prensky (2001), all the 119 respondents are native digitals, they have a Facebook account and they spend a substantial amount of time logged in Facebook. This social networking site is an integral part of the daily routine of the majority of the participants and they use it both on desktop and mobile devices (logging in with their phones). Students’ answers indicate also that 2nd level students log in to Facebook less often. Students of the three-year degree courses program: From 1 to 5 From 6 to 10 More than 10 33 (35.48%) 33 (35.48%) 27 (29.03%) Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program: From 1 to 5 From 6 to 10 More than 10 13 (50%) 8 (30.77%) 5 (19.23%) The second question asked the average amount of time students spend on Facebook a week: Students of the three-year degree courses program: No answer 3 (3.23%) �5 Max. 1 hour From 1 to 3 hours From 4 to 8 hours From 10 to 20 hours From 20 to 100 hours Significant amount of time Not too much 16 (17.20%) 31 (33.33%) 22 (23.66%) 15 (16.13%) 5 (5.38%) 1 (1.08%) No answer Max. 1 hour From 1 to 3 hours From 4 to 8 hours From 10 to 20 hours From 20 to 100 hours Significant amount of time 2 (7.69%) 2 (7.69%) 8 (30.77%) 5 (19.23%) 4 (15.38%) 4 (15.38%) 1 (3.85%) Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program: According to their answers, every week students spend a significant amount of time on Facebook and this information should be considered also for the academic practices. Generally speaking, we can state that the majority of the students spend at least one hour a day on Facebook. The third question asked about the language(s) the participants most frequently use on Facebook beyond the Italian language (or in case of foreign students, beyond their mother tongue): Students of the three-year degree courses program: English English and French English and Spanish French English and Russian English, Spanish and Portuguese English, Spanish and German English and German Spanish NONE English, French and German. English, Spanish and French 37 13 9 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 English, German and Russian English, Spanish, German and French Italian, French, English and a little Russian Italian, English and Russian Dutch Polish Russian Only Italian and mothertongues Spanish and French German 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 83.87% of the students uses also English on Facebook, which is again a rather significant value, yet educators should not neglect the usage of German, French, Spanish and Russian as well as second languages. Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program: �6 English English, Spanish English and French English and German English and Chinese English, Spanish and French 8 6 2 2 1 1 English, Spanish and Swedish English and Swedish English, German and Russian Italian (L2) Spanish Spanish and French 1 1 1 1 1 1 Within the two-year post-graduate degree program, the situation is similar. 23 (88.46%) of the participants use English as a second language on Facebook. A consistent number of students uses on the social networking site also Spanish (10, 38.46%) and French (4, 15.38%). The fourth question asked students about the main reasons for which they usually use Facebook: According to the answers, it seems that usually students are more passive than active on Facebook. They seem to spend more time observing or reading contents on Facebook than posting them. The main reasons Facebook is used by the students are for fun and entertainment and for social interaction, usually with faraway family members or friends with whom students have a pre-established, existing relationship. After these two primary uses of Facebook, this social networking site has also an important role in the academic lives of the students involved in this study. Almost all the students are member of different closed university groups. There are two types of university groups: one created and administered by the same educators (less frequent) and the ones created and administered by the students in which professors are not welcome. In the latter ones, students are involved in education-related communication. There are groups dedicated to almost all the courses taught at the University and they are used mainly for organizational reasons and to connect with and communicate with the other students of the different courses. Usually students communicate about course materials, contents of the lessons, most frequently they publish questions about the exams or the results of the written exams, Erasmus exchange, but also about exam sessions and other generic topics concerning various academic practices. Many students of the three-year degree courses program (35.48%) state that they are using Facebook also to learn language and culture, so as a tool able to support self-training. However, this value diminishes noticeably among the students of the two-year post-graduate degree program. Students of the three-year degree courses program: Fun, leisure, entertainment Social interaction (to keep in touch with faraway family and friends) Language learning As a source of information For work or sale or hobby To like pages dedicated to films, TV series, music, handicraft, etc. To share photos/videos 72 (77.42%) 66 (70.97%) 33 (35.48%) 15 (16.13%) 7 (7.53%) 5 (5.38%) 4 (4.30%) �7 To see the photos, videos and posts on the wall of the friends To share and/or to see links To communicate with foreign friends To like journals, websites, etc. To chat To follow and/or discover trends 4 (4.30%) 3 (3.23%) 3 (3.23%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program: Social interaction (to keep in touch with faraway family and friends) Fun, leisure, entertainment As a source of information Language learning Boredom 23 (88.46%) 16 (61.54%) 8 (30.77%) 6 (23.08%) 1 (3.85%) Considering the content of the two tables above, it is also evident, that all these students are familiar with the various receptive and productive activities available on Facebook, such as chatting, messaging, liking pages and groups, sharing images, videos, links, commenting on walls, etc. The fifth question asked students about their usage of Facebook to learn languages. According to the answers, 20 (21.51%) out of 93 students of the three-year degree courses program do not use Facebook for language learning, while 2 students affirmed that language learning is only a secondary effect of this social networking site. To the specific question concerning the usage of Facebook for language-learning reasons, 71 students (76.34%) affirm to use Facebook with this aim too. 49 students (52.69%) use Facebook to enhance their English, 29 (31.18%) to enhance their French, 18 (19.35%) to enhance their Spanish, 17 (18.28%) to enhance their German and 12 (12.90%) to enhance their Russian language skills. No 20 (21.51%) Yes, English 15 (16.13%) Yes, French 6 (6.45%) Yes, English and French 6 (6.45%) Yes, English and German 5 (5.38%) Yes, Russian 4 (4.30%) Yes, German 4 (4.30%) Yes, Spanish and German 3 (3.23%) Yes, English, Spanish and 3 (3.23%) Portuguese Yes, English and Russian 3 (3.23%) Yes, Spanish 2 (2.15%) Yes, English, Spanish and Russian Yes, English, French and Russian Yes, English, French and German Yes, English and Spanish Yes, English and Arabic As a secondary effect, English Yes, Spanish, German and Dutch Yes, Russian and Spanish Yes, Italian (as L2) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 2 (2.15%) 1 (1.08%) 1 (1.08%) 1 (1.08%) �8 Yes, French and German 1 (1.08%) Yes, English, Spanish and 1 (1.08%) Arabic Yes, English, French, 1 (1.08%) Spanish and Italian (L2) Yes, English, French, German and Spanish Yes, English, French and Spanish Yes, English and Dutch Yes, Arabic 1 (1.08%) 1 (1.08%) 1 (1.08%) 1 (1.08%) 7 students (26.93%) of the two-year post-graduate degree program do not use Facebook to enhance their language skills and 4 students (15.38%) are not really persuaded by Facebook as a learning place, even if they admit its usefulness in a certain measure. 15 students (57.69%) use this social networking site also to learn English, 8 students (30.77%) use it for Spanish and others also for French, German and other languages (Swedish, Russian, Chinese). No Yes, English and Spanish Yes, English Yes, French Yes, English and Chinese Yes, English and French Yes, English and Swedish Yes, English, Swedish, Spanish and French 7 (26.93%) 4 (15.38%) 3 (11.54%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) Yes, English, German and Russian Yes, Spanish Yes, Spanish and French As a secondary effect, English Not too much, English, Spanish and French Rarely, English and German Occasionally, German 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) The aim of the next question was to explore, in case of Facebook usage for language learning, which activities or options of the site are typically used. Students of the three-year degree courses program usually chat with Facebook friends who are native speakers of the languages they study and want to improve. In this case Facebook has an important function in language learning: to substitute the direct face-to-face relationship it is able to provide interactive and authentic access to native speakers and also to different kind of documents in various languages. So, from this point of view, one of the main benefits of Facebook is that it facilitates collaborative exchanges between language learners and native speakers. Some students are members of specific Facebook groups and others follow various pages written in foreign languages. Following foreign newspapers or famous persons allows also to avoid adding strangers to the friend list and giving them access to the personal information, while it ensures a certain level of exposure to the foreign language through the various feeds. �9 To a lesser extent, students also engage in several other common activities on the site. It is interesting to point out that a part of the students changed the language of their account (Facebook language settings) in a language different from their mother tongue as they are convinced that it can offer certain benefits to the language learning process and it provides more exposure to the target language. Students of the three-year degree courses program: Not applicable Chatting with native speakers Being member of groups created for language learners “Liking” pages in foreign languages (newspapers, journals, recensions of disks, make-up, pastry making…) Watching videos in foreign languages Reading articles in foreign languages Reading and/or commenting posts written by foreign friends Setting Facebook in a foreign language “Liking” pages dedicated to teaching foreign languages Visiting links in foreign languages Listening to songs Watching images in foreign languages Visiting pages where users upload TV series in English 18 (19.35%) 32 (34.40%) 20 (21.51%) 17 (18.28%) 13 (13.98%) 10 (10.75%) 8 (8.60%) 8 (8.60%) 7 (7.53%) 5 (5.38%) 3 (3.23%) 2 (2.15%) 1 (1.08%) Students of the 2nd level are also engaged in certain common Facebook activities with the aim of facilitating language learning. Students of the two-year post-graduate degree program: Not applicable Being member of groups created for language learners “Liking” pages in foreign languages (newspapers, journals, recensions of disks, make-up, pastry making…) “Liking” pages dedicated to teaching foreign languages Reading articles in foreign languages Chatting with native speakers Listening to interviews Reading and/or commenting posts written by foreign friends Watching videos in foreign languages Writing posts in foreign languages 8 (30.77%) 6 (23.08%) 6 (23.08%) 5 (19.23%) 5 (19.23%) 3 (11.54%) 2 (7.69%) 2 (7.69%) 2 (7.69%) 1 (3.85%) The seventh question asked students whether Facebook can enhance the knowledge of foreign languages. The majority of the students (more than 60%) of the three-year degree courses �10 program clearly agree that Facebook can be a useful tool in language learning. However, there is a certain difference between the two groups: in fact, this rate decreased significantly in the second group: Three-year degree courses program: Yes No Yes, a bit Yes, enough Not much Yes, very much Yes, partially Yes, minimally Sometimes 44 (47.31%) 8 (8.60%) 8 (8.60%) 7 (7.53%) 6 (6.45%) 6 (6.45%) 4 (4.30%) 4 (4.30%) 4 (4.30%) Two-year post-graduate degree program: Yes No Yes, enough Yes, minimally Not much Yes, more or less 13 (50%) 5 (19.23%) 4 (15.38%) 2 (7.69%) 1 (3.85%) 1 (3.85%) The next open question then was related to the previous one and wanted to investigate the role of Facebook in enhancing students’ different language skills. So, in this question I’ve asked the participants to describe those language skills that according to them can be enhanced simply using Facebook. They were asked also to differentiate their answers according to the different languages they use on Facebook. However, at this step I’ll illustrate the comprehensive outcome of this investigation. The results illustrated that, from the perceptions of the students, Facebook is a resource that with its different features is able to enrich their vocabulary and reading, writing and listening skills in the different foreign languages. In both groups a great number of students affirmed that they can learn or absorb many new vocabularies and expressions rather unconsciously just reading posts, comments, article, etc. on Facebook. A certain number of students answered that they can learn jokes, slang words and expressions just as a result of a natural and unconscious process, and they can experience a deepened understanding of the different cultures: Three-year degree courses program: Vocabulary Reading Writing 70 (75.53%) 63 (67.77%) 49 (52.69%) Listening Proverbs, idioms, wordplays Youth slang Speaking Pronunciation 39 (41.94%) 11 (11.83%) 10 (10.75%) 8 (8.60%) 2 (2.15%) �11 Two-year post-graduate degree program: Listening Speaking Youth slang Proverbs, wordplays Vocabulary 9 (34.62%) 3 (11.54%) 3 (11.54%) idioms, 1 (3.85%) 18 (69.23%) Reading 16 (61.54%) Writing 16 (61.54%) With the aid of the next question I wanted to investigate further their behavior concerning the liking and following of pages in foreign languages (especially pages concerning language learning, newspapers, journals, TV series, etc.). The main part of the participants uses this common option of Facebook and some of the most popular pages for language learning are the followings: Ich liebe Deutsch, J’aime le français, Phrasal Verbs Club, Tedesco per italiani, Goethe Institut - Deutsch lernen, Deutsch Italia, Fun Russian, Impara il russo con Tanyusha, Russian Vocabulary, Centro russo dell’Università degli studi di Napoli “L’Orientale”, English idioms, English Speaking Club; English is Fun, BBC Learning English, IELTS Official, Cambridge English, Apprendre le Français, Praticamos Espanol, etc. three-year degree courses program two-year post-graduate degree program Yes 68 (73.11%) No 25 (26.69%) 24 (92.30%) 2 (7.70%) Finally, a particular attention was paid in this survey to Facebook groups (a feature available on Facebook to gather users that share common interests) for language teaching and learning. In fact, the last open question investigated the level of students’ participation in Facebook groups for language learning. While all participants are familiar with Facebook groups and their features, it seems that the groups for language learning are not really popular. The main part of the students felt that utilizing Facebook groups as a tool for language learning does not really supports language acquisition and only few of them are members of these particular kind of Facebook groups: A few examples given by the students are the followings: Es. Studiamo il tedesco: grammatica-regole e frasi utili, Studiamo il francese: Grammatica-Regole-Frasi utili, Studiamo il Tedesco: Grammatica-Regole-Frasi utili, Nederlands als tweede tal, Polyglot gathering, Tandem Deutsch-Italienisch / Tandem Tedesco-Italiano, Jetzt lernen wir Deutsch, Italienisch Lernen - imparare il tedesco, Uk languages courses, Linguaenglish, Learn English with SOLEX College, BBC Learning English. No Yes �12 three-year degree courses program two-year post-graduate degree program 65 (69.89%) 28 (30,11%) 20 (76.92%) 6 (23.08%) 4. Conclusion Analyzing the answers, it is also discovered that despite the positive affective influences Facebook in general and Facebook groups in particular have on the participants, many students still prefer the actual classroom discussion or other social networking sites or other resources (skype) instead of Facebook. However, this study offers opportunities for future research at our University and in the Italian context as well concerning the usage of Facebook in higher education. Understanding better how students are using Facebook and the other popular social networking sites for academic purposes and also outside the university to support and integrate their learning processes and to increase their knowledge of the target culture may provide valuable data and ideas about how these learning opportunities could be integrated also into the formal university context. As it is rather evident that students are highly interested in Facebook for educational and education-related purposes, in my opinion, it should also encourage faculty members in a greater extent to use this networking site during the educational process. �13 Appendix a) Three-year degree courses program Questions concerning Facebook and Facebook Groups 1. I use English in the FB groups I’m a member 2. I use other foreign languages in the FB groups I’m a member Please, specify the language(s) 3. I talk about my language courses with my FB friends 4. I ask questions about the lessons/activities done during the language lessons 5. I ask generic questions about foreign languages 6. I speak/write in English on Facebook about different topics 7. I speak/write in other Foreign languages on Facebook about different topics Please, specify the language(s) 8. I publish useful and interesting posts in foreign languages 11. I never neglect the posts of other users concerning language learning 10. I “like” if I see groups promoting language learning Always Sometimes Never 4 11 Italian Russian (3) Spanish (4) German (4) French (3) 29 44 20 54 32 French (11) German (10) Spanish (9) Russian (6) Arabic (1) Portuguese (1) Dutch (1) 57 22 52 13 14 8 54 62 19 17 7 Spanish (2) French (3) German (1) Italian (1) Russian (1) 34 13 46 French (18) German (12) Spanish (17) Russian (9) Portuguese (2) Italian (2) Dutch (2) Arabic (1) 50 30 47 10 48 32 7 10 24 �14 11. I write in foreign languages on Facebook whenever I can Please, specify the language(s) 27 English (20) French (10) Spanish (11) German (7) Russian (4) Italian (1) Portuguese (1) 12. I learn new words/expressions through my 44 conversations on Facebook English (33) Please, specify the language(s) Spanish (16) French (12) German (10) Russian (5) Portuguese (4) Dutch (2) Italian (1) 13. If necessary, to chat on Facebook in foreign 25 languages, I use dictionaries 14. If during the conversations in foreign 39 languages, I have difficulties, I ask for help/explanation 15. I share my stories and personal experiences on 9 Facebook in foreign languages b) Two-year post-graduate degree program 45 English (33) French (12) Spanish (13) German (9) Russian (6) Dutch (2) Arabic (1) 34 English (25) French (11) Spanish (9) German (3) Russian (3) Arabic (1) Dutch (1) 15 47 15 39 9 36 25 9 Questions concerning Facebook and Facebook Groups 1. I use English in the FB groups I’m a member 2. I use other foreign languages in the FB groups I’m a member Please, specify the language(s) Always Sometimes Neve r 9 13 5 2 French (1) Spanish (2) 3. I talk about my language courses with my FB friends 1 11 10 French (4) Spanish (4) German (2) Swedish (1) Chinese (1) 18 4. I ask questions about the lessons/activities done during the language lessons 5. I ask generic questions about foreign languages 6. I speak/write in English on Facebook about different topics 7. I speak/write in other Foreign languages on Facebook about different topics 6 16 3 1 1 19 22 5 2 1 Spanish 16 Spanish (8) 8 6 �15 Please, specify the language(s) 8. I publish useful and interesting posts in foreign languages 9. I never neglect the posts of other users concerning language learning 10. I “like” if I see groups promoting language learning 11. I write in foreign languages on Facebook whenever I can Please, specify the language(s) 6 French (5) German (3) Swedish (1) Chinese (1) Italian (1) 16 7 18 14 7 English (6) Spanish (5) French (4) German (1) 3 4 3 12. I learn new words/expressions through my conversations on Facebook Please, specify the language(s) 10 English (9) Spanish (6) French (3) German (2) Italian (1) Swedish (1) 13. If necessary, to chat on Facebook in foreign languages, I use dictionaries 14. If during the conversations in foreign languages, I have difficulties, I ask for help/explanation 15. I share my stories and personal experiences on Facebook in foreign languages 5 8 14 English (14) Spanish (5) German (3) French (1) Italian (1) Chinese (1) 12 English (12) Spanish (5) French (3) German (2) Russian (1) Swedish (1) Chinese (1) 17 6 13 6 3 9 13 References: Abidin, M. J. Z., Ahmad, N., & Kabilan, M. K. (2010). Facebook: An online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education. 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Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bioscience and Bioinformatics (ICBB ’11). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Arts and Culture (ICAC ’11). Montreux, Switzerland. December 29-31, 2011. WSEAS Press. Retrieved on May 22, 2016 from http://www.wseas.us/elibrary/conferences/2011/Montreux/COMICICBIO/COMICICBIO-11.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3265 Title A name given to the resource Language learning through Facebook: A descriptive case study Author Author Papp, Judit Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the statistics as of 15 November 2015 in Italy there are about 28,000,000 Facebook subscribers, which means a 46.1% penetration rate. Facebook is also the most commonly used social networking tool among university students: their involvement and the hours they spend on this popular networking site should encourage educators in higher education institutions to consider it as a place for learning and to integrate it in the academic practices. This paper reports and analyzes the data collected using a questionnaire concerning students’ perceptions of language learning possibilities on Facebook. The survey was conducted at the University of Naples “L’Orientale” (Department of Literary, Linguistics and Comparative Studies) during the academic year 2015-2016 and involved students enrolled in three different courses. At this step, students’ perceptions and attitudes were measured through a questionnaire including several questions about demographic information, their perceptions of Facebook and their use and behavior on this social network site. The main purpose of this study was to find out the role and benefits of Facebook in students’ language learning processes, whether Facebook is able to improve students’ language skills and whether students use specific Facebook groups to facilitate language learning. The study was limited only to the generic social networking site Facebook, excluding all the other social networking sites (including the relatively new Language Learning Social Network Sites (LLSNSs) too, such as Babbel, Busuu, italki; Polyglotclub, etc.) Keywords: Social networking sites, Facebook, Foreign language learning, Engagement Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d3a9a09c067ef54f5811dfd4da5932f9.pdf 4d8f3ada1d46be09541b6fe508c98ad5 PDF Text Text Overcoming EFL Obstacles to (Reading) Academic Texts – Class Observation Iva Čupić & Martina Klanjčić Dag Hammarskjöld University College of International Relations and Diplomacy, Croatia Abstract: What are the obstacles that impede understanding and decrease proficiency in reading academic texts in ESP? Correspondingly, how can they be overcome to achieve learning outcomes of EFL courses at tertiary level? Broadly speaking, academic texts are used in numerous learning processes across various stages of study. They are designed or aimed at such a purposeso as to facilitate instruction and the transfer of knowledge in academic subjects studied at the university level by providing textual input for the conceptualization and presentation of facts and hypotheses related to students’ respective fields of study. In ESP teaching they are used to introduce academic language through relevant academic content, aiming to draw upon the students’ existing vocabulary base, build new lexicalsemantic connections and raise the students’ overall foreign language proficiency level. Upon direct class observation, the authors have found that students perceive such texts as unnecessarily complex and the language they employ as obsolete and overly pretentious to be considered instrumental. The underlying reasons for this potentially disallowing perspective can be linked to insufficient knowledge of advanced professional vocabulary, elaborate grammatical structures and rhetorical organization patterns, coupled with affective factors, often manifested in the acquired bias toward more “everyday” texts employed in previous language instruction, which provide only a limited representation of language. The role of the teacher is thus to stimulate and channel the students’ professed interest and curiosity for their field of study by exploiting academic texts and various language acquisition techniques in order for students to successfully tackle demanding content and acquire new vocabulary and structures. This paper will aim to determine the common features of texts used in tertiary level ESP, namely in applied health sciences and international relations, and to explore and design effective reading techniques and language exercises that might help develop a comprehensive approach to the multilayer pattern that is academic text. Keywords: academic text, tertiary level ESP, learning obstacles, reading techniques 1. Introduction: academic text At the tertiary level of education, the academic text is used as an indispensable tool in numerous learning processes across different subjects and various stages of study. Employed to advance instruction and facilitate the transfer of knowledge in all academic subjects at the university level, it provides the necessary textual input for the presentation of facts and hypotheses related to students’ specific fields of study. Regardless of the students’ core academic preoccupation, a vital requirement for tackling an academic text is the theoretical knowledge of the distinctive features of academic writing. The language instructor should �familiarize the students with the characteristic features of academic texts, namely their formality, complexity, precision, explicitness and objectiveness – the properties of Standard Written English. [12] Firstly, academic texts are more formal in style and register than other, more familiar types of texts which are used predominantly throughout language courses in primary and secondary education in Croatia. Moreover, they are complex, as demonstrated in greater lexical density and vocabulary variation, as well as elaborate grammatical structures, and, perhaps surprisingly, precise at the same time, clearly presenting and explicitly referring to facts and data. [12] In contemporary use, geopolitics has been widely employed as a loose synonym for international politics. Arguments about the political effects of geography— particularly climate, topography, arable land, and access to the sea—have appeared in Western political thought since at least the ancient Greek era and were prominent in the writings of philosophers as diverse as Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Montesquieu (1689–1745). [4] Additionally, academic texts are said to be explicit, signposting dependably the organization of ideas, both at the sentence and paragraph levels. [12] Considering that the United Nations has an important role to play regarding the protection of minorities […] Bearing in mind the work done so far within the United Nations system, in particular by the Commission on Human Rights, the SubCommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and the bodies established pursuant to the International Covenants on Human Rights. [10] Furthermore, as academic texts employ a variety of methods to purposefully conceal any sign of subjectivity, they often abound with vague language and shadowy expressions that allow their authors to make personal claims professedly detached. [12] Nowhere has this been more clearly demonstrated than in the former Yugoslavia, a country viewed by peacemakers at Versailles as ‘the land of the Slavs’. [5] Coupled with professional vocabulary and complex grammatical patterns (the passive, inverted phrases, embedded questions, conditional clauses, etc.), it is then manifest why students often find it legitimately troublesome to fully comprehend such texts. As the primary addressees or beneficiaries of the academic text, college students preparing for their future academic careers can benefit greatly from instruction that draws upon the features of language as well as the process of reading and gathering information. A corollary to the above statement is that the students need to become critical and active readers, approaching and transcending large and complex sets of facts and translating them into meaningful content. [1] Depending on the specific objectives and learning outcomes pre-set in the syllabi of each particular ESP course, a wide variety of academic texts is employed in the ESP classroom, from purely scholarly texts and textbook materials to legal writing, encyclopaedia entries, news reports and magazine articles, to name but a few, used to introduce general and subject-specific academic vocabulary and grammar through relevant content, from international law to the workings of the nervous system. Prior to being taught in class, such texts are methodically processed by the language instructor to optimally �combine information about the language and the reality it expresses, upholding the implicit policy that ESP courses should follow the students’ core academic load. In this way the FL lecturer helps guide the students through this energy-intensive and in-depth academic process, which requires fairly large amounts of academic reading to be undertaken as part of their studies. 2. Class observation Upon direct class observation in two seemingly dissimilar learning environments, University of Applied Health Sciences and the Dag Hammarskjöld University College of International Relations and Diplomacy, the authors have found that the students’ reactions toward such texts are comparably matching: they are perceived as unnecessarily complex and the language they employ as too obsolete and archaic, even extravagant, to be considered instrumental. The underlying reasons for this potentially disallowing perspective can be linked to cognitive factors such as advanced technical vocabulary, elaborate grammatical structures and subtle rhetorical organization patterns, as well as to affective factors, often manifested in the acquired bias toward more “everyday” texts employed in previous language instruction, which provide only a limited representation of language, but are indisputably easier to comprehend and attune to. The role of the ESP teacher is then to try to overcome both obstacles: to teach the students general academic vocabulary and introduce them to more specialized instances of academic language, as well as to motivate them to appreciate the benefits of formal discourse, which becomes the primary medium of instruction once they have started their university education. 3. Obstacles that impede understanding and decrease proficiency in reading academic texts in ESP Starting from the most recognizable, lexical layer of language, students are faced with a task challenging in itself, and that is comprehending academic texts without sufficient knowledge of general academic and subject-specific terminology. Academic writing is characterized by a particular and cloistered “dialect” represented in the register of language fitting for a more formal level of expression. Words of such a distinctly formal register are not so frequent outside the academia, but are indispensable for pursuing a quality higher education. Neuronsconsist of three major sections: the dendrites, which receive impulses and transmit them to the cell body which contains the cell nucleus. Extending from the cell body is the axon, a long single projection, which carries the impulse away from the cell body. [3] More profoundly, students need to understand the ways in which words in English are generally formed. Awareness of the methods of word formation helps students decode unfamiliar words and facilitates vocabulary acquisition. Many English words are loan words from Latin, which has long since become the international language of scholars. As a case in point, the word “diplomacy” itself is Latin in origin, not to mention other equally ubiquitous terms like “bilateral”, “interlocutor”, “negotiation”, “plenipotentiary”, or “respiration”, “oxygen”, “cavity”, “gastrointestinal”, all derived from Latin. While in certain areas of �academic study, such as health sciences, Latin is still instrumentally needed, there is a marked tendency to use Latin terms in scientific and technical writing in general, which unfailingly provide an air of culture and sophistication. Semantic issues such as polysemy, synonymy and homonymy also constitute a vital step in comprehending texts at an academic level. Commonplace in Standard Written English across different fields of study in the English language, they need to be systematically introduced, expounded and employed in various activities. POLYSEMY: The United Nations observance of International Women’s Day on 8 March will reflect on how to accelerate the 2030 Agenda, building momentum for the effective implementation of the new Sustainable Development Goals. [11] (observance = 1. act of watching; 2. ceremony or ritual) [13]; HOMONYMY: discreet (modest and unpretentious) and discrete (separate and different) [13]; SYNONYMY AND ANTONYMY: Many, for instance, automatically assume that students and teachers of politics must in some way be biased, finding it difficult to believe that the subject can be approached in an impartial and dispassionate manner. [5] In matters of phraseology, idiomatic and other fixed expressions are also relatively set and specific to particular academic fields of study. After the students have been introduced to relevant instances of different phrasemes used in academic context, such as Latin phrases (persona non grata, ad hoc, alma mater, quid pro quo, sui generis), idiomatic expressions (landslide victory or megaphone diplomacy), or abbreviations (NATO, MRI), they are provided with examples demonstrating their usage. In that way they can proceed to use them independently. Secondly, on the syntactic level, students need to understand the highly developed and internally consistent grammar of academic discourse, and consolidate some of the key grammatical areas for academic reading, such as noun phrases, the passive voice, inverted structures, subordinate clauses and prepositional phrases, to name but a few. [7] PASSIVE: The bones in a synovial joint are surrounded by a joint capsule composed of fibrous tissue. Ligaments anchor one bone to another and thereby add considerable strength to the joint capsule in critical areas. Bones at the joint are covered with a smooth, glistening white tissue called the articular cartilage. [3] [8] For competent users of foreign languages, the passive is a frequent tool of formal expression. It has an innate capability to turn an utterance into a more impersonal, detached and thus more formal statement by removing the agent (subject) of the action from the sentence, which is a requirement in technical, scientific and academic writing. Furthermore, another convenient device in achieving formality and a certain elegance of expression is the inverted sentence (Should you require any additional information, feel free to contact us). Also, complex sentences, abundant attribution and prepositional phrases are some of the most prominent features of academic writing. �This development began after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and has been sanctioned and escalated by bipartisan executive and legislative actions, without dissent from the general public. As a result, our country can no longer speak with moral authority on these critical issues. [2] An excellent form of activity that helps integrate the students’ syntactic knowledge in achieving and ascertaining comprehension, open-cloze exercises serve as an extensive activity to consolidate key grammatical areas of formal writing. Conservative nationalism tends _______ (TO) develop in established nation-states rather than in _______ (ONES) that are in the process of nation building. It is typically inspired _______ (BY) the perception that the nation is somehow _______ (UNDER) threat, _______ (EITHER) from the inside or the outside. [5] Thirdly, relating to paragraph cohesion, academic texts conform to a defined structure of argumentation, which means that students need to learn how to recognize and use different reference words and phrases that build and present arguments in the text. Learning about paragraph coherence (main ideas and supporting details, transitions between paragraphs) and raising awareness of the function of transitional markers (outlining different relationships and sequences such as time, place, examples, established order of importance, cause and effect, addition, difference and similarity, etc.) facilitates understanding and fosters mastery of language. At various times, nationalism has been progressive and reactionary, democratic and authoritarian, liberating and oppressive, and left-wing and right-wing. For this reason, it is perhaps better to view nationalism not as a single or coherent political phenomenon, but as a series of ‘nationalisms’: that is, as a complex of traditions that share but one characteristic – each, in its own particular way, acknowledges the central political importance of the nation. Immense controversy surrounds the political character of nationalism. Indeed, nationalism shows every sign of suffering from the political equivalent of multiple-personality syndrome. On the one hand, nationalism can appear to be a progressive and liberating force, offering the prospect of national unity or independence. On the other, it can be an irrational and reactionary creed that allows political leaders to conduct policies of military expansion and war in the name of the nation. [5] Finally, on the level of subject matter, it is important that instructors appreciate the fact that their students are only beginning to tackle certain academic issues in their native language, which only makes it more difficult for them to comprehend such texts, sometimes to the point of intelligibility. In the example below, the students engage in translation (from English into Croatian and vice versa) after they have thoroughly read the original text. This is used as a method of recycling vocabulary, as well as using more complex grammatical and rhetorical structures through guided translation. Institucije države (državni aparat, sudovi, policija, vojska, sustav socijalne skrbi i tako dalje) mogu se smatrati ‘javnima’ u tom smislu što su odgovorne za kolektivnu �organizaciju života zajednice. Štoviše, financiraju se o trošku javnosti, putem oporezivanja. Key words: and so forth; be regarded; at the expense; taxation The institutions of the state (the apparatus of government, the courts, the police, the army, the social-security system and so forth) can be regarded as ‘public’ in the sense that they are responsible for the collective organization of community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public’s expense, out of taxation. [5] 4. Outline of learning outcomes of tertiary level ESP courses The ultimate goal of all the analysed exercises and issues is that the students successfully overcome them in order to achieve the learning outcomes set in the course syllabi, some of which may be defined as follows: identifying, defining, acquiring and using key technical vocabulary in their specific fields of study (in the authors’ case, applied health sciences and international relations and diplomacy); raising and developing awareness of semantic similarities and discrepancies (false friends, synonymy, polysemy, homonymy, etc.) between English and Croatian languages; and approaching academic texts used in language instruction analytically and responding to them critically. 5. The role of the teacher As seen throughout the examples introduced in this paper, the role of the teacher is to stimulate and channel the students’ professed interest and whet their intellectual curiosity for the field of study they are engaged in by exploiting academic texts and various language acquisition techniques in order for students to master demanding content and acquire and use new vocabulary, as well as to recognize and employ new language patterns and grammatical and rhetorical structures. 6. Conclusion The immediate purpose of the approach to academic texts in tertiary level ESP/EAP advanced in this paper is to help students arrive at a profound and comprehensive understanding of texts. Through guided academic endeavour, they will learn how to approach academic input more deeply and therefore more instrumentally, going beyond simple understanding of words and summarizing of main ideas. The final goal of EAP should be reflected in the students’ ability to recognize and differentiate between facts and opinions; to come up with their own evaluative filter that will help them challenge any assumption and discern any error; to integrate information from multiple sources while drawing their own conclusions. This approach, which advocates that the answers to questions raised in class be proactively worked out rather than simply found, develops academic acuity and professional and technical competence. The students, albeit grudgingly, at least in the initial stages, soon begin to recognize and appreciate the advantage of the masterly command of academic texts, which helps them progress and mature intellectually across various subjects and stages of study. �References: [1] Burgmeier, A. (2009). Inside Reading: The Academic Word List in Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press [2] Carter, J. (2012). A Cruel and Unusual Record. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/25/opinion/americas-shameful-human-rightsrecord.html?_r=0 [3] Chabner, D. (2014). The Language of Medicine, Tenth Edition. Elsevier Saunders [4] Deudney, D.H. (2016). Geopolitics. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/topic/geopolitics [5] Heywood, A. (2007). Politics, London: Palgrave Macmillan [6] Merriam Webster Online Dictionary.Retrieved from www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary [7] Paterson, K. & Wedge, R. (2013). Oxford Grammar for EAP. Oxford: Oxford University Press [8] Režić, P., & Žurić Havelka, S. Introduction to Basic Medical Terminology for Health Professions. (2013). Zagreb: Zdravstveno veleučilište [9] United Nations. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html [10] UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. (18 December 1992). Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/a47r135.htm [11] UN Women. International Women's Day 2016. (2016) Retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/international-womens-day [12] Using English for Academic Purposes. Features of Academic Writing. Retrieved from http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex.htm [13] Waite, M., Hollingworth, L. & Marshall D. (eds.). (2006). Oxford Paperback Thesaurus (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3264 Title A name given to the resource Overcoming EFL Obstacles to (Reading) Academic Texts – Class Observation Author Author Čupić, Iva Klanjčić, Martina Abstract A summary of the resource. What are the obstacles that impede understanding and decrease proficiency in reading academic texts in ESP? Correspondingly, how can they be overcome to achieve learning outcomes of EFL courses at tertiary level? Broadly speaking, academic texts are used in numerous learning processes across various stages of study. They are designed or aimed at such a purposeso as to facilitate instruction and the transfer of knowledge in academic subjects studied at the university level by providing textual input for the conceptualization and presentation of facts and hypotheses related to students’ respective fields of study. In ESP teaching they are used to introduce academic language through relevant academic content, aiming to draw upon the students’ existing vocabulary base, build new lexical-semantic connections and raise the students’ overall foreign language proficiency level. Upon direct class observation, the authors have found that students perceive such texts as unnecessarily complex and the language they employ as obsolete and overly pretentious to be considered instrumental. The underlying reasons for this potentially disallowing perspective can be linked to insufficient knowledge of advanced professional vocabulary, elaborate grammatical structures and rhetorical organization patterns, coupled with affective factors, often manifested in the acquired bias toward more “everyday” texts employed in previous language instruction, which provide only a limited representation of language. The role of the teacher is thus to stimulate and channel the students’ professed interest and curiosity for their field of study by exploiting academic texts and various language acquisition techniques in order for students to successfully tackle demanding content and acquire new vocabulary and structures. This paper will aim to determine the common features of texts used in tertiary level ESP, namely in applied health sciences and international relations, and to explore and design effective reading techniques and language exercises that might help develop a comprehensive approach to the multilayer pattern that is academic text. Keywords: academic text, tertiary level ESP, learning obstacles, reading techniques Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/55ff37c1532f76cfa3205d463c3388c8.pdf 19f9cd7952c9a9120e48db017d92352c PDF Text Text The image of the Flying Dutchman inthe literature of Romanticism Inna S. Makarova Russia Abstract: The paper touches upon the peculiarities of the so called “marine theme” in Romantic art as a whole, and its central image – the Flying Dutchman, in particular. The etymology of this image, as well its numerous literary interpretations make up the subject of the research. Three key literary works of Romanticism, the ballad by S.T. Coleridge, the libretto by R. Wagner, and the novel by H. Melville, are in the spotlight of the given paper. The roots of the Flying Dutchman can be traced in the texts by Apollonius of Rhodes and Homer – their legendary books“Argonautica” and “Odyssey”respectively, as well as in the Norse mythology, in Edda –a notorious Naglfar, the ship made of deadmen’s nails. At the Age of Discovery the story of a mysterious ship came to its final form. Being first mentioned in various European folk tales, with the course of time the plot became highly popular in late XVIII – XIX centuries. In Romantic literature the legend of the Flying Dutchman transformed into the allegoryof a man punished by Heaven for being too proud to resign himself to God’s will – a symbol of purgatory for sinners begging for mercy and forgiveness to rest in peace. Keywords: Flying Dutchman, Romanticism, Coleridge, Wagner, Melville. 1. Introduction In the literature of Romanticism “marine theme” was developing in two directions: a tragic image of a cursed ship – the Flying Dutchman (primary) and the ship and the sea as the allegory of protagonist’s inner world (secondary).The latter direction is masterfully characterized by a famous Russian philologist, Vladimir Toporov: talking about the poetic complex of the sea and its psychophysiological basis in Romantic literature, he notices that romanticists “describe not the sea proper…, but something different, for which the sea serves only as a form (a “sea” code of the “non-sea” message), a sort of a deep metaphor”(Toporov, 1995, p. 578). In Romantic arts the title work demonstrating the mythopoetic image of ship functioning as such a “deep metaphor” belongs to a French artist Théodore Géricault – “The Raft of the Medusa”created in 1819 in memory of tragic events of July 2, 1816.In Romantic literature of the second half of XIX cent. a similar idea is introduced in Victor Hugo’s passionate ode to the sea – a novel “Toilers of the Sea”, in which the metaphor “man-ship” receives its best embodiment. To some extent,the “trend” is continued by Jules Verne in hisadventure novel “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”. 2. The etymology of the image of the Flying Dutchman �However, turning to the key image of Romantic literature – the one of the Flying Dutchman, let’s first of all highlight its folk etymology. In Germany, for instance, the ghost captain is named von Falkenberg, in Spain – Pepe de Mallorca, in Scotland there is a popular legend about a mysterious ship Carmilhan, while in Slavic folklorethere exists a tale about Prince Svyatoslav’s ghost boat. In accordance with an original Dutch myth, dating back to XVII century in the late automn of 1641 some Dutch sailor van Straaten (or Hendrick van der Decken) on his way back to Amsterdam from East-India,with spices and two passengers on board,was sailing by the Cape of Good Hope when ran into a gale. Being mad, stubborn or proud,and possibly also drunk, van der Decken refused to hear the crew’s prayers to turn back and wait out a storm in a quiet bay. Having killed several rebellious sailors, he threatened others telling them that noone would come ashore until the ship sailed round the Cape – even if it took eternity. The glove was taken up. Since that time meeting with a Dutch sailing ship either meant trouble at best or death at worst. The Anglo-Dutch military conflicts of that time largely promoted the legend across Europe, and in particular, across English speaking countries. 3. Artistic interpretations of the legend Two books quite different both in idea and artistic value became a prelude to the chain of numerous literary interpretations of the Dutch folk legend. The first is “Voyage to Botany Bay” (1795) by one of London’s most notorious pickpocketsGeorge Barrington, while the second is the poem in four parts “Scenes of Infancy” (1803) bya Scottish orientalist John Leyden. Since that time the tale of a ghost ship became extremely popular. The list of literary works touching this plot upon includes the poem “The Flying Dutchman” (1804) by Thomas Moore, a short story “Vanderdecken’s Message Home; or, the Tenacity of Natural Affection” (1821)by John Howison, a short story “The Storm Ship” (1822) byGeoffrey Crayon (Washington Irwing), “The Tale of the Ghost Ship” (1825) by Wilhelm Hauff,the poem “The Ghost Ship” (1832) by Christian von Zedlitz, a satirical novella by Heinrich Heine “From the Memoirs of Herr von Schnabelewopski”(1833),and, finally, an adventure novel “The Phantom Ship” (1839) by Captain Frederick Marryat. In 1842 the opera in two acts and three tableaux“The Phantom Ship” by Pierre-Louis Dietsch to a French libretto by Paul Foucher and Bénédict-Henry Révoil (strongly influenced by previous literary adaptations) was premiered by the Paris Opera.In 1871 Arthur Rimbaud composed “The Drunken Boat” in which its readers were introduced to one of the most striking images of a rebellious ship.The most intriguing transformation of the folk legend was created by Stéphane Mallarmé – “A throw of the dice will never abolish chance” (1897). Meanwhile in painting the image of a cursed captain was successfully referred to twice – in canvases by Albert Ryder (1887) and Howard Pyle (1900). Obviously, every new literary adaptation provided the original text with new details, supplementing its plot, broadening the limits of its symbolic meaning, and adding more philosophy to the narration, as a whole. In this respect a lot was done by three key Romantic works: “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by S.T. Coleridge, “The Flying Dutchman” by R. Wagner, and “Moby Dick; or the Whale” by H. Melville. �4. The image of the Flying Dutchman in Coleridge’s ballad In 1797 the English reading public was offered the first literary adaptation of the Dutch folk legend in which it turned out to be a story with much more profound message than that traditionally associated with an old sea tale. One of the most prominent representatives of the so called “Lake school” Samuel Taylor Coleridge published “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” in which a popular story was transformed into the allegory of the human’s life. As it follows from the poet’s journal of that time, while working on his ballad Coleridge was mainly busy with creating the “epic story of the origin of evil in Milton’s manner. He was reflecting on the conflict of belief and sense, God and Nature, mechanic and transcendental world view, about the mysteries of life and pangs of conscience” (Gorbunov, 2004, p. 17). The story of the Mariner in which he tells about his fatal voyage to the Equator comes to the foreground. The crew firstly judging the murderer of an albatross soon justifies him thus sharing his guilt for the sacred bird’s spilled blood. As a punishment, the ship stops its move: “Day after day, day after day/We stuck, nor breath nor motion//As idle as a painted ship/Upon a painted ocean//”(Coleridge, 1912, p. 190); “The very deep did rot: O Christ!//That ever this should be!//Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs/Upon the slimy sea//” (Coleridge, 1912, p. 191). Not willing to admit its fault, the crew blames the Mariner: “Ah! well a-day! what evil looks/Had I from old and young!//Instead of the cross, the Albatross/About my neck was hung//” (Coleridge, 1912, p. 191). The vessel that soon appears on the horizon turns out to be a ghost boat on which Life and Death are playing human souls in dice. The Mariner stays alive while all others turn into half-decayed corpses: “Four times fifty living men/(And I heard nor sigh nor groan)/With heavy thump, a lifeless lump/They dropped down one by one//”(Coleridge, 1912, p. 196). The ship continues its move though without wind and the steersman, and while it is sailing the mariner is revealing the beauty of the surrounding world blessing God’s creation:“The self-same moment I could pray//And from my neck so free/The Albatross fell off, and sank/Like lead into the sea//”(Coleridge, 1912, p. 198). Since this moment every night the deadmen take on life to fall on their duties. At dawn they start praying and then sink into a sleep to restart their labour the next night. On completing the time period, when the Mariner sees the native seashore, the crew receives mercy: “Each corse lay flat, lifeless and flat/And, by the holy rood! //A man all light, a seraph-man/On every corse there stood//”(Coleridge,1912, p. 205). “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” full of “dualism, the unsolvable play on contrasts – chaos and harmony, natural and supernatural, water and air, the Sun and the Moon, unexpected blessing, the loss of God and Grace of God” (Gorbunov, 2004, p. 17), showed to its readers a new, Romantic, odyssey to secret depths of human soul. The ballad of the Lake poet greatly influenced subsequent interpretations of the Dutch folk legend. Firstly, the manner in which the captain used to be portrayed changed radically – from a heartless drunkard he turns into a man with deep emotional stress, a complex personality with tragic fate. Secondly, more attention is now paid to the atmosphere prevailing on board,expectations and passions of the cursed crew. Thirdly, the motives of repentance,and hope for mercy and salvationhave become much stronger. 5. The image of the Flying Dutchman in Wagner’s opera �Next significant literary adaptation of the legend was introduced in the libretto by Richard Wagner to his new opera “The Flying Dutchman”. The German composer made his first acquaintance with the Dutch tale in 1834in “The Memories of Herr von Schnabelewopski” by Heine. Later on, during years spent in Riga, Wagner heard a lot about the cursed ship from local sailors. However, the idea to embody a popular plot in the opera was formed in Wagner’s mind only during his voyage to London from Prussian Pillau. A small merchant vessel,the Thetis, in which the composer was travelling together with his wife, was in constant danger of sinking amidst the ocean; sailors were desperately fighting with the storm while it was raging again and again making passengers feel their complete isolation from the dear land. Later on Wagner was recollecting: “The passage through the rocky Norwegian skerries made a tremendous impression on my imagination; the legend of the Flying Dutchman, which I heard repeated by the sailors, acquired for me a distinctive coloring such as only the experience of such an adventure at sea could provide” (Grey, 2000, p. 178-179). “The Flying Dutchman” became Wagner’s “first reformatory opera”(Zalesskaya, 2011, p. 74), and at the same time the first example of the composer’s use of a universal mythological plot.As he remarked himself, “The figure of the Flying Dutchman is a mythicpoetic creation of the folk: a primeval trait of human nature finds the most gripping and powerful expression in this figure. In its most general significance this trait can be identified as the longing for peace in the wake of life’s storms” (Grey, 2000, p. 181); “It was the first folk-poem that forced its way into my heart, and called on me as man and artist to point its meaning and mould it in a work of art”(Henderson,2013, p. 237). To fulfill the task Wagner refused to follow contemporary literary interpretations not willing to compose a libretto based on any existing story (as he used to do before) and wrote a new text in which revealed his own vision of the wandering captain’s tragic fate and expectations. “From here begins my career as poet, and my farewell to the mere manufacture of opera-texts”(Wagner, 1994, p. 314), – claimed the playwright. “The Flying Dutchman” in Richard Wagner’s stage is a story about the man’s everlasting life journey, his search for freedom, peace and rest from daily stresses. The opera’s protagonist is shown as a mythological image, a traveler similar to Odyssey not destined to reach his dear land no matter which shore he harbours. As Sarah Lenton remarks, it was the Dutchman’s situation that fascinated Wagner most of all – “a loner, cut off from love and ordinary life, alienated and suffering” (National Opera House, 2015). 6. The image of the Flying Dutchman in Melville’s novel In 1851 one of the most prominent novels of Romantic literature “Moby Dick; or the Whale” by Henri Melville saw the light. On its pages the image of the infernal ship received its best personification. The book by American literary critics of mid. XIX cent. called“strange”, presents a grandiose composition reluctant to any formal genre definition.According to one apt remark, “Moby Dick” is a “supermarine” (Kovalyov, 1972, p. 192)novel. In Melville’s epic the early Renaissance metaphor “world-ship” brilliantly manifests itself: “Yes, the world’s a ship on its passage out” (Melville, 1922, p. 48), – �exclaims Ismaele. With the development of narration this metaphor is transformed into a reverse one – “ship-world”: the Pequod with its crew consisting of representatives of various races and nationalities functions as the image that can be symbolically interpreted as the UnitedStates of America or the humanity as a whole sailing to nowhere in pursuit of some illusive destination. However, the key idea of this novel is the revelation of the personality of a rebellious captain overwhelmed with the only passion that has already become the curse for him and his crew. “This grey-headed, ungodly old man, chasing with curses a Job’s whale round the world, at the head of a crew, too, chiefly made up of mongrel renegades, and castaways, and cannibals”(Melville, 1922, p. 233) is the principal image of Melville’s narration. A fatal idéefixe of Ahab seeking for “audacious, immitigable, and supernatural revenge”(Melville, 1922, p. 233) pervades the novel’s atmosphere. The Pequod conducted by a madman (“I’m demoniac, I am madness maddened!”(Melville, 1922, p. 210) – says the captain himself), with the crew imprisoned on board, the ship headed by a “Terrible old man!”; “Gnawed within and scorched without, with the infixed, unrelenting fangs of some incurable idea”(Melville, 1922, p. 232), is dashing across boundless watery wastes – surmounting immense distances it disregards storms as if protected by some witcheries which will not be destroyed until the captain’s soul finds peace having finally achieved its only goal. The unraveling of the plot does not leave any doubts to readers – this is a new Flying Dutchman. Melville’s version of the legend compared to Coleridge’s ballad and Wagner’s opera turns out to be more dramatic. Being deprived of any hope for a sinfull captain salvation, it becomes an example of a more profound and polysemic allegory. What did the American romaticist plan to say having drowned his main character without even giving him a little chance to find peace after death? Is it the demonstration of the man’s impossibility to conquer his own nature? Or, probably, a finale like this is an allegory of invincible power? The works of such a scale allow us to make as many assumptions as we wish successfully finding the proof ofeach of them in the text. Doubtless is that the image of a rebellious captain with curse on his face and hellfire in hiseyes has become so influential in the arts of Western-European countries that in the majority of subsequent (if not all) artisitic interpretations of the Dutch legend (especially relating to the so called “mass culture”) the image of the captain cursed by God inevitably looks alike the most infernal of all Flying Dutchmen – Melville’s Ahab. 7. Conclusion Nowadays the mythopoetic image of the Flying Dutchman remains relevant being intencely reproduced in various genres of contemporary arts. It is especially popular in “mass culture” that eagerly reproduces the story of a ghost ship with its cursed captain and rebellious crew. Judging by various modern interpretations of the Dutch legend,it is its infernal theme that comes to the foreground (as it was characteristic for early variations); though from time to time the narration with more social-philosophical basis sees the light. All in all, the Romantic image of the Flying Dutchman, as we know it nowadays, can be officially regarded as one of the three components all together constituing the image field of the Ship – along with the Noah’s Ark and the Ship of Fools. �References: Coleridge, S.T. (1912). The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. In E.H. Coleridge, The Complete Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In two volumes. Vol. I: Poems (pp. 186-208). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gorbunov, A.N. (2004). Voobrazheniyauzyvnyi glas (poeziya S.T. Kolridzha). In S.T. Kolridzh, Stikhotvoreniya (pp. 7-42). Мoscow: Raduga. Grey, Th. (Ed.). (2000). Richard Wagner. Der FliegendeHolländer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Henderson, W.J. (2013). His Life and His Dramas; A Biographical Study of the Man And an Explanation of His Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kovalyov, Yu.V. (1972). German Melvilliamerikanskiyromantizm. Leningrad: Khudozhestvennayaliteratura. Royal Opera House. (2015). From Legend to Libretto: What Drew Wagner to the Myth of the Flying Dutchman? Retrieved February 9, 2015, from http://www.roh.org.uk/news/fromlegend-to-libretto-what-drew-wagner-to-the-myth-of-the-flying-dutchman Melville, H. (1922). Moby-Dick; or the Whale. In two volumes. Vol. I. London: Constable and Company LTD. Toporov, V.N. (1995). O “poeticheskom” komplekse moray iyego psikhophiziologicheskikh osnovakh. In V.N. Toporov, Mif. Ritual. Simvol. Obraz: Issledovaniya v oblast imifopoeticheskogo. Izbrannoye (pp. 575-622). Moskva: Progress. Zalesskaya, M.K. (2011). Vagner. Moskva: Moldayagvardiya. Wagner, R. (1994). A Communication to My Friends. In R. Wagner The Art Work of the Future, and Other Works. (pp. 269-392). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3263 Title A name given to the resource The image of the Flying Dutchman inthe literature of Romanticism Author Author Makarova, Inna S. Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper touches upon the peculiarities of the so called “marine theme” in Romantic art as a whole, and its central image – the Flying Dutchman, in particular. The etymology of this image, as well its numerous literary interpretations make up the subject of the research. Three key literary works of Romanticism, the ballad by S.T. Coleridge, the libretto by R. Wagner, and the novel by H. Melville, are in the spotlight of the given paper. The roots of the Flying Dutchman can be traced in the texts by Apollonius of Rhodes and Homer – their legendary books“Argonautica” and “Odyssey”respectively, as well as in the Norse mythology, in Edda –a notorious Naglfar, the ship made of deadmen’s nails. At the Age of Discovery the story of a mysterious ship came to its final form. Being first mentioned in various European folk tales, with the course of time the plot became highly popular in late XVIII – XIX centuries. In Romantic literature the legend of the Flying Dutchman transformed into the allegoryof a man punished by Heaven for being too proud to resign himself to God’s will – a symbol of purgatory for sinners begging for mercy and forgiveness to rest in peace. Keywords: Flying Dutchman, Romanticism, Coleridge, Wagner, Melville. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/580e199ff2b57d69c7a073b9244957d7.pdf 202d722735ba964d09a84f7029e9c431 PDF Text Text Tense and Gender production in Arabic-Speaking Aphasics Hisham Adam American University of the Middle East, Kuwait Abstract: The current study aims at examining the tense and agreement patterns as produced by agrammatic Palestinian-Arabic speakers using sentence completion tasks. The participants were presented with two sentences and asked to work on them. The first sentence included an inflected verb for both tense and agreement. In the second sentence, the participants were requested to complete a missing verb, where the temporal adverb or the subject’s person, gender, or number was changed. The findings revealed that the agrammatic speakers showed a significant dissociation between tense and agreement, whereby tense was significantly more impaired compared to agreement inflections. Similar results are reported from other languages. The results provide further evidence of Tree Pruning Hypothesis (TPH) that functional categories associated with upper nodes in the syntactic tree are more impaired than functional categories associated with the lower nodes of the tree. The selective deficits of the morpho-syntactic structures suggest that specific morphemes should be targeted in therapy programs. Keywords: Palestinian Arabic (PA); Agrammatism; Aphasia; Tense and Gender; Tree Pruning. 1. Introduction Agrammatism is a language disorder caused by the damage to the left hemisphere of the brain, particularly in the Broca’s area (Zurif, 1995). It is manifested by the substitution and omission of free and bound morphemes and deficits in the production of certain functional categories (Friedmann, 2001; Goodglass, 1972). Several studies have indicated that people with agrammatism tend to convey their messages by relying on non-linguistic clues (Grodzinsky, 1984; Goodglass, 1972). However, many other studies have reported that agrammatic patients can retain the syntactic ability to maintain verbs-subject agreement and correctly using the object pronoun in some languages (Menn&Obler, 1990). The selective nature of these syntactic deficits in which some syntactic structures were preserved while others were impaired in different languages suggests certain limitations of syntactic theories. For example, It has been reported that a hierarchical pattern of a deficit in which “complementizers were more impaired than verb tense inflections, and verb tense inflections were more impaired than verb agreement inflections” (Albustanji, Miliman, Foxi, &Bourgeois, 2013, p. 94). Tree Pruning Hypothesis (TPH) was originally proposed to assess the selective morpho-syntactic deficits across agrammatic speakers (Friedmann, 1998, 2002). �According to TPH, the syntactic tree may be “pruned at various structural levels; a pruned structural level necessitates impairments at all higher levels (Albustanji, 2009, p.5). Many psycholinguistic studies have focused on gender-congruency, one of the most puzzling grammatical categories of a language (Friederici& Jacobsen, 1999; Schriefers&Jescheniak, 1999). Other studies have focused on gender deviations in aphasia and the neural correlates of gender processing (Miceli, Turriziani, Caltagiron, Capasso, Tomaiuolo, &Caramazza, 2002). Gender is defined as an inherent lexical property of nouns that plays a syntactic role and is partially related to the meaning and the phonological form of a noun (Caramazza, Miozzo, Costa, Schiller, &Alario, 2002) Studies on both Dutch and German agrammatic subjects have highlighted the problems associated with the production of articles, including omissions and substitutions. Recent models of language production assume that gender is represented at an autonomous lexical level (Caramazza, 1997). However, aphasic studies have contradicted such assumptions by confirming the idea of different representations of gender and phonological information with different independent levels (Avila, Lambon, Parcet, Geffner, & Gonzales-Darder, 2001). Accordingly, the errors made by agrammatic patients confirm the distinction between gender as a stored lexical property and as a feature involved in inflectional processes. Levelt (1999) suggested that gender information is selected in a sentential context, and the activation of the phonological representation of a word can be achieved without the need to access its syntactic features. However, such an assumption is questionable. Kulke and Blanken (2001) showed that the semantic paraphasias made by aphasic patients in picturenaming tasks present a form of preservation of the grammatical gender of target nouns. This suggests that information about nominal gender is always selected, even in bare noun production. Friedmann et al. (2003) indicated that gender agreement in Hebrew-speaking aphasics when a paraphasia is produced generally corresponds to the partial knowledge of the speaker about the target word. Different studies on different languages have reported different results. For example, the grammatical gender of words in Italian, German, Hebrew, and Spanish languages is usually preserved in anomia and tip-of-the-tongue states. In Hebrew, no genderagreement deviations were found, regardless of the type of the aphasic deficit (Friedmann& Shapiro, 2003). However, in a study on the production of articles in a picture-naming task in German- and Dutch-speaking patients with agrammatic Broca’s aphasia, the Dutch patients made almost exclusively omissions and the German patients made mainly substitution errors (Bastiaanse, & Van Zonneveld, 1998). Ritter (1993) interpreted gender as an intrinsic property of nouns that can be retrieved at the moment of lexical access and numbered as an intrinsic feature of the inflection. His preliminary finding indicated a clear dissociation between gender identification and phonological knowledge of the targeted word in paraphasias. As a result, in semantic deficits, aphasic patients demonstrated the gender preservation effect by detecting gender without relying on the phonological information. All �these observations support the view that grammatical gender tends to be preserved in the speaking performance of aphasic patients. However, this finding is questionable since a number of predictions in the sentence and phrase context should be empirically explored. Since Arabic has a rich and distinct inflectional morphology, we have a good notion of inflection in agrammatism. After a deficit of the left cerebral hemisphere, the aphasic patients lose the ability to inflect verbs correctly for tense and use subject pronouns. However, they maintain the ability to inflect verbs for subject agreement, as shown in some studies (Friedmann, 2001). Many theories have been developed in an attempt to give a syntactic characterization of such patients. The traditional view of agrammatism states that the syntactic abilities of agrammatic patients are completely lost, i.e., such patients depend on the non-linguistic strategies to concatenate words into sentences (Berndt & Caramazza, 1981). However, studies have reported that patients with Broca’s aphasia have intact syntactic abilities, and the distribution of these findings differ according to the language features (Hagiwara, 1995; Lonzi & Luzzatti, 1993). Arabic introduces a special pattern of verb inflection since the production of sentences requires the speaker to choose between three tenses—past, present, and future—in addition to twelve agreement forms: agreeing in gender, person, and number with subject. The performance of the agrammatic patients in producing verbs revealed that their speech displayed more errors with inflection for tense than with inflection for agreement. This finding is also true in Hebrew (Friedmann, 2000). A number of studies have examined morpho-syntactic impairments in many languages, such as Hebrew (Friedmann, 2001; 2002; 1997), English (Milman, Dickey, & Thompson, 2008), German (Burchert et al., 2005), and Turkish (Yarbay, Duman, &Bastiaanse, 2009). Despite the agrammatic data being reported for different languages, less research has been done in Arabic languages: Palestinian Arabic (Friedmann, 2002), Algerian Arabic (Mimouni&Jarema, 1997), Moroccan Arabic (Diouny, 2010), and Jordanian Arabic (Albustanji, Y., Miliman, L., Foxi, R. & Bourgeois, 2013). Palestinian Arabic serves as an excellent testing ground for verb inflections because of its morphological richness and relatively free word-order system, compared to English, which is characterized by a relatively fixed word order (Abdel-Jawad, 1986). Moreover, by investigating the agrammatic features in Palestinian Arabic, the similarities with other Semitic languages like Hebrew can be addressed. The aims of the current study were to (a) examine the tense and agreement patterns as produced by agrammatic patients using the completion task and (b) evaluate whether the deviant patterns are comparable to other languages. 2. Method �2.1.Participants Four male agrammatic Palestinians residing in the West Bank participated in the study(Adam, 2014). The participants were diagnosed with Broca’s aphasics using the Jordanian Arabic version of the Bilingual Aphasia Test (Paradis, 1987). All participants were right-handed and presented with a left hemisphere lesion at least six months prior to testing. They revealed typical symptoms of Broca’s aphasia, including non-fluent, effortful, and telegraphic speech. As shown in Table 1, the ages of the participants ranged from 47 to 55 years. The time post-onset ranged from one to eight years, and their number of educational years ranged from 10 to 15 years. Visual and auditory systems functioned to a degree sufficient to complete the experimental tasks of the study. Four native speakers with no language or speech deficits served as the control group. Table 1 Patient Data Aphasic Age (in years) Etiology MPO Gender Subjects A1 47 CVA-L 12 M A2 50 CVA-L 25 M A3 51 CVA-L 74 M A4 55 CVA-L 96 M Patient data: (A: aphasic subject; CVA: Cerebrovascular accident; L: left hemisphere; MPO: months post-onset; M: male). For this task, we adopted the procedures used by Friedman, 2000 and 2001. Accordingly, the participants were presented with two sentences. The first sentence includes an inflected verb for both tense and agreement. In the second sentence, the participants were requested to complete a missing verb, where the temporal adverb or the subject’s person, gender, or number was changed. The agrammatic subjects were asked to give the correct form of verb inflection. In the tense inflection (example 1, Table 2) condition, tense was the only difference between the missing verb and given verb while in the agreement condition, agreement feature was the criteria that distinguished the missing verb from the provided verb (example 2, Table 2). Table 2 Examples (1) Tense: Biruħʔilawala:dħalħienʕal madrasah. kamanimbariħʔilwald………(Raħ) the boy goes now to school. Yesterday too the boy _________. (went) (2) Agreement: �Biruħʔilwaladħalħienʕal madrasah. u kamaniAlwaladhalħeen ………(Biruħu) the boy goes now to school. The boys also _________. (go-plural) (3) Tense and Agreement: ʔilbintbidhatukil. ʔilbintraħatʕalmatˤabax u ______ (aklat) The girl wanted to eat, so she went to the kitchen and_____ (ate-past, 3rd, fem, sg) 3. Results and Discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine the production of inflectional morphemes including tense and agreement in Palestinian Arabic patients with agrammatism. The results revealed that the Palestinian Arabic agrammatic speakers showed a significant dissociation between tense and agreement. Table 3 clearly shows a significant deficit in tense and agreement inflections, whereby the tense was significantly more impaired compared to the agreement inflections. The agrammatic patients made tense errors in 70% of the productions and agreement errors in only 12% of the productions. Therefore, the current findings revealed that agrammatic patients performed better on agreement tasks than on tense tasks. Table 3 Verb Completion Task Arabic (n=4) Tense errors Agreement errors 12% Completion 70% (35/50) (35/50) The selective deficits associated with tense and agreement inflections are conducive with those found in the current finding that morph is consistent with results reported from other languages (Friedmann, 2001; 2002; Friedmann & Grodzinsky, 1997; Higiwara, 1995; Ouhalla, 1993). In fact, the intact agreement could suggest that not all grammatical morphemes are impaired in agrammatism. The finding that agrammatic patients showed a dissociation between tense and agreement provided evidence supporting the TPH predictions “that states that functional categories associated with upper nodes in the syntactic tree (e.g., TP) are more impaired than functional categories associated with lower nodes of the tree” (e.g., NegP and AgrP [AlBustanji, 2009, pp. 85]). Similar results were also reported by Benedet et al. (1998), who examined verb-subject agreement in Spanish and concluded that subject agreement was found to be relatively preserved than tense inflection. Kolk (2000) also reported that Dutch and German patients displayed dissociation between the verb and subject-verb agreement by exhibiting better performance on subject agreement than on verb tense. �Our data clearly showed that the patients made substitution errors but relatively no agreement errors. Many scholars have reported that structural words and inflections get deleted in agrammatic speech. On the other hand, it seems that Arabic patients behave in the same way as Hebrew agrammatic patients. In this respect, it is not phonologically possible to omit verb inflections; as such, grammatical errors are substitutions rather than omissions whereas omission of verb inflections is widely observed in English-speaking agrammatic patients (Menn&Obler, 1990). Our observations from our subjects exhibited many forms of verb violations like: 1Omission of verb prefixes leading to tense substitution. 2Omission of verb prefixes causing tense and gender substitution. 3Stem substitution leading to tense or gender substitution. 4. Conclusion Our data showed that the patients made substitution errors but relatively negligible agreement errors. The complexity and the selective deficit of the morpho-syntactic structures suggest that specific morphemes should be targeted in the rehabilitation plans. For example, in Palestinian Arabic, as well as other languages, structures associated with tense morphological components were found to be significantly impaired compared to other morpho-syntactic elements. Thus, the findings of the current study may have important clinical implications, where these morphemes can be served as potential targets for therapy approaches. References: Abdel-Jawad, H. (1986). The emergence of an urban dialect in the Jordanian urban centers. International Journal of the Sociology of Language,61, 53–63. Albustanji, Y. (2009), Agrammatism in Jordanian –Arabic Speakers, (Doctoral dissertation), Ohio State University. Albustanji, Y., Miliman, L., Foxi, R., & Bourgeois (2013). Agrammatism in JordanianArabic speakers» in Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics27(2), 94–110. Adam, H. (2014). Acoustical analysis of vowel duration in Palestinian Arabic speaking aphasics. American Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 2, 13-17. Avila, C. Lambon, R., Parcet, M., Geffner, D., & Gonzales-Darder, J. (2001).Implicit word cues facilitate impaired naming performance: Evidence from a case of anomia. Brain and Language, 79,185-200. Bastiaanse, R. & Van Zonneveld, R. (1998).On the relation between verb inflection and verb position in Dutch agrammatic aphasics. Brain and Language, 64, 165-181. Benedet, M., Christiansen, J. & Goodglass, H. (1998).A cross-linguistic study of grammatical morphology in Spanish- and English-speaking agrammatic patients.Cortex, 34, 309-33. Berndt, R. & Caramazza, A. Syntactic aspects of aphasia, In Taylor-Sarno, M. (Ed.) Acquired Aphasia 1981, 157–181, New York: Academic Press. �Burchert, F., Swoboda-Moll, M., & De Bleser, R. (2005).Tense and agreement dissociations in German agrammatic speakers: Underspecification vs. hierarchy.Brain and Language,94, 188–199. Caramazza, A. (1997). How many levels of processing are there in lexical access?Cognitive Neuropsychology, 14, 177-208. Caramazza, A., Miozzo, M., Costa, A., Schiller, N., &Alario, F. (2002), A cross-liguistic investigation of determiner production, In E. Dupoux (Ed), Language, Brain and Cognitive Development: Essays in Honor of Jacques Mehler, 209-226. Cambridge: MIT Press Diouny, S. (2010).Some aspects of Moroccan Arabic agrammatism, Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Friederici, A. & Jacobsen, T. (1999).Processing grammatical gender during comprehension,Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 28, 467-484. Friedmann, N. (2000). Moving verbs in agrammatic production, In R. Bastiaanse and Grodzinsky, Y. (Eds.) Grammatical disorders in aphasia: A neurolinguistic perspective (pp. 152-170). London: Whurr. Friedmann, N. (2001). Agrammatism and the psychological reality of the syntactic tree.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 30, 71-90. Friedmann, N. (2002). Question production in agrammatism: The Tree Pruning Hypothesis. Brain and Language, 80, 160-187. Friedmann, N. &Biran, M. (2003). When is gender accessed?A study of paraphasias in Hebrew anomia, Cortex, 39, 441-463. Friedmann, N. & Shapiro, L. (2003).Agrammatic comprehension of simple active sentences with moved constituents: Hebrew OSV and OVS structures. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 46,288-297. Goodglass, H., Gleason, J., Bernholtz, N., & Hyde, M. (1972).Some linguistic structures in the speech of Broca’s aphasic, Cortex, 8,191-212. Grodzinsky, Y. (1984). The syntactic characterization of agrammatism.Cognition, 16, 99120. Hagiwara, H. (1995). The breakdown of functional categories and the economy of derivation.Brain and Language,50, 92-116. Kolk, H. (2000). Canonicity and inflection in agrammatic sentence production. Brain and Language,74, 558-560 Kulke, F. &Blanken, G. (2001). Phonological and syntactic influences on semantic misnaming in aphasia.Aphasiology,15, 3-15 Levelt, W.Roelofs, A. and Meyer, A. (1999).A theory of lexical access in speech production»,inBehavioral and Brain Sciences,22,1-75. Lonzi, L. &Luzzatti, C. (1993).Relevance of adverb distribution for the analysis of sentence representation in agrammaticpatient.Brain and Language,45, 306-317 Menn, L. &Obler, L. (1990).,Agrammatic aphasia: A cross-Language Narrative Sourcebook, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Miceli, G., Turriziani, P., Caltagirone, G., Capasso, R., Tomaiuolo, F. &Caramazza, A. (2002).The neural correlates of gender: An FMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14,618-628. �Milman, L., Dickey, M., & Thompson, C. (2008).A psychometric analysis of functional category production in English agrammaticnarratives.Brain and Language, 105, 18–31. Mimouni, Z., &Jarema, G. (1997).Agrammatic aphasia in Arabic.Aphasiology,11, 125–144. Metoui, M. (1995).Phono lab: ComputerprogrammzurArtikulatorischAkustischenDatenanalyse», in Arbeitsberichte des InstitutsfürAllgemeine und VergleichendeSprachwissenschaft der Universität Mainz, 1, 1–100. Paradis, M. (1987).The Assessment of Bilingual Aphasia, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ritter, E. (1993). Where’s gender? », inLinguistic Inquiry,24,795-803. Schriefers H. &Jescheniak J. (1999).Representation and processing of grammatical gender in language production: A review.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 28, 575-600. Yarbay-Duman,Y., &Bastiaanse, R. (2009). Time reference through verb inflection in Turkish agrammaticaphasia.Brain and Language, 108, 30–39. Zurif, E. (1995). Brain regions of relevance to syntactic processing, in L. Gleitman and M. Liberman (Eds.), An Invitation to Cognitive Science, Vol. I (2nd edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3262 Title A name given to the resource Tense and Gender production in Arabic-Speaking Aphasics Author Author Adam, Hisham Abstract A summary of the resource. The current study aims at examining the tense and agreement patterns as produced by agrammatic Palestinian-Arabic speakers using sentence completion tasks. The participants were presented with two sentences and asked to work on them. The first sentence included an inflected verb for both tense and agreement. In the second sentence, the participants were requested to complete a missing verb, where the temporal adverb or the subject’s person, gender, or number was changed. The findings revealed that the agrammatic speakers showed a significant dissociation between tense and agreement, whereby tense was significantly more impaired compared to agreement inflections. Similar results are reported from other languages. The results provide further evidence of Tree Pruning Hypothesis (TPH) that functional categories associated with upper nodes in the syntactic tree are more impaired than functional categories associated with the lower nodes of the tree. The selective deficits of the morpho-syntactic structures suggest that specific morphemes should be targeted in therapy programs. Keywords: Palestinian Arabic (PA); Agrammatism; Aphasia; Tense and Gender; Tree Pruning. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-05 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fabb1cdcaffd7dc06c4a494fd32157d.pdf 0b51d51914dfad9304060f28301afd20 PDF Text Text Attitudes Toward Humanities and Social Sciences and Their Relationship With English Competence Hakan Aydoğan & Azamat Akbarov Mugla Sıtkı Koçman University/Turkey & International Burch University/Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract. Humanities and social sciences are mostly regarded as ''soft sciences''. Females have greater interest in them compared to males. Because linguistic (in this paper, English language studies) belongs to both humanities and social sciences, the present study aims to examine the relationship of students' estimates of English competence and their attitudes toward humanities and social sciences. The sample consists of 157 participants (88 females and 69 males).Who are at tertiarry level in Turkey. The obtained results reflect no gender differences in students' attitudes toward English and Turkish language; however, significant gender differences were found in their attitudes toward literature, psychology, sociology and pedagogy. Participants' attitudes toward humanities and socal aciences were in significant relationships with all aspects of self-reported English competence. In addition, self-reported grammar skills were the best predictor of attitudes towards the English language. Keywords: English competence, humanities, social sciences, gender differences. INTRODUCTION Humanities and social sciences differ from the group of natural science in terms of their inputs and outputs. Humanities and social sciences study human phenomena and social interactions while natural sciences study natural objects/processes (Huang & Chang, 2008). The first group of disciplines sometimes use statistical procedures borrowed from natural sciences. In this way; they become more reliable, objective and valid. Jones, Champman and Woods (1972) stated that natural sciences can be classified as ''hard science'', whereas humanities and social sciences are in fact ''soft sciences''. There are some gender differences in interest in social sciences and humanities. A metaanalytic study conducted by Su, Rounds and Armstrong (2009) showed that female students have more interest in arts and social sciences in relation to male students. On the other hand, males like engineering, mathematics and science. Females want to help other people and like �to work with people instead of things (Jones, Howe, & Rua, 2000). Hence, women have more positive attitudes toward humanities and social sciences compared to men. Humanities include languages, literature, arts, etc. Social sciences include: psychology, sociology, pedagogy, economics, anthropology and similar disciplines. English languagebelongs to both humanities and social sciences (because some topics covered by linguistics can be examined quantitatively). Thus, it is important to examine students' attitudes toward humanities and social sciences and their relationship with English proficiency. However, there are only few studies and discussions that dealt with this kind of relationship. Aydoğan and Gupta (2014) carried out a study on the impact of humanities and social sciences on foreign language learning and self-reported oral intelligence. The results of this study indicated a high level of appreciation for humanities and social sciences among students and a high level of self-reported English proficiency as well as oral intelligence. Akay and Toraman (2015) examined attitudes toward the English language and they found that, in general, students of humanities and social sciences had very positive attitudes toward this language. In addition, their study did not reveal statistically significant gender differences in this kind of attitudes. Liking literature facilitates the process of learning foreign language (such as English). In other words, reading stories and novels, analyzing main points of their authors helps students think in English and expresses their own thoughts in this language. Therefore, literature is related to a pragmatic aspect of language (Bataineh, 2014). Ariogul (2011)and Lázár (2003) stressed the importance of intercultural topics and communicative competence related to the interaction with people who have distinct cultural backgrounds in learning English. Thus, there should be positive attitude toward sociology and psychology in order to like, understand and respect different cultures. As for the aspects of the English language, TOEFL (this acronym stands for ''Test of English as a foreign language''), for instance, takes into account reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills. Additionally, there are vocabulary and grammar items that are believed to be adequately covered within the TOEFL examination. However, traditional pedagogies usually focus on teaching grammar (Sawir, 2005). Hence, students' perceptions and estimates of their grammar skills can be crucial to their attitudes toward the English language. �This study is devoted to the exploration of relationships of students' attitudes toward social sciences and humanities with their English competence. This is, thus, the aim of our study. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Based on the previous research and the aim of the present study, the following research questions were posed: 1. Do students' attitudes toward humanities and social sciences correlate with their subjective estimates of English competence? 2. Are there any gender differences in these attitudes? 3. What is the best predictor of positive attitudes toward the English language? Likewise, the subsequent hypotheses were defined: 1. Students' attitudes toward humanities (literature as well as English and Turkish language) and social sciences (psychology, sociology, and pedagogy) are in positive and statistically significant correlations with subjective estimates of different elements of English competence (reading, writing, listening, speaking, grammar, and vocabulary). 2. Gender differences in attitudes toward humanities and social sciences are statistically significant, in favor of female students. 3. The best predictor of attitudes toward the English language is students' estimate of their grammar competence/skills. METHOD Sample the present study was carried out on a sample of 157 students who attend to a State university in Turkey. Their mean age was calculated as M = 21.92 (SD = 2.73). Participants' ages ranged from 18 to 30 years of age. Information on students' gender and year of study is shown in Figure 1. �29 30 24 25 20 18 15 15 15 14 Males 12 11 10 6 6 Females 5 5 2 0 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Figure 1. Participants' gender and year of study Figure 1 shows that the subsample of females (N = 88, 56.05% of the whole sample) outnumbers the subsample of males (N = 69, i.e. 43.95%). Most of the participants were at the second year of study (N = 44, 28.03% of the total number of participants). The least number of participants was at the sixth year of study (N = 7, i.e. 4.46%). Instruments For the purpose of this study, three instruments were administered among students. The first one ('demographics') included three questions on participants' gender, ageand year of study. The second and the third one were made in order to answer research questions of the present study: Attitudes toward humanities and social science's scale (ATHSS)are comprised of six items (see Appendix 1 at the end of this article). The first three items are: English language, Turkish language, and literature. Actually, they represent humanities. The last three items are: psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. They belong to social sciences. In fact, the ATHSS measures affective component of attitudes to humanities and social sciences. Students decided to what extent, they like each of these six academic disciplines. Each item includes a fivepoint Likert scale (1 – 'completely dislike' to 5 – 'like very much'). Internal consistency of this instrument, expressed as Cronbach's alpha coefficient, is calculated as α = .842. Hence, the ATHSS is a reliable measure of this kind of attitudes. �Self-reported English competence scale (SRECS)is a scale consisted of six items as well (please, look at the Appendix 2). The items are, in fact, the English skills that are regularly assessed by TOEFL (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), with the addition of grammar and vocabulary. Participants are expected to provide estimates of their competence related to these aspects of the English language. As before, there is a five-point Likert scale (1 – 'insufficient', 2 – 'sufficient', 3 – 'good', 4 – 'very good', and 5 – 'excellent'). Cronbach's alpha coefficient, as a measure of the SRECS' reliability (internal consistency), is α = .835. Therefore, the SRECS has a very good internal consistency. Procedure and data processing The instruments described above were administered to students at tertiary level in Turkey. It took them 8-10 minutes to fill in their data and to express their attitudes toward the aforementioned scientific disciplines as well as estimates of English competence. The data were collected along with the protection of confidentiality and anonymity related to participants' identity as well as the answers they provided. Later, data were entered into SPSS 17.0 for Win where the database was created. Three statistical procedures were used in order to examine data: Pearson's coefficient of correlation (r), independent-samples t test, and multiple regression analysis (MRA). Before these procedures, the main descriptive statistical values were calculated. RESULTS Participants' maximum and minimum scores along with mean values and standard deviations were shown in the following two tables. Table 1 Descriptive statistical values of attitudes towards humanities and social sciences Humanities and social science N Min Max M SD English language 157 1 5 3.81 0.82 Turkish language 157 2 5 3.99 0.78 Literature 157 1 5 3.85 0.88 Psychology 157 1 5 3.87 0.86 Sociology 157 2 5 3.90 0.88 Pedagogy 157 1 5 3.84 0.90 �The theoretical mean of the five-point Likert scale is 3. As shown in Table 1, mean values of all variables were above 3 (attitudes toward the English language: M = 3.81 to attitudes toward the Turkish language: M = 3.99). Participants' scores ranged from 1 to 5 in four variables; on the other hand, from 2 to 5 in the attitudes toward the Turkish language and sociology. In general, participants' attitudes (in particular, their affective component) toward humanities and social sciences are positive. Table 2 Descriptive statistical values of self-reported English competence Components of English competence N Min Max M SD Reading 157 1 5 3.85 0.83 Writing 157 2 5 3.84 0.88 Listening 157 2 5 3.91 0.78 Speaking 157 2 5 3.89 0.86 Grammar 157 1 5 3.73 0.89 Vocabulary 157 2 5 3.85 0.72 It is clear (Table 2) that students estimated their English skills/competence as above the average: M = 3.91 (listening), M = 3.89 (speaking), M = 3.85 (reading and vocabulary), M = 3.84 (writing), and M = 3.73 (grammar). The range of participants' scores with regard to reading and grammar is 1 to 5 and in all other cases, it is 2 to 5. Table 3 Correlations of attitudes toward humanities with self-reported English competence English language Turkish language Literature Reading .421* .483* .314* Writing .518* .446* .377* Listening .365* .558* .403* Speaking .505* .390* .334* Grammar .552* .494* .564* Vocabulary .462* .487* .431* Note. All coefficients of correlation are significant at the level .001 �The figures in Table 3 indicate moderate, positive and statistically significant correlations of attitudes toward humanities with self-reported English competence/skills. Attitudes toward the English language had the strongest relationship with subjective estimates of grammar skills (r(155) = .552, p< .001). Attitudes toward the Turkish language were in the strongest correlation with students' estimates of their listening skills (r(155) = .558, p < .001). At last, the correlation coefficient of students' attitudes towards literature and their estimates of grammar was the highest in the last column of the Table 3 (r(155) = .564, p < .001). Hence, attitudes toward humanities and self-reported English competence are significantly correlated to each other. Table 4 Correlations of attitudes towardssocial scienceswith self-reported English competence Psychology Sociology Pedagogy Reading .568*** .368*** .287*** Writing .439*** .429*** .203* Listening .338*** .260** .347*** Speaking .405*** .512*** .284*** Grammar .498*** .450*** .307*** Vocabulary .403*** .453*** .320*** Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 By examining Table 4, favourable, low to moderate and statistically important coefficients of correlation can be noticed. Attitudes toward psychology were in the strongest correlation with self-reported reading skills (r(155) = .568, p < .001), whereas attitudes toward sociology correlated the most with self-reported speaking skills (r(155) = .512, p < .001). Finally, students' attitudes to pedagogy were in the strongest correlation with their estimates of listening skills (r(155) = .347, p < .001). Gender differences in attitudes to both humanities and social sciences were examined by independent-samples t - test and shown in tables 5 and 6 below. Looking at the Table 5, the significant gender differences can be noticed only in attitudes towards literature (t(155) = -2.40, p< .05). Females' mean value was higher (M = 4.00) in relation to males' mean value (M = 3.67). �Table 5 Gender differences in attitudes toward humanities Humanities English language Turkish language Literature Gender N M SD Males 69 3.71 0.86 Females 88 3.89 0.78 Males 69 3.87 0.89 Females 88 4.09 0.67 Males 69 3.67 0.85 Females 88 4.00 0.87 t -1.34 -1.78 -2.40* Note. * p < .05 However, female students had higher mean values for the English (M = 3.89) and Turkish language (M = 4.09), compared to male students (M = 3.71 and M = 3.87, respectively). Notwithstanding, differences between them were not statistically significant. Table 6 Gender differences in attitudes toward social sciences Humanities Psychology Sociology Pedagogy Gender N M SD Males 69 3.65 0.94 Females 88 4.03 0.75 Males 69 3.61 0.89 Females 88 4.14 0.79 Males 69 3.59 0.83 Females 88 4.03 0.90 t -2.84* -3.92** -3.14* Note. * p < .01; ** p < .001 It was found that all gender differences in attitudes toward social sciences were statistically significant, in favor of females (Table 6): M = 4.03 vs. M = 3.65, t(155) = -2.84, p< .01 (psychology), M = 4.14 vs. M = 3.61, t(155) = -3.92, p< .001 (sociology), and M = 4.03 vs. M = 3.59, t(155) = -3.14, p< .01 (pedagogy). All components of English competence were entered into multiple regression analysis in order to examine their predictive validity related to attitudes toward the English language, that were the criterion variable (Table 7). �Table 7 Six components of English competence as predictors of attitudes toward the English language Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients Beta (β) t B Std.Error Constant .661 .333 Reading .019 .079 .019 0.24 Writing .172 .081 .185 2.12* Listening .087 .079 .083 1.11 Speaking .210 .074 .222 2.86** Grammar .218 .079 .238 2.75** Vocabulary .116 .102 .102 1.14 R = .652 R2 = .425 1.98* F(6, 150) = 18.48*** Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 Referring to Table 7, it can be said that the regression model with six predictors was statistically significant (F(6, 150) = 18.48, p< .001). The coefficient of multiple correlations is R = .652 and the coefficient of multiple determinations is R2= .425. Therefore, these predictors account for 42.5% of criterion's variance.In other words, self-reported reading, writing, listening, speaking, grammar and vocabulary competence (taken together) explain 42.5% of students' attitudes towards the English language. Additionally, it appears that there are three statistically significant predictors: grammar (β = .238, t = 2.75, p< .01), speaking (β = .222, t = 2.86, p < .01), and writing (β = .185, t = 2.12, p< .05). As expected before, self-reported grammar skills were the best predictor of students' attitudes toward the English language. DISCUSSION The first part of our findings reflect students' positive attitudes towards humanities and social sciences. This result is in accordance with that of Aydoğan and Gupta (2014). Humanities and social sciences are not as difficult as natural sciences and this finding can be explained by this notion. The second part of our results includes moderate, positive, and statistically significant correlations between students' attitudes towards humanities/social sciences and their selfreported English competence (reading, writing, speaking, listening, vocabulary and grammar �skills). Akay and Torman (2015) found more positive attitudes towards English and higher competence in English among students of humanities and social sciences compared to those who studied engineering and architecture. Hence, our results overlapped with theirs. Therefore, the first hypothesis was confirmed. The present study did not yield statistically significant gender differences in attitudes toward English and Turkish language. Neither Akay and Toraman (2015) get significant gender differences in attitudes toward the English language. One of the possible explanations is the following one: learning English is important for both males and females because the English language is the lingua franca of the 21st-century society. Their similar results with regard to the Turkish language were presumably influenced by students' nationality and tight connection to their country (i.e. Turkey). However, there were statistically significant differences favoring females in their attitudes toward literature, psychology, pedagogy and sociology. This part of findings can be explained by empirically-based conclusions provided by Su, Rounds and Armstrong (2009) as well as Jones, Howe and Rua (2000): females are more interested in social sciences and working with people rather than in natural sciences and working with things (objects). Thus, the second hypothesis was partially confirmed. In the end, students' estimates of six elements of their English competence significantly contribute to the explanation of their attitudes toward the English language. The best predictor was the estimate of their grammar skills. Because this aspect (component) of English language is in the limelight of traditional pedagogies (Sawir, 2005), this finding is not surprising. Hence, the third hypothesis was confirmed. The implications rose from this research are the following: 1. Students should use their knowledge of humanities and social sciences while reading stories, passages, movies and other learning materials in English classes that are related to introducing various cultures, customs and nations. 2. It seems that gender stereotypes still influence gender differences in attitudes towards humanities and social science (with the exception for English and Turkish language). 3. Difficulties with regard to English grammar apprehension affect students' general attitudes toward the English language. Some strengths of this research are linked to the examination of a topic that was rarely investigated before. The prime limitation of this study is the nature of self-reported �measuresof English competence. Objective tests of English knowledge and skills (for each of its components separately) should be used thereafter. This is, at the same time, the most important recommendation for future research on this topic. CONCLUSION If these results can be appropriately generalized, Turkish students like humanities (literature, as well as English and Turkish language) and social sciences (psychology, pedagogy, and sociology). Participants who have very positive attitudes towards these scientific disciplines estimate their English competence (reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar and vocabulary) as pretty high, and vice versa. There were some gender differences, as well. Female students have more positive attitudes to literature, sociology, psychology and pedagogy in relation to male students. Finally, there were three significant predictors for participants' attitudes toward the English language: self-reported writing, speaking, and grammar skills. Their estimates of grammar skills were the best predictor. Further studies will shed light on other impacts on students' attitudes toward the English language (e.g. academic self-efficacy, previous knowledge, students' previous experience with native English speakers, etc.). REFERENCES Akay, E.& Toraman, Ç. (2015). Students’ attitudes towards learning English grammar: A study of scale development: Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 11(2), 67-82. Ariogul, S. (2011). The teaching of reading through short stories in advanced classes. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Ankara: Hacettepe University. Aydoğan, H. & Gupta, S. (2014). Impact of humanities and social sciences on foreign language learning and verbal intelligence: A model study on Bosnian and Turkish students. The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 2, 661-670. Bataineh, A. (2014). The effect of teaching literature on EFL students' pragmatic competence. Journal of Education and Practice, 5, 137-156. Huang, M. & Chang, Y. (2008). Characteristics of research output in social sciences and humanities: From a research evaluation perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59, 1819-1828. �Jones, C., Champman, M., & Woods, P. C. (1972). The characteristics of the literature used by historians. Journal of Librarianship, 4(3), 137–156. Jones, M. G., Howe, A., & Rua, M. J. (2000). Gender differences in students' experiences, interests and attitudes toward science and scientists. Sci Ed, 84, 180-192. Lázár, I. (2003). Incorporating intercultural communicative competence in language teacher education. Strasbourg: European Centre of Modern Languages – Council of Europe Publishing. Sawir, E. (2005). Language difficulties of international students in Australia: The effects of prior learning experience. International Education Journal, 6, 567-580. Su, R., Rounds, J., & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A metaanalysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859-884. APPENDIX 1 Attitudes toward humanities and social sciences scale (ATHSS) Instructions for participants: Please indicate to which extent you like the following academic disciplines/subjects (1 – completely dislike, 2 – dislike, 3 – neither like nor dislike, 4 – like, 5 – like very much): English language 1 2 3 4 5 Turkish language 1 2 3 4 5 Literature 1 2 3 4 5 Psychology 1 2 3 4 5 Sociology 1 2 3 4 5 Pedagogy 1 2 3 4 5 �APPENDIX 2 Self-reported English competence scale (SRECS) Instructions for participants: Please indicate the level of your competence, knowledge and skills in the following categories related to the English language (1 – insufficient, 2 – sufficient, 3 – good, 4 – very good, 5 – excellent): Reading 1 2 3 4 5 Writing 1 2 3 4 5 Listening 1 2 3 4 5 Speaking 1 2 3 4 5 Grammar 1 2 3 4 5 Vocabulary 1 2 3 4 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3261 Title A name given to the resource Attitudes Toward Humanities and Social Sciences and Their Relationship With English Competence Author Author Aydoğan, Hakan Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. Humanities and social sciences are mostly regarded as ''soft sciences''. Females have greater interest in them compared to males. Because linguistic (in this paper, English language studies) belongs to both humanities and social sciences, the present study aims to examine the relationship of students' estimates of English competence and their attitudes toward humanities and social sciences. The sample consists of 157 participants (88 females and 69 males).Who are at tertiarry level in Turkey. The obtained results reflect no gender differences in students' attitudes toward English and Turkish language; however, significant gender differences were found in their attitudes toward literature, psychology, sociology and pedagogy. Participants' attitudes toward humanities and socal aciences were in significant relationships with all aspects of self-reported English competence. In addition, self-reported grammar skills were the best predictor of attitudes towards the English language. Keywords: English competence, humanities, social sciences, gender differences. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-02 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d5dea25b21d3f374035c75e6e7214318.pdf 6c7f0b0755d60461347336b591ecc6d0 PDF Text Text PASSENGERS’ SATISFACTION IN COACH TRAVEL IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - STUDY ON PERCEPTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN SARAJEVO Adis Ćatić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina adis.catic@hotmail.com Edin Smajić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina esmajic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Transportation of people was always very important aspect of human life. Today, there are many ways in which people can travel. This paper was occupied with coach travel, and passengers’ satisfaction in it in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A coach is a type of vehicle used for carrying passengers on excursions, touristic journeys and trips, and on other long distance journeys such as intercity or international bus lines. The goal of this study was to find out level of passengers’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and what is most important for passengers when they use coach travel services - is it price, speed, safety, comfort, or something else. Study was performed on perception of university students in Sarajevo, because they are representative sample of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Focus of the study was on “on board experience”, which is actually experience of passengers while they are inside of the vehicle. Research clearly indicated what aspects of coach travel are most important for passengers, and also suggested some proposals that can make coach travel more competitive and attractive. Keywords: passengers’ satisfaction, university students, coach travel 1. Introduction Coach travel is one of the most important transportation modes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Actually, it is important way of transportation of people in most of developing countries. In developed countries, where air and rail transportation is well organized, smaller number of passengers uses coach travel services. Anyway, coach travel finds place in organizing touristic trips, excursions and other kinds of journeys in every country, no matter is it developed or developing country. Purpose of this study was to illuminate current situation in coach travel market in Bosnia and Herzegovina, to find out what aspects of coach travel are most important to passengers and to reach level of satisfaction of passengers who travel by coach in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since coach travel is, as we said, one of the most common ways of transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is important to investigate current situation, to analyze reasons and to reach final conclusion in order to make it more attractive and more affordable for all segments of passengers. Although this study was focused only on university students who are studying at any of universities in Sarajevo, conclusions that were reached during the research can also be applied for some other groups of passengers. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 119 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) 1.1 Importance and contribution of the study There are number of reasons that give importance to this research. First of all, this research clearly showed level of satisfaction of university students/passengers with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with, or they have travelled. It is important in order to motivate transportation companies to increase the level of quality of their services and to try to make users of that services more satisfied. Other reason of importance of this research is that the research showed what aspects of coach travel are the most important for university students/passengers. By this information, transportation companies can focus their efforts to improve especially those aspects of coach travel that research participants stated as most important. This research is important because it helps both, transportation companies who provide coach travel services and passengers who use them at the end. Because coach travel is one of the most important ways of transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina (maybe the most important one), it is crucial thing to make it attractive, affordable, comfortable and safe. This research gives its contribution to this very important issue. 1.2 Objectives of the study We can identify several objectives of this research. First of all, objective of the research was to find out what factors or what aspects of coach travel are most important for university students/passengers in Sarajevo when they use coach travel services on intercity lines, international lines, students’ trips and any other kind of journeys by coach. They were asked to fulfill the survey and to rate importance of specific factors such as price, crew, safety, etc. Next, one of objectives of the study was to investigate and to find out level of university students’ satisfaction with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with. University students were also asked to give their comments, proposals, suggestions, critics and experiences (good or bad). These comments were greatly useful in the process of data analysis and commenting of final results. Finally, this research was done in order to find out what are the most common problems that passengers and transportation companies are facing with, and to try to provide some new ideas, proposals or possible solutions for those problems. There were no a lot of researches like this in the past in Bosnia and Herzegovina, so this one is very important in process of illumination of coach travel sector and passengers’ satisfaction in it in this country. 2. Literature review There are number of articles and other kinds of works written about bus and coach travel. Anyway, there are more articles that are examining issues in public and urban transportation, and less about coach travel. We already differentiated these two terms, but in order to get closer to the topic of transportation of people, in this section we will also review some articles that are focused on bus transportation, urban and public transport. Bodiono (2009) was writing about passengers’ satisfaction in public bus transport in Indonesia. The overall result showed that service quality attributes influences overall customer satisfaction in using public bus transport. The service quality could be evaluated and improved by analyzing single attributes but also by analyzing factors based on several attributes. The overall aim is to make public bus transport an attractive, satisfied, and marketable mode of transport. (Budiono, 2009) 120 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Yusof et al. (2014) investigated factors that are affecting students’ satisfaction towards bus services in University of Utara, Malaysia. The objective of this study was to explore factors that influence student satisfaction on bus services in University Utara Malaysia (UUM). A factor analysis yielded three factors which are attitude of bus driver, reliability of the buses and facilities of buses. (Zahayu Md Yusof, Masnita Misiran, Lee Pei Pei and Ho Tian Tian, 2014) Woldeamanuel and Cyganski (2011) were writing about factors affecting travelers’ satisfaction with accessibility to public transportation. This research is similar to previous two. Authors state that accessibility to public transportation is one of the important attributes to assess the effectiveness of a transit system and the integration of transportation with land use. The level of accessibility can be a determining factor for users‟ perception and satisfaction with the overall transit system. (Mintesnot Woldeamanuel and Rita Cyganski, 2011) Islam et al. (2014) conducted a study about measuring costumers’ satisfaction on bus transportation. The purpose of the study was to examine the factors measuring customers’ satisfaction, especially the impact of service quality on customers’ satisfaction in public transportation industry in the university town of Sintok located in Kedah province of Malaysia. (Rabiul Islam, Mohammed S. Chowdhury, Mohammad Sumann Sarker and Salauddin Ahmed, 2014) Authors say that service quality attributes influences overall customer satisfaction in using public bus transport. In March 2011, Passenger Focus, which is independent national passenger web site, wanted to get a better understanding of coach passenger needs and experiences in Great Britain, so it commissioned preliminary research. This included identifying any improvements which could be made and how complaints were handled. Focus groups and depth interviews were undertaken with users several transportation companies in UK. (Coach passengers needs and experiences, 2011) Results indicated that participants of the survey used the coach because it was significantly cheaper than other modes. Also, they mentioned other advantages of travelling by coach: getting a seat is always guaranteed, the seats can be comfortable; coach travel can be a stress free and relaxing experience and the time can be used to work or read. (Coach passengers needs and experiences, 2011) Authors claim that coach travel is one of the most affordable kinds of transportation. 3. Coach travel overview In order to define coach travel correctly, it is necessary to define a term “coach”. Before that, terms “coach” and “bus” have to be distinguished. In Bosnian language there is no difference between these two terms, but in English language it is important to differentiate them. Coaches and buses are both used for carrying passengers from place to place. The differences between a bus and a coach may be hard to recognize, especially when coaches are often confusedly referred to as buses and the terms are used interchangeably. However, buses and coaches differ in service, comfort and pricing. (Gianino) In American English, the word “bus” may refer to any form of public transport by road, be it a short ride through New York City or a coast-to-coast marathon. (Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference, 2011) Things are a little different in European English. A “bus route” is essentially a local service, geared to local traffic. You cannot normally reserve seats in advance. A “coach service,” by contrast, is usually a longer-distance service, often one where advance booking is recommended (even if often not absolutely necessary) and usually operated by a vehicle that has more comfortable seating than you would find on a local bus service. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 121 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) (Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference, 2011) Unlike transit buses designed for shorter journeys, coaches often have a luggage hold that is separate from the passenger cabin and are normally equipped with facilities required for longer trips, including comfortable seats and sometimes a toilet. (Wikipedia - Coach, 2016) The term “coach” was previously used for a horse-drawn carriage designed for the conveyance of more than one passenger, the passengers’ luggage, and mail that is covered for protection from the elements. (Coach (Bus), 2016) Coach development could only benefit from the improvement in roads. Before turnpike trusts, coaches had been un-sprung and any journey in them was very uncomfortable as there was no suspension. Basically a wooden carriage, aided by four wooden wheels, was used to move people or produce. (Treuman, 2016) The world’s first motorized bus went into service on 18 March 1895. Father of it was Carl Benz. Technically speaking, the world’s first motorized bus was in fact a converted passenger car model, fitted with what was known as a landau body – a design very familiar at that time as a carriage body. It was powered by a horizontal single-cylinder rear-mounted engine with an output of 5 hp. The drive to the rear wheels was provided by chains. The bus had space for eight people, including the driver. (Mercedes Benz - first motorized bus) Today’s coaches are equipped with toilets, Wi-Fi, comfortable seats, air condition, kitchen, fridge, TV and audio systems, and many more things. Buses and coaches are an integral part of public transport and travel, and key elements in a sustainable transport system. (The role of bus and coach transport in mobility chain) Methodology 4. This study was occupied with university students who are studying in Sarajevo. Reason for choosing university students for research sample is because they represent important part of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They travel from their home towns to Sarajevo and of course, they use coach travel services. They also organize student trips and excursions all around Bosnia and Herzegovina and Europe. One of reasons why university students in Sarajevo were chosen for research sample is also because they come from almost every part of the country. Because of that, we assumed that they represent good and realistic sample of student population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the data of Institute of statistics in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2013, there were 33 919 university students in Sarajevo, studying at State University and other private education institutions. (FB&H, 2013) According to this, at least 0,01% of student population has had to be investigated. Total number of respondents was 388 which satisfy the minimum requirements of sample size. Survey was conducted in order to find out what criteria or factors are most important for university students in Sarajevo when they use coach travel services on intercity lines, international lines, student trips and excursions. Also, goal of the survey was to explore level of satisfaction of university students with quality of coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies they travel with, or they have travelled. Survey was divided into three parts. In first part, students were asked to rate specific criteria (factors/variables) in terms of importance to their travelling experience. There were six variables explored in this survey: - Price and accessibility Crew inside of the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy 122 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Inside of each variable, there were several questions to rate them in terms of importance to university students’ coach travelling experience. Participants were asked to rate them form 1 – not important to 5 –very important. In second part of survey, students were asked to rate their level of satisfaction with coach travel services of Bosnian transportation companies from 1 – very dissatisfied to 5 – very satisfied. Third part of survey was actually open question for students to give their suggestions, proposals, experiences and comments. This was very useful in process of interpretation and commenting of the results. 5. Results Quantitative data was collected from university student respondents’ surveys. Data was analyzed in Microsoft Excel using means and standard deviations, as well as comparing the means of male and female respondents. Total number of respondents was 388. Respondents were asked to give their information about gender, age and current study program. Surveys were collected via online methods using Google Forms tool for making questionnaires, and via visiting universities, students’ flats and dormitories. 5.1 Analysis of variables In the table below, we can see that „speed and accuracy“ variable has the biggest value of mean (4,213). „Crew inside of the vehicle“ is second with mean of 3,986. „Safety during the trip“ is on third place with mean of 3,923. „Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle“ has mean of 3,766. Fifht variable is „price and accessibility“ with mean of 3,601. Equipment in the vehicle has the lowest mean (3,189). Table 1: Analysis of variables VARIABLES Price and accessibility Crew inside the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy MEAN 3,601 3,986 3,923 3,766 3,189 4,213 ST. DEV. 1,123 0,972 1,060 1,048 1,218 1,046 From these results, we can conclude that speed and accuracy are most important element of coach travel for unversity students. Speed and accuracy of transportation companies are factors that can affect some other aspects of life of passengers. If there are delays in transportation of people, some other obligations and issues can suffer because of that. It is so important for university students to have fast and accurate coach travel, especially on regular bus lines (intercity, for example). During touristic journeys and other student trips, delays can be more accepted than during regular bus lines. From the figure below, we can see graphical view of average means and standard deviations of each of six variable. We can notice that variable with highest value of mean actually has the second lowest value of standard deviation, and variable with lowest mean actually has the highest value of standard deviation. This value of standard deviation for „speed and accuracy“ variable supports reability and validity issues of the research. Second most important factor for university students is nice and friendly crew inside of the vehicle. It is important for them to have kind and helpfulness drivers or tour leaders who will always be communicative. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 123 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Figure 1: Analysis of variables 5.2 Comparative analysis of variables In this section, data gathered from male and female respondents will be compared in order to find out what aspects of coach travel are most important for male and for female university students. As we can see form the table below, speed and accuracy are the most important factors of coach travel for both, male and female univirsity students, but this factor is more important for female than for male respondents. We can also notice that means for females are higher than means of males in each variable except equipment in the vehicle. That means that five of six factors of coach travel are more important for female than for male university students. Table 2: Comparative analysis of variables VARIABLES Price and accessibility Crew inside the vehicle Safety during the trip Comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle Equipment in the vehicle Speed and accuracy Male 3,597 3,916 3,781 3,770 3,229 4,171 Female 3,615 4,073 4,079 3,892 3,158 4,272 In the figure below, we can see graphicall view of average means of male and female respondents for each variable. Only equipment in the vehicle, which is actually variable with lowest importance for university students, was more important for males than for females. We can say that femeale university students are more demanding kind of passengers than male university students. 124 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Figure 2: Comparative analysis of variables 5.3 Analysis of university students’ satisfaction in coach travel in B&H In this section of the study, second objective of the research will be examined. Overall level of university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies they travel with or they had travelled will be discovered. In the table below, we can see means and standard deviations of each of six question regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. Safety during the trip has the biggest value of mean (3,046) which means that university students are the mostly satisfied with feeling of safety when they travel by some of Bosnian transportation companies. Research showed that university students are the least satisfied with comfort and quality of vehicles in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Table 3: Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Comfort and quality of vehicles Attitude of crew toward passenger Accuracy in timetable Safety during trips Prices of tickets and trips Generally MEAN 2,879 ST. DEV. 1,175 2,701 2,899 2,863 3,046 2,892 2,874 1,174 1,169 1,172 1,200 1,234 1,098 In the figure below we can see graphical view of means and standard deviations of each question regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. We can see that the biggest value of mean is only 3,046 (safety during the trips). University students are the least satified with comfort and quality of vehicles. At the end, according to average mean (2,879) we can conclude that university students are very little satisfied or neither satisfied nor dissatified with quality of Bosnian transportation companies. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 125 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Figure 3 Students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies 5.4 Comparative analysis of university students’ satisfaction in coach travel in B&H In this section, data gathered from male and female respondents will be compared in order to find out which of these two groups has higher level of satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. From the table below, we can see that females’ means have lower values than males’ means in each of six questions regarding university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. Average mean of males is 2,953 while average mean of females is 2,790. Table 4: Comparative analysis of students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies University students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies Comfort and quality of vehicle Attitude of crew toward passenger Accuracy in timetable Safety during trips Prices of tickets and trips Generally Male 2,953 2,838 2,984 2,874 3,188 2,906 2,927 Female 2,790 2,545 2,802 2,847 2,899 2,859 2,787 We can conclude that female university students passengers are less satisfied with Bosnian transportation companies than male university students passengers. Not only that, females are also more demanding than males, regarding importance of variables that were investigated in the main part of research. 126 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Figure 4 Comparative analysis of students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies 6. Conclusion After detailed process of analyzing and commenting of collected data, we can conclude that transportation sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina still needs a lot of improvements. Focus of the study was on coach travel and passengers’ on-board experience. After carefull analysis, we can say that research showed that speed and accuracy are the most important factors that make university students satisfied when they use coach travel seriveces. Respondents stated that this element of coach travel has significant importance to their coach travelling experience. Second important factor which affects their satisfaction is crew inside the vehicle. Behavior of coach driver or any other member of crew is significantly important for university students. Feeling of safety during the trip is third most important element of overall travelling experience of university students. After these elements, we have comfort, ergonomics and visual look of the vehicle; price of tickets and trips; and equipment in the vehicle. It is interesting to mention that all variables except equipment in the vehicle are more important for female respondents than for male respondents, so we can conclude that female university students are more demanding than males. When we talk about university students’ satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies they travel with or they have trevalled, research clearly indicated that university students are not so satisfied with domestic coach travel. It is also interesting to mention that female students are less satisfied than male students in each of six investigated questions regarding their satisfaction with Bosnian transportation companies. This research clearly showed what aspects of coach travel transportation companies should pay attention to. 6.1 Research limitations and recommandations for future studies This study was occupied with experiences and opinions of university students who are studying in Sarajevo. Other groups of passengers were not included into this research. That is exactly first limitation to this study. All results are based only on responds of university students in Sarajevo who are between 18 and 30 years old. Second limitation to the study is that university students from other cities were not included in this research. University students in Sarajevo were chosen to be a sample for the research because ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 127 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) they come from all parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, not including university students form other cities in the research is surely one of limitations to this study. However, according to the number of respondents who participated in the research, we can freely say that research was effective and successful. In order to investigate overall level of students’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, future researches should include university students from all other university cities in the country. Of course, it will demand larger sample of university students. Also, all other groups of passengers (workers, pensioners) should be included in the research in order to find out a general level of satisfaction of passengers in Bosnia and Herzegovina and what criteria are most important for passengers when they use coach travel services. References • Budiono, O. A. (2009). Costumer satisfaction in public bus transport - a study of travelers’ perception in Indonesia. • Bus and Coach Travel in Europe: Understanding the difference. (2011, November 23). Retrieved May 8, 2016, from www.eurocheapo.com: http:// www.eurocheapo.com/blog/bus-and-coach-travel-in-europe-understandingthe-difference.html • Coach (Bus). (2016). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coach_(bus) • Coach passengers needs and experiences. (June 2011). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Passenger Focus: http://www.transportfocus.org.uk/ • FB&H, I. f. (2013). Higher education in federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto 11. May 2016 iz http://www.fzs.ba/god_bilteni/Visoko%20 obrazovanje%20u%20F%20BiH%202012-2013.pdf • Gianino, L. (n.d.). The Differences Between a Bus and a Coach. Retrieved May 8, 2016, from www.ehow.com: http://www.ehow.com/list_7406698_differencesbetween-bus-coach.html • Mercedes Benz - first motorized bus. (n.d.). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Mercedes Benz: https://www.mercedes-benz.com/en/mercedes-benz/lifestyle/mercedesbenz-magazines/classic-magazine/the-first-motorized-bus-dating-back-to-1895was-a-benz/ • Mintesnot Woldeamanuel and Rita Cyganski. (2011). FACTORS AFFECTING TRAVELLERS’ SATISFACTION WITH ACCESSIBILITY TO PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION. Association For European Transport and Contributors . • Rabiul Islam, Mohammed S. Chowdhury, Mohammad Sumann Sarker and Salauddin Ahmed. (2014). MEASURING CUSTOMER’S SATISFACTION ON BUS TRANSPORTATION. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration . • The role of bus and coach transport in mobility chain. (n.d.). Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz Bus and Coach Travel:http://www.busandcoach.travel/download/ promotional_material/en/Bus%20and%20Coach%20in%20the%20mobility%20 chain.pdf • Treuman, C. N. (2016). Coaches 1750 to 1900. Preuzeto 9. May 2016 iz The History Learning Site: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/ transport-1750-to-1900/coaches-1750-to-1900/ • Wikipedia - Coach. (2016). Preuzeto 8. May 2016 iz Wikipedia, the free encyklopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coach_(bus) • Zahayu Md Yusof, Masnita Misiran, Lee Pei Pei and Ho Tian Tian. (2014). Factors affecting students’ satisfaction towards bus services in University. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology . 128 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3306 Title A name given to the resource PASSENGERS’ SATISFACTION IN COACH TRAVEL IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - STUDY ON PERCEPTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN SARAJEVO Author Author Catic, Adis Smajic, Edin Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Transportation of people was always very important aspect of human life. Today, there are many ways in which people can travel. This paper was occupied with coach travel, and passengers’ satisfaction in it in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A coach is a type of vehicle used for carrying passengers on excursions, touristic journeys and trips, and on other long distance journeys such as intercity or international bus lines. The goal of this study was to find out level of passengers’ satisfaction in coach travel in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and what is most important for passengers when they use coach travel services - is it price, speed, safety, comfort, or something else. Study was performed on perception of university students in Sarajevo, because they are representative sample of passengers’ population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Focus of the study was on “on board experience”, which is actually experience of passengers while they are inside of the vehicle. Research clearly indicated what aspects of coach travel are most important for passengers, and also suggested some proposals that can make coach travel more competitive and attractive. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HD Industries. Land use. Labor https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/38a13a9b0d1b37b61d5f5f74ab7d1101.pdf a2178d5a6454c31ff377222dd89fb3b3 PDF Text Text Adpositions Derived From Nouns In Iranian Languages Güneş Muhip Özyurt Yıldırım Beyazıt Universitesi, Turkey Abstract: The purpose of this study is to explore the noun-derived adpositions in Persian language and other living Iranian Languages in the light of the relevant literature. To accomplish that, first the existing works that deal this type of grammaticalization will be discussed. Next, seven languages from the Iranian language family will be examined to reveal how adpositions develop out of nouns. Keywords: adposition, noun, grammaticalization, Iranian Languages, Persian 1. Introduction The present study deals with the adpositions in Iranian Languages that have been derived from nouns. There is significant research on the theoretical aspects of grammaticalization of nouns into adpositions as a phenomenon that pervades human languages, which will be reviewed in the first part of this paper. Yet, as will be discussed, Iranian Languages have not been paid due attention by the researchers of this pathway of grammaticalization. Thus, the second part of the paper is an attempt to find out whether noun-derived adpositions in Iranian Languages adhere to the rules observed in other human languages. To this end, instances of nouns grammaticalized into postpositions or prepositions in seven Iranian Languages will be scrutinized. The languages that will be reviewed are Balochi, Pashto, Mazandarani, Talysh, Zaza, Kurdish and Persian. 2. Literature Review: The Grammaticalization of Nouns into Adpositions There is no clear-cut definition of an adposition that all linguists agree on and making such a definition will not be attempted here. However, to make the subject matter clear, it should be stated that the term adposition in this paper is seen from a functionalist perspective. Svorou (1994) developed a classification based on function and grouped adpositions, affixes and case inflections with spatial functions altogether as “spatial grams”. While Svorou’s findings on the grammaticalization of adpositions are key for the theoretical framework of this paper, her delineation of the function of adpositions as limited to the expression of spatial relations does not work for all the instances that will be discussed below. A more comprehensive approach that is adopted in this study is that of DeLancey (2005) who noted that adpositions “show a range of rather distinct semantic functions” while adding that one of their major functions is to express “spatial and temporal relations” (p. 187). In human languages, adpositions are continuously grammaticalized from other parts of speech. Verbs and adverbs are two antecedents for new adpositions but nouns provide the main source (Heine & Kuteva, 2007). The process of change from nouns to spatial �adpositions was studied by Svorou (1986). According to her, new spatial expressions are derived not only through the combination of nouns with existing adpositions or case markers but also with the help of genitive constructions. During the genitive construction phase, which Svorou (1986) showed to be a step of grammaticalization that was common in many languages, the prospective adposition acts as the head noun. The semantic motivation here is to create a part-whole relation between two words where the part actually means the location beyond the limits of the part. The following desemanticization and phonetic erosion are the key components of the grammaticalization process and once the noun loses its original form and meaning to become a true adposition, further grammaticalization into categories such as case marker is also possible (Heine & Kuteva, 2007). Svorou’s (1994) comprehensive account of the grammaticalization of adpositions and other spatial grams based on a broad sample of genetically unrelated languages showed that nouns do not become adpositions randomly. Instead, clear semantic patterns common to all languages are observed in the choice of the nouns, from which adpositions are derived. Body part names, for instance, constitute the noun group most frequently grammaticalized into adpositions and more often than not, languages adhere to what is called “the anthropomorphic model” concerning the semantic connection between the source nouns and the derived adpositions. In the antropomorphic model, the spatial meaning of the noun-derived adpositions correspond to the location of the source body-part noun in relation to the rest of the human body. For example, as shown by Svorou (1994), in several languages nouns that mean “head” have become adpositions that mean “on”. Common paths for deriving adpositions from human body parts also include nouns that mean “back” becoming adpositions that mean “behind” and nouns that mean “heart” becoming adpositions that mean “inside” or “in”. Other noun groups that have a habit of giving rise to adpositions are body parts based on a zoomorphic model, environmental landmarks such as “field” or “doorway” and relational object parts such as “top” or “front”. In addition to the abovementioned comparative accounts, the grammaticalization of nouns into adpositions has also been scrutinized in works that deal with specific language groups such as Esseesy’s (2010) detailed study of the Arabic prepositions. As for Iranian Languages, Svorou (1994) did use examples from the Persian language but some of the most illustrative instances of nouns grammaticalized as adpositions in this language were not covered by her, not to mention the mistaken identification of dar “in” as indicating the exterior region (p. 258). Also, Persian is only part of the picture when it comes to the rich inventory of prepositions and postpositions found in various Iranian Languages. 3. The Iranian Languages The Iranian language family is a major part of the Indo-European language family and includes several languages descending from the unattested Proto-Iranian and are currently spoken in Iran and neighboring countries. They are further divided into Eastern, SouthWestern and North-Western Iranian sub-groups that represent a genealogical divide rather than a geographical one. The development of Iranian languages can be examined in three historical stages namely Old, Middle and New Iranian. One of the most noticable changes in grammar that occured through these stages is the demise of the case declensions in the �Middle Iranian period, which left adpositions as the only means to express cases and other semantic relations. Consequently, in the New Iranian period, Iranian Languages have developed many prepositions and postpositions. In the following part of this paper, examples of adpositions derived from nouns in seven living Iranian languages namely Balochi, Pashto, Mazandarani, Talysh, Zaza, Kurdish and Persian languages will be presented. Though making an exhaustive list of every noun-derived adposition in every living Iranian language is beyond the scope of this study, the seven languages reviewed here reflect the geographical distribution as well as the linguistic diversity of Iranian Language family and adpositions derived from cognate words in different languages are paid due attention to present an explanatory overview of the grammaticalization of adpositions in Iranian Languages as a whole. 3.1 Balochi Balochi is a North-Western Iranian language spoken in Southeastern Iran and Western Pakistan. Though prepositions do exist in Balochi, they are usually incorporated into circumpositional phrases where the postposition is the true vessel of meaning (Elfenbein, 1989). Postpositions can also be used alone. There are a number of Balochi postpositions that are actually oblique forms of body-part nouns: (1) čukh-ē dēm-ā (Jahani & Korn, 2009, p. 657) child-GEN face-OBL “in front of the child” As seen, the preceding noun is in the genitive case, which creates a possessive relationship with the postposition. The oblique case in Balochi can express the locative so the above phrase literally means “in the face of the child”. Two other examples of noun-derived adpositions in Balochi are sar-ā “on”derived from sar “head” and phušt-ā “behind”derived from phušt “back”. As for phad-ā “behind” derived from phad “foot”, the semantic motivation is probably “in the footsteps of” i.e. “in the wake of” (Jahani & Korn, 2009). 3.2 Pashto Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language primarily spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan. David (2014) estimated a speaker population between 25 and 50 millions. Although dialects do exist, their differences are superficial and they are mutually intelligible according to Tegey and Robson (1996), who regarded Pashto a conservative language because it has retained some archaic linguistic features. In Pashto, the particle ki is employed as part of a circumposition to express the interior location: (2) pə koṭ-a ki (David, 2014, p. 310) in… room-F.DIR …in “in the room” ki essentially goes back to *kašē, which was the locative form of the Avestan word kasa“armpit”, literally meaning “in the armpit” (Hewson & Bubenik, 2007, p.150). In this case, the grammaticalization has reached its final phase where the particle can no longer be used �outside the adpositional phrase and its origin is only discernible to linguists. The source noun is also unique as there is no other known instance of this particular body-part name evolving into a locative particle. The circumposition pə … ki can be combined with several other adpositions to express more complicated spatial relations. One such adposition apparently derived from a noun is məkh: (3) də sinf pə məkh ki (David, 2014, p.340) of class in… face-M …in “in front of the class” When used as a noun, məkh means “face”, perfectly conforming with the antropomorphic model discussed earlier. Note that in some dialects of Pashto, we also come across sar “head” in a similarly combined form that means “at the top of, above” (David, 2014, p.315). 3.3 Mazandarani Mazandarani is a member of the Caspian Languages sub-family of North-Western Iranian Languages. Its speakers are concentrated in Iran’s Mazandaran Province and number over 3 millions. Although urbanization and proximity to Iran’s cultural and political center have led to the recent weaking of Mazandarani language by an influx of Persian vocabulary and grammatical forms, certain elements of Mazandarani resist being replaced such as the placement of adpositions. (Borjian, 2004) Mazandarani is a postpositional language so the adpositions follow the noun, which optionally gets an oblique marker. Two postpositions in Mazandarani have evident nominal origins: (4) nεfār sar (Borjian & Borjian, 2007) shed-DIR head “on the shed” (5) kεlum-e dele (Borjian & Borjian, 2007) stable-OBL heart “in the stable” Example (4) shows another instance of a consistent practice across the Iranian language family whereby sar “head” and its cognates are adopted as adpositions that mean “on top of”. The case of dele in (5) is not unique to Mazandarani either. Creating a semantic analogy between “heart” and “interior” is a widespread practice in human languages and as will be shown, Iranian languages are no exception. 3.4 Talysh Spoken as the native language by about 1 million people in the Northern part of Iran’s Gilan province, Talysh belongs to the Caspian group of North-Western Iranian Languages. It is divided into southern and northern dialects, which have a low level of mutual intelligibility. One of the key differences between Talysh dialects are the adpositions. The southern dialect employs postpositions whereas the northern dialect has a plethora of prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions that bring together multiple adpositions in complicated phrases. The selection of Talysh adpositional phrases provided by Stilo (2009) allows for the �detection of several items that have discernible nominal origins, two of which are shown in the following examples: (6) kœ-y dɪ̈ l-œdœ house-OBL inside-in “in the house” (7) zœmin-í sœ land-OBL on “on the land” In (6), dɪ̈ l is simply a reinterpretation of the Talysh noun that means “heart”. As for sœ, Paul (2011) showed that it is a phonetically eroded version of the word sar “head” and is endemic to the Anbarani i.e. Northern dialect. Stilo (2009) also reported about adpositional phrases that contain the word düm “tail” with the spatial meaning “behind”. 3.5 Zaza A North-Western Iranian language indigenous to eastern Turkey, Zaza is also called Dimili, a name that is thought to reflect its origin in Iran’s Daylam region that goes back to 12th century. This language is related to the Caspian Languages that include Mazandarani and Talysh but it has been geographically isolated from them for centuries (Astarian, 2011). In Zaza, postpositions dominate as far as spatial and temporal expressions are concerned: (8) kitabî sero (Malmisanij, Uzun & Espar, 2001, p. 464) book-OBL on “on the book” In the above example, sero is an adposition that has been derived from the noun sere “head”. Noun-derived adpositions in Zaza, are occasionally used in combination with other postpositions that complement the meaning: (9) derse ra pey Lesson from after “after the lesson” The phonetic similarity between pey “after” and pa “foot” may not be clear at first look. However, considering that the cognates of pa have formed adpositions that mean “behind, after” in at least two other Iranian languages namely Balochi and Persian, it becomes evident that the same relationship must also be valid for Zaza. Another postposition in Zaza that means “after” is dima, which is apparently connected with the noun dim “tail”. Finally, similar to what is seen in Mazandarani and Talysh, the Zaza noun zərri “heart” has provided the basis for the emergence of the adposition zərə “inside”, which usually precedes the postposition di for greater semantic precision: (10) čente zere di (Todd, 2008, p. 81) bag-OBL inside in “inside the bag” 3.6 Kurdish �Kurdish belongs to the North-Western Iranian Languages and is spoken in Eastern Turkey, Northern Iraq and Western Iran. The northern dialect spoken mainly in Turkey and known as Kurmanji, is the most widely spoken dialect. McCarus (2009) claimed Kurmanji is hardly intelligible with the Central and Southern dialects and went so far as to call Kurdish “a cover term” for a large group of languages. As Bedir Khan and Lescot’s (1970) study of Kurmanji grammar showed, Kurdish has a rich inventory of adpositions. In Kurdish, there are a number of fully grammaticalized primary adpositions that appear alone or in combinations to carry out a variety of case-like functions. Noun-derived adpositions work together with these primary adpositions to form adpositional phrases that describe complicated semantic relationships. A noun-derived adposition that is pervasive in Iranian Languages, namely sar “head” is also one of the widely used adpositional elements in Kurdish: (11) di ser dîwêr re (Bedir Khan & Lescot, 1970, p. 257) DI head wall-OBL RE “over the wall” In the above phrase, di is a primary adposition with a locative undertone while re implies motion through or towards something. Their union with a noun creates a new spatial meaning. Further instances of adpositions derived from body-part nouns in Kurdish can be found in adpositional phrases that mean “behind” such as di pişt … da and li duv. As a noun, pişt means the human back and duv is a tail. There is also du that is obviously an eroded version of duv. Another Kurdish body-part noun turned into an adposition is kelek that was originally a word for the side of the human torso and it has formed the phrase li keleke “next to”. One of the main comitative adpositional phrases in Kurdish has also developed out of a noun. The noun gal means folk or people. It has formed the prepositional phrase li gal “together with”. The semantic motivation is apparently “in the group of”. Interestingly, Kurdish ji … der literally means “out of”, in contrast to the Persian dar “in”. It should be noted that the two are essentially different words. While the Persian dar is a descendant of Old Persian antarə “between”, the Kurdish adposition der has developed out of the noun der “place” that also means “door”. According to Svorou (1994), the creation of adpositions that describe the outside location from nouns that mean “field” or “doorway” is one of the common paths of grammaticalization and the Kurdish dar fits this model. 3.7 Persian Persian is a major member of the South-Western branch of Iranian language family and it not only enjoys a substantial speaker population of 110 million (Windfur & Perry, 2009, p.418) but also has the oldest written tradition that goes back to the 10th century, not to mention the pre-Islamic period. In addition to Iran, it is the official language of Afghanistan under the name “Dari” and of Tajikistan under the name “Tajik”. Modern Persian is an almost exclusively prepositional language and has two types of prepositions. What could be called “genuine prepositions” (Hewson & Bubenik, 2007) essentially perform case functions. The secondary prepositions, which need the assistance of a genuine preposition or a genitive construction called “ezafe”, are used to express a broad �range of spatial, temporal and semantic relations. Two of the secondary prepositions that refer to the posterior region have been derived from nouns: (12) pošt-e derakht back-GEN tree “behind the tree” (13) donbāl-e māšīn after-GEN car “after the car” The Persian noun pošt can mean the back of any object but its original meaning is anatomical. As discussed above, the cognates of the Persian pošt in Kurdish and Balochi are also employed as adpositions that mean “behind”. As for donbāl, it has been derived with the derivational affix –āl that adds a meaning of affinity from donb “tail” (Donbāl, n.d.), which is a rare alternative form of the noun dom. The cognates of Persian dom in Talysh, Zaza and Kurdish have also become adpositions that do the same job. Another preposition with a similar meaning is pay “in the wake of” linked to the noun pā “foot”. This noun is attested in some Early New Persian texts as pay allowing for the conclusion that the adposition pay evolved out of this alternative form. A Persian preposition that is unique concerning its source noun is jalū “in front of”. It developed from the Turkish word jilav that means a horse halter, a gear that is located in front of the animal. Although nouns that mean “face” often give rise to adpositions that mean “in front of” in other languages (Svorou, 1994), Persian rūy “face” has experienced a different semantic expansion: (14) rūy-e māšīn face-EZ car “on the car” Together with the genuine adposition bar “on”, rūy provides the means for reference to the space over an object, leaving little need for sar “head”, which still has some adpositional functions. The spatiotemporal connotation of sar in Persian appears to be more about the edge or the beginning of something than with the top of it as seen in sarāsar “from one end to the other”. In colloquial Persian, the use of the noun-derived preposition tū (inside) to express the locative case is more common than the use of the primary preposition dar (in). As a noun, tū is attested more in the medieval poetry than in modern language and means a layer or a curtain. The declining use of tū as a noun and its tendency to replace dar as the main locative preposition presents an interesting case of ongoing grammaticalization. 4. Conclusion The above examples from seven Iranian Languages reveal that the grammaticalization of adpositions from nouns in this language family has followed a path that is quite similar to what research shows to have happened in other languages. First of all, the types of nouns that enter such a process of grammaticalization is in line with Svorou’s (1994) findings. Bodypart nouns, for instance, contribute the most to the creation of new adpositions in Iranian �Languages just as they do in other human languages. In addition, the semantic motivation in many of the noun-derived adpositions in the languages examined in this paper fit the universal patterns such as the antropomorphic model. This is exemplified in the widespread use of sar “head” as an adposition that means “on”. Finally, the way nouns start off as adpositions in Iranian Languages verifies Svorou’s (1986) theory about the transition phase during which the newly derived adpositions are combined with older adpositions or found in genitive structures as this was the case in several of the above examples. An additional point revealed by this study is the pervasiveness of cognate adpositions that fulfill the same semantic role in different Iranian Languages. Concerning that the languages in question have separated more than two milennia ago and that some of the widespread cognate adpositions such as sar “head” appear rather new and at an early stage of grammaticalization, not every similarity can be ascribed to genetic relationship. In other words, there must have been some form of contact induced grammaticalization at work during the historical development of the adpositions in Iranian Languages, the details of which require further research to be uncovered. References: Astarian G. S. (2011). Dimlī. In Encyclopædia Iranica, Retrieved from iranicaonline.org/articles/dimli Bedir Khan E. D., & Lescot R. (1970). Grammaire Kurde (Dialecte Kurmandji). Paris: Maisonneuve. Borjian H. (2004). Mazandaran: Language and People (The State of Research). Iran and the Caucasus, 8(2), 289-328. Borjian M., & Borjian H. (2007). Ethno-Linguistic Materials from Rural Mazandaran: Mysterious Memories of a Woman. Iran and the Caucasus, 11(2), 227-248. David A. B. (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DeLancey S. (2005). Adpositions as a non-universal category. In Frajzyngier Z., Hodges., & Rood D. (Eds.), Linguistic Diversity and Language Theories (pp. 185-202). Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Donbāl. (n.d.). Dehkhoda Lexicon. Retrieved from http://parsi.wiki/dehkhodaworddetaild01811c184f048c7ae81491600388df0-fa.html Elfenbein J. (1989). Baloci. In S. Rüdiger (ed.) Compendium Linguarium Iranicarum (pp. 350-362). Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag. Esseesy M. (2010). Grammaticalization of Arabic Prepositions and Subordinators. A Corpus-Based Study. Leiden: Brill. Heine B., & Kuteva T. (2007). The Genesis of Grammar A Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press. Hewson J., & Bubenik V. (2006). From Case to Adposition: The development of configurational syntax in Indo-European languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Jahani C., & Korn A. (2009). Balochi. In Windfuhr G. (Ed.), The Iranian Languages (pp. 634-692). New York: Routledge. �Malmisanij M., Uzun M., & Espar J. I. (2001). Ferhenge Kirmanckî (Zazakî)-Tirkî. İstanbul: Vate Yayınevi. McCarus E. N. (2009). Kurdish. In Windfuhr G. (Ed.), The Iranian Languages (pp. 587-633). New York: Routledge. Paul D. (2011). A Comparative Dialectal Description of Iranian Taleshi (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:119653 Stilo D. L. (2009). Circumpositions as an areal response: The case study of the Iranian zone. Turkic Languages, 13(1), 3-33. Svorou S. (1986). On the Evolutionary Paths of Locative Expressions. Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley LinguisticsSociety, 515–527. Svorou S. (1994). The Grammar of Space. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Tegey H., & Robson B. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Todd T. L. (2008). A Grammar of Dimili Also Known as Zaza. Retrieved from forumlinguistik.de/de/_3277 Windfuhr G., & Perry J. R. (2009). Persian and Tajik. In Windfuhr G. (Ed.), The Iranian Languages (pp. 634-692). New York: Routledge. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3260 Title A name given to the resource Adpositions Derived From Nouns In Iranian Languages Author Author Muhip Özyurt, Güneş Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to explore the noun-derived adpositions in Persian language and other living Iranian Languages in the light of the relevant literature. To accomplish that, first the existing works that deal this type of grammaticalization will be discussed. Next, seven languages from the Iranian language family will be examined to reveal how adpositions develop out of nouns. Keywords: adposition, noun, grammaticalization, Iranian Languages, Persian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-22 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/74900bcdde0b100b564c4d4598b053e3.pdf d75a2927f56fa6cdb846411ae9f0e066 PDF Text Text Theoretical review of the inclusive approach of the learning difficulties in the ESL classroom in Bosnia and Herzegovina Elma Velić Bešić Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Learning difficulties (LDs) refer to a range of complex and often misunderstood neurological-based processing challenges. In most cases, these processing cause challenges to the acquisition of basic skills such as reading, writing and math. Different teaching methods may need to be applied to compensate for the specific aspects of learning that children find challenging to a process of learning. In most ESL classrooms, there are no qualified special needs teachers or teachers who are trained to work with students with learning difficulties. Even if there are, only a few teachers are trained on how to deal with learning disabilities in an ESL classroom and there is very little information on the subject. This paper will introduce the research concerning the difficulties and the education in the inclusive system among the teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: inclusion, specific learning difficulties, dyslexia, ADHD, special education, teacher training 1. Introduction Children with Disabilities are expected to "fit" within the existing system and in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the reforms and strategies for children with disabilities,only theoretical part of fitting in is alive. Inclusion, the term that everyone is familiar with, is implemented in 2004 and since then, only a few crucial aspects of educational expectations has been implemented. The main point, apart from children with disabilities, is the schools, where the inclusion has been implemented.Teachers of any subject, including English as a second language, have not been prepared nor educated to work with students with disabilities of any kind. Even after a decade, most of the schools are not equipped and teachers are still not informed and educated enough. During the research, among the fellow teachers, and working at the state primary school, I have noticed many aspects of inclusion implemented, but also many aspects still untouched and superficially used. Yet in 2016, the Inclusion Strategy in the Una-Sana Canton has been introduced and the seven-year plan of inclusion in this Canton is planned. The five-day educational workshops for teachers' assistants, which included more than 300 teachers, were held in 2015, as a part of the Strategy and in 2016, teaching assistants will be included into the Inclusive classroom. Apart from that, not many educational workshops were organized nor any other kind of education for teachers who work in Primary or Secondary schools. 1 �This paper will introduce Learning difficulties in classrooms in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the second language inquisition, the teachers' education, and training, and how the difficulties are seen in their classrooms. 2. Inclusion in numbers The term Special education or Kids with Special needs, as we call them among us, has evolved since the introducing of the Inclusion in 2004. Everyone knows about it, everybody talks about it, but very few actually are familiarized with the terms, definitions, strategies, accommodation or testing, when it comes to differents kinds of kids with disabilities or difficulties. Teachers are aware of the situation, the lack of education towards the special education needs, and there are not enough experts to recognize and help both sides. It is possible that in every classroom in Bosnia and Herzegovina, one child with difficulty is present. The fact that the categorization of the children happens only when the disabilities are visible or when the difficulties are in the severe level, lots of children in primary school are not ever recognized as those having the difficulties, and some of them even graduate high school without being categorized or recognized, being labeled as 'bad students' or lazy ones.According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) '' Specific learning disability is ''a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. '' Learning disabilities are both real and permanent. In the United States of America, every fifth child has the learning difficulty. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the research analysis of the Federal ministry of education, about the number of kids with some disability is roughly made and cannot advocate the right situation in the country. Table 1: The review of the number of children with disabilities in different cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina presented in the Analysis of the Inclusion. 2 �As you can see in the table that the recording of the children with disabilities distinguished by the cantons and it is not categorized in details or disability areas. Learning difficulties are not even recorded and probably not even data collected. In the research I conducted among my fellow teachers, about the difficulties, I have come to the results which confirmed my starting point of research. In the first poll I had ninety-six teachers from Bosnia and Herzegovina, randomly selected, where I compared their answers based on the question asked about the Inclusion or Children with difficulties. Figure 1: The figure showing the poll results of the question about the school adequacy in implementing inclusion, by the teachers' opinions. An interesting fact is that 10.8% of the lowest number on the scale, eight of ten were primary school teachers, and only two out of ten, from the highest number of the scale, were high school teachers. Table 2: The review of the factors which directly affect the at the Inclusion level in the Primary schools in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina according to the Research of the Federal ministry of Education 3 �As shown in table 2, only three cantons have the ramp for wheelchairs and are physically accessible, while others are superficially equipped or not equipped at all. Figure 2: The review of the schools level where teachers work The figure above shows where the teachers, who took the poll, work and as shown, most of the teachers work in the primary school, where again, due to my poll, 64.8% teachers, who answered the highest number, as to confirm that their school is prepared for the inclusion, work in primary school, while only 37.2% work in high school. As for those results, the expert teams, educational seminars and conferences or any other teams for support and improvement are rare or nonexisting. Only in the Canton Sarajevo the expert team, as well as teaching assistants and other aspects of support are implemented, while in some cantons almost nothing of the asked was present. Table 3: The review of the presence of experts, teams of support and other aspects of inclusive support in the cantons In the table above, the professional development for teachers is present in eight cantons. In the mentioned poll, with randomly picked teachers, as you can see, most teachers are still not familiarized with the inclusion terms, and teaching children with disabilities. This doesn't 4 �prove that all teachers are not educated enough or informed, but these results still have to be taken into account and approach to them with care. Figure 3: The results of the poll about the inclusion and teachers' information and involvement In brief, the educational aspect of the implementation of the inclusion has lacked its purpose, and while numbers show that we can recognize children with disabilities and familiarize with the terms of the inclusion, the proper teacher training and involvement of the teachers in the expert teams is inevitable. 2.1. Learning difficulties in ESL classroom As stated in the previous pages, Learning difficulties are not even included in the research, and if so they are subjoined to some of the disabilities that are mentioned in the research. Why do I think this is a huge lapse? Learning difficulties, especially in the second language acquisition, are the main problem and worry, mostly because they are not being recognized nor treated fairly. The most common and problematic type of learning difficulty in the second language acquisition are those that impact the areas of reading. Dyslexia is the term associated with specific learning disabilities in reading but also difficulty with phonemic awareness, decoding, phonological processing, spelling, vocabulary, comprehension and written expression. Dyslexia might be the worst problem for teachers and a silent suffer for students if the difficulty is not recognized. Also, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a brain-based disorder that results in hyperactivity, distractibility or a combination of both, with some other characteristics as well. It is also a difficulty that cannot be seen if not in severe level or could be recognized as badly behaved or negligent child. Other difficulties, such as Dysgraphia, Auditory Processing Deficit, Visual Processing Deficit and Dyscalculia, can severely damage child's motivation and school success if not recognized, treated and helped by the teachers and community. "Learning disabilities are not a prescription for failure. With the right kinds of instruction, guidance and support, there are no limits to what individuals with LD can achieve." (Sheldon H. Horowitz, Ed.D., Director of LD Resources National Center for Learning Disabilities). Most of the students, who have LD and are not categorized, usually don't participate in school activities or are labeled as bad or lazy. Very important part of the education of students with LD is the awareness of the difficulty, education and support of the teacher and community and also self-acceptance, as being a different learner. Every student is different and every student has its own learning styles. Being different, students with LD have the difficult time adjusting to teachers' styles of teaching, subject or environment in which the learning is taking place. ''Apart from having 5 �academic problems, students with LD also have social and career problems later in life. In addition, families may experience stress related to the social and behavioral problems often experienced by children with LD ''(Dyson, 2003). Peer rejection and social difficulties are most significant for children who have both LD and AD/HD (Wiener, 2004) and are of concern to parents. Early intervention during the first three years of schooling is essential for children with LD. A primary focus of research over the past two decades has been on the prevention of reading failure. The early years are the focus for the prevention of reading difficulties and children who get off to a poor start in reading rarely "catch up" (Lentz, 1988; Neuman & Dickinson, 2001; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Torgesen, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2001).'' Motivation is the main aspect of children's lives. They should believe in themselves, in the possibility to succeed no matter what kind of difficulty they have or what level of the difficulty there is. Teachers should be prepared and educated for working with students with LD in a way to understand them, use different strategies and know how to accommodate and assess. Usually, the wrong impression is made about the education of teachers due to recognizing and working with children with LD. Teachers are not obligated to recognize and diagnose the difficulty, but to recognize symptoms and know how to approach them professionally. After that, an expert or team of experts should recognize, diagnose and record the difficulties, if present and help teachers to create and support the child in the best manner. Also, one more misunderstanding about teachers' education is that the teacher should know how to create the curriculum and lesson plan right after the difficulty is stated. Every child with LD is different and it has its own characteristics, which might correlate with other children and difficulties, but only the experts can characterize and make assumptions and solutions towards someone's difficulty and way of supporting it. Teachers should be aware of the difficulties, be educated enough to use different teaching styles, strategies, and methods, and be considerate and understand different needs of every child. Accommodation is the key to working with children with LD, where teachers can approach every kid with the different style or individually, based on the need. "An accommodation is a change or alteration to the regular way a student is expected to learn, complete assignments or participates in the classroom" (Alberta Education, 2002, p. 47). Participation in the classroom, based on the skills and knowledge of a child with LD can be measured by the task appropriate instructions, towards the subject and the child's possibilities. Teaching instructions, such as differentiation and individualization can help the child to participate in the activities and task which he is capable of doing and which are differentiated in such a way that no one could notice his or her difficulty. Differentiation—one facet of expert teaching—reminds us that these things are unlikely to happen for the full range of students unless curriculum and instruction fit each individual, unless students have choices about what to learn and how, unless students take part in setting learning goals, and unless the classroom connects with the experiences and interest of the individual (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999). Differentiating the classroom eases the lesson process for everyone – teacher, because based on what you are differentiating, the lesson will be successful and for the student because everyone gets what he can do and give their maximum in every lesson. Individualization has been designed to help students with LD or any other difficulty in addressing the lesson in different style for better understanding and assistance. You can use individualization with students who don't have any difficulty in a 6 �way of stations. That's how you can split the content of the lesson, it's pace and methods of teaching. No matter what furniture is in your room, stations are possible. The individualization for students with LD can be implemented in many ways, but the best and most productive one would be with assistive technology, specially developed for learners with LD. Assistive technology is actually a piece of equipment or system that helps people work around or compensate for learning difficulties. Assistive technology helps increase the independence of the person with learning differences. Many times, students with LD rely on someone to help them do some assignments, such as teaching assistants, siblings, peers or parents. Using assistive technology can make the students with LD more independent, individually task oriented and perform activities on their own feeling confident and successful. "For people without disabilities, technology makes things easier. For people with disabilities, technology makes things possible (Cardinali and Gordon, 2002). Unfortunately, many schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina don't have enough financial help to provide such technology, so teachers usually just use what they have, meaning computers and sometimes some online exercises. Assessment in the classroom can include observation and reviewing the student's work, progress and process of learning, monitoring the development and use of learning strategies and habits, but also understanding what student is capable doing. Assessing students with LD are based on what he can do and not on what he cannot do. By assessing, teachers have to think about what do they want to assess – the difficulty of that student or the hard work he put in that learning despite the difficulty. Understanding one's own abilities and accepting them as a part of personality, helps teachers to have more productive and successful lessons, teach every child to his highest potential and carry out the goals specified in the curriculum. With different strategies, instructions, methods and assistive technology, teachers can succeed in their intentions and development of their plan. 2.2. Teacher training for the ESL teachers Among many online courses for teachers and all others, interested in learning difficulties such as Dyslexia, ADHD or Speech impairment, there are not many courses, seminars or training for aspiring teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During faculty years, teachers don't get enough information nor exercise and examples to work with children with any disability or difficulty. Usually, when teachers start working in a school, they familiarize themselves with terms, methodology, difficulties and other aspects of teaching, struggle for a while and sometimes never find the right solution for their problem. With the sponsorship of the American Embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the project Face the difficulties and study with me has been implemented. The main goal of the project is to inform and educate teachers in the Una-Sana canton about the learning difficulties and provide enough information about working with students who have some of the difficulty. Hence, teachers will have opportunities to meet and discuss the possible solutions to problems, exchange experience, and materials and help each other for better and easier understanding of learning difficulties. Since the beginning of the project, four teachers have participated in two out of five workshops. At the end of the project, a handout will be published, as a part of the educational goals of the project, and it will be of use to all people who want to know how to teach students with learning difficulties and how to recognize the difficulties 7 �itself.Workshops are being held in the Una-Sana Canton, until the end of the project in august 2017. The very famous style of learning is the MOOC and very educational and admissible. Teachers can, throughout MOOC, on many online sites, learn and follow educational workshops, where they can participate and practically experience the real learning. Such educational workshop can be found on web pages such as course,edx or future learn, which offer many different courses on special education and similar titles. A massive open online course (MOOC /muːk/) is an online course aimed at unlimited participation and open access via the web. In addition to traditional course materials such as filmed lectures, readings, and problem sets, many MOOCs provide interactive user forums to support community interactions among students, professors, and teaching assistants (Wikipedia). Another kind of educational workshops can be also held at the school where teachers work. Teachers are obligated to write a research paper every school year and have a presentation in their school and in their own way and pace, they could research and get information on the topics they are interested in. Through education and seminars, conferences and courses, lots of information are offered but also lots of ideas, which seemed impossible suddenly get closer. Even though many teachers never had the training to work with special needs nor did they had the training to write lesson plans, many of them still try to support children with difficulties and help them get the better education. Based on the research I conducted among 30 randomly chosen teachers, results of their involvement and support is shown in the figure bellow. Figure 4: Poll results of using lesson plans for children with special needs As seen in the figure above, 80% of teachers have lesson plans and only 20% don't write them. 66,7% of teachers said that the Cantonal educational office or school ask them for special plans while 23,3% are not sure if they do. Another reason why education and seminars are needed is because of the materials and content of the lesson plans, for different kinds of difficulties. Many teachers are not sure how to decide how much or how hard should the content of the lesson be and how to make or write the materials. 8 �Figure 5: The results of the poll about the material used in the classroom for children with special needs This all leads to the conclusion that we all need more education and workshops on topic of special education and specific learning difficulties and that teachers' job would be much easier if the Ministry of education or other institutions, who are responsible for educational system, help and support teachers with seminars, workshops, and conferences, on the topic of special education and needs. 3. Conclusion Many aspects of inclusion are still untouched and not possible to carry out in most of the schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Even though there are new strategies and plans for Inclusive education, the main and most important aspect was not accomplished. Teacher education! Educating only a few teachers is not the solution, but rather a burden on those teachers to act and support, while others cannot. Every school should have campaigns, sharing awareness of disabilities and difficulties, supporting children who have them, and social raise awareness of other children in the school, as well as parents and community.'' The inclusion of students with disabilities in the regular education classroom is becoming more prevalent in today’s schools'' (Winzer, 1998). Schools should be implementing regular inclusive workshops for children and parents, make possibilities and chances, by providing children with disabilities the same conditions like everyone else. If the child with the physical disability never goes on the upper floor of the school or takes lessons in a special room apart from his peers, then it's not an inclusion but opposite of everything that inclusion stands for. Taking into account that we have only started with the inclusive reform a few years ago, Bosnian and Herzegovina schools are not ready to completely implement inclusion in its full aspects. Many questions remain concerning toward including students with disabilities. Professional development is the most important part of the inclusion, if we want to have successful academic and social model of education . ''Providing teachers with the training and tools necessary to foster positive attitudes about inclusion is a key step to insuring the success of inclusion ''(Huber, Rosenfeld, & Fiorello, 2001; Colber, 2010). As I stated above, learning difficulties are the main concern in the second language acquisition, due to problems with language as the major difficulty children have. Not recognizing or dealing with learning difficulties in our classrooms can evolve into enormous 9 �academic and social omissions and problems. We labeled the 'special needs' as something bad and undervalued, and most of the teachers and children usually act towards it with fear and prejudices. Most parents, because of that, are frightened to label their children with some difficulty, even though they won't get the education they deserve. And most children are more willing to be labeled as 'bad' or 'lazy' but 'special need' because the community made the negative platitudes and assumptions. Educating teachers to work with children with special needs, raising awareness with children in school, and also community and adapting the educational system step by step, towards the best inclusive practices are the next steps Bosnia and Herzegovina have to make. References: Abell, D. J. (2000, November). Differentiation of instruction for disadvantaged gifted students: A systemic change model. Paper presented at the meeting of the MidSouth Educational Research Association, Bowling Green, KY. Alberta Education, ''Students with Special Needs', 2009; (www.albertaeduaction.ca) Assistive Technology for Children with Learning Difficulties (http://www.pluk.org/Pubs/ATguide4LD_419k.pdf) Candace Cortiella, The Advocacy Institute Sheldon H. Horowitz, Ed.D., National Center for Learning Disabilities: The State of Learning Disabilities Facts, Trends and Emerging Issues (Third Edition, 2014) Huber, K. D., Rosenfeld, J. G., & Fiorello, C. A. (2001). The differential impact of inclusion and inclusive practices on high, average, and low achieving general education students. Psychology in the Schools, 38(1), 497-504. Lentz, F.E. Jr(1988), On-task behaviour, academic performance, and classroom disruptions: Untangling the target selection in classroom interventions, School Psychology Review, 17 , 243-257; Tomlinson, C. (1995). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Winzer, M. (1998). The inclusion movement and teacher change: Where are the limits? McGill Journal of Education [H.W.Wilson - EDUC], 33(3), 229. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3259 Title A name given to the resource Theoretical review of the inclusive approach of the learning difficulties in the ESL classroom in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Velić Bešić, Elma Abstract A summary of the resource. Learning difficulties (LDs) refer to a range of complex and often misunderstood neurological-based processing challenges. In most cases, these processing cause challenges to the acquisition of basic skills such as reading, writing and math. Different teaching methods may need to be applied to compensate for the specific aspects of learning that children find challenging to a process of learning. In most ESL classrooms, there are no qualified special needs teachers or teachers who are trained to work with students with learning difficulties. Even if there are, only a few teachers are trained on how to deal with learning disabilities in an ESL classroom and there is very little information on the subject. This paper will introduce the research concerning the difficulties and the education in the inclusive system among the teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: inclusion, specific learning difficulties, dyslexia, ADHD, special education, teacher training Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-20 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9422db1be943823eb37d55df81a9bd1a.pdf a31765a6f572f30d396d5fd91c0bc1b5 PDF Text Text The meaning and use of phrasal verbs at C1 level Djukica Mirkovic Slobomir P. University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Despite the fact that phrasal verbs are used in everyday English, foreign learners avoid learning and using them for their complexity and impossibility to understand the meaning of a phrasal verb from its separate parts (a verb itself and a particle separately). As a result of that many learners at C1 level, although being fluent speakers, experience various difficulties using them. The focus of the paper is placed on the meaning and the use of phrasal verbs and the difficulties which students find at C1 level of the English language. The analysis in this paper is based on the phrasal verbs used in the book “Objective CAE” (O`Dell & Broadhead, 2008, Cambridge University Press). In this paper we are also interested in finding out why it is so difficult to understand and use phrasal verbs, the interaction between their meaning and understanding considering their polysemоus features. The results of this analysis may be useful for all ESL teachers to help them understand the difficulties their students face when dealing with phrasal verbs, especially at C1 level. Furthermore, it can be a valuable source for teachers how to introduce the phrasal verbs to their students and thus help them master phrasal verbs in both spoken and written discourse. Keywords: phrasal verb, meaning, use, difficulty, English. 1. Introduction - What are phrasal verbs and why are they important? Phrasal verbs are verbs that, unlike ordinary verbs in English, are accompanied by particular particles, and as such, they function as a whole. The original and primary meaning of the verb in such use varies, depending on the particle and the number of particles after the verb. Phrasal verbs are common in informal spoken or written registers (e.g. find out – discover) (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1996). Many phrasal verbs can be replaced with another word with the little or no change in meaning. Mostly, the use of a phrasal verb is less formal, more colloquial and more emotionally coloured than a word that replaces it. Phrasal verbs are combined with a particle or two (e.g. come up; come up with) which can be a preposition or an adverb (Thornbury, 2006; Cowan, 2008; McCarthy et al., 2010). Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1996:434) suggest that native speakers prefer phrasal verbs over single-verb Latinate counterparts, perhaps because they are simpler and more “natural” in informal registers. However, each phrasal verb might have a one-word equivalent �that can possibly help learners, especially those whose languages (e.g. Romance languages) do not use phrasal verbs. 2. Grammar of Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb is composed of two elements: a verbal element and a particle. A phrasal verb is the combination of a standard verb such as make or put with one or two particles. The two main categories of multi-verb verbs consist of a lexical verb plus a particle, a neutral designation for the overlapping categories of adverb and preposition that are used in such combinations (R. Quirk: 336). In phrasal verbs a particle is an adverb (eg: put out, set up), whereas in prepositional verbs a particle is a preposition (eg: depend on, deal with) (R. Quirk: 336). However, there are phrasal-prepositional verbs; verbs with two particles, an adverb followed by a preposition (eg: put up with, take up on). 2.1. Transitivity and Intransitivity of Phrasal Verbs Some phrasal verbs require an object (transitive verbs); others do not take an object (intransitive). I was on a crowded bus and by accident bumped into my ex-boyfriend. Some verbs can be used both with and without an object, but we must be careful about the meaning, it may change. The plane had taken off before we came to the airport. In our culture you should take off your shoes before you enter a house. Furthermore, some verbs must have two objects. In this case one object comes after the verb and one after the particle. I usually associate that concert with my childhood. Intransitive phrasal verb consists of a verb and an adverb particle and it does not have an object (O`Dell & Broadhead, 2008:204): She was brought up in a nice family. He has just walked out. Do bad children always get by? 2.2. Position of the Object The most important thing to learn about grammar of phrasal verbs is where to place the object. Should it go before or after the particle? What happens when there are two particles? �And what happens if the object is a pronoun? The particle can generally either precede or follow the direct object as below: She switched off the light. She switched the light off. In these two examples above the object is a noun phrase. If the object is very long, then it usually comes after the particle. She put away all the unnecessary thing including equipment for sport. However, if the object is a personal pronoun it must come between the verb and its particle (R. Quirk: 337). I`ll plug it in as soon as I enter the room. (Not: I`ll plug in it as soon as I enter the room.) 3. The Difficulty of Phrasal Verbs – Analysis of the Phrasal Verbs at C1 Level Phrasal verbs are one of the most difficult aspects for learners of the English Language. There are four main reasons for this: 1. In many cases the meaning of the phrasal verb cannot be recognized from its elements, i.e., it is being used idiomatically. 2. Many phrasal verbs are polysemous; i.e., they have more than one meaning. Many multi-word verbs carry more than one meaning (McCarthy & O`Dell, 2007:18). 3. There are difficulties with the grammar of phrasal verbs, particularly with the position of the particles. 4. Three components verbs are often difficult to understand. Such phrasal verb consists of a verb and two particles. In this situation the object comes last (McCarthy & O`Dell, 2007:8). Table 1 Phrasal Verb 1 run over 2 brush sth/sb off Example Definition of the Phrasal Verb I ran over a dog on my way home. Hit sth/sb with a moving vehicle and injure or kill them The lecture ran over so I missed 5.45 train. Go on after its expected time I suggest that we run over the schedule again Read quickly to make to make sure it`s not going to fail. sure something is correct She brushed off the mud from her bag. Use a brush to remove something �The teacher brushed him off and told him to get back to the test. She usually warms up the meal when she gets home. The tennis player warmed up the spectators before the match started. 3 warm up 4 fall in The girl fell into the hole while she was riding her bike. She fell into a conversation with a man at the bar. 5 put on I decided to put on my best clothes. Refuse to listen to what someone says To heat food that has already been cooked To make a group of people who are going to see a performance start to enjoy themselves by entertaining them for a short time before the performance To accidentally arrive in a hole To start doing something, often without intending to To get dressed To increase in weight 10 come out with go in for My mother put on a lot of weight over Christmas. I wanted to go out for a walk but the weather put me off. John put off going on holiday for another month. Unfortunately she leaned against the horn and it let off such a noise that her parents were alerted. They were so relieved to stop the elopement that they let them off with a stern warning. Maria escaped secretly from her bedroom by letting down a long ladder from the window. Tom was waiting at their appointed meeting and she did not want to let him down. She’s always coming out with the most outrageous things. I don’t go in for team sports 11 get up to What have you been getting up to lately? To do 12 put up with put down I can’t put up with his rudeness any moreЖ To tolerate She put the baby down. To stop holding sth 6 7 8 9 13 put off let off let down To discourage To postpone To drop, release To make not subject to punishment or action To lower To disappoint say like �put down put down put down 14 15 go/come down with turn down The police put down the riots with unnecessary brutality. The student put her bad grade down to tiredness. √ To stop sth by force To think that a problem or situation is caused by a particular thing The student put down her bad grade to tiredness. × Sorry, I won’t be at work today. I think I’ve come down with the flu. To fall sick Jack turned down the radio. 18 He turned her down. tick The teacher ticked the names of the students who had completed the task. tick off The teacher ticked off the student for being late with the project. cope with How do you cope with stress? √ How do you cope with it? × get I need to get a battery for my camera. 19 get together drop off 16 17 20 21 get on with put out To reduce the noise, heat, etc. produced by a piece of equipment by moving its controls reject To make a checkmark To express disapproval To manage To obtain, receive Why don`t we all get together for dinner? To meet The taxi driver dropped us off at the airport. To be driven somewhere and left there To fall asleep Lying on the ground, the little girl dropped off. I get on with all the children in my class. He put the light out. Don’t put yourself out! Don’t put out yourself. To have a good relationship To extinguish, turn off √ Doing something × inconvenient in order to help someone else The table above shows examples of phrasal verbs from the book “Objective CAE” (O`Dell F. 2008, Cambridge University Press). Next to each phrasal verb there is a sentence as an example and definition. Phrasal Verbs under 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 15 and 19 are mostly transitive (19 is intransitive) and they have multiple meanings, which is likely to confuse or �frustrate learners, particularly high-level students. 9, 10, 11, 12 and 14 examples of phrasal verbs refer to the fourth reason for their difficulty – three component verbs. The learner hears a string of words, each of which they know very well, but which in combination do not make any sense. The Phrasal Verbs next to numbers 13 and 21 are special in terms of two difficult reasons for understanding - polysemous feature and position of the object. Learners can be confused about the position of the object. 16 ad 18 examples refer to the first reason for the difficulty – their idiomatic meaning. A learner who knows the meaning of these two ordinary verbs (16 and 18) may have difficulty in understanding the sentences with phrasal verbs with their idiomatic meaning. Learners should always be focused on the context to decide if the verb has a different meaning from the one they are familiar with. Phrasal Verb 17 is the only example which reflects just the problem of the position of the object, considering the fact that personal pronoun must come before the particle. In the English language there are some verbs (sometimes called prepositional verbs) that must have the object after the particle, even if it is a pronoun. It is an exception. 4. Pedagogical Implications of the Analysis The analysis of the verbs has proved that there can be some logic employed in order to demystify the concept of phrasal verbs in both teaching and learning. On the basis of my knowledge gained from this analysis, I introduced certain changes in the teaching practice of the phrasal verbs at C1 in my classroom. I realize that if the students are introduced with the four difficulties framework and taught how certain grammatical and lexical features of phrasal verbs influence their understanding, the process of their acquisition can be easier. I have made certain changes in the way how I teach them and how I organize the tasks. Concerning teaching aspect, I stopped viewing phrasal verbs as a separate unit in the text in the textbook. I have made a worksheet that exemplifies these four difficulties and also a list of all of them in the book. The list is given to the students at the beginning of the course, to be glued at the back of the notebook. So, I use the provided list as a supplementary material for students and I refer to it every time when we come across a new phrasal verb during the progress of the course. The list can be used as the means to organize tasks that urge the students to use phrasal verbs in the context and engage them in the process of learning: Task 1: All the students can be asked to provide the examples with all the meanings offered for each phrasal verb from their life and write them down in the table or on a separate sheet of paper. Task 2: They can be used for speaking or writing tasks (to make a story or to tell a story). This particular task can be raised to a higher level in groups or pairs to make or write the story with chosen phrasal verbs but to give to each group/pair a different meaning of the chosen phrasal verbs. By doing that they can see how different meaning of phrasal verbs influence the course �of the story and they analyze and comment on that. This activity involves higher levels of thinking skills that would eventually contribute to the higher level of retention of these phrasal verbs, especially because the students provide the context for them by themselves. Task 3: One of common demands at C1 level is to transfer formal texts into informal. Informal texts frequently contain a number of phrasal verbs. An additional list can be made for all of these phrasal verbs with their formal/academic counterparts. On the basis of this list tasks can be designed to engage students in producing sentences or texts where they could practice these phrasal verbs in formal and informal context. For example, the story they created in the Task 2 can be turned into a newspaper article or some other more formal form. There are other methods proposed by some other authors that dealt with the difficulties concerning the teaching and learning of phrasal verbs. At lower levels teachers can mime phrasal verbs so that students guess or understand their meanings more easily. For students at higher levels, brainstorming synonyms might be a good extension to the activity on acquiring of phrasal verbs. Students with prominent visual intelligence may have an advantage of learning to associate actions with specified phrasal verbs. According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1996:437), each time a new phrasal verb is introduced or discovered, it should be written up on a large sheet of paper posted to a wall in the classroom. The learners label a new phrasal verb appropriately for its separability and transitivity. If possible, the picture representing the meaning can be pasted. A one-word synonym can also be written next to the phrasal verb, and where appropriate learners can label the register used. Finally, the learners should write at least one or two example sentences using the new phrasal verb 5. Conclusion English is known for its use of many phrasal verbs which is why it is important to learn them thoroughly. Phrasal verbs are very common in English. Students who are learning English as a second language with the aim of gaining their Certificate in Advanced English need to give a great deal of attention to phrasal verbs. It is no easy task. But using a phrasal verb correctly is not only a matter of knowing its meaning; the learner also has to learn its grammar. Although phrasal verbs can undoubtedly cause problems for learners, in each context the form is similar, but the meaning changes. The particular meaning of the phrasal verb often determines the order of its component parts in a sentence. There are no rules that might explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly - all you can do is look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. References: Celce-Murcia, M., Larsen-Freeman, D (1996). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher`s Course, Second Edition. Heinle&heinle Publishers. �Cowan, R. (2008). The Teacher`s Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference Guide. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, M, O`Dell, F, (2004). English Phrasal Verbs in use. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Quirk, R. et. al. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London and New York: Longman. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan Dictionaries: Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. (1997). London-Glasgow, HarperCollins Publishers. Longman Phrasal Verbs. (2009). Longman Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary for learners of English. (2002). Oxford University Press. The Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. (2006). Oxford University Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3258 Title A name given to the resource The meaning and use of phrasal verbs at C1 level Author Author Mirkovic, Djukica Abstract A summary of the resource. Despite the fact that phrasal verbs are used in everyday English, foreign learners avoid learning and using them for their complexity and impossibility to understand the meaning of a phrasal verb from its separate parts (a verb itself and a particle separately). As a result of that many learners at C1 level, although being fluent speakers, experience various difficulties using them. The focus of the paper is placed on the meaning and the use of phrasal verbs and the difficulties which students find at C1 level of the English language. The analysis in this paper is based on the phrasal verbs used in the book “Objective CAE” (O`Dell & Broadhead, 2008, Cambridge University Press). In this paper we are also interested in finding out why it is so difficult to understand and use phrasal verbs, the interaction between their meaning and understanding considering their polysemоus features. The results of this analysis may be useful for all ESL teachers to help them understand the difficulties their students face when dealing with phrasal verbs, especially at C1 level. Furthermore, it can be a valuable source for teachers how to introduce the phrasal verbs to their students and thus help them master phrasal verbs in both spoken and written discourse. Keywords: phrasal verb, meaning, use, difficulty, English. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-13 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English